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Gisele Yashar

Fast & Furious fictional character

Gisele Yashar is a fictional character portrayed by Gal Gadot who appears in the Fast & Furious franchise. Introduced in the film Fast & Furious (2009), she helps Dominic Toretto and later his team in Fast Five (2011), where she forms a romantic relationship with Han Lue. The character was supposedly killed in Fast & Furious 6 (2013), until Fast X (2023) which confirms that she is still alive. Gisele was Gadot's first major film role, and American director Justin Lin hired her due to her past military experience. Gadot performed her own stunts while shooting the films. Media outlets characterized Gisele through her sexuality. Reactions to the character were mixed: some critics praised the representation of Gisele's sexuality and her relationship with Han while others felt her character was either unrealistic or represented a part of the franchise's poor treatment of women. Gadot's performance received positive feedback, and several commentators requested she reprise the role in a future film. ## Appearances In Fast & Furious (2009), Gisele Yashar (Gal Gadot) is introduced as a liaison for drug trafficker Arturo Braga (John Ortiz). She develops romantic feelings for Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel), but he rejects her advances. She advises him about the dangers involved in smuggling heroin across the Mexico–United States border to complete a deal with Braga. The drug exchange results in an ambush instigated by Braga, with Toretto protecting Gisele. She helps Toretto by providing him with the location of Braga's hideout in Mexico. Gisele becomes part of Toretto's team as a weapons expert in the 2011 film Fast Five. She is later revealed to be an ex-Mossad agent. She helps the team with a heist, during which she works closely with Han Lue (Sung Kang), and the two develop a romantic relationship. Following the completion of the mission, Gisele and Han are last shown speeding down the Autobahn, with Gisele sitting in his lap in a Lexus LFA. At the start of Fast & Furious 6 (2013), Gisele and Han are living together in Hong Kong. Toretto recruits the couple to prevent a heist planned by Owen Shaw (Luke Evans), which could potentially kill millions of people. For the mission Gisele draws on her Mossad experience with interrogation, weapons, and retrieval. While attempting to stop a plane, she is left hanging from the back of a Range Rover. Han attempts to rescue her, but Adolfson (Benjamin Davies), a member of Shaw's gang, uses the opportunity to try and kill him. Gisele lets go of Han's hand to shoot Adolfson, and apparently falls to her "death". Han later kills Adolfson in revenge for Gisele's death. At the end of the film, Roman Pearce (Tyrese Gibson) says a blessing in Gisele's honor during grace. In Furious 7 (2015), a photo of Gisele is shown in Han's personal belongings, and it is later placed in his coffin as part of his memorial service. A deleted scene revealed Gisele had found Letty Ortiz (Michelle Rodriguez) after she was nearly killed by Fenix Calderon (Laz Alonso) and took her to the hospital. Letty asked Gisele why she saved her, and Gisele responded: "Maybe you are the one saving me." F9 (2021) reveals that Gisele had worked with the team's future government contact "Mr Nobody" (Kurt Russell) during his time running drug operations for the CIA in South America. After her death, Nobody tracked down Han in Tokyo to ask for his help with a vital mission, reasoning that Gisele's faith in Han was enough for Nobody to be assured that Han could be trusted in turn. At the end of the Fast X (2023), Gisele is revealed to have survived her fall from the vehicle in Fast & Furious 6, as she appears in a submarine to rescue Letty and Cipher (Charlize Theron) from the Agency's Antarctica prison. ## Development Gisele Yashar was Gal Gadot's first major film role, and the actress felt that it had a major impact on her career. She said that her unsuccessful experiences when trying out for Bond girl Camille Montes in the 22nd James Bond film Quantum of Solace (2008) had led to other auditions, specifically the one for Gisele. Gadot was cast by American director Justin Lin. The actress said that her background in the military helped with the audition, explaining: "I think the main reason was that Justin really liked that I was in the Israeli military, and he wanted to use my knowledge of weapons". In 2017, Gadot also thanked Diesel for his input over her selection for the role. Vanity Fair's Yohana Desta identified Gisele as "a breakthrough part that gave Gadot some mainstream recognition". When discussing her initial response to the Fast & Furious franchise, Gadot said: "We don't do those kind of movies [in Israel], with those kind of standards". She performed her own stunts during the films, saying: "The adrenaline was just incredible and I enjoyed being able to do the stuff that in real life you can't." Gadot explained that she wanted to feel like a "tough girl" while shooting her scenes. For the character's return in Fast & Furious 6, Gadot told Lin that she wanted Gisele to "be more of a badass", and was given more stunt work for the film. Some of the stunts involved jumping from a moving motorcycle onto a Jeep, being suspended in a harness, and riding a Ducati Monster motorcycle. Media outlets also characterized Gisele through her sexuality; Fuse's Bianca Gracie referred to her as "sensual and intimidating", and The Stranger'''s Erik Henriksen called her a "villainous seductress". Following Gadot's return in Fast X, Rodriguez commented that Gadot had previously filmed cameos in previous films after her character's "death" in the sixth one, though none of them made it into the final cuts, with Diesel admitting that "we have shot other things a long time ago that might not have fit that specific movie as a finale. Doing tags is a very tricky thing because you want your great talent but at the same time you have to be very careful to maintain the emotional state of your audience at the end of the movie. So that’s what you’re juggling". ## Critical reception Gisele Yashar has received a mixed response from film critics. Decider's Meghan O'Keefe praised Gisele as a new type of female character for the Fast & Furious franchise, writing that she provided a more "sophisticated, and unapologetically femme vibe" when compared to the rougher Ortiz. O'Keefe responded positively to Gisele's use of her sexuality and femininity as a tactic to manipulate men, as well as to her romance and partnership with Han. Nerdist News's Sydney Bucksbaum also identified the character's relationship with Han as a highlight, writing that they became "one of the most iconic couples from all the movies". Some commentators had a more negative response to the character. The A.V. Club's Tom Breihan felt that Gisele's transformation from "a drug lord's envoy to a former Mossad agent and a badass killer" was part of how the franchise gave "implausible makeovers" to certain characters. IndieWire's Kate Erbland included Gisele's death as an example of the franchise's poor treatment of women; she explained that female characters, such as Gisele, "primarily exist to round out the storylines of the films' male characters, often as love interests" and are rarely brought into focus as individuals. Gadot's performance received positive feedback from critics. In a 2017 article, Heavy.com's Brendan Marrow listed Gisele as one of Gadot's best performances prior to her starring role as Wonder Woman in the 2017 film of the same name. O’Keefe of Decider described Gadot and her character as the "secret weapon" of the Fast & Furious'' franchise, praising the actress for her "totally kickass contribution to the bonkers, high-octane, super-charged [films]". O'Keefe described Gadot's performance as "balanc[ing] unbridled badassery with unabashedly feminine charm". Joe Reid, also writing for Decider, recommended that Gisele should be revived for future installments of the franchise, but questioned if the producers could afford to have Gadot return for another film. Bucksbaum campaigned for the character's return, and wrote that she could likely be featured in a future film through a flashback sequence.

Ayers Rock (band)

Australian rock band

Ayers Rock were an Australian rock band which formed in August 1973. Ray Burton (guitar and vocals), Mark Kennedy (drums), and Duncan McGuire (bass), members of Leo de Castro and Friends, left to form the eponymous trio of Burton, McGuire & Kennedy. They added a guitarist, Jimmy Doyle, changed their name to Ayers Rock and invited Col Loughnan (saxophones and flutes) to join. The group signed with independent label Mushroom Records in December 1973. Burton left the following March, and was replaced by Chris Brown (guitar, vocals). With live appearances, coverage in print media and word of mouth the group had a high national profile despite little radio airplay, and journalists praised their musicianship, music, and live energy. The band's first album, Big Red Rock (November 1974), received positive reviews and peaked at number 32 on the Australian Kent Music Report album chart. It featured mainstream rock and three longer, instrumental tracks which introduced progressive styles, including jazz fusion. Label owner Michael Gudinski promoted Ayers Rock in Los Angeles and they signed with A&M Records, the first Mushroom Records artists to sign with an international label. The United States release of Big Red Rock in February 1975 was followed by a tour there, later that year. The band played to large crowds, supporting major international artists (including Bachman–Turner Overdrive) before 35,000 people – the first Australian band to perform in large US stadiums. Ayers Rock were named 1975 Musicians of the Year on RAM's "New Year's Honors List". Kennedy left before their second album, Beyond (April 1976, recorded at the Record Plant in Los Angeles), was released. The album blended a number of music genres and had a positive critical reception, charting at number 50. The band toured the US again; Loughnan remained there, and Ayers Rock temporarily broke up in August 1976. A year later Doyle and Brown recruited members for a new lineup, including Andy Cowan (keyboards and vocals) and Hamish Stuart (drums). In 1980 they released their third album, Hotspell, on their own Red Rock Records label. This album had a soft-rock style, with sophisticated arrangements and featured keyboards. It failed to chart, and the group permanently disbanded in 1981. Although Ayers Rock's first two albums were successful in Australia, none of their six singles charted. During their early years (from 1973 to 1976), the group were praised by local media for their music, stylistic diversity, use of technology, and the energy of their live performances. Ayers Rock received positive reviews in Billboard and Cashbox. Late-1990s music historians recognised the band's talent but considered their music over-indulgent at times, failing to bridge the gap between artistic and commercial success. Duncan Kimball of Milesago.com wrote "that they never really got the chance to reach their full potential." ## Australian music scene Ayers Rock were formed in the Australian pop-music scene of the early 1970s, which included artists in a number of genres: mainstream pop (Zoot and Liv Maessen), blues rock (Chain), heavy rock (Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs), and boogie (Carson). Bands such as Blackfeather and Madder Lake combined mainstream and progressive rock. Most pop and rock listeners had never heard jazz fusion; when Ayers Rock incorporated the music into their sets, it was rarely performed by fellow Australian artists. At that time, the Australian music media expressed frustration that few local musicians were successful overseas. Many artists (such as The Twilights, The Masters Apprentices, The Groop and Axiom) had gone to the United Kingdom with little commercial success, and music papers such as Go-Set regularly addressed the situation. The "third wave" of Australian rock, from 1970 to 1975, saw an increase in pub rock venues in the southern and eastern states. ## History ### 1973: Formation Ayers Rock formed in Melbourne in August 1973. Ray Burton, Mark Kennedy, and Duncan McGuire, members of Leo de Castro and Friends, left in June to form the eponymous trio of Burton McGuire & Kennedy. Burton had played guitar with the Dave Bridge Quartet, the Delltones and the Executives, and co-wrote "I Am Woman" (May 1972) in the United States with Australian singer Helen Reddy. McGuire, on bass, was a recording engineer, producer, and a member of Australian groups since the late 1950s (including the Phantoms, the Epics, the Questions – which later became Doug Parkinson in Focus; see Doug Parkinson – and King Harvest). Kennedy, on drums, had played in Spectrum, Doug Parkinson in Focus, King Harvest, and Leo de Castro and Friends. Burton McGuire & Kennedy were joined in August 1973 by Jimmy Doyle on guitar. Doyle had worked for the Delltones and Dig Richards, was musical director for pianist Winifred Atwell on her Australian tours, and was a session player in Sydney on Neil Sedaka's 1969 album Workin' on a Groovy Thing. In September 1973 Burton McGuire & Kennedy changed their name to Ayers Rock, using the European name for the sandstone rock formation sacred to local indigenous Australians. The group were nicknamed "the Rock" by the Australian press. Since 1993 the sandstone monolith has been called by its Pitjantjatjaran name, Uluru. Doyle had worked sporadically for several years with multi-instrumentalist and arranger Col Loughnan, who joined London-based blues-pop group Kala in late 1972. Doyle invited his former bandmate to join in October 1973. With Ayers Rock, Loughnan played saxophones, flute, and electric piano. He had begun his career as lead vocalist for the Crescents in 1958, joining the Delltones in 1962. Loughnan diversified into arranging and playing jazz tenor saxophone with the Daly-Wilson Big Band. By December 1973 Ayers Rock had signed with Mushroom Records, which released their first single – "Rock 'n Roll Fight (Going On)", one of the label's early records. Mushroom Records co-owner Michael Gudinski became their manager. In January 1974 Ayers Rock performed at the Sunbury Pop Festival and "Morning Magic" (written by Burton) appeared on the live album, Highlights of Sunbury '74 Part 2, released by Mushroom Records later that year. In March Burton returned to the US and was replaced on guitar and lead vocals by Chris Brown, formerly of Python Lee Jackson. Loughnan and Brown had played together in London as members of Kala. The band traced their origins to rock or pop bands from Sydney, except for Kennedy (who was from Melbourne). ### 1974–75: Big Red Rock In 1974 Ayers Rock began recording their debut album, Big Red Rock, at Festival Records' 24-track studio in Sydney. They were dissatisfied with the sound, which failed to capture their music's "live" essence, and recorded it live-in-the-studio at Armstrong's in Melbourne that September. Kennedy told Margaret MacIntyre of Rolling Stone Australia, "Doing the album live was an experiment really and it seemed to work." Big Red Rock, released in November, peaked at number 32 on the Kent Music Report album chart. The album had "a more jazz-rock edge" and its single, "Lady Montego" (written by McGuire), was a new version of a song originally performed by Leo de Castro and Friends. According to Juke Magazine, "the single lifted to push the album, 'Lady Montego' ... received three weeks airplay and was then dumped." "Lady Montego" was Ayers Rock's most-aired single in Australia, and Kennedy said: "Without AM radio support you can't sell too well in this country." Juke called their songs "lyrically banal" but said the group compensated with "sheer talent", instrumentally and electronically. A song from Ayers Rock's live set was a cover of "Boogie Woogie Waltz", written by Joe Zawinul of Weather Report for the US group's album Sweetnighter (April 1973). In November 1974 Loughnan temporarily stopped performing live due to back pain, and the band continued with four members. He returned after surgery, and contemporary photos and video show him playing sitting down during his convalescence. Manager and label owner Gudinski visited the US in December 1974 to promote his recording artists, including Skyhooks, Daddy Cool, and Madder Lake, to major labels there. At that time only Ayers Rock were successful, with Gudinski signing them to A&M Records within days. He told Tony Wilson of The Sun, "Jerry Moss, the president of A&M Records USA, flipped when he heard it, so A&M will release it (Big Red Rock) world-wide." This was a surprise to the Australian media, since many other artists were more commercially successful locally than Ayers Rock. Skyhooks were Australia's most popular band; their first album (Living in the 70's, released in October 1974) sold 226,000 units, the best-selling album by a local artist in Australia to date. However, Living in the 70's was rejected by A&M and not released outside Australia. Ayers Rock were the first Mushroom Records artists to sign a recording contract with an international label. From the mid-1970s, and into the 1990s, Mushroom were successful with many other artists including Split Enz, Kylie Minogue, and Yothu Yindi, turning the label into Australia's largest independent record company. In January 1975 the group performed at the fourth Sunbury Pop Festival, and Big Red Rock and "Lady Montego" were released in the US on 28 February. On 20 April, they performed at a benefit concert for Bangladesh at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl with the La De Das, Jim Keays, AC/DC, Phil Manning, Daddy Cool, Toulouse & Too Tight, the Dingoes, and the Moir Sisters. From July to September, they promoted Big Red Rock in the US and Vancouver. The band played to an audience of 35,000 at a stadium concert in Seattle, supporting Bachman–Turner Overdrive, on 27 July and opened for Status Quo, the J. Geils Band, Lynyrd Skynyrd, and Nils Lofgren. According to Australian rock music historian Ian McFarlane, "Ayers Rock was the first Australian band to play to massive crowds on the USA touring circuit", years before fellow Australians the Little River Band, AC/DC, and Air Supply made their first US tours. ### 1975–76: Beyond At the end of their US tour in September 1975 Ayers Rock recorded their second album, Beyond, at the Record Plant in Los Angeles. The album, produced by the group and John Stronach, received a \$60,000 advance from A&M Records. On 18 October, The Sun reported that McGuire had left the band. At a reception when Ayers Rock returned to Australia, he said: "The pressure of the tour was just too much. We were on the road all the time and I guess I wasn't as strong as the rest of the band. When we got into the studio I had the shakes. I mean I was playing the right notes, but not in the right places." To finish the album McGuire's friend Les Young played some of the bass guitar parts, and American Jeff Castleman played bass on "Catchanemu". Young also briefly played live with Ayers Rock in Australia, including an October 1975 show at the State Theatre in Sydney. McGuire returned to the group at the Dallas Brooks Hall on 21 October 1975, to warm applause. In late November Ayers Rock appeared at the final Reefer Cabaret event, at Ormond Hall in Prahran. The performance was recorded for a double album, A-Reefer-Derci (1976). In January 1976, Rock Australia Magazine named Ayers Rock Musicians of the Year for 1975 in their "New Year's Honours List". Kennedy left to join Marcia Hines' backing band in February 1976, and they reportedly married late in the decade. In Ayers Rock, Kennedy was temporarily replaced by Doug Gallacher. In April 1976 Beyond was released in Australia and the US, making the Kent Music Report top 50. Two singles from the album were released: "Little Kings" (October 1975) and "Song for Darwin" (May 1976), but neither charted. The US cover for Beyond features a rock in the distance, which becomes the face of an Aboriginal man with eyes closed when the cover is rotated 90° to the right. Artist and Mushroom Records art director Ian McCausland also designed The Rolling Stones' 1973 Australian tour poster. The album cover illustrates a central principle of Aboriginal spirituality: the deep connection between the land and the Aboriginal peoples. In an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission publication, "Our Land Our Life", S. Knight described the Aboriginal position: "We don't own the land, the land owns us. The land is my mother, my mother is the land. Land is the starting point to where it all began." According to the Australian government webpage, The Dreaming: "Once the ancestor spirits had created the world, they changed into trees, the stars, rocks, watering holes or other objects. These are sacred places of Aboriginal culture." In May 1976 Gallacher was replaced by Russell Dunlop, formerly of Aesop's Fables, Levi Smith's Clefs, SCRA, Mother Earth, and the Johnny Rocco Band. In an interview with Greg Kelton of The Advertiser, Loughnan outlined the band's future: "If Beyond doesn't make it for us in the States we might as well forget all about Ayers Rock." From May to July they toured the US again, "only achiev[ing] limited success overseas." After the tour Dunlop and Loughnan left, and on 25 August Mushroom Records announced that Ayers Rock had broken up after Loughnan decided to remain in the US to study. Brown, Doyle, and McGuire indicated that they would revive the group with new members. ### 1977–81: Hotspell In 1977 Brown and Doyle re-formed Ayers Rock with Bermuda-born Keith Caisey on percussion, Joe Tattersall (formerly of Healing Force and the Barry Leef Band) on drums, and John Young (formerly of Leo de Castro's eponymous group) on bass guitar. By 1978 Brown, Caisey and Doyle were joined by Andy Cowan (formerly of Madder Lake) on keyboards and vocals, Steve Hogg (formerly of Bakery) on bass guitar, and Hamish Stuart on drums. In March 1980 the band released another single, "On the Avenue", followed in May by their third LP – Hotspell – on their own Red Rock Records (distributed by RCA Records). Recorded at the Music Farm in Byron Bay, it was engineered by former member Duncan McGuire. In The Canberra Times, Luis Feliu noted the "new-sounding" Ayers Rock and their "laid-back" style. There had been a major change in songwriting, with Brown contributing less (wrote one and co-wrote one with Doyle); Cowan was the most active (writing five tracks), and Stuart and Doyle co-wrote two. Doyle, with no writing credits on previous albums, wrote "On the Road" (which was included in the band's live sets from 1978). Jillian Burt of Juke Magazine described it as "reminiscent of the cool, calm, collectedness that typifies Steely Dan". Hotspell featured soft-rock songs with sophisticated, keyboard-centred arrangements. According to Feliu's review of the album and a July 1980 performance in Sydney, Ayers Rock were "once Australia's hottest progressive rock" group. Feliu wrote that most of the audience seemed to appreciate the band's new direction: "the capacity audience showed hearty approval ... probably old allegiance, and only a few comments of dissatisfaction, like 'boring', were heard, then that was at the bar up the back". Hotspell did not reach the Kent Music Report album top 100, and has not been released on CD. In July 1981 the group released a final single, "Lies", before disbanding later that year. ## Other projects In late 1974 Ayers Rock members Brown, McGuire, Kennedy and Loughnan played on several tracks of Jim Keays' debut solo album, The Boy from the Stars. At the January 1975 Sunbury Pop Festival Keays performed most of the album live, with three Ayers Rock members (Brown, McGuire and Kennedy) joining the ensemble to record "Nothing Much Left" and "Urantia". Returning to the US, Burton was a session player for Billy Joel and Jimmy Webb and wrote "Best Friend" for the film Airport 1975 (1974). In 1976, he formed the Ray Burton Band with Rex Bullen, Terry Gascoine, Steve Hogg and Tim Piper. From 1977 to 1980, McGuire was bass guitarist for the Southern Star Band with Doug Parkinson on vocals, Tommy Emmanuel on guitar and Kennedy on drums. In 1978 Burton released a solo album, Dreamers and Nightflyers, which spawned the singles "Too Hard to Handle" and "Paddington Green". After touring with Crossfire in 1979, he returned to the US as a songwriter. Cowan was later a member of Kevin Borich Express, Ian Moss Band and Renée Geyer Band before pursuing a solo music career. Georgie Fame's album No Worries (1988) included Ayers Rock alumni Loughnan, Doyle, and Dunlop. McGuire died in July 1989 of a brain tumour. During the late 1980s, Hogg formed The Rhythm Snakes with Clayton Black on drums, Howie Smallman on harmonica, and Bob Thorne on guitar. In 1989, Hogg assembled a studio band to record a solo album with Thorne, Mark Alderman on harmonica, Ian Ironside on drums, Bob Patient on piano, and Bernie Payne on saxophone. Steve Hogg died on 20 July 1990 and his album, Various Fools & Vices, was released in 1992. In 1993, Kennedy drummed for The Blazing Salads with Brian Cadd, Glenn Shorrock, Rex Goh, and Kirk Lorange. Hamish Stuart played drums on Chris Abrahams and Melanie Oxley's 1998 album, Jerusalem Bay. Doyle died on 5 May 2006, and on 28 May the Jim Doyle Tribute Concert was played at the Basement in Sydney. Musicians included Renée Geyer, Billy Field, bandmate Loughnan, and Barry Leef, with proceeds benefiting Doyle's family. Dunlop died on 16 May 2009; he had collapsed after drumming at his son's wedding in Sydney. As of 2015, Loughnan is a lecturer in jazz saxophone at the University of Sydney's Conservatorium of Music and has been a member of its Jazz Faculty since 1978. In 2007 he released a solo album, Ellen St. ## Musicianship ### Genres Although Ayers Rock's music is described as jazz-rock, this is a simplification. In the 2011 radio documentary "Rare Collections", presented by David and Jordie Kilby on Jazz-Rock in Australia for 666 ABC Canberra, Loughnan described other Mushroom Records artists as playing pop rock styles and Ayers Rock playing some jazz: "We were a bit of both". Critics called Big Red Rock's side one its "song" side and side two its "jazz" side. "Lady Montego", "Talkin' 'Bout You", "Goin' Home" and "Nostalgic Blues" are rock songs; the first three were written by McGuire, and the fourth by Brown. Loughnan's "Crazy Boys" highlighted the band's larrikin side, with working-class men talking at a hamburger shop; each used local slang or spoke in a stereotypical ethnic accent, poking fun at Australians from a variety of backgrounds. At one point "Hey, listen mate, give me one 'Gudinskiburger', please, hold the bacon, please" is heard; Michael Gudinski, whose parents are Jewish immigrants, does not eat pork and went along with the joke. Another voice mentions "Dr. Hopontopovus, the Greek gynaecologist". More slang is heard later in the track, including "Who yer sayin' that to, yer drongo?" Although "Crazy Boys" has two lines of lyrics, most of the track is instrumental. Described by a Juke Magazine reviewer as "free form jazz", it features solos by Brown, Doyle, and Loughnan and heavily processed guitars, electric saxophone, and vocals. Asked about the group's use of electronics by Eloe Fanouche of RAM, Loughnan answered: "You've got to be able to use them well in order to sound good. We use them to colour the sounds as much as possible." The title track, Loughnan's "Big Red Rock", is an eight-and-a-half-minute instrumental described by Juke Magazine as "expertly capturing the stark loneliness and cosmic tranquility one gets standing before their namesake rock". According to Loughnan, the atmosphere they wanted to create was "that spacey sort of feeling—like desert [...] and we wanted to get the sound of the didgeridoo—which we did electronically". Doyle imitated a didgeridoo by playing guitar with a wah-wah pedal. Tony Catterall of The Canberra Times praised "Big Red Rock", saying that it "suggests the huge expanse of the outback, then takes you [...] to the Aboriginal secrets [...] [and evokes] the power surrounding the area [of Uluru] in a burst of truly inspired musicianship". Gil Wahlquist of The Sydney Morning Herald called the album "heavily accented towards jazz." It has changing moods, with quiet moments which are "eerie, euphonic, and evocative." Aboriginal clapsticks and the imitation didgeridoo allude to the indigenous character of Uluru and the surrounding area. Another section is double-tempo jazz fusion with guitar and saxophone solos, complemented by a rhythm section driving to a crescendo. The section concludes with a rapid rallentando (slowing of tempo) to another gentle phase. Changes in tempo and volume are heard throughout the title track, in contrast to disco (featuring one tempo and volume, which was becoming more popular). Like Big Red Rock, the vastness of rural and outback landscapes were reflected in the artwork and music of Beyond. According to a review by Forester in The Age, the band and album have "titles to suggest space, time and distance" and some tracks had an "indigenous appeal". The lead track's title, "Moondah", translates into English as "beyond". In April 1976 Loughnan, who wrote the song, said in a TV Times interview: "The aborigines have had a raw deal in the past. The song expresses the hope that they get better treatment in the future". "Moondah (beyond)" begins with clapsticks, log drum, imitation didgeridoo, and sounds evocative of indigenous singing. This combination creates sounds similar to indigenous Australian music, which later segues into a European style before returning to its original theme. The overall effect is a fusion of indigenous Australian music, rock, and improvisational jazz by European Australians, before indigenous rock artists Yothu Yindi and No Fixed Address created their own fusions of indigenous and rock music. Beyond featured a 23-piece string section, arranged and conducted by Loughnan, on "Place to Go", "Song for Darwin" and "Angel in Disguise". Loughnan had originally written "Angel in Disguise" years before for his wife, expanding it into an instrumental. According to Derek Johnson's RAM review, "The violin tones and guitar sounds are particularly well produced, dissolving into each other one moment, separating and circling around each other the next." ### Airplay Ayers Rock's treatment by Australian radio stations during the 1970s was related to the popularity of AM. Unlike the US, which had a vibrant FM radio scene, in 1976 Australia only had ABC FM and a few community FM stations which primarily played classical music. Commercial AM stations, playing pop and rock music, dominated the local airwaves. The group established their reputation with live performances, exposure in print media, and word of mouth, with minimal Australian radio promotion. Kennedy told a Juke interviewer, "Radio airplay has never happened for us here—except 2JJ and the occasional Album Shows". Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) youth-oriented AM radio station 2JJ was limited to Sydney during the 1970s, with poor reception in some areas. The US attitude toward the band's music was different; according to Greg Kelton of The Advertiser, Beyond had "been played by about 50 radio stations in the (U.S.). 'It is being played on two [stations] in Australia', said Jimmy Doyle." ### Live performance Ayers Rock began incorporating rock-jazz fusion into their sets, increasing the jazz aspect of their music. In his review of a concert on 19 October 1975, Paul Gardiner wrote for Rolling Stone: "Big Red Rock was still tied quite closely to existing American styles." According to Gardiner, at the State Theatre "evidence" of jazz-rock "came through loud and clear". This was their first major Australian concert after their first US tour and recording sessions. The group were fundamentally a high-volume rock band. In the smoke-filled bar of Martinis in Carlton, Juke Magazine collected a vox populi of the "packed to the rafters" audience. One person said, "I don't mind a bit of volume with my improvisation but this is so goddamn heavy." Gardiner's review described the group's live show: > The band ... have cut their teeth on pure rock and roll and have, [as of] Ayers Rock, moved on to what amounts to a rock-jazz fusion. The inversion of the term is becoming important; unlike the bands to which they are compared in America, which have all lived and breathed jazz in its purer, more traditional forms, ... [the] Rock is made up of rock musicians. In a Rolling Stone interview by Margaret MacIntyre, Kennedy explained: "Ayers Rock was getting a live response that, to speak for myself, I hadn't seen happen with a crowd ... for a long time". In the same interview, Doyle described the key to their success: "This band is going somewhere ... it's not the same thing every night, unlike many bands, the arrangements change." Reviewers were enthusiastic about the band's performances; according to Gardiner, "The impression they now generate on stage is one of total energy ... energy which sets them apart." Juke Magazine called them "a band that could reward its audiences with (the) sheer exhilaration of seeing real master musicians ... taking their audiences to virgin territory that other explorers had only dreamed about." Eloe Fanouche of RAM focussed on another aspect: > Unlike many groups they were able to capture the ethereal quality of their recorded sound on stage ... On being asked how live gigs compared to studio work, they all declared that the straight atmosphere of the studio was too clinical. ## Critical reception ### Contemporary (1973 to 1981) Big Red Rock received positive reviews in Australia and the US. The Canberra Times quoted a Cashbox review praising their music which ended: "It was something different and something beautiful." Billboard magazine gave the album a good review, saying that it featured "excellent sax work throughout and top-notch lead guitar and drum work". Australian reviewers called the album "an extremely good record, well worth owning", "a classic record in Australian rock" and "an inspiring success". Critical response to their second album, Beyond, was generally positive. Sean Hanrahan wrote for the Melbourne Sunday Press: "Beyond to me stands as something of a crowning achievement for a band that has already been described as the high-water mark in Australian rock." According to Pat Bowring of the Melbourne Sun, "it is one of the best records from an Australian band" and "better than ... Big Red Rock." The band emphasised that their music was "essentially Australian", despite being recorded in Los Angeles, and critics noted their music's Australian character. Tony Catterall of The Canberra Times wrote that the group "has absorbed its influences so well that they're almost unrecognisable in the final product. And into this synthesis the band has infused some things peculiarly Australian." ### Later (1999 to present) In February 1998, Billboard's Christie Eliezer interviewed Gudinski; he recalled that signing Ayers Rock had "allowed the band to tour the US and record their second album there." He explained that they "were a fantastic jazz-fusion band, a real muso's band, but ultimately they didn't have that something unique to cross over." In his 1999 encyclopaedia Dreams, Fantasies, and Nightmares From Far Away Lands, American author Vernon Joynson called Big Red Rock "an excellent example of jazz rock fusion Australian style. The musicianship is of high quality although it tends to become a little over-indulgent in places". According to Joynson the album had "radio friendly" material and three tracks "filled with fine virtuoso guitar and saxophone", but despite being "quite a popular live act, [Ayers Rock's] recordings were hampered by a dilemma over whether to opt for a more serious pursuit of expanding the horizons or for a commercial sound". On MilesAgo.com in 2006, Duncan Kimball wrote: "The group's relatively short lifespan and small catalogue meant that they never really got the chance to reach their full potential." According to Ian McFarlane in his 1999 Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop, the members of Ayers Rock "were seen as 'musician's musicians'. The band issued a series of technically proficient recordings, but in the long run any quest for commercial acceptance was marred by the seriousness of the music". In December 2011, Jordie Kilby called Big Red Rock "a great record; quite an influential (album) ... now one that's held in quite high regard." ## Members - Ray Burton – guitar, vocals (1973–74) - Mark Kennedy – drums (1973–76) - Duncan McGuire – bass guitar (1973–76; died 1989) - Jimmy Doyle – guitar, vocals (1973–81; died 2006) - Col Loughnan – saxophones, flute, piano, percussion, vocals (1973–76) - Phil Stone – guitar (1974) - Chris Brown – guitar, vocals (1974–81) - Les Young – bass guitar (1975) - Doug Gallacher – drums (1976) - Russell Dunlop – drums (1976; died 2009) - Joe Tattersall – drums (1977) - Keith Caisey – percussion (1977–81) - John Young – bass guitar (1977–78) - Andy Cowan – keyboards (1978–81) - Steve Hogg – bass guitar (1978–81; died 1990) - Hamish Stuart – drums (1978–81) ## Discography ### Albums ### Singles - "Rock 'n Roll Fight" (December 1973) - "Lady Montego" (November 1974) - "Little Kings" (October 1975) - "Song for Darwin" (May 1976) - "On the Avenue" (1979) - "Lies" (July 1981) ### Other appearances - "Morning Magic" (live), on Highlights of Sunbury '74 Part 2 (Mushroom Records (L 25123), 1974) - "Gimme Shelter" (live), "Boogie Woogie Waltz" (live) on A-Reefer-Derci (Mushroom Records (L 45657/8), 1976)

The J's with Jamie

American musical group (1950s and 1960s)

The J's with Jamie was an American musical group specializing in commercial jingles in the 1950s and 1960s. The group's core members were Jamie and Joe Silvia, a married couple who played with a number of session musicians and other singers. They worked within the booming mid-20th century Chicago advertising industry in both radio and television with clients including well-known food companies, politicians, appliance manufacturers, and industry associations. The couple declined invitations to go on tour, opting to stay in Chicago with their family, but did record three albums for Columbia Records, including a combination of original songs and covers of standards and Broadway show tunes. At the 6th Annual Grammy Awards in 1964, The J's with Jamie were nominated in two categories: Best New Artist and Best Performance by a Vocal Group. Shortly before disbanding in 1967 to found a commercial production firm, the Silvias released another two albums as Jamie and the J. Silvia Singers. ## Formation The J's with Jamie was formed by husband and wife Joe and Jamie Silvia. Jamie's background was as a dancer, but she took up singing as a career in her late teens, citing Sarah Vaughan as one of her influences. She went on tour as the lead vocalist for The Mellowlarks in the 1950s but left to form The J's with Jamie in 1958. One year for Christmas, the couple decided to record Christmas songs for their friends instead of sending out a more traditional greeting card. To do so, they went to the Columbia Records recording studio in Chicago. The audio engineer was impressed enough with their performance that he shared the music with Ernie Altschuler in Columbia's artists and repertoire division, leading to a recording contract. From their start until the group disbanded in 1967, Jamie and Joe Silvia were the core of the group. They worked with session musicians and a number of other singers. Their most prominent collaborator was Don Shelton, a tenor who was part of The Hi-Lo's, but others included Marshall Gill and Len Dresslar, whose deep bass voice is best known for the Jolly Green Giant's "Ho! Ho! Ho!". ## Jingles and recordings Recounting the group's career years later, Jamie estimated the group recorded 25–30 commercials each week between 1958 and 1967. Their clients were as varied as the companies, organizations, and individuals who advertise on television and radio, such as food manufacturers, home goods companies, cigarette companies, department stores, politicians, appliance makers, and industry associations. Examples of well-known brands for which they recorded jingles include Campbell's, Marlboro, Schlitz, Sears, Pillsbury, Alka-Seltzer, Wrigley, Amana, Mr. Clean, Green Giant, and Kellogg's. In 1963, they recorded a song, "Hey, Look Him Over!" for Birch Bayh's Senatorial campaign against incumbent Homer Capehart. The song, telling voters how to pronounce Bayh's name, ran extensively in commercials in the weeks leading up to the election, and was credited in part with Bayh's victory. The commercial went on to win a Clio Award. A July 1964 Time article reported that they were earning \$250,000 per year for their work, and that even Broadway producers interested to hire Jamie learned that she was out of their price range. Jamie and Joe declined invitations to go on tour, opting to stay in Chicago with their two daughters, Jana and Risa. Their primary activity was always commercial, but they did record three albums for Columbia Records, including both original songs and covers of standards and show tunes. Despite not concentrating on recording albums, The J's with Jamie received two Grammy Awards nominations at the 1964 ceremony. Their album Hey, Look Us Over! earned a nomination for Best Performance by a Vocal Group, losing to Peter, Paul and Mary (for "Blowin' in the Wind"), and they were in the running for Best New Artist, which was won by The Swingle Singers. A single from the album, "Yoshiko," earned some international attention, even reaching the \#1 on the Radio Malaysia chart in 1964. In 1966 and 1967, the Silvias released two more albums on ABC Records as Jamie and the J. Silvia Singers, retaining their familiar style. The J's with Jamie formally disbanded in 1967, when the couple moved to New York City to found a commercial production house. Shelton and Dresslar remained in Chicago, teaming up with Bonnie Herman and Shelton's bandmate from The Hi-Lo's, Gene Puerling, to form another successful commercial music group, The Singers Unlimited. ## Reception and legacy The J's with Jamie are best known for their work in marketing. A Time article about them titled "Oratorios for industry" called them "the best commercial-single ensemble [in which] all four singers deliver their words with the sort of enunciation that makes poets out of admen." Among other recognition for their work in advertising, they received a Clio Award for a political commercial in 1963. They also received a positive reception for the musical quality of their popular music work. In the 1962 Billboard Artist Popularity Poll, they were ranked 5th in the "Most Promising Vocal Group" category. They received two Grammy Award nominations in 1964 following the release of Hey, Look Us Over! A Variety review of that album noted that The J's with Jamie sound young and "sprightly," but show a wide range of genres and "professional efficiency." In their review, Billboard said the group was "the best thing to come around since The Modernaires" and remarked on their "matchless vocal quality and attention to detail." Music journalist Marc Myers described Jamie's voice as "lovely and special [with] an upbeat warmth and polished perfection to her intonation that came with a girl-next-door naturalism reminiscent of Eydie Gorme." Despite being Grammy-nominated and being among the most prominent vocal performers on the radio in the United States in the 1960s, little is known about the group. In 1964 Time Magazine wrote that "they have probably been heard by more people more times than any other group in the history of sound. Yet next to nobody knows who they are. They are the world's most successful singers of TV commercials." A WFMU blog noted that although the Columbia records are long out of print, bootlegs in Japan have had a "substantial" influence on J-pop. ## Discography For most of their recording career, the group worked with Columbia Records, which released three LPs, several singles, and promotional albums. In the late 1960s, as Jamie and the J. Silvia Singers, they issued two more LPs with ABC. ### As The J's with Jamie Albums - Hey, Look us Over! (Columbia, 1963, CL-2005/CS-8805) - The Remarkable J's with Jamie (Columbia, 1964, CL-2149/CS-8949) - The Two Sides of the J's with Jamie (Columbia Special Products, 1963, XCTV-96680) – not released commercially Singles - "Momma, Momma, Momma" /"The Sound Of Money" (1962, Columbia 4-42422) - "One Little World Apart" / "Let's Not Be Sensible" (1962, Columbia 4-42488) - "Laugh It Up" / "Nowhere To Go But Up" (1962, Columbia 4-42595) - "Little Me" / "Come On Strong" (1962, Columbia 4-42635) - "Your Dog" / "For The Last Time" (1963, Columbia 4-42855) - "Here's Love" / "Au Revoir" (1963, Columbia 4-42903) - "This Old House" / "London (Is A Little Bit All Right)" (1963, Columbia 4-42939) - "Yoshiko" / "Everybody Says Don't" (1964, Columbia 4-43017) - "Theme From 'A Summer Place'" / "Popsicles In Paris" (1964, Columbia 4-43068) EP's: - The J's With Jamie (1963, Columbia JZSP 75720/75699) - Seasons Greetings (1963, Columbia ZCTV-94306/94307) ### As Jamie and the J. Silvia Singers Albums - Jamie and the J. Silvia Singers (ABC, 1966, LP, ABC-562/ABCS-562) - Encore (ABC, 1967, LP, ABCS-592) Singles - "It's Not Unusual" / "It Was A Lover And His Lass" (1966, ABC 45–10867)

Don Revie

English footballer and manager (1927–1989)

Donald George Revie OBE (10 July 1927 – 26 May 1989) was an England international footballer and manager, best known for his successful spell with Leeds United from 1961 until 1974, which immediately preceded his appointment as England manager. A forward, he began his career with Leicester City in August 1944, before a £19,000 move to Hull City in November 1949. He was sold on to Manchester City in October 1951 for a fee of £25,000, where he became the main focus of the "Revie Plan" which saw him named as FWA Footballer of the Year in 1954–55 after innovating the role of the first deep-lying centre forward in England. He won the FA Cup in 1956, having finished on the losing side in the 1955 final. He was bought by Sunderland for £22,000 in October 1956, before moving on to Leeds United in November 1958 for a £14,000 fee. In total he scored 108 goals in 501 league and cup appearances in an 18-year professional career, also scoring four goals in six England appearances as well as winning representative honours for the Football League XI and the England B team. In March 1961, Revie was appointed player-manager of Leeds United, then a Second Division club who had never won a major trophy. Under Revie's management, Leeds became a major force in English football, winning the Second Division in 1963–64, the First Division in 1968–69 and 1973–74, the FA Cup in 1972, the League Cup in 1968, the FA Charity Shield in 1969, and the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1968 and 1971. Additionally, Leeds were First Division runners-up five times, three times FA Cup runners-up and runners-up in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and the European Cup Winners' Cup. In July 1974 he accepted the job as England manager, but had an unsuccessful three years in the role before quitting in highly controversial circumstances to take up the management role with the United Arab Emirates. He later had spells in Middle Eastern club football with Al-Nasr and Al-Ahly. As Leeds manager he was criticised for the physical and often negative approach of his teams, though the period was noted for its highly physical football across the country. His resignation as England manager fuelled criticism of him as money-obsessed, and unproved allegations of bribery and financial misconduct also tarnished his reputation. He retired in 1984, but was diagnosed with motor neurone disease in May 1987, which led to his death two years later. He remains a highly popular figure in Leeds, and has a stand named after him at Elland Road as well as a statue outside the ground. ## Club career ### Early life Revie was born in Middlesbrough, North Riding of Yorkshire, on 10 July 1927. His father, also named Donald, was a joiner who found himself frequently out of work during the Great Depression. His mother, a washerwoman, died of cancer when he was 12. He played youth football for Newport Boys' Club and then Middlesbrough Swifts, who were coached by influential manager Bill Sanderson. He learnt the rudiments of the game using a small bundle of rags in the tiny yard behind his home. This influenced his thinking in later life, and he argued that young players should learn using smaller footballs, on smaller pitches, so they would be more adept in control when progressing to a bigger football. ### Leicester City He signed as a professional footballer for Leicester City in August 1944, choosing them ahead of local club Middlesbrough primarily due to the close links between Middlesbrough Swifts and Leicester City; he also worked as an apprentice bricklayer. Leicester originally thought him not good enough to turn professional, but he was taken under the wing of Leicester player Sep Smith who mentored Revie on many of his ideas about the game. Smith instructed Revie that "When not in position, get into position; never beat a man by dribbling if you can beat him more easily with a pass; it is not the man on the ball but the one running into position to take the pass who constitutes the danger; and the aim is to have a man spare in a passing move. Soccer would then become easy." He played in the wartime league, before making his debut in the Football League on the opening day of the 1946–47 season, a 3–0 defeat to Manchester City, who would go on to win the Second Division that season. He showed good form at Filbert Street before breaking his right ankle in three places after a tackle from Tottenham Hotspur's Ron Burgess; the injury could have ended his career, but he recovered to full fitness within 19 weeks. Manager Johnny Duncan identified Revie as the player to build his team around for the 1947–48 and 1948–49 seasons, and though the Foxes fared poorly in the league they managed to reach the 1949 FA Cup Final. Revie scored the opening goal of the semi-final victory over First Division champions Portsmouth, having been told pre-match that opposition goalkeeper Ernest Butler tended to palm the ball over the attacker's head before reclaiming possession Revie positioned himself to take advantage of the situation when teammate Jack Lee challenged Butler for the ball, leaving Revie with a simple conversion. However Revie suffered a nasal haemorrhage caused by a burst vein one week before the final, and the condition became so severe it would threaten his life and see him miss his first chance to play at Wembley. He could only listen on the radio as Leicester lost 3–1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers in the final. Revie decided to leave Leicester after Duncan left the club, having already been dissatisfied with the club's lack of progress in the league. ### Hull City In November 1949 he joined Second Division club Hull City for a transfer fee of £19,000. He chose to join the Tigers ahead of bigger clubs like Arsenal and Manchester City who had shown interest in signing him due to the fact that Hull were managed by Raich Carter, who had been a great player before and after World War II. Carter did improve Revie's game but was not a success as Hull manager, as City finished mid-table in 1949–50 and 1950–51, before becoming involved in a relegation battle in 1951–52. Teammate Andy Davidson later said Revie failed to fulfil his potential at Boothferry Park as he was not a tough player, and the rest of the Hull team were not physically dominant enough to protect him and allow him to dictate play with his accurate passing. As at Leicester, Revie felt the time had come for him to move on and handed in a transfer request once Carter departed. ### Manchester City Revie was sold to First Division side Manchester City for £25,000 (including a part-exchange for Ernie Phillips, valued at £12,000) in October 1951. The Citizens struggled in the 1951–52 season, and then went on to finish just one place above the relegation zone in the 1952–53 campaign. Revie was often isolated from the rest of the team due to his lack of pace. The sale of Ivor Broadis then allowed Revie to drop deeper down the field, and allowed manager Les McDowall to put Revie in what eventually proved to be a pivotal role, introducing to English football the position of deep-lying centre forward. This evolved into the so-called "Revie Plan", with Revie as the central figure. His role derived from the more traditional inside right position, and was based on the style of the successful Hungary national team, and in particular Nándor Hidegkuti, who invented the role. Revie devoted 20 pages to analysing and explaining the plan in his autobiography Soccer's Happy Wanderer written in 1955. Revie had improved his goal tally to 13 in the 1953–54 season, but only once the Revie Plan was implemented in the 1954–55 campaign were Manchester City able to fully make use of his abilities. The new tactic opened with a 5–0 defeat to Preston North End, but then Ken Barnes replaced John McTavish at inside-forward and the team clicked. Though the tactic was named after Revie, it had initially been introduced at reserve team level by Johnny Williamson, though Revie's superior passing talents meant Williamson was overlooked for the position at first team level. City's league title campaign fell away but they went on to reach the 1955 FA Cup Final at Wembley, where they were beaten 3–1 by Newcastle United; a first-half injury to Jimmy Meadows left City down to ten men and unable to compete effectively. At the end of the season Revie was named as FWA Footballer of the Year. McDowall fined Revie £27 for missing two weeks of training for a family holiday in Blackpool, which infuriated him as he had received permission from trainer Laurie Barnett and had promised to train whilst on holiday. McDowall dropped Revie for much of the 1955–56 season, preferring instead to play Bobby Johnstone. Revie played only one FA Cup match that season before being named in the team for the 1956 FA Cup Final against Birmingham City, with Johnstone being moved to the wings. He provided the assist for Joe Hayes's opening goal, and instructed Ken Barnes to deviate from the manager's instructions at half-time, with the result being a more dominant second half display and a 3–1 victory; Revie was named as Man of the Match. However the rift with his manager was not forgotten, and he was moved to right-half in the 1956–57 campaign, leaving him to seek a move away from Maine Road. ### Sunderland In October 1956, Sunderland manager Bill Murray bought Revie for a £22,000 fee. Poor results left the Black Cats facing relegation towards the end of the 1956–57 campaign, but a late seven-game unbeaten run lifted them to safety, just one place above relegated Cardiff City. A financial scandal over illegal payments to players resulted in harsh sanctions at Roker Park from The Football Association and forced Murray's resignation. His replacement, Alan Brown, preferred a more physical style of play that did not suit Revie. Sunderland suffered relegation from the First Division for the first time in the club's history in the 1957–58 season, and Revie was dropped for the 1958–59 Second Division campaign in favour of a youth policy. In September 1958, he rejected the opportunity to sign for hometown club Middlesbrough – had he joined the club then he would have played alongside captain Brian Clough and goalkeeper Peter Taylor. ### Leeds United Revie returned to the First Division when he joined Leeds United in November 1958 for a £14,000 fee. Manager Bill Lambton had hoped that Revie's creativity would help the Peacocks to turn their poor form around, and appointed him as captain. Leeds avoided relegation in 1958–59, but new manager Jack Taylor took Leeds down in the 1959–60 campaign with the division's worst defensive record. Revie recognised his playing days were coming to an end and relinquished the captaincy to Freddie Goodwin. ## International career In October 1953 he was called up to The Football League XI to face the League of Ireland XI at Maine Road, and scored a hat-trick in a 9–1 victory. He went on to play for the England B team in March 1954. He scored on his England debut on 2 October 1954, in a 2–0 British Home Championship victory over Northern Ireland at Windsor Park. He also scored during his second appearance on 2 April 1955, a 7–2 victory over Scotland at Wembley Stadium. He made three further appearances that year, playing in defeats to France at the Stade Olympique Yves-du-Manoir and Wales at Ninian Park, and scoring twice in a 5–1 win over Denmark at Idrætsparken. His sixth and final cap came in a 1–1 draw with Northern Ireland on 6 October 1956. He was one of many signatories in a letter to The Times on 17 July 1958 opposing 'the policy of apartheid' in international sport and defending 'the principle of racial equality which is embodied in the Declaration of the Olympic Games'. ## Management career ### Leeds United Revie was made player-manager at Leeds United in March 1961 following the resignation of Jack Taylor, who left after Leeds found themselves struggling in the Second Division. He had initially applied for the vacant job at Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic, but they were unable to find the £6,000 Leeds demanded, and the Leeds directors decided to instead appoint Revie as manager. At the time the club was in debt and was located in a rugby league territory, with very little football tradition. Less than 7,000 turned out for the final home game of the 1960–61 season while Leeds's championship game of the 1960–61 Rugby League season had an attendance of over 50,000. He immediately began to institute radical changes such as ensuring the players stayed at higher quality hotels. He instilled a "family atmosphere" at Elland Road, making sure to take an interest in the lives of everyone at the club from the cleaning staff to the star players and ensuring there were no "big egos" at the club. He showed trust in his players, leaving them mainly to their own devices though he always made sure he was fully informed as to what they were up to off the pitch, even going so far as to tell them to dump their girlfriends if he viewed them as unsuitable. He also introduced lengthy dossiers on opposing teams to ensure his players knew every detail about the opposition and were able to exploit weaknesses and nullify threats. Other changes were based on some of his many superstitions, such as his belief that birds were bad luck which resulted in him getting rid of the owl on the club badge and the discontinuation of the Peacocks nickname in favour of the Whites. Leeds struggled in the 1961–62 season, as aside from Billy Bremner and Jack Charlton his playing squad was filled with journeymen pros; he did though inherit a good coaching staff that included Les Cocker, Maurice Lindley and Syd Owen who would all spend many years with Revie at Leeds. He developed a youth policy at the club, notable graduates of which would be Eddie Gray, Norman Hunter, Peter Lorimer and Paul Reaney. He had a difficult task in persuading young players to join Leeds over more glamorous clubs but made sure he put in extra effort to make the youngsters feel happy at Leeds, and in one instance drove to Scotland to talk to Bremner's girlfriend to successfully persuade her to encourage Bremner to stay at Leeds rather than return to Scotland to be with her. Revie played his last game in March 1962 before concentrating entirely on management. After new investment at board level Revie was able to spend £25,000 on Everton's Scotland international Bobby Collins, who he installed as captain. Other arrivals included former Manchester City teammate Billy McAdams, forward Ian Lawson and left-back Cliff Mason. He spent £53,000 to bring John Charles back from Juventus, and though he proved not to be as effective as during his first spell at Leeds, Revie was able to sell him on to Roma for a £17,000 profit within just a few months. Leeds pushed for promotion in 1962–63, but the harsh winter caused many postponements and a backlog of games at the end of the season proved too much for Leeds, who fell away to finish in fifth place. United secured promotion as champions of the Second Division in 1963–64, helped by the late signing of striker Alan Peacock from Middlesbrough for £53,000. However the overly physical approach typified by captain Collins earned Leeds a reputation as "dirty" that would shadow the club throughout Revie's tenure as manager and continue to this day. Leeds adapted well to the First Division early in the 1964–65 campaign, but caused controversy in Collins's return to Goodison Park as the game against Everton descended into a brawl and the referee ordered the players off the field after 35 minutes to prevent further violence. Leeds went on to maintain a strong title challenge, finishing second to rivals Manchester United on goal average after failing to beat Birmingham City on the last day of the season. They also reached the final of the FA Cup, losing 2–1 to Liverpool at Wembley after extra-time. Revie felt he did not have to strengthen his squad for the 1965–66 campaign, and made no new signings. With Leeds in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup he showed his gamesmanship, sending his team out against Italian club Torino wearing unfamiliar numbers in an attempt to confuse the Italian club's tight man-marking system. However Collins had his leg broken by Torino's Fabrizio Poletti, meaning Revie had to partner Giles and Bremner in central midfield and sign Huddersfield Town winger Michael O'Grady for £30,000. Although Collins would be missed the partnership of Giles and Bremner would prove highly effective. Leeds again finished second in the league, trailing Liverpool by six points. They reached the semi-finals of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, losing on aggregate to Spanish side Real Zaragoza despite Revie ordering the fire brigade to flood the pitch before the replay at Elland Road. Leeds struggled at the start of the 1966–67 season, though despite winning just three of their opening eleven games they went on to finish in fourth place. They reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup, losing 1–0 to Chelsea at Villa Park. They reached the final of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup against Yugoslavian side GNK Dinamo Zagreb, but were unable to scout the opposition due to Syd Owen having his flight cancelled on him; Leeds lost 2–0 on aggregate and Revie was criticised for his negative tactics. With his team coming close but failing to land a trophy he brought in a gypsy to lift a curse he believed had been placed on Elland Road so that there would be no bad luck for the 1967–68 season. A more practical measure he took to increase United's fortunes was to nearly double the club's record transfer to buy Sheffield United centre-forward Mick Jones for £100,000, who would replace the frequently injured Peacock as the main striker. Soon after the purchase Leeds recorded a 7–0 victory over Chelsea, though ironically Jones was not on the score-sheet. Revie's first trophy would be the League Cup, as they eliminated Luton Town, Bury, Sunderland, Stoke City and Derby County to reach the final against Arsenal; Terry Cooper scored the only goal of what was a dour and tense final as Revie told his players to "shut up shop" and defend their 1–0 lead. This success did not immediately translate into league and FA Cup success however, as they finished in fourth place and were beaten in the FA Cup semi-finals by Everton. They instead reached a second successive Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final, beating CA Spora Luxembourg (Luxembourg), FK Partizan (Yugoslavia), Hibernian (Scotland), Rangers (Scotland), and Dundee (Scotland) to reach the final against Hungarian club Ferencvárosi. Leeds won the first leg 1–0, and a month later defended their lead with a 0–0 draw in Budapest, by which time Jimmy Greenhoff, a substitute in the first leg, had been sold to Birmingham City. Having found success in both domestic and European cup competitions, Revie took the decision to focus exclusively on the league for the 1968–69 campaign. They went the rest of the season unbeaten in the league following a 5–1 defeat to Burnley at Turf Moor on 19 October, and secured the title with a 0–0 draw with challengers Liverpool at Anfield; after the game Revie led his team back out onto the pitch to applaud the Liverpool supporters, who in turn applauded the Leeds team. His team set a number of records: most points (67), most wins (27), fewest defeats (2), and most home points (39); a still-unbroken club record is their 34 match unbeaten run that extended into the following season. Revie strengthened his front line by breaking the British transfer record with a £165,000 purchase of Allan Clarke from Leicester City, who would partner Mick Jones up front. This allowed him to sell O'Grady to Wolverhampton Wanderers for £80,000 and move Lorimer to a more attacking role. He targeted the treble in 1969–70 and came close to achieving his aim only to fail on all three fronts in a congested close season, finishing second in the league to Everton, losing the 1970 FA Cup Final to Chelsea (after a replay), and exiting the European Cup with a semi-final defeat to Celtic in front of a competition record crowd of 136,505 at Hampden Park. Rejecting a £100,000 four-year contract offer to manage Birmingham City, Revie instead elected to remain at Leeds and stick with the same squad for the 1970–71 campaign. Leeds and Arsenal soon pulled away from the rest of the pack, though it would be the Gunners who would claim the league title, finishing one point ahead of Leeds after the latter lost to West Bromwich Albion following a controversial offside goal in front of the Match of the Day television cameras late in the season. United were embarrassed in the FA Cup, being knocked out by Fourth Division side Colchester United in a famous "giant-killing". Leeds again found success in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup though, beating Sarpsborg FK (Norway), Dynamo Dresden (East Germany), AC Sparta Prague (Czechoslovakia), Vitória (Portugal) and Liverpool to reach the final against Juventus. They drew 2–2 at the Stadio Olimpico di Torino before claiming the trophy on away goals after a 1–1 draw at Elland Road. The previous season's defeat to West Bromwich Albion led to Revie criticising referee Ray Tinkler. As punishment, Leeds were forced to play their first four home games of the 1971–72 season at a neutral venue; they played at Huddersfield's Leeds Road and boasted four wins and two draws from the opening seven matches. Leeds played good football, particularly winning praise for their 7–0 and 6–1 wins over Southampton and Nottingham Forest respectively, but again could only finish as runners-up after a late collapse and final day defeat at Wolves, allowing Derby County to claim the title by a single point. Revie had attempted to strengthen his squad before the final run-in with a £177,000 bid for Asa Hartford, but the deal was cancelled by the medical team who spotted a heart defect in the attacker's medical records. United reached the 1972 FA Cup Final after beating Bristol Rovers, Liverpool, Cardiff City, Tottenham Hotspur and Birmingham City, and lifted the trophy after a 1–0 victory over Arsenal in the final. Looking for a successor to Jack Charlton, early in the 1972–73 season he signed Gordon McQueen from St Mirren for £30,000. He also spent £100,000 on defender Trevor Cherry and £35,000 on centre-half Roy Ellam, both from Huddersfield Town, and started playing young Scottish forward Joe Jordan more regularly. Leeds again came close to a Treble, but their league title campaign tailed off and they finished third, some seven points behind champions Liverpool. They did reach the 1973 FA Cup Final to face Second Division Sunderland, but despite manager turned pundit Brian Clough's remark that "there is no way Sunderland can beat Leeds", United lost 1–0. Leeds also reached the final of the European Cup Winners' Cup against Italian club A.C. Milan at the Kaftanzoglio Stadium, where they were beaten 1–0 following some controversial refereeing from Christos Michas which eventually saw Norman Hunter sent-off after he reacted badly to being consistently fouled by pushing Gianni Rivera to the ground. In 2009, Yorkshire and the Humber MEP Richard Corbett unsuccessfully petitioned the European Parliament to reverse the result of the match over allegations that Michas accepted a bribe from the Italian side. Revie was offered a five-year £100,000 contract (plus £50,000 signing-on fee) by Everton in the summer, but remained with Leeds after the move broke down due to a new law introduced in Parliament that prevented wage rises to curb inflation. He chose to continue with largely the same line-up for the 1973–74 season. He told his squad that the aim for the season would be to go unbeaten throughout the campaign. Though Leeds failed to achieve this as they lost three successive games in February/March, they did secure the title with a five-point lead over Liverpool. Completely focused on the league, and finally accepting that he was asking too much of his players to try and win every competition he played weakened teams to allow an early exit from the UEFA Cup. He chose to take the job of England national football team manager ahead of leading a European Cup challenge at Leeds and breaking up the ageing team he had stuck with for many years, and though he was well loved at the club he was not popular with the Leeds boardroom members, who appointed Brian Clough, a fierce critic of Revie as his successor. Despite lasting just 44 days in the job, Clough spent more in transfer fees than Revie had in his 13 years at the club. ### England In July 1974, Revie accepted the offer of the England manager's job, succeeding Alf Ramsey and caretaker-manager Joe Mercer. The Football Association, particularly Ted Croker, were impressed with Revie's personality and ideas. He was a popular appointment with the press and supporters; noted journalist Brian Glanville wrote that "Revie was the obvious choice". Revie attempted to build a relationship with the media, and also invited 81 prospective and established England players to a meeting in Manchester to make everyone feel included, where he announced that he would establish extra pay for international players as well as bonus payments for wins and draws. He held a meeting with Alan Hardaker, chairman of the Football League, but Hardaker had long resented Revie and was very reluctant to accept his proposal to rearrange league fixtures to benefit the England team. He also had difficult relationships with figures within the FA, most notoriously with chairman Sir Harold Thompson, who allegedly attempted to influence Revie's team selections and undermine him publicly. As well as this he found difficulty in his attempts to introduce the Leeds traditions into the England camp, such as carpet bowls and bingo, which were met with resentment and disdain by some England internationals. Colin Todd stated that Revie was ill-suited to the England job, with his strengths lying in the day-to-day contact found only in club management rather than the politics and committee meetings of international management. For UEFA Euro 1976, England were drawn in a tough qualification group including Czechoslovakia, Portugal and Cyprus, with only the winner progressing to the finals. England began the campaign well with a 3–0 victory over Czechoslovakia at Wembley, Mick Channon and Colin Bell scoring the goals. However a 0–0 home draw with Portugal was a minor setback, despite Malcolm Macdonald scoring all the goals in a 5–0 win over Cyprus following a morale boosting 2–0 friendly win over 1974 FIFA World Cup champions West Germany. Kevin Keegan scored the only goal of the game at the Tsirion Stadium to secure maximum points in Cyprus, and leave England in a strong position going into the two tough final group games in Czechoslovakia and Portugal. Though only drawing with Wales and Northern Ireland, a 5–1 victory over Scotland secured England the 1974–75 British Home Championship title and left England in confident mood for the crucial qualifying games. However, despite Channon opening the scoring they fell to a 2–1 defeat to the Czechoslovakians in Bratislava after playing with what was for Revie uncharacteristic attacking tactics. A 1–1 draw in Lisbon then allowed Czechoslovakia to clinch the group with a win over Cyprus. Czechoslovakia then went on to win the whole tournament. Revie was criticised for his constant changing of players during the qualifying group, particularly his decision to drop captains Emlyn Hughes and Alan Ball from his squad entirely, his mistrust of flair players like Charlie George and Alan Hudson, and his willingness to play players out of position. With England unseeded, Revie was handed opponents for qualifying for the 1978 World Cup of Italy, Finland and Luxembourg. Only the winner would progress to the finals. Just before the campaign began England suffered a 2–1 defeat to Scotland to finish second in the 1975–76 British Home Championship. England made heavy work of both Finland and Luxembourg, winning 4–1 away and 2–1 at home against the Finns and 5–0 at home and 2–0 away against the Luxembourgers. The failure to inflict heavier defeats on these sides was ultimately the reason why Italy qualified for the finals on goal difference alone. England fell to a 2–0 defeat in Rome where Revie was criticised for his previously untested back four selection of Emlyn Hughes, Dave Clement, Roy McFarland, and Mick Mills; he also played Trevor Brooking out of position and surprised many by selecting Stan Bowles ahead of Stuart Pearson. Sensing that he was disliked by FA chairman Sir Harold Thompson, and with further criticism coming his way after England could only finish third in the 1976–77 British Home Championship, Revie began to look for a way out. He missed a friendly with Brazil in Rio de Janeiro for what he claimed was a scouting assignment on the Italians, when in fact he had travelled to Dubai for contract negotiations with the United Arab Emirates. Revie asked for his contract with England to be cancelled, which the FA refused to do and the FA offered Revie their full support despite having already approached Bobby Robson to replace him. The game with Brazil ended in a 0–0 draw, and their tour of South America concluded with draws with Argentina and Uruguay. On 12 July 1977, Revie revealed in an exclusive to the Daily Mail that he was quitting the England job to become manager of the UAE. The FA suspended Revie from football for ten years on a charge of bringing the game into disrepute; Revie contested his suspension in a lawsuit against the FA, and the court overturned the suspension after ruling that the FA had overreached its powers. > "I sat down with my wife, Elsie, one night and we agreed that the England job was no longer worth the aggravation. It was bringing too much heartache to those nearest to us. Nearly everyone in the country wants me out. So, I am giving them what they want. I know people will accuse me of running away, and it does sicken me that I cannot finish the job by taking England to the World Cup finals in Argentina next year, but the situation has become impossible." At the time of Revie's departure, England were three points behind Italy in the qualification group, with two matches remaining, including an encounter with the Italians at Wembley. Revie's replacement Ron Greenwood led the national team to victory in both remaining matches. England thus finished level with the Italians on points, but behind them on goal difference. Since only the winner of the group qualified for the finals, England missed their second consecutive World Cup tournament. ### Middle East His contract at the United Arab Emirates ensured him a £340,000 four-year contract, though caused irreparable damage to his reputation in England. Selling the story to the Daily Mail also earned him £20,000, but only furthered the criticism that he was a "mercenary". UAE finished sixth in the seven team 1979 Gulf Cup of Nations in Iraq, but it was his work in helping to improve the footballing facilities in the country in the long-term that were more important, helping the UAE qualify for the 1990 FIFA World Cup. He left the UAE coaching role in May 1980 as the UAE searched for an Arabic speaking manager. He returned to club management with Al-Nasr of the UAE Arabian Gulf League, but was sacked in 1984 with the club sitting third in the league. The next year he had a brief stint with Egyptian Premier League club Al-Ahly of Cairo, but did not settle in Egypt and returned home to England. He was approached to replace Alan Mullery as Queens Park Rangers manager by chairman Jim Gregory, but the deal was not completed and Revie never worked in football again. ## Personal life Revie married Elsie, the niece of Leicester City's Scottish manager Johnny Duncan, on 17 October 1949. They had a son Duncan and daughter Kim. Elsie died of cancer on 28 March 2005 at the age of 77. He published an autobiography, Soccer's Happy Wanderer, in 1955. He was appointed an OBE for his services to football. In April 1974, shortly before departing from Leeds for the England job, Revie was a special guest on the TV guest show This Is Your Life. Revie was an active freemason attending Leodiensis Lodge No. 4029 from 1965 until his death. ### Illness and death After two years of living in Surrey, in the Spring of 1986 Revie moved to Kinross, Scotland, where he intended to retire, but he was diagnosed with motor neurone disease in May 1987. Revie publicly announced his illness in August of that year, and made his final public appearance on 11 May 1988 at Elland Road in a wheelchair, at a charity football match held to raise money for research into motor neurone disease. He died in his sleep in Murrayfield Hospital in Edinburgh on 26 May 1989, aged 61, and was cremated four days later at Warriston Crematorium in Edinburgh. Though his funeral was well attended by representatives of Leeds United and many others involved in football such as Kevin Keegan, Brian Moore, Lawrie McMenemy, Denis Law and Alex Ferguson, The Football Association did not send any officials to the funeral. ## Legacy The family atmosphere Revie instilled at Elland Road ensured that many Leeds United players remained friends and fiercely loyal to Revie long after their playing days had ended; his players also generally avoided financial, addiction or family problems, enjoying largely stable lives even after retirement. In May 2012, a statue of Revie was unveiled outside Elland Road. The North Stand of Elland Road is formally known as the Revie Stand. In a survey of leading football writers, historians and academics by Total Sport magazine, Revie's Leeds United were voted as one of the 50 greatest football teams of all time. James Corbett of the Guardian wrote that "[Revie] had been the most innovative manager of his generation" and "not until Arsène Wenger would a manager exert such a profound influence on his club - and the English game as a whole". ### Criticism #### "Dirty Leeds" The combative nature of his teams earned United the moniker of "dirty Leeds", as key player Eddie Gray admitted that "it was brutal stuff and, definitely win-at-all-costs". Alan Peacock said that one of the attractions for joining Leeds was that he would not have to play against them and "then they won't be kicking me". In 1963 Leeds were labelled by the Football Association's own FA News as "the dirtiest [team] in the Football League". On more than one occasion referees had to order Leeds players off the pitch for a break mid-match to break up mass brawls. His teams were also notorious for dour play and playing to defend 1–0 leads, though he did allow a more attacking style later in his career. Nevertheless, the unpopularity and poor reputation stuck with Leeds throughout Revie's time as manager and even was in evidence after his death. George Best said that he "hated playing against them" and that the only time he needed to wear shinpads was when he was playing against Leeds. One of Revie's most notable critics was Brian Clough, who initially gave some degree of praise to Leeds following the 1969–70 season, commenting that 'they have made the season'. However, Clough's attitude soon changed as the competition between their clubs intensified and over the course of subsequent seasons he would use his newspaper columns to attack Revie and Leeds, particularly in August 1973 in which he branded the Leeds players "cheats" and called for the club to be relegated to the Second Division on disciplinary grounds, though Clough would surprisingly succeed Revie as Leeds manager in an ill-fated tenure that lasted only 44 days. In 2009, Revie was portrayed by Colm Meaney in the film The Damned United, which focused on Clough's reign as manager of Leeds United. > "When people talk about Leeds being dirty, they forget that was the culture back then. You had to look after yourself. There were so many players around who would now be suspended all season long. We just made sure nobody ever managed to bully us." #### Allegations of financial misconduct Revie's reputation suffered in the late 1970s after his highly controversial England resignation. Both the Daily Mirror and The Sunday People claimed that Revie had attempted to bribe Wolverhampton Wanderers players to lose a crucial match in May 1972. The papers quoted Wolves midfielder Danny Hegan and former Leeds United goalkeeper Gary Sprake's claims that Revie's captain Billy Bremner had tried to arrange a bribe. Bremner sued for libel and won £100,000 libel damages, along with legal costs, after both Hegan and Sprake refused to repeat their allegations under oath in court. Wolves player Derek Dougan, who had scored against Leeds in the match in question, testified that he had heard no mention of the alleged bribes. Neither the police nor FA investigations found any evidence of wrongdoing. Additionally Bob Stokoe would later claim that while managing Bury on Good Friday 1962, Revie had offered him a bribe of £500 to "go easy" on his Leeds side who were at the time struggling against relegation to the Third Division and that he had become enraged when Revie responded to his refusal to accept the bribe by asking "in that case, may I speak to your players?". Alan Ball also alleged that Revie made an illegal approach for him, and despite pocketing the £300 bribe he signed for Everton instead of Leeds; both men were charged with bringing the game into disrepute. The allegations of corruption earned him the nickname of "Don Readies". Though Mr Justice Cantley lifted the FA's ten-year ban on Revie, during his conclusion of the case the judge said that Revie "lacked candour", was "greedy" and "prickly", focused on "imagined wrongs" and his resignation as England manager showed a "sensational, outrageous example of disloyalty, breach of trust, discourtesy and selfishness". ## Career statistics ### Playing statistics ### Managerial statistics ## Honours ### Player Manchester City - FA Cup: 1955–56 England - British Home Championship: 1954–55, 1955–56 (shared), 1956–57 ### Manager Leeds United - Football League First Division: 1968–69, 1973–74 - FA Cup: 1971–72 - Football League Cup: 1967–68 - FA Charity Shield: 1969 - Football League Second Division: 1963–64 - Inter-Cities Fairs Cup: 1968, 1970–71 England - British Home Championship: 1974–75 ### Individual - FWA Footballer of the Year: 1954–55 - Officer of the Order of the British Empire: 1969 ## See also - List of longest managerial reigns in association football

New York State Route 32B

State highway in the Capital District region of New York, in the United States

New York State Route 32B (NY 32B) was a state highway in the Capital District region of New York, in the United States. The western terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 32 in Queensbury. Its eastern terminus was at a junction with U.S. Route 4 (US 4) in Hudson Falls. NY 32B, named Warren Street in Queensbury and River Street in Hudson Falls, ran along the banks of the Hudson River as it went from Glens Falls to Hudson Falls. It crossed over the Glens Falls Feeder Canal near its junction with NY 32 in Queensbury. When NY 32B was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, it began at an intersection with US 4 and NY 32 in Northumberland and ended at US 9 in Glens Falls. The portion of the route between Northumberland and Hudson Falls was concurrent with US 4 upon assignment while the segment west of Boulevard in Queensbury became concurrent with NY 32 in 1949. NY 32B was truncated north to Hudson Falls in the early 1940s and east to Boulevard c. 1962. The route was partially replaced with NY 254 c. 1965. ## Route description NY 32B, as routed at the time of its removal, began at the intersection of Boulevard (then-NY 32), Warren Street (NY 32 west of Boulevard), and Highland Avenue east of Glens Falls in the Warren County town of Queensbury. The route headed east along Warren Street (here named Lower Warren Street), paralleling the eastern bank of the Hudson River. It crossed over the Glens Falls Feeder Canal prior to reaching the Warren–Washington county line. Here, Warren Street turns north to straddle the county line; however, NY 32B continued southeastward into Hudson Falls on River Street. NY 32B ended five blocks later at a junction with US 4 in downtown Hudson Falls. ## History In 1924, Warren Street in Glens Falls and River Street in Hudson Falls became part of NY 30, a highway that initially extended from Mechanicville to the Vermont state line near Fair Haven by way of Glens Falls and Whitehall. It was realigned by 1926 to continue north from Whitehall toward the Canadian border. In 1926, the portion of NY 30 between Glens Falls and Whitehall was included in the new US 4, which began in Glens Falls and continued east from Whitehall into Vermont by way of NY 30's former routing. It was rerouted to follow its modern alignment south of Hudson Falls as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. US 4's former routing between Glens Falls and Hudson Falls became part of NY 32B, a new route assigned in the renumbering that continued south to NY 32 in Northumberland by way of an overlap with US 4. NY 32B was gradually truncated as time went on. In the early 1940s, NY 32B was cut back on its east end to its junction with US 4 in Hudson Falls, eliminating its lengthy overlap with US 4 along the Hudson River. The route would have been severed from its parent, NY 32, as a result; however, NY 32 was extended northeastward along US 9 from South Glens Falls to NY 32B in Glens Falls by this time. On January 1, 1949, NY 32 was extended east to US 4 in Hudson Falls by way of Warren Street, Boulevard, and Feeder Street. The resulting overlap between NY 32 and NY 32B along Warren Street from downtown Glens Falls to Boulevard remained in place until c. 1962 when NY 32B was truncated on its western end to the eastern terminus of the overlap. NY 32B ceased to exist altogether c. 1965 when the portion of NY 32B east of the newly constructed Quaker Road was incorporated into the new NY 254. The segment of former NY 32B that did not become part of NY 254—located on Lower Warren Street in Queensbury—is now NY 911E, an unsigned reference route 0.20 miles (0.32 km) in length. It is one of three reference routes in Warren County. The NY 656 designation is reserved by the New York State Department of Transportation as a signed replacement for NY 911E; however, there is no timetable for its assignment. ## Major intersections ## See also - List of highways in Warren County, New York

Steinway Tunnel

Tunnel under the East River in New York City

The Steinway Tunnel is a pair of tubes carrying the IRT Flushing Line () of the New York City Subway under the East River between 42nd Street in Manhattan and 51st Avenue in Long Island City, Queens, in New York City. It was originally designed and built as an interurban trolley tunnel (with a narrow loading gauge and height), with stations near the current Hunters Point Avenue and Grand Central stations. Planning for the tunnel began in 1885 but construction did not start until 1892 due to a lack of funds. The Steinway Tunnel was named for William Steinway, who provided the funding to start the initial construction. Steinway died in 1896 before the tunnel was completed, and the project sat dormant for several years, before the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) acquired the tunnel. The IRT resumed work in 1905 and completed the tubes in 1907 and was briefly opened for trolley service that September. Due to legal disputes, the tubes closed within a week and did not reopen for another eight years. After the Dual Contracts were signed in 1913, the IRT began converting the tubes to subway use, and the tubes opened as part of the Flushing Line in 1915. In subsequent years, specific rolling stock were ordered to navigate the narrow dimensions of the tubes, and the tunnel suffered from numerous floods and fires. ## Initial work The East River Tunnel Railroad Company was founded on February 22, 1885, to construct a railroad tunnel crossing the East River. Its objective was to connect the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR)'s tracks in Long Island City and the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad's tracks in the City of New York in the same tunnel. At that time period, movement through the New York metropolitan area was hampered by many large bodies of water such as the East River; there were no crossings across these water bodies, except for ferry service, which was not always possible or practical. In addition, plans to build the Blackwell's Island Bridge (later the Queensboro Bridge) were stagnant at the time. The East River Tunnel Railroad Company soon dissolved, and on July 22, 1887, Walter S. Gurnee and Malcolm W. Niven founded the New York and Long Island Railroad Company (NY&LIRR), which began planning for the tunnel shortly afterward. The tunnel was to begin on the New York side near the Hudson River docks in Manhattan, from there it would go east along 42nd Street to Grand Central and carry straight on under the East River. In Long Island City, the tunnel portals were to be between 5th Street (now 49th Avenue) and 4th Street (now 50th Avenue). It would go under Jackson Avenue and finally Thomson Avenue, intersecting LIRR tracks at Hunterspoint Avenue. The total cost of the 5.6-mile (9.0 km) tunnel was to be US\$11.7 million. The estimated total cost exceeded the financial capabilities of the company by far. In July 1891, piano maker William Steinway, a major landowner in Astoria, Queens, started to fund the tunnel. He became a major shareholder and became the new chairman of the company, so the tunnel was named after him. Steinway advised the company to utilize electricity to power the tunnel, believing that the construction of the tunnel would increase real-estate values within the vicinity. The route was finalized in the City of New York in 1890 and in Long Island City by 1891. Construction was started on June 7, 1892, as a NY&LIRR project, and the bottom of the tunnel shaft was reached in December of the same year. However, soon after the start of construction, there were many complications. The project was difficult due to complex geological formations beneath the river, and there were frequent blowouts and floods. Construction was curtailed following an accident on December 28, 1892, during an attempt to heat frozen dynamite from an 85-foot (26 m) shaft at the corner of Vernon Boulevard, Jackson Avenue and 50th Avenue. An uncontrolled explosion killed five and injured fifty, and heavily damaged numerous surrounding houses. Due to high compensation claims, the company was financially ruined, and attempts to raise additional funds failed because of the stock market crash of 1893. Work was stopped as a result, and it was boarded up. Investors refused to fund the tunnel because they feared that it was unsafe. Attempts to resume construction were occasionally made until Steinway died in 1896. ## The Belmont era In 1900, the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT), headed by August Belmont Jr., was awarded the contract for construction and operation of the city's subway line and a few years later the IRT engineered a takeover of Manhattan's elevated railways, thus gaining a monopoly on the city's rapid transit services. In February 1902, the IRT bought the New York & Long Island Railroad and tram operators New York and Queens County Railway for a similar monopoly in Queens. The IRT prepared surveys and plans from scratch. For the proposed tram service under the East River, the plans for the tunnel were modified for dedicated tram operation. The tunnel's trackbed was raised, the gradient increased, and the route shortened. The tunnel was to turn at a loop at the corner of 42nd Street and Park Avenue in Manhattan and go as far as Vernon Boulevard in Queens. There, the tram of the New York and Queens County Railway was to be connected via a ramp. These three underground stations were Lexington Avenue in Manhattan and Jackson Avenue and Van Alst Avenue in Queens. The total cost amounted to \$8 million. The city objected to the tunnel project multiple times and after several disasters nearly stopped it. The westernmost of the four shafts for the tunnel was in Manhattan and was numbered \#1, while the easternmost shaft, in Queens, was numbered \#4. Construction began on July 14, 1905, when shaft \#4 was sunk; shaft \#2 on the opposite shore was sunk by September 1. Shaft \#3 was sunk in the Man-O-War Reef, a granite outcrop in the East River that was expanded and renamed Belmont Island. Four workers were killed in a 1906 shaft accident under Belmont Island. The tunnel was holed through on May 16, 1907, and was completed in September of that year, after 26 months of construction. Buildings for the tunnel's construction had been erected on Belmont Island; these stayed up until at least 1918. Fifty tramcars were made available for operation through the tunnel. They possessed a 42-foot-5-inch (12.93 m)-long and 8-foot-11-inch (2.72 m)-wide all-steel superstructure with double-sided semi-open entrances at the ends. Power was drawn from an iron rail on the ceiling, to which the car roof's 11+3⁄8-inch (290 mm)-high pantograph would attach. The cars were also fitted with rod pantographs for street operation. The first trolley trip in the Steinway Tunnel was scheduled for September 20, 1907, but was postponed due to a power failure. Shortly afterward, trolley cars ran through the tunnel as part of a demonstration run. On September 29, 1907, a short circuit on the overhead wires caused a small fire, and the tunnel was shut down. Belmont did not have a franchise to operate a transit line. The concession to operate the tunnel had expired on January 1, 1907, and the city of New York was unwilling to renew the contract. For the next five years, the tunnel, with trolley loops on both the Manhattan and Queens sides, remained unused. In 1913, Belmont sold the tunnel to the city government after the IRT signed the Dual Contracts, which incorporated the Steinway Tunnel as part of the new Flushing subway line. ## Subway operation Initially, the IRT intended to use the tunnel for trolleys; however, it subsequently decided instead to use the tubes for a heavy-rail rapid transit line. After the IRT measured the tubes, the company found that third rail installation could be possible with small modifications. Regular subway cars could not use the loops and the ramp because of the tight 50-foot (15 m) radius of the loops and the steep 6% incline. The roadbed and the rail were determined to be usable for subway service, but even so, the duct banks in the tunnel were replaced. The platforms could be easily extended, and it was also found that the tunnel's width corresponded to the width specifications of the existing IRT subway's car fleet. Work began in 1913, and the tubes were modified to accommodate IRT subway cars in 1914. The work included removing part of the tunnel walls on the Manhattan side and building a cavern to create a track crossover between the tubes. The first IRT Steinway test train between Grand Central and Vernon Avenue (today's Vernon Boulevard–Jackson Avenue station) ran June 13, 1915, with a regularly scheduled shuttle service beginning June 22. The planned metro route was to go from Times Square through the tunnel over to Long Island City and from there continue towards Flushing. The IRT was to operate this line, with the trackage east of Queensboro Plaza to be shared by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (later the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation, or BMT). Meanwhile, the construction work continued on the planned route. To the east of the tunnel, the Hunters Point Avenue subway station went up to the level of the Hunterspoint Avenue LIRR station. Immediately east of it was a ramp up to the elevated subway towards Queensboro Plaza. Hunters Point Avenue opened on February 15, 1916, and on November 5 of the same year, it was extended to Queensboro Plaza. Because the line did not have track connections to the rest of the IRT network, a provisional maintenance workshop was operated at the tunnel ramp until 1928. To the west, construction began in 1922. The tunnel was extended to Fifth Avenue on March 23, 1926, and Times Square on March 14, 1927. When Belmont modified the IRT Flushing Line to extend to Times Square and to Flushing, it was found that the loops could not be used for the extensions. The loops on the Queens side of the tunnel were obliterated in the wake of new construction. The loop on the Manhattan side, however, is intact and occupied by maintenance rooms, although the ceiling third rail still exists in the loop. The line from Times Square to Flushing was completed in 1928, when the station at Flushing opened. Since the tunnel ramps towards Queens were significantly steeper than normal IRT specifications, with a gradient of 4%, special rolling stock had to be procured for the Steinway Tunnel line. The "Steinway"-type subway car had the same dimensions as an ordinary subway cars of the IRT, but included modified gear boxes. Initially, twelve single-car consists were approved for the original shuttle. Because of additional construction to the route, another 126 cars were added to the fleet. The 50 "World's Fair"-type cars, used for the 1939 New York World's Fair, used the same type of gear boxes. With the 1948 introduction of four-motor subway cars of types R12 and R14, the need for a special drive was gone, as the Steinway Tunnel could now be driven by conventional railcars. In 1949, BMT services stopped operating on the Flushing Line east of Queensboro Plaza, and the IRT was assigned exclusive operation of the line. In subsequent years, the tubes of the Steinway Tunnel were difficult to maintain: they were prone to flooding, and the tube walls were much narrower than other tunnels in the subway system, with almost no clearance on each side of the train. After a train got stuck in the tunnel in 1971, a passenger died of a heart attack. A fire broke out on a train in the tunnel in 1973, killing one passenger and trapping over a thousand in the middle of the tunnel, after the collapse of an archway. In 1991, the tubes were flooded to 8 feet (2.4 m) after a water main broke on the Manhattan side. The next year, an electrical fire in the tunnel melted several feet of steel rail, although the tunnel's exhaust fans were working properly. After Hurricane Sandy-related storm surges flooded the tunnel in 2012, the tubes were rebuilt in a \$29 million project that took place between 2013 and April 2016. To protect the tunnel from future flooding, two retaining walls will be installed on either side of the tunnel portal in Queens, and flex gates would be installed to prevent water from entering the tunnel. The project is estimated to cost \$15 million, and work was scheduled to begin in May 2021.

Hei (Darker than Black)

Darker than Black character

Hei (Japanese: 黒(ヘイ), pinyin: Hēi, lit. Black), also known as Li Shenshun (李舜生(リ・シェンシュン), Ri Shenshun, pinyin: Lǐ Shùnshēng), is the protagonist of the 2007 anime Darker than Black by Bones. Codenamed "Hei", he is portrayed as a Contractor, a man with supernatural powers with Hei being able to generate electricity. In Tokyo, Hei works for an organization known as the Syndicate and earns the nickname "Black Reaper" (黒の死神, Kuro no Shinigami) due to his skills as an assassin. During the series, Hei's backstory of his mission involving his missing sister is developed. Hei also appears in the sequel Darker than Black: Gemini of the Meteor as the mentor of young Contractor Suo Pavlichenko while searching for his partner, Yin. He is also present in the inter-sequel original video animations Darker than Black: Gaiden, which explores his escape from the Syndicate with Yin between the events of both anime. Hei's character was created by anime director Tensai Okamura, who cited espionage, ninja, and dual-personality influences in contrasting his daily life with his gruesome work. Yuji Iwahara faced multiple difficulties in making his design appealing, while Okamura was surprised by Hei's popularity in the series with male and female viewers. In the anime version, Hei is voiced by Hidenobu Kiuchi in Japanese and Jason Liebrecht in English. The character appeared in a number of popularity polls about anime characters, and was considered one of the best male characters from Japan during the 2000s. Critical response was mainly positive, noting his dual personality; Hei was initially seen as mysterious at the beginning of the first series but quickly developed into more a caring character. His role in the OVAs and his initial relationship with Yin were praised, but his darker portrayal Gemini of Meteor and his poor relationship with Suo had a mixed response. ## Creation Director Tensai Okamura created Hei. Okamura cited a number of influence for its creation, including the concept of a ninja-type spy working for Tokyo which he saw when he was young. He wanted Hei to appear as a nice, unaffected young man of good character. As the character is portrayed as an assassin who often does not want to kill targets, Okamura wanted the viewers to judge Hei themselves. Okamura wanted Codename BK201 as the series' title, but the anime staff found it too weak and Darker Than Black was chosen by a member of MBS TV. Hei's codename was originally 201-BL as 201 was Okamura's apartment number. As Hei's state of mind remains unknown in early episodes of the series, Okamura said that the lyrics of the anime's theme song,"Howling" by Abingdon Boys School, give multiple hints about how the character thinks. First-anime writer Kurasumi Sunayama said that Hei is humorous as he pretends to be a Chinese student. Episode twelve raises the possibility that Hei is not a real Contractor because of his sensitivity. Yuuichi Nomura, known for writing tragic storylines, wrote the episodes about Hei's issues with his former Amber who holds romantic feelings for him. Nomura focused on the fact that the two would never be together, and Amber dies in the finale. Main writer Shōtarō Suga wrote the episodes in which Hei befriends a spy who steals an item from the Pandora organization that oversees the supernatural Gates that created the power of Contractors. Hei's friendship with the spy results into a character arc which concludes in the finale; when he has a vision in the Gate of being helped by the dead spy. Hei eventually betrays the Syndicate to protect humans and Contractors as a result after being motivated by the late people he has a vision of. During Gemini of the Meteor, Okamura considered Hei a "rough, working guy", and Suo Pavlichenko took over the lead role to make Darker than Black more innovative. During Gemini of the Meteor, the second anime, Kiuchi said that he found Hei a far darker character for some reason. The actor said that Hei is notably strict with younger lead Suo Pavlichenko, and he wished that Hei would show a more caring side to the teenager. Although there were only two years between both Darker than Black series, the actor found voicing Hei challenging because of the change in his personality. Instead of a happy ending, however, the original video animations and the sequel Gemini of the Meteor strike a noir note based on Gee's comments. Hei cannot enjoy life in the sequels, leading him to begin a new journey in which he aids the young Suo in the process. Okamura wanted the original video animations (OVA)s plots to center on Hei and Yin's relationship after the first anime, leading to Gemini of the Meteor. About Hei's history with Yin, the writer for Gaiden said that he found it depressing that Hei said in Gemini of the Meteor that he was going to kill Yin. Yasushi Ishii wrote "Darker than Black", a song centered around Hei, for the OVAs. According to Ishii, the character is a man who fights to achieve salvation in a world without salvation – a man in a world of struggle, mercy, and overcoming oneself. Despite Hei's powers, Ishii wanted to highlight the character's essential loneliness. ### Design According to designer Yuji Iwahara, Hei was the hardest character to draw; Iwahara struggled to achieve a subtle balance when designing him. Hei's black eyes were originally smaller, conveying a colder impression, but they became more expressive. Hei's civilian persona, Li, was originally a gentle-looking person. Because of Hei's cold and sometimes-blank appearance, the staff decided to draw his eyes without highlights still relatively unusual in anime. Okamura told Iwahara not to make Hei a bishōnen archetype, because he did not want the character to appear androgynous. Iwahara remembered changing the size of Hei's eyes. Hei's design was altered in the sequel Darker than Black: Gemini of the Meteor, giving him longer hair and facial hair. Although Okamura liked the new design, it was unpopular with the female staff members. By the ninth episode, it was decided to change Hei's design again under; animator Hitomi Nadashima drew the scene of Hei changing his look. Fuji of Aniplex wanted the fans to look forward to the OVA's fight scenes, particularly Hei's. Since the first episode involves the two pretending to be newlyweds, the staff wanted fans to see through the charade while making both of their physical looks more appealing. When Yin's alter ego, Izanami, takes the form of Yin and becomes infatuated with Hei, the animation staff made the scene erotic. The fourth episode gives a glimpse of the character's weakness, however, and a tragic fate for Yin as Hei is pushed with the idea of killing her but he refuses. Iwahara was instructed to draw both characters in a sexually-appealing way. ### Casting Hei is voiced in Japanese by Hidenobu Kiuchi. Kiuchi said that Hei is a professional killer who carries out missions as a Contractor as ordered by the Syndicate and assumes the identity of Li Shun Sheng, a Chinese university student who lives in a nondescript apartment. He said that while Li is a warm person, Hei has an emotionless, cold facade, giving the character two personalities thus making him a mystery to him when he began recording the anime. He faced a number of dilemmas when voicing the character, such as whether he should express more emotion as a Contractor. In retrospect, Kiuchi called Hei one of his favorite characters. In the English dub of the series, Hei is voiced by Jason Liebrecht. He said that director Zach Bolton cast everyone to sound as natural as possible. When asked if Hei was a protagonist or an antagonist, Liebrecht said that the character is conflicted; Hei is a "hitman with a conscience". The actor called Darker than Black and Crayon Shin-chan his favorite voice-dubbing experiences, and was glad that Hei's voice was close to his own and he did not have to make eating noises. Anime News Network called Liebrecht's voicing of Hei "a schizophrenic variation" of Syaoran from Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle. ## Appearances ### Darker than Black In the anime Darker than Black, Hei is first shown as an assassin who moves to Tokyo while taking a new persona. As a civilian he is Li Shenshun, a good-natured Chinese exchange student who lives in an old apartment complex for foreigners and gets by with temporary part-time jobs. Hei is said to be a Contractor, a man with supernatural powers with Hei's ability being to generate electricity in deadly concentrations. Li's part-time jobs are related to Hei's current mission as a member of a secret organization known as the Syndicate. Despite the Contractors' fame for being coldhearted, Hei also demonstrates compassion and sorrow, much to the surprise of others. He is aided by Yin, an emotionless human known as a Doll, and Mao, a contractor trapped in a cat's body and overseen by the agent Huang. Hei began working with the Syndicate as a child assassin to protect his sister Bai in South America during the Heaven's Gate war, and his goal is to find her again. Hei is linked with Amber, a former Syndicate agent who leads the Evening Primrose Contractor group and whom Hei blames for Bai's disappearance. During the climax, Hei is persuaded by his allies to work individually and focus on Amber rather than fight her. Hei learns that his abilities are inherited from Bai, who can manipulate molecules at the quantum level. Due to her molecular control, Bai resides in Hei's body. Although he has Contractor abilities, Hei is not a true Contractor because he can express a range of emotions. When the Syndicate reveals a weapon to cause genocide within Contractors, Hei must make a decisive choice. Hei's decision stops the Syndicate from eliminating the Contractors with Amber's help. Following Amber's death, Hei escapes with Yin from Tokyo. ### Darker than Black: Gemini of the Meteor In Darker than Black: Gemini of the Meteor, Hei is in Vladivostok seeking a meteor fragment from young Contractor Shion Pavlichenko. Hei mistakes Shion for Shion's twin sister Suo during his attack. Hei overpowers attacking Contractors from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications' Section 3. Before he finishes off one of them, however, their trap causes Hei to lose his powers. Hei begins taking care of now Contractor Suo and the Doll July as they return to Tokyo from Russia, telling Mao he did it because Suo reminds him of his past self. Although Hei is a strict mentor to Suo, the two manage to get along with Suo convincing him to drop his alcohol abuse if he wants her to train. Underworld member Madame Oreille tells Hei that she found the missing Yin, whom Hei says he must kill. Yin had developed a god-like alter ego, Izanami, and they were split during her brief awakening. In Tokyo, Hei learns from Section 3 of Yin's location as they need him to kill Izanami. As Yin awakens, Hei comforts the dying Suo and confronts Yin with his restored powers. He is later seen leaving the area holding Yin's body. Although Yin's fate is unknown, director Tensai Okamura suggested that it might evoke a tragic ending. ### Darker than Black: Gaiden The Darker than Black Gaiden OVAs explore Hei's journeys with Yin between the two series. While escaping from Okinawa, they pretend to be honeymooners and are attacked by Syndicate's Contractors. In the second episode, Hei and Yin go to Hong Kong where Hei keeps noticing Yin's alter ego, Izanami, suggests faking her kidnapping. The Contractors are defeated by Hei after Izanami kills a woman who attacks him. Amagiri from Evening Primrose rescues them and tells Hei how dangerous Yin's alter ego is. Xin-Qi tricks Evening Primrose into attacking Hei while he assumes Amagiri's appearance and escapes with Yin. After taking down Evening Primose, Hei joins a group of Contractors to find Yin. Yin tries to make Hei kill her; he refuses, and they are separated after an explosion. Depressed by Yin's apparent death, Hei remains in a restaurant driking alcohol his hair growing up in the past time. However, Hei learns from his informant that Yin is alive; this leads to the events of Gemini of the Meteor. ### Other appearances Hei appears in the two manga versions of Darker than Black. The first has a number of changes from the anime, since Hei is replaced by Kana Shino as the main character. Kana witnesses a fight between two Contractors. Her memory of the encounter is erased, but it soon returns and she teams up with Hei, one of the combatants. They search for answers about her father's deceit and the organization with which he has become associated. Hei and Yin also appear in the manga Shikkoku No Hana, set after the first anime, in which they investigate how a Black Dandelion is giving people Contractor power in accordance with Amber's last wish. Harvest, a former ally of Amber, developed Contractor powers with a Black Dandelion provided by the organization Pandora while trying to prove his superiority over Hei. Hei and Yin encounter a number of allies and enemies, and Hei confronts Contractors who share his powers. With Yin's support, he manipulates his powers to defeat Harvest. Hei and Yin go rogue again in the finale. In addition to the regular story, the fanbook includes two alternative stories. Hei battles agent November 11 while getting a bath in one, and in the other he has a meal with Mikihara, Yin and Suo. The character also appears in the role-playing game Heroes Phantasia. ## Reception ### Popularity Hei has been a popular character in Japan, and he placed seventh in Animage's 2010 Anime Grand Prix Best Male Character category. Meanwhile, in Newtype polls, Hei was ranked the sixth-best male character in 2007 and the 10th-most-popular male anime character in the 2000s. According to a Fandom Post retrospective, Hei and his voice actors were popular with male and female viewers of the series; the character was nicknamed the "Chinese electric Batman". In 2008, the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation ranked Hei the second-best male anime character behind Alucard in Hellsing. Screen Rant came to call Hei Darker than Black's best character during a rating. Furthermore, in a Poo poll, he was ranked the 20th best antihero in anime. ### Critical response Critical response to Hei was initially confused about his true nature, with critics uncertain of whether he was fundamentally caring or heartless. Hei's humanity despite his job was generally well-received, however. Hei is seen in the anime's action scenes, and his apparent romantic relationship with Amber helps to illuminate his past. Hei's character development in the series' final episodes was praised, as he interacts with Yin and Amber while ending his journey to learn the truth about his sister's fate. Hei's character is a balance between human and Contractor. Originally considered a cold-hearted Contractor, the revelation that Hei is a human with supernatural powers inherited from his sister makes him a "third option" in the narrative. Maxibe Gee of the University of York called the character a "posthuman noir" protagonist similar to Rick Deckard in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, Motoko Kusanagi in Ghost in the Shell and Vincent Freeman in Gattaca (1997) due to their shared backgrounds and cruelty. Gee noted the similarities in how their actions demonstrate moral ambiguity and personal desires. In Hei's case, Gee focused on his relationship with the humans known as dolls: "identities which are formed by encompassing others, embracing the team of both humans and posthumans". Hei and Yin, strangers in a strange land, are similar to foreigners. Hei's morality is more varied than the Dolls or the other Contractors. His character, a noir protagonist, is betrayed in the second episode by a femme fatale who is a Doll rather than a human woman who is attracted to him. Hei's characterization and growth are compared with Jerold J. Abrams' commentary on the handling of noir; Hei "is defined by the journey he takes to understand his dual human/posthuman nature and his inability to come to terms with what he is." According to Gee, Hei's dual personality, the ruthless assassin and the shy Li, is distinguished by his clothing; Hei is masked and wears a black coat, and Li is often dressed in white. The character's "persona fits into traditional hardboiled rational masculine tropes while the Li persona is characterized by the more stereotypically feminine attributes of empathy and intuition". He stated that Although Hei is a dark character, his humanity is revealed by his interactions with others such as Yin. Yin's humanity in the first series' finale when Hei nearly disappears into Heaven's Gate saves Hei's life and cements their bond. Instead of a happy ending, however, the original video animations and the sequel Gemini of the Meteor strike a noir note. Hei's Pierrot mask is considered a defense mechanism compared with the darker personas of famous characters such as Himura Kenshin or Vash the Stampede. According to Ain't It Cool News, "The mask identity is often a fun engine to exciting escapades. If the reason for adopting the mask is credible, the true personality gives the character depth." During the series, Hei wears and removes the mask to show different sides of his personality. Neither is his true persona; Hei's personality is a mixture of both sides, with Li providing comic relief. Okamura was surprised by Hei's popularity, and did not want him to be an archetypical mature and stylish ikemen character; although there was concern during production about Hei's suitability as the protagonist of an action anime, the character attracted female fans. Japanese voice actress Nana Mizuki acknowledged Hei's popularity with the female audience due to his calm demeanor and the gentleness of his Li persona. Mizuki said that the real Hei might seem cold-hearted compared with the friendly Li. Misato Fukuen, who voices Yin, expressed a preference for Li's personality; she could fall in love with a person like Hei, however, whose nastiness was tempered by kindness. In the sequel, Gemini of Meteor, Hei surprised reviewers with his darker portrayal. Hei mentors Suo, the new lead, and The Fandom Post's Josh Begley found the teenager more interesting. The relationship between Hei and Suo was upsetting due to Hei's attacks on Suo's family, but Hei's role as an action hero did not change. A Comic Book Bin reviewer compared their relationship to Léon (Jean Reno) and Mathilda Lando (Natalie Portman), the leads in the 1994 film Léon: The Professional, due to the bond they form while training. An Anime News Network retrospective said that Bones "took a risk" in its portrayal of Hei as an alcoholic during Gemini of the Meteor, and the character's unexplored fate resembled the anime Cowboy Bebop; neither series ended their protagonists. Critics noted that the OVAs had a "deeper" narrative focused on Hei and Yin (appealing primarily to returning fans) and exploring Hei's downfall, which explained his dark personality in Gemini of the Meteor. My Reviewer called the action sequences "jaw-droppingly intense" enough to make the audience re-watch it. UK Anime Network praised Hei's and Yin's journey; the reviewer said the narrative develops Hei further than both television series while adding more world-building and well-done animation. Hei's characterization in Fujiwara's Shikkoku no Hana manga series was praised by Manga News and Manga Sanctuary for its complexity. His role in the finale against Harvest was also praised. The Hei portrayed in the other manga spin-off by Nokiya, however, was criticized by MangaLife as flat. Meanwhile, Comic Book Resources found Hei and Mao as one of the few interesting characters portrayed in Nokiya's manga in contrast to the manga exclusive ones.

Black Country Communion

American rock band

Black Country Communion is an English-American hard rock band based in Los Angeles, California. Formed in 2009, the band is a supergroup composed of bassist and lead vocalist Glenn Hughes, guitarist and second vocalist Joe Bonamassa, drummer Jason Bonham, and keyboardist Derek Sherinian. Hughes and Bonamassa started the side project in November 2009 after an impromptu performance together. From the advice of their producer, Kevin Shirley, they recruited Bonham and Sherinian to finalize the band's lineup. The name Black Country Communion is derived from the term Black Country, which refers to an area of the West Midlands of England where Hughes and Bonham grew up. The group's sound is intentionally reminiscent of popular classic rock groups of the 1970s, reflecting the previous work of frontman Hughes (in bands such as Trapeze and Deep Purple) as well as the link between Bonham and his father John's band Led Zeppelin. After playing together for a while, the group released its self-titled debut album in 2010. Black Country Communion 2 followed the next year, which was promoted on the group's first concert tour of the US and Europe. The band released its third album Afterglow in 2012. Early the next year, Bonamassa left and Black Country Communion subsequently broke up, with Hughes and Bonham forming California Breed shortly thereafter. In 2016, Hughes and Bonamassa reconciled and the band returned, with BCCIV released the following year. In 2023, the group is set to return with its fifth album, as-yet untitled. ## History ### 2009–10: Formation and debut album Glenn Hughes and Joe Bonamassa first met at the 2006 NAMM Show in Anaheim, California, after which they jammed together at Hughes' studio in Hollywood with the idea to make music together in the future. Bonamassa also worked with Jason Bonham that year, when the drummer performed on the guitarist's fifth studio album You & Me on the recommendation of producer and mutual friend Kevin Shirley. Hughes and Bonamassa reunited three years later in November 2009, performing together at the House of Blues in Los Angeles for Guitar Center. It was at this point that the two decided to form a new band. The idea of enlisting Bonham and keyboardist Derek Sherinian to complete the band's lineup was suggested by Shirley, after a second guitarist was briefly considered instead of a keyboardist. The completed quartet first performed together during the encore at one of Bonamassa's solo shows in Riverside, California on March 17, 2010, playing "One Last Soul" and a cover version of the Deep Purple song "Mistreated". The name Black Country Communion was not finalised until May 2010, after the threat of legal action from another band prevented the group from using the name Black Country. Hughes later revealed that the band in question, from Baltimore, Maryland, reportedly demanded \$500,000 for the right to use the name Black Country, a move which he quickly condemned as "just rude". The bassist later elaborated on the situation in a 2016 interview, explaining that his group had successfully bought the name Black Country from the Baltimore-based band (for less than the initially touted \$500,000), although by the time the case was settled it was too late to use the name and they instead had to continue using the longer moniker Black Country Communion. The band recorded its debut album at Los Angeles' Shangri-La Studios in early 2010, scheduling a September release through Mascot Records in Europe and Bonamassa's label J&R Adventures in North America. Hughes described the album as "a big British rock statement", comparing the band's sound to that of his previous groups Deep Purple and Black Sabbath, as well as Led Zeppelin. "One Last Soul" was the first song to be released, receiving its worldwide debut on British digital radio station Planet Rock on August 2, 2010. The track was later released as a free digital download on the band's official website. Shortly before the album's release, Planet Rock also broadcast an hour-long documentary featuring exclusive interviews with the band and a selection of tracks from the album. Black Country Communion was officially released in Europe on September 20, 2010, and in North America a day later. On the night of its European release, the band played its first official show at the John Henry Rehearsal Studios in London, in front of a limited crowd of "around 75–100 people". The performance was broadcast on Planet Rock that night, and again later on September 24. The album was a commercial success in the UK, reaching number 13 on the UK Albums Chart and topping the UK Rock Albums Chart, while in the US it peaked at number 54 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. It also received mainly positive reviews from music critics, including four-star reviews from AllMusic reviewer Eduardo Rivadavia and Mojo writer Paul Elliott. The band did not tour in promotion of the album, playing just two shows in the UK at the Wolverhampton Civic Hall and London's Shepherd's Bush Empire. At the end of the year, Black Country Communion won the Planet Rock awards for Band of the Year and Best New Band. ### 2010–12: Second album and touring Talk of a second album began to circulate as early as October 2010, just a month after the release of Black Country Communion, when Bonham estimated that the band would start recording again in January 2011. By December, Hughes had already written nine tracks for the album, which he suggested would serve as a direct sequel to the first album. The album was scheduled for release in June 2011, with the band set to embark on a promotional tour to coincide with its release. "The Outsider" was released as a free digital download on the band's website in May, followed by a music video for "Man in the Middle" the next month. The album was released on June 13, 2011 in Europe and the following day in North America, selling over 8,000 copies in its first week in the US (compared to the 7,100 units of Black Country Communion) but only debuting on the Billboard 200 chart at number 71. The album was also less successful on the UK Albums Chart, peaking at number 23 (ten places lower than its predecessor). In promotion of Black Country Communion 2, the band completed a short tour of Europe between June and July supported by the Michael Schenker Group. The group also performed in the US for the first time on the Black Country Communion 2 cycle, playing a total of seven shows in six states between June 10 and 19, 2011. The band's first live video album, Live Over Europe, recorded during the summer tour of Europe, was released in October 2011 and screened in a select number of Vue Cinemas across the UK and Ireland the next month. At the end of the year, the group won the Classic Rock award for Breakthrough Act of the Year. ### 2012–13: Afterglow and disbandment The band returned to the studio in June 2012 to record the follow-up to Black Country Communion 2. Discussing the direction of the group's third album, Hughes explained that it serves as "a continuation of the first and second albums", while also containing "darker [material]" and "moments of drama". The first track released from the album was "Confessor", which was made available as a free download on the band's official website from September 19, 2012. Afterglow was released the next month, reaching number 29 in the UK and number 48 in the US. Black Country Communion scheduled a one-off show at the Wolverhampton Civic Hall on January 5, 2013, with a video release of the concert planned for later in the year. However, it was later announced that the concert had been cancelled due to "unforeseen circumstances". The band's producer Kevin Shirley offered an apology to fans the next day, suggesting that the show would be rescheduled at a later date. Speaking in August 2012, Hughes doubted the long-term future of the band by suggesting that Afterglow "just may be [the band's last album]", blaming the band's lack of regular touring (due in part to Joe Bonamassa's busy solo touring schedule) as a hindrance to the group's continued success. He later clarified his comments by stating that they "were fuelled from frustration and aimed at motivating other members of the group to commit to a proper touring schedule", adding that if the band was unable to tour regularly then he would seek another band which could. Later, both Bonamassa and Hughes both mentioned that they were "ready to move on" from Black Country Communion. Bonamassa eventually responded to rumors that he was to leave Black Country Communion, condemning Hughes' "bullying" of the guitarist to complete the planned 2013 show despite knowing that he was not able to, as well as the way in which he publicly revealed the tensions in the band and his claim of being the sole songwriter on Afterglow. Bonham also revealed his frustration with the situation, while Bonamassa's manager and business partner Roy Weisman admitted that it was his decision to cancel the Wolverhampton gig, based on Hughes's actions. On March 13, 2013, Bonamassa announced that he was "happily not involved any more" with Black Country Communion. Ten days later, Hughes confirmed that the band was over, revealing that Bonamassa would not allow the remaining members to continue with the Black Country Communion name. Speaking about the future, he hinted that "Jason, Derek and I will continue with a different name when the time is right". In August 2013, Sherinian joined Bonamassa's solo band as a full-time member, and in February 2014, Hughes and Bonham unveiled a new band with guitarist Andrew Watt named California Breed. ### 2016–present: Reformation, fourth and upcoming fifth studio album In April 2016, it was announced that Black Country Communion would be reuniting in 2017 to record a fourth album. Speaking about the supergroup's comeback, Bonham explained that the reunion was initially suggested by Bonamassa, who reached out to the other band members with the proposal. Hughes and Bonamassa started writing new music for the forthcoming album in September, with recording beginning the following January. The album, entitled BCCIV, was released on September 22, 2017, and was promoted at two UK shows in January 2018. BCCIV was the band's first release to reach the top ten of the UK Albums Chart. After the band's members returned to their respective solo careers, Bonham suggested in 2018 that Black Country Communion would be potentially returning to the studio the following January to start work on a new album. However, Hughes later estimated that the band would likely not have time to work on new music until 2020. This schedule was subsequently pushed back another year, when the bassist explained that "Joe [Bonamassa] and I have been talking ... for nine months now about album number five. At the moment ... we're looking at January 2021 to record." Subsequently, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, this schedule was pushed for another year with possible work for new studio album not commencing until late 2021 with new studio album coming in 2022 at earliest, as iterated by Bonamassa, who also said that they still exist as a band: "We had on the books, we were gonna attempt a record in January 2021, but the timeline got pushed back. So it'll probably be a year from there — at the end of 2021. But, yeah, we're still a band, and we still all text each other and talk and stuff like that." Bonamassa later stated that he and Hughes would start writing in October 2022, with the hope of recording the band's fifth album in 2023. BCC announced its first live shows in six years in March 2023, with the band set to perform on the Keeping the Blues Alive at Sea cruise a year later. ## Style and songwriting As a supergroup, Black Country Communion's style is often described as a mix of various different sounds and influences. Particular significance is attributed to the band's mix of blues rock (attributed primarily to Bonamassa's work within the genre) and hard rock (originating from Hughes' previous work with Deep Purple and Black Sabbath and from Bonham's tie with Led Zeppelin via his father John), with some critics going as far as to claim that the group's sound is based on "the vintage Deep Purple template". In reviews for the band's second album, a number of critics compared the sound of the group to that of Led Zeppelin – Eduardo Rivadavia of website AllMusic noted that the album "sounds like the baby of drummer Jason Bonham", while Paul Cole of the Sunday Mercury claimed that it is "haunted by the spirit of Zeppelin". Hughes has dubbed the group "a rock and roll band in the true sense of the word". Traditionally, the lyrical processes for Black Country Communion's albums have been led by Hughes, with Bonamassa only occasionally providing lyrical input. The majority of the music on Black Country Communion was composed by Hughes and Bonamassa, with Sherinian increasing his composition presence for the second album. Noting the extensive touring commitments of Bonamassa, Hughes has claimed that he was "left as the keeper of the keys to write [the band's] albums", noting that for each record – which have been continuations of their predecessors – he has had more and more time to write material (six weeks for Black Country Communion, four months for Black Country Communion 2, six months for Afterglow). Bonham has described the band's writing style as "spur of the moment". ## Band members - Glenn Hughes – bass, lead and backing vocals - Joe Bonamassa – guitar, backing and lead vocals - Jason Bonham – drums, percussion, occasional backing vocals - Derek Sherinian – keyboards ## Discography - Black Country Communion (2010) - Black Country Communion 2 (2011) - Afterglow (2012) - BCCIV (2017)

Lê Duẩn

LÊ VĂN DINH Former General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam (<१९९२०७१०>)

Lê Duẩn (; 7 April 1907 – 10 July 1986) was a Vietnamese communist politician. He rose in the party hierarchy in the late 1950s and became General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam (VCP) at the 3rd National Congress in 1960. He continued Hồ Chí Minh's policy of ruling through collective leadership. From the mid-1960s (when Hồ's health was failing) until his own death in 1986, he was the top decision-maker in Vietnam. He was born into a lower-class family in Quảng Trị Province, in the Annam Protectorate of French Indochina as Lê Văn Nhuận. Little is known about his family and childhood. He first came in contact with revolutionary thoughts in the 1920s through his work as a railway clerk. Lê Duẩn was a founding member of the Indochina Communist Party (the future Communist Party of Vietnam) in 1930. He was imprisoned in 1931 and released in 1937. From 1937 to 1939, he climbed the party ladder. He was rearrested in 1939, this time for fomenting an uprising in the South. Lê Duẩn was released from jail following the successful Communist-led August Revolution of August 1945. During the First Indochina War (1946-1954), Lê Duẩn was an active revolutionary leader in South Vietnam. He headed the Central Office of South Vietnam, a Party organ, from 1951 until 1954. During the 1950s Lê Duẩn became increasingly aggressive towards South Vietnam and called for reunification through war. By the mid-to-late 1950s Lê Duẩn had become the second-most powerful policy-maker within the Party, eclipsing former party First Secretary Trường Chinh. By 1960 he was officially the second-most powerful Party member, after Party chairman Hồ. Throughout the 1960s Hồ's health declined and Lê Duẩn assumed more of his responsibilities. On 2 September 1969 Hồ died and Lê Duẩn became the most powerful figure in the North. He became the General Secretary in 1960, officially becoming the main personality in the party after Hồ Chí Minh. After Hồ's death, Lê Duẩn took over the leadership of North Vietnam. Throughout the Vietnam War of 1955 to 1975, Lê Duẩn took an aggressive posture, seeing attack as the key to victory. When South Vietnam was reunited with North Vietnam in 1976 and the party was restructured, Lê Duẩn became General Secretary of the Party. Lê Duẩn and his associates were overly optimistic about the future. The Second Five-Year Plan (1976–1980) failed and left the Vietnamese economy in crisis. He endorsed the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia of December 1978, aiming to overthrow the Chinese-backed Khmer Rouge regime. This had a serious impact on relations between Vietnam and China, with Vietnam responding with the deportation of ethnic Chinese and China carrying out a heavy-loss punitive expedition against Vietnam in 1979. From then on, Vietnam maintained a closer alliance with the Soviet Union and joined Comecon in 1978. Lê remained General Secretary until his death in 1986. He died in Hanoi; his successor was initially Trường Chinh. Lê Duẩn was also known as Lê Dung, and was known in public as "anh Ba" (third brother). ## Early life and career Lê Duẩn was born as Lê Văn Nhuận in Bich La village, Triệu Đông, Triệu Phong, Quảng Trị Province on 7 April 1907 (although some sources cite 1908) to a poor family with 5 children. Locals from his generation say that Duan's parents were metal scrap collectors and blacksmiths. The son of a railway clerk, he became active in revolutionary politics as a young man. He received a French colonial education before working as a clerk for the Vietnam Railway Company in Hanoi during the 1920s. Through his job, he came into contact with several communist activists. In this period, he educated himself to a Marxist. Lê Duẩn became a member of the Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth League in 1928. He cofounded the Indochina Communist Party in 1930. Lê Duẩn was imprisoned the next year. He was released six years later, in 1937. From 1937 to 1939 he advanced in the party hierarchy and at the 2nd National Congress, he joined its Central Committee. He was imprisoned again the following year for fomenting an uprising. After five years he was released, shortly after the 1945 August Revolution, in which the Indochinese Communist Party took power. Following his release, he became a trusted associate of Hồ Chí Minh, the lead figure of the party. During the First Indochina War Lê Duẩn served as the Secretary of the Regional Committee of South Vietnam, at first in Cochinchina in 1946, but was reassigned to head the Central Office of South Vietnam from 1951 until 1954. The Viet Minh's position in the South became increasingly tenuous by the early to mid-1950s and in 1953 Lê Duẩn was replaced by his deputy Lê Đức Thọ and moved to North Vietnam. ### The "Road to the South" In the aftermath of the 1954 Geneva Accords, which indirectly split Vietnam into North and South, Lê Duẩn was responsible for reorganising the combatants who had fought in South and Central Vietnam. In 1956, he wrote The Road to the South, calling for revolution to achieve reunification. His thesis became the blueprint for action at the 11th Central Committee Plenum in 1956. Although "The Road to the South" was formally accepted, its implementation waited until 1959. In 1956 Lê Duẩn was appointed to the secretariat of the party. He was ordered by the Politburo in August 1956 to guide the revolutionary struggle in South Vietnam. The same month he traveled from U Minh to Bến Tre and instructed the southern communists to stop fighting in the name of religious sects. Throughout the year, the party had been split by factional rivalry between party boss Trường Chinh and President Hồ, who was supported by Võ Nguyên Giáp. This rivalry focused on the issue of land reform in the North. Lê Duẩn remained neutral, allowing him to act as the First Secretary (head of the Communist Party) on Hồ's behalf in late 1956. In 1957, he was given a seat in the Politburo. At the 1957 May Day parade, Trường Chinh was still seated as the country's second most powerful figure. Lê Duẩn was gradually able to place his supporters, notably Lê Ðức Thọ, in top positions and outmaneuver his rivals. He visited Moscow in November 1957 and received approval for his war plans. In December 1957, Hồ told the 13th Plenary Session of a "dual revolution"; Trường Chinh became responsible for the socialist transformation of the north, while Lê Duẩn focused on planning the offensive in the south. By 1958, Lê Duẩn ranked second only to Hồ in the party hierarchy, although Trường Chinh remained powerful. Lê Duẩn was a party man and never held a post in the government. He made a brief, secret visit to South Vietnam in 1958, writing a report, The Path to Revolution in the South, in which he stated that the North Vietnamese had to do more to assist the southern fighters. The Central Committee decided to initiate the revolution in January 1959. ### First Secretary Lê Duẩn was informally chosen as the First Secretary of the party by Hồ in 1959, at the January plenum of the Central Committee and was elected to the post de jure at the 3rd National Congress. According to Bùi Tín he was not Hồ's original choice for the post; his preferred candidate was Võ Nguyên Giáp, but since Lê Duẩn was supported by the influential Lê Đức Thọ, the Head of the Party Organisational Department, Lê Duẩn was picked for the post. He was considered a safe choice because of his time in prison during the French rule, his thesis The Road to the South and his strong belief in Vietnamese reunification. Hoàng Văn Hoan claimed, after being sent into exile, that the Congress also purged several party members. Indeed, three former ambassadors lost their Central Committee seats. ## General Secretary leadership ### Political infighting and power Lê Duẩn was officially named First Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam in 1960, thereby succeeding Hồ as the party's de facto leader even though the latter remained its chairman. However, Hồ continued to influence North Vietnam's governance: Lê Duẩn, Tố Hữu, Trường Chinh and Phạm Văn Đồng (all of whom were influential figures in the country's politics during and after the war) often shared dinner with him. In 1963, Hồ purportedly corresponded with South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm in the hope of achieving a negotiated peace. Together with Lê Đức Thọ, Head of the Party Organisational Department and Nguyễn Chí Thanh, a military general, Lê Duẩn tried to monopolise the decision-making process – this became even more evident following Hồ's death. In 1964, Hồ's health began to fail and Lê Duẩn, as his trusted underling, more visibly took on day-to-day decision-making responsibilities. Some analysts claim that by 1965 Hồ and Lê Duẩn had split and that "for all intents and purposes" Lê Duẩn had sidelined Hồ. Lê Duẩn, Lê Đức Thọ and Phạm Hùng "progressively tried to neutralise Hồ Chí Minh" and Phạm Văn Đồng. By the late-1960s, Hồ's declining health had weakened his position within the leadership. While Hồ was still consulted on important decisions, Lê Duẩn dominated the Party. When Hồ died on 2 September 1969, the collective leadership he had espoused continued, but Lê Duẩn was first among equals. The Central Committee's first resolution following Hồ's death pledged to uphold the collective leadership. Lê Duẩn chaired Hồ's funeral committee and gave the event's final speech. From the beginning the party leadership had split into pro-Soviet, pro-Chinese and moderate factions. Under Hồ the party had followed a policy of neutrality between the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China in the aftermath of the Sino–Soviet split. This policy continued until reunification. In the aftermath of the war, a power struggle began between Lê Duẩn's pro-Soviet and its rival pro-Chinese factions. Former rivals Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ formed a coalition and purged the pro-Chinese faction. Their first victims were Hoàng Văn Hoan and Chu Văn Tấn. While the Politburo made decisions through consensus, Lê Duẩn, through his post as General Secretary, was the most powerful figure and was able to increase his power via his alliance with Lê Đức Thọ, Trần Quốc Hoàn and Võ Nguyên Giáp. Together with Lê Đức Thọ, Lê Duẩn controlled personnel appointments in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the State Planning Commission, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the General Political Directorate of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), the General Logistics Department of the PAVN and the Ministry of Transport. To strengthen their hold on power, Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ established a patronage network. For instance Lê Đức Thọ's brother, Đinh Đức Thiện was appointed Minister of Communications and Transport; in April 1982 Đồng Sĩ Nguyên, a protégé of Lê Duẩn, became Minister of Transport. Mai Chí Thọ, friend of Lê Đức Thọ, was Chairman of the People's Committee of Hồ Chí Minh City (equivalent to a mayor) from 1978 to 1985. Several of Lê Duẩn's relatives were appointed to offices in the propaganda and culture sector. However, with the exception of Mai Chí Thọ none of these figures reached the pinnacles of power in Vietnamese politics. ### Vietnam War At the 3rd National Congress, Lê Duẩn called for the establishment of a South Vietnamese people's front. The Central Committee supported the proposal. A Central Committee resolution stated that "The common task of the Vietnamese revolution at present is to accelerate the socialist revolution in North Vietnam whilst at the same time stepping up the National People's Democratic Revolution in South Vietnam." On 20 December 1960, three months later, the Viet Cong was established. Lê Duẩn claimed that the Việt Cộng would "rally 'all patriotic forces' to overthrow the Diệm government [in the South] and thus ensure 'conditions for the peaceful reunification of the Fatherland'". After the Sino–Soviet split, the Vietnamese Communist leadership divided into pro-China and pro-Soviet factions. From 1956 to 1963, Lê Duẩn played a moderating role between the two factions, but with the death of Diệm and the Gulf of Tonkin incident, he became considerably more radical. The Chinese continued to support them throughout the war, with Liu Shaoqi, the President of the People's Republic, in 1965 stating, "it is our policy that we will do our best to support you." Unlike Hồ, who wanted a peaceful resolution, Lê Duẩn was far more militant. He wanted, in his own words, "final victory". Howard Jones claimed Duẩn dismissed Hồ's position, as did the majority of the Politburo, calling him "naive". When Hồ called for the establishment of a neutral South Vietnamese state in 1963, Lê Duẩn responded by making overtures to the Chinese, who rejected the Soviet position of peaceful coexistence. With the increased involvement of the United States military in 1965, the North's military strategy was forced to change. As Lê Duẩn noted in a letter to Nguyễn Chí Thanh, the war would become "fiercer and longer". He believed the fundamentals of the conflict had not changed; the South Vietnamese regime's unpopularity remained its "Achilles' heel" and he continued to advocate a combination of guerrilla warfare and PAVN offensives. The communist commanders in the South were to avoid large attacks on the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), but instead focus on many small attacks to demoralize the enemy. Lê Duẩn believed that the key to victory was for the PAVN to keep the initiative. He dismissed the possibility of an attack against North Vietnam by American forces, claiming that an attack on North Vietnam would be an attack on the entire socialist camp. In 1967, despite the opposition of some party leaders, Lê Duẩn and his militant group adopted General Nguyễn Chí Thanh's operational plan for the General Offensive/General Uprising involving attacks on ARVN and Republic of Vietnam Government installations throughout South Vietnam, which they believed would spark a spontaneous popular uprising among the South Vietnamese population forcing the US and its allies to depart. After having sidelined, and in some cases arrested, opponents of the plan, this would be adopted as the official strategy to win the war. The General Offensive/General Uprising would be launched during the Tết holiday in January/February 1968. The Tet Offensive would prove to be a military defeat, but a strategic success. Despite the failure of the offensive, the North Vietnamese launched a Phase II attack in May 1968 and a Phase III attack in August 1968, both of which were repulsed, with the PAVN and VC again suffering large casualties. After the failure of these attacks, COSVN issued Directive 55 on 5 April 1969 to all of its subordinate units: "Never again and under no circumstances are we going to risk our entire military force for just such an offensive. On the contrary, we should endeavor to preserve our military potential for future campaigns." By July 1974, following the cut-off of U.S aid to South Vietnam, the North Vietnamese leadership had decided to abrogate the Paris Peace Accords and to invade in 1975, instead of 1976 as previously planned, because they believed an earlier Vietnamese unification would put Vietnam in a stronger position against Chinese and Soviet influence. In his victory speech, Lê Duẩn stated: "Our party is the unique and single leader that organised, controlled and governed the entire struggle of the Vietnamese people from the first day of the revolution." In his speech he congratulated the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRGRSV), the underground South Vietnamese government established in 1969, for liberating South Vietnam from imperialism. PRGRSV-ruled South Vietnam did not last long, however, and in 1976 the reunified Socialist Republic of Vietnam was established. Lê Duẩn purged South Vietnamese who had fought against the North, imprisoning up to 300,000 people in re-education camps (not including "dissidents detained in the many prisons of Vietnam") and captured Hoa people's property (the Chinese who live in Vietnam), setting off a mass exodus and humanitarian disaster (see Vietnamese boat people). ### Economy Vietnam developed little during the war years; industry was nearly non-existent in both North and South and both countries were dependent on foreign donor countries. Worse, the country's critical agricultural infrastructure had been badly damaged. The South had roughly 20,000 bomb craters, 10 million refugees, 362,000 war invalids, 1,000,000 widows, 880,000 orphans, 250,000 drug addicts, 300,000 prostitutes and 3 million unemployed. Having won the war and defeated Republic of Vietnam, Lê Duẩn's mood in April 1975 was optimistic. As one Central Committee member put it, "Now nothing more can happen. The problems we face now are trifles compared to those in the past." Lê Duẩn promised the Vietnamese people in 1976 that each family would own a radio set, refrigerator and TV within ten years; he seemed to believe he could easily integrate the South Vietnamese consumer society with agrarian North Vietnam. In 1976 the 4th National Congress declared Vietnam would complete its socialist transformation within twenty years. This optimism proved unfounded; instead Vietnam staggered from one economic crisis to another. After the war, per-capita income stood at US\$101; it decreased to \$91 in 1980 and then increased to \$99 by 1982, according to United Nations figures. Phạm Văn Đồng admitted that per-capita income "had not increased compared to what it was ten years ago". Physical health declined and malnutrition increased under Lê Duẩn, according to the Ministry of Health. According to the International Herald Tribune, an estimated 6,000,000 Vietnamese were suffering from malnutrition, leading the government to request aid from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Lê Duẩn's policies and the war against Pol Pot (1976-1979) and China (1979) led to an abrupt decline in the standard of living; monthly per capita income in the North declined from \$82 in 1976 to \$58 in 1980. The main goals of the Second Five-Year Plan (1976–80), which was initiated at the 4th National Congress, were as follows; 1. "Concentrate the forces of the whole country to achieve a leap forward in agriculture; vigorously develop light industry". 2. "[T]urn to full account existing heavy industry capacity and build many new industrial installations, especially in the machine industry, so as to support primary agriculture and light industry". 3. "[V]irtually complete socialist transformation in the South". The Vietnamese leadership expected to reach these targets with economic aid from the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and loans from international agencies of the capitalist world. The 4th National Congress made it clear that agriculture would be socialised; however, during the Second Five-Year Plan the socialisation measures went so badly that Võ Chí Công, a Politburo member and Chairman of the Committee for the Socialist Transformation of Agriculture, claimed it would be impossible to meet the targets set by the plan by 1980. An estimated 10,000 out of 13,246 socialist cooperatives, established during the plan, had collapsed in the South by 1980. Politburo member Lê Thanh Nghị attacked lower-level cadres for the failure of the socialist agriculture transformation. The collectivisation process led to an abrupt drop in food production in 1977 and 1978, leading the 6th Plenum of the Central Committee to completely overhaul the Party's agricultural policies. With regard to heavy industry, the leadership's position was muddled. In his Fourth Political Report Lê Duẩn stated that during the transition to socialism, priority would be given to heavy industry "on the basis of developing agriculture and light industry". In another section of the report, Lê Duẩn stated that light industry would be prioritised ahead of heavy industry. The position of Phạm Văn Đồng, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (the head of government), was just as confused as Lê Duẩn's. In practice Lê Duẩn prioritised heavy industry: 21.4% of state investment was in heavy industry in the Second Five-Year Plan and 29.7 percent in the Third Five-Year Plan (1981–85). Light industry only received 10.5 and 11.5, respectively. From 1976 to 1978 industry grew, but from 1979 to 1980 industrial production fell substantially. During the Second Five-Year Plan industry grew just 0.1 percent. The 6th Plenum of the Central Committee criticised the policy that the state had to own everything. Before the 5th Central Committee Plenum, Lê Duẩn believed that Vietnam was in a perilous position, although no talk of reforms followed. Beginning in 1979, Lê Duẩn acknowledged that economic policy mistakes had been made by the national Party and State leadership. Until the 6th plenum, the planners prevailed. That plenum condemned the old ways and promised that from then on the economy would be governed by "objective laws". The roles of the plan and the market were openly discussed for the first time and the roles of the family and the private economy were enhanced and certain market prices were officially supported by the Party. Lê Duẩn endorsed the reforms at the 1982 5th National Congress. Lê Duẩn talked about the need to strengthen both the central planned economy and the local economy at once. In his report Lê Duẩn admitted that the Second Five-Year Plan had been a failure economically. At the beginning these changes had little practical effect, possibly due to opposition by the planners and confusion or fear among cadres. From 1981 to 1984 agricultural production grew substantially, but the government did not use this opportunity to increase production of such crucial farm inputs as fertilizer, pesticide and fuel, nor of consumer goods. By the end of Lê Duẩn's rule, in 1985–1986, inflation had reached over 100% annually, complicating economic policy-making. ### Foreign relations #### Relations with the Eastern Bloc Lê Duẩn visited the Soviet Union in October 1975. The result of the visit was an official communique, which stated that the Soviets would send qualified experts to the country to educate and train economic, scientific, technical and cultural personnel. The Soviet Union gave Vietnam economic assistance and supported several national economic projects on most favoured terms. The communique stated that cooperation was within the "frameworks of multilateral cooperation of socialist countries." Such a statement would normally have meant membership in COMECON, but Vietnam was not a member, wanting to establish its sovereignty. Phạm Văn Đồng snubbed the Soviet ambassador during the anniversary of the October Revolution and rejected key Soviet foreign policies. Despite continued pressure from the Soviets to join COMECON, Vietnam declined. Instead Vietnam joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, moves the Soviet Union opposed. Vietnam relented in 1978, seeking economic aid to fund the Second Five-Year Plan. In 1978 Lê Duẩn and Phạm Văn Đồng signed a 25-year Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Cooperation with the USSR. Under Soviet protection, Vietnam invaded Kampuchea. In reaction China invaded Vietnam. Vietnam leased several bases to the Soviet Union to protect its territory from China. It was rumored that one of China's demands for peace was the ending of Soviet assistance to Vietnam. In Asia Vietnam played a role similar to Cuba's in Latin America: it supported local revolutionary groups and was a headquarters for Soviet-style communism. Vietnam supported the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and received \$3 million a day in military aid. At the 5th National Congress, Lê Duẩn reaffirmed Vietnam's relations with the USSR. He stated, "Solidarity and co-operation with the USSR: such is the corner stone of the external policy of our Party and of our State." He further noted that their alliance was "a guarantee of the victory of the defense of the motherland and the socialist edification of our people." Soviet official Mikhail Gorbachev echoed Lê Duẩn's sentiments and said "Vietnam can count on the solidarity and the support of the USSR." Lê Duẩn's foreign policy was criticised by Hoàng Văn Hoan, who accused him of sacrificing the country's sovereignty. A delegation led by Vitaly Vorotnikov, visited Vietnam during its National Day, the holiday that celebrated the establishment of North Vietnam after the August Revolution and met with Lê Duẩn. Lê Duẩn attended the 27th Communist Party Congress and later met with Gorbachev. Soviet Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov and Anatoly Dobrynin attended Lê Duẩn's funeral. #### Relations with China During the Vietnam War, the Chinese claimed that the Soviet Union would betray North Vietnam. Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai told Lê Duẩn that the Soviets would lie to them to improve its relationship with the United States. According to Zhou this policy was enacted following Alexei Kosygin's departure from Vietnam in 1965. Lê Duẩn did not accept this view and at the 23rd Party Congress (which China boycotted) he referred to the Soviet Union as a "second motherland". Because of his statement, China immediately began to cut its aid to North Vietnam. According to the first secretary at the Soviet embassy to China, the North Vietnamese saw the Chinese actions as an attack on them. At the Chinese Communist Party's 45th anniversary, instead of a communique by Hồ Chí Minh, Phạm Văn Đồng and Lê Duẩn as had happened at the 44th anniversary, the Vietnamese Central Committee offered official greetings, but without signatures from top-level officials. Relations between the two countries further deteriorated following the China/US rapprochement. The North Vietnamese, who were still fighting the Americans, felt betrayed. At the CPV Politburo meeting on 16 July 1971, the North Vietnamese agreed that Chinese policy towards the United States was like a "torpedo" directed against North Vietnam. Zhou was told by Phạm Văn Đồng and Lê Duẩn that US President Richard Nixon's upcoming visit to China was "against the interests of Vietnam". Later, in November, Phạm asked the Chinese to cancel Nixon's visit; the Chinese refused. The North Vietnamese began to doubt China and they hid information about North Vietnam's next planned military offensive. The Sino/US rapprochement did not hurt Sino/Vietnamese relations in the long run, because the Soviet Union also eventually reconciled with the US. Chinese and North Vietnamese documents state that relations between them worsened in 1973–75. A Vietnamese document claimed that China hindered the eventual reunification, while Chinese documents claimed that the source of the conflict was Vietnamese policy towards the Spratly and the Paracel Islands. However, the core issue for the Chinese was to minimize Vietnam's cooperation with the Soviets. Increasing Soviet/Vietnamese cooperation left China ambivalent about reunification. During Lê Duẩn's China visit in June 1973, Zhou told him that North Vietnam should adhere to the Paris Peace Accords. Following the signing, Lê Thanh Nghị stated that the direction of Vietnam's communism was directly linked to its relations with the Soviet Union. The Chinese opposed immediate reunification and to that end, began making economic agreements with the Provisional Revolutionary (Communist) Government of South Vietnam (PRGSV). PRGSV head Nguyễn Hữu Thọ was treated well by the Chinese. This policy further damaged relations. China and Vietnam drifted further apart; eventual Chinese aid did not improve relations. Lê Thanh, unsuccessfully visited China in August 1975 to seek aid. On 22–28 September, Lê Duẩn and Lê Thanh visited China in a second attempt. During the visit the Vietnamese wanted to assure the Chinese they were interested in maintaining good relations with both China and the Soviet Union. Deng Xiaoping stated that both superpowers acted as imperialists and sought hegemony. Lê Duẩn in a speech did not mention the Soviet Union by name, but noted that Vietnam had succeeded because of help from other socialist countries, meaning the Eastern bloc. Two agreements were signed, but no non-refundable aid agreement was made. No joint communique was issued and Lê Duẩn left earlier than planned. According to Anne Gilks, the Sino/Vietnamese alliance effectively ended with the Fall of Saigon. Relations with China further deteriorated; several leading pro-Chinese communists were purged from the party. Lê Duẩn visited China from 20 to 25 November 1977 to seek aid. CPC Chairman Hua Guofeng stated that Sino/Vietnamese relations had deteriorated because they held different principles. Hua insisted that China could not help Vietnam because of its own economic difficulties and differences in principles. Lê Duẩn countered that the only difference was how they viewed the Soviet Union and the United States. Following his visit, China (Xinhua) condemned COMECON. China halted all economic development projects between May and July 1978. During this period total Chinese aid to Vietnam amounted to \$300 million. #### Chinese invasion On 17 February 1979, the Chinese People's Liberation Army crossed the Vietnamese border, withdrawing on 5 March after a two-week campaign which devastated northern Vietnam and briefly threatened Hanoi. Both China (40,000) and Vietnam (over 20,000) suffered heavy losses. Peace talks broke down in December 1979 and both China (400,000) and Vietnam (600,000) began a major build-up of forces along the border. Sporadic fighting on the border occurred throughout the 1980s and China threatened to force Vietnam's exit from Kampuchea. #### Vietnamese invasion and occupation of Cambodia The independent Kampuchean Communist Party (KCP) was established alongside the Vietnamese and Laotian parties following the dissolution of the Indochinese Communist Party in 1955. The Kampuchean movement was the weakest of the three. When the Vietnamese began formal military aid to the Khmer Rouge in 1970, the Khmer leadership remained skeptical. On the orders of Võ Chí Công two regiments were sent into Kampuchea. Võ Chí Công promised Khmer leader Ieng Sary that Vietnamese troops would withdraw when the conflict had been won by the communists. The entry of Vietnamese troops led many Vietnamese officials to believe that Khmer Rouge officials had begun "to fear something". In a conversation with Phạm Hùng, Lê Duẩn told him that despite some differences in opinions, the "authentic internationalism and attitude" of the sides would strengthen their party-to-party relations. After reading reports by Võ Chí Công, Lê Duẩn probably concluded that "authentic internationalism" in Kampuchea was in trouble. At the time, the Vietnamese leadership hoped this situation would change, but privately they understood that the Kampuchean situation was different from the Lao situation. After Pol Pot and his supporters seized control of KCP in 1973, KCP/VCP relations deteriorated sharply. North Vietnamese formations that were active in Kampuchea during the civil war were thereafter regularly attacked by their allies. By 1976, while it appeared that Kampuchea/Vietnam relations were normalizing, private suspicions within the respective leaderships grew. Lê Duẩn, Tôn Đức Thắng, Trường Chinh and Phạm Văn Đồng sent messages congratulating the ascension of Pol Pot, Khieu Samphan and Nuon Chea as Premier, President of the Presidium and President of the Assembly of the People's Representative, respectively. In turn, KCP sent a congratulatory message to the PRGRSV on its seventh anniversary. On 21 September 1976 a Vietnamese women's delegation visited Kampuchea and the KCP sent public greetings to the 4th National Congress. The Vietnamese leadership hoped that pro-Vietnamese elements would develop within the KCP. When Kampuchean radio announced Pol Pot's resignation, Lê Duẩn and the Vietnamese leadership took it seriously. During a meeting with the Soviet ambassador, Lê Duẩn told him that Pol Pot and Ieng Sary had been removed from the KCP leadership. The change was welcome to Vietnam, since the two were a "pro-Chinese sect conducting a crude and severe policy." Lê Duẩn added that "these were bad people [the KCP leadership headed by Pol Pot]", but that Nuon Chea was "our man and is my personal friend." All-out confrontation was not planned and Lê Duẩn still believed that state-to-state relations could improve. He further noted that Kampuchea would eventually become like Laos, a socialist state, and value its relationship with Vietnam and the Soviet Union. On 30 April 1977, Democratic Kampuchea attacked several Vietnamese villages in An Giang Province, most notably in the Ba Chúc massacre. The Vietnamese leadership was shocked by this unprovoked attack and counterattacked. Vietnam still sought improved relations and when Pol Pot, on 27 September 1977, announced the existence of the KCP, Vietnam sent a congratulatory note. In a conversation with the Soviet ambassador on 6 October, Lê Duẩn had no explanation for Kampuchea's actions. He described the leadership as "strongly nationalistic and under strong influence of Peking [China]." Lê Duẩn called Pol Pot a Trotskyist while claiming that Ieng Sary was "a fierce nationalist and pro-Chinese." He erroneously believed that Nuon Chea and Son Sen harbored pro-Vietnamese views. On 31 December 1977, Kampuchea broke relations with Vietnam, stating that the "aggressor forces" from Vietnam sent had to be withdrawn. This was needed to "restore the friendly atmosphere between the two countries." While they accused Vietnam of aggression, the real problem all along was the Vietnamese leadership' plan, or ideal, of establishing a Vietnamese-dominated Indochinese Federation. Vietnamese troops withdrew from the country in January, taking thousands of prisoners and civilian refugees. While the point of the Vietnamese attack had been to dampen the Kampuchean leadership's aggressive stance, it had the opposite effect – the Kampuchean leadership treated it as a major victory over Vietnam, matching their victory over the Americans. Kampuchea did not respond to diplomatic overtures and began another attack. Vietnam responded by promoting an uprising against Pol Pot's rule and invaded. On 15 June 1978, the VCP Politburo sent a request to the Soviet Union to allow a delegation headed by Lê Duẩn to meet with Leonid Brezhnev and the Soviet leadership in general. In a meeting with the Soviet ambassador in September, Lê Duẩn said that Vietnam intended "to solve fully this question [of Kampuchea] by the beginning of 1979." Lê Duẩn did not believe that China would retaliate because it would have to send its forces by sea, although China did attack in 1979, but chose Vietnam as its target. He claimed that Vietnam had little time and that waiting would benefit China. He further claimed that Vietnam had established nine battalions of Khmer deserters and that it was seeking Sao Pheum to lead them. In fact, Sao Pheum had been dead for three months. Lê Duẩn still believed that Nuon Chea was a friend of Vietnam, despite his largely anti-Vietnam speech. Nuon Chea and Son Sen remained staunch Pol Pot supporters until the 1990s. Vietnam sent 13 divisions into the country on 25 December 1978, with an estimated 150,000 soldiers supported by heavy artillery and air power. Kampuchea attempted a conventional defense, but this tactic led to the loss of half of its army within two weeks. The defeats prompted much of the Kampuchean leadership to evacuate to the western region of the country. On 7 January 1979, the PAVN and the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation entered Phnom Penh. On the following day, a pro-Vietnamese state, known as the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK), was established, with Heng Samrin as head of state and Pen Sovan as General Secretary of the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party. The struggle between the Khmer Rouge and the PRK ended only with Vietnam's withdrawal in 1989. ### Last years and death By the time of the 5th National Congress, the party leadership had turned into a veritable gerontocracy. The five most powerful Politburo members were all over the age of 70; Lê Duẩn was 74, Trường Chinh was 75, Phạm Văn Đồng was 76, Phạm Hùng was 70 and Lê Đức Thọ was 72. Lê Duẩn is believed to have been in bad health during this period; he had travelled to the Soviet Union on several occasions for medical treatment during the late-1970s and early 1980s. It was reported that Lê Duẩn did not lead the party delegates of the 5th National Congress to the Hồ Chí Minh Mausoleum because of his deteriorating health. Lê Duẩn looked both feeble and old; he had problems reading his report to the Congress. Regardless of his health, the Lê Duẩn/Lê Đức Thọ clique still retained considerable power during the 5th National Congress; they were able to fill the 5th Central Committee, the 5th Secretariat and the 5th Politburo with their own supporters. Several moderates and old companions of Hồ Chí Minh as well as pro-Chinese communists (labelled dismissively as Maoists) and followers of Trường Chinh were removed from the Politburo and the Central Committee. General Võ Nguyên Giáp was forced to leave the Politburo, though it was more to remove Giap as a figure of influence rather than for ideological reasons. Nguyễn Duy Trinh and Lê Thanh Nghị were removed from the Politburo because of their moderate stances, while Trần Quốc Hoàn, Lê Văn Lương and Nguyễn Văn Linh were removed because of their alignment with Trường Chinh. In their place Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ appointed military men, including Đỗ Mười, Lê Đức Anh and General Đồng Sĩ Nguyên. The appointment of Nguyễn Đức Tâm and Nguyễn Cơ Thạch strengthened Lê Đức Thọ. The Lê Duẩn/Lê Đức Thọ clique thereafter had a clear majority within the 5th Secretariat. Lê Duẩn's report to the 5th National Congress was a biting self-criticism of his leadership and the party's management. He criticised political and economic corruption and the gerontocracy itself. The 5th Central Committee contained only one member under 60. During this period the Central Committee was disrupted by factional infighting between pragmatists and conservatives. This struggle would lead to economic reform called Đổi Mới beginning in 1986 as Lê Duẩn and his supporters began the effort to open the economy. According to reports, after the Congress Lê Duẩn suffered a heart attack and was hospitalized in the Soviet Union. He remained General Secretary until on 10 July 1986 he died of natural causes in Hanoi at age 79. He was temporarily succeeded by Trường Chinh, who himself died and was replaced by Nguyễn Văn Linh at the December 6th National Congress. He was buried at Mai Dich Cemetery. ## Personal life In 1929, Lê Duẩn married Lê Thị Sương (1910-2008). They had four children from the marriage: daughters (Lê Tuyết Hồng, Lê Thị Cừ, Lê Thị Muội) and son (Lê Hãn). In 1950, Lê Duẩn remarried to Nguyễn Thụy Nga (1925-2018), who was of Chinese origin. They had three children: daughter (Lê Vũ Anh) and sons (Lê Kiên Thành, Lê Kiên Trung). ## Political beliefs Lê Duẩn was a nationalist and during the war he claimed that the "nation and socialism were one". He stressed the importance of building socialism politically, economically and culturally and of defending the socialist fatherland. Ideologically, he was often referred to as a pragmatist. He often broke with Marxism–Leninism to stress Vietnam's uniqueness, most notably in agriculture. Lê Duẩn's view of socialism was statist, highly centralised and managerial. In one of his own works, Lê Duẩn talked about "the right of collective mastery" but in practice opposed it. For instance, party cadres who presented the peasants' demands for higher prices for their products at the National Congress were criticised by Lê Duẩn. His ideas of collective mastery were hierarchical: "Management by the state aims at ensuring the right of the masses to be the collective masters of the country. How then will the state manage its affairs so as to ensure this right of collective mastery?" His answer to this problem was managerial and statist. Lê Duẩn's concept of "collective mastery" was featured in the 1980 Vietnamese Constitution as was his concept of "collective mastery" of society. The concept was Lê Duẩn's version of popular sovereignty that advocated an active role for the people so that they could become their own masters as well as masters of society, nature and the nation. It stated that the people's collective mastery in all fields was assured by the state and was implemented by permitting their participation in state affairs and in mass organisations. On paper, the organisations, to which almost all citizens belong, play an active role in government and have the right to introduce bills before the National Assembly. Lê Duẩn said that land ownership entailed a "struggle between the two roads – collective production and private production; large-scale socialist production and small scattered production." That quote could easily have been taken from Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong or Trường Chinh in his radical years. His views had a direct impact on Vietnam. Since it was believed that collective ownership was the only alternative to capitalism, it was introduced without controversy by the country's leadership. Subcontracting co-operatives to peasants became the norm by the late 1970s and was legalised in 1981. For conservatives, that policy was similar to that of Lenin's New Economic Policy, a temporary break from hardline socialist development. However, those who supported reforms saw subcontracting as another way of implementing socialism in agriculture, which was justified by the ideological tenet of the "three interests". That was an important ideological innovation and broke with Lê Duẩn's "two roads" theory. Lê Duẩn departed from Marxist–Leninist orthodoxy when it came to practical policy and stated that the country had to "carry out agricultural cooperation immediately, even before having built large industry." While he acknowledged that his view was heresy, Lê Duẩn insisted that Vietnam was in a unique situation: "It seems that no country so far in history has been in a situation such as ours. We must lead the peasantry and agriculture immediately to socialism, without waiting for a developed industry, though we know very well that without the strong impact of industry, agriculture cannot achieve large-scale production and new relations of agriculture cannot be consolidated... To proceed from small-scale production to large-scale production is a new one." According to Lê Duẩn, the key to socialism was not mechanisation and industrialisation but a new division of labour. He also believed that co-operatives needed to be not autarkic but "organically connected, through the process of production itself, with other cooperatives and with the state economic sector." Vietnam could achieve this through state intervention and control. He saw the economy as one whole directed by the state and not many parts intertwined. In his victory speech after the 1976 parliamentary election, Lê Duẩn talked about perfecting socialism in the North by eliminating private ownership and the last vestiges of capitalism and of the need to initiate socialist transformation in the South where, the party, according to Lê Duẩn, would focus on abolishing the comprador bourgeoisie and the last "remnants of the feudal landlord classes". "Comprador bourgeoisie" was their term for the bourgeois classes, which made a living by financial dealings and through transactions with Westerners. Lê Duẩn did not reveal that in addition to removing the comprador bourgeoisie and the feudal landlord classes from the South, he intended to obliterate the entire bourgeois class. ## Honours and awards - Vietnam: - Gold Star Order - Cuba: - Order of José Martí (1982) - Czechoslovakia: - Order of Klement Gottwald (1982) - Laos: - Gold Medal of the Nation - Soviet Union: - Order of Lenin (1982) - Lenin Peace Prize A square in the Yasenevo District of Moscow, was named in honor of him.

Codex Carolinus

6th- or 7th-century Biblical manuscript

Codex Carolinus is an uncial manuscript of the New Testament on parchment, dated to the 6th or 7th century. It is a palimpsest containing a Latin text written over a Gothic one. The Gothic text is designated by siglum Car, the Latin text is designated by siglum gue (traditional system) or by 79 (on the list of Beuron), it represents the Old Latin translation of the New Testament. It is housed in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is one of very few manuscripts of Wulfila's Gothic Bible. The manuscript is fragmentary. The four leaves of the codex were used as raw material for the production of another manuscript – Codex Guelferbytanus 64 Weissenburgensis. It is a palimpsest, and its text has been reconstructed several times. Franz Anton Knittel was the first to examine it and decipher its text. ## Description The codex has survived to the present day in a very fragmentary condition. It contains only the text of the Epistle to the Romans 11-15 on four parchment leaves (size 26.5 cm by 21.5 cm). The text is written in two parallel columns, 27 lines per column. The left column is in Gothic, the right in Latin. Contents Romans 11:33-12:5; 12:17-13:5; 14:9-20; 15:3-13. The text of the codex is not divided into chapters. The nomina sacra are used both in Gothic and Latin texts (ihm and ihu for "Iesum" and "Iesu"). All the abbreviations are marked with the superscript bar. Its text has some value in Romans 14:14 for Textual Criticism. It is a palimpsest, the whole book is known as Codex Guelferbytanus 64 Weissenburgensis. The upper text is in Latin, it contains Isidore of Seville's Origines and his six letters. The lower text of the codex belongs to several much earlier manuscripts, such as Codex Guelferbytanus A, Codex Guelferbytanus B, and Codex Carolinus. ## History The manuscript is dated palaeographically to the 6th century or 7th century. According to Tischendorf it was written in the 6th century. Probably it was written in Italy. Nothing is known about its early history. In the 12th or 13th century four of its leaves were used as material for another book and they were overwritten by Latin text. Its later story is linked with the codices Guelferbytanus A and B. Formerly the manuscript was held in Bobbio, Weissenburg, Mainz, and Prague. The Duke of Brunswick bought it in 1689. The manuscript became known to the scholars in the half of the 18th century, where it was found in the Ducal Library of Wolfenbüttel. The first description of the codex was made by Heusinger. Franz Anton Knittel (1721–1792) recognized two lower Greek texts of the New Testament in this palimpsest codex, and designated them by A and B, he recognized also the Gothic-Latin text (known later as Codex Carolinus). F. A. Knittel deciphered Gothic-Latin text of the Codex Carolinus and published it in 1762 at Brunswick. In his edition all abbreviated forms, Gothic and Latin, are written in full. It was published in Uppsala in 1763. It was published again by Theodor Zahn. Knittel made many errors, especially in Latin text, he also did not decipher every word and left several lacunae in the reconstructed text (e.g. Romans 11:35; 12:2; 15:8). Tischendorf made a new and more accurate collation for the Latin text and edited in 1855. Tischendorf used abbreviations for the nomina sacra, he did not leave any lacunae. The new collation of the Gothic text was given by Carla Falluomini in 1999. The codex is located at the Herzog August Bibliothek (no. 4148) in Wolfenbüttel. ## Samples of reconstructed text (Romans 11:33-12:2) ### Gothic text (folio 277 recto, 1 col.) ### Latin text (folio 277 recto, 2 col.) ## See also Another manuscript of Gothic Bible - Codices Ambrosiani - Codex Argenteus - Skeireins Sortable articles - Gothic Bible - List of New Testament Latin manuscripts - Biblical manuscript - Textual criticism

Pachysentis

Genus of worms

Pachysentis is a genus in Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms, also known as spiny-headed worms) that parasitize primates and carnivorans by attaching themselves to the intestines using their hook-covered proboscis. Their life cycle includes an egg stage found in host feces, a cystacanth (larval) stage in an intermediate host such as the Egyptian cobra, and an adult stage where cystacanths mature in the intestines of the host. This genus appears identical to the closely related Oncicola apart from a greater number of hooks on the proboscis. There are eleven species assigned to this genus although P. septemserialis has an uncertain taxonomic status. Pachysentis species are distributed across Africa and the Americas. ## Taxonomy Phylogenetic analysis has been conducted on one of the eleven species in the genus, P. canicola, and confirms that this species forms an independent group in the family Oligacanthorhynchidae. Phylogenetic analyses have also been conducted on Oncicola, a genus morphologically nearly identical to Pachysentis apart from the number of hooks on the proboscis, and have placed it in the family Oligacanthorhynchidae. The type species for Pachysentis is P. canicola. ## Description Pachysentis look identical to the closely related Oncicola apart from the number of hooks on the proboscis. Species of Oncicola have 36 or fewer hooks whereas species of Pachysentis have more. The probosces of Pachysentis species are not quite spherical and contains 42 to 102 hooks arranged into 12 longitudinal rows of 3 to 12 hooks each. The rows may be regularly or irregularly alternating and straight or crooked. Hooks have tips with or without barbs, and the larger hooks with complex heads (manubria) and roots with the remaining spines being rootless. The trunk is fairly wide relative to the length with the anterior half usually wider than the posterior half. The testes are in tandem with at least one located before the middle of the worm. There are eight cement glands compactly arranged each with a single giant nucleus used to temporarily close the posterior end of the female after copulation. The eggs have a sculptured outer membrane. Species can be distinguished based on the number and arrangements of proboscis hooks, whether these hooks are barbed, the arrangement of the cement glands, host, and the length of lemnisci. ## Species The genus Pachysentis Meyer, 1931 contains eleven species although P. septemserialis has an uncertain taxonomic status. - Pachysentis angolensis (Golvan, 1957) P. angolensis was found infesting the side-striped jackal (Canis adustus). This species is named after Angola, the country where it was first discovered. The proboscis has a total of 42 hooks without barbs in 12 regularly alternating rows of three and four hooks (six rows of each). The eight cement glands are organized in pairs. - Pachysentis canicola Meyer, 1931 P. canicola was found infesting the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Bushehr, Bushehr Province, Iran, the golden jackal (Canis aureus) also in Iran, the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) in Texas, and the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), also in Texas. It was also found infesting the western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox). It is the type species of the genus Pachysentis. The species name canicola is derived from the Latin word for canine which is the type of creature (family Canidae) that this species infests. - Pachysentis dollfusi (Machado-Filho, 1950) P. dollfusi was found infesting the intestines of the common brown lemur (Eulemur fulvus) in a Brazilian zoo but originally from the island of Madagascar. It is thus unknown if the worm originates from Brazil or Madagascar. The proboscis has 48 barbed hooks arranged into six rows of four hooks each followed by six rows of four hooks each. The cement glands are in uniform pairs. It is synonymous with Prosthenorchis spirula Travassos 1917. It is named after the parasitologist Robert-Philippe Dollfus. - Pachysentis ehrenbergi Meyer, 1931 P. ehrenbergi was found infesting the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Egypt and in an intermediate host, the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje). The proboscis is armed with 102 barbed hooks arranged into six rows of nine each followed by six rows of eight hooks each. P. ehrenbergi was reported infesting the body cavity of 5.4% of a sample of African five-lined skinks (Trachylepis quinquetaeniata) in the Qena Governorate of Egypt, however the measurements and morphological description do not match either the original description by Meyer in 1931 or the reexamination of original specimens by Gomes et al. in 2019. Juvenile P. ehrenbergi have been reported infesting the long-eared hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus) in the Faran Oasis, South Sinai, Egypt. Juvenile trunk length is reported to be 3.22–4.16 mm by 0.87–1.04 mm, the proboscis length to be 0.42–0.60 mm in length by 0.45–0.68 mm in width, the proboscis sheath to be 0.79–1.0 mm by 0.37–0.52 mm (whereas the measurements given by Meyer in the original 1931 description is larger, at 1.3 mm in length and the proboscis measuring 0.8 mm in length by 0.9 mm in width). The anterior proboscis hooks in the juveniles are reported to be large, from 0.078–0.086 mm long, and the posterior hooks smaller, from 0.052–0.062 mm. - Pachysentis gethi (Machado-Filho, 1950) P. gethi was originally described in 1950 by Machado-Filho infesting tayra (Eira barbara) in Pará and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil but this remained the only record until it was rediscovered in 2016 infesting the wild lesser grison (Galictis cuja), also in Rio de Janeiro, with different measurements. The proboscis has 42 hooks without barbs arranged into six rows of four hooks followed by six rows of three hooks. The eight cement glands occur in pairs. The species is named after Dr. Geth Jansen. - Pachysentis lauroi Gomes, Amin, Olifiers, Bianchi, Souza, Barbosa & Maldonado, 2019 P. lauroi has been found infesting the South American coati (Nasua nasua) in Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. The proboscis has 48 barbed hooks arranged into six rows of four hooks followed by six rows of four hooks. The eight cement glands are clustered. It was found in the small intestine. The species is named after Lauro Travassos [pt], a parasitologist who studied Brazilian Acanthocephala. - Pachysentis lenti (Machado-Filho, 1950) P. lenti has been found infesting the white-headed marmoset (Callithrix geoffroyi) in Espirito Santo, Brazil. The proboscis has 48 hooks without barbs arranged into six rows of four hooks followed by six rows of four hooks. It is named after Herman Lent [pt], a Brazilian parasitologist. - Pachysentis procumbens Meyer, 1931 P. procumbens has been found infesting the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Argo, Egypt. The proboscis has 90 hooks without barbs arranged into six rows of seven hooks followed by six rows of eight hooks. The species name is a form of the Latin for "procumbent", meaning "lying prostrate". - Pachysentis procyonis (Machado-Filho, 1950) P. procyonis was found infesting the intestines of a crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The proboscis has 42 hooks without barbs arranged into six rows of four hooks followed by six rows of three hooks. Distinguishing features include eight clustered cement glands and very short lemnisci that do not reach the anterior testis. The species is named after the genus of the host (Procyon) it was found infesting. It is the only known parasite of the crab-eating racoon in Brazil. - Pachysentis rugosus (Machado-Filho, 1950) P. rugosus have been found infesting the large intestines of Azaras's capuchin (Sapajus cay) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and the tufted capuchin (Sapajus apella), also in Brazil. The proboscis is armed with 42 hooks without barbs arranged into six rows of four hooks each followed by six rows of three hooks each. This species can be identified by their clustered cement glands and long leminisci that reach the anterior testis. The species name rugosus is Latin for 'wrinkled'. - Pachysentis septemserialis (Machado-Filho, 1950) P. septemserialis is considered to have uncertain taxonomic status by Gomes (2019) due to the differences between the paratypes morphological characteristics and those of the original description, the similarity in hosts (primates of the family Callitrichidae including the black tamarin (Saguinus niger), and the absence of samples or measurements of adult males. Specifically, the original description of one paratype described the lack of a collar at the base of the proboscis whereas a collar was observed (suggesting affiliation with the genus Prosthenorchis). A second discrepancy from another paratype is the incorrect number of hooks; 12 longitudinal rows of four hooks with total of 48 hooks were observed but contradicts the seven rows of seven hooks with a total of 49 hooks given in the original description. The name septemserialis refers to the seven rows in series. Morphologically, new observations suggests it is synonymous with P. lenti. ## Distribution The distribution of Pachysentis species is determined by that of its hosts. Pachysentis species have been found in North America (Texas), South America (Brazil), Africa (Egypt and Angola), Asia (Egypt and Iran). ## Hosts The life cycle of an acanthocephalan consists of three stages beginning when an infective acanthor (development of an egg) is released from the intestines of the definitive host and then ingested by an arthropod, the intermediate host. The intermediate hosts of most Pachysentis species are not known. When the acanthor molts, the second stage called the acanthella begins. This stage involves penetrating the wall of the mesenteron or the intestine of the intermediate host and growing. The final stage is the infective cystacanth which is the larval or juvenile state of an Acanthocephalan, differing from the adult only in size and stage of sexual development. The cystacanths within the intermediate hosts are consumed by the definitive host, usually attaching to the walls of the intestines, and as adults they reproduce sexually in the intestines. The acanthor are passed in the feces of the definitive host and the cycle repeats. Pachysentis species exclusively parasitize primates and carnivorous mammals as their primary host. Paratenic hosts (hosts where parasites infest but do not undergo larval development or sexual reproduction) for Pachysentishave been found for P. ehrenbergi (Egyptian cobra, Naja haje) and P. canicola (western diamondback rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox). Pachysentis species are distributed in Africa and North, Central and South America.

Design management

Field of inquiry in business

Design management is a field of inquiry that uses design, strategy, project management and supply chain techniques to control a creative process, support a culture of creativity, and build a structure and organization for design. The objective of design management is to develop and maintain an efficient business environment in which an organization can achieve its strategic and mission goals through design. Design management is a comprehensive activity at all levels of business (operational to strategic), from the discovery phase to the execution phase. "Simply put, design management is the business side of design. Design management encompasses the ongoing processes, business decisions, and strategies that enable innovation and create effectively-designed products, services, communications, environments, and brands that enhance our quality of life and provide organizational success." The discipline of design management overlaps with marketing management, operations management, and strategic management. Traditionally, design management was seen as limited to the management of design projects, but over time, it evolved to include other aspects of an organization at the functional and strategic level. A more recent debate concerns the integration of design thinking into strategic management as a cross-disciplinary and human-centered approach to management. This paradigm also focuses on a collaborative and iterative style of work and an abductive mode of inference, compared to practices associated with the more traditional management paradigm. Design has become a strategic asset in brand equity, differentiation, and product quality for many companies. More and more organizations apply design management to improve design-relevant activities and to better connect design with corporate strategy. ## Extended definition The multifaceted nature of design management leads to varied opinion, making it difficult to give an overall definition; furthermore, design managers have a broad range of roles and responsibilities. These factors, combined with a multitude of other influences such as the industry involved, company size, the market situation, and the importance of design within the organization's activities. As a result, design management is not restricted to a single design discipline and usually depends on the context of its application within an individual organization. On an abstract level, design management plays three key roles in the interface of design, organization, and market. The three key roles are to: 1. Align design strategy with corporate or brand strategy, or both 2. Manage quality and consistency of design outcomes across and within different design disciplines (design classes) 3. Enhance new methods of user experience, create new solutions for user needs and differentiation from competitor's designs ### Additional definitions > Design management is the effective deployment by line managers of the design resources available to an organization in the pursuance of its corporate objectives. It is therefore directly concerned with the organizational place of design, with the identification with specific design disciplines which are relevant to the resolution of key management issues, and with the training of managers to use design effectively. > Design management is a complex and multi-faceted activity that goes right to the heart of what a company is or does [...] it is not something susceptible to pat formulas, a few bullet points or a manual. Every company's structure and internal culture is different; design management is no exception. But the fact that every firm is different does not diminish the importance of managing design tightly and effectively. ## Definition of related terms ### Design Unlike unique sciences such as mathematics, the perspective, activity, or discipline of design is not brought to a generally accepted common denominator. The historical beginnings of design are complex and the nature of design is still the subject of ongoing discussion. In design, there are strong differentiations between theory and practice. The fluid nature of the theory allows the designer to operate without being constrained by a rigid structure. In practice, decisions are often referred to as intuition. In his Classification of Design (1976), Gorb divided design into three different classes. Design management operates in and across all three classes: product (e.g. industrial design, packaging design, service design), information (e.g. graphic design, branding, media design, web design), and environment (e.g. retail design, exhibition design, interior design). ### Management Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities), or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources. Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely human resource management, operations management (or production management), strategic management, marketing management, financial management, and information technology management, which was responsible for management information systems. Although it is difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way, it helps in navigating the discipline of management. Design management overlaps mainly with the branches marketing management, operations management, and strategic management. ### Design leadership Design managers often operate in the area of design leadership; however, design management and design leadership are interdependent rather than interchangeable. Like management and leadership, they differ in their objectives, achievements of objectives, accomplishments, and outcomes. Design leadership leads from creation of a vision to changes, innovations, and implementation of creative solutions. It stimulates communication and collaboration through motivation, sets ambitions, and points out future directions to achieve long-term objectives. In contrast, design management could be regarded as reactive and responds to a given business situation by using specific skills, tools, methods, and techniques. However, design management can also be viewed from proactive and creative perspectives as found in research (see e.g. the research anthology «Management of Design alliances», eds Bruce & Jevnaker). Design management requires design leadership to know where to go and design leadership requires design management to know how to get there. ## History Difficulties arise in tracing the history of design management. Even though design management as an expression is first mentioned in literature in 1964, earlier contributions created the context in which the expression could arise. Throughout its history, design management was influenced by a number of different disciplines: architecture, industrial design, management, software development, engineering; and movements such as system theory, design methodologies. It cannot be attributed directly to either design or to management. ### Business #### Managing product aesthetics and corporate design (early contributions) Early contributions to design management show how different design disciplines were coordinated to achieve business objectives at a corporate level, and demonstrate the early understanding of design as a competitive force. In that context, design was merely understood as an aesthetic function, and the management of design was at the level of project planning. The practice of managing design to achieve a business objective was first documented in 1907. The Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) was established in Munich by twelve architects and twelve business firms as a state-sponsored effort to better compete with Great Britain and the United States by integrating traditional craft and industrial mass-production techniques. A German designer and architect, Peter Behrens, created the entire corporate identity (logotype, product design, publicity, etc.) of Allgemeine Elektrizitäts Gesellschaft (AEG), and is regarded as the first industrial designer in history. His work for AEG was the first large-scale demonstration of the viability and vitality of the Werkbund's initiatives and objectives and can be considered as first contribution to design management. In the following years, companies applied the principles of corporate identity and corporate design to increase awareness and recognition by consumers and differentiation from competitors. Olivetti became famous for its attention to design through their corporate design activities. In 1936 Olivetti hired Giovanni Pintori in their publicity department and promoted Marcello Nizzoli from the product design department to develop design in a comprehensive corporate philosophy. In 1956, inspired by the compelling brand character of Olivetti, Thomas Watson, Jr., CEO of IBM, retained American architect and industrial designer Eliot Noyes to develop a corporate-wide IBM Design Program consisting of coherent brand-design strategy together with a design management system to guide and oversee the comprehensive brand identity elements of: products, graphics, exhibits, architecture, interiors and fine art. This seminal effort by Noyes, with his inclusion of Paul Rand and Charles Eames as consultants, is considered to be the first comprehensive corporate design program in America. Up to and during the 1960s, debates in the design community were focused on ergonomics, functionalism, and corporate design, while debates in management addressed Just in time, Total quality management, and product specification. The main proponents of design management at that time were AEG, Bauhaus, HfG Ulm, the British Design Council, Deutscher Werkbund, Olivetti, IBM, Peter Behrens, and Walter Paepcke. #### Managing design systematically (1960s–1970s) The work of designers in the 1960s was influenced by industry, as the debate on design evolved from an aesthetic function into active cooperation with industry. Designers had to work in a team with engineers and marketers, and design was perceived as one part of the product development process. In the early years, design management was strongly influenced by system science and the emergence of a design science (e.g. the "blooming period of design methodologies" in Germany, the US, and Great Britain), as its main contributors had backgrounds in architecture. Early discussions on design management were strongly influenced by Anglo-Saxon literature (e.g. Farr and Horst Rittel), methodological studies in Design Research (e.g. HfG Ulm and Christopher Alexander), and theories in business studies. Design management dealt with two main issues: - how to develop corporate systems of planning aims - how to solve problems of methodological information processing Instruments and checklists were developed to structure the processes and decisions of companies for successful corporate development. In this period the main contributors to design management were Michael Farr, Horst Rittel, HfG Ulm, Christopher Alexander, James Pilditch, the London Business School, Peter Gorb, the Design Management Institute, and the Royal Society of Arts. Debates in design disciplines were focusing on design science, design methodology, wicked problems, Ulm methodology, the relationship of design and business, new German design, and semiotic and scenario technique. #### Managing design as a strategic asset (1980s–1990s) In the 1980s several managers realized the economic effect of design, which increased the demand for design management. As companies were unsure how to manage design, there was a market for consultancy; focusing on helping organizations manage the product development process, including market research, product concepts, projects, communications, and market launch phases—as well as the positioning of products and companies. Three important works were published in 1990: the Publication of Design Management – A Handbook of Issues and Methods by Mark Oakley (Editor), the book Design Management by French researcher Brigitte Borja de Mozota, and the Publication of Design Management – Papers from the London Business School by Peter Gorb (Editor). This new method-based design management approach helped to improve communication amongst technical and marketing managers. Examples of the new methods included trend research, the product effect triad, style mapping, milieus, product screenings, empiric design methods, and service design, giving design a more communicative and central role within organizations. In the management community the topics of management theory, positioning strategy, brand management, strategic management, advertisement, competitive strategy, leadership, business ethics, mass customization, core competencies, strategic intent, reputation management, and system theory were discussed. Main issues and debates in design management included the topics of design leadership, design thinking, and corporate identity; plus the involvement of design management at the operational, tactical, and strategic levels. In 1980 Robert Blaich, the senior managing director of design at Philips, introduced a design management system that regards design, production, and marketing as a single unit. This was an important contribution to the definition of design as a core element in business. At Philips Design, Stefano Marzano became CEO and Chief Creative Director in 1991, continuing the work of Robert Blaich to align design processes with business processes and furthering design strategy as an important asset of the overall business strategy. Upon being appointed corporate head of the IBM Design Program in 1989, Tom Hardy, initiated a strategic design management effort, in collaboration with IBM design consultant Richard Sapper, to return to the roots of the IBM Design Program first established in 1956 by Eliot Noyes, Paul Rand and Charles Eames. The intent was to reprise IBM's brand image with customer experience-driven quality, approachability and contemporary product innovation. The highly successful IBM ThinkPad was the first product to emerge from this strategy in 1992 and, together with other innovative, award-winning products that followed, served to position design as a strategic asset for IBM's brand turnaround efforts initiated in 1993 by newly appointed CEO Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. As a consultant following his 22-year tenure at IBM, Hardy served as Corporate Design Advisor to Samsung from 1996 to 2003 where his introduction of a new brand-design ethos and guiding principles, together with a comprehensive design management system, became a strategic corporate asset that significantly helped elevate Samsung's image from follower to global brand-design leader and dramatically increased brand equity value. #### Managing design for innovation (2000s–2010s) Design management has taken a more strategic role within business since 2000, and more academic programs for design management have been established. Design management has been recognized (and subsidized) throughout the European Union as a function for corporate advantage of both companies and nations. The main issues and debates included the topics of design thinking, strategic design management, design leadership, and product service systems. Design management was influenced by the following design trends: sustainable design, inclusive design, interactive design, design probes, product clinics, and co-design. It was also influenced by the later management trends of open innovation and design thinking. ### Notion of the term "design management" In 1965 the term design management was first published in a series of articles in the Design Journal. This series includes a pre-publication of the first chapter of the book Design Management by Michael Farr, which is considered as the first comprehensive literature on design management. His thoughts on system theory and project management led to a framework on how to deal with design as a business function at the corporate management level by providing the language and methodology to effectively manage it. The term "architectural management" was coined by the architects Brunton, Baden Hellard and Boobyer in 1964 where they highlighted the tension and synergy between the management of individual projects (job management) and the management of the business (office management). Although they did not use the term "design management", they stressed identical issues; while the design community discussed methodologies for design. Christopher Alexander's work played an important role in the development of the design methodology, where he devoted his attention to the problems of form and context; and focused on disassembling complex design challenges into constituent parts to approach a solution. His intention was to bring more rationalism and structure into the solving of design problems. ### Design Policy (up to 2000s) Design policies have a history reaching back to the end of the 19th century, when design programs with roots in the crafts sector were implemented in Sweden (1845) and Finland (1875). In 1907 the Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) was established in Munich to better compete with Great Britain and United States. The success of the Deutscher Werkbund inspired a group of British designers, industrialists and business people after they had seen the Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne in 1914, to found the Design and Industries Association and campaign for a greater involvement of government in the promotion of good design. In 1944 design management by managing design policies was used by the British Government. The British Design Council was founded by Hugh Dalton, president of the Board of Trade in the British wartime government, as the Council of Industrial Design with the objective "to promote by all practicable means the improvement of design in the products of British industry". Germany also realized the national importance of design during World War II. Between 1933 and 1945 Adolf Hitler used design, architecture and propaganda to increase his power; shown through the annual Reichsparteitage in Nürnberg on September 5. Heinrich Himmler coordinated several design activities for Hitler, including: the all-black SS-uniform designed by Professor Karl Diebitsch and Walter Heck in 1933; the Dachau concentration camp, designed by Theodor Eicke, and prototypes for other Nazi concentration camps; and the Wewelsburg redesign commissioned by Heinrich Himmler in 1944. Since the 1990s the practice of design promotion evolved, and governments have used policy management and design management to promote design as part of their efforts of fostering technology, manufacturing and innovation. ### Promotion and conference (till 2000s) In America the Chicago industrialist Walter Paepcke, of the Container Corporation of America, founded the Aspen Design Conference after World War II as a way of bringing business and designers together – to the benefit of both. In 1951 the first conference topic, "Design as a function of management", was chosen to ensure the participation of the business community. After several years, business leaders stopped attending because the increased participation of designers changed the dialogue, focusing not on the need for collaboration between business and design, but rather on the business community's failure to understand the value of design. The Royal Society of Arts (RSA) Presidential Medals for Design Management were instituted in June 1964. These were to recognize outstanding examples of design policy in organizations that maintained a consistently high standard in all aspects of design management, throughout all industries and disciplines. With these awards the RSA introduced the term design management. In 1965 the first medals were given to four companies; Conran & Co Ltd, Jaeger & Co Ltd, S. Hille & Co Ltd and W. & A. Gilbey Ltd. in the category "current achievements" and two companies London Transport and Heal and Son Ltd. in the category "long pioneering in the field of design management". The medal selection committee included representatives of the RSA council and the faculty of Royal Designers for Industry. The Design Management Institute (DMI) was founded in 1975 at the Massachusetts College of Art in Boston. Since the mid-1980s the DMI has been an international non-profit organization that seeks to heighten the awareness of design as an essential part of business strategy, and become the leading resource and international authority on design management. One year later the first conference was organized. The DMI increased its international presence and established the "European International Conference on Design Management" in 1997, and a professional development program for design management. In 2007 the European Commission funded the Award for Design Management Innovating and Reinforcing Enterprises (ADMIRE) project for two years, as part of the Pro Inno Europe Initiative, which is the EU's "focal point for innovation policy analysis, learning and development". The aim was to encourage companies – especially small and medium enterprises (SMEs) – to introduce design management procedures to; improve their competitiveness, stimulate innovation, establish a European knowledge-sharing platform, organize the Design Management Europe Award, and to identify and test new activities to promote Design Management. ### Education (1970s on) Teaching design to managers was pioneered at the London Business School (LBS) in 1976 by Peter Gorb (1926-2013), the first Honorary Fellow of the DMI and a long-standing Fellow of the RSA. Gorb had previously embedded design management in the Burton Retail Group before joining LBS where he later founded the Design Management Unit in 1982 (in collaboration with Charles Handy) which he led for over 20 years. In 1979 his talk at the RSA entitled Design and its Use by Managers provided a background introduction to the wide scope of design within industry and commerce, an appreciation of the power of design as a management resource, and advocated the teaching of design to managers. Gorb produced two books based on seminars at the Design Management Unit at LBS, Design Talks (1988) with Eric Schneider and Design Management: Papers from the London Business School (1990). Gorb is also remembered as introducing the concept of Silent Design, design undertaken by non-designers, in an influential paper with Angela Dumas (1987). In 1991 the University of Art and Design Helsinki founded the Institute of Design Leadership and Management and established an international training program. The International Design Management Conference was organised in the same year by them. In 1995 the Helsinki School of Economics (HSE), University of Art and Design Helsinki (TaiK), and Helsinki University of Technology (TKK) cooperated to create the International Design Business Management Program (IDBM), which aims to bring together experts from different fields within the concept of design business management. ### Research The first international research project on design management, the TRIAD research project, was initiated by Earl Powell, then president of DMI and the Harvard Business School in 1989. In the same year Earl Powell and Thomas Walton, Ph.D. developed the Design Management Review and DMI published the first issue. The publication is solely focusing on design management and has become the flagship publication of the discipline. Design and design management have experienced different generations of theories. In its first generation design focused on the object, in the second on the process, and in the third on the user. Similar shifts can be seen in management and design management in almost parallel steps. For design management this has been illustrated by Brigitte Borja de Mozota, using Findeli's Bremen Model as a framework. Design management research organised itself into: - Organisational studies: design in an economic sector or design in large firms, such as Philips or Olivetti - Descriptive studies of specific methods of design management It is difficult to predict where design management research is heading. ## Different types Different types of design management depend on the type and strategic orientation of the business. ### Product design management In product-focused companies, design management focuses mainly on product design management, including strong interactions with product design, product marketing, research and development, and new product development. This perspective of design management is mainly focused on the aesthetic, semiotic, and ergonomic aspects of the product to express the product's qualities and to manage diverse product groups and product design platforms and can be applied together with a user-centered design perspective. ### Brand design management In market and brand focused companies, design management focuses mainly on brand design management, including corporate brand management and product brand management. Focusing on the brand as the core for design decisions results in a strong focus on the brand experience, customer touch points, reliability, recognition, and trust relations. The design is driven by the brand vision and strategy. Corporate brand design management Market and brand focused organizations are concerned with the expression and perception of the corporate brand. Corporate design management implements, develops, and maintains the corporate identity, or brand. This type of brand management is strongly anchored in the organization to control and influence corporate design activities. The design program plays the role of a quality program within many fields of the organization to achieve uniform internal branding. It is strongly linked to strategy, corporate culture, product development, marketing, organizational structure, and technological development. Achieving a consistent corporate brand requires the involvement of designers and a widespread design awareness among employees. A creative culture, knowledge sharing processes, determination, design leadership, and good work relations support the work of corporate brand management. Product brand design management The main focus of product brand management lies on the single product or product family. Product design management is linked to research and development, marketing, and brand management, and is present in the fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) industry. It is responsible for the visual expressions of the individual product brand, with its diverse customer–brand touch points and the execution of the brand through design. ### Service design management Service design management deals with the newly emerging field of service design. It is the activity of planning and organizing people, infrastructure, communication, and material components of a service. The aim is to improve the quality of the service, the interaction between the service provider and its customers, and the customer's experience. The increasing importance and size of the service sector in terms of people employed and economic importance requires that services should be well-designed in order to remain competitive and to continue to attract customers. Design management traditionally focuses in the design and development of manufactured products; service design managers can apply many of the same theoretical and methodological approaches. Systematic and strategic management of service design helps the business gain competitive advantages and conquer new markets. Companies that proactively identify the interests of their customers and use this information to develop services that create good experiences for the customer will open up new and profitable business opportunities. Companies in the service sector innovate by addressing the intangibility, heterogeneity, inseparability, and perishability of service (the IHIP challenge): - Services are intangible; they have no physical form and they cannot be seen before purchase or taken home. - Services are heterogenous; unlike tangible products, no two service delivery experiences are alike. - Services are inseparable; the act of supplying a service is inseparable from the customer's act of consuming it. - Services are perishable; they can not be inventoried. Service design management differs in several ways from product design management. For example, the application of international trading strategies of services is difficult because the evolution of service 'from a craftsmanship attitude to industrialization of services' requires the development of new tools, approaches, and policies. Whereas goods can be manufactured centrally and delivered around the globe, services have to be performed at the place of consumption, which makes it difficult to achieve global quality consistency and effective cost control. ### Business design management Business design management deals with the newly emerging field of integrating design thinking into management. In organisation and management theory, design thinking forms part of the Architecture / Design / Anthropology (A/D/A) paradigm which characterizes innovative, human-centered enterprises. This paradigm focuses on a collaborative and iterative style of work and an adductive mode of thinking, compared to practices associated with the more traditional Mathematics / Economics / Psychology (M/E/P) management paradigm. Since 2006, the term Business Design is trademarked by the Rotman School of Management; they define business design as the application of design thinking principles to business practice. The designerly way of problem solving is an integrative way of thinking that is characterized by a deep understanding of the user, creative resolution of tensions, collaborative prototyping, and continuous modification and enhancement of ideas and solutions. This approach to problem solving can be applied to all components of business, and the management of the problem solving process forms the core of business design management activity. Universities other than the Rotman School of Management are offering similar academic education concepts, including the Aalto University in Finland, which initiated their International Design Business Management (IDBM) program in 1995. ### Engineering design management Engineering Design Management is a knowledge area within engineering management. It represents the adaptation and application of customary management practices, with the intention of achieving a productive [engineering design process]. Engineering design management is primarily applied in the context of engineering design teams, whereby the activities, outputs and influences of design teams are planned, guided, monitored and controlled. The output of an engineering design process is ultimately a description of a technical system. That technical system may either be an artefact (technical object), production facility, a process plant or any infrastructure for the benefit of society. Therefore, the domain of engineering design management includes high volume, mass production as well as low-volume, infrastructure. ### Urban design management Urban design management involves mediation among a range of self-interested stakeholders engaged in the production of the built environment. Such mediation can encourage a joint search for mutually beneficial outcomes or integrative development. Integrative development aims to produce sustainable solutions by increasing stakeholder satisfaction with the process and with the resulting urban development. Conventional real estate development and urban planning activities are subject to conflicting interests and positional bargaining. The integrative negotiation approach emphasises mutual gains. The approach has been applied in land use planning and environmental management, but has not been used as a coordinated approach to real estate development, city design, and urban planning. Urban design management involves reordering the chain of events in the production of the built environment according to the principles of integrative negotiation. Such negotiation can be used in urban development and planning activities to reach more efficient agreements. This leads to integrative developments and more sustainable ways to produce the built environment. Urban design management offers prescriptive advice for practitioners trying to organise city planning activities in a way that will increase sustainability by increasing satisfaction levels. Real estate development and urban planning often occur at very different decision-making levels. The practitioners involved may have diverse educational and professional backgrounds. They certainly have conflicting interests. Providing prescriptive advice for differing, possibly conflicting, groups requires construction of a framework that accommodates all of their daily activities and responsibilities. Urban design management provides a common framework to help bring together the conventional practices of urban and regional planning, real estate development, and urban design. The work on Integrative Negotiation Consensus Building and the Mutual Gains Approach provide a helpful theoretical framework for developing the theory of urban design management. Negotiation theory provides a useful framework for merging the perspectives of urban planning, city design, and real estate project proposals regarding production of the built environment. Interests, a key construct in negotiation theory, is an important variable that will allow integrated development, as defined above, to occur. The path-breaking work of Roger Fisher and William Ury (1981), Getting to yes, advises negotiators to focus on interests and mutual gains instead of bargaining over positions. ### Architectural management Architectural management can be defined as an ordered way of thinking which helps to realise a quality building for an acceptable cost or as a process function with the aim of delivering greater architectural value to the client and society. Research by Kiran Gandhi describes architectural management as a set of practical techniques for an architect to successfully operate his practice. The term architectural management has been in use since the 1960s. The evolution of the field of architectural management has not been a smooth affair. Architectural practice was merely considered a business until after the Second World War, and even then practitioners appeared to be concerned about the conflict between art and commerce, demonstrating indifference to management. There was apparent conflict between the image of an architect and the need for professional management of the architectural business. Reluctance to embrace management and business as an inherent part of architectural practice could also be seen in architectural education programmes and publications. It appears that the management of architectural design, as well as architectural management in general, is still not being given enough importance. Architectural management falls into two distinct parts: office or practice management and project management. Office management provides an overall framework within which many individual projects are commenced, managed, and completed. Architectural management extends between the management of the design process, construction, and project management, through to facilities management of buildings in use. It is a powerful tool that can be applied to the benefit of professional service firms and the total building processes, yet it continues to receive too little attention both in theory and in practice. ## Business ### Value for business Design plays a vital role in product and brand development, and is of great economic importance for organisations and companies. Creativity and design in particular (as an activity: design skills, methods and processes) play a growing role in creating products and services with high added value to consumers. Design generates 50% of world export revenue in the creative industries' products (goods and services). The creative industry workforce is 3.1% of total employment in the European Union (EU), which creates a revenue that is 2.6% of the EU gross value. Creative industries have attained an unprecedented average annual growth rate of 8.7 per cent across the EU between 2000 and 2005. The increasing importance of creative industries (and especially design) in knowledge-intense industries is reflected not only in the policies and studies on EU levels, but has initiated design and creative policies and programmes in the most advanced economies. Furthermore, design and creativity has been recognised on a regional and local level as a driving force for competitiveness, economic growth, job market, and citizen's satisfaction. The investment in creative and cultural industries are considered a significant component of EU growth in the Lisbon Strategy and the Europe 2020 strategy; and designers are increasingly involved in innovation issues. To better understand the value of design and its role in innovation, the EU holds a public consultation on the basis of their publication Design as a driver of user-centred innovation and have published the mini-study Design as a tool for innovation. The report highlights the importance of design in user-centred innovation and recommends the integration of design into the EU innovation policy. In addition to the design share in the export of all creative industry products, design can also have a positive impact on all business performance indicators; from turnover and profit to market share and competitiveness. Design management research results can be classified as follows: - Design improves the performance of the innovation policy and of the communications policy of the firm - Design improves the global performance of the firm; it is a profitable investment - Design is a profession that creates value on a macro economic level - Design improves the competitive edge of a country in the international competition; it develops exports - Design can help the restructuring of an economic sector in regional economic policy If and how design management is applied in a company correlates with the importance and integration of design in the company, but depends also on industry type, company size, ownership for design and type of competitive competence. A research from the Danish Design Centre (DDC) led to the "Danish Design Ladder", which shows how companies interpreted and applied design in differing depth: 1. Non-design: Companies that do not use design (15% in 2007). 2. Design as styling: Companies that use design as styling appearance (17% in 2007). 3. Design as process: Companies that integrate design into the development process (45% in 2007). 4. Design as innovation: Companies that consider design as key strategic element (21% in 2007). The research showed that companies that considered design on a higher level of the ladder were constantly growing. Additionally, the Danish Design Centre published an Evaluation of the Importance of Design in 2006, with the result that most companies considered design as a promoter for innovation (71%), as a growth potential for the company (79%), and to make products more user friendly (71%). With increasing importance of design for the company, design management also becomes more important. The value of design can be leveraged if it is managed well. Research by Chiva and Alegre shows that there is no link between the level of design investment and business success, but instead a strong correlation between design management skills and business success. This means that efficient and effective design management is crucial for maximising the value of design. Effective design management increases the efficiency of operations and process management, has a significant positive impact on process management, improves quality performance (internal and external quality), and increases operating performance. To measure and communicate the value of design management, Borja de Mozota suggests adapting the Balanced Score Card model and structuring the values in the following four categories: - Internal business processes: Design management as an innovation process, providing improvements in company performance and processes. Here, these innovations and processes are totally invisible to outsiders. - Learning and growing: Beyond advanced design management. Design explicit knowledge is applied to strategic focus and improves the quality of staff. - Customer and brand: Design management as perception and brand. Design knowledge is applied to corporate difference building and strategic positioning. - Financial: The historic design management economic model. Design management as an explicit and measurable value for company reputation and stock market performance. ### Relation to other disciplines and departments Three different orientations for the choice of design management can be identified in companies. These orientations influence the perception of management and the responsibility of design managers within the organisation. The strategic orientations are; market focus, product focus and brand focus. - Product-driven organisations often have design responsibility in their research and development (R&D) departments. - Market-focus driven organisation often have design responsibility in their marketing departments. - Brand-focus driven organisations often have design responsibility in corporate communication. Depending on the strategic orientation, design management overlaps with other management branches to differing extents: Marketing management: The concepts and elements of brand management overlap with those of design management. In practice, design management can be part of the job profile of a marketing manager, though the discipline includes aspects that are not in the domain of marketing management. This intersection is called "brand design management" and consists of positioning, personality, purpose, personnel, project and practice, where the objective is to increase brand equity. Operations management: At the operational level design management deals with the management of design projects. Processes and tools from operations management can be applied to design management in the execution of design projects. Strategic management: Due to the increasing importance of design as a differentiator and its supporting role in brand equity, design management deals with strategic design issues and supports the strategic direction of the business or enterprise. The debate on design thinking suggests the integration of design thinking into strategic management. Design thinking and strategic thinking have some commonalities in their characteristics, both are synthetic, adductive, hypothesis-driven, opportunistic, dialectical, enquiring and value-driven. Innovation management: The value of the coordinating role of design in new product development has been well documented. Design management can help to improve innovation management, which can be measured by three variables: it reduces time-to-market, by improving sources and communication skills and developing cross-functional innovation; it stimulates networking innovation, by managing product and customer information flows with internal (e.g. teams) and external (e.g. suppliers, society) actors; it improves the learning process by promoting a continuous learning process. ### Hierarchy Like the management of strategy, design can be managed on three levels: strategic (corporate level or enterprise wide), tactical (business level or individual business units), and operational (individual project level). These three levels have been termed differently by various authors over the last 50 years. Operational level Operational design management involves the management of individual design projects and design teams. Its goal is to achieve the objectives set by strategic design management. Success of good design management can be measured by evaluating the quality of operational design management outcomes. It includes the selection and management of design suppliers and encompasses the documentation, supervision, and evaluation of design processes and results. It deals with personal leadership, emotional intelligence, and the cooperation with and management of internal communications. Regular management functions, tools, and concepts can often be applied to the management of design on the operational level. It is implemented to achieve specific design objectives and manage the judgment of design proposals. It can help to build brand equity through the consistent creation and implementation of high-quality design solutions that best fit the brand identity and desired consumer experience, in the most efficient way. Depending on the type of company and industry, the following job titles are associated with this role: operational design manager, senior designer, team leader, visual communication manager, corporate design coordinator, and others. Tactical level Tactical design management addresses the organisation of design resources and design processes. Its goal is to create a structure for design in the company, bridging the gap between objectives set through strategic design management and the implementation of design on the operational level. It defines how design is organised within the company. This includes the use of a central body to coordinate different design projects and activities. It deals with defining activities, developing design skills and competencies, managing processes, systems and procedures, assigning of roles and responsibilities, developing innovative products and service concepts, and finding new market opportunities. Outcomes of tactical design management are related to the creation of a structure for design within the company, to build internal resources and competencies for the implementation of design. Depending on the type of company and industry, the following job titles are associated with this function: tactical design manager, design director, design & innovation manager, brand design manager, new product development (NPD) manager, visual identity manager, and others. Strategic level Strategic design management involves the creation of strategic long-term vision and planning for design, and deals with defining the role of design within the company. The goal of strategic design management is to support and strengthen the corporate visio by creating a relationship between the design and corporate strategy. It includes the creation of design, brand and product strategies, ensuring that design management becomes a central element in the corporate strategy formulation process. Strategic design management is responsible for the development and implementation of a corporate design programme that influences the design vision, mission, and positioning. It allows design to interact with the needs of corporate management and focuses on the long-term capabilities of design. Where strategic design management is applied, there is often a strong belief in the potential to differentiate the company and gain competitive advantage by design. As a result, design thinking becomes integrated into the corporate culture. Depending on the type of company and industry the following job titles are associated with this function: design strategist, strategic design manager, chief design officer, vice president design and innovation, chief creative officer, innovation design director, and others. ### Role and responsibility Design management is not a standard model that can be projected onto every enterprise, nor is there a specific way of applying it that leads to guaranteed success. Design management processes are carried out by humans with different responsibilities and backgrounds, who work in different industries and enterprises with different sizes and traditions, whilst having different target groups and markets to serve. Design management is multifaceted, and so are the different applications of and views on design management. The function of design management in an organisation depends on its tasks, authority, and practice. Task Similar tasks can be grouped into categories to describe the job profile of a design manager. Different categories in management that encompass design were defined by several authors; those tasks occur on all three design management levels (strategic, tactical, and operational): Authority and position The authority and position of the design management function has a large influence on what the design manager does in his or her daily job. Kootstra (2006) distinguishes design management types by organisational function: design management as line function, design management as staff function, and design management as support function. Design management as a "line function" is directly responsible for design execution in the "primary" organisational process and can take place on all levels of the design management hierarchy. The main attributes for design managers in the line are authority over and direct responsibility for the result. Design management as a staff function is not directly responsible for design execution in the "primary" organisational process, but consults as a specialist on all levels of the design management hierarchy. The main attributes for design managers in this function are their limited authority and the need to consult line managers and staff. When the design process is defined as a "secondary" organisational process, design management is seen as "supportive function". In this function it has only a supportive character, classifying the design manager as a creative specialist towards product management, brand management, marketing, R&D, and communication. Various authors use different concepts to describe the authority and position of design management; they can be grouped as follows: ## Design Policy (since the 2010s) Today, most developed countries have some kind of design promotion programme. The Design Management Institute has dedicated three issues to design policy development. Although initiatives promote design in different complexities, scopes and focuses, specific targets tend to address the following objectives: - support business: increase use of design by companies, particularly by small and medium enterprises (SMEs), and grow the design sector (use dimension); - promote to the public: increase exports of design and attract international investment (international dimension); - educate designers: improve design education and research (academic dimension). A very comprehensive analysis on the situation of design on national level in Britain is the Cox review. The chairman of the Design Council, Sir George Cox, published the Cox Review of Creativity in Business in 2005 to communicate the competitive advantage of design for the British industry. Innovation policies have been excessively focused on the supply of technologies, neglecting the demand side (the user). There have been several initiatives by the European Commission to support and research design and design management in recent years. However, a European-wide policy to support design has never been planned, due to the inconsistencies and differences in design policies in each nation. Nonetheless, there are currently plans to include design in the EU innovation policy. ## Education (since the 2000s) While design management had its origins in business schools, it has increasingly become embedded in the curriculum in design schools, particularly at the postgraduate level. Teaching design to managers was pioneered at the London Business School in 1976, and the first programme of design management at a design school was started in the 1980s at the Royal College of Art (RCA) and DeMontfort, Middlesex and Staffordshire Universities. Although, in the UK, some design management courses have not been sustainable, including those at the RCA, Westminster and Middlesex, other postgraduate courses have flourished including ones at Brunel, Lancaster and more recently the University of the Arts with each providing a specific point of view on design management. The Design Leadership Fellowship at the University of Oxford was founded in 2005. In the same year the Stanford University Institute of Design founded the D-school, a faculty intended to advance multidisciplinary innovation. The Finnish Aalto University was founded in 2010 and is a merger of the three established Finnish universities – the Helsinki School of Economics (HSE), University of Art and Design Helsinki (TaiK), and University of Technology (TKK) – that had been cooperating on the IDBM design management program since 1995. Since 2006 the Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts in Switzerland offers one of the few undergraduate studies in design management, completely taught in English. Design schools in the United States are now offering graduate degrees in Design Management that focus on bridging the disciplines of design and business to lead organizations in the process of design thinking to create meaningful, human-centric value and business success through innovation. Among those offering M.A and M.F.A programs are: - Savannah College of Art and Design - Pratt Institute - University of Kansas - The New School Design Management education is also gaining importance in other countries and awareness about role of design in business in increasing. In India in the last decade some of the leading design schools have been offering Masters program in Design Management. - MIT Institute of Design Pune - Master of Design in Design Management - National Institute of Design- Strategic Design Management - WE School - Business Design - ISDI- Strategic Design Management - World University of Design BusinessWeek annually publishes a lists of the best programmes that combine design thinking and business thinking (D-schools 2009 and D-school Programmes to Watch 2009). The article Finland – World ́s Innovation Hot Spot in the Harvard Business Review shows the interest of business leaders in the blended education of design and management. Business Schools (such as the Rotman School of Management, Wharton University of Pennsylvania and MIT Sloan Executive Education) have acted on this interest and developed new academic curricula. Integrated education models are emerging in the academic world, a model which is referred to as T-shape and π-shaped education. T-shaped professionals are taught general knowledge in a few disciplines (e.g. management and engineering) and specific, deep knowledge in a single domain (e.g. design). This model also applies to companies, when they shift their focus from small T innovations (innovations involving only one discipline, like chemists) to big T innovations (innovations involving several disciplines, like design, ethnography, lead user, etc.). Like in education, this shift makes breaking down silos of departments and disciplines of knowledge essential. ## See also

1997 Bojnurd earthquake

Earthquake affecting Iran and Turkmenistan

The 1997 Bojnurd earthquake (also known as the Garmkhan earthquake) occurred on 4 February at 14:07 IRST in Iran. The epicenter of the 6.5 earthquake was in the Kopet Dag mountains of North Khorasan, near the Iran–Turkmenistan border, about 579 km (360 mi) northeast of Tehran. The earthquake is characterized by shallow strike-slip faulting in a zone of active faults. Seismic activity is present as the Kopet Dag is actively accommodating tectonics through faulting. The earthquake left 88 dead, 1,948 injured, and affected 173 villages, including four which were destroyed. Damage also occurred in Shirvan and Bojnord counties. The total cost of damage was estimated to be over US\$ 30 million. ## Background and tectonics The geology of Iran is dominated by convergence tectonics between the Eurasian Plate and terranes from Gondwana. Two major collisional events occurred; the Cimmerian orogeny which began after the Paleo-Tethys Ocean closed (Late Triassic or Early Jurassic), and the Alpine orogeny after closing the Tethys Ocean (Late Eocene). Present-day seismic activity indicate tectonic deformation is being accommodated along the Zagros, Alborz and Kopet Dag mountains. Deformation is also accommodated in eastern and central Iran, as well as in the Dasht-e Lut, in the form of tectonic blocks. The Arabian shield moves northwards at approximately 23 mm (0.91 in) per year, where the Zagros fold and thrust belt accommodates roughly half of it. Meanwhile, the rest is distributed across the Alborz, Kopet Dag and central Caspian Sea. In southern Iran, this motion is partially accommodated by the Makran Trench subduction zone. In eastern Iran (south of the Kopet Dag), north–south trending right-lateral strike-slip faults in a 400 km (250 mi)-wide shear zone accommodate the motion. The northern Kopet Dag range front marks a linear boundary with the Turan platform (part of the Eurasian Plate). The Kopet Dag mountains consist of Mesozoic to Tertiary sedimentary rocks, and represent the closure of the Tethys Ocean, which closed when northeastern Iran was sutured to the tectonically stable Turan platform. The north–east convergence in northeastern Iran occurs obliquely with respect to the northwest–southeast trending Kopet Dag. Oblique convergence is accommodated by thrust faulting, and strike-slip faulting along a shear zone termed the Central Kopet Dag Shear Zone within the range. The northwestern Kopet Dag accommodates convergence with thrusting and minor left-lateral faulting. In the eastern Kopet Dag, north of Bojnurd, right-lateral strike-slip faulting occurs. Right-lateral faults have been observed displacing the mountain belt. ## Historical seismicity Northeastern Iran is rich in historical records of earthquakes due to its geographical importance in trade between Europe and Asia. Earthquakes in the region have been recorded for over 2,000 years. Among the most damaging were the earthquakes at nearby Quchan in 1851 (M 6.9), 1871–72 (M 7.0–7.1), 1893 (M 7.1), and 1895 (M 6.8). In the 20th century, two earthquakes in 1929 (M 7.4) and 1948 (M 7.2) were also destructive. The Ashkabad Fault, a right-lateral strike-slip structure, runs linear to the northern Kopet Dag front range. It is believed to have produced up to 35 km (22 mi) of strike-slip displacement. Between Bojnord and Quchan is a zone of north-northwest–south-southeast trending right-lateral strike-slip faults that cuts through the mountains. This zone is known as the Bakharden–Quchan Fault Zone (BQFZ). Faults of the BQFZ were responsible for strong earthquakes near Bojnurd from 1997 to 2000. Seismicity is restricted to the shallow continental crust no deeper than 30 km (19 mi), and displays thrust and strike-slip focal mechanisms. A magnitude 7.2 earthquake in 1948 may have been associated with this fault zone. ## Earthquake An analysis of body wave from the mainshock indicated strike-slip faulting with some vertical component. Using teleseismic instruments, the epicenter was calculated to be slightly west of where the fault and area of destruction was located. The rupture occurred along a 15 km (9.3 mi)-long right-lateral strike-slip fault. Based on the distribution of aftershocks, the source fault is oriented north-northwest–south-southeast, and slightly concave to the east. A rupture initiated on the northern part of the fault and propagated southwards along its strike for five seconds. The fault produced an average displacement of 0.5–1.0 m (1 ft 8 in – 3 ft 3 in). This style and orientation of faulting is consistent with past earthquakes in the region. ### Strong ground motion Based on the extent of damage, a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe) was assigned to affected places within a 10 km (6.2 mi) radius around the epicenter. The destruction of and serious damage to single-storey structures was evident of high-frequency seismic waves released during the rupture. A peak ground acceleration (pga) of 0.3 g was estimated near the epicenter. The city of Bojnurd experienced a pga of 0.2 g. The southward-propagating rupture caused unusually great devastation to areas relatively distant from the rupture. In the village of Sheikh, residents recalled violent shaking, rockfalls and heavy destruction. The aftershock distribution and absence of surface ruptures indicated the rupture ceased 10–15 km (6.2–9.3 mi) away from Sheikh, yet the village was destroyed. This was attributed to the directivity of an enhanced shear wave pulse towards the southeast (the rupture direction), where Sheikh was located. On the European macroseismic scale and Environmental Seismic Intensity scale, the mainshock was assigned a maximum intensity of X. ## Impact Serious damage was reported in 173 villages—106 in Bojnord County and 67 in Shirvan County. Damage was mainly attributed to the poor construction of adobe homes on steep slopes. One village in the meizoseismal area experienced the complete loss of all adobe-constructed homes; only two reinforced concrete buildings survived but with substantial damage. The villages of Naveh, Ghezel Ghan and Sheikh were completely destroyed. A total of 5,500 homes collapsed and 11,000 were damaged. An additional 12,000 livestock died. Many landslides and slope failures were reported. The total cost of damage was estimated to be greater than \$US 30 million. Residents were alerted to the possibility of a larger earthquake due to the occurrence of a 5.4 foreshock at 13:23 IRST that same day. During the mainshock, many residents in the affected area were working outdoors. These factors prevented a higher death toll. Some damage was reported at Bojnurd—although no buildings collapsed, many were severely cracked and structurally compromised. A petrochemical plant located 15 km (9.3 mi) from the epicenter had minor damage, causing a cessation of operations for several days. Initial reports stated that 38 people were killed and 90 were injured in the city of Bojnord alone, according to the Iranian state media. The following day, the death toll in Bojnurd and Shirvan rose to 72, and about 200 were injured. By 20 April, the death toll stood at 82 in Bojnord County and 6 in Shirvan County. At least 498 people were seriously injured and required hospitalization. A further 1,450 received minor injuries. ## Aftermath The Iranian Ministry of Interior helped organize aid and emergency work. Relief workers from multiple agencies, including the state government, Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces, and Red Crescent Society of Iran, were involved in providing aid to the affected communities. Items such as tents, lanterns, clothing, food and sanitary products were mobilized. The Government of Iran also stated international assistance would be welcomed and handled domestically. Rumors about the potential for another large earthquake began to spread, causing panic. Mohammad Tartar, vice president of research and technology at Iran's International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology, said further studies were required to understand the geophysical effects on nearby faults introduced by the earthquake. He added there was a possibility that another fault might rupture and cause an earthquake in the next few years. However, the chances of a larger earthquake measuring 6.5 immediately following the 4 February event were slim. He also said strong aftershocks were possible and humanitarian agencies should be wary. ## See also - Ardabil earthquake and Qayen earthquake – two other earthquakes affecting Iran in 1997 - List of earthquakes in 1997 - List of earthquakes in Iran

National Gallery

Art museum in London, England

The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, in Trafalgar Square since 1838, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The current Director of the National Gallery is Gabriele Finaldi. The National Gallery is an exempt charity, and a non-departmental public body of the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. Its collection belongs to the government on behalf of the British public, and entry to the main collection is free of charge. Unlike comparable museums in continental Europe, the National Gallery was not formed by nationalising an existing royal or princely art collection. It came into being when the British government bought 38 paintings from the heirs of John Julius Angerstein in 1824. After that initial purchase, the Gallery was shaped mainly by its early directors, especially Charles Lock Eastlake, and by private donations, which now account for two-thirds of the collection. The collection is smaller than many European national galleries, but encyclopaedic in scope; most major developments in Western painting "from Giotto to Cézanne" are represented with important works. It used to be claimed that this was one of the few national galleries that had all its works on permanent exhibition, but this is no longer the case. The present building, the third site to house the National Gallery, was designed by William Wilkins. Building took from 1832 to 1838, when it opened. Only the facade onto Trafalgar Square remains essentially unchanged from this time, as the building has been expanded piecemeal throughout its history. Wilkins's building was often criticised for the perceived weaknesses of its design and for its lack of space; the latter problem led to the establishment of the Tate Gallery for British art in 1897. The Sainsbury Wing, a 1991 extension to the west by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown, is a significant example of Postmodernist architecture in Britain. ## History ### Call for a National Gallery The late 18th century saw the nationalisation of royal or princely art collections across mainland Europe. The Bavarian royal collection (now in the Alte Pinakothek, Munich) opened to the public in 1779, that of the Medici in Florence around 1789 (as the Uffizi Gallery), and the Museum Français at the Louvre was formed out of the former French royal collection in 1793. Great Britain, however, did not follow other European countries, and the British Royal Collection still remains in the sovereign's possession. In 1777 the British government had the opportunity to buy an art collection of international stature, when the descendants of Sir Robert Walpole put his collection up for sale. The MP John Wilkes argued for the government to buy this "invaluable treasure" and suggested that it be housed in "a noble gallery... to be built in the spacious garden of the British Museum". Nothing came of Wilkes's appeal and 20 years later the collection was bought in its entirety by Catherine the Great; it is now to be found in the State Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg. A plan to acquire 150 paintings from the Orléans collection, which had been brought to London for sale in 1798, also failed, despite the interest of both the King and the Prime Minister, Pitt the Younger. The twenty-five paintings from that collection now in the Gallery, including "NG1", arrived later by a variety of routes. In 1799 the dealer Noël Desenfans offered a ready-made national collection to the British government; he and his partner Sir Francis Bourgeois had assembled it for the king of Poland, before the Third Partition in 1795 abolished Polish independence. This offer was declined and Bourgeois bequeathed the collection to his old school, Dulwich College, on his death. The collection opened in 1814 in Britain's first purpose-built public gallery, the Dulwich Picture Gallery. The Scottish dealer William Buchanan and the collector Joseph Count Truchsess, both formed art collections expressly as the basis for a future national collection, but their respective offers (both made in 1803) were also declined. Following the Walpole sale many artists, including James Barry and John Flaxman, had made renewed calls for the establishment of a National Gallery, arguing that a British school of painting could only flourish if it had access to the canon of European painting. The British Institution, founded in 1805 by a group of aristocratic connoisseurs, attempted to address this situation. The members lent works to exhibitions that changed annually, while an art school was held in the summer months. However, as the paintings that were lent were often mediocre, some artists resented the Institution and saw it as a racket for the gentry to increase the sale prices of their Old Master paintings. One of the Institution's founding members, Sir George Beaumont, Bt, would eventually play a major role in the National Gallery's foundation by offering a gift of 16 paintings. In 1823 another major art collection came on the market, which had been assembled by the recently deceased John Julius Angerstein. Angerstein was a Russian-born émigré banker based in London; his collection numbered 38 paintings, including works by Raphael and Hogarth's Marriage à-la-mode series. On 1 July 1823 George Agar Ellis, a Whig politician, proposed to the House of Commons that it purchase the collection. The appeal was given added impetus by Beaumont's offer, which came with two conditions: that the government buy the Angerstein collection, and that a suitable building was to be found. The unexpected repayment of a war debt by Austria finally moved the government to buy Angerstein's collection, for £57,000. ### Foundation and early history The National Gallery opened to the public on 10 May 1824, housed in Angerstein's former townhouse at No. 100 Pall Mall. Angerstein's paintings were joined in 1826 by those from Beaumont's collection, and in 1831 by the Reverend William Holwell Carr's bequest of 35 paintings. Initially the Keeper of Paintings, William Seguier, bore the burden of managing the Gallery, but in July 1824 some of this responsibility fell to the newly formed board of trustees. The National Gallery at Pall Mall was frequently overcrowded and hot and its diminutive size in comparison with the Louvre in Paris was a cause of national embarrassment. But Agar Ellis, by then a trustee of the Gallery, appraised the site for being "in the very gangway of London"; this was seen as necessary for the Gallery to fulfil its social purpose. Subsidence in No. 100 caused the Gallery to move briefly to No. 105 Pall Mall, which the novelist Anthony Trollope described as a "dingy, dull, narrow house, ill-adapted for the exhibition of the treasures it held". This in turn had to be demolished for the opening of a road to Carlton House Terrace. In 1832 construction began on a new building by William Wilkins on the northern half of the site of the old Royal Mews in Charing Cross, after late 1820s transformation of the southern half into Trafalgar Square. The location was a significant one, between the wealthy West End and poorer areas to the east. The argument that the collection could be accessed by people of all social classes outstripped other concerns, such as the pollution of central London or the failings of Wilkins's building, when the prospect of a move to South Kensington was mooted in the 1850s. According to the Parliamentary Commission of 1857, "The existence of the pictures is not the end purpose of the collection, but the means only to give the people an ennobling enjoyment". From 1837 until 1868 the Royal Academy was housed in the east wing of the building. ### Growth under Eastlake and his successors 15th- and 16th-century Italian paintings were at the core of the National Gallery and for the first 30 years of its existence the Trustees' independent acquisitions were mainly limited to works by High Renaissance masters. Their conservative tastes resulted in several missed opportunities and the management of the Gallery later fell into complete disarray, with no acquisitions being made between 1847 and 1850. A critical House of Commons report in 1851 called for the appointment of a director, whose authority would surpass that of the trustees. Many thought the position would go to the German art historian Gustav Friedrich Waagen, whom the Gallery had consulted on previous occasions about the lighting and display of the collections. However, the man preferred for the job by Queen Victoria, Prince Albert and the Prime Minister, Lord Russell, was the Keeper of Paintings at the Gallery, Sir Charles Lock Eastlake. Eastlake, who was President of the Royal Academy, played an essential role in the foundation of the Arundel Society and knew most of London's leading art experts. The new director's taste was for the Northern and Early Italian Renaissance masters or "primitives", who had been neglected by the Gallery's acquisitions policy but were slowly gaining recognition from connoisseurs. He made annual tours to the continent and to Italy in particular, seeking out appropriate paintings to buy for the Gallery. In all, he bought 148 pictures abroad and 46 in Britain, among the former such seminal works as Paolo Uccello's The Battle of San Romano. Eastlake also amassed a private art collection during this period, consisting of paintings that he knew did not interest the trustees. His ultimate aim, however, was for them to enter the National Gallery; this was duly arranged upon his death by his friend and successor as director, William Boxall, and his widow Lady Eastlake. The Gallery's lack of space remained acute in this period. In 1845 a large bequest of British paintings was made by Robert Vernon; there was insufficient room in the Wilkins building so they were displayed first in Vernon's town house at No. 50 Pall Mall and then at Marlborough House. The Gallery was even less well equipped for its next major bequest, as J.M.W. Turner was to bequeath the entire contents of his studio, excepting unfinished works, to the nation upon his death in 1851. The first 20 of these were displayed off-site in Marlborough House in 1856. Ralph Nicholson Wornum, the Gallery's Keeper and Secretary, worked with John Ruskin to bring the bequest together. The stipulation in Turner's will that two of his paintings be displayed alongside works by Claude is still honoured in Room 15 of the Gallery, but his bequest has never been adequately displayed in its entirety; today the works are divided between Trafalgar Square and the Clore Gallery, a small purpose-built extension to Tate Britain completed in 1985. The third director, Sir Frederick William Burton, laid the foundations of the collection of 18th-century art and made several outstanding purchases from English private collections. The acquisition in 1885 of two paintings from Blenheim Palace, Raphael's Ansidei Madonna and Van Dyck's Equestrian Portrait of Charles I, with a record-setting grant of £87,500 from the Treasury, brought the Gallery's "golden age of collecting" to an end, as its annual purchase grant was suspended for several years thereafter. When the Gallery purchased Holbein's Ambassadors from the Earl of Radnor in 1890, it did so with the aid of private individuals for the first time in its history. In 1897 the formation of the National Gallery of British Art, known unofficially from early in its history as the Tate Gallery, allowed some British works to be moved off-site, following the precedent set by the Vernon collection and the Turner Bequest. Works by artists born after 1790 were moved to the new gallery on Millbank, which allowed Hogarth, Turner and Constable to remain in Trafalgar Square. ### Early 20th century The agricultural crisis at the turn of the 20th century caused many aristocratic families to sell their paintings, but the British national collections were priced out of the market by American plutocrats. This prompted the foundation of the National Art Collections Fund, a society of subscribers dedicated to stemming the flow of artworks to the United States. Their first acquisition for the National Gallery was Velázquez's Rokeby Venus in 1906, followed by Holbein's Portrait of Christina of Denmark in 1909. However, despite the crisis in aristocratic fortunes, the following decade was one of several great bequests from private collectors. In 1909 the industrialist Ludwig Mond gave 42 Italian renaissance paintings, including the Mond Crucifixion by Raphael, to the Gallery. Other bequests of note were those of George Salting in 1910, Austen Henry Layard in 1916 and Sir Hugh Lane in 1917. In the National Gallery on 10 March 1914, the Rokeby Venus was damaged by Mary Richardson, a campaigner for women's suffrage, in protest against the arrest of Emmeline Pankhurst the previous day. Later that month another suffragette attacked five Bellinis, causing the Gallery to close until the start of the First World War, when the Women's Social and Political Union called for an end to violent acts drawing attention to their plight. The initial reception of Impressionist art at the Gallery was exceptionally controversial. In 1906, Sir Hugh Lane promised 39 paintings, including Renoir's Umbrellas, to the National Gallery on his death, unless a suitable building could be built in Dublin. Although eagerly accepted by the director Charles Holroyd, they were received with extreme hostility by the Trustees; Lord Redesdale wrote that "I would as soon expect to hear of a Mormon service being conducted in St. Paul's Cathedral as to see the exhibition of the works of the modern French Art-rebels in the sacred precincts of Trafalgar Square". Perhaps as a result of such attitudes, Lane amended his will with a codicil that the works should only go to Ireland, but crucially this was never witnessed. Lane died on board the RMS Lusitania in 1915, and a dispute began which was not resolved until 1959. Part of the collection is now on permanent loan to Dublin City Gallery ("The Hugh Lane") and other works rotate between London and Dublin every few years. A fund for the purchase of modern paintings established by Samuel Courtauld in 1923 bought Seurat's Bathers at Asnières and other modern works for the nation; in 1934, many of these were transferred to the National Gallery from the Tate. ### World War II Shortly before the outbreak of World War II the paintings were evacuated to locations in Wales, including Penrhyn Castle, the university colleges of Bangor and Aberystwyth. In 1940, during the Battle of France, a more secure home was sought, and there were discussions about moving the paintings to Canada. This idea was firmly rejected by Winston Churchill, who wrote in a telegram to the director Kenneth Clark, "bury them in caves or in cellars, but not a picture shall leave these islands". Instead a slate quarry at Manod, near Blaenau Ffestiniog in North Wales, was requisitioned for the Gallery's use. In the seclusion afforded by the paintings' new location, the Keeper (and future director) Martin Davies began to compile scholarly catalogues on the collection, with assistance of the Gallery's library which was also stored in the quarry. The move to Manod confirmed the importance of storing paintings at a constant temperature and humidity, something the Gallery's conservators had long suspected but had hitherto been unable to prove. This eventually resulted in the first air-conditioned gallery opening in 1949. For the course of the war Myra Hess, and other musicians, such as Moura Lympany, gave daily lunch-time recitals in the empty building in Trafalgar Square, to raise public morale as every concert hall in London was closed. Art exhibitions were held at the Gallery as a complement to the recitals. The first of these was British Painting since Whistler in 1940, organised by Lillian Browse, who also mounted the major joint retrospective Exhibition of Paintings by Sir William Nicholson and Jack B. Yeats held from 1 January – 15 March 1942, which was seen by 10,518 visitors. Exhibitions of work by war artists, including Paul Nash, Henry Moore and Stanley Spencer, were also held; the War Artists' Advisory Committee had been set up by Clark in order "to keep artists at work on any pretext". In 1941 a request from an artist to see Rembrandt's Portrait of Margaretha de Geer (a new acquisition) resulted in the "Picture of the Month" scheme, in which a single painting was removed from Manod and exhibited to the general public in the National Gallery each month. The art critic Herbert Read, writing that year, called the National Gallery "a defiant outpost of culture right in the middle of a bombed and shattered metropolis". The paintings returned to Trafalgar Square in 1945. ### Post-war developments In the post-war years, acquisitions have become increasingly difficult for the National Gallery as the prices for Old Masters – and even more so for the Impressionists and Post-impressionists – have risen beyond its means. Some of the Gallery's most significant purchases in this period would have been impossible without the major public appeals backing them, including The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist by Leonardo da Vinci (bought in 1962) and Titian's Death of Actaeon (1972). The Gallery's purchase grant from the government was frozen in 1985, but later that year it received an endowment of £50 million from Sir Paul Getty, enabling many major purchases to be made. In April 1985 Lord Sainsbury of Preston Candover and his brothers, the Hon. Simon Sainsbury and Sir Timothy Sainsbury, had made a donation that would enable the construction of the Sainsbury Wing. The directorship of Neil MacGregor saw a major rehang at the Gallery, dispensing with the classification of paintings by national school that had been introduced by Eastlake. The new chronological hang sought to emphasise the interaction between cultures rather than fixed national characteristics, reflecting the change in art historical values since the 19th century. In other respects, however, Victorian tastes were rehabilitated: the building's interiors were no longer considered an embarrassment and were restored, and in 1999 the Gallery accepted a bequest of 26 Italian Baroque paintings from Sir Denis Mahon. Earlier in the 20th century many considered the Baroque to be beyond the pale: in 1945 the Gallery's trustees declined to buy a Guercino from Mahon's collection for £200. The same painting was valued at £4 million in 2003. Mahon's bequest was made on the condition that the Gallery would never deaccession any of its paintings or charge for admission. Jock McFadyen was the first Artist in Residence in 1981. Since 1989, the gallery has run an Associate Artist scheme that gives a studio to contemporary artists to create work based on the permanent collection. They usually hold the position of associate artist for two years and are given an exhibition in the National Gallery at the end of their tenure. The respective remits of the National and Tate Galleries, which had long been contested by the two institutions, were more clearly defined in 1996. 1900 was established as the cut-off point for paintings in the National Gallery, and in 1997 more than 60 post-1900 paintings from the collection were given to the Tate on a long-term loan, in return for works by Gauguin and others. However, future expansion of the National Gallery may yet see the return of 20th-century paintings to its walls. In the 21st century there have been three large fundraising campaigns at the Gallery: in 2004, to buy Raphael's Madonna of the Pinks, in 2008, for Titian's Diana and Actaeon, and in 2012, Titian's Diana and Callisto. Both Titians were bought in tandem with the National Gallery of Scotland for £95 m. Both of these major works were sold from the collection of the Duke of Sutherland. The National Gallery is now largely priced out of the market for Old Master paintings and can only make such acquisitions with the backing of major public appeals; the departing director Charles Saumarez Smith expressed his frustration at this situation in 2007. In 2014 the National Gallery was the subject of a documentary film by Frederick Wiseman. The film shows the gallery administration and staff at work, the conservation laboratory, guided tours and the mounting of exhibitions on Leonardo da Vinci, J.M.W. Turner and Titian in 2011–12. ## Architecture ### William Wilkins's building The first suggestion for a National Gallery on Trafalgar Square came from John Nash, who envisaged it on the site of the King's Mews, while a Parthenon-like building for the Royal Academy would occupy the centre of the square. Economic recession prevented this scheme from being built, but a competition for the Mews site was eventually held in 1831, for which Nash submitted a design with C. R. Cockerell as his co-architect. Nash's popularity was waning by this time, however, and the commission was awarded to William Wilkins, who was involved in the selection of the site and submitted some drawings at the last moment. Wilkins had hoped to build a "Temple of the Arts, nurturing contemporary art through historical example", but the commission was blighted by parsimony and compromise, and the resulting building was deemed a failure on almost all counts. The site only allowed for the building to be one room deep, as a workhouse and a barracks lay immediately behind. To exacerbate matters, there was a public right of way through the site to these buildings, which accounts for the access porticoes on the eastern and western sides of the façade. These had to incorporate columns from the demolished Carlton House and their relative shortness resulted in an elevation that was deemed excessively low, thus failing to provide Trafalgar Square with its desired commanding focal point to the north. Also recycled are the sculptures on the façade, originally intended for Nash's Marble Arch but abandoned due to his financial problems. The eastern half of the building housed the Royal Academy until 1868, which further diminished the space afforded to the National Gallery. The building was the object of public ridicule before it had even been completed, as a version of the design had been leaked to the Literary Gazette in 1833. Two years before completion, its infamous "pepperpot" elevation appeared on the frontispiece of Contrasts (1836), an influential tract by the Gothicist A. W. N. Pugin, as an example of the degeneracy of the classical style. Even William IV (in his last recorded utterance) thought the building a "nasty little pokey hole", while William Makepeace Thackeray called it "a little gin shop of a building". The twentieth-century architectural historian Sir John Summerson echoed these early criticisms when he compared the arrangement of a dome and two diminutive turrets on the roofline to "the clock and vases on a mantelpiece, only less useful". Sir Charles Barry's landscaping of Trafalgar Square, from 1840, included a north terrace so that the building would appear to be raised, thus addressing one of the points of complaint. In 1891 the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association placed bay trees in boxes on the railed-in terraces during the summer months. Opinion on the building had mellowed considerably by 1984, when Prince Charles called the Wilkins façade a "much-loved and elegant friend", in contrast to a proposed extension. (See below) ### Alteration and expansion (Pennethorne, Barry and Taylor) The first significant alteration made to the building was the single, long gallery added by Sir James Pennethorne in 1860–61. Ornately decorated in comparison with the rooms by Wilkins, it nonetheless worsened the cramped conditions inside the building as it was built over the original entrance hall. Unsurprisingly, several attempts were made either to completely remodel the National Gallery (as suggested by Sir Charles Barry in 1853), or to move it to more capacious premises in Kensington, where the air was also cleaner. In 1867 Barry's son Edward Middleton Barry proposed to replace the Wilkins building with a massive classical building with four domes. The scheme was a failure and contemporary critics denounced the exterior as "a strong plagiarism upon St Paul's Cathedral". With the demolition of the workhouse, however, Barry was able to build the Gallery's first sequence of grand architectural spaces, from 1872 to 1876. Built to a polychrome Neo-Renaissance design, the Barry Rooms were arranged on a Greek cross-plan around a huge central octagon. Though it compensated for the underwhelming architecture of the Wilkins building, Barry's new wing was disliked by Gallery staff, who considered its monumental aspect to be in conflict with its function as exhibition space. Also, the decorative programme of the rooms did not take their intended contents into account; the ceiling of the 15th- and 16th-century Italian gallery, for instance, was inscribed with the names of British artists of the 19th century. However, despite these failures, the Barry Rooms provided the Gallery with a strong axial groundplan; this was to be followed by all subsequent additions to the Gallery for a century, resulting in a building of clear symmetry. Pennethorne's gallery was demolished for the next phase of building, a scheme by Sir John Taylor extending northwards of the main entrance. Its glass-domed entrance vestibule had painted ceiling decorations by the Crace family firm, who had also worked on the Barry Rooms. A fresco intended for the south wall was never realised, and that space is now taken up by Frederic, Lord Leighton's painting of Cimabue's Celebrated Madonna carried in Procession through the Streets of Florence (1853–1855), lent by the Royal Collection in the 1990s. ### 20th century: modernisation versus restoration Later additions to the west came more steadily but maintained the coherence of the building by mirroring Barry's cross-axis plan to the east. The use of dark marble for doorcases was also continued, giving the extensions a degree of internal consistency with the older rooms. The classical style was still in use at the National Gallery in 1929, when a Beaux-Arts style gallery was built, funded by the art dealer and Trustee Lord Duveen. However, it was not long before the 20th-century reaction against Victorian attitudes became manifest at the Gallery. From 1928 to 1952 the landing floors of Taylor's entrance hall were relaid with a new series of mosaics by Boris Anrep, who was friendly with the Bloomsbury Group. These mosaics can be read as a satire on 19th-century conventions for the decoration of public buildings, as typified by the Albert Memorial's Frieze of Parnassus. The central mosaic depicting The Awakening of the Muses includes portraits of Virginia Woolf and Greta Garbo, subverting the high moral tone of its Victorian forebears. In place of Christianity's seven virtues, Anrep offered his own set of Modern Virtues, including "Humour" and "Open Mind"; the allegorical figures are again portraits of his contemporaries, including Winston Churchill, Bertrand Russell and T. S. Eliot. In the 20th century the Gallery's late Victorian interiors fell out of fashion. The Crace ceiling decorations in the entrance hall were not to the taste of the director Charles Holmes, and were obliterated by white paint. The North Galleries, which opened to the public in 1975, marked the arrival of modernist architecture at the National Gallery. In the older rooms, the original classical details were effaced by partitions, daises and suspended ceilings, the aim being to create neutral settings which did not distract from contemplation of the paintings. But the Gallery's commitment to modernism was short-lived: by the 1980s Victorian style was no longer considered anathema, and a restoration programme began to restore the 19th- and early-20th-century interiors to their purported original appearance. This began with the refurbishment of the Barry Rooms in 1985–86. From 1996 to 1999 even the North Galleries, by then considered to "lack a positive architectural character" were remodelled in a classical style, albeit a simplified one. ### Sainsbury Wing and later additions The most important addition to the building in recent years has been the Sainsbury Wing, designed by the postmodernist architects Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown to house the collection of Renaissance paintings, and built in 1991. The building occupies the "Hampton's site" to the west of the main building, where a department store of the same name had stood until its destruction in the Blitz. The Gallery had long sought expansion into this space and in 1982 a competition was held to find a suitable architect; the shortlist included a radical high-tech proposal by Richard Rogers, among others. The design that won the most votes was by the firm Ahrends, Burton and Koralek, who then modified their proposal to include a tower, similar to that of the Rogers scheme. The proposal was dropped after the Prince of Wales compared the design to a "monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much-loved and elegant friend", The term "monstrous carbuncle", for a modern building that clashes with its surroundings, has since become commonplace. One of the conditions of the 1982 competition was that the new wing had to include commercial offices as well as public gallery space. However, in 1985 it became possible to devote the extension entirely to the Gallery's uses, due to a donation of almost £50 million from Lord Sainsbury and his brothers Simon and Sir Tim Sainsbury. A closed competition was held, and the schemes produced were noticeably more restrained than in the earlier competition. In contrast with the rich ornamentation of the main building, the galleries in the Sainsbury Wing are pared-down and intimate, to suit the smaller scale of many of the paintings. The main inspirations for these rooms are Sir John Soane's toplit galleries for the Dulwich Picture Gallery and the church interiors of Filippo Brunelleschi (the stone dressing is in pietra serena, the grey stone local to Florence). The northernmost galleries align with Barry's central axis, so that there is a single vista down the whole length of the Gallery. This axis is exaggerated by the use of false perspective, as the columns flanking each opening gradually diminish in size until the visitor reaches the focal point (as of 2009), an altarpiece by Cima of The Incredulity of St Thomas. Venturi's postmodernist approach to architecture is in full evidence at the Sainsbury Wing, with its stylistic quotations from buildings as disparate as the clubhouses on Pall Mall, the Scala Regia in the Vatican, Victorian warehouses and Ancient Egyptian temples. Following the pedestrianisation of Trafalgar Square, the Gallery is currently engaged in a masterplan to convert the vacated office space on the ground floor into public space. The plan will also fill in disused courtyards and make use of land acquired from the adjoining National Portrait Gallery in St Martin's Place, which it gave to the National Gallery in exchange for land for its 2000 extension. The first phase, the East Wing Project designed by Jeremy Dixon and Edward Jones, opened to the public in 2004. This provided a new ground level entrance from Trafalgar Square, named in honour of Sir Paul Getty. The main entrance was also refurbished, and reopened in September 2005. Possible future projects include a "West Wing Project" roughly symmetrical with the East Wing Project, which would provide a future ground level entrance, and the public opening of some small rooms at the far eastern end of the building acquired as part of the swap with the National Portrait Gallery. This might include a new public staircase in the bow on the eastern façade. No timetable has been announced for these additional projects. In April 2021, a jury short-listed six firms of architects – Caruso St John, David Chipperfield Architects, Asif Kahn, David Kohn Architects, Selldorf Architects, and Witherford Watson Mann Architects – in a competition for design proposals to upgrade the Sainsbury Wing. ## Controversies One of the most persistent criticisms of the National Gallery, apart from those who criticise inadequacies of the building, has been of its conservation policy. The Gallery's detractors accused it of having had an over-zealous approach to restoration. The first cleaning operation at the National Gallery began in 1844 after Eastlake's appointment as Keeper, and was the subject of attacks in the press after the first three paintings to receive the treatment – a Rubens, a Cuyp and a Velázquez – were unveiled to the public in 1846. The Gallery's most virulent critic was J. Morris Moore, who wrote a series of letters to The Times under the pseudonym "Verax" savaging the institution's cleanings. While an 1853 Parliamentary Select committee set up to investigate the matter cleared the Gallery of any wrongdoing, criticism of its methods has been erupting sporadically ever since from some in the art establishment. The last major outcry against the use of radical conservation techniques at the National Gallery was in the immediate post-war years, following a restoration campaign by Chief Restorer Helmut Ruhemann while the paintings were in Manod Quarry. When the cleaned pictures were exhibited to the public in 1946 there followed a furore with parallels to that of a century earlier. The principal criticism was that the extensive removal of varnish, which was used in the 19th century to protect the surface of paintings but which darkened and discoloured over time, may have resulted in the loss of "harmonising" glazes added to the paintings by the artists themselves. The opposition to Ruhemann's techniques was led by Ernst Gombrich, a professor at the Warburg Institute who in later correspondence with a restorer described being treated with "offensive superciliousness" by the National Gallery. A 1947 commission concluded that no damage had been done in the recent cleanings. The National Gallery's attribution of paintings has been disputed on occasion. Kenneth Clark's decision in 1939 to label a group of paintings from the Venetian school as works by Giorgione was controversial at the time and the panels were soon identified as works by Andrea Previtali by a junior curator Clark had appointed. Decades later, the attribution of a 17th-century painting of Samson and Delilah (bought in 1980) to Rubens has been contested by a group of art historians, who believe that the National Gallery has not admitted the mistake to avoid embarrassing those who were involved in the purchase, many of whom still work for the Gallery. The National Gallery was sponsored by the Italian arms manufacturer Finmeccanica between October 2011 and October 2012. The sponsorship deal allowed the company to use gallery spaces for gatherings and they used it to host delegates during the DSEI arms fair and the Farnborough international air show. The sponsorship deal was ended a year early after protests. In February 2014, Men of the Docks, by U.S. artist George Bellows, was bought by the National Gallery for \$25.5 million (£15.6 million). It was the first major American painting to be purchased by the Gallery. Director Nicholas Penny termed the painting a new direction for the Gallery, a non-European painting in a European style. Its sale was controversial in the U.S. The Gallery was found in 2018 to be one of the first London public galleries to charge more than £20 for admission to a special exhibition of works by Claude Monet. In February 2019 an Employment Tribunal ruled that the Gallery had incorrectly classed its team of educators as self-employed contractors. The educators were awarded 'worker' status following legal action brought by twenty-seven claimants. The case received considerable press and media coverage. ## Incidents In August 1961, unemployed bus driver Kempton Bunton stole Goya's Portrait of the Duke of Wellington, in what remains the only successful theft from the Gallery. Four years later, Bunton returned the painting voluntarily. Following a high-profile trial, he was found not guilty of stealing the painting, but guilty of stealing the frame. The theft of the painting was the subject of the October 2015 BBC Radio 4 drama Kempton and the Duke, and the 2020 movie The Duke. In July 1987, a man entered the gallery armed with a shotgun concealed under his coat and shot the Leonardo Cartoon. The man, Robert Cambridge, told police that his intent had been to show his disgust with "political, social and economic conditions in Britain." Though the pellets did not penetrate the Cartoon, it had to undergo extensive restoration and was placed back on display the following year. In 2015, UK group Trollstation pretended that they were stealing money and art work, prompting an emergency services response. Various members of the group were arrested and jailed. The museum's copy of Vincent van Gogh's Sunflowers was attacked on 14 October 2022 by environmental activists from the Just Stop Oil campaign, who threw tomato soup at it while it was on display. Due to the protection of the plexiglass, the painting was not harmed, but it suffered some minor damage to the frame, according to a spokesperson for the museum. ## List of directors ## Collection highlights - Cimabue: Virgin and Child with Two Angels - Giotto: Pentecost - English or French Medieval: Wilton Diptych - Jan van Eyck: Arnolfini Portrait, Portrait of a Man (Self Portrait?) - Pisanello: The Vision of Saint Eustace - Paolo Uccello: The Battle of San Romano, Saint George and the Dragon - Rogier van der Weyden: The Magdalen Reading - Masaccio: Madonna and Child - Dieric Bouts: The Entombment - Piero della Francesca: Baptism of Christ - Antonello da Messina: Portrait of a Man, St Jerome in his Study - Giovanni Bellini: Agony in the Garden, Madonna del Prato, Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredan - Antonio and Piero del Pollaiuolo: Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian - Sandro Botticelli: Venus and Mars, The Mystical Nativity - Hieronymus Bosch: Christ Crowned with Thorns - Leonardo da Vinci: Virgin of the Rocks, The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and Saint John the Baptist - Albrecht Dürer: St Jerome in the Wilderness - Michelangelo: The Entombment, The Manchester Madonna - Jan Gossaert: Adoration of the Kings - Raphael: Garvagh Madonna, Ansidei Madonna, Portrait of Pope Julius II, The Madonna of the Pinks, Mond Crucifixion, Vision of a Knight - Titian: Aldobrandini Madonna, Allegory of Prudence, Bacchus and Ariadne, Diana and Actaeon, Diana and Callisto, The Death of Actaeon, A Man with a Quilted Sleeve, Portrait of the Vendramin Family - Hans Holbein the Younger: The Ambassadors, Portrait of Christina of Denmark - Parmigianino: Portrait of a Collector, Vision of Saint Jerome - Agnolo Bronzino: Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time - Tintoretto: The Origin of the Milky Way - Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Adoration of the Kings - Paolo Veronese: The Family of Darius before Alexander, The Conversion of Mary Magdalene, Adoration of the Magi - El Greco: Christ Driving the Money Changers from the Temple - Caravaggio: Boy Bitten by a Lizard, Supper at Emmaus, Salome with the Head of John the Baptist - Peter Paul Rubens: The Judgement of Paris - Orazio Gentileschi: The Finding of Moses - Artemisia Gentileschi: Self-Portrait as Saint Catherine of Alexandria - Nicolas Poussin: The Adoration of the Golden Calf - Diego Velázquez: Christ in the House of Martha and Mary, Philip IV in Brown and Silver, Rokeby Venus - Anthony van Dyck: Equestrian Portrait of Charles I, Lord John Stuart and his Brother, Lord Bernard Stuart - Claude Lorrain: Seaport with the Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba - Rembrandt: Self-Portrait at the Age of 34, Belshazzar's Feast, Self-Portrait at the Age of 63 - Johannes Vermeer: Lady Standing at a Virginal, Lady Seated at a Virginal - Meindert Hobbema: The Avenue at Middelharnis - Canaletto: The Stonemason's Yard - William Hogarth: The Graham Children, Marriage à-la-mode - George Stubbs: Whistlejacket - Thomas Gainsborough: Mr and Mrs Andrews, The Morning Walk - Joseph Wright of Derby: An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump - Francisco Goya: Portrait of the Duke of Wellington - J. M. W. Turner: The Fighting Temeraire, Rain, Steam and Speed – The Great Western Railway - John Constable: The Cornfield, The Hay Wain - Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres: Madame Moitessier - Eugène Delacroix: Ovid among the Scythians - Edgar Degas: Miss La La at the Cirque Fernando, Young Spartans Exercising - Paul Cézanne: Les Grandes Baigneuses - Claude Monet: Snow at Argenteuil, La Gare Saint-Lazare - Pierre-Auguste Renoir: The Umbrellas, A Nymph by a Stream - Henri Rousseau: Tiger in a Tropical Storm (Surprised!) - Vincent van Gogh: Sunflowers, A Wheatfield with Cypresses - Georges Seurat: Bathers at Asnières ## Transport connections ## See also - Micro gallery, installed in 1991. ## Explanatory notes

Glass Spider Tour

1987 worldwide concert tour by David Bowie

The Glass Spider Tour was a 1987 worldwide concert tour by English musician David Bowie, launched in support of his album Never Let Me Down and named for that album's track "Glass Spider". It began in May 1987 and was preceded by a two-week press tour that saw Bowie visit nine countries throughout Europe and North America to drum up public interest in the tour. The Glass Spider Tour was the first Bowie tour to visit Austria, Italy, Spain, Ireland and Wales. Through a sponsorship from Pepsi, the tour was intended to visit Russia and South America as well, but these plans were later cancelled. The tour was, at that point, the longest and most expensive tour Bowie had embarked upon in his career. At the time, the tour's elaborate set was called "the largest touring set ever". Bowie conceived the tour as a theatrical show, and included spoken-word introductions to some songs, vignettes, and employed visuals including projected videos, theatrical lighting and stage props. On stage, Bowie was joined by guitarist Peter Frampton and a troupe of five dancers choreographed by long-time Bowie collaborator Toni Basil. With the theme "Rock stars vs Reality", the show was divided into two acts and an encore. The set list was modified over the course of the tour as Bowie dropped some of his newer material in favour of older songs from his repertoire. The tour was generally poorly received at the time for being perceived as overblown and pretentious. Despite the criticism, Bowie in 1991 remarked that this tour laid the groundwork for later successful theatrical tours by other artists, and the set's design and the show's integration of music and theatrics has inspired later acts by a variety of artists. Starting in the late 2000s, the tour began to collect accolades for its successes, and in 2010 the tour was named one of the top concert tour designs of all time. The tour was financially successful and well-attended, being seen by perhaps as many as six million fans worldwide, but the negative critical reception of the album and tour led Bowie to not only abandon plans for other elaborate stage shows, but to reconsider his motivations for making music. Performances from this tour were released on the VHS video Glass Spider (1988, re-released on DVD in 2007). ## Background In the four years prior to the release of Never Let Me Down, Bowie had worked on a series of miscellaneous projects that included collaborations with the Pat Metheny Group for "This Is Not America" and Mick Jagger for "Dancing in the Street". He also continued acting and composing for film soundtracks such as Absolute Beginners (1985) and Labyrinth (1986). In 1985, after his successful performance at Live Aid and a live performance with Tina Turner for one of her shows on her 1985 Private Dancer Tour, Bowie collaborated with his friend Iggy Pop for his solo album Blah-Blah-Blah, producing and co-writing multiple tracks. He then worked with Turkish musician Erdal Kızılçay for the title song of the 1986 film When the Wind Blows. In late 1986, Bowie began recording sessions for his album Never Let Me Down, which was released in April 1987. He had not toured for his 1984 album Tonight, making the Glass Spider Tour his first tour in four years. ## Development Preparations for the tour began as early as 1986, when Bowie warned his band to "be ready for next year." Bowie was initially mum on his plans for his tour, saying only "I'm going to do a stage thing this year, which I'm incredibly excited about, 'cause I'm gonna take a chance again." When asked if he would elaborate on his plans, he replied "No! [Laughs.] Too many other acts are goin' out. I'll just be doing what I always did, which is keeping things interesting." In announcing the tour, Bowie embarked on a series of promotional press shows covering nine countries in two weeks, including Canada, the US and seven countries in Europe. The press tour shows were typically delivered in smaller venues seating around 300 people, and local fans were often allowed into the events. He used the opportunity to educate the press on his album and the tour, and the multiple dates allowed him to correct misinformation. At the London Glass Spider Press Conference, he clarified that "I didn't say 'lights, costumes and sex,' what I said was 'lights, costumes and theatrical sets'" in response to a question about what the audience could expect when seeing his new live show. Press tour shows included live performances of some of the songs from the album Never Let Me Down. Bowie was joined by long-time friend Peter Frampton on the tour. Frampton said "I don't have a book to sell; I don't have an album to sell; I'm just here as a guitarist. The pressure is off. I'm enjoying myself." Frampton and Bowie had known each other since their teen years when they both attended Bromley Technical School, where Frampton's father, Owen Frampton, was Bowie's art teacher. Bowie had a clear goal for this tour: to return to the theatrics that he had performed during his short-lived 1974 Diamond Dogs Tour. He wanted this tour to be "ultra-theatrical, a combination of music, theater, and rock", and he felt that his previous tour, while successful, had veered away from the theatrics that he preferred: > [In 1983 for the Serious Moonlight Tour] the promoters were coming around and saying, "Listen David, we moved you from this 10,000 seater up to this 30,000-seater" ... and it grew and grew and there were 60,000-seaters coming up. ... Let's trim back on the theatrics and really go for giving them songs that they've heard on the radio for the last 15 years or so – songs they probably didn't realize when added up are a great body of work coming from this guy. ... Whereas with [The Glass Spider] tour coming up, I feel I've established that. What I now want to do is have the songs work for the performance. ... Certainly there will be obscure songs on it, at least for the general public. There will be songs from albums that weren't huge albums, but now those particular songs actually fit a section of the show. So when you put three songs together, you can create a vignette that works. It has a beginning and a conclusion and deals with one subject. Bowie indicated that he was "testing the waters" with this tour, and was potentially considering other large, elaborate stage shows if the tour was successful: > The songs have to work within the show—not the show working for the songs, if you see what I mean. That's why it's so different. And that's why it's so exciting, because that's the way I really like working. I mean, I like devising a show. I've got a show book that is almost like the bible you have when you're working on a play. It's written and structured with various thematic devices. Unfortunately, it's in revue form, because none of the songs were written for the show. That's the ultimate, of course. If this works the way I hope it does, then the next step for me will be to write a piece specifically for arenas and stadiums, which is almost like taking a musical on the road that has one narrative form all the way through, with a cast of characters, and is written for epic theater. Bowie decided that the theme for the show would be "the reality and unreality of rock," or, as one critic called it, "rock stars vs. reality". Bowie said, "It's not just about a rock singer, it's about rock music, so it has a lot to do with the audience and how they perceive rock, and rock figures, and all the cliches, archetypes and stereotypes, and also family relationship." During the show itself, Bowie incorporated a wide variety of props: "I'm really attempting to do a lot of stuff! It incorporates movement, dialogue, fragments of film, projected images, it's what used to be called multi-media in the '60s." Bowie described how he assembled the show, saying, "The idea was to concoct surrealist or minimalist stage pieces to accompany rock-and-roll songs. I wanted to bridge together some kind of symbolist theater and modern dance. Not jazz dance, certainly not MTV dance, but something more influenced by people like Pina Bausch and a Montreal group called [La La La Human Steps]. There are some symbolist pieces, some minimalist pieces, and some vulgar pieces, too – some straightforward vaudeville bits." When Bowie was asked what he thought his audience expected of him on this tour, he said: > I guess that they come along to see whether I'll fall down or something. I really don't know. I know that they get what they consider is a really good performance. I think that over the years I've proved that I do my best to provide them with some new vision of musical information on the stage. So I think there's probably that element in it, but I couldn't go any further than that. I really don't know what they want from me. I've never really been able to write for them. I've only written and performed that which interests me. So essentially they have an agreement with me and that's great. I mean, I've lost audiences many times over the years, and they've come back again for one reason or another. I've sort of got that mutual agreement with them. If it's not going very well then they stay away. Which is fair enough, you know. Bowie reportedly coordinated aspects of the tour via email, a rarity in the late 1980s. ## Song selection Bowie elected to play less well-known songs on the tour and avoided some of his bigger hits. He was eager to not repeat the formula that made the Serious Moonlight Tour a success, saying, "It seemed so easy. It was cheers from the word go. You know how to get a reaction – play 'Changes,' 'Golden Years' and they'd be up on their feet. You get the reaction, take the money and run away. It seemed too easy. I didn't want to do that again." In a different contemporary interview he said, "I'm not doing 'Star' again. That was quite hard. I don't think I'm doing much Ziggy material on this tour! [laughs] Probably use a lot of that mid-70s material, but not the more ponderous things like 'Warszawa.' I tried that, and that was a bit yawn-making. There was one I was humming to myself the other day: [sings] 'Baby, baby, I'll never let you down' – oh lord, what's that one? Jesus, I can't remember it. ... 'Sons of the Silent Age!' [snaps fingers] Ah! That's right! Thank god I could remember it! So that for me now is a new song. I've never done that one onstage." "Sons of the Silent Age" was performed every night of the tour. All but two songs ("Too Dizzy" and "Shining Star (Makin' My Love)") from his album Never Let Me Down were played live during the tour, although "Shining Star" was among the songs rehearsed. Other songs rehearsed but not performed were "Because You're Young" and "Scream Like a Baby", both from Scary Monsters (And Super Creeps) (1980). Several songs that Bowie had anticipated playing on the tour were abandoned before rehearsals even started, including "Space Oddity" (from David Bowie (1969)), "Joe the Lion" (from "Heroes" (1977)), "Ricochet" (from Let's Dance (1983)), and "Don't Look Down" (from Tonight (1984)). Songs performed during the tour were "chosen because they fit the performance" and fit Bowie's goal to make a show that was much more theatrical and had strong dramatic content. When he was asked how he was going to make his rock show "dramatic", he replied, "You'll be surprised what you can do with a 6-piece rock band and a stage and a couple of lights." ## Set design The tour's set, described at the time as "the largest touring set ever," was designed to look like a giant spider. It was 60 feet (18.3m) high, 64 feet (19.5m) wide and included giant vacuum tube legs that were lit from the inside with 20,000' (6,096m) of color-changing lights. A single set took 43 trucks to move and was estimated to weigh 360 tons. 16' x 20' (4.9m x 6m) video screens displayed video and images from the show to those in the audience who were further away from the stage. The system required to run the show included two separate sound systems, 260 speaker cabinets, 1,000 lights with an output total of 600,000 watts, and three computers. Mark Ravitz, the set designer, had previously designed Bowie's 1974 Diamond Dogs Tour set. This was Bowie's first tour where wireless microphone technology was available, allowing Bowie considerable freedom to move around the stage during a concert. This allowed him to interact with the dancers and musicians much more freely, and as such the set included 3-story high mobile scaffolding, onto which Bowie and his dancers would occasionally climb during the show. Each set cost US\$10 million, about \$ in today's dollars. Bowie himself invested over \$10 million of his own money to help fund the tour, and he paid \$1 million a week to maintain a staff of 150 people to maintain and build the three sets as the tour moved around the world. In Philadelphia, where the tour opened in the US, the set was described as taking "300 people 4 days" to build. About halfway through the first leg of the tour in Europe, Bowie discovered that the full Spider set was so large that it would not fit in most indoor venues. He said, "It would cost me between \$500,000 and \$600,000 to alter the sets enough to bring the show indoors. ... I may decide to have a smaller 'indoor' set made somewhere during the tour." He did in fact commission a third slightly smaller set, called the "Junior Bug" set, to be used at indoor venues where the full spider would not fit, such as New York's Madison Square Garden. Bowie thought of the whole set as a metaphor of life, describing the stage as having "a feeling of a ship, which is the voyage, with the rigging and the climbing and the ropes. And the bottom circular area is like the Circus of Lights, so it really is from birth, and the voyaging through life." ## Rehearsals Bowie assembled his band in early 1987 and were joined on stage by five dancers who were choreographed by Bowie's long-time friend Toni Basil. The band and the dancers spent time in 12-hour-a-day rehearsals in New York before moving on to Europe. Bowie shot the video for his single "Time Will Crawl" during these rehearsals; it previewed some of the elaborate dance routines that were used during performances of "Loving the Alien" (1985), "Fashion" (1980) and "Sons of the Silent Age" (1977). Bowie described his rehearsal routine: > I prepare the day's work when I get up in the morning, and then I go in around 10 o'clock (a.m.) for rehearsals. Then it's constant rehearsals, both the visual side and the musical side, through about 8 o'clock (p.m.). At around 8 p.m. I look at the video tapes of what we've been doing during the day, and make adjustments if necessary. So there really isn't time to do anything else at all except Sundays, and then I sleep for most of the day. It's very intensive rehearsals, and physically it's quite demanding. Rehearsals with the full Spider set were staged in Rotterdam's Ahoy arena starting on 18 May before moving to De Kuip stadium for the dress rehearsals (27 and 28 May). Due to relatively easy access to the venues during rehearsals, fans knew what the set list for the show would be before the tour even opened. Bowie stated that he was looking for dancers who did not look like typical MTV dancers and who knew both American street-dancing and European performance art. Originally Bowie had hoped to have Édouard Lock of La La La Human Steps be involved in the show, but the group was booked with other commitments. Bowie later lamented that the Tour may have been viewed differently if La La La Human Steps had been involved: "It would have been a different ballgame." La La La Human Steps would provide the choreography for Bowie's next tour, the Sound+Vision Tour of 1990. ## Concert synopsis The show was divided into two parts and included a planned encore. Bowie entered the show to the song "Glass Spider", for which he was lowered from the set's ceiling while seated in a silver chair and singing into a telephone. The show's first vignette began with "Bang Bang", during which Bowie pulled an audience member out of the crowd, only to be rejected by the fan, who by the end of the song was revealed to be one of the troupe's dancers. Later in the show, for the song "Fashion", the dance troupe threatened Bowie with a street fight, which, by the end of the song, he accidentally wins. For the live rendition of "Never Let Me Down", the performance of which Bowie called "abrasive", he was influenced by the minimalist choreography of Pina Bausch. He said: > I wanted one straight movement that starts upstage and comes all the way downstage and doesn't vary. I'm on my knees, with my arms in a kind of straitjacket, and a crawl for three-and-a-half minutes. A girl is with me, as if she's accompanying her pet in a park, but she has a cylinder on her back, and every now and then she's giving me oxygen. It felt like a very protective, a very sad little image, and it felt right for the song. For Part 2, Bowie appeared on the stage's scaffolding to "'87 & Cry", flew through the air in a Flying by Foy abseiling harness, and was subsequently tied up by riot police. On at least one occasion, the flying segment of the song was dropped due to a malfunction with the set. The movie footage shown behind Bowie during "'Heroes'" was shot by Bowie during his time in Russia in 1974. Of the footage, Bowie said: > There's a poignant image of a Mongolian with a hanky in his hand waving goodbye to his family getting on a train to Moscow and I loop that up so there's a never ending sequence of this old fellow dabbing his tears and waving bye-bye. That plays behind the action in black and white and it's alarmingly sad. It's like saying goodbye to heroism; it's like saying goodbye to a world of a 19th century ideal. It's irretrievable and now maybe we’re just looking for seeds of intelligence and not heroes. There's something about it that I really like. It's a piece of theatricality that I really adore. I’m really proud of it. The encore typically opened with the song "Time", for which Bowie emerged from the top of the spider's head with angel wings behind him, 60 feet above the crowd. The song was occasionally cut from outdoor shows when bad weather made the perch atop the spider too precarious to perform. ## Costume design For the first act, Bowie was dressed in a single-breasted three-quarters length red suit with a red shirt and pants designed by Diana Moseley. The outfit included red Chelsea boots with silver details at the heel and toe. One of the outfits that Bowie wore for Part 2, signed by Bowie, was put up for auction on 21 May 2016 and was sold for \$37,500. Bowie's outfit for the encore was a gold lamé leather suit complete with gold winged cowboy boots. One of these suits, also autographed by Bowie, sold at a Sotheby's auction in 1990 for \$7,000 (worth about \$ today) several times its expected selling price. That same outfit was again put up for auction in December 2016 with an expected selling price of \$20,000–⁠\$30,000, and was sold for \$32,500. ## Setlists On tour, the band typically performed a roughly two and a half-hour set that varied only a little from night to night. Early European set list Part 1 1. "Up the Hill Backwards" 2. "Glass Spider" 3. "Up the Hill Backwards (reprise)" 4. "Day-In Day-Out" 5. "Bang Bang" 6. "Absolute Beginners" 7. "Loving the Alien" 8. "China Girl" 9. "Fashion" 10. "Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)" 11. "All the Madmen" 12. "Never Let Me Down" 13. "Big Brother" / "Chant of the Ever Circling Skeletal Family" Late European / American / Australasian set list Part 1 1. "Up the Hill Backwards" 2. "Glass Spider" 3. "Up the Hill Backwards (reprise)" 4. "Day-In Day-Out" 5. "Bang Bang" 6. "Absolute Beginners" 7. "Loving the Alien" 8. "China Girl" 9. "Rebel Rebel" 10. "Fashion" 11. "Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)" 12. "All the Madmen" 13. "Never Let Me Down" 14. "Big Brother" / "Chant of the Ever Circling Skeletal Family" Part 2 1. <li value="14"> "'87 & Cry" 2. ""Heroes"" 3. "Time Will Crawl" 4. Band introductions 5. "Beat of Your Drum" 6. "Sons of the Silent Age" 7. "New York's in Love" 8. "Dancing with the Big Boys" 9. "Zeroes" 10. "Let's Dance" 11. "Fame" Part 2 1. <li value="15"> "'87 & Cry" 2. ""Heroes"" 3. "Time Will Crawl" 4. Band introductions 5. "Young Americans" 6. "Beat of Your Drum" 7. "Sons of the Silent Age" 8. "The Jean Genie" 9. "White Light/White Heat" 10. "Let's Dance" 11. "Fame" Encore 1. <li value="25"> "Time" 2. "Blue Jean" 3. "Modern Love" Encore 1. <li value="26"> "Time" 2. "Blue Jean" 3. "I Wanna Be Your Dog" 4. "Modern Love" ### Notes and changes - An extended drum solo separated Part 1 and Part 2 and allowed Bowie time for a costume change. - Bowie would lengthen or shorten his performance of "Fame" depending on the crowd's reaction by including parts of "Lavender's Blue", "London Bridge", "War" and "Who Will Buy?" into the song. - "White Light/White Heat" and "Fame" were performed during the encore at some venues. - "I Wanna Be Your Dog" was only occasionally performed at shows during the North American and Oceania tours. - "Time" would only be performed if it was safe for Bowie to stand on top of the spider's head for the start of the encore. If it was raining the song would be completely dropped as it was unsafe. - "New York's in Love" was dropped after 10 June (Milan, Italy). - "The Jean Genie" was added on 8 July (Barcelona, Spain). - "White Light/White Heat" and "Young Americans" were added and "Zeroes" was dropped on 11 July (Slane, Ireland). - "Rebel Rebel" was added and "Dancing with the Big Boys" was dropped on 30 July (Philadelphia, USA). ## Opening acts The opening act for the tour varied from country to country; in North America some dates of the tour were supported by Duran Duran or Siouxsie and the Banshees. The opening acts in Europe varied, and included such acts as Iggy Pop, Big Country, The Cult, Erasure, The Stranglers and Nina Hagen. The tour also played festival dates, on one occasion with Eurythmics headlining one night and Bowie headlining the next. ## Tour incidents The tour took a physical toll on Bowie. Not only did he grow noticeably thinner over the course of the tour, he found that he was exhausted before the tour even started: > I think [tours like this] are extravagantly dangerous to do because they're so fucking tiring. Just the pressures of organising the event, and it's no longer a show, it's an event. Even before you go out on tour, you're knackered. There's God knows how many people running around, and everybody's doing something and people are forgetting to delegate jobs to the right people, and it's a mass of confusion and somehow it's all supposed to come together. The tour played at large-capacity venues, and in Europe the tour alternated between indoor and outdoor, open-field venues. Michael Clark, a lighting engineer for the tour, died at the Stadio Comunale in Florence, Italy on 9 June after falling from the scaffolding before the show commenced. The following day on 10 June, another worker fell without lethal injury while helping build the set in Milan. Mobs of fans, some who had camped out overnight to get into the venue, rioted and had to be controlled by police. Both shows in Rome (on 15 and 16 June) saw similar rioting as fans who could not get tickets to the shows clashed with police. On the second night, Bowie had to sing through tear gas as 50 people were arrested and 15 policemen were injured in the rioting. As the band's plane was leaving Rome after their show on 16 June, a bomb scare forced the plane to return to the airport, only to discover that the local chief of police had used it as a ruse to get Bowie's autograph. Said Bowie of the incident, "I was not so much annoyed as stunned – that could only happen in Italy!" The 27 June concert, originally scheduled to be performed at Ullevi, Gothenburg, Sweden had to be moved to nearby Eriksberg in Hisingen because a previous concert by Bruce Springsteen held at Ullevi Stadium incurred £2.7m (or about £m today) in damages. A fan trying to enter the Slane Castle backstage area by swimming the River Boyne drowned just before the show on 11 July. At one point during the European tour, guitarist Carlos Alomar ripped a ligament in his leg, an injury that caused him to change his on-stage character. Said Alomar, "[I] had to change my character into the mad, limping Mad Max reject with spiky hair. I went to a chiropractor and asked him for a lot of metal stuff -- leg braces, back braces and everything. Now I'll be adding more metal as the show progresses." Bowie was occasionally visited or had his shows attended by European royalty, including Princess Diana at the second show in Wembley Stadium; Sarah, Duchess of York at Sunderland; and Danish Prince Joachim and Crown Prince Frederik at Stadt Park. The Glass Spider Tour was the first Bowie tour to reach Austria, Italy, Spain, Ireland and Wales. Some of the outdoor performances in Britain had to start early due to curfew laws, a problem typically avoided in other European shows, which reduced the impact of the lighting of the stage and set dressing, and bothered Bowie considerably. During the North American leg of the tour, a 30-year-old Dallas woman named Wanda Nichols claimed that Bowie sexually assaulted her at the Mansion Hotel after a show at Reunion Arena in Dallas. Bowie denied the charges, calling them "ridiculous". He said Nichols was with him in his hotel room, but that anything that occurred between them was with her consent. A spokeswoman for assistant district attorney Hugh Lucas said on 18 November 1987 that the Dallas County grand jury no-billed Bowie after hearing two hours of testimony on November 11. "The Grand jury did not find enough evidence to warrant an indictment," the spokeswoman said. ## Ticket sales and attendance Demand for tickets to the tour was high: the September 3 show at Sullivan Stadium in Massachusetts set a record for quickest sellout at that venue, a record matched by U2 and unsurpassed until The Who sold 100,000 tickets to two shows there in less than eight hours in 1989. Star magazine reported that, for one venue, Bowie sold \$3 million in tickets to three shows in 90 minutes. The concert drew the largest crowd ever to see a concert in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada at the time. Advance sales for the Australian leg of the tour was \$8.6 million, surpassing even Michael Jackson's advance sales for the Australian leg of his "Bad" concert tour (estimated at \$4.5 million). Writers have estimated that by the conclusion of the tour between two and six million people had attended, and David Currie, the author of a book about the European leg of the tour, suggested that three million fans saw the tour worldwide. Four of the tour's shows were among the top 20 highest grossing concert shows of 1987 in the US, and at the end of 1987 it was estimated that the entire tour grossed more than \$50 million. In 1991, it was estimated that each show of the tour grossed \$1 million, for roughly \$86 million over the course of the tour, or approximately \$ today, adjusted for inflation. ## Contemporary critical reviews The European leg of the tour seemed to garner mostly unfavorable reviews from the media, although there were positive reviews as well. Chris Roberts, a writer for Melody Maker, later said that there was "overwhelming peer pressure" among his fellow musical critics to review the tour unfavourably. Bowie was frustrated how the reviews in Europe changed from initially positive to negative, blaming the early start of the tour in some outdoor venues for the poor reception. He said, "the biggest mistake that was made on that tour, was opening in the daylight. The whole reason for the entire damn show was lost." He noted that reviews from indoor shows, where the set and lighting were more effective, were quite positive. The US media seemed kinder, with papers in Orlando, Florida and Boston, Massachusetts writing positive reviews. The Philadelphia Inquirer and Chicago Tribune were both mixed in their reviews. The review of Bowie's first show in New York was mostly negative, calling the show "spectacular", but adding that "overkill reigns" and lamenting "a dizzying overload of visual activity." A review in the Christian Science Monitor was mostly positive, highlighting the dazzling visuals and complaining that the dancing was only occasionally inspired. A local paper in Portland, Oregon had a positive review that said that the dancers, music, set and band combined into an "overall effect [that] could rightly be called spectacular. It is performance art and rock opera; it is a stunning assemblage worthy of any stage or arena in the world." Despite criticism in the press, Bowie at the time said that performing on this tour was the most fun he had ever had on the road because it was the "most inventive" tour he had ever been involved with. ## Live recordings Despite stating during the press tour that there would be no live album from the tour, the performances at Sydney Entertainment Centre – Sydney on 7 and 9 November 1987 were filmed and released on video as Glass Spider in 1988. An edit of this show was subsequently aired in the US in an ABC TV concert special, ABC's first concert special since airing Elvis Presley's Aloha from Hawaii in 1973. A 2007 DVD re-release of the show included an audio recording of the performance at Olympic Stadium, Montreal on 30 August 1987, which was re-mastered and released on Loving the Alien (1983-1988) (2018). The 6 June 1987 Platz der Republik (Reichstag – City Of Berlin Festival) performance was broadcast live on FM radio. One critic found that the 1988 and 2007 DVD reissue video releases rendered the intended meaning of the show largely nonsensical, as several songs and vignettes that made the show's message explicit were excised from the release. However Bowie biographer Nicholas Pegg said that the concert film was "hugely enjoyable" despite the show's flaws, and that the video "leads the field for those wishing to see David Bowie delivering a rock-theatre spectacular." ## Commercial sponsorship Bowie agreed to what at the time was considered a controversial commercial sponsorship agreement with PepsiCo, which was later seen as helping to pave the way for other big money tours by other artists. For his part, Bowie recorded a TV commercial with Tina Turner to the tune "Modern Love" in May 1987 while he was preparing for the tour. Of the sponsorship agreement, Bowie said, "We did a commercial sponsorship thing only for North America with the Pepsi-Cola company. As far as I'm concerned, what it's allowed me to do, having them underwrite the tour, is to be able to produce a far more extravagant show than if I were just doing it myself. It means that instead of just having 1 or 2 sets I can have 3 or 4 sets made, and they can travel independently and they can be far more complicated." Bowie had originally planned to take the Glass Spider Tour to Russia, albeit with the band only and no dancers or elaborate props, but with the money and extra stage provided by the sponsorship, Bowie felt he could take the full tour to Russia and South America. However, these plans failed to come to fruition, and the tour never reached those regions. ## Tour legacy Bowie found himself under great stress during the tour, and after the tour ended in New Zealand, he reportedly had one of the Spider sets burned, saying "It was so great ... We just put the thing in a field and set light to it. That was such a relief!" In 2016, road manager Peter Grumley claimed to have purchased and stored at least one of the (unburned) sets in his West Auckland warehouse. The entire tour was so physically demanding and such a large production that Bowie said at the time that "I don't think I'll ever take a tour quite this elaborate out on the road again. It's a real headache to put it together". Bowie became engaged to Melissa Hurley, one of the dancers from the tour, but the two split up without being wed after four years. Critics have often compared later David Bowie tours to this one, commonly echoing this later review: "[Bowie] mounted a stadium-sized production combining the excitement of rock with the perils of Broadway. ... An incredible spectacle, but the effect was overwhelming. Each additional theatrical device served to distract, ultimately flattening the impact of the music." In 1989 while working with Tin Machine, Bowie said "I overstretched. ... There was too much responsibility on the last [Glass Spider] tour. I was under stress every single day. It was a decision a second. It was so big and so unwieldy and everybody had a problem all the time, every day, and I was under so much pressure. It was unbelievable. ... I put too many fine details into something that was going to be seen (indicates tiny figure with his finger and thumb) this big." In 1990, while giving interviews for his Sound+Vision Tour, Bowie said that he was pleased that the tour was regarded as "innovative", noting reviews that pointed out how the tour had "areas of it that surely would change the way rock was done." In 1991, while preparing for his second tour with Tin Machine, Bowie reflected on the Glass Spider Tour's theatrics and presentation, suggesting that many tours and acts that followed benefited from this tour: > The Stones' show, Prince's show, Madonna's show... all of them have benefited from [this] tour. ... I like lots of it [the Glass Spider Tour], but ... the whole thing should have been a lot smaller. Three-quarters of it was really innovative, and I've seen a lot of it in other people's shows. ... One day, if you get the chance, get a copy of that show on video and take another look at it, because in the light of what's been done since, there's some interesting shit going on. In the late 2000s, the tour began to be re-examined by critics, and the tone of the coverage began to change. In 2009, an article in the BBC News singled out the Glass Spider Tour's innovative set and marriage of music and theatre as an inspiration to later acts, including Britney Spears, Madonna, U2 and others. Stage designer Willie Williams said the Glass Spider Tour was a template for those acts: "There will be one set of costumes and they will do a few songs, then there will be another big scene change and move on to the next thing. Bowie crossing rock 'n' roll with Broadway [in the Glass Spider Tour] was where that began." In 2010, the Glass Spider Tour won an award for being one of the best concert designs of all time (alongside other such notable tours as U2's 360° Tour [2009–2011] and Pink Floyd's Division Bell Tour [1994]). In 2013, new critical reviews began to take note of some of the tour's strengths and innovations and proposed that the tour was better than its reputation suggested. Although critics still found some elements of the tour questionable (including the set itself and the prevalence of Bowie's newer material), the tour was praised for Bowie's strong voice, musical arrangements and choice of relatively unheard "jewels" in the set list. Peter Frampton credited his participation in this tour for helping to revive his own career. In 2017, a review in The Atlantic, while admitting that it had some flaws, called the show "spectacular, beautiful, charmingly pretentious, and weirdly magical." The show on 6 June 1987 was played close to the Berlin Wall. The show was heard by thousands of East German citizens across the wall and was followed by violent rioting in East Berlin. According to German journalist Tobias Ruther, these protests in East Berlin were the first in the sequence of riots that led to those around the time of the fall of the wall in November 1989. Although other factors were probably more influential in the fall of the wall, on Bowie's death in 2016, the German Foreign Office tweeted "Good-bye, David Bowie. You are now among \#Heroes. Thank you for helping to bring down the \#wall." Ultimately, given the negative reaction to the Never Let Me Down album and this tour, Bowie found himself creatively exhausted and in low critical standing. Bowie decided to return to making music for himself, and, having been put in touch with Reeves Gabrels through his publicist for the Glass Spider Tour, Bowie formed his band Tin Machine in 1989 and retired his back catalogue of songs from live performance with his Sound+Vision Tour in 1990. ## Tour details ### Tour band - David Bowie – vocals, guitar - Peter Frampton – guitar, vocals - Carlos Alomar – guitar, backing vocals, music director - Carmine Rojas – bass guitar - Alan Childs – drums - Erdal Kızılçay – keyboards, trumpet, congas, violin, backing vocals - Richard Cottle – keyboards, saxophone, tambourine, backing vocals ### Guest performer during the encore at some shows of the North America and Oceania tour - Charlie Sexton – guitar, backing vocals ### Tour dancers - Melissa Hurley - Constance Marie - Spazz Attack (Craig Allen Rothwell) - Viktor Manoel - Skeeter Rabbit (Stephen Nichols) - Toni Basil (choreography) ### Tour design - Allen Branton – Lighting design - Mark Ravitz – Set design - Christine Strand – Video director ### Band equipment Peter Frampton played two natural-finish maple body Pensa-Suhr Strat types, hand-made by New York-based John Suhr. For the song "Zeroes", he used a Coral electric sitar, given to him in the late '70s and previously owned by Jimi Hendrix. Carlos Alomar played on six Kramer American series guitars and one custom Alembic. Multi-instrumentalist Erdal Kizilcay played Yamaha DX7, Emax, Korg SG-1 and Yamaha CS70 keyboards. He also played a Tokai Stratocaster, a Yamaha GS1000 bass and a Pedulla fretless bass. Additional instruments played included a set of Latin Percussion timbales and white congas, a cowbell, 6- and 8-inch Zildjian cymbals, Promark drum sticks, a Simmons SDS-9, a cornet and a 17th-century Italian viola. Richard Cottle played on two Prophet 5s, an Oberheim, a Yamaha DX7, DX7-IID and KX5 keyboards as well as a Selmer alto saxophone. Carmine Rojas used two Spector basses, and Alan Childs played on Tama Artstar II drums and used various combinations of Zildjian A, K, and Platinum series cymbals. ### Tour dates ### The songs From The Man Who Sold the World - "All the Madmen" From Aladdin Sane - "The Jean Genie" - "Time" From Ziggy Stardust: The Motion Picture - "White Light/White Heat" (originally from White Light/White Heat (1968) by The Velvet Underground; written by Lou Reed) From Diamond Dogs - "Big Brother" - "Chant of the Ever Circling Skeletal Family" - "Rebel Rebel" From Young Americans - "Fame" (Bowie, John Lennon, Carlos Alomar) - "Young Americans" From "Heroes" - "'Heroes'" (Bowie, Brian Eno) - "Sons of the Silent Age" From Scary Monsters (And Super Creeps) - "Fashion" - "Scary Monsters (And Super Creeps)" - "Up the Hill Backwards" From Let's Dance - "China Girl" (originally from The Idiot by Iggy Pop, written by Pop and Bowie) - "Let's Dance" - "Modern Love" From Tonight - "Blue Jean" - "Dancing With the Big Boys" (Bowie, Pop, Carlos Alomar) - "Loving the Alien" From Never Let Me Down - "'87 and Cry" - "Bang Bang" (Pop, Ivan Kral) - "Beat of Your Drum" - "Day-In Day-Out" - "Glass Spider" - "Never Let Me Down" (Bowie, Alomar) - "New York's in Love" - "Time Will Crawl" - "Zeroes" Other songs: - "Absolute Beginners" (from Absolute Beginners) - "I Wanna Be Your Dog" (from The Stooges (1969) by The Stooges, written by Pop, Dave Alexander, Ron Asheton and Scott Asheton) - "Lavender's Blue" (traditional) - "London Bridge Is Falling Down" (traditional) - "War" (from War & Peace (1970) by Edwin Starr; written by Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong) - "Who Will Buy?" (from the musical Oliver!) Rehearsed, but not performed: - "Because You're Young" (from Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)) - "Scream Like a Baby" (from Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)) - "Shining Star (Makin' My Love)" (from Never Let Me Down) ## See also - Highest-grossing concert tours of the 1980s

French ironclad Jeanne d'Arc

French Navy's Alma-class ironclad

Jeanne d'Arc was a wooden-hulled armored corvette built for the French Navy in the late 1860s. She was named for Joan of Arc, a Roman Catholic saint and heroine of the Hundred Years War. Jeanne d'Arc participated in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 and remained in commission afterwards, unlike many of her sisters. The ship was condemned in 1883, but nothing further is known as to her disposition. ## Design and description The Alma-class ironclads were designed as improved versions of the armored corvette Belliqueuse suitable for foreign deployments. Unlike their predecessor the Alma-class ships were true central battery ironclads as they were fitted with armored transverse bulkheads. Like most ironclads of their era they were equipped with a metal-reinforced ram. Jeanne d'Arc measured 68.9 meters (226 ft 1 in) between perpendiculars, with a beam of 14.08 meters (46 ft 2 in). She had a mean draft of 6.37 meters (20 ft 11 in) and displaced 3,675 metric tons (3,617 long tons). Her crew numbered 316 officers and men. ### Propulsion The ship had a single horizontal return connecting-rod steam engine driving a single propeller. Her engine was powered by four oval boilers. On sea trials the engine produced 1,884 indicated horsepower (1,405 kW) and the ship reached 11.75 knots (21.76 km/h; 13.52 mph). Unlike all of her sisters except Thétis, she had two funnels, mounted side by side. Jeanne d'Arc carried 250 metric tons (250 long tons) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 1,710 nautical miles (3,170 km; 1,970 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). She was barque-rigged and had a sail area of 1,454 square meters (15,650 sq ft). ### Armament Jeanne d'Arc mounted four of her 194-millimeter (7.6 in) Modèle 1864 breech-loading guns in the central battery on the battery deck. The other two 194-millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck, sponsoned out over the sides of the ship. The four 120-millimeter (4.7 in) guns were also mounted on the upper deck. She may have exchanged her Mle 1864 guns for Mle 1870 guns. The armor-piercing shell of the 20-caliber Mle 1870 gun weighed 165.3 pounds (75 kg) while the gun itself weighed 7.83 long tons (7.96 t). The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,739 ft/s (530 m/s) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12.5 inches (320 mm) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle. The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells. ### Armor Jeanne d'Arc had a complete 150-millimeter (5.9 in) wrought iron waterline belt, approximately 2.4 meters (7.9 ft) high. The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters (4.7 in) of wrought iron and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness. The barbette armor was 100 millimeters (3.9 in) thick, backed by 240 millimeters (9.4 in) of wood. The unarmored portions of her sides were protected by 15-millimeter (0.6 in) iron plates. ## Service Jeanne d'Arc was laid down at Cherbourg in 1865 and launched on 28 September 1867. The ship began her sea trials on 9 March 1868 and was put into reserve at Brest in 1869. She was commissioned on 12 April 1870, shortly before the Franco-Prussian War began, and assigned to the Northern Squadron. On 24 July 1870 she departed Cherbourg in company with the rest of the Northern Squadron and they cruised off the Danish port of Frederikshavn between 28 July and 2 August until they entered the Baltic Sea. The squadron, now renamed the Baltic Squadron, remained in the Baltic, attempting to blockade Prussian ports on the Baltic until ordered to return to Cherbourg on 16 September. On 1 August 1873 Jeanne d'Arc was in Málaga, Spain and departed later that day bound for Cadiz. On 21 July 1875, Jeanne d'Arc was participating in a naval exercise involving six ironclads – the broadside ironclad Magenta, operating as the flagship, and five Alma-class central battery ironclads including Jeanne d′Arc – and a number of smaller ships in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the east coast of Corsica . The ironclads were steaming in beautiful weather at 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph) in two parallel columns, with Magenta leading one column, followed by Jeanne d′Arc and Reine Blanche, and Armide leading the other, followed by Thétis and Alma, when at 12:00 noon the admiral commanding the squadron ordered the screw corvette Forfait, operating as a dispatch vessel, to pass astern of Magenta to receive orders. Attempting to place his ship in the column between Magenta and Jeanne d′Arc, the commanding officer of Forfait misjudged his turn, and Jeanne d′Arc collided with Forfait. The impact was barely noticeable aboard Jeanne d′Arc, but her ram bow tore into Forfait's side. Forfait sank 14 minutes later, her crew of 160 taking safely to her boats; her commanding officer floated free from the bridge as Forfait sank beneath him, but also was rescued. On 3 December 1875, Jeanne d′Arc became the flagship of Rear Admiral Bonie, but she was placed in reserve on 1 January 1876 at Brest, France. Jeanne d'Arc was recommissioned on 12 April 1879 for service with the Levant Squadron. She was condemned on 28 August 1883 and nothing further is known of her fate.

Ontario Highway 60

Ontario provincial highway

King's Highway 60, commonly referred to as Highway 60, is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. The 255.8-kilometre (158.9 mi) highway serves as the primary corridor through Algonquin Provincial Park, where it is dedicated as the Frank McDougall Parkway. East of Algonquin Park, the route serves east–west traffic in the highlands of central Ontario. It begins at Highway 11 in Huntsville and ends at Highway 17 near Renfrew. Highway 60 was designated in 1937 between Huntsville and Lake Dore, near where it met Highway 41. During the 1940s, the route shared a common termini with Highway 41 at Golden Lake. When Highway 41 was extended north to Pembroke in 1957, Highway 60 was routed along it between Golden Lake and Eganville. It was extended east to Highway 17 in downtown Renfrew circa 1961. It was extended further east when Highway 17 was rerouted around Renfrew in 1977, establishing the current route. ## Route description Highway 60 begins at an interchange with Highway 11 in Huntsville. It crosses through central Ontario in a generally east–west orientation. The triangle-shaped area bounded by Highways 11, 17 and 60 is largely uninhabited wilderness dotted with lakes and muskeg. East of Huntsville, Highway 60 meanders east then south through the northeastern corner of Muskoka District, meeting Highway 35 at Dwight. It travels northeast from there, briefly passing through Haliburton County before crossing into Nipissing District and entering Algonquin Park. An Ontario Parks visitor's permit is not required to drive through Algonquin Park. However, one is required for the use of any trails, campgrounds, the Visitor Centre, or similar facilities within the park boundary. Moose and deer are very common through Algonquin, especially at night and in the morning, and present a major driving hazard. The 56-kilometre (35 mi) journey through Algonquin Park offers some of the most famous scenery in Canada, including vistas of numerous lakes and geological formations that have been captured in the arts of Group of Seven painter Tom Thomson among others. The park is considered the most important place in Canada for biological and environmental research. Highway 60 exits the park in the Township of South Algonquin travelling south into Whitney, curving east and intersecting Highway 127. Beyond Highway 127, it passes through the Madawaska Highlands, following the historic Opeongo Line. It passes through Madawaska, encountering Secondary Highway 523, then curves southeast into Renfrew County. The route enters Barry's Bay, where it turns east and meets the southern leg of former Highway 62, where a concurrency with it began prior to 1998. After passing through Wilno, the route curves northeast around Killaloe, intersecting the northern leg of former Highway 62 and Highway 512. Continuing around Golden Lake and through the village of the same name, Highway 60 travels southeast into the Ottawa Valley towards Eganville, where it has a 3.9 kilometres (2.4 mi) concurrency with Highway 41. For the remainder of the route, the highway travels near the Bonnechere River. It continues east then south to Douglas, where drivers must turn northeast to continue along the highway. Highway 60 slowly curves southeast before entering the town of Renfrew, where it is known as Stewart Street, Bridge Street, Raglan Street South, Veterans Memorial Boulevard and O'Brien Road. It encounters the eastern terminus of Highway 132 before curving east to end at Highway 17 on the outskirts of the town. ## History Highway 60 was established in 1937, when the Department of Northern Development was amalgamated by the Department of Highways (DHO). The section of the route through Nipissing District (through Algonquin Park) was assumed by the DHO on September 22, followed by the section through Renfrew County on September 29, and finally the section through Muskoka District on October 6. At that time, the highway ended in Lake Dore, north of Eganville and was 218.2 km (135.6 mi) long. Highway 41 travelled along the portion of what is now Highway 60 between Eganville and Golden Lake. The route was shortened by 16.9 kilometres (10.5 mi) to create a shared terminus with Highway 41 between 1942 and 1949. On April 11, 1957, the Eganville–Pembroke Road was assumed as an extension of Highway 41, with the former portion of the route between Eganville and Golden Lake being renumbered as part of Highway 60. Highway 60 was extended to Highway 17 near Rosebank, north of Renfrew, circa 1961. With the construction of the Renfrew Bypass, which began in June 1974, and was completed in 1977, the section of Highway 17 between O'Brien Road east of Renfrew and Haley Road north of Haley Station was renumbered as an extension of Highway 60, establishing the current route of the highway. In 1976, the section through Algonquin Park was dedicated in honour of the 35 years of service by Frank Archibald MacDougall: ten years as park superintendent and 25 as Deputy Minister of Lands and Forests. It is signed as the Frank MacDougall Parkway. ## Major intersections

Captive Pursuit

"Captive Pursuit" is the sixth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. The episode was written by executive producer Michael Piller and Jill Sherman Donner and was directed by Corey Allen. Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine, a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy, near the planet Bajor, as the Bajorans recover from a brutal decades-long occupation by the imperialistic Cardassians. In this episode, a creature called Tosk (Scott MacDonald) arrives on the station from the Gamma Quadrant and befriends Chief Miles O'Brien (Colm Meaney), who tries to help him escape the Hunter (Gerrit Graham) who has pursued him through the wormhole. Scott MacDonald would later appear in several further roles in the franchise as well as a recurring character during season three of Star Trek: Enterprise. Graham, who appears in a guest role as the Hunter, had previously been considered for the main cast role of Odo. Michael Westmore designed the make-up for Tosk to resemble an alligator; his initial design for the Hunters was changed for budgetary reasons. The episode was praised by the cast and crew and received a Nielsen rating of 12.9, placing it as one of the four most-watched episodes of the first season. Critical reception was mostly positive, with critics approving of Meaney and MacDonald's performances, but disliking the formulaic nature of the plot. The episode won an Emmy Award for best make-up for a series. ## Plot A damaged, unidentified vessel from the Gamma Quadrant docks at Deep Space Nine for repairs. Its reptilian pilot, identified only as Tosk, is the first known life-form from the Gamma Quadrant to visit the station. Chief Miles O'Brien suspects Tosk is running from something due to evidence of weapons fire on his vessel. O'Brien befriends Tosk and tries to help him repair his ship. However, Tosk attempts to steal from a weapons locker and is put in a holding cell by Security Chief Odo (René Auberjonois). Uniformed aliens arrive through the wormhole, beam onto DS9, and start a phaser battle with a team led by Commander Benjamin Sisko (Avery Brooks). The aliens fight their way into the brig where Tosk is being held. Sisko, O'Brien and Odo enter the room as one of the aliens (Gerrit Graham) expresses his disappointment at finding Tosk captured alive; Tosk, it transpires, is the alien Hunters' quarry. The Hunter commands Sisko to lower the forcefield and release Tosk, but Sisko refuses. They discuss the issue and the Hunter agrees to place the wormhole out of bounds for future hunts. As much as he detests this practice, Sisko believes that under the Prime Directive, the law forbidding interfering with alien cultures, he must release Tosk to the aliens. After talking to the bartender Quark (Armin Shimerman), O'Brien realises that he can change the rules of the hunt before Tosk is taken away by the Hunters. He lies to Odo and convinces him to release Tosk into his care, claiming it is a Starfleet, not a Bajoran matter. O'Brien escorts the Hunter and Tosk to an airlock, but the Chief has it rigged to overload, knocking out the Hunter, allowing O'Brien to help Tosk escape. In Ops, Sisko is informed about the situation and tells Odo to pursue the duo at a leisurely pace, giving O'Brien time to help Tosk escape the station with the Hunters in pursuit. Later, an angry Sisko reprimands O'Brien for his actions; the Chief expresses his surprise at not being apprehended immediately by Odo. Sisko claims that he must have slipped up and smiles wryly after O'Brien has left his office. ## Production Originally titled "A Matter of Breeding", director Corey Allen said the episode intended to move away from the "squeaky clean" plots of Star Trek: The Next Generation. After the franchise's creator Gene Roddenberry banned disagreements between characters in The Next Generation, this became one of the main elements that the producers wanted to include in the new series. In the episode, this was shown by O'Brien releasing Tosk, but originally, during the teaser segment at the beginning, it was intended to show dabo girl Miss Sarda propositioning Commander Sisko. "We had long conversations on that and ultimately came down on the conservative side, but we'd never even had that kind of conference on TNG", Allen explained. Executive producer Michael Piller wrote the episode with writer Jill Sherman Donner, who had previous credits on television shows such as Magnum P.I. Michael Westmore designed the make-up in the episode, drawing inspiration from an alligator he saw in National Geographic magazine to create Tosk's appearance. The Hunters were initially intended to appear more alien-like, with steam rising out of their masks as they opened to reveal a demonic face with huge eyes and scaly skin. However, due to budgetary restraints, the original costume and make-up plans were scrapped and the description was revised to become "a rather mundane humanoid face, not far off human." The transporter effect used by the Hunters was inspired by the science fiction film Metropolis (1927), specifically by the scene in which the robot Maria undergoes a transformation. "Captive Pursuit" marked the first appearance in the Star Trek franchise for both Scott MacDonald and Gerrit Graham. MacDonald appeared a week later in The Next Generation episode "Face of the Enemy" as Subcommander N'Vek. He would also appear in the DS9 episode "Hippocratic Oath" and the Star Trek: Voyager pilot "Caretaker". In Star Trek: Enterprise, he was cast in the recurring role of the Xindi-Reptilian antagonist Guruk Dolim through the third season. Graham was once considered, along with René Auberjonois and Andrew Robinson, for the role of Odo, which went to Auberjonois. Robinson was later cast as Elim Garak. Graham later gained the role of Quinn, the second Q in Voyager, in the episode "Death Wish". The episode was positively received by the cast and crew. Meaney called "Captive Pursuit" a "classic Star Trek story" and praised MacDonald's performance, naming the episode his favourite of the first season. Michael Piller said it was one of his favourite episodes of the season, while Rick Berman said it was his favourite out of the first six episodes of the series and noted that the connection between Tosk and O'Brien was "charming". ## Reception "Captive Pursuit" was first released in broadcast syndication on January 31, 1993. It received a Nielsen rating of 12.9 percent, placing third in its time slot. This was the fourth highest rated episode of the season, behind "Emissary", "Past Prologue" and "A Man Alone". It won the Emmy Award for outstanding individual achievement in make-up for a series. Keith DeCandido gave the episode a rating of 7/10 for Tor.com, calling it a "good, solid, well-put-together episode anchored by two excellent performances," despite believing the first season of DS9 was weak prior to the episode "Duet". DeCandido noted that "Captive Pursuit" was a good Prime Directive-themed episode with interesting alien cultures. He described Colm Meaney as "magnificent", and said that Scott MacDonald gave a "superb performance". Zack Handlen, in his review for The A.V. Club, said that the episode was formulaic, lacked substance, and was simply designed to give Meaney something to do. He praised the dynamic between Meaney and MacDonald, but said that "while not a classic, [the episode was] entertaining enough" and it helped to set up O'Brien's character as one to balance the complexity of some of the newer characters introduced on the show. In 2015, Geek.com suggested this episode as a "recommended episode" for their abbreviated Star Trek: Deep Space Nine binge-watching guide. ## Home media release The first home media release of the episode was on VHS cassette in the United States on September 10, 1996. It was part of the initial launch of cassettes by Paramount Home Video which saw the first six episodes released and was on a single episode cassette. This was released on VHS in the UK, paired with "Babel". This episode was released on LaserDisc paired with "Babel" on one double sided disc, on October 1, 1996 in the United States. It retailed for 34.98 USD and was published by Paramount Home Video. It was released on DVD as part of the season one box set on June 3, 2003. This episode was released in 2017 on DVD again with the complete series box set, which had 176 episodes on 48 discs.

SOLRAD 4B

American surveillance satellite

SOLRAD (SOLar RADiation) 4B was a solar X-ray, ultraviolet, and electronic surveillance satellite. Developed by the United States Navy's United States Naval Research Laboratory, it was the fifth in both the SOLRAD and the GRAB (Galactic Radiation And Background) programs. This satellite was the only SOLRAD to be launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base, to be launched via Scout rocket, and to be launched unaccompanied by any other satellites. Launched on 26 April 1962, a fourth stage failure resulted in payload impact at 225 nautical miles of the downrange. SOLRAD 4B was the last of the SOLRAD/GRAB missions, future SOLRADs being launched with the National Reconnaissance Office's (NRO) next-generation POPPY satellites. ## Background The United States Navy's Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) established itself as a player early in the Space Race with the development and management of Project Vanguard (1956–1959), America's first satellite program. After Vanguard, the Navy's next major goal was to use the observational high ground of Earth's orbit to survey Soviet radar locations and frequencies. This first space surveillance project was called "GRAB", later expanded into the more innocuous backronym, Galactic Radiation and Background. As American space launches were not classified until late 1961, a cover mission sharing the satellite bus was desired to conceal GRAB's electronic surveillance mission from its intended targets. The field of solar astronomy provided such cover. Since the invention of the rocket, astronomers had wanted to fly instruments above the atmosphere to get a better look at the Sun. The Earth's atmosphere blocks large sections of sunlight's electromagnetic spectrum, making it impossible to study the Sun's X-ray and ultraviolet output from the ground. Without this critical information, it was difficult to model the Sun's internal processes, which in turn inhibited stellar astronomy in general. On a more practical level, it was believed that solar flares directly affected the Earth's thermosphere, disrupting radio communications. The U.S. Navy wanted to know when its communications were going to become unreliable or compromised. Sounding rockets had shown that solar output was unpredictable and fluctuated rapidly. A long-term, real-time observation platform above the Earth's atmosphere – in other words, a satellite – was required to properly chart the Sun's radiation, determine its effects on the Earth, and correlate it with ground-based observations of the Sun in other wavelengths of light. Thus, the SOLRAD project was conceived to address several NRL goals at once: - to make the first long-term continuous observations of the Sun in ultraviolet and X-ray light, and to correlate these measurements with ground-based observations. - to evaluate the level of hazard posed by ultraviolet and X-ray radiation. - to better understand the effect of solar activity (including solar flares) on radio communications. - to cheaply and efficiently produce a satellite for the GRAB surveillance mission by using a proven design. - to obscure the GRAB mission under a scientific cover. SOLRAD 4B had two successful predecessors in SOLRAD 1 and SOLRAD 3, both of which made significant contributions to the understanding of ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy in the previous two years, and which returned an abundance of intelligence on Soviet air defense radar installations. SOLRAD 4B's immediate predecessor, SOLRAD 4, failed to make it to orbit on 26 January 1962, due to a faulty booster. ## Spacecraft SOLRAD 4B was a functional duplicate of SOLRAD 4: roughly spherical, modeled on the Vanguard satellite (which also had been developed by the Naval Research Laboratory). The satellite included both scientific SOLRAD and electronic surveillance GRAB packages within the same body. Mass of 25 kg, the fifth in the SOLRAD series was more heavily instrumented than prior SOLRADS. Instead of one X-ray photometer, like SOLRAD 1 and SOLRAD 2, or two, like SOLRAD 3, it carried four X-ray photometers, allowing it to detect more intense and higher energy X-rays. Three of the photometers were shielded against Van Allen radiation belts (which could spoil results) by magnets, as had been done on earlier missions. The fourth was protected by a beryllium shield. It was hoped that SOLRAD 4B would not only conduct basic research into solar X-ray astronomy, but also determine the hazard hard X-rays posed to astronauts and satellites. Another point of difference between SOLRAD 4B and SOLRAD 1 to 3 was its four Lyman-alpha detectors. Used for measuring ultraviolet radiation, two such detectors had been included on SOLRAD 1 and SOLRAD 2 to determine the impact of solar ultraviolet on radio reception. None had been measured, and the detectors had been deleted from SOLRAD 3. They were reinstated on SOLRAD 4 and SOLRAD 4B not for solar study, but for night-time measurement to see if ambient Lyman-alpha radiation constituted a threat to astronauts and satellites. ## Mission On 26 April 1962 at 10:49 GMT, Scout X-2 \#111 blasted off from Vandenberg Air Force Base Western Test Range. A lack of attitude gas in the Scout's 4th stage caused the payload to crash at 225 nautical miles downrange. ## Legacy SOLRAD 4B was the final flight of the SOLRAD/GRAB series. A subsequent SOLRAD/GRAB mission ("SOLRAD 5") was cancelled and the satellite intended for the mission was ultimately donated to the National Air and Space Museum in 2002. In 1962, all U.S. overhead reconnaissance projects were consolidated under the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), which elected to continue and expand the GRAB mission starting July 1962 with a next-generation set of satellites, code-named POPPY. With the initiation of POPPY, SOLRAD experiments would no longer be carried on electronic spy satellites; rather, they would now get their own satellites, launched alongside POPPY missions to provide some measure of mission cover. Starting with SOLRAD 8, launched in November 1965, the final five SOLRAD satellites were scientific satellites launched singly, three of which were also given NASA Explorer program numbers. The last in this final series of SOLRAD satellites flew in 1976. In all, there were thirteen operational satellites in the SOLRAD series. The GRAB program was declassified in 1998. ## See also - General information on the SOLRAD project - General information on the GRAB project

Embassy of the United States, Mogadishu

U.S. diplomatic mission in Mogadishu, Somalia

The Embassy of the United States of America to Somalia is a diplomatic mission of the United States in Mogadishu, Somalia from 1960 to 1991. In 1957, the US opened a consulate-general in Mogadishu—the capital of the Trust Territory of Somalia, a UN trusteeship under Italian administration. The consulate was upgraded to embassy status in July 1960, when the US recognized Somalia's independence and appointed an ambassador. The embassy served to counter Soviet influence during the Cold War and also served as a base for the United States Agency for International Development, which had a large presence in the country. In 1989, the embassy moved from a dilapidated building in central Mogadishu to a new compound on the outskirts of the city. Violence quickly enveloped the city in late December 1990, during the Somali Civil War, and on 1 January 1991, the ambassador contacted the State Department to request the closure and evacuation of the embassy. Approval was given the following day, but violence and the collapse of the central government prevented the US, and several other countries, from airlifting their diplomats and civilians through Mogadishu International Airport. USS Guam and USS Trenton, which were stationed off the coast of Oman, were dispatched to airlift staff from the embassy; American civilians and many foreign diplomats also gathered at the embassy, seeking evacuation. The embassy closed on January 5, 1991, and 281 American and foreign diplomats and civilians were airlifted by helicopter from the embassy compound to Guam and Trenton. In December 1992, the embassy compound was reoccupied and repaired to serve as a headquarters for US personnel within the Unified Task Force and, following the transition to UN control, a base for UNOSOM. The US worked with various parties in Somalia to establish peace and formally recognized the newly established Federal Government of Somalia in January 2013. In May 2015, US Secretary of State John Kerry visited Somalia and stated that the US plans to reopen its embassy soon; the Somali government presented him with the real estate deed for land reserved for the new US embassy compound in Mogadishu. The move came three months after President Obama nominated Katherine Dhanani to the post of US ambassador to Somalia, who would have been the first US ambassador to Somalia since 1991, but she withdrew three months later. In December 2018, the United States established a permanent diplomatic mission in Mogadishu. On October 2, 2019, the United States announced the reestablishment of the United States Embassy in Mogadishu. ## History The State Department sent two consuls to Mogadishu in 1956 to establish a diplomatic post and on July 1, 1957, the United States Consulate-General in Mogadishu opened. The consulate was an offshoot of the US embassy to Italy. At the time, Mogadishu was the capital of the Trust Territory of Somalia, a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration that was scheduled to become independent in 1960. In addition to establishing a presence, the consulate staff were also charged with political research and developing relations with future Somali leaders. On July 1, 1960, the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somaliland) became independent and united, as planned, with the briefly extant State of Somaliland (the former British Somaliland) to form the Somali Republic (Somalia). The United States recognized and established diplomatic relations with the Somali Republic the same day. The consulate-general was elevated to embassy status and its Chargé d'affaires, Andrew G. Lynch, was appointed ambassador on July 5. He presented his credentials on 11 July, at which point he officially became the first US ambassador to Somalia. Like most US diplomatic posts in Africa during the Cold War, a primary purpose of the embassy was to counter Soviet influence in the region and contain the spread of communism. For a time after the Sino-Soviet split, China was also actively competing for influence in the developing world, including activities in Somalia and the many other parts of the world. Beginning in the 1960s, the US engaged in development projects in Somalia to counter the influence of communism. Staff from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which carried out most of these projects, comprised a substantial number of the embassy's staff during the next three decades. Educational programs were also given emphasis by the embassy in the years after independence, and there was a sizable Peace Corps presence. The US became the protecting power for the United Kingdom in Somalia after Somalia severed diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom in 1963, due to a dispute over the administration of the ethnic-Somali Northern Frontier District. Besides providing consular assistance for Britons, the embassy was also tasked with the protection of the British embassy compound and its properties. The US opened a consulate in Hargeisa the following year to assist Peace Corps activities and represent British interests in the northwestern region of Somalia, which had been under British administration from 1884 to 1960. In 1967, the embassy went into a lock down during the Six-Day War between Israel and neighboring Arab countries, which Somalia supported. The US was viewed as Israel's protector by Somalis and the embassy was subjected to some minor demonstrations of protesting. During the 1969 coup d'état which brought Siad Barre to power, the embassy was blockaded by soldiers, who prevented the movement of persons into or out of the compound for over 24 hours. Only the ambassador managed to briefly visit the embassy en route to the Foreign Ministry, where he made a formal complaint against the embassy's blockade. In the wake of the coup, the Somali government became patrons of the Soviet Union and China. Three days after the coup, the Peace Corps was ordered to leave within three days. This soon extended to one week, and many of the volunteers were housed in the homes of embassy staff before being evacuated by a US Air Force plane. The Foreign Assistance Act prohibited foreign assistance to nations whose ships engaged in trade with Vietnam. After Somali-flagged vessels were observed at port in Hanoi, US development assistance to Somalia was terminated. The Barre government responded by expelling the US military attaché, prohibiting local residents from visiting the embassy, and restricting travel by embassy staff to within 25 miles (40 km) of Mogadishu. The consulate in Hargeisa was closed and the USAID program, which had more staff than the rest of the embassy, ended. However, in the late 1970s, the Soviets became patrons of Ethiopia and in the wake of the Ogaden War between Somalia and Ethiopia, Somalia turned to the West for support. The US sought access to airports and ports in Somalia in exchange for military equipment and economic aid. In July 1989, the embassy moved to a new, 80-acre (32 ha) compound on the outskirts of Mogadishu—the largest US embassy in Sub-Saharan Africa. The site had been acquired by the US in the mid-1960s and later turned into a golf course that was frequented by embassy staff. ### Prelude to closure In the late 1980s, there was increasing rebellion against the rule of President Siad Barre and by 1990, the country began to descend into civil war. Criminal violence was also increasing all over Somalia. In 1990, seasoned diplomat James K. Bishop was appointed US Ambassador to Somalia. In 1967, Bishop was at the US Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon when the Six-Day War erupted, which prompted the evacuation of about 3,600 Americans in 33 hours; Bishop was one of 26 diplomats and Marines that remained in the city during the conflict. Ambassador Bishop also gained valuable experience organizing evacuations of several embassies in the 1980s while serving as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Africa. In his previous post, as US ambassador to Liberia, Bishop was overseeing the voluntary evacuation of embassy staff and civilians as a civil war in Liberia spread, when he left in March 1990. Ambassador Bishop returned to Washington to prepare for his new appointment to Somalia, but he was soon appointed to a taskforce to deal with the crisis in Liberia, which included a gradual evacuation of American civilians and a rapid closure of the embassy in August. Aware of the violence going on in the Somali countryside, Ambassador Bishop felt "the odds were better than even that we would have to leave Mogadishu under less than favorable circumstances." On August 1, Ambassador Bishop visited United States Central Command—the military command for the Middle East and Northeast Africa—where he worked with military experts to review the embassy's Emergencies and Evacuation (E&E) plan until he was "satisfied...that [Central Command] realized that it might have to conduct an evacuation from Mogadishu and was prepared to do that." A few hours after his visit, Iraq invaded Kuwait. The US was mobilizing assets for a response when Ambassador Bishop arrived in Mogadishu on September 6. The primary interest of the Ambassador was to maintain the US military's permission and access to airfields and ports in Mogadishu and Berbera, which the US had negotiated in 1979. This was especially important given the mobilization for intervention in Kuwait, Somalia's strategic location near the Arabian Peninsula and the mouth of the Red Sea, and because Saudi Arabia would not allow US troops on their soil. The embassy was also home to a large number of USAID staff, although the spread of unrest into the countryside was making their work increasingly difficult. The Somali Civil War spread through the country during 1990 and late in the year there was an increasing level of criminal violence in Mogadishu. By December, the security situation began to deteriorate significantly and on December 5, Ambassador Bishop told an audience at a standing-room only meeting that he was recommending the voluntary evacuation of all dependents (i.e. children and spouses of diplomatic staff) and non-essential personnel. By December 19, the number of official US personnel in the city was reduced from 147 to 37 and of the 90 private Americans in the city, half were estimated to have left. Small-arms fire became a daily occurrence and stray bullets and shells were landing in the embassy complex. On December 30, violence escalated significantly as rebel groups entered the city, although the ambassador claimed the nature and extent of the violence was not immediately clear. On December 30–31, diplomats, including many stationed in offices elsewhere in the city, were collected and housed in the ambassador's residence, the marine house, and the K-7 compound located across Afgoy Road. On the morning of December 31, the defense attaché was nearly killed when his vehicle was sprayed with bullets and that evening, a soldier at a roadblock shot the tires of a vehicle carrying another defense official. Attempts by the US and other nations' diplomats, in particular the Italian embassy, to negotiate a ceasefire for foreigners to leave were unsuccessful. Afgoy Road became a "shooting gallery," preventing those in safe-havens outside the embassy to reach it. On New Year's Day, the first American civilians began to seek refuge at the embassy. ### Closure and evacuation Ambassador Bishop requested an evacuation of the American community on January 1, 1991, indicating that the evacuation could be with the planned Italian, French, or German evacuation efforts, but that he preferred an evacuation by the US military. The State Department authorized the evacuation on 2 January and Ambassador Bishop specifically requested an evacuation by the US military, thereby initiating Operation Eastern Exit. Ambassador Bishop had spent a considerable amount of time discussing contingency plans for evacuation with other diplomatic posts. Ultimately, ten heads of missions—eight ambassadors and two chargés d'affaires—along with their staff sought refuge in the US embassy compound and were evacuated. Initial plans called for the United States Air Force to dispatch two transport aircraft to Mogadishu International Airport, but diplomats were unable to contact anyone in the Somali government to obtain clearance for the aircraft to land at the airport and it also became clear that it was too dangerous to travel from the embassy to the airport. Meanwhile, USS Guam and USS Trenton began transit from the coast of Oman towards Mogadishu with forces from the 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade. On January 4, several incidents, including several exchanges of gunfire, suggested that the embassy's security detail was insufficient to hold off armed Somalis until USS Guam and USS Trenton arrived with their helicopters and soldiers, at that time scheduled to arrive on January 7. The embassy had just six Marine guards, whose job was limited to protecting the chancery. Ambassador Bishop made an urgent request to Washington for two platoons of soldiers to parachute into the embassy to defend it until the ships arrived. The request was denied, but the Ambassador was told that an advance element of Marines from the vessels would reach the embassy the following morning. Two helicopters carrying a 60-man security detail—51 Marines and 9 US Navy SEALs—reached the embassy compound on the morning of January 5 and left with 61 evacuees. Throughout the day US and foreign nationals seeking evacuation arrived at the embassy compound, including the Soviet ambassador and 38 of his staff from the Soviet Union's embassy. Meanwhile, the embassy compound was prepared for the main evacuation, which occurred in the early morning hours of January 6. The first of four waves of helicopters—three for civilians and the fourth for the security detail and ambassador—left the ships at midnight (UTC+4). The final wave reached the ships at 03:43. A total of 281 evacuees were taken from the embassy, including eight ambassadors (and two other heads of missions) and 61 Americans. Armed looters were observed entering the embassy compound as the final wave departed. The doors of the chancery—the main building of the embassy—were reportedly blown open by rocket-propelled grenades within two hours of the embassy's evacuation. Somali employees of the embassy—known as foreign service nationals (FSNs)—could not be evacuated. Local banks had been closed for some time and the embassy was unable to pay the FSNs. The Ambassador left the FSNs with keys to the commissary and warehouse on the embassy compound and they were permitted to take anything they needed. The United States has reopened its embassy in Mogadishu nearly three decades after Somalia collapsed into civil war on October 2, 2019. Ambassador Donald Yamamoto said that the reopening reflected progress in the Horn of Africa country in recent years and the partnership between the two countries. ## Embassy compound The first US consuls in Mogadishu set up their initial office in a small room in the city's Public Works Department building. Shortly thereafter, an Italian contractor built the first US chancery in downtown Mogadishu. According to John Blane, the vice consul in Mogadishu from 1956 to 1957, the first chancery was "a rather miserable effort." He "felt that if it stood up for five years, we would be extremely lucky," but the building remained the US chancery for three decades. By the time it closed, the old chancery was one of the most dilapidated buildings the State Department had, according to Ambassador Bishop. In July 1989, the embassy was relocated to a new, 80-acre (32 ha) compound along Afgoy Road in the local K-7 district. The grounds consisted of the Chancery, the Joint Administrative Office (JAO), Marine House (for the Marine Security Guards), the ambassador's residence, a building for the United States Information Service, an American school, a recreational complex for the local expatriate community, a 102-foot (31 m) water tower, and various storage and maintenance buildings. The recreational complex, which comprised about half of the compound, included a pool, tennis courts, and a golf course. Outside the walled embassy, the US maintained the K-7 complex, an apartment complex for embassy staff located across Afgoy Road, as well as the Office for Military Cooperation. Both were situated one and a half blocks from the embassy proper. The ambassador's residence was largely constructed in glass, had no protective barriers, and its top story overlooked the embassy's walls. Ambassador Bishop therefore ordered that some bars be installed across the glass as an additional security protective measure. ### After closure After the failure of UNOSOM in 1991–2, the US led a multinational mission—UNITAF—which included military forces to ensure aid was distributed to Somalis. The US military entered Mogadishu on December 9, 1992, and moved to quickly secure the abandoned embassy, along with the airport and port. The following day, key military staff moved into the embassy to establish headquarters for the UNITAF mission, with the main headquarters located within the chancery. The embassy complex itself was in disrepair; buildings had been stripped bare, a foot (0.3 m) of debris and trash covered the floors of the chancery, and bodies were found in some areas on the premises. Personnel promptly set out cleaning the compound's living spaces and work areas to make room for the arrival and assembly area. Old warehouses were razed, and new barracks, heads and galleys were erected in their place. US Navy support elements that arrived later also imported extra materials. US President George H. W. Bush visited the headquarters at the former embassy during his three-day visit to Somalia from December 31 to January 2. A Somali-language radio station—Radio Rajo—broadcast from the former embassy compound. On May 4, 1993, the mission transitioned from US to UN control and the name changed from UNITAF (Operation Restore Hope) to UNOSOM II (Operation Provide Comfort). Accordingly, the embassy premises were occupied by UN personnel to serve as headquarters for UNOSOM II. The US military withdrew from the mission in March 1994 and all UN and US personnel were withdrawn in March 1995. The embassy compound remained abandoned from 1995 to 2011, where it was bulldozed and homes were erected in its place. It is now a densely populated neighborhood in Mogadishu. ## United States' diplomatic mission to Somalia The US has not had a diplomatic mission in Somalia since the closure of the embassy in 1991. Nonetheless, the US never officially severed diplomatic relations with Somalia. The US embassy in Nairobi, Kenya serves as a base for the US diplomatic mission to Somalia, which is currently led by the US Special Representative on Somalia James McAnulty. The US worked with various parties throughout Somalia to establish peace and a centralized government. On 17 January 2013, the US formally recognized the Federal Government of Somalia, which was established in August 2012. In June 2014, the State Department announced that the United States would reopen its diplomatic mission, without specifying a timeline but only that it would be "soon". In February 2015, U.S. President Barack Obama nominated Foreign Service veteran Katherine Dhanani to become the new Ambassador of the United States to Somalia, but her nomination was withdrawn the following May. US Secretary of State John Kerry visited Mogadishu in May 2015 and announced that the US planned to reopen an embassy in Mogadishu. He indicated that, although there was no set timetable for the premises' relaunch, the US government has begun upgrading its diplomatic representation in the country. President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud and Prime Minister Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke presented to Kerry the real estate deed for land reserved for the new US embassy compound. In December 2018, the United States reopened a "permanent diplomatic presence" in Mogadishu. The new mission will not have full embassy status until October 2019. Some diplomatic staff are expected to remain at the US Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya where the U.S. Mission to Somalia is based. The U.S. Mission to Somalia is headed by Ambassador Larry Andre Jr.\<ref name="VOA Dec 2018" ## See also - Foreign relations of Somalia - Foreign relations of the United States - List of diplomatic missions in Somalia - List of diplomatic missions of the United States

Somebody to Love (Justin Bieber song)

"Somebody to Love" is a song by Canadian singer Justin Bieber featuring American singer Usher. The song served as the second single from Bieber's first studio album My World 2.0. It was written by Heather Bright and The Stereotypes, and produced by the latter. The song was originally recorded as a demo by Usher, who was Bieber's mentor, for his sixth studio album, Raymond v. Raymond (2010). After things went stale with Usher's label, The Stereotypes were encouraged to give the song to Bieber, who recorded it, with Usher performing background vocals. The song is an upbeat pop song, which also derives from R&B genre, while making use of Eurodisco influences. It impacted US mainstream and rhythmic radio on April 20, 2010. The remix of the song featuring Usher was featured on Bieber's first compilation album My Worlds: The Collection and his second remix album Never Say Never: The Remixes, as well as the 2010 compilation album Now That's What I Call Music! 35. Usher re-recorded featured vocals for the official remix of the song, which was released on June 25, 2010. A variation of the track with slightly different production done by Benny Blanco, features Usher on lead vocals and Bieber as the featured artist. It is included on the follow-up release of Raymond v. Raymond, titled Versus. In Japan, the song was released dually with "Never Say Never" as a double A-side single. The song received positive reviews, with critics complimenting the track's dance feel, and the lyrical content. "Somebody to Love" became Bieber's third consecutive top ten hit in Canada, and his fourth consecutive top twenty single in the United States. It also reached the top twenty in Germany, New Zealand and Australia. The accompanying music video for the official remix, directed by Dave Meyers, was intended to rely solely on choreography, and integrate different styles of dance. It features appearances from several dance crews, such as Beat Freaks and Poreotics. According to critics, the video makes allusions to previous dance-heavy clips by Usher and Chris Brown. Bieber performed the song at a number of venues, including the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards and on the seventh series of The X Factor in the United Kingdom. ## Background In a Q&A with Rap-Up, Jonathan Yip of The Stereotypes confirmed that record was originally made for Usher, but things did not go through right with his label. According to Yip, Perez Hilton was the one who recommended the song for Bieber, and after that the producers agreed. Yip said that Usher's label, Jive Records "wasn't sure what they wanted to do with the record for Usher", so they contacted Bieber's manager, Scooter Braun, and Bieber was able to record the track. On the remix, Yip commented, "Usher's now back on the record, on the remix, so we can't really complain." A variation of the track with slightly different production, featuring Usher as lead vocalist and Bieber as the guest vocalist, is included on a follow-up release to his sixth studio album, titled Versus. The Versus version of the song was produced by Benny Blanco. ## Composition and critical reception "Somebody to Love" is a pop and dance song. Bieber's R&B vocals are blended throughout the song. The song also integrates elements of Euro disco. Set it common time, the song is written in the key of G minor, and Bieber's vocals span from the low note of G₃ to high note of C₅. It follows the basic chord progression of Cm7–B–F. The song has been described by Jocelyn Vena of MTV News as a "dance track in which he professes his love for a girl and tells her he'd do anything for her" and a "club-friendly pop tune." Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone said the song was a "thumping Eurodisco." Lauren Carter of the Boston Herald called the track "fun and upbeat" and said, "is a standout and the track to download – give listeners time to dance or daydream, as the case may be." Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music wrote that "Somebody to Love is a straightforward plea for a soul mate; it says something we’ve all felt." Monica Herrera of Billboard commented, "Somebody to Love" offers the clearest evidence yet that he's more than capable of clearing the hurdle from teen to adult stardom." ## Chart performance In the United States, "Somebody to Love" entered the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number ninety-eight. After weeks of steadily ascending the charts, the single reached a peak of fifteen on the issue week July 17, 2010. The song received digital sales after the release of My World 2.0, propelling it to debut at ninety-four on the Canadian Hot 100. The song fell off the chart the following week and re-entered on the week of June 12, 2010 at its previous peak of ninety-one. After re-entering and steadily ascending the charts, the single reached a new peak of ten on the week issued July 3, 2010. It also peaked at twenty and thirty-six on the US Pop Songs chart and US Latin Pop Songs, respectively. The song performed well in several international markets. "Somebody to Love" entered the UK Singles Chart at forty-seven on the issue date of June 6, 2010. The following week the song fell to position sixty-two. In the succeeding week the single reached thirty-three where it reached its peak. In Australia, "Somebody to Love" entered the chart at forty-seven on the week of July 5, 2010. The following week, the single rose to its peak position of number twenty. On the Japan Hot 100, the song peaked within the top ten, at number three. "Somebody to Love" also peaked within the top twenty in Germany and New Zealand, the top thirty of Austria, and elsewhere in Switzerland and on the Belgian charts. Its numerous chartings in Europe allowed the song to peak at number thirty-three on the European Hot 100. ## Music video ### Background The music video for the official remix version featuring Usher was filmed during the week of May 9, 2010, directed by Dave Meyers. The video was choreographed by Jamaica Craft, notable for her work with choreography on videos for Usher and Ciara. Rather than a storyline as in Bieber's previous videos, the video focuses on a dance and choreography aspect. Meyers stated that he wanted the video to be more playful, stating, > We're bringing Justin into the world of dance on this one, giving Justin the chance to integrate to different styles of dance. So we kind of kept it simple with the art direction, just real graphic and really highlighting the dance. No big story lines, no crowds of people, just real clean. A preview of the video was posted on AOL's PopEater.com, and subsequently on Bieber's VEVO channel, including behind the scenes clips of Bieber with the dancers, and highlights of the video with Usher and in front of a green screen. Bieber said, "It's really awesome to be able to work with professional dancers, you know, people that were in, like, ABDC, and also got an approval from choreographer Jamaica, who said Bieber was "killing it" and that she didn't have to give him any corrections. It made its premiere during the June 17, 2010 results show of the seventh season of So You Think You Can Dance, and was introduced by Usher after his performance of "OMG". It later premiered that night on VEVO and on June 18, 2010, on 20/20at the end of their show. The video features dance crews including, America's Best Dance Crew season 5 winners Poreotics, and Season 3's runner up Beat Freaks, as well as The Syrenz, LXD, Medea Sirkas, solo acts Simrin Player and Bboy Fly, and other dancers and crews. Singer/actress and model Katerina Graham makes a cameo in a scene with Poreotics. Bieber's best friend Ryan Butler, who appeared in the "One Time" video, also appears alongside Bieber, wearing a T-shirt advertising his Twitter account. According to Tamar Antai of MTV News the video "makes vague allusions" to clips for Busta Rhymes' "Pass the Courvoisier, Part II" and Chris Brown's "Wall to Wall". A backpack choreography scene with LXD recalls Usher's 1997 video for "You Make Me Wanna". ### Synopsis and reception The video features Bieber dancing along several dance crews along a black backdrop, and a scene with ninjas and a flame outline. The video begins with Bieber dancing with different members of the crews with use of a spotlight effect, followed by Bieber being flaunted by a single female dancer. Then the video cuts to Bieber performing Stepping (African-American)-style choreography with two male dancers, shirtless with red hats and red suspenders. With the aid of smoke, the video moves to Bieber dancing with Beat Freaks. Usher sings his verse along with The Syrenz as dancers in a room with metal chandeliers before uniting with Bieber dancing in the scene aided by Poreotics. Then Bieber and Usher sing and dance with Medea Sirkas in ninja attire in front of a background of Chinese calligraphy ("Love") and flames, before returning to the black backdrop and metal chandeliers as Bieber dances with Simrin Player and LXD in a scene with bookbags. The ending features Bieber and several of the dancers featured performing group choreography before cutting to Bieber and Usher with the in front of the calligraphy and flames. Monica Herrera of Billboard said Usher's "star power is clearly rubbing off on the 16-year-old", commenting that Bieber "shows off his smoothest moves yet " and "tackles his toughest choreography." Jocelyn Vena of MTV News commented, "While Bieber had previously teased his dancing skills in the "Baby" video, he really channeled Usher's smooth moves in this newest clip." Tamar Antai also of MTV said, "Usher does most of the heavy lifting where dancing is concerned, and Justin Bieber, who's more of a singer than a dancer, is in no danger of upstaging Usher on the dance floor." Antai compared Bieber's moves to Usher in his "Caught Up" video, commenting "it's nice to see Justin expanding the scope of talents to include pelvic thrusts, Matrix-style slo-mo leans" and, "it's also nice to see Justin looking a little more mature and sophisticated in a hoodie and leather jacket....and his videos are growing up with him, as this is his flashiest, most grandiose video yet. Antai also commented on the appeal of the video, commending Meyers, "who put that classic early '00s-style big-money polish on the piece – for employing fire, shirtless dudes, white ninjas..." ## Live performances Bieber performed "Somebody to Love" on multiple occasions, including as a part of his set list on the My World Tour. On most televised performances the song was performed alongside "Baby" and more of his previous songs. He performed the song at a number of venues, in Wales at Radio 1's Big Weekend on May 22, 2010. Additionally Bieber performed it on Today with "Baby" and "One Time" on June 4, 2010 He performed the song with "Baby," assisted by Drake on June 21, 2010, at the 2010 MuchMusic Video Awards. The song was performed with "Baby" at Macy's Fourth of July Fireworks Spectacular on July 4, 2010. "Somebody to Love" was also performed with "U Smile" and "Baby" at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12, 2010, accompanied by a full dance team and band. For the performance, Bieber, donning a black and red letter jacket and a '50s style cardigan, drove into the Nokia Theater in a 1957 red Chevrolet car, and was chased by girls (paying homage to The Beatles' "A Hard Day's Night." He then proceeded to perform "U Smile" as an introduction, followed by "Baby" and "Somebody to Love", which had dance parts in which his background dancers wore the same attire as him. During the "Somebody to Love" performance Bieber and backup dancers performed an elaborate dance routine including younger children, which was followed by a drum solo by the singer. During the performance of the song, black and red confetti fell from the sky. Critics appreciated the performance, with a Jocelyn Vena of MTV News calling Bieber a "triple threat." "Baby" and "Somebody to Love" were performed by Bieber on the seventh series of The X Factor in the United Kingdom on November 28, 2010. ## Track listing - European Promo CD 1. "Somebody to Love" – 3:40 2. "Somebody to Love" (Remix featuring Usher) – 3:43 - UK Digital Download Single 1. "Somebody To Love" – 3:40 2. "Where Are You Now" – 4:27 - Japanese CD Single (Version B) 1. "Somebody to Love" (Remix featuring Usher) – 3:43 2. "Never Say Never" (featuring Jaden Smith) – 3:49 3. "Somebody to Love" (Remix featuring Usher) [Instrumental] – 3:41 4. "Somebody to Love" (Remix featuring Usher) [Video: Making Of] ## Credits and personnel - Songwriting – Heather Bright, Jonathan Yip, Ray Romulus, Jeremy Reeves - Production – Jonathan Yip, Ray Romulus, Jeremy Reeves - Background vocals – Usher (also lead vocals in Remix Version) - Mixing – Jaycen Joshua, assisted by Giancarlo Lino - Engineering – additional by Pat Thrall Source ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history

1988 Football League Cup final

Association football match

The 1988 Football League Cup Final (also known as the Littlewoods Challenge Cup Final for sponsorship reasons) was an association football match between Luton Town and Arsenal on 24 April 1988 at Wembley Stadium, London. It was the final match of the 1987–88 staging of the Football League Cup. Luton were making their first League Cup Final appearance, while the competition holders Arsenal were appearing in their fourth final. Each club needed to get past five rounds to reach the showpiece event at Wembley. Both clubs made comfortable progress; Luton scored 14 goals and conceded three, Arsenal on the other hand conceded two fewer. Luton for the final were without Darron McDonough who injured himself in training, but David Preece and Ricky Hill both returned to the side after lengthy periods of treatment. Goalkeeper Les Sealey was not fit in time to play, so Andy Dibble deputised in goal for only his sixth appearance of the season. Gus Caesar replaced David O'Leary in Arsenal's starting eleven, as the Irishman was ruled out for the final having damaged his achilles weeks prior. Arsenal, the defending champions, entered the match as favourites, but went behind early when Brian Stein scored. Luton's disciplined approach, coupled with a strong performance by Dibble, contained Arsenal to few chances throughout the game. The holders equalised and took the lead in quick succession through Martin Hayes and Alan Smith, but failed to seal the win when Nigel Winterburn missed a penalty. A revitalised Luton staged a late comeback; Caesar's failed clearance led to Danny Wilson equalising, and in the 90th minute, Brian Stein scored the winner after poor defending from Arsenal. The 1988 final was Luton's first major cup victory; their manager Ray Harford later described it as the greatest win in his time at the club. Luton did not qualify for European football the following season, despite winning the League Cup as UEFA chose not to relax its ban on English teams. Arsenal manager George Graham in the meantime strengthened his squad as a result of his team's poor defensive display. Caesar found his playing time limited in subsequent seasons, as the manager brought in Steve Bould. The 1988 final has been regarded as one of the best in the competition's history and the most exciting at Wembley, and has been likened to the "five-minute" FA Cup Final of 1979. ## Route to the final ### Arsenal Arsenal entered the competition in the second round, as one of the 22 teams from the Football League First Division. They were drawn against Doncaster Rovers; the first leg was staged at Belle Vue on 23 September 1987. Arsenal eased to a 3–0 win, with goals from Perry Groves, Alan Smith and Steve Williams. A fortnight later, midfielder David Rocastle scored the only goal in the second leg to give Arsenal a 4–0 aggregate scoreline win. AFC Bournemouth were Arsenal's opponents in the third round. The match was played at Highbury on 27 October 1987. Arsenal needed 33 minutes to open the scoring, when Michael Thomas converted a penalty kick. Smith extended their lead and in the second half, Kevin Richardson scored Arsenal's third, profiting from a mix-up between the Bournemouth defenders. The win was Arsenal's tenth in succession at Highbury, setting a new club record in the process. In the fourth round Arsenal faced Stoke City of the Second Division at home. They made light work of the opposition, winning by three goals and once more set a unique record: David O'Leary's strike meant all 10 regular outfield players each had scored for Arsenal during the season. In his match report for The Times, Stuart Jones assessed: "Having experienced northing but victory since the end of August, Arsenal are walking around with almost too much belief", and felt complacency was the only issue preventing the club from reaching the quarter-finals. Arsenal profited from a mistake by Sheffield Wednesday goalkeeper Martin Hodge to progress to the semi-finals, where they were paired up against Everton. The first leg was staged at Goodison Park and saw the Arsenal players, rejuvenated by a five-day break in Marbella, come away with a 1–0 win. Groves scored the only goal of the match when he managed to get a shot in from Kenny Sansom's free kick. Arsenal secured a place in the final with a 3–1 victory in the second leg. ### Luton Town Luton Town, also of the First Division, began the competition in the second round and played Wigan Athletic over two legs. The first, staged at Wigan's Springfield Park ended as a 1–0 win for the visitors, courtesy of Mickey Weir's goal. In the return leg, Mick Harford scored a hat-trick to give Luton a comfortable 4–2 victory (5–2 on aggregate). Coventry City were Luton's opponents in the third round. The tie was played at Filbert Street – a neutral venue – given Luton had banned away supporters from its home, Kenilworth Road as a consequence of the rioting which marred English football in 1985. At Filbert Street, Luton started strongly and took a 30th-minute lead when Weir scored. Further goals from Harford saw them progress into the next round. In the last 16 of the competition, Luton faced Ipswich Town of the Second Division. Without several senior players because of ineligibility and injury, Luton scored early through Brian Stein's strike, and then produced a solid defensive performance, reliant on goalkeeper Les Sealey to earn a place in the quarter-finals. The result marked Ipswich's first defeat of the season, having earlier recorded 10 wins and two draws at Portman Road. Luton hosted Bradford City in the fifth round of the competition on 19 January 1988. A mistake by Bradford goalkeeper Paul Tomlinson handed Luton the lead four minutes before the hour, when he gave away a free kick for placing the ball down before picking it up again. A shot from Danny Wilson in the 65th minute resulted in Luton's second goal; though his effort was saved by Tomlinson, the goalkeeper could not fend off the advancing Harford's header. Luton faced Oxford United in the semi-final which was played over two-legs. The first leg was at Oxford's home ground Manor Ground, where Luton had beaten their opponents 5–2 earlier in the league season. On a wet, muddy surface, both clubs struggled to control the tempo, though Luton played the more incisive football and looked threatening in their opponent's half. Brian Stein gave Luton the breakthrough in the tie, but Oxford equalised from the penalty spot. The home side were awarded a second penalty when Dean Saunders was brought down in Luton's area, but Sealey saved his attempt. Having received consent from the police to stage the second leg at Kenilworth Road, a near-capacity crowd saw Luton win 2–0. ## Pre-match Arsenal, the match favourites and holders of the Football League Cup, were making their fourth final appearance in the competition. They had won the League Cup once before, in 1987, and lost two consecutive finals in 1968 and 1969. By contrast Luton Town were making their first League Cup final appearance. The club enjoyed relative success in the cups during the 1987–88 season, reaching the last four of the FA Cup and final of the Full Members Cup. Arsenal and Luton had only played each other once in the League Cup; George Graham the present-day manager of Arsenal, scored the decider in a third-round tie on 6 October 1970. Luton's last victory against Arsenal came in March 1986, a 3–0 win in an FA Cup fifth round, second replay. Luton manager Ray Harford had doubts over his team selection for the final. Though buoyed by the return of David Preece and Ricky Hill to full training, he was without Darron McDonough who injured his knee ligaments in training. Harford said the instability presented a selection dilemma, telling reporters: "I think I have got to break somebody's heart by telling him he is not playing." He admitted Luton's poor run of form since losing the Full Members Cup was a reason why he would make changes for the Wembley final, and noted his side's difficulty on grass away from home. Harford identified David Rocastle as Arsenal's biggest threat and felt they had few weaknesses in the side other than the ability to finish chances. He believed O'Leary absence through injury was a big loss for Arsenal, and implied that Williams was needed in midfield: "Without him they don't have a leader. He has a presence and that Wembley flair." Like Harford, Graham had issues selecting his side, going as far to say "it's the hardest line-up I have had to choose." Already without O'Leary, Graham was waiting for Paul Davis to pass a fitness test before finalising his first eleven; the England international had caught a virus a week before the final and subsequently missed training. Arsenal defender Gus Caesar, who deputised for O'Leary, relished the challenge of being up against Harford: "[He] is aggressive, but I'm not worried. I played with Tony Adams for two years in the youth team. We can always draw on that experience. It's instinctive." The final was broadcast live in the United Kingdom on ITV, presented by Elton Welsby with commentary from Brian Moore and David Pleat. The winners stood to receive £75,000 in prize money, while the losing finalists earned £25,000. ## Match ### Summary Sealey was not fit in time for the final, so Harford selected Andy Dibble to deputise in only his sixth game of the season. Mal Donaghy passed a fitness test and partnered Steve Foster in defence, while Rob Johnson was preferred as left back to Ashley Grimes. Hill and Preece came back into the side in midfield, and Brian Stein played behind Harford and Kingsley Black. As expected for Arsenal, Graham paired Caesar with Adams in central defence, and Davis returned to the first eleven after his short illness. Up front, Smith was positioned alongside Groves. Harford set his team up in a 4–3–3 formation, whereas Graham went for the traditional 4–4–2 system: a four-man defence (comprising two centre backs and left and right full-backs), four midfielders (two in the centre, and one on each wing) and two centre forwards. Luton kicked off the final, and both sides enjoyed early spells of possession, moving the ball about briskly. Arsenal tested the Luton back four in the eighth minute, when Davis' pass went over Johnson and the ball was collected by Thomas on the right flank. Charging towards the penalty area, he was impeded by the incoming Dibble and moved near the byline, but Johnson obstructed his eventual shot at goal. Minutes later, Luton had their first chance of the match from a long free kick, taken by Tim Breacker. The ball reached the Arsenal penalty area, and goalkeeper John Lukic failed to collect it; Harford got his head to the ball, but it just went over the crossbar. Another Luton free kick, this time in the 13th minute, led to the opening goal. The Arsenal defence failed to clear Preece's incoming delivery, and Foster, thinking quick, managed to slip an angled pass in Brian Stein's direction. The midfielder scored – it was the second goal Arsenal had conceded in the competition. Arsenal began to play with purpose once going behind, but for the rest of the half struggled to get the better of Luton's defence. A long ball by Davis sent Rocastle charging forward in the 16th minute, and momentarily upset Luton's shape, but it was caught by Dibble. The Luton goalkeeper was again called into action when Arsenal were awarded a set piece; Sansom slid the ball to Nigel Winterburn, whose shot was gathered. Foster made a timely challenge on Davis on the edge of the penalty area to end another Arsenal attack; Graham's team had been more threatening on right-hand flank with Rocastle and Winterburn. Harford, who had been a long figure up front for Luton, still managed to trouble the Arsenal defence with little service; near the end of the first half, he collected a pass from the left, bypassed his marker Adams and aimed his shot at goal, which went wide of the right-hand post. Luton came close to scoring their second goal of the match when Harford got away from Caesar and ran towards the left byline. His cross into the penalty area was met by Brian Stein's head, but Lukic made a crucial save, tipping the ball wide. Both managers brought on substitutes after the hour mark – Mark Stein came on for Harford, while Martin Hayes replaced Groves. The latter substitution worked to Arsenal's advantage, as it brought about their equaliser in the 72nd minute. Davis' free kick delivered in was only half cleared by Foster and amongst the scramble, Hayes drove the ball in the net. Arsenal continued to pile on pressure, and took the lead three minutes later, when Smith received a pass from Thomas to score. The turning point of the match came with ten minutes left. After a period of fluent football by the Arsenal forwards which saw Smith hit the woodwork and Hayes, Thomas and Rocastle all had shots saved by Dibble, Arsenal were awarded a penalty after Rocastle was fouled in the box. Dibble saved Winterburn's spot-kick by turning the ball round the post. A newly inspired Luton equalised with seven minutes remaining when Caesar mis-kicked a clearance on the edge of his penalty area, enabling Luton's Wilson to head the ball into the Arsenal goal from a Mark Stein cross. With less than a minute to go, Adams fouled Mark Stein, and from the resulting free kick, Brian Stein scored his second goal of the match to put the game beyond the reach of the defending champions. ### Details ## Post-match and legacy Luton's cup win was the club's first major piece of silverware in its history. A jubilant Harford described it as "the greatest win in my time at Luton", having thought his team had lost the match when Smith scored. He commended his goalkeeper, saying: "Considering all the circumstances, I think Dibble had to be the man of the match, and as for the young boy, [Kingsley] Black was sensational. He has so much talent." The stand-in goalkeeper for Luton was delighted with his role in the final, but made it pertinent that he needed regular first-team football, or he would be tempted to leave the following season. Brian Stein spoke of his surprise of scoring the winner, and said: "I asked the referee how long was left and he just blew the whistle." Luton held a civic ceremony two days after the final, where the trophy was presented in front of the club's supporters. It was there the stem of the trophy had become noticeably damaged; Luton the following morning returned it to the competition's sponsors for repairs. Graham felt his team "... were there when we were leading 2–1", and expressed his sympathy for Winterburn, "He is a good signing for Arsenal and to miss a penalty so close to the end was a great disappointment to him." He extended his congratulations to Luton, in particular Dibble, telling reporters: "Their goalkeeper was absolutely superb. He kept them in the game when they could have been finished." The Arsenal manager also revealed the club would take action against Williams for disappearing on the matchday. The defeat prompted Graham to strengthen his defence over the summer; he was unable to convince his first choice Gary Pallister to join the club, but managed to sign 25-year-old defender Steve Bould from Stoke. Bould went on to displace Caesar in the starting eleven, whose career stalled after the 1988 final. Although Luton won the League Cup, they did not earn a place in the UEFA Cup, as UEFA chose not to relax its ban on English teams from playing in European club competitions during the late 1980s. David Evans, the Luton chairman was against his club participating in European football, though he never publicised his reasoning. The match is considered as one of the best League Cup finals, and greatest Cup shocks in the competition's history. In 2015, Luton's victory was ranked 12th in a list of the "50 greatest things from the past three decades", by readers of the Luton on Sunday.

Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant

U.S. presidential administration from 1869 to 1877

The presidency of Ulysses S. Grant began on March 4, 1869, when Ulysses S. Grant was inaugurated as the 18th president of the United States, and ended on March 4, 1877. The Reconstruction era took place during Grant's two terms of office. The Ku Klux Klan caused widespread violence throughout the South against African Americans. By 1870, all former Confederate states had been readmitted into the United States and were represented in Congress. However, Democrats and former slave owners refused to accept that freedmen were citizens who were granted suffrage by the Fifteenth Amendment, which prompted Congress to pass three Force Acts to allow the federal government to intervene when states failed to protect former slaves' rights. Following an escalation of Klan violence in the late 1860s, Grant and his attorney general, Amos T. Akerman, head of the newly created Department of Justice, began a crackdown on Klan activity in the South, starting in South Carolina, where Grant sent federal troops to capture Klan members. This led the Klan to demobilize and helped ensure fair elections in 1872. Rather than develop a cadre of trustworthy political advisers, Grant was self-reliant in choosing his cabinet. He relied heavily on former Army associates, who had a thin understanding of politics and a weak sense of civilian ethics. Numerous scandals plagued his administration, including allegations of bribery, fraud, and cronyism. Grant did respond to corruption charges. At times, he appointed reformers, such as for the prosecution of the Whiskey Ring. Additionally, Grant advanced the cause of Civil Service Reform, more than any president before him, creating America's first Civil Service Commission. In 1872, Grant signed into law an Act of Congress that established Yellowstone National Park, the nation's first National Park. The United States was at peace with the world throughout Grant's eight years in office, but his handling of foreign policy was uneven. Tensions with Native American tribes in the West continued. Under Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, the Treaty of Washington restored relations with Britain and resolved the contentious Alabama Claims, while the Virginius Affair with Spain was settled peacefully. Grant attempted to annex the Caribbean island of Santo Domingo, but the annexation was blocked by the Senate. Grant's presidential reputation has improved during the 21st Century due to Grant's enforcement of civil rights for blacks. ## Background Ulysses S. Grant was a native of Ohio, born in 1822. After graduating from West Point in 1843 he served in the Mexican–American War. In 1848, Grant married Julia, and had four children. He resigned from the Army in 1854. Upon the start of the American Civil War, Grant returned to the Army in 1861. A successful general, Grant rose in rank in the Army. Grant had decisive victories at Vicksburg and Chattanooga and was promoted to Commanding General of Union Army by Abraham Lincoln. Grant eventually defeated Robert E. Lee, after hard-fought conflicts at the Wilderness and Petersburg. Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomatox, and the war ended in 1865. After the war, Grant served under Andrew Johnson, and was in charge of enforcing Reconstruction, in addition to being in charge of Indian conflicts among settlers. Grant and Johnson became at odds with each other when Grant defended Congressional Reconstruction, which abolished slavery and gave blacks citizenship, compared to Johnson's Reconstruction, which bypassed Congress and was lenient to white southerners. ## Election of 1868 Grant's rise in political popularity among Republicans was based on his successful generalship that defeated Robert E. Lee, and his dramatic break from President Andrew Johnson. His presidential nomination was unopposed and inevitable. The Republican Party delegates unanimously named Grant the presidential candidate at its May convention held in Chicago. House Speaker Schuyler Colfax, was chosen its vice-presidential candidate. The 1868 Republican Party platform advocated the enfranchisement of African Americans in the South but kept the issue open in the North. It opposed using greenbacks, only gold, to redeem U.S. bonds, encouraged immigration, endorsed full rights for naturalized citizens, and favored radical reconstruction as distinct from the more lenient policy espoused by President Andrew Johnson. In Grant's acceptance letter he said: "Let us have peace." These words became the Republican popular mantra. Grant won the presidential election with an overwhelming Electoral College victory, receiving 214 votes to Seymour's 80. Grant also received 52.7 percent of the popular vote nationwide. Grant's margin of victory was enhanced by six southern states controlled by Republicans, while many ex-Confederates were still prevented from voting. ## First term 1869–1873 ### Inaugural Address 1869 Grant's March 4, 1869, Inaugural speech addressed four priorities. First, Grant said he would approach Reconstruction "calmly, without prejudice, hate, or sectional pride; remembering that the greatest good for the greatest number is the object to be obtained." Second, Grant spoke on the nation's financial situation, advocating "a return to a specie basis." Third, Grant spoke on foreign policy, advocating Americans be respected with equality around the world. Fourth, Grant advocated the passage of the 15th Amendment, that blacks, or former slaves, receive the constitutional right to vote. ### Cabinet Grant's cabinet choices surprised the nation. Although Grant respectfully listened to political advice, he independently bypassed traditional consultation from prominent Republicans and kept his cabinet choices secret. Grant's initial cabinet nominations were met with both criticism and approval. Grant appointed Elihu B. Washburne Secretary of State, as a friendship courtesy. Washburne served eleven days of office and then resigned. A week later, Grant appointed Washburn Minister to France. To replace Washburn, Grant appointed conservative Hamilton Fish, former governor of New York. Grant appointed wealthy New York merchant Alexander T. Stewart Secretary of Treasury, but he was quickly found to be disqualified by a federal law that prohibited anyone in the office to engage in commerce. When Congress would not amend the law, at Grant's bidding, an embarrassed Grant appointed Massachusetts Congressman George S. Boutwell, to replace Stewart. For Secretary of War, Grant appointed his former Army chief of staff John A. Rawlins, however, Rawlins died of tuberculosis in September 1869. To replace Rawlins, six weeks later, Grant appointed former Union Army General William W. Belknap. For U.S. Attorney General, Grant appointed Massachusetts Supreme Judicial associate justice Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar. For Secretary of Navy, Grant appointed Philadelphia businessman Adolph E. Borie. Finding the job stressful, Borie resigned from office on June 25, 1869. Borie's noted accomplishment was the racial integration of the Washington Navy Yard. To replace Borie, Grant appointed a former New Jersey public prosecutor George M. Robeson. For Secretary of Interior, Grant appointed former Ohio governor and senator Jacob D. Cox. For Postmaster General, Grant appointed U.S. Senator of Maryland, John A.J. Creswell, who racially integrated the U.S. Postal Service. ### Tenure of Office Act modified In March 1869, President Grant made it known he desired the Tenure of Office Act (1867) repealed, stating it was a "stride toward a revolution in our free system". Grant believed the Tenure Act was a major curtailment to presidential power. To bolster the repeal effort, Grant declined to make any new appointments except for vacancies, until the law was overturned. On March 9, 1869, the House repealed the law outright, but the Senate Judiciary Committee rejected the bill and only offered Grant a temporary suspension of the law. When Grant objected, the Senate Republican caucus met, and proposed allowing the President to have a free hand in choosing and removing his own cabinet. The Senate Judiciary Committee wrote the new bill. A muddled compromise was reached by the House and Senate. Grant signed the bill into law on April 5, having gotten virtually everything he wanted. ### Reconstruction #### Fifteenth Amendment Grant worked to ensure ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment approved by Congress and sent to the states during the last days of the Johnson administration. The amendment prohibited the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." On December 24, 1869, Grant established federal military rule in Georgia and restored black legislators who had been expelled from the state legislature. On February 3, 1870, the amendment reached the requisite number of state ratifications (then 27) and was certified as the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Grant hailed its ratification as "a measure of grander importance than any other one act of the kind from the foundation of our free government to the present day". By mid-1870 former Confederate states: Virginia, Texas, Mississippi, and Georgia had ratified the 15th Amendment and were readmitted to the Union. #### Department of Justice On June 22, 1870, Grant signed a bill into law passed by Congress that created the Department of Justice and to aid the Attorney General, the Office of Solicitor General. Grant appointed Amos T. Akerman as Attorney General and Benjamin H. Bristow as America's first Solicitor General. Both Akerman and Bristow used the Department of Justice to vigorously prosecute Ku Klux Klan members in the early 1870s. Grant appointed Hiram C. Whitley as director of the new Secret Service Agency in 1869, after he had successfully arrested 12 Klansmen in Georgia who would murdered a leading local Republican official. Whitley used talented detectives who infiltrated and broke up KKK units in North Carolina and Alabama. However, they could not penetrate the main hotbed of KKK activity in upstate South Carolina. Grant sent in Army troops but Whitley's agents learned they were lying below until the troops were withdrawn. Whitley warned Akerman, who convinced Grant to declare martial law and send in US marshals backed by federal troops to arrest 500 Klansmen; hundred more fled the state, and hundreds of others surrendered in return for leniency. In the first few years of Grant's first term in office, there were 1000 indictments against Klan members with over 550 convictions from the Department of Justice. By 1871, there were 3000 indictments and 600 convictions with most only serving brief sentences while the ringleaders were imprisoned for up to five years in the federal penitentiary in Albany, New York. The result was a dramatic decrease in violence in the South. Akerman gave credit to Grant and told a friend that no one was "better" or "stronger" than Grant when it came to prosecuting terrorists. Akerman's successor, George H. Williams, in December 1871, continued to prosecute the Klan throughout 1872 until the Spring of 1873 during Grant's second term in office. Williams' clemency and moratorium on Klan prosecutions was due in part to the fact that the Justice Department, having been inundated by Klan outrage cases, did not have the effective manpower to continue the prosecutions. #### Naturalization Act of 1870 On July 14, 1870, Grant signed into law the Naturalization Act of 1870 that allowed persons of African descent to become citizens of the United States. This revised an earlier law, the Naturalization Act of 1790 that only allowed white persons of good moral character to become U.S. citizens. The law also prosecuted persons who used fictitious names, misrepresentations, or identities of deceased individuals when applying for citizenship. #### Force Acts of 1870 and 1871 To add enforcement to the 15th Amendment, Congress passed an act that guaranteed the protection of voting rights of African Americans; Grant signed the bill, known as the Force Act of 1870 into law on May 31, 1870. This law was designed to keep the Redeemers from attacking or threatening African Americans. This act placed severe penalties on persons who used intimidation, bribery, or physical assault to prevent citizens from voting and placed elections under Federal jurisdiction. On January 13, 1871, Grant submitted to Congress a report on violent acts committed by the Ku Klux Klan in the South. On March 23, Grant told a reluctant Congress the situation in the South was dire and federal legislation was needed that would "secure life, liberty, and property, and the enforcement of law, in all parts of the United States." Grant stated that the U.S. mail and the collection of revenue was in jeopardy. Congress investigated the Klan's activities and eventually passed the Force Act of 1871 to allow prosecution of the Klan. This Act, also known as the "Ku Klux Klan Act" and written by Representative Benjamin Butler, was passed by Congress to specifically go after local units of the Ku Klux Klan. Although sensitive to charges of establishing a military dictatorship, Grant signed the bill into law on April 20, 1871, after being convinced by Secretary of Treasury, George Boutwell, that federal protection was warranted, having cited documented atrocities against the Freedmen. This law allowed the president to suspend habeas corpus on "armed combinations" and conspiracies by the Klan. The Act also empowered the president "to arrest and break up disguised night marauders". The actions of the Klan were defined as high crimes and acts of rebellion against the United States. The Ku Klux Klan consisted of local secret organizations formed to violently oppose Republican rule during Reconstruction; there was no organization above the local level. Wearing white hoods to hide their identity the Klan would attack and threaten Republicans. The Klan was strong in South Carolina between 1868 and 1870; South Carolina Governor Robert K. Scott, who was mired in corruption charges, allowed the Klan to rise to power. Grant, who was fed up with their violent tactics, ordered the Ku Klux Klan to disperse from South Carolina and lay down their arms under the authority of the Enforcement Acts on October 12, 1871. There was no response, and so on October 17, 1871, Grant issued a suspension of habeas corpus in all the 9 counties in South Carolina. Grant ordered federal troops in the state who then captured the Klan; who were vigorously prosecuted by Att. Gen. Akerman and Sol. Gen. Bristow. With the Klan destroyed other white supremacist groups would emerge, including the White League and the Red Shirts. #### Amnesty Act of 1872 Texas was readmitted into the Union on March 30, 1870, Mississippi was readmitted February 23, 1870, and Virginia on January 26, 1870. Georgia became the last Confederate state to be readmitted into the Union on July 15, 1870. All members of the House of Representatives and Senate were seated from the 10 Confederate states who seceded. Technically, the United States was again a united country. To ease tensions, Grant signed the Amnesty Act of 1872 on May 23, 1872, which gave amnesty to former Confederates. This act allowed most former Confederates, who before the war had taken an oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States, to hold elected public office. Only 500 former Confederates remained unpardonable and therefore forbidden to hold elected public office. ### Financial affairs #### Public Credit Act On taking office Grant's first move was signing the Act to Strengthen the Public Credit, which the Republican Congress had just passed. It ensured that all public debts, particularly war bonds, would be paid only in gold rather than in greenbacks. The price of gold on the New York exchange fell to \$130 per ounce – the lowest point since the suspension of specie payment in 1862. #### Federal wages raised On May 19, 1869, Grant protected the wages of those working for the U.S. Government. In 1868, a law was passed that reduced the government working day to 8 hours; however, much of the law was later repealed that allowed day wages to also be reduced. To protect workers Grant signed an executive order that "no reduction shall be made in the wages" regardless of the reduction in hours for the government day workers. #### Boutwell reforms Treasury Secretary George S. Boutwell reorganized and reformed the United States Treasury by discharging unnecessary employees, started sweeping changes in Bureau of Printing and Engraving to protect the currency from counterfeiters, and revitalized tax collections to hasten the collection of revenue. These changes soon led the Treasury to have a monthly surplus. By May 1869, Boutwell reduced the national debt by \$12 million. By September the national debt was reduced by \$50 million, which was achieved by selling the growing gold surplus at weekly auctions for greenbacks and buying back wartime bonds with the currency. The New York Tribune wanted the government to buy more bonds and greenbacks and the New York Times praised the Grant administration's debt policy. The first two years of the Grant administration with George Boutwell at the Treasury helm expenditures had been reduced to \$292 million in 1871 – down from \$322 million in 1869. The cost of collecting taxes fell to 3.11% in 1871. Grant reduced the number of employees working in the government by 2,248 persons from 6,052 on March 1, 1869, to 3,804 on December 1, 1871. He had increased tax revenues by \$108 million from 1869 to 1872. During his first administration the national debt fell from \$2.5 billion to \$2.2 billion. In a rare case of preemptive reform during the Grant Administration, Brevet Major General Alfred Pleasonton was dismissed for being unqualified to hold the position of Commissioner of Internal Revenue. In 1870, Pleasonton, a Grant appointment, approved an unauthorized \$60,000 tax refund and was associated with an alleged unscrupulous Connecticut firm. Treasury Secretary George Boutwell promptly stopped the refund and personally informed Grant that Pleasonton was incompetent to hold office. Refusing to resign on Boutwell's request, Pleasonton protested openly before Congress. Grant removed Pleasonton before any potential scandal broke out. ### Gold corner conspiracy The New York gold conspiracy almost dismantled Grant's presidency. In September 1869, financial manipulators Jay Gould and Jim Fisk set up an elaborate scam to corner the New York gold market, buying up all the gold at the same time to drive up the price. The plan was to keep the Government from selling gold, thus driving its price. Grant and Secretary of Treasury George S. Boutwell found out about the gold market speculation and ordered the sale of \$4 million in gold on (Black) Friday, September 23. Gould and Fisk were thwarted, and the price of gold dropped. The effects of releasing gold by Boutwell were disastrous. Stock prices plunged and food prices dropped, devastating farmers for years. Although the financial panic that followed was short lived, the gold scandal overshadowed Grant's presidency. ### Foreign affairs Grant was a man of peace, and almost wholly devoted to domestic affairs. There were no foreign-policy disasters, and no wars to engage in. Besides Grant himself, the main players in foreign affairs were Secretary of State Hamilton Fish and the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee Charles Sumner. They had to cooperate to get a treaty ratified. When Sumner stopped Grant's plan to annex Santo Domingo, Grant had his vengeance by systematically destroying Sumner's power and ending his career. Historians have high regard for the diplomatic professionalism, independence, and good judgment of Hamilton Fish. The main issues involved Britain, Canada, Santo Domingo, Cuba, and Spain. Worldwide, it was a peaceful era, with no major wars directly affecting the United States. The foreign policy of the Administration was generally successful, except for the attempt to annex Santo Domingo. The annexation of Santo Domingo was Grant's effort to create a haven for blacks in the South and was a first step to end slavery in Cuba and Brazil. The dangers of a confrontation with Britain on the Alabama question were resolved peacefully, and to the monetary advantage of the United States. Issues regarding the Canadian boundary were easily settled. The achievements were the work of Secretary Hamilton Fish, who was a spokesman for caution and stability. A poll of historians has stated that Secretary Fish was one of the greatest Secretaries of States in United States history. Fish served as Secretary of State for nearly the entire two terms. Hamilton Fish (1808 – 1893) was a wealthy New Yorker of Dutch descent who served as Governor of New York (1849 to 1850), and United States Senator (1851 to 1857). Historians emphasize his judiciousness and efforts towards reform and diplomatic moderation. Fish settled the controversial Alabama Claims with Great Britain through his development of the concept of international arbitration. Fish kept the United States out of war with Spain over Cuban independence by coolly handling the volatile Virginius Incident. In 1875, Fish initiated the process that would ultimately lead to Hawaiian statehood, by having negotiated a reciprocal trade treaty for the island nation's sugar production. He also organized a peace conference and treaty in Washington, D.C., between South American countries and Spain. Fish worked with James Milton Turner, America's first African American consul, to settle the Liberian-Grebo war. President Grant said he trusted Fish the most for political advice. #### Failed annexation of Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic) Grant gave a high priority to protecting and improving the status of Blacks in the United States, and tried to annex the Caribbean country of Dominican Republic as a safety valve for them. Senator Charles Sumner was even more firmly devoted to Black interests and opposed Grant's scheme. Sumner stopped the plan and Grant retaliated by destroying Sumner's power. In 1869, Grant proposed to annex the independent Spanish-speaking black nation of the Dominican Republic, then known as Santo Domingo. Previously in 1868, President Johnson had proposed annexation but Congress refused. In July 1869 Grant sent Orville E. Babcock and Rufus Ingalls who negotiated a draft treaty with Dominican Republic president Buenaventura Báez. To keep the island nation and Báez secure in power, Grant ordered naval ships to secure the island from invasion and internal insurrection. Báez signed an annexation treaty on November 19, 1869. Secretary Fish drew up a final draft of the proposal and offered \$1.5 million to the Dominican national debt, the annexation of Santo Domingo as an American state, the United States' acquisition of the rights for Samaná Bay for 50 years with an annual \$150,000 rental, and guaranteed protection from foreign intervention. On January 10, 1870, the Santo Domingo treaty was submitted to the Senate for ratification. Grant made the mistake of not building support in Congress or the country at large. Not only did Grant believe that the island would be of strategic value to the Navy, particularly Samaná Bay, but also he sought to use it as a bargaining chip in domestic affairs. By providing a safe haven for the freedmen, he believed that the exodus of black labor would force Southern whites to realize the necessity of such a significant workforce and accept their civil rights. Grant believed the island country would increase exports and lower the trade deficit. He hoped that U.S. ownership of the island would push Spain to abolish slavery in Cuba and Puerto Rico, and perhaps Brazil as well. On March 15, 1870, the Foreign Relations Committee, headed by Sumner, recommended against treaty passage. Sumner, the leading spokesman for African American civil rights, believed that annexation would be enormously expensive and involve the U.S. in an ongoing civil war, and would threaten the independence of Haiti and the West Indies, thereby blocking black political progress. On May 31, 1870, Grant went before Congress and urged passage of the Dominican annexation treaty. Strongly opposed to ratification, Sumner successfully led the opposition in the Senate. On June 30, 1870, the Santo Domingo annexation treaty failed to pass the Senate; 28 votes in favor of the treaty and 28 votes against. Grant's own cabinet was divided over the Santo Domingo annexation attempt, and Bancroft Davis, assistant to Sec. Hamilton Fish, was secretly giving information to Sen. Sumner on state department negotiations. Grant was determined to keep the Dominican Republic treaty in the public debate, mentioning Dominican Republic annexation in his December 1870 State of the Union Address. Grant was able to get Congress in January 1871 to create a special Commission to investigate the island. Senator Sumner continued to vigorously oppose and speak out against annexation. Grant appointed Frederick Douglass, an African American civil rights activist, as one of the Commissioners who voyaged to the Dominican Republic. Returning to the United States after several months, the Commission in April 1871, issued a report that stated the Dominican people desired annexation and that the island would be beneficial to the United States. To celebrate the Commissions return, Grant invited the Commissioners to the White House, except Frederick Douglass. African American leaders were upset and the issue of Douglass not being invited to the White House dinner was brought up during the 1872 presidential election by Horace Greeley. Douglass, however, who was personally disappointed for not being invited to the White House, remained loyal to Grant and the Republican Party. Although the Commission supported Grant's annexation attempt, there was not enough enthusiasm in Congress to vote on a second annexation treaty. Unable constitutionally to go directly after Sen. Sumner, Grant immediately removed Sumner's close and respected friend Ambassador, John Lothrop Motley. With Grant's prodding in the Senate, Sumner was finally deposed from the Foreign Relations Committee. Grant reshaped his coalition, known as "New Radicals", working with enemies of Sumner such as Ben Butler of Massachusetts, Roscoe Conkling of New York, and Oliver P. Morton of Indiana, giving in to Fish's demands that Cuba rebels be rejected, and moving his Southern patronage from the radical blacks and carpetbaggers who were allied with Sumner to more moderate Republicans. This set the stage of the Liberal Republican revolt of 1872, when Sumner and his allies publicly denounced Grant and supported Horace Greeley and the Liberal Republicans. A Congressional investigation in June 1870 led by Senator Carl Schurz revealed that Babcock and Ingalls both had land interests in the Bay of Samaná that would increase in value if the Santo Domingo treaty were ratified. U.S. Navy ships, with Grant's authorization, had been sent to protect Báez from an invasion by a Dominican rebel, Gregorio Luperón, while the treaty negotiations were taking place. The investigation had initially been called to settle a dispute between an American businessman Davis Hatch against the United States government. Báez had imprisoned Hatch without trial for his opposition to the Báez government. Hatch had claimed that the United States had failed to protect him from imprisonment. The majority Congressional report dismissed Hatch's claim and exonerated both Babcock and Ingalls. The Hatch incident, however, kept certain Senators from being enthusiastic about ratifying the treaty. #### Cuban insurrection The Cuban rebellion 1868–1878 against Spanish rule, called by historians the Ten Years' War, gained wide sympathy in the U.S. Juntas based in New York raised money, and smuggled men and munitions to Cuba, while energetically spreading propaganda in American newspapers. The Grant administration turned a blind eye to this violation of American neutrality. In 1869, Grant was urged by popular opinion to support rebels in Cuba with military assistance and to give them U.S. diplomatic recognition. Fish, however, wanted stability and favored the Spanish government, without publicly challenging the popular anti-Spanish American viewpoint. They reassured European governments that the U.S. did not want to annex Cuba. Grant and Fish gave lip service to Cuban independence, called for an end to slavery in Cuba, and quietly opposed American military intervention. Fish, worked diligently against popular pressure, and was able to keep Grant from officially recognizing Cuban independence because it would have endangered negotiations with Britain over the Alabama Claims. Minister to Spain Daniel Sickles failed to get Spain to agree to American mediation. Grant and Fish did not succumb to popular pressures. Grant's message to Congress urged strict neutrality not to officially recognize the Cuban revolt, which eventually petered out. #### Treaty of Washington Historians have credited the Treaty of Washington for implementing International Arbitration to allow outside experts to settle disputes. Grant's able Secretary of State Hamilton Fish had orchestrated many of the events leading up to the treaty. Previously, Secretary of State William H. Seward during the Johnson administration first proposed an initial treaty concerning damages done to American merchants by three Confederate warships, CSS Florida, CSS Alabama, and CSS Shenandoah built in Britain. These damages were collectively known as the Alabama Claims. These ships had inflicted tremendous damage to U.S. shipping, as insurance rates soared and shippers switched to British ships. Washington wanted the British to pay heavy damages, perhaps including turning over Canada. Later, the U.S. added the British blockade runners to the claims, stating that they were responsible for prolonging the war by two years by smuggling in weapons through the Union blockade to the Confederacy. In April 1869, the U.S. Senate overwhelmingly rejected a proposed treaty that paid too little and contained no admission of British guilt for prolonging the war. Senator Charles Sumner spoke up before Congress; publicly denounced Queen Victoria; demanded a huge reparation; and opened the possibility of Canada ceded to the United States as payment. The speech angered the British government, and talks had to be put off until matters cooled down. Negotiations for a new treaty began in January 1871 when Britain sent Sir John Rose to America to meet with Fish. A joint high commission was created on February 9, 1871, in Washington, consisting of representatives from both Britain and the United States. The commission created a treaty where an international Tribunal would settle the damage amounts; the British admitted regret, not fault, over the destructive actions of the Confederate war cruisers nor that charges of blockade running were included in the treaty. Grant approved and signed the treaty on May 8, 1871; the Senate ratified the Treaty of Washington on May 24, 1871. The Tribunal met on neutral territory in Geneva, Switzerland. The panel of five international arbitrators included Charles Francis Adams, who was counseled by William M. Evarts, Caleb Cushing, and Morrison R. Waite. On August 25, 1872, the Tribunal awarded United States \$15.5 million in gold; \$1.9 million was awarded to Great Britain. Historian Amos Elwood Corning noted that the Treaty of Washington and arbitration "bequeathed to the world a priceless legacy". In addition to the \$15.5 million arbitration award, the treaty resolved some disputes over borders and fishing rights. On October 21, 1872, William I, Emperor of Germany, settled a boundary dispute in favor of the United States. #### Korean incident A primary role of the United States Navy in the 19th century was to protect American commercial interests and open trade to Eastern markets, including Japan and China. Korea was a small independent country that excluded all foreign trade. Washington sought a treaty dealing with shipwrecked sailors after the crew of a stranded American commercial ship was executed. The long-term goal for the Grant Administration was to open Korea to Western markets in the same way Commodore Matthew Perry had opened Japan in 1854 by a Naval display of military force. On May 30, 1871, Rear Admiral John Rodgers with a fleet of five ships, part of the Asiatic Squadron, arrived at the mouth of the Salee River below Seoul. The fleet included the Colorado, one of the largest ships in the Navy with 47 guns, 47 officers, and a 571-man crew. While waiting for senior Korean officials to negotiate, Rogers sent ships out to make soundings of the Salee River for navigational purposes. The American fleet was fired upon by a Korean fort, but there was little damage. Rogers gave the Korean government ten days to apologize or begin talks, but the Royal Court kept silent. After ten days passed, on June 10, Rogers began a series of amphibious assaults that destroyed 5 Korean forts. These military engagements were known as the Battle of Ganghwa. Several hundred Korean soldiers and three Americans were killed. Korea still refused to negotiate, and the American fleet sailed away. The Koreans refer to this 1871 U.S. military action as Shinmiyangyo. Grant defended Rogers in his third annual message to Congress in December 1871. After a change in regimes in Seoul, in 1881, the U.S. negotiated a treaty – the first treaty between Korea and a Western nation. ### Native American affairs After the very bloody frontier wars in the 1860s, Grant sought to build a "peace policy" toward the tribes. He emphasized appointees who wanted peace, and were favorable toward religious groups. In the end, however, the western warfare grew worse. Grant declared in his 1869 Inaugural Address that he favored "any course toward them which tends to their civilization and ultimate citizenship." In a bold step, Grant appointed his aide General Ely S. Parker, Donehogawa (a Seneca), the first Native American Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Parker met some opposition in the Senate until Attorney General Hoar said Parker was legally able to hold the office. The Senate confirmed Parker by a vote of 36 to 12. During Parker's tenure Native wars dropped from 101 in 1869 to 58 in 1870. #### Board of Indian Commissioners Early on Grant met with tribal chiefs of the Choctaw, Creek, Cherokee, and Chickasaw nations who expressed interest to teach "wild" Natives outside their own settled districts farming skills. Grant told the Native chiefs that American settlement would lead to inevitable conflict, but that the "march to civilization" would lead to pacification. On April 10, 1869, Congress created the Board of Indian Commissioners. Grant appointed volunteer members who were "eminent for their intelligence and philanthropy." The Grant Board was given extensive joint-power with Grant, Secretary of Interior Cox, and the Interior Department to supervise the Bureau of Indian Affairs and "civilize" Native Americans. No Natives were appointed to the committee, only European Americans. The commission monitored purchases and began to inspect Native agencies. It attributed much of the trouble in Native country to the encroachment of whites. The board approved of the destruction of Native culture. The Natives were to be instructed in Christianity, agriculture, representative government, and assimilated on reservations. #### Marias Massacre On January 23, 1870, the Peace Policy was tested when Major Edward M. Baker senselessly slaughtered 173 Piegan Indians, mostly women, and children, in the Marias Massacre. Public outcry increased when General Sheridan defended Baker's actions. On July 15, 1870, Grant signed Congressional legislation that barred military officers from holding either elected or appointed office or suffer dismissal from the Army. In December 1870, Grant submitted to Congress the names of the new appointees, most of whom were confirmed by the Senate. #### Red Cloud White House visit Grant's Peace policy received a boost when Chief of the Oglala Sioux Red Cloud, Maȟpíya Lúta, and Brulé Sioux Spotted Tail, Siŋté Glešká, arrived in Washington, D.C., and met Grant at the White House for a bountiful state dinner on May 7, 1870. Red Cloud, at a previous meeting with Secretary Cox and Commissioner Parker, complained that promised rations and arms for hunting had not been delivered. Afterward, Grant and Cox lobbied Congress for the promised supplies and rations. Congress responded and on July 15, 1870, Grant signed the Indian Appropriations Act into law that appropriated the tribal monies. Two days after Spotted Tail urged the Grant administration to keep white settlers from invading Native reservation land, Grant ordered all Generals in the West to "keep intruders off by military force if necessary". In 1871, Grant signed another Indians Appropriations Act that ended the governmental policy of treating tribes as independent sovereign nations. Natives would be treated as individuals or wards of the state and Indian policies would be legislated by Congressional statutes. #### Peace policy At the core of the Peace Policy was putting the western reservations under the control of religious denominations. In 1872, the implementation of the policy involved the allotting of Indian reservations to religious organizations as exclusive religious domains. Of the 73 agencies assigned, the Methodists received fourteen; the Orthodox Friends ten; the Presbyterians nine; the Episcopalians eight; the Roman Catholics seven; the Hicksite Friends six; the Baptists five; the Dutch Reformed five; the Congregationalists three; Christians two; Unitarians two; American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions one; and Lutherans one. Infighting between competitive missionary groups over the distribution of agencies was detrimental to Grant's Peace Policy. The selection criteria were vague and some critics saw the Peace Policy as violating Native American freedom of religion. In another setback, William Welsh, a prominent merchant, prosecuted the Bureau in a Congressional investigation over malfeasance. Although Parker was exonerated, legislation passed Congress that authorized the board to approve goods and services payments by vouchers from the Bureau. Parker resigned office, and Grant replaced Parker with reformer Francis A. Walker. ### Domestic affairs #### Holidays law On June 28, 1870, Grant approved and signed legislation that made Christmas, or December 25, a legal federal public Holiday within Washington, D.C. Historian Ron White said this was done by Grant because of his passion to unify the nation. During the early 19th Century in the United States, Christmas became more of a family-centered activity. Other Holidays, included in the law within Washington, D.C., were New Year, Fourth of July, and Thanksgiving. The law affected 5,300 federal employees working in the District of Columbia, the nation's capital. The legislation was meant to adapt to similar laws in states surrounding Washington, D.C., and "in every State of the Union." #### Utah territory polygamy In 1862, during the American Civil War President Lincoln signed into law the Morrill bill that outlawed polygamy in all U.S. Territories. Mormons who practiced polygamy in Utah, for the most part, resisted the Morrill law and the territorial governor. During the 1868 election, Grant had mentioned he would enforce the law against polygamy. Tensions began as early as 1870, when Mormons in Ogden, Utah began to arm themselves and practice military drilling. By the Fourth of July, 1871 Mormon militia in Salt Lake City, Utah were on the verge of fighting territorial troops; however, more level heads prevailed and violence was averted. Grant, however, who believed Utah was in a state of rebellion was determined to arrest those who practiced polygamy outlawed under the Morrill Act. In October 1871 hundreds of Mormons were rounded up by U.S. marshals, put in a prison camp, arrested, and put on trial for polygamy. One convicted polygamist received a \$500 fine and three years in prison under hard labor. On November 20, 1871, Mormon leader Brigham Young, in ill health, had been charged with polygamy. Young's attorney stated that Young had no intention to flee the court. Other persons during the polygamy shut down were charged with murder or intent to kill. The Morrill Act, however, proved hard to enforce since proof of marriage was required for conviction. Grant personally found polygamy morally offensive. On December 4, 1871, Grant said polygamists in Utah were "a remnant of barbarism, repugnant to civilization, to decency, and to the laws of the United States." #### Comstock Act In March 1873, anti-obscenity moralists, led by Anthony Comstock, secretary of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, easily secured passage of the Comstock Act which made it a federal crime to mail articles "for any indecent or immoral use". Grant signed the bill after he was assured that Comstock would personally enforce it. Comstock went on to become a special agent of the Post Office appointed by Secretary James Cresswell. Comstock prosecuted pornographers, imprisoned abortionists, banned nude art, stopped the mailing of information about contraception, and tried to ban what he considered bad books. #### Early suffrage movement During Grant's presidency the early Women's suffrage movement led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton gained national attention. Anthony lobbied for female suffrage, equal gender pay, and protection of property for women who resided in Washington, D.C. In April 1869, Grant signed into law the protection of married women's property from their husbands' debts and the ability for women to sue in court in Washington, D.C. In March 1870 Representative Samuel M. Arnell introduced a bill, coauthored by suffragist Bennette Lockwood, that would give women federal workers equal pay for equal work. Two years later Grant signed a modified Senate version of the Arnell Bill into law. The law required that all federal female clerks would be paid the fully compensated salary; however, lower tiered female clerks were exempted. The law increased women's clerk salaries from 4% to 20% during the 1870s; however, the culture of patronage and patriarchy continued. To placate the burgeoning suffragist movement, the Republicans' platform included that women's rights should be treated with "respectful consideration", while Grant advocated equal rights for all citizens. ### Yellowstone and conservation An enduring hallmark of the Grant administration was the creation of Yellowstone, the world's first national park. Organized exploration of the upper Yellowstone River began in fall 1869 when the Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition made a month-long journey up the Yellowstone River and into the geyser basins. In 1870, the somewhat more official Washburn–Langford–Doane Expedition explored the same regions of the upper Yellowstone and geyser basins, naming Old Faithful and many other park features. Official reports from Lieutenant Gustavus Cheyney Doane and Scribner's Monthly accounts by Nathaniel P. Langford brought increased public awareness to the natural wonders of the region. Influenced by Jay Cooke of the Northern Pacific Railroad and Langford's public speeches about the Yellowstone on the East Coast, geologist Ferdinand Hayden sought funding from Congress for an expedition under the auspices of the U.S. Geological Survey. In March 1871 Grant signed into law Congressional legislation appropriating \$40,000 to finance the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. Hayden was given instructions by Grant's Secretary of Interior, Columbus Delano. The expedition party was composed of 36 civilians, mostly scientists, and two military escorts. Among the survey party were an artist Thomas Moran and photographer William Henry Jackson. Hayden's published reports, magazine articles, along with paintings by Moran and photographs by Jackson convinced Congress to preserve the natural wonders of the upper Yellowstone. On December 18, 1871, a bill was introduced simultaneously in the Senate, by Senator S.C. Pomeroy of Kansas, and in the House of Representatives, by Congressman William H. Clagett of the Montana Territory, for the establishment of a park at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River. Hayden's influence on Congress is readily apparent when examining the detailed information contained in the report of the House Committee on Public Lands: "The bill now before Congress has for its objective the withdrawal from settlement, occupancy, or sale, under the laws of the United States a tract of land fifty-five by sixty-five miles, about the sources of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, and dedicates and sets apart as a great national park or pleasure-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." When the bill was presented to Congress, the bill's chief supporters, ably prepared by Langford, Hayden and Jay Cooke, convinced their colleagues that the region's real value was as a park area, to be preserved in its natural state. The bill was approved by a comfortable margin in the Senate on January 30, 1872, and by the House on February 27. On March 1, 1872, Grant played his role, in signing the "Act of Dedication" into law. It established the Yellowstone region as the nation's first national park, made possible by three years of exploration by Cook-Folsom-Peterson (1869), Washburn-Langford-Doane (1870), and Hayden (1871). The 1872 Yellowstone Act prohibited fish and game, including buffalo, from "wanton destruction" within the confines of the park. However, Congress did not appropriate funds or legislation for the enforcement against poaching; as a result, Secretary Delano could not hire people to aid tourists or protect Yellowstone from encroachment. By the 1880s buffalo herds dwindled to only a few hundred, a majority found mostly in Yellowstone National Park. As the Indian wars ended, Congress appropriated money and enforcement legislation in 1894, signed into law by President Grover Cleveland, that protected and preserved buffalo and other wildlife in Yellowstone. Grant also signed legislation that protected northern fur seals on Alaska's Pribilof Islands. This was the first law in U.S. history that specifically protected wildlife on federally owned land. #### End of the buffalo herds In 1872, around two thousand white buffalo hunters working between Kansas, and Arkansas were killing buffalo for their hides by the many thousands. The demand was for boots for European armies, or machine belts attached to steam engines. Acres of land were dedicated solely for drying the hides of the slaughtered buffalo. Native Americans protested at the "wanton destruction" of their food supply. Between 1872 in 1874, the buffalo herd south of the Platte River yielded 4.4 million kills by white hunters, and about 1 million animals killed by Indians. Popular concern for the destruction of the buffalo mounted, and a bill in Congress was passed, HR 921, that would have made buffalo hunting illegal for whites. Taking advice from Secretary Delano, Grant chose to pocket-veto the bill, believing that the demise of the buffalo would reduce Indian wars and force tribes to stay on their respected reservations and to adopt an agricultural lifestyle rather than roaming the plains and hunting buffalo. Ranchers wanted the buffalo gone to open pasture land for their cattle herds. With the buffalo food supply lowered, Native Americans were forced to stay on reservations. ### Reforms and scandals #### Civil service commission The reform of the spoils system of political patronage entered the national agenda under the Grant presidency, and would take on the fervor of a religious revival. The distribution of federal jobs by Congressional legislators was considered vital for their reelection to Congress. Grant required that all applicants to federal jobs apply directly to the Department heads, rather than the president. Two of Grant's appointments, Secretary of Interior Jacob D. Cox and Secretary of Treasury George S. Boutwell put in place examinations in their respected departments advocated by reformers. Grant and all reformers agreed that the prevailing system of appointments was unsound, for it maximized party advantage and minimized efficiency and the nonpartisan interest of good government. Historian John Simon says his efforts at civil service reform were honest, but that they were met with criticism from all sides and were a failure. Grant was the first president to recommend a professional civil service. He pushed the initial legislation through Congress, and appointed the members for the first United States Civil Service Commission. The temporary Commission recommended administering competitive exams and issuing regulations on the hiring and promotion of government employees. Grant ordered their recommendations in effect in 1872; having lasted for two years until December 1874. At the New York Custom House, a port that took in hundreds of millions of dollars a year in revenue, applicants for an entry position now had to pass a written civil service examination. Chester A. Arthur who was appointed by Grant as New York Custom Collector stated that the examinations excluded and deterred unfit persons from getting employment positions. However, Congress, in no mood to reform itself, denied any long-term reform by refusing to enact the necessary legislation to make the changes permanent. Historians have traditionally been divided whether patronage, meaning appointments made without a merit system, should be labeled corruption. The movement for Civil Service reform reflected two distinct objectives: to eliminate the corruption and inefficiencies in a non-professional bureaucracy and to check the power of President Johnson. Although many reformers after the Election of 1868 looked to Grant to ram Civil Service legislation through Congress, he refused, saying: > Civil Service Reform rests entirely with Congress. If members will give up claiming patronage, that will be a step gained. But there is an immense amount of human nature in the members of Congress, and it is human nature to seek power and use it to help friends. You cannot call it corruption – it is a condition of our representative form of Government." Grant used patronage to build his party and help his friends. He protected those whom he thought were the victims of injustice or attacks by his enemies, even if they were guilty. Grant believed in loyalty to his friends, as one writer called it the "Chivalry of Friendship". #### New York Custom House Ring Prior to the presidential election of 1872 two congressional and one Treasury Department investigations took place over corruption at the New York Custom House under Grant collector appointments Moses H. Grinnell and Thomas Murphy. Private warehouses were taking imported goods from the docks and charging shippers storage fees. Grant's friend, George K. Leet, was allegedly involved with exorbitant pricing for storing goods and splitting the profits. Grant's third collector appointment, Chester A. Arthur, implemented Secretary of Treasury George S. Boutwell's reform to keep the goods protected on the docks rather than private storage. #### Star Route Postal Ring In the early 1870s during the Grant Administration, lucrative postal route contracts were given to local contractors on the Pacific Coast and Southern regions of the United States. These were known as Star Routes because an asterisk was given on official Post Office documents. These remote routes were hundreds of miles long and went to the most rural parts of the United States by horse and buggy. In obtaining these highly prized postal contracts, an intricate ring of bribery and straw bidding was set up in the Postal Contract office; the ring consisted of contractors, postal clerks, and various intermediary brokers. Straw bidding was at its highest practice while John Creswell, Grant's 1869 appointment, was Postmaster-General. An 1872 federal investigation into the matter exonerated Creswell, but he was censured by the minority House report. A \$40,000 bribe to the 42nd Congress by one postal contractor had tainted the results of the investigation. In 1876, another congressional investigation under a Democratic House shut down the postal ring for a few years. #### The Salary Grab On March 3, 1873, Grant signed a law that authorized the president's salary to be increased from \$25,000 a year to \$50,000 a year and Congressmen's salaries to be increased by \$2,500. Representatives also received a retroactive pay bonus for the previous two years of service. This was done in secret and attached to a general appropriations bill. Reforming newspapers quickly exposed the law and the bonus was repealed in January 1874. Grant missed an opportunity to veto the bill and to make a strong statement for good government. ### Election of 1872 As his first term entered its final year, Grant remained popular throughout the nation despite the accusations of corruption that were swirling around his administration. When Republicans gathered for their 1872 national convention he was unanimously nominated for a second term. Henry Wilson was selected as his running mate over scandal-tainted Vice President Schuyler Colfax. The party platform advocated high tariffs and a continuation of Radical Reconstruction policies that supported five military districts in the Southern states. During Grant's first term a significant number of Republicans had become completely disillusioned with the party. Weary of the scandals and opposed to several of Grant's policies, split from the party to form the Liberal Republican Party. At the party's only national convention, held in May 1872 New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley was nominated for president, and Benjamin Gratz Brown was nominated for vice president. They advocated civil service reform, a low tariff, and granting amnesty to former Confederate soldiers. They also wanted to end reconstruction and restore local self-government in the South. The Democrats, who at this time had no strong candidate choice of their own, saw an opportunity to consolidate the anti-Grant vote and jumped on the Greeley bandwagon, reluctantly adopting Greeley and Brown as their nominees. It is the only time in American history when a major party endorsed the candidate of a third party. While Grant, like incumbent presidents before him, did not campaign, an efficient party organization composed of thousands of patronage appointees, did so on his behalf. Frederick Douglass supported Grant and reminded black voters that Grant had destroyed the violent Ku Klux Klan. Greeley embarked on a five-state campaign tour in late September, during which he delivered nearly 200 speeches. His campaign was plagued by misstatements and embarrassing moments. However, because of political infighting between Liberal Republicans and Democrats, and due to several campaign blunders, the physically ailing Greeley was no match for Grant, who won in a landslide. Grant won 286 of the 352 Electoral College votes and received 55.8 percent of the popular vote nationwide. The President's reelection victory also brought an overwhelming Republican majority into both houses of Congress. Heartbroken after a hard-fought political campaign, Greeley died a few weeks after the election. Out of respect for Greeley, Grant attended his funeral. ## Second term 1873–1877 The second inauguration of Ulysses Grant's presidency was held on Tuesday, March 4, 1873, commencing the second four-year term of his presidency. Subsequently, the inaugural ball ended early when the food froze. Departing from the White House, a parade escorted Grant down the newly paved Pennsylvania Avenue, which was all decorated with banners and flags, on to the swearing-in ceremony in front of the Capitol building. Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase administered the presidential oath of office. This was one of the coldest inaugurations in U.S. history, with the temperature at only 6 degrees at sunrise. After the swearing-in ceremony the inaugural parade commenced down Pennsylvania. The Evening Star observed. "The private stands and windows along the entire route were crowded to excess." The parade consisted of a variety of military units along with marching bands, and civic organizations. The military units, in their fancy regalia, were the most noticeable. Altogether there were approximately 12,000 marchers who participated, including several units of African-American soldiers. At the inaugural ball there were some 6,000 people in attendance. Great care was taken to ensure that Grant's inaugural ball would be in spacious quarters and would feature an elegant assortment of appetizers, food, and champagne. A large temporary wooden building was constructed at Judiciary Square to accommodate the event. Grant arrived around 11:30pm and the dancing began. It was the only term of Henry Wilson as vice president. Wilson died 2 years, 263 days into this term, and the office remained vacant for the balance of it. ### Reconstruction Grant was vigorous in his enforcement of the 14th and 15th amendments and prosecuted thousands of persons who violated African American civil rights; he used military force to put down political insurrections in Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. He proactively used military and Justice Department enforcement of civil rights laws and the protection of African Americans more than any other 19th-century president. He used his full powers to weaken the Ku Klux Klan, reducing violence and intimidation in the South. He appointed James Milton Turner as the first African American minister to a foreign nation. Grant's relationship with Charles Sumner, the leader in promoting civil rights, was shattered by the Senator's opposition to Grant's plan to acquire Santo Domingo by treaty. Grant retaliated, firing men Sumner had recommended and having allies strip Sumner of his chairmanship of the Foreign Relations Committee. Sumner joined the Liberal Republican movement in 1872 to fight Grant's reelection. Conservative resistance to Republican state governments grew after the 1872 elections. With the destruction of the Klan in 1872, new secret paramilitary organizations arose in the Deep South. In Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Louisiana, the Red Shirts and White League operated openly and were better organized than the Ku Klux Klan. Their goals were to oust the Republicans, return Conservative whites to power, and use whatever illegal methods needed to achieve them. Being loyal to his veterans, Grant remained determined that African Americans would receive protection. #### Colfax Massacre After the November 4, 1872, election, Louisiana was a split state. In a controversial election, two candidates were claiming victory as governor. Violence was used to intimidate black Republicans. The fusionist party of Liberal Republicans and Democrats claimed John McEnery as the victor, while the Republicans claimed U.S. Senator William P. Kellogg. Two months later each candidate was sworn in as governor on January 13, 1873. A federal judge ruled that Kellogg was the rightful winner of the election and ordered him and the Republican-based majority to be seated. The White League supported McEnery and prepared to use military force to remove Kellogg from office. Grant ordered troops to enforce the court order and protect Kellogg. On March 4, Federal troops under a flag of truce and Kellogg's state militia defeated McEnery's fusionist party's insurrection. A dispute arose over who would be installed as judge and sheriff at the Colfax courthouse in Grant Parish. Kellogg's two appointees had seized control of the Court House on March 25 with aid and protection of black state militia troops. Then on April 13, White League forces attacked the courthouse and massacred 50 black militiamen who had been captured. A total of 105 blacks were killed trying to defend the Colfax courthouse for Governor Kellogg. On April 21, Grant sent in the U.S. 19th Infantry Regiment to restore order. On May 22, Grant issued a new proclamation to restore order in Louisiana. On May 31, McEnery finally told his followers to obey "peremptory orders" of the President. The orders brought a brief peace to New Orleans and most of Louisiana, except, ironically, Grant Parish. #### Brooks-Baxter war in Arkansas In the fall of 1872, the Republican party split in Arkansas and ran two candidates for governor, Elisha Baxter and Joseph Brooks. Massive fraud characterized the election, but Baxter was declared the winner and took office. Brooks never gave up; finally, in 1874, a local judge ruled Brooks was entitled to the office and swore him in. Both sides mobilized militia units, and rioting and fighting bloodied the streets. Speculation swirled as to who President Grant would side with – either Baxter or Brooks. Grant delayed, requesting a joint session of the Arkansas government to figure out peacefully who would be the Governor, but Baxter refused to participate. On May 15, 1874, Grant issued a Proclamation that Baxter was the legitimate Governor of Arkansas, and hostilities ceased. In the fall of 1874 the people of Arkansas voted out Baxter, and Republicans and the Redeemers came to power. A few months later in early 1875, Grant announced that Brooks had been legitimately elected back in 1872. Grant did not send in troops, and Brooks never regained office. Instead, Grant appointed him to the high-paying patronage job of US postmaster in Little Rock. Grant's legalistic approach did resolve the conflict peacefully, but it left the Republican Party in Arkansas in total disarray, and further discredited Grant's reputation. #### Vicksburg riots In August 1874, the Vicksburg city government elected White reform party candidates consisting of Republicans and Democrats. They promised to lower city spending and taxes. Despite such intentions, the reform movement turned racist when the new White city officials went after the county government, which had a majority of African Americans. The White League threatened the life of and expelled Crosby, the black Warren County Sheriff and tax collector. Crosby sought help from Republican Governor Adelbert Ames to regain his position as sheriff. Governor Ames told him to take other African Americans and use force to retain his lawful position. At that time Vicksburg had a population of 12,443, more than half of whom were African American. On December 7, 1874, Crosby and an African-American militia approached Vicksburg. He had said that the Whites were, "ruffians, barbarians, and political banditti". A series of confrontations occurred against white paramilitary forces that resulted in the deaths of 29 African Americans and 2 Whites. The White militia retained control of the County Court House and jail. On December 21, Grant issued a Presidential Proclamation for the people in Vicksburg to stop fighting. General Philip Sheridan, based in Louisiana for this regional territory, dispatched federal troops, who reinstated Crosby as sheriff and restored the peace. When questioned about the matter, Governor Ames denied that he had told Crosby to use African-American militia. On June 7, 1875, Crosby was shot to death by a white deputy while drinking in a bar. The origins of the shooting remained a mystery. #### Louisiana revolt and coups On September 14, 1874, the White League and Democratic militia took control of the state house at New Orleans, and the Republican Governor William P. Kellogg was forced to flee. Former Confederate General James A. Longstreet, with 3,000 African American militia and 400 Metropolitan police, made a counterattack on the 8,000 White League troops. Consisting of former Confederate soldiers, the experienced White League troops routed Longstreet's army. On September 17, Grant sent in Federal troops, and they restored the government back to Kellogg. During the following controversial election in November, passions rose high, and violence mixed with fraud were rampant; the state of affairs in New Orleans was becoming out of control. The results were that 53 Republicans and 53 Democrats were elected with 5 remaining seats to be decided by the legislature. Grant had been careful to watch the elections and secretly sent Phil Sheridan in to keep law and order in the state. Sheridan had arrived in New Orleans a few days before the January 4, 1875, legislature opening meeting. At the convention the Democrats again with military force took control of the state building out of Republican hands. Initially, the Democrats were protected by federal troops under Colonel Régis de Trobriand, and the escaped Republicans were removed from the hallways of the state building. However, Governor Kellogg then requested that Trobriand reseat the Republicans. Trobriand returned to the Statehouse and used bayonets to force the Democrats out of the building. The Republicans then organized their own house with their own speakers all being protected by the Federal Army. Sheridan, who had annexed the Department of the Gulf to his command at 9:00 p.m., claimed that the federal troops were being neutral since they had also protected the Democrats earlier. #### Civil Rights Act of 1875 Throughout his presidency, Grant was continually concerned with the civil rights of all Americans, "irrespective of nationality, color, or religion." Grant had no role in writing the Civil Rights Act of 1875 but he did sign it a few days before the Republicans lost control of Congress. The new law was designed to allow everyone access to public eating establishments, hotels, and places of entertainment. This was done particularly to protect African Americans who were discriminated across United States. The bill was also passed in honor of Senator Charles Sumner who had previously attempted to pass a civil rights bill in 1872. In his sixth message to Congress, he summed up his own views, "While I remain Executive all the laws of Congress and the provisions of the Constitution ... will be enforced with rigor ... Treat the Negro as a citizen and a voter, as he is and must remain ... Then we shall have no complaint of sectional interference." In the pursued equal justice for all category from the 2009 C-SPAN presidential rating survey Grant scored a 9 getting into the top ten. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 proved a very little value to Blacks. The Justice Department and the federal judges generally refused to enforce it, and the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in 1883. Historian William Gillette calls it "an insignificant victory." #### South Carolina 1876 During the election year of 1876, South Carolina was in a state of rebellion against Republican governor Daniel H. Chamberlain. Conservatives were determined to win the election for ex-Confederate Wade Hampton through violence and intimidation. The Republicans went on to nominate Chamberlain for a second term. Hampton supporters, donning red shirts, disrupted Republican meetings with gun shootings and yelling. Tensions became violent on July 8, 1876, when five African Americans were murdered at Hamburg. The rifle clubs, wearing their Red Shirts, were better armed than the blacks. South Carolina was ruled more by "mobocracy and bloodshed" than by Chamberlain's government. Black militia fought back in Charleston on September 6, 1876, in what was known as the "King Street riot". The white militia assumed defensive positions out of concern over possible intervention from federal troops. Then, on September 19, the Red Shirts took offensive action by openly killing between 30 and 50 African Americans outside Ellenton. During the massacre, state representative Simon Coker was killed. On October 7, Governor Chamberlain declared martial law and told all the "rifle club" members to put down their weapons. In the meantime, Wade Hampton never ceased to remind Chamberlain that he did not rule South Carolina. Out of desperation, Chamberlain wrote to Grant and asked for federal intervention. The "Cainhoy riot" took place on October 15 when Republicans held a rally at "Brick Church" outside Cainhoy. Blacks and whites both opened fire; six whites and one black were killed. Grant, upset over the Ellenton and Cainhoy riots, finally declared a Presidential Proclamation on October 17, 1876, and ordered all persons, within 3 days, to cease their lawless activities and disperse to their homes. A total of 1,144 federal infantrymen were sent into South Carolina, and the violence stopped; election day was quiet. Both Hampton and Chamberlain claimed victory, and for a while both acted as governor; Hampton took the office in 1877 after President Rutherford B. Hayes withdrew federal troops and after Chamberlain left the state. ### Financial affairs #### Panic of 1873 Between 1868 and 1873, the American economy was robust, primarily caused by railroad building, manufacturing expansion, and thriving agriculture production. Financial debt, however, particularly in railroad investment, spread throughout both the private and federal sectors. The market began to break in July 1873 when the Brooklyn Trust Company went broke and closed. Secretary Richardson sold gold to pay for \$14 million in federal bonds. Two months later, the Panic of 1873, collapsed the national economy. On September 17, the stock market crashed, followed by the New York Warehouse & Security Company, September 18, and the Jay Cooke & Company, September 19, both going bankrupt. On September 19, Grant ordered Secretary Richardson, Boutwell's replacement, to purchase \$10 million in bonds. Richardson complied using greenbacks to expand the money supply. On September 20, the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) closed for ten days. Traveling to New York, Grant met with Richardson to consult with bankers, who gave Grant conflicting financial advice. Returning to Washington, Grant and Richardson sent millions of greenbacks from the treasury to New York to purchase bonds, stopping the purchases on September 24. By the beginning of January 1874, Richardson had issued a total of \$26 million greenbacks from the Treasury reserve, into the economy, relieving Wall Street, but not stopping the national Long Depression, that would last 5 years. Thousands of businesses, depressed daily wages by 25% for three years, and brought the unemployment rate up to 14%. #### Inflation bill vetoed and compromise Grant and Richardson's mildly inflationary response to the Panic of 1873, encouraged Congress to pursue a more aggressive policy. The legality of releasing greenbacks was presumed to have been illegal. On April 14, 1874, Congress passed the Inflation Bill that set the greenback maximum at \$400,000 retroactively legalizing the \$26 million reserve greenbacks earlier released by the Treasury. The bill released an additional \$18 million in greenbacks up to the original \$400,000,000 amount. Going further, the bill authorized an additional \$46 million in banknotes and raised their maximum to \$400 million. Eastern bankers vigorously lobbied Grant to veto the bill because of their reliance on bonds and foreign investors who did business in gold. Most of Grant's cabinet favored the bill in order to secure a Republican election. Grant's conservative Secretary of State Hamilton Fish threatened to resign if Grant signed the bill. On April 22, 1874, after evaluating his own reasons for wanting to sign the bill, Grant unexpectedly vetoed the bill against the popular election strategy of the Republican Party because he believed it would destroy the nation's credit. Congress passed a compromise bill, that Grant signed on June 20, 1874. The act legalized the \$26 million released by Richardson, and set the maximum of greenbacks at \$382 million. Up to \$55 million in national banknotes would be redistributed from states with an excess to those states that had minimal amounts. The act did little to relieve the national economy #### Resumption of Specie Act On January 14, 1875, Grant signed the Resumption of Specie Act, and he could not have been happier; he wrote a note to Congress congratulating members on the passage of the act. The legislation was drafted by Ohio Republican Senator John Sherman. This act provided that paper money in circulation would be exchanged for gold specie and silver coins and would be effective January 1, 1879. The act also implemented that gradual steps would be taken to reduce the number of greenbacks in circulation. At that time there were "paper coin" currency worth less than \$1.00, and these would be exchanged for silver coins. Its effect was to stabilize the currency and make the consumers money as "good as gold". In an age without a Federal Reserve system to control inflation, this act stabilized the economy. Grant considered it the hallmark of his administration. ### Foreign affairs Foreign affairs were managed peacefully during Grant's second term in office. Historians credit Secretary of State Hamilton Fish with a highly effective foreign policy. Ronald Cedric White says of Grant, "everyone agreed he chose well when he appointed Hamilton Fish secretary of state." #### Virginus incident On October 31, 1873, a steamer Virginius, flying the American flag carrying war materials and men to aid the Cuban insurrection (in violation of American and Spanish law) was intercepted and taken to Cuba. After a hasty trial, the local Spanish officials executed 53 would-be insurgents, eight of whom were United States citizens; orders from Madrid to delay the executions arrived too late. War scares erupted in both the U.S. and Spain, heightened by the bellicose dispatches from the American minister in Madrid, retired general Daniel Sickles. Secretary of State Fish kept a cool demeanor in the crisis, and through investigation discovered there was a question over whether the Virginius ship had the right to bear the United States flag. The Spanish Republic's president Emilio Castelar expressed profound regret for the tragedy and was willing to make reparations through arbitration. Fish negotiated reparations with the Spanish minister Senor Polo de Barnabé. With Grant's approval, Spain was to surrender Virginius, pay an indemnity to the surviving families of the Americans executed, and salute the American flag; the episode ended quietly. Grant also played a pivotal role in the affair. Grant sent American warships off of Florida and discussed Cuban invasion plans with General Sherman and the War Department. The bluff worked and the Spanish government accepted Grant's negotiated peace terms. Grant messaged Congress the incident was closed and national honor was restored. However, the salute of the American flag by the Spanish Navy was a stickler. When the Spanish returned the Virginus the Spanish Navy did not salute the American flag disputing that the Virginius was not an American-owned ship. The next day Grant's Attorney General George H. Williams ruled that the Virginus U.S. ownership was fraudulent, but the Spanish had no right to capture the ship. #### Hawaiian free trade treaty In December 1874, Grant held a state dinner at the White House for the King of Hawaii, David Kalakaua, who was seeking the importation of Hawaiian sugar duty-free to the United States. Grant and Fish were able to produce a successful free trade treaty in 1875 with the Kingdom of Hawaii, incorporating the Pacific islands' sugar industry into the United States' economy sphere. #### Liberian-Grebo war The U.S. settled the war between Liberia and the native Grebo people in 1876 by dispatching the USS Alaska to Liberia. James Milton Turner, the first African American ambassador from the United States, requested that a warship be sent to protect American property in Liberia, a former American colony. After Alaska arrived, Turner negotiated the incorporation of Grebo people into Liberian society and the ousting of foreign traders from Liberia. #### Mexican border raids At the close of Grant's second term in office, Fish had to contend with Indian raids on the Mexican border, due to a lack of law enforcement over the U.S.–Mexican border. The problem would escalate during the Hayes administration, under Fish's successor William Evarts. ### Native American affairs Under Grant's Peace policy, wars between settlers, the federal army, and the American Indians had been decreasing from 101 per year in 1869 to a low of 15 per year in 1875. However, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills of the Dakota Territory and the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway, threatened to unravel Grant's Indian policy, as white settlers encroached upon native land to mine for gold. In his second term of presidential office, Grant's fragile Peace policy came apart. Major General Edward Canby was killed in the Modoc War. Indian wars per year jumped up to 32 in 1876 and remained at 43 in 1877. One of the highest casualty Indian battles that took place in American history was at the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876. Indian war casualties in Montana went from 5 in 1875, to 613 in 1876 and 436 in 1877. #### Modoc War In January 1873, Grant's Native American peace policy was challenged. Two weeks after Grant was elected for a second term, fighting broke out between the Modocs and settlers near the California-Oregon border. The Modocs, led by Captain Jack, killed 18 white settlers and then found a strong defensive position. Grant ordered General Sherman not to attack the Indians but settle matters peacefully with a commission. Sherman then sent Major General Edward Canby, but Captain Jack killed him. Reverend Eleazar Thomas, a Methodist minister, was also killed. Alfred B. Meacham, an Indian Agent, was severely wounded. The murders shocked the nation, and Sherman wired to have the Modocs exterminated. Grant overruled Sherman; Captain Jack was executed, and the remaining 155 Modocs were relocated to the Quapaw Agency in the Indian Territory. This episode and the Great Sioux War undermined public confidence in Grant's peace policy, according to historian Robert M. Utley. During the peace negotiations between Brig. Gen. Edward Canby and the Modoc tribal leaders, there were more Indians in the tent then had been agreed upon. As the Indians grew more hostile, Captain Jack, said "I talk no more." and shouted "All ready." Captain Jack drew his revolver and fired directly into the head of Gen Canby. Brig. Gen Canby was the highest-ranking officer to be killed during the Indian Wars that took place from 1850 to 1890. Alfred Meacham, who survived the massacre, defended the Modocs who were put on trial. #### Red River War In 1874, war erupted on the southern Plains when Quanah Parker, leader of the Comanche, led 700 tribal warriors and attacked the buffalo hunter supply base on the Canadian River, at Adobe Walls, Texas. The Army under General Phil Sheridan launched a military campaign, and, with few casualties on either side, forced the Indians back to their reservations by destroying their horses and winter food supplies. Grant, who agreed to the Army plan advocated by Generals William T. Sherman and Phil Sheridan, imprisoned 74 insurgents in Florida. #### Great Sioux War In 1874 gold had been discovered in the Black Hills in the Dakota Territory. White speculators and settlers rushed in droves seeking riches mining gold on land reserved for the Sioux tribe by the Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1868. These prospectors treated the natives unfairly when they moved into the area. In 1875, to avoid conflict Grant met with Red Cloud, chief of the Sioux and offered \$25,000 from the government to purchase the land. The offer was declined. On November 3, 1875, at a White House meeting, Phil Sheridan told the President that the Army was overstretched and could not defend the Sioux tribe from the settlers; Grant ordered Sheridan to round up the Sioux and put them on the reservation. Sheridan used a strategy of convergence, using Army columns to force the Sioux onto the reservation. On June 25, 1876, one of these columns, led by Colonel George A. Custer met the Sioux at the Battle of Little Big Horn and part of his command was slaughtered. Approximately 253 federal soldiers and civilians were killed compared to 40 Indians. Custer's death and the Battle of Little Big Horn shocked the nation. Sheridan avenged Custer, pacified the northern Plains, and put the defeated Sioux on the reservation. On August 15, 1876, President Grant signed a proviso giving the Sioux nation \$1,000,000 in rations, while the Sioux relinquished all rights to the Black Hills, except for a 40-mile land tract west of the 103rd meridian. On August 28, a seven-man committee, appointed by Grant, gave additional harsh stipulations for the Sioux in order to receive government assistance. Halfbreeds and "squaw men" (A white man with an Indian wife) were banished from the Sioux reservation. To receive the government rations, the Indians had to work the land. Reluctantly, on September 20, the Indian leaders, whose people were starving, agreed to the committee's demands and signed the agreement. During the Great Sioux War, Grant came into conflict with Col. George Armstrong Custer after he testified in 1876 about corruption in the War Department under Secretary William W. Belknap (see below). Grant had Custer arrested for breach of military protocol in Chicago and barred him from leading an upcoming campaign against the Sioux. Grant finally relented and let Custer fight under Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry. Two months after Custer's death Grant castigated him in the press, saying "I regard Custer's massacre as a sacrifice of troops, brought on by Custer himself, that was wholly unnecessary – wholly unnecessary." As the nation was shocked by the death of Custer, Grant's peace policy became militaristic; Congress appropriated funds for 2,500 more troops, two more forts were constructed, the army took over the Indian agencies and Indians were barred from purchasing rifles and ammunition. ### Domestic affairs #### Religion and schools Grant believed strongly in the separation of church and state and championed complete secularization in public schools. In a September 1875 speech, Grant advocated "security of free thought, free speech, and free press, pure morals, unfettered religious sentiments, and of equal rights and privileges to all men, irrespective of nationality, color, or religion." In regard to public education, Grant endorsed that every child should receive "the opportunity of a good common school education, unmixed with sectarian, pagan, or atheist tenets. Leave the matter of religion to the family altar, the church, and the private schools... Keep the church and the state forever separate." In a speech in 1875 to a veteran's meeting, Grant called for a Constitutional amendment that would mandate free public schools and prohibit the use of public money for sectarian schools. He was echoing nativist sentiments that were strong in his Republican Party. Tyler Anbinder says, "Grant was not an obsessive nativist. He expressed his resentment of immigrants and animus toward Catholicism only rarely. But these sentiments reveal themselves frequently enough in his writings and major actions as general....In the 1850s he joined a Know Nothing lodge and irrationally blamed immigrants for setbacks in his career." Grant laid out his agenda for "good common school education". He attacked government support for "sectarian schools" run by religious organizations, and called for the defense of public education "unmixed with sectarian, pagan or atheistical dogmas." Grant declared that "Church and State" should be "forever separate." Religion, he said, should be left to families, churches, and private schools devoid of public funds. After Grant's speech Republican Congressman James G. Blaine (1830–1893) proposed the amendment to the federal Constitution. Blaine, who actively sought Catholic votes when he ran for president in 1884, believed that possibility of hurtful agitation on the school question should be ended. In 1875, the proposed amendment passed by a vote of 180 to 7 in the House of Representatives, but failed by four votes to achieve the necessary two-thirds vote in the Senate. Nothing like it ever became federal legislation. However many states did adopt similar amendments to their state constitution. The proposed Blaine Amendment text was: > No State shall make any law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; and no money raised by taxation in any State for the support of public schools, or derived from any public fund therefor, nor any public lands devoted thereto, shall ever be under the control of any religious sect; nor shall any money so raised or lands so devoted be divided between religious sects or denominations. #### Polygamy and Chinese prostitution In October 1875, Grant traveled to Utah and was surprised that the Mormons treated him kindly. He told Utah territorial governor, George W. Emery, that he had been deceived concerning the Mormons. However, on December 7, 1875, after his return to Washington, Grant wrote to Congress in his seventh annual State of the Union address that as "an institution polygamy should be banished from the land..." Grant believed that polygamy negatively affected children and women. Grant advocated that a second law, stronger than the Morrill Act, be passed to "punish so flagrant a crime against decency and morality." Grant also denounced the immigration of Chinese women into the United States for the purposes of prostitution, saying that it was "no less an evil" than polygamy. #### Interactions with Jews Grant publicly stated regret for his offensive wartime order expelling Jewish traders. In his army days he traded at a local store operated by the Seligman brothers, two Jewish merchants who became Grant's lifelong friends. They became wealthy bankers who donated substantially to Grant's presidential campaign. After the wartime order, however, the Jewish community was angry with Grant. While running for president, in 1868, Grant publicly apologized for the expulsion order, and once elected, he took actions intended to make amends. He appointed several Jewish leaders to office, including Simon Wolf recorder of deeds in Washington, D.C., and Edward S. Salomon Governor of the Washington Territory. Historian Jonathan Sarna argues: > Eager to prove that he was above prejudice, Grant appointed more Jews to public office than had any of his predecessors and, in the name of human rights, he extended unprecedented support to persecuted Jews in Russia and Romania. Time and again, partly as a result of this enlarged vision of what it meant to be an American and partly in order to live down General Orders No. 11, Grant consciously worked to assist Jews and secure them equality. ... Through his appointments and policies, Grant rejected calls for a 'Christian nation' and embraced Jews as insiders in America, part of 'we the people.' During his administration, Jews achieved heightened status on the national scene, anti-Jewish prejudice declined, and Jews looked forward optimistically to a liberal epoch characterized by sensitivity to human rights and interreligious cooperation. ### Midterm election 1874 As the 1874 midterm elections approached, three scandals, the Crédit Mobilier, the Salary Grab, and the Sanborn incident caused the public to view the Republican Party as mired in corruption. The Democratic Party held the Republican Party responsible for the Long Depression. The Republicans were divided on the currency issue. Grant, who with hard money North Eastern Republicans, vetoed an inflation bill. Grant was blamed for the nation's problems, while he was accused of wanting a third term. Grant never officially campaigned, but traveled West, to emphasize his relatively popular Indian policy. The October elections swept the Republicans from office, and was a repudation of Grant's veto. In Indiana and Ohio, the Republicans suffered losses, caused by the money issue and the temperance movement. The Democratic Party won the New York governorship for Samuel Tilden. The Democrats won the U.S. House, gaining 182 seats, while the Republicans retained 103 seats. The Republicans retained control of the Senate, but the new class included 14 Democrats and 11 Republicans. The Democratic Party also had strong victories in New Jersey, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Missouri, and Illinois. In the South, the 1874 election campaign was violent. Six Republican office holders were murdered in Coushatta, Louisiana. On September 14, General Longstreet, police, and black militia fought 3,500 White Leaguers who attempted to capture the statehouse in New Orleans, that ended with 32 people killed. Grant issued a dispersal proclamation, the next day, and sent 5,000 troops and 5 gunboats to New Orleans. The White League resistance collapsed. The North disapproved of Grant's federal intervention into the election. Republican representation dropped by 60 percent. Racism in both the North and South caused the rejection of Reconstruction. In his December 1874 annual message to Congress, Grant condemned violence against blacks in the South. ### Reforms and scandals Scandals and frauds continued to be exposed during Grant's second term in office, although Grant's appointments of reformers to his cabinet temporarily helped his presidential reputation, cleaned up federal departments, and defeated the notorious Whiskey Ring. Grant, however, often remained loyal to cabinet members or appointees involved in corruption or mismanagement, refusing to believe in their guilt. The Democrats along with the Liberal Republicans had gained control of the House of Representatives and held many Committee meetings to stop political graft. The Emma Silver mine was a minor embarrassment associated with American Ambassador to Britain, Robert C. Schenck, using his name to promote a worked out silver mine. The Crédit Mobilier scandal's origins were during the presidential Administrations of Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson; however, political congressional infighting during the Grant Administration exposed the scandal. #### Sanborn contracts In June 1874, Treasury Secretary William A. Richardson gave private contracts to one John D. Sanborn who in turn collected illegally withheld taxes for fees at inflated commissions. The profits from the commissions were allegedly split with Richardson and Senator Benjamin Butler, while Sanborn claimed these payments were "expenses". Senator Butler had written a loophole in the law that allowed Sanborn to collect the commissions, but Sanborn would not reveal whom he split the profits with. #### Pratt & Boyd In April 1875, it was discovered that Attorney General George H. Williams allegedly received a bribe through a \$30,000 gift to his wife from a Merchant house company, Pratt & Boyd, to drop the case for fraudulent customhouse entries. Williams was forced to resign by Grant in 1875. #### Delano's Department of Interior By 1875, the Department of the Interior under Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano was in serious disrepair with corruption and fraud. Profiteering prevailed in the Bureau of Indian Affairs, controlled by corrupt clerks and bogus agents. This proved to be the most serious detriment to Grant's Indian peace policy. Many agents that worked for the department made unscrupulous fortunes and retired with more money than their pay would allow at the expense and exploitation of Native Americans. Delano had allowed "Indian Attorneys" who were paid by Native American tribes \$8.00 a day plus food and travel expenses for sham representation in Washington. Delano exempted his department from Grant's civil service reform implementation in federal offices. Delano told Grant the Interior Department was too large to implement civil service reform. Delano's son, John Delano, and Ulysses S. Grant's own brother, Orvil Grant, were discovered to have been awarded lucrative corrupt cartographical contracts by Surveyor General Silas Reed. Neither John Delano nor Orvil Grant performed any work or were qualified to hold such surveying positions. Massive fraud was also found in the Patent Office with corrupt clerks who embezzled from the government payroll. Under increasing pressure by the press and Indian reformers, Delano resigned from office on October 15, 1875. Grant then appointed Zachariah Chandler as Secretary of the Interior who replaced Delano. Chandler vigorously uncovered and cleaned up the fraud in the department by firing all the clerks and banned the phony "Indian Attorneys" access to Washington. Grant's "Quaker" or church appointments partially made up the lack of food staples and housing from the government. Chandler cleaned up the Patent Office by firing all the corrupt clerks. #### Whiskey Ring prosecuted Although Grant's presidency is often criticized for scandals, historians have overlooked Grant's appointments of reformers. In May 1875, Secretary of Treasury Benjamin H. Bristow discovered that millions of dollars of taxes were being funneled into an illegal ring from whiskey manufacturers. Prosecutions ensued, and many were put in prison. Grant's private Secretary Orville E. Babcock was indicted and later acquitted in trial. Grant's new Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont and Bristow formed an anti-corruption team to weed out criminal activity during Grant's second term. The Whiskey Ring was organized throughout the United States, and by 1875 it was a fully operating criminal association. The investigation and closure of the Whiskey Ring resulted in 230 indictments, 110 convictions, and \$3,000,000 in tax revenues that were returned to the Treasury Department. Bristow and Pierrpont brought evidence to Grant of Babcock's involvement. Grant asked Babcock with Bristow and Pierrepont in attendance at the White House about the evidence. Babcock gave Grant an explanation that the evidence did not concern the Ring, and Grant quietly accepted Babcock's words at face value. During the prosecution of the Whiskey Ring leaders, Grant testified on behalf of his friend Babcock. As a result, Babcock was acquitted. However, the deposition by Grant was a great embarrassment to his reputation. The Babcock trial turned into an impeachment trial against the President by Grant's political opponents. #### Trading post ring In March 1876 it was discovered under House investigations that Secretary of War William W. Belknap was taking extortion money in exchange for allowing an Indian trading post agent to remain in position at Fort Sill. Belknap was allowed to resign by Grant and as a result, was acquitted in a Senate impeachment trial. Profits were made at the expense of Native Americans who were supposed to receive food and clothing from the government. In late April 1876, Grant lashed out at Lieut. Col. George A. Custer, after Custer had testified at a Congressional committee one month before against Grant's brother Orville and Sec. Belknap. There had been rumors Custer had talked with the press concerning the Indian post profiteering. Custer personally went to the White House to clear matters up with the President. However, Grant refused to see him three times. When Custer left Washington on May 3 to return to Fort Lincoln, he had been removed from overall command by Grant and denied any participation of the Sioux Campaign; having been replaced by Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry. However, at Terry's insistence, Grant relented and allowed Custer to participate in the campaign against the Sioux on the condition he did not take any pressmen. #### Cattellism In March 1876, Secretary of Navy George M. Robeson was charged by a Democratic-controlled House investigation committee with giving lucrative contracts to Alexander Cattell & Company, a grain supplier, in return for real estate, loans, and payment of debts. The House investigating committee also discovered that Secretary Robeson had allegedly embezzled \$15 million in naval construction appropriations. Since there were no financial paper trails or enough evidence for impeachment and conviction, the House Investigation committee admonished Robeson and claimed he had set up a corrupt contracting system known as "Cattellism". #### Safe burglary conspiracy In September 1876, Orville E. Babcock, Superintendent of Public Works and Buildings, was indicted in a safe burglary conspiracy case and trial. In April, corrupt building contractors in Washington, D.C. were on trial for graft when a safe robbery occurred. Bogus secret service agents broke into a safe and attempted to frame Columbus Alexander, who had exposed the corrupt contracting ring. Babcock was named as part of the conspiracy, but later acquitted in the trial against the burglars. Evidence suggests that Backcock was involved with the swindles by the corrupt Washington Contractors Ring and he wanted revenge on Columbus Alexander, an avid reformer and critic of the Grant Administration. There was also evidence that safe burglary jury had been tampered with. ### Election of 1876 In the presidential election of 1876, the Republicans nominated the fiscally conservative Rutherford B. Hayes and the Democrats nominated reformer Samuel Tilden. Results were split. Tilden received 51% of the popular vote; Hayes 48%; many black Republicans were not allowed to vote, however. Twenty key electoral votes remained undecided and in dispute. Both Republicans and Democrats claimed victory and the threat of a second civil war was eminent. Grant was watchful; encouraged Congress to settle the election by commission; and determined to keep a peaceful transfer of power. On January 29, 1877, Grant signed the Electoral Commission Act that gave a 15-member bipartisan commission power to determine electoral votes. The commission gave Hayes 185 electoral votes; Tilden received 184. Grant's personal honesty, firmness, and even-handedness reassured the nation and a second civil war was averted. ## Historical evaluations Grant's presidency has traditionally been viewed by historians as incompetent and full of corruption. An examination of his presidency reveals Grant had both successes and failures during his two terms in office. In recent years historians have elevated his presidential rating because of his support for African American civil rights. Grant had urged the passing of the 15th Amendment and signed into law the Civil Rights Bill of 1875 that gave all citizens access to places of public enterprise. He leaned heavily toward the Radical camp and often sided with their Reconstruction policies, signing into law Force Acts to prosecute the Ku Klux Klan. In foreign policy Grant won praise for the Treaty of Washington, settling the Alabama Claims issue with Britain through arbitration. Economically he sided with Eastern bankers and signed the Public Credit Act that paid U.S. debts in gold specie, but was blamed for the severe economic depression that lasted 1873–1877. Grant, wary of powerful congressional leaders, was the first president to ask for a line item veto – though Congress never allowed one. His presidency was inundated with many scandals caused by low standards and carelessness with his political appointees and personal associates. Nepotism, practiced by Grant, was unrestrained with almost forty family members or relatives who financially benefited from government appointments or employment. His associations with these scandals have tarnished his personal reputation while president and afterward. Despite the scandals, by the end of Grant's second term the corruption in the Departments of Interior (1875), Treasury (1874), and Justice (1875) were cleaned up by his new cabinet members. Grant's generous treatment of Robert E. Lee at Appomattox helped give him popularity in the South. Although he kept civil rights on the political agenda, the Republican party at the end of Grant's second term shifted to pursuing conservative fiscal policies. His weak response to the Panic of 1873 hurt the economy and seriously damaged his party, which lost heavily in 1874. Grant's financial policies favored Wall Street, but his term ended with the nation mired in a deep economic depression that Grant could not comprehend or deal with. Revisionist historians during the first half of the twentieth century have tended to prop up a romantic view of the Confederacy and the Lost Cause at the expense of downgrading the Union cause and Grant's presidency as a corrupt despot. The 20th-century historical views of Grant were less favorable. Political analyst Michael Barone noted in 1998 that, "Ulysses S. Grant is universally ranked among the greatest American generals, and his Memoirs are widely considered to belong with the best military autobiographies ever written. But he is inevitably named, by conservatives as well as liberals, as one of the worst presidents in American history." Barone argues that: "This consensus, however, is being challenged by writers outside the professional historians' guild." Barone points to a lawyer Frank Scaturro, who led the movement to restore Grant's Tomb while only a college student, and in 1998 wrote the first book of the modern era which portrays Grant's presidency in a positive light. Barone said that Scaturro's work was a "convincing case that Grant was a strong and, in many important respects, successful president. It is an argument full of significance for how we see the course of American political history ... Scaturro's work ... should prompt a reassessment of the entire Progressive-New Deal Tradition." In the 21st Century, Grant's reputation and ranking had significantly increased, that followed a series of positive biographies written by noted historians, that included Jean Edward Smith, Grant, H.W. Brands, The Man Who Saved the Union: Ulysses Grant in War and Peace and most recently Ronald C. White, American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant. Historian Joan Waugh said Grant took steps where a few other presidents attempted "in the areas of Native American policy, civil service reform, and African American rights." Waugh said Grant "executed a successful foreign policy and was responsible for improving Anglo-American relations." Interest in his presidency has also increased by historians, that included Josiah H Bunting III, Ulysses S. Grant: The American Presidents Series: The 18th President. ## Administration and cabinet ## Judicial appointments Grant appointed four Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States during his presidency. When Grant took office, there were eight seats on the bench. Congress had passed a Judicial Circuits Act in 1866, which provided for the elimination of one seat on the Court each time a justice retired, to prevent Andrew Johnson from nominating replacements for them. In April 1869 Congress passed a Judiciary Act which fixed the size of the Supreme Court at nine. Grant had the opportunity to fill two Supreme Court seats in 1869. His initial nominees were: - Ebenezer R. Hoar, nominated December 14, 1869, rejected by the Senate (Vote: 24–33) on February 3, 1870. - Edwin M. Stanton, nominated December 20, 1869, confirmed by the Senate (vote: 46–11) on December 20, 1869, died before he took office. He subsequently submitted two more nominees: - William Strong, nominated February 7, 1870, confirmed by the Senate on February 18, 1870. - Joseph P. Bradley, nominated February 7, 1870, confirmed by the Senate (vote: 46–9) on March 21, 1870. Both men were railroad lawyers, and their appointment led to accusations that Grant intended them to overturn the case of Hepburn v. Griswold, which had been decided the same day they were nominated. That case, which was unpopular with business interests, held that the federal debt incurred before 1862 must be paid in gold, not greenbacks. Nonetheless, both Strong and Bradley were confirmed, and the following year Hepburn was indeed reversed. Grant had the opportunity to fill two more seats during his second term. To fill the first vacancy he nominated: - Ward Hunt, nominated December 3, 1872, confirmed by the Senate on December 11, 1872. In May 1873, Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase died suddenly. Grant initially offered the seat to Senator Roscoe Conkling, who declined, as did Senator Timothy Howe. Grant made three attempts to fill vacancies: - George Henry Williams, nominated December 1, 1873, withdrawn on January 8, 1874. The Senate had a dim view of Williams's performance at the Justice Department and refused to act on the nomination. - Caleb Cushing, nominated January 9, 1874, withdrawn on January 13, 1874. Cushing was an eminent lawyer and respected in his field, but the emergence of his wartime correspondence with Jefferson Davis doomed his nomination. - Morrison Waite, nominated January 19, 1874, confirmed by the Senate (vote: 63–0) on January 21, 1874. Waite was an uncontroversial nominee, but in his time on the Court he authored two of the decisions (United States v. Reese and United States v. Cruikshank) that did the most to undermine Reconstruction-era laws for the protection of black Americans. ## States admitted to the Union - Colorado – August 1, 1876 ## Vetoes Grant vetoed more bills than any of his predecessors with 93 vetoes during the 41st through 44th Congresses. 45 were regular vetoes, and 48 of them were pocket vetoes. Grant had 4 vetoes overridden by Congress. ## Government agencies instituted - Department of Justice (1870) - Office of the Solicitor General (1870) - United States Civil Service Commission (1871); Congressional appropriations expired in 1873, however, the commission continued to function. The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in 1883 renewed appropriations and enhanced the federal power and scope of the commission. Grant's U.S. Attorney General Amos T. Akerman ruled that the Civil Service Commission was Constitutional as long as the purpose was to increase government's power to higher qualified workers and improve the efficiency of running the government. Akerman stated that the Civil Service Commission did not have the Constitutional power to stop or prevent appointments. - Office of the Surgeon General (1871) - Army Weather Bureau (currently known as the National Weather Service) (1870)

The Museum of Curiosity

British radio panel game show

The Museum of Curiosity is a comedy talk show on BBC Radio 4 that was first broadcast on 20 February 2008. It is hosted by John Lloyd (Professor of Ignorance at the University of Buckingham, and later at Solent University). He acts as the head of the (fictional) titular museum, while a panel of three guests – typically a comedian, an author and an academic – each donate to the museum an 'object' that fascinates them. The radio medium ensures that the suggested exhibits can be absolutely anything, limited only by the guests' imaginations. Each series has had a different co-host, under the title of curator of the museum. Bill Bailey acted as co-host of the programme in the first series, before leaving the show after deciding to "retire" from panel games. Sean Lock, Jon Richardson, Dave Gorman, Jimmy Carr, Humphrey Ker, Phill Jupitus, Sarah Millican, Noel Fielding, Jo Brand, Romesh Ranganathan, Sally Phillips, Lee Mack, Bridget Christie, Alice Levine and Holly Walsh have all assumed the role for a series. Gorman also stood in for Richardson for one episode of the third series, after Richardson was stranded due to the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull. Ker also functioned as a stand-in, this time for Jimmy Carr, when Carr was unable to attend one episode in series 5. The programme has often been compared to the television panel game QI. Both were co-created by Lloyd, several of the Museum's 'curators' and comic guests have appeared regularly on QI, and the QI Elves (QI's research team, who provide hosts Stephen Fry and Sandi Toksvig with live information as required during the programme) provide the research. As a result, some critics consider the radio show to be a spin-off of the TV programme, and some have further ventured that The Museum of Curiosity is not as good as its forerunner. Most reviews of The Museum of Curiosity, however, are positive. ## Format In series one, the programme began with Bailey introducing the show and playing its theme tune, which he performed in a slightly different way in each episode. In subsequent series, the theme tune was, instead, performed by House of Strange Studios of East London. The host/professor and the curator/sidekick introduce themselves. They then give a short guide to the museum, followed by the introduction of the "advisory committee", a guest panel made up of celebrities and academic experts, during which Lloyd reads their CVs aloud. This introductory section takes up about half the programme. Then, each member of the "committee" donates something to the museum. The donation can be anything, regardless of its size, cost, tangibility, or even existence. Examples of donations include a yeti, the Battle of Waterloo, and absolutely nothing. Lloyd and the curator then decide what form the exhibit could take and where in the museum it could be displayed. In series one, the programme ended either with Lloyd and Bailey reading audience suggestions for additional exhibits or asking the audience curious questions . Bailey ended the show by giving a humorous comment on a Bertrand Russell quote. Both of these ideas were dropped in series two. From series two onward, the show has maintained a standard format. It is presented in two-halves; in the first half, Lloyd and the curator introduce the three guests, provide an explanation of who they are, and the five engage in a general discussion. In the second half, the curator declares the Museum open for donations, and each guest explains what they wish to "donate" to the museum (again, as the museum is fictional, nothing is actually exchanged). Questioning of all three guests ensures that everyone says something about each donation. ## Production The programme's pilot episode was recorded on 16 April 2007 and was entitled The Professor of Curiosity. The guests for this episode were Alastair Fothergill, Victoria Finlay and Simon Munnery. This pilot, recorded at the Rutherford Room at the institute of Physics, has not been broadcast. The first series was recorded at the Pleasance Theatre in Islington and, since then, the show has been recorded at the BBC Radio Theatre, with occasional recordings at other venues, such as the Shaw Theatre and RADA Studios (formerly The Drill Hall), all in London. The series was created by Lloyd, Richard Turner and Dan Schreiber. The show is produced by Anne Miller. The show's researchers are Mike Turner, Lydia Mizon and Emily Jupitus of QI. A live version of the show was staged at the Natural History Museum, London on 9 November 2012 for charity. The guests for this edition were Terry Pratchett, Dave Gorman, Alan West, Baron West of Spithead, Helen Keen, Richard Fortey and Erica McAlister. The show was hosted by John Lloyd, with Producer Dan Schreiber taking the role of curator. Further live shows were staged at the 2014 Edinburgh Fringe featuring a number of top comedians and other guests. Series 15 and Series 16 were recorded remotely during 2020 and 2021 because of the COVID-19 pandemic. ## Episodes ### Series 1 ### Series 2 ### Series 3 ### Series 4 ### Series 5 ### Series 6 ### Series 7 ### Coding Special ### Series 8 ### Series 9 ### Series 10 ### Series 11 ### Series 12 ### Series 13 ### Annual Stock Take (2018 Christmas Special) ### Series 14 ### 2019 Christmas Special ### Series 15 ### Series 16 ### Series 17 ## Reception Initial reaction to the series was mixed. Phil Daoust in The Guardian described the show as being "unusual" and "eclectic". Chris Campling, who wrote a preview of the first episode, highlighted it in his "Radio Choice" column for The Times. Gillian Reynolds highlighted the programme as one of her radio choices in the Daily Telegraph. Rosanna Chianta in Scotland on Sunday compared the show positively to QI, also created by Lloyd, while Frances Lass from the Radio Times said it was better, claiming it was, "QI with even more jokes. Made me bark with laughter", that, "Lord Reith would be so proud" and the programme was, "Pornography for the brain!" Miranda Sawyer of The Observer criticised the show, saying that, "it's no QI, because the joy of that programme rests almost entirely in the host, Stephen Fry, and his subversion of the prissy, clever character we're familiar with (in QI, Fry is clever, but relaxed). The Museum of Curiosity is presented partly by Bill Bailey and mostly by John Lloyd, producer of QI (are you getting a theme?). Lloyd may well be a nice chap, but we haven't a clue who he is, and, on the evidence of this, he isn't a big or witty enough character for us to feel desperate to get to know him." Nicholas Lezard in The Independent on Sunday was lukewarm about the show, saying that the combination of comedian and scientist guests "more or less worked", but he felt the show may not have been greenlit without Lloyd and Bailey's involvement. Kate Chisholm in The Spectator found the show a welcome change from the "smutty jokes and banal innuendo" usually associated with the timeslot, and compared the series to Paul Merton's Room 101, "but without the ego". Elisabeth Mahoney in The Guardian was critical of the second series. While praising the discussion between the guests as, "funny and flowing, and quite endearingly quirky", she found that the programme "fizzled away when it reached what ought to have been its crux: the donation of kooky items to the imaginary museum. Instead, we had a reminder of what they were, and then a sudden ending that was both limp and abrupt." After appearing on the show in series 6, Richard Herring wrote on his blog: "What a delightful and fascinating programme this is (and one that I think might benefit from an extended podcast release – two hours of material is recorded for the 27-minute show and it's pretty much all gold!). At times I was so enjoying listening to the others talking that I almost forgot that I was meant to be taking part. It was a wide-ranging discussion taking in ants on stilts, pianists with crippling, mechanical little fingers, the changing meridian and okapi sex (can you guess what I contributed?). The show has a dedicated team of nerds behind it who have dug out amazing facts and I love the way it has a panel comprising comedians, scientists and experts and attempts to link each contribution to similar areas of the different disciplines. While most TV panel shows (including to some extent even QI) gravitate to putting in the same well-known comedy faces, you get a lot more interesting stuff by mixing it up a bit. The zoologist, Dr Christofer Clemente, came up with the funniest lines of the show. But would they book him on Mock The Week? It's intelligent and stimulating programming that is increasingly being edged out of TV and even radio, leaving a gaping open goal for independent internet productions to score in. I discussed this with one of the razor-minded team after the show. The TV companies insist on getting big names into all shows, which takes up all the budget and seems to ignore the fact that the pool of possible contributors gets smaller and more boring. But glad that a few shows designed to expand the mind rather than crush the spirit still exist." On 13 September 2016, The Museum of Curiosity won the Rose d'Or in the radio talk show category.

Sakura Wars 4: Fall in Love, Maidens

2002 video game

is a cross-genre video game developed by Red Company and Overworks and published by Sega for the Dreamcast. The fourth main installment in the Sakura Wars series and the last for Sega home consoles, it was released in March 2002. Defined by its publisher as a "dramatic adventure" game, Sakura Wars 4 combines overlapping tactical role-playing, dating sim and visual novel gameplay elements. Set six months after the events of Sakura Wars 3: Is Paris Burning? and Sakura Wars: The Movie, main protagonist Ichiro Ogami returns to Tokyo and reunites with the Imperial Combat Revue and its "Flower Division", a troupe of magically-imbued women who also works as a theater company. While Ogami produces the group's adaptation of Les Misérables, the Imperial Combat Revue must join forces with the Paris Division to stop the hostile ghost of the main antagonist, Ōkubo Nagayasu, from terrorizing Tokyo. Sakura Wars 4 was intended to take place in New York, continuing Ogami's overseas adventures. When the Dreamcast was discontinued by Sega, the development team instead decided to create a celebratory game to conclude Ogami's narrative. The game took just ten months to make, resulting in less gameplay content than previous Sakura Wars games. While reusing gameplay assets from Is Paris Burning?, the graphics were improved using new software tools. The game was produced by Yuji Horikawa and directed by Katsuhiko Goto, with Noriyoshi Ohba serving as executive producer; it was the last game in the series to involve Ohba. The game has been praised by critics, and is one of Japan's best-selling Dreamcast titles. The game's initial concepts would be used in the next entry, Sakura Wars: So Long, My Love. ## Gameplay Sakura Wars 4: Fall in Love, Maidens is a cross-genre video game in which the player controls the role of Ichiro Ogami and two all-female combat groups; the "Flower Division" of the Imperial Combat Revue and the "Paris Division" of the France-based Paris Combat Revue. Their goal is to stop Ōkubo Nagayasu from terrorizing Tokyo. Dubbed a "dramatic adventure" game and taking place across three "acts", the gameplay segments incorporate tactical role-playing, dating sim and visual novel elements. Gameplay is divided between periods where Ogami navigates the Grand Imperial Theater and interacts with various characters, and combat sequences governed by a turn-based battle system across a three-dimensional (3D) area allowing full range of movement. During the adventure sections, when talking with both the main heroines and supporting characters from the Imperial Combat Revue, conversations rely on the series' "Live & Interactive Picture System" (LIPS); when faced with critical choices in the course of a conversation, dialogue options are displayed with a time limit for the player to select a response. Depending on the type of response, the character may respond positively or negatively, impacting their relationship and future interactions with Ogami. The game also incorporates "Double LIPS", where interactions cross between multiple characters; and "Analog LIPS", where a single response's intensity is judged by the player. If save data from the Dreamcast versions of the last three Sakura Wars titles is imported, Ogami's romance choices from those games are incorporated into the narrative. During combat segments, the Flower Division fight monsters in the streets of Tokyo using machines called Koubu. As with Is Paris Burning?, the game uses the "Active & Realtime Machine System" (ARMS), where each unit has a full range of movement, with their distance limited by an Action Point meter. Each unit can perform two actions during their turn, which cover a variety of actions including attacking, healing, boosting a unit's statistics, and defending. Actions taken during LIPS sequences with members of the Flower Division directly impact battles; skillful performances during LIPS segments raise a character's Trust, granting status increases and improving combat ability. LIPS interactions can also unlock Combination and Coalesce attacks, where two characters perform a joint attack to deal high damage to a single enemy. If certain conditions are not met or if Ogami's unit is destroyed, the game ends. ## Synopsis In 1927 Tokyo, four months after his return from Paris, Imperial Japanese Navy Lieutenant Ichiro Ogami has reunited with the Flower Division of the Imperial Combat Revue. All is quiet until a powerful spirit breaks free of its imprisonment in Ginza and begins terrorizing the city using a powerful golden Koubu. Immobilized by a golden mist produced by the Koubu, the Flower Division are easily beaten back and their base at the Grand Imperial Theater damaged. The ghost belongs to Ōkubo Nagayasu, a corrupt samurai daimyo enraged at his vilification by the people following his death. When Nagayasu is about to kill the Flower Division in another attack, the Paris Combat Revue arrives and rescues them, answering the Imperial Combat Revue's call for aid. When Nagayasu steals the Mikasa, the two groups weaken Nagayasu and Ogami and his chosen companion use a powerful Koubu, the Soubu, to exorcise the ghost, restoring peace to Tokyo. In their role as a theatre troupe, the Flower Division are preparing a stage adaptation of Les Misérables, which Ogami is tasked with directing. The need to properly portray the marriage scene leads to widespread misunderstandings as both Ogami and Flower Division members think each is proposing to the other. This is further complicated if Ogami had previously romanced any member of both the Flower and Paris Divisions. When the Paris Combat Revue arrives, if Ogami romanced any of them during the events of Is Paris Burning?, a love triangle situation is created. Ogami must choose which character he wishes to commit to. The production of Les Misérables is a resounding success, and Ogami is left as the sole figure of authority after the Imperial Combat Revue's original manager Ikki Yoneda retires, satisfied that Ogami can succeed him. The final scenes vary depending on whether Ogami romanced any member of the Flower or Paris Divisions, and which character Ogami chooses to commit to. ## Development Concept work for Sakura Wars 4 began during the last development stages for Sakura Wars 3: Is Paris Burning?. Sakura Wars 4 was originally going to be set in New York, continuing Ogami's overseas travels to both there and a planned Division in Taiwan. When it was announced that series publisher Sega were ending production on the Dreamcast, Sega asked that Sakura Wars 4 be moved to the PlayStation 2. The team disagreed, with series creator and general producer Oji Hiroi not wanting the series' final Dreamcast entry to be Is Paris Burning?. With this in mind, Red Company and Overworks instead decided to create a celebratory final entry for the Dreamcast. The game was directed by Katsuhito Goto, produced by Yuji Horikawa and executive produced by Noriyoshi Ohba. Ohba previously produced or executive produced the previous Sakura Wars games. Also returning from Is Paris Burning? were regular series character designer Hidenori Matsubara, scenario writers Satoru Akahori and Hiroyuki Kawasaki, and composer Kohei Tanaka. While previous development cycles had lasted two years or more, Sakura Wars 4 was completed in ten months. Sakura Wars 4 was designed as a "gift" from the developers to long-term fans. The production proved challenging for the team despite the scenario being completed by the time of its announcement. The game system was based on the work done for Is Paris Burning?, with minimal changes made. The Koubu designs were redone slightly, with smoother bodies and new perforated body parts, requiring the integration of both new and updated software tools, which were also applied to complicated environmental effects in cutscenes. The anime sequences were directed by Susumu Kudo and produced by Production I.G, who previously worked on Is Paris Burning?, Sakura Wars 2: Thou Shalt Not Die, and the Sakura Wars film. The opening also played into the theme of celebration, showing the cast in relaxed situations. Rather than increase their quantity over previous titles, the teams chose to focus on quality. The anime sequences combined traditional animation with CGI-based elements to allow for greater fluidity The CGI mecha animations were created using techniques used for the movie. A troublesome part of development integrating new video software, with the aim to create the smoothest possible gameplay experience to date. This was possible due to the long-standing positive working relationship between Overworks and Production I.G. Due to the development goals and short production period, the story was considerably shorter than earlier Sakura Wars, being formatted as a three act play rather than an anime series. The theatre theme also carried over into the motifs surrounding the main villain. The theme of the story was "eternal love", a culmination of the overall theme of romance used in the Sakura Wars series. While it was a legitimate sequel to the earlier Sakura Wars games, the density of the cast caused staff to compare it to a special program or fan disc. The inclusion of Les Misérables reflected the influences of Paris on Ogami since his return to Tokyo. For reference, the team used Kuroiwa Shūroku's 1919 translation, which was among the earliest Japanese versions of the novel. Cast members took on unconventional roles within the play as it would give them a means of evolving as characters; a cited example was Sakura taking a villainous role. The story ultimately acted as the closure for Ogami's storyline, bringing together the casts of the Sakura Wars series up to that point. The game's subtitle was taken from a poem by Japanese writer Tekkan Yosano, with Hiroi saying players would understand the quote's reference better after reading the whole poem. ### Audio Before beginning development on Sakura Wars 4, the team contacted the main cast from the past games (Chisa Yokoyama, Michie Tomizawa, Urara Takano, Kumiko Nishihara, Yuriko Fuchizaki, Mayumi Tanaka, Maya Okamoto, Kazue Ikura, Noriko Hidaka, Saeko Shimazu, Etsuko Kozakura, Kikuko Inoue and Yoshino Takamori) to ensure they could include all thirteen heroines. Once this was agreed, the team began development. Sakura Wars 4 was at the time the last major performance by Tomizawa as central heroine Sumire Kanzaki, as Tomizawa retired from the role in 2002. The opening song, a remix of the series theme titled and the ending song, were performed by the main cast. "Geki! Tei - Finale" was Ogami actor Akio Suyama's first time singing a theme for the series, performing it with backing from the female cast. Hiroi was the first to suggest Suyama perform the songs. The ending theme was designed as a touching farewell ballad, with Takana's favourite part being the unison of all the singers during the theme's later half. Reusing a discarded plan for the theme of Is Paris Burning?, Tanaka wrote the song in the same key as "Geki! Teikoku Kagekidan". Hiroi originally wanted Suyama to sing the whole song, but Tanaka talked him out of it and relied on the actor's speaking talents to narrate his lyrics. ## Release Sakura Wars 4 was first announced in June 2001; when announced, Hiroi was quick to point out that while it was the last series entry for the Dreamcast, it was not the final entry in the Sakura Wars series. A preview disc was released with Sakura Wars Online, featuring promotional images and trailers released up to that point. Running up to the game's release, Is Paris Burning? and the Dreamcast ports of the first two Sakura Wars games were reissued at reduced prices by Sega. The game was released on March 21, 2002. It was later ported to Microsoft Windows personal computers (PC). It was released for Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows 2000 and Windows XP on March 3, 2005. This version required multiple CD-ROMs due to the game's size. A DVD-ROM version for Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows Vista on January 25, 2007. The PC version was published in China by Beijing Entertainment All Technology on January 28, 2007. As with most of the Sakura Wars series, the game never saw a release in the Western market. Localization efforts were prevented due to Sega's uncertainty as to whether the game's blend of genres would find a profitable audience outside Japan. ## Reception During its first week on sale, Sakura Wars 4 sold over 207,000 copies, selling through over 80% of its initial shipments. As of 2004, the game has sold over 257,000 copies, making the game the tenth best-selling Dreamcast title in Japan. As of 2007, the game is the fourth best-selling Sakura Wars title behind its predecessor. The game's soundtrack album was awarded at the 2003 Japan Gold Disc Awards in the "Animation – Album of the Year" category. Due to its Japanese exclusivity, some of the English-language reviews for Sakura Wars 4 were published years after the initial release. Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu gave Sakura Wars 4 a score of 36/40, with the critics giving it scores of 10, 9, 8 and 9 out of 10; this was the highest score given to a mainline Sakura Wars game up to that point. RPGFan noted the game's focus on the theater, which the reviewer generally enjoyed despite missing the previous games' episodic format and noting a continued amount of unresolved plot threads. The graphics were praised for their increased quality and its solid gameplay elements, but criticised its short length. Japanese site Game Watch Impress was very positive about the storyline, graphics and the gameplay system. The main issue raised was that the game was not designed for series newcomers due to its callbacks and short length. 4Gamer.net's Tetsuya Asakura, reviewing the PC version, praised the story options opened with the entire cast being present, and its solid gameplay. His main points of criticism were the limited graphical options and its short length. ## Legacy In honor of Tomizawa's retirement from the role of Sumire following Sakura Wars 4, an original video animation (OVA) titled Sakura Wars; Sumire Kanzaki Retirement Memorial—Su・Me・Re was produced by Radix Ace Entertainment and Overworks; Tanaka created the music, while Kawasaki wrote the script. Depicting Sumire's retirement from the Flower Division and her career as an actress, it features Tomizawa's last performance in the role. The OVA was released for VHS and DVD on December 18, 2002. Funimation dubbed the OVA and released it in North America on October 26, 2005 under the title Sakura Wars: Sumire. Tomizawa would eventually return to the role for 2019's Sakura Wars. The original plans for Sakura Wars 4 were carried over into the next Sakura Wars game, which was being developed for the PlayStation 2. Titled Sakura Wars V: Farewell, My Love in Japan, it was released in Japan in 2005 and overseas in 2010 for both the PlayStation 2 and Wii as Sakura Wars: So Long, My Love. So Long, My Love formed part of the Sakura Wars World Project, a group of seven games being developed for the PlayStation 2 to expand the series' audience and eventually release internationally. Four games in the group were released, but only So Long, My Love was released overseas, while the remaining three projects were officially cancelled in September 2008.

United States v. Jackalow

United States v. Jackalow, 66 U.S. (1 Black) 484 (1862), is a U.S. Supreme Court case interpreting the Venue and Vicinage clauses of the United States Constitution. It was an "unusual criminal case" and one of the few constitutional criminal cases from the Taney Court. Jackalow, a mariner from the Ryukyu Kingdom, was suspected of the robbery and murder of the captain of the sloop Spray, Jonathan Leete, and Jonathan's brother Elijah, while the ship was at sea. He was convicted of robbery in the Long Island Sound, but as there was disagreement over the question of jurisdiction between the two judges who heard the post-trial motion (Judge Mahlon Dickerson and Supreme Court Justice Robert Cooper Grier), the case was referred to the Supreme Court by certificate of division. The Supreme Court directed the circuit court for the District of New Jersey to grant Jackalow a new trial. The Court held that while the trial court should determine the description of the boundaries of New York and Connecticut, the ascertainment of their actual boundaries, and the application of those boundaries to the crime in question, should have been a question of fact for the jury. Jackalow was not retried and was released. The trial attracted significant media interest. According to The New York Times, "every part in and near the Court room was crowded during the trial." The case is viewed as historically significant because even though it occurred during the American Civil War, the federal courts focused on proper legal procedure and jurisprudence in a case unrelated to the war. ## Background Jonathan T. Leete had captained the schooner Reaper, owned by James Frisbie, and crewed by a man of East Asian origin, John Canoe, commonly known as Jackalow, short for John Low or John Lord. After Jonathan gave up command of the Reaper, he and Jackalow worked on Jonathan's father's farm on Sachem's Head in Guilford, Connecticut, where Jackalow was regarded as family. At some point, while in New York, Jackalow had stolen \$100 from Jonathan and fled to New Haven. He was returned to New York by the police, but Jonathan refused to testify against him and rehired him. Jonathan and his brother Elijah J. Leete subsequently bought the 30-ton sloop Spray, funded in part by a mortgage their father took out on his farm. Jonathan (the captain), Elijah, and Jackalow sailed the Spray together for two or three years. By March 1860, Jackalow had sailed with Jonathan for four years. ## Spray's final voyage On March 15, 1860, the Spray departed its home port of Guilford on a voyage to New York City, in the company of other vessels. As well as its normal crew of Jonathan, Elijah and Jackalow, there was a passenger on board: Andrew Foote, of Nut Plains. The Spray also carried hay and potatoes on consignment from David Benton of Sachem's Head. The Spray reached New York City safely and sold its cargo for \$500 in gold and bills. Foote returned to Guilford by other means. The Spray set course for Guilford and was seen at various points along the route. One night, she anchored near Norwalk, where cries of "Murder!" and "Open the Cabin Door!" were allegedly heard. Supposedly, Jackalow had locked the cabin door before dispatching Elijah on the deck. Elijah had yelled "Murder!"; and Jonathan, "Open the Cabin Door!" Then, Jackalow was supposed to have shot Jonathan through the cabin skylight, thrown the bodies overboard, and searched the cabin for the money. Alone, Jackalow was further supposed to have sailed the Spray to South Brooklyn, purchased supplies, and then sailed south. At 2 pm on Wednesday, March 21, the Spray collided with the Lucinda four miles north of Barnegat, New Jersey, knocking a hole in the Spray's bow that resulted in her filling with water; the Lucinda also sustained damage. Capt. Willis of the Lucinda saw no one other than Jackalow (whom he blamed for the collision) on board the Spray, and Jackalow refused to be rescued and taken aboard the Lucinda. Willis observed that the deck of the Spray was strewn with bedding and other articles from the cabin. That same day, Jackalow, anchored on a nearby yawl boat and was taken aboard the schooner Thomas F. French (of Suffolk, Virginia), captained by James Webb, who believed Jackalow to be a kanaka. (Other accounts call him a lascar.) Jackalow gave contradictory accounts of the fate of the Leetes. He told Webb that Jonathan was sick in the cabin and that Elijah had been knocked overboard by the boom, but he subsequently changed his story, claiming that one brother had fallen overboard from the bowsprit, and the other had been knocked overboard by the mainsheet. Webb sailed to Little Egg Harbor, finding the Lucinda and its captain and hearing Willis's account of the collision. Webb made no attempt to detain Jackalow, who accompanied him ashore in a small row boat before immediately disappearing into a crowd. The Spray, already stripped of her sails and rigging, and lying on her beam ends, was towed to the New York Harbor. There, the harbor police took charge of the Spray and began retrieving items from the partially submerged cabin, including the captain's bed, which was stained and splattered with blood. A "heavy three-cornered scraper" also recovered was suspected to be the "instrument with which the bloody deed was committed." A pair of unloaded pistols, one with signs of recent discharge, were also recovered. Other items included a small pine box, suspected to be the captain's money box, that had been broken open, but no bodies or money were found. Jackalow became a wanted man, and his description was widely disseminated. On March 25, news of the fate of the Spray reached Guilford. That same day, the pilot boat George Steers reached the Spray and towed her to Jersey City. ## Jackalow's arrest At 11:30 am, March 27, recognizing his description from a newspaper story, the engineer and brakeman of a train, from Philadelphia to Jersey City, crossing the Hackensack Bridge, spotted Jackalow running towards the woods. First two, then eight, New Jersey police officers went into the woods after him. Around noon, Jackalow was turned away from crossing a railroad bridge, then under construction in Newark, New Jersey, by workman William Jacobus, who recognized Jackalow. His colleague Henry Wilson mentioned a \$1000 reward for Jackalow's arrest, and the pair—joined by John Sanford and John Douglass, and aided by a spy glass—spotted Jackalow heading for the Newark Plank Road. Jacobus and Douglass pursued Jackalow, while Wilson and Sanford took the car to Newark, hired a horse, and set out to intercept him on the road. The four arrested Jackalow at the toll gate of the Plank Road; he did not respond to "Jackalow" and claimed to be Indian. He was taken to Jersey City by train, arriving at about 4:00 pm. Jackalow was taken to the Jersey City police station, where in search conducted by Assistant Superintendent Woodruff bags of gold and silver worth about \$400, were found tied to his person. Jackalow was also wearing Jonathan's coat, which contained Jonathan's memorandum book. Jackalow was taken to the city prison. "As the news spread, people came flocking from all directions, completely filling the stationhouse and blocking the streets around it." Soon after 5 pm, Jackalow was taken before Recorder Bedford, where Sanford lodged a formal complaint accusing Jackalow of the murders of the Leetes. Jackalow gave his name to the Recorder as "Sam Patch" and his occupation as a crewman on the Spray. Later, Jackalow told a reporter from the New York Herald that the \$400 represented his savings, and that his wages had been \$30/month for four years. On Saturday, April 2, the Spray was salvaged, and the stains believed to have been blood were discovered to be vermilion. An examination by Dr. John F. Quidor found "no evidence of a murder having been committed in the cabin." In Quidor's opinion, the blood discovered on a cotton chord belonged to an animal. ### Preliminary hearings Also on April 2, U.S. Commissioner J.P. Vroom, in Jersey City, presided over Jackalow's preliminary hearing. Elizabeth Schenck, an African-American, her sister Ann Louisa Talmadge, and brother-in-law James Talmadge testified that Jackalow had sought board with them, claiming to be an Indian. The court recessed until 2 pm, when Mrs. Electa Lecte and Elizabeth Leete, the mother and sister of Jonathan Leete respectively, appeared. The women identified the Leetes' effects, testified to their relationship with Jackalow, and stated that they had never known him to carry so much money. Upon seeing the women, Jackalow burst into tears and requested to speak with them. Jackalow's lawyer, William Voorhees, refused to allow Jackalow to speak to anyone without his consent. Chas. H. Ross and Mr. Haybeck then testified to the articles he recovered from the Spray. The prosecutor, William H. Jelliffe, asked for another adjournment to await the arrival of Willis to testify to the collision. Voorhees opposed the adjournment and moved for Jackalow's immediate release on the ground that there was no jurisdiction because no crime had been proved to have been committed. Jeliffe replied that he intended to charge murder, piracy, and running away with a vessel with intent to steal it. Vroom granted an adjournment until Tuesday at 11 am. Jackalow was remanded to the city prison. On Monday, April 4, U.S. Attorney Garret S. Cannon took over the prosecution and moved that Jackalow be transferred to the U.S. Marshall in the Essex County Jail. Voorhies again objected to jurisdiction, arguing that if the alleged murder was committed in the Long Island Sound it could only be tried in New York. Vroom on the other hand held that a showing of probable cause had been made. Further, he argued that he had jurisdiction on the grounds that the murder was committed between the state of New York and the Norwalk Islands, and Jackalow's robbery had in any case continued until his arrival in Barnegat. Jackalow was remanded to Newark to await the decision of the grand jury. Jackalow was still incarcerated in the Essex County Jail on July 21. A reporter from the Newark Daily Advertiser visited Jackalow and found him to be intelligent, noting that he spent most of his time reading but was not proficient in spoken English. Jackalow protested his innocence to the reporter and explained that he was Japanese, from the Ryukyu Islands. ### Indictment Jackalow's indictment, in the United States Circuit Court for the District of New Jersey, was scheduled for Tuesday, September 25. Justice Robert Cooper Grier, riding circuit, and Judge Mahlon Dickerson, of the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey, presided in Newark. Jackalow, having been moved to the Mercer jail, attended. U.S. Attorney Cannon stated that he needed three or four days to bring in witnesses from Connecticut and elsewhere. The grand jurors were sworn, and Justice Grier instructed them on the law, specifically the Act of 1820, which provided: > If any person shall, upon the high seas, or in any open roadstead, or in any haven, basin or bay, or in any river where the sea ebbs and flows, commit the crime of robbery in or upon any of the ship's company of any ship or vessel, or the lading thereof, such person shall be adjudged to be a pirate, and, being thereof convicted before any Circuit Court of the United States for the district into which he shall be brought, or in which he shall be found, shall suffer death. Justice Grier further instructed the grand jury that it was unnecessary for the government to produce the corpse to prosecute a murder. But, on September 27, while the grand jury was still sitting, Jonathan Leete's clothed body was recovered in Goose Creek, Jamaica, Queens. The body was shown to the Leetes' sister for identification, and a portion of the clothing was sent to his mother in Guilford for further identification, which was inconclusive. The forehead of the corpse bore "two distinct wounds, as if the result of blows from a hatchet or hammer." The coroner cited the wounds as the cause of death. The Leete family offered their opinion that Elijah had been at the wheel, Jackalow at the lookout, and Jonathan asleep in the berth prior to the murders. (It was the habit of the Leete brothers to sleep fully clothed.) On Saturday, October 6, the grand jury heard testimony from Joseph Langdon, the crew of the Lucinda, and a carman from Brooklyn. At 9 am, the grand jury presented five bills of indictment against Jackalow: the murder of Jonathan Leete; the murder of Elijah Leete; the robbery of Jonathan Leete; the robbery of Elijah Leete; and running away with the Spray. Voorhees was joined by lawyer Isaac R. Wilson, of New York City, for Jackalow's defense. Jackalow pleaded not guilty to each count. On the motion of U.S. Attorney Cannon, a special term of the circuit court was appointed to meet in Trenton, on the third Tuesday in January, to try the case. ## Trial The remaining, un-impanelled petit jurors were discharged from the Trenton federal court on September 28. Thus, Jackalow could have been tried no earlier than January 1861. Jackalow's trial was scheduled for January 15, 1861. The trial was postponed until January 17 because Jackalow's counsel was not served with the list of names of the jurors until the morning of January 15, and federal law required that the panel be served two full days before trial. The government planned to call 34 witnesses, and to pay each \$500 for their time. Jackalow moved to compel the attendance of Dr. Theodore R. Vanck, Robert J. Dalton, and Professor George Hammell Cook of Rutgers College. Voorhees and Wilson represented Jackalow, and the prosecution was conducted by U.S. Attorney Cannon and Andrew Dutcher. The jury was impanelled on January 18. The indictment was read and Cannon delivered his opening statement. Most of the evidence pertained to the robbery counts, resulting in speculation that the other counts would not even be tried if a robbery conviction could be obtained. ### Prosecution's case On January 21, four government witnesses testified. The testimony tended to prove that: the Spray was seen on March 15 with Jackalow and the Leetes aboard; Jackalow was seen on the vessel alone on March 17 and 18, heading to New York City; Jackalow purchased supplies from a grocer in Brooklyn on March 19 with a roll of banknotes, including one \$50 bill from the Mechanics Bank, and asked for change in coins. E. H. Grandin was added to the defense team, and J. W. Wiley acted as interpreter. On January 22, eleven government witnesses testified. The testimony tended to prove that: the Spray and Lucinda had collided; Jackalow, brandishing a hatchet, had refused to allow anyone else aboard; Capt. Webb had taken Jackalow aboard his ship to Newark; Jackalow had applied for lodging in a cellar in Newark; Jackalow had given two different names for himself in Egg Harbor when relating the fate of the Leetes; he had bought supplies in New York City and Brooklyn. At the close of evidence, the government had examined 17 witnesses, half the number for which it had issued subpoenas. On January 23, six government witnesses testified. The testimony tended to prove that: Jackalow had offered \$60 for a boat, intending to catch bluefish; two witnesses had pursued Jackalow after the account of the Leetes' death was published; Jackalow was found on the Newark Plank Road; Jackalow had then claimed to be an East Indiaman named Sam Patch; the bags of coins had been found on Jackalow. On January 24, 13 government witnesses testified. The testimony tended to prove that: Jackalow was found with \$393; someone heard a "cry of murder on the Sound" on March 15; blood was found on the Spray in Jersey City. Jackalow also sought to compel the attendance of Bayard Taylor. Wiley, the interpreter, could barely understand Jackalow because his language was "not pure Chinese." On January 25, five government witnesses testified, including Dr. Quidor and the Leetes' mother and sister. Quidor testified that he had discovered blood on a ball of twine, although it had been painted over with vermilion. On Monday, January 28, the government examined one last witness and rested its case. The witness testified to what transpired before U.S. Commissioner Vroom after Jackalow's arrest. ### Jackalow's case Still on January 28, Jackalow's defense opened with Taylor's evidence. He testified to having seen a person on the Perry Expedition in Japan who "resembled [Jackalow] very much, and he thought it was the same man." Supposedly, Jackalow had been brought to the United States by Commodore Perry aboard the USS Mississippi. At this point, Grandin moved for a judgment of acquittal for lack of jurisdiction. Because the incident took place between Norwalk and Hell Gate, Grandin argued that venue was improper in the District of New Jersey, as opposed to the Southern District of New York or District of Connecticut. Grandin also argued that the Long Island Sound was not on the "high seas" and thus that the indictment was defective. In rebuttal, Dutcher cited authorities that the Sound was "an arm of the sea." The following day, Dutcher, followed by U.S. Attorney Cannon, argued that the Sound was "uninclosed waters of the ocean outside the jaws of land." In particular, Cannon cited the Amistad case (1841) and noted that the words "out of the jurisdiction of any particular State" had been removed in 1820. Voorhees was given rebuttal. Judge Dickerson stated that he was of the opinion that the Long Island Sound was not on the high seas. Rather than halt the trial, Dickerson proposed to have the jury return a special verdict, and, if Jackalow was convicted, to argue a motion for arrest of judgment before a "full bench" (i.e. Dickerson plus Justice Grier riding circuit) at the next term in March, and, if the panel was divided, to certify the question to the Supreme Court by certificate of division. "[W]ithout a formal opening," Voorhees called two more witnesses that day, "but nothing was elicited from them." ### Closing arguments and instructions The defense rested on January 30. Dutcher delivered the closing argument for the prosecution on the robbery charges, Grandin for the defense. On January 31, Grandin concluded his argument, and Voorhees followed; the murder charge had not been tried. Cannon delivered the prosecution's rebuttal. Cannon concluded his "most able argument" the next day, February 1. Judge Dickerson instructed the jury to consider the two robbery charges only: "If the robbery was an after thought after the murder, it would be nothing more than larceny. If the murder was committed with the intention of taking the goods, then it was robbery." And, Dickerson instructed, "[i]f they found the prisoner guilty, then they must also fix the locality of the robbery." The jury left the courtroom at 4 pm. ### Verdict At 12 pm on February 2, the jury found Jackalow guilty on the first robbery count and not guilty on the other counts in the indictment. As for the location, the jury found that the Spray "at that time was lying on the waters adjoining the State of Connecticut, between Norwalk Harbor and Westchester county, in the State of New-York, and at a point five miles eastward from Lyon's Point, one and a half miles from the Connecticut shore at low water mark." The special verdict did not determine whether the place of the murder was Connecticut, New York, or the high seas. One juror explained that he considered only the taking of Leete's coat, and not their money, to have been proven. The value of the coat had been proven to be approximately \$1. Grandin moved to set aside the verdict. The question of jurisdiction was set for argument before the full bench at the upcoming March term. ### Certificate of division Jackalow's post-trial motion was argued on April 4 before Judge Dickerson and Justice Grier. Anthony Q. Keasbey, Cannon's successor as U.S. Attorney, appeared for the United States; Grandin for Jackalow. Grandin put forward various reasons to arrest the judgment: > because the Judge refused to charge the jury as to the evidence of the ownership of the gold and silver; because the Judge refused to charge the jury that the coat was taken from [Jonathan Leete] by violence ... because the first count of the indictment is uncertain and insufficient. To bring the case in this District, it should have appeared that the crime was committed out of the jurisdiction of any particular State; because it does not appear in the count that the prisoner was found and brought within the district of the State of New-Jersey; because it was not shown in the verdict that the schooner Spray was an American vessel, and was owned by citizens of the United States; because the indictment charges piracy, but in the verdict only robbery is specified, and it does not specify that it was done on the high seas; because the indictment charges that the crime was done on the water adjoining the State of Connecticut; because it does not appear that it was done within the jurisdiction of this Court. The argument concluded on April 6. Dickerson persisted in his view that there was no jurisdiction, but Grier disagreed. The court certified the question to the Supreme Court by a certificate of division. While the certificate was pending, a body believed to be that of Elijah Leete was discovered off the Norwalk Islands on August 21. "It had evidently been a long time in the water, and the body had on thick clothing and oil cloth pants." ## Oral argument The case was called before the Supreme Court on March 17, 1862. Attorney General Edward Bates announced that he was delegating the argument to U.S. Attorney Keasbey. Jackalow's attorney was not present, and, by letter, requested a postponement. No postponement was forthcoming, and Reverdy Johnson volunteered to argue for Jackalow. The case was argued on March 18. Keasbey made an "able and exhaustive argument" for the United States. According to The New York Times, Johnson argued for Jackalow, although the United States Reports state that "no counsel appeared for Jackalow." The opinion was to be delivered the following Monday, as the Court was to adjourn for the term on Tuesday. ## Opinion Article Three provides that "the Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed." Pursuant to the latter clause, the 1820 piracy statute provided that offenders of that statute could be tried in the "Circuit Court of the United States for the district into which he shall be brought, or in which he shall be found." Further, more generally, § 14 of the Crimes Act of 1825 provided that "the trial of all offences which shall be committed upon the high seas or elsewhere, out of the limits of any state or district, shall be in the district where the offender is apprehended, or into which he may first be brought." Justice Samuel Nelson, for the unanimous Court, noted that, under Article Three, the New Jersey circuit court's jurisdiction depended on two conjunctive propositions: first, that Jackalow's crime was not committed within any State; and second, that Jackalow was first apprehended in New Jersey. Citing United States v. Dawson (1854), the Court also noted that the Vicinage Clause required that crimes be tried in the district where committed, if and only if the crime was committed within a U.S. state. Further, the Court noted that, with the "high seas" crimes created by the Crimes Act of 1790 and Crimes Act of 1825, "the question presented in this case could not arise, as the offence could not be committed within the limits of the State." But, because offenses committed in "any open roadstead, or in any haven, basin, or bay, or in any river where the sea ebbs and flows" are not committed on the "high seas," the Court held, these offenses must be prosecuted in conformity with the restrictions of the venue and vicinage clauses. The Court noted that the jury was not asked to return a special verdict that decided whether Jackalow's crime was committed within a state; instead, Judge Dickerson had himself decided that the crime was committed within New York. Although the Court expressed no opinion on the boundary of New York, it noted that "two of the eminent judges of the highest court of the State of New York entertained different opinions on this question." Instead, the Court prescribed the following procedure: > The boundary of a State, when a material fact in the determination of the extent of the jurisdiction of a court, is not a simple question of law. The description of a boundary may be a matter of construction, which belongs to the court; but the application of the evidence in the ascertainment of it as thus described and interpreted, with a view to its location and settlement, belongs to the jury. All the testimony bearing upon this question, whether of maps, surveys, practical location, and the like, should be submitted to them under proper instructions to find the fact. Thus, the Court directed the circuit court to set aside the special verdict and grant a new trial. ## Aftermath ### Jackalow's fate At the time the Court's opinion was announced, Jackalow was in the Mount Holly Jail in Burlington County, New Jersey. The New York Times misinterpreted the Court's opinion as having "decided that the State of New-York has no jurisdiction over the waters of Long Island Sound, where the murders were committed, and has advised the United States Circuit Court for New-Jersey to proceed with the case." Thus, the Times predicted that Jackalow would be sentenced and that his counsel would attempt a motion for a new trial "upon the ground of the illegality of the verdict." Next, the Times falsely reported that Jackalow had been sentenced to death, and then that Judge Dickerson had "decided not to pass the sentence of death." On March 24, 1863, at the Court's suggestion, the government filed a nolle prosequi motion and Jackalow was discharged. Jackalow was admonished to leave the country and never return, and he complied. Three years after Jackalow's first trial, the government was unable to locate witnesses for a retrial and persisted in "[d]oubts about the jurisdiction." Justice Grier, again riding circuit, reportedly stated: "If the Supreme Court of the United States can't make up its mind whether the place where the murder was committed was within the jurisdiction of the states or on the high seas, I am not going to come so near committing judicial murder as to set twelve men guessing at it." That April, Voorhees filed a writ of attachment against Jackalow for unpaid attorney's fees, and the Leetes' executors were said to be contemplating similar action. The \$389 that Jackalow was carrying at the time of his arrest eventually went to his lawyers. ### As a precedent The rule of Jackalow generally remains good law, but to obtain reversal of a criminal conviction for failure to submit the issue of venue to the jury, venue must have been "in issue" and the defendant must have timely objected. Lower courts differ over the precise contours of when venue is "in issue." Because the government need only prove venue by a preponderance of the evidence, and because the jury often implicitly finds facts establishing venue by convicting the defendant, such errors are often harmless. ## Analysis Mark Lender cites Jackalow, decided during the American Civil War, as evidence that, "even amid the emotion of war," Judge Dickerson and Justice Grier "still preferred jurisprudence grounded in established procedures." Lender also argues that "Jackalow ... provided something of a perspective on the nature of federal jurisprudence in a time of extraordinary national crisis" by providing "generally fair and efficient proceedings" to "controversial defendants." In part, Jackalow "attracted considerable attention" because "[w]ith the nation at war, the federal government properly was concerned with its authority at sea and the safety of American shipping, even though the case was not directly related to the rebellion."

John Struthers (anatomist)

Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen (1823–1899)

Sir John Struthers MD FRCSE FRSE ((1823-02-21)21 February 1823 – (1899-02-24)24 February 1899) was the first Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen. He was a dynamic teacher and administrator, transforming the status of the institutions in which he worked. He was equally passionate about anatomy, enthusiastically seeking out and dissecting the largest and finest specimens, including whales, and troubling his colleagues with his single-minded quest for money and space for his collection. His collection was donated to Surgeon's Hall in Edinburgh. Among scientists, he is perhaps best known for his work on the ligament which bears his name. His work on the rare and vestigial ligament of Struthers came to the attention of Charles Darwin, who used it in his Descent of Man to help argue the case that man and other mammals shared a common ancestor ; or "community of descent," as Darwin expressed it. Among the public, Struthers was famous for his dissection of the "Tay Whale", a humpback whale that appeared in the Firth of Tay, was hunted and then dragged ashore to be exhibited across Britain. Struthers took every opportunity he could to dissect it and recover its bones, and eventually wrote a monograph on it. In the medical profession, he was known for transforming the teaching of anatomy, for the papers and books that he wrote, as well as for his efficient work in his medical school, for which he was successively awarded medicine's highest honours, including membership of the General Medical Council, fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the presidency of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, and finally a knighthood. ## Early life John Struthers was the son of Alexander Struthers (1767–1853) and his wife Mary Reid (1793–1859). They lived in Brucefield, a large stone-built 18th century house with spacious grounds, which was then just outside Dunfermline; John was born in the house. Alexander was a wealthy mill owner and linen merchant. He bought Brucefield early in the 19th century, along with Brucefield Mill, a linen spinning mill built in 1792. Flax for linen was threshed at the nearby threshing mill, and bleached in the open air near the house. There were still linen bleachers living in Brucefield House in 1841, but they had gone by 1851, leaving the house as the seat of the Struthers family. Mary's father, Deacon John Reid, was also a linen maker. Alexander and Mary were married in 1818; the marriage, though not warmly affectionate, lasted until Alexander's death despite the large age difference. Both Alexander and Mary are buried at Dunfermline Abbey. Struthers was one of six children, three boys and three girls. The boys were privately tutored in the classics, mathematics and modern languages at home in Brucefield House. They went out boating in summer, skating in winter on the nearby dam; they rode ponies, went swimming in the nearby Firth of Forth, and went for long walks with wealthy friends. Both his older brother James and his younger brother Alexander studied medicine. James Struthers became a doctor at Leith Hospital. Alexander Struthers died of cholera while serving as a doctor in the Crimean War. His sisters, Janet and Christina, provided a simple education at Brucefield for some poor friends, Daniel and James Thomson. Daniel (1833–1908) became a Dunfermline weaver as well as a historian and reformer. ## Medical career Struthers studied medicine at Edinburgh University, winning prizes as an undergraduate. He completed his doctorate (M.D.) in 1845, becoming a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh at the same time. In 1847, the college licensed him and his brother James to teach anatomy in the Edinburgh Extramural School of Medicine. The courses that they taught at the medical school in Argyle Square, Edinburgh were recognized by the examining bodies of England, Scotland and Ireland. He worked his way up at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary from "dresser" (surgical assistant), to surgical clerk, to house physician, house surgeon and finally full surgeon. His passion was for anatomy; he told the story of how he had been so concentrated on an anatomy dissection one day in 1843 that he failed to look outside to observe the street procession known as the "Disruption" which launched the Free Church of Scotland. He became Lecturer of Anatomy at the University of Edinburgh. From 1860 Struthers was joined by William Pirrie at the university, who worked alongside Struthers as Professor of Surgery. In 1863, Struthers became the first Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen. This was a "Crown Chair" (a professorship recognized by the government), a prestigious position. Struthers' application for the chair was supported by over 250 letters, many from public figures including well-known doctors such as Joseph Lister and James Paget, and politicians such as Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, who became Home Secretary, and James Moncreiff, who became the Scottish Lord Advocate. The support of these men was actively solicited by Struthers' well-connected friends and relatives, including his cousin the Reverend John Struthers of Prestonpans, and his energetic wife Christina. With the success of their campaign, the family moved to Aberdeen. Struthers held the professorship at Aberdeen for 26 years. In that time, he radically transformed anatomy teaching at the university, improved the Aberdeen medical school; set up the museum of anatomy; and helped to lead the reconstruction of the Aberdeen Infirmary. He vigorously collected specimens for his museum, "prepared or otherwise provided, mainly by the work of my own hands, and at my own expense". The specimens were arranged to enable students to compare the anatomy of different animals. He intended the comparative anatomy exhibits to demonstrate evolution through the presence of homologous structures. For example, in mammals, the arm and hand of a human, the wing of a bird, the foreleg of a horse, and the flipper of a whale are all homologous forelimbs. He continually made demands of the University of Aberdeen's Senate for additional room space and money for the museum, against the wishes of his colleagues in the faculty. Struthers could go to great lengths to obtain specimens he particularly wanted, and on at least one occasion this led to court action. He had long admired a crocodile skeleton at Aberdeen's Medico-Chirurgical Society. In 1866 he borrowed it, ostensibly to clean and remount it, but despite the society's urgent requests to have it returned, it stayed in Struthers' museum at Marischal College for ten years. Struthers still hoped to obtain the specimen, and when in 1885 he was made president of the Medico-Chirurgical Society, he again tried to take the crocodile to his museum. The society then obtained an interdict (a court order) restraining him from removing the skeleton. Struthers published about 70 papers on anatomy. He set up a popular series of lectures for the public, held on Saturday evenings. Many of the methods he used remain relevant today. He had a powerful effect on medical education in Britain, in 1890 establishing the format of three years of "pre-clinical" academic teaching and examination in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. His system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. His 21st century successors at the anatomy school in Aberdeen write that "He would undoubtedly be greatly dismayed at the drastic reduction in the teaching of basic medical sciences, and the subsequent perceived decline in the anatomical knowledge of medical students and practicing clinicians," and they quote one of Struthers' sayings to his students: > Unless you are well informed in the foundation sciences and principles, you may practise your profession, but you will never understand disease and its treatment; your practice will be routine, the unintelligent application of the dogmas and directions of your textbook or teacher. ## Scientific work ### Evolution and Struthers' ligament Struthers was one of the first advocates of the theory of evolution, speaking publicly and corresponding with Charles Darwin about observations he made during his comparative anatomy studies. Struthers was interested in abnormal variations in anatomy, such as additional toes, and he collected many specimens which he offered to show Darwin. Among other curiosities, Struthers described the "Ligament of Struthers", a rare extra band of connective tissue present in 1% of humans running from a bony projection on the humerus down to the elbow, and showed that its presence was inherited. The significance of Struthers' ligament, as Darwin and Struthers understood, is that the vestigial organ has no function in humans, but is inherited from a structure, the supra-condyloid foramen, which certainly had a function in other mammals including marsupials and carnivores. In those other mammals, the supra-condyloid foramen is an opening in the bone that important structures, the median nerve and the brachial artery, run through. Struthers observed that when his ligament was present in humans, the nerve and artery did run through it. Darwin took this to mean that the human structure was homologous with the foramen in other mammals, and that therefore humans and other mammals had a common ancestor. He used Struthers' work as evidence in Chapter 1 of his Descent of Man (1871): > In some of the lower Quadrumana, in the Lemuridae and Carnivora, as well as in many marsupials, there is a passage near the lower end of the humerus, called the supra-condyloid foramen, through which the great nerve of the fore limb and often the great artery pass. Now in the humerus of man, there is generally a trace of this passage, which is sometimes fairly well developed, being formed by a depending hook-like process of bone, completed by a band of ligament. Dr. Struthers, who has closely attended to the subject, has now shewn that this peculiarity is sometimes inherited, as it has occurred in a father, and in no less than four out of his seven children. When present, the great nerve invariably passes through it; and this clearly indicates that it is the homologue and rudiment of the supra-condyloid foramen of the lower animals. Prof. Turner estimates, as he informs me, that it occurs in about one per cent of recent skeletons. But if the occasional development of this structure in man is, as seems probable, due to reversion, it is a return to a very ancient state of things, because in the higher Quadrumana it is absent. ### Whale anatomy Aberdeen, a coastal city, gave Struthers the opportunity to observe the whales which were from time to time washed up on Scotland's coast. In 1870 he observed, dissected and described a blue whale (which he called a "Great Fin-Whale") from Peterhead. He brought the entire skeleton of a sei whale back to the anatomy department at Aberdeen, where for a century it was suspended overhead in the hall. He vigorously collected examples of a wide range of species to form a museum of zoology, with the intention of illustrating Darwin's theories. As an energetic and forceful personality with a strong enthusiasm for zoology, he alarmed his colleagues at the University of Aberdeen by constantly asking for money and space to acquire and house his collection. ### Dissecting the "Tay Whale" Struthers became known to the general public for his dissection of the "Tay Whale", one of his largest specimens. At the end of December 1883, a humpback whale appeared in the Firth of Tay off Dundee, attracting much local interest. It was harpooned, but after an all-night struggle escaped. A week later it was found dead, and was towed on to the beach at Stonehaven, near Aberdeen. Struthers quickly visited the carcass, measuring it as 40 feet long with a tail 11 feet 4 inches wide. Struthers was not able to start dissecting it at once, as a local entrepreneur, John Woods, bought the whale and took it to his yard in Dundee, where on the first Sunday, 12,000 people paid to see it. Struthers was not allowed to dissect the famous specimen until it was too badly decomposed for further public exhibition. He was well used to working on stinking carcasses: his dissecting room was reputed to stink "like the deck of a Greenland whaler". The dissection was disturbed by John Woods, who admitted the public, for a fee, to watch Struthers and his assistants at work, with a military band playing in the background. Progress on the dissection was impeded by snow showers. Struthers was able to remove much of the skeleton before Woods had the flesh embalmed; the carcass was then stuffed and sewn up to be taken on a profitable tour as far as Edinburgh and London. After months of waiting, on 7 August 1884, Struthers was able to remove the skull and the rest of the skeleton. Over the next decade, Struthers wrote seven anatomy articles on the whale, with a complete monograph on it in 1889. ## Life and family Struthers' siblings included James Struthers MD (1821–1891), a doctor at Leith hospital for 42 years, and his youngest brother Alexander Struthers MB who died at Scutari Hospital in Istanbul during the Crimean War. Struthers married Christina Margaret Alexander (born 15 January 1833) on 5 August 1857. Christina was the sister of John Alexander, chief clerk to Bow Street Police Court. She too came from a Scottish medical family; her parents were Dr James Alexander (1795–1863) and Margaret Finlay (1797–1865), both of old Dunfermline families; James practised as a surgeon just across the English border in the small town of Wooler, Northumberland. On James' death as a "country practitioner", the city-dweller Struthers wrote > The great majority of the profession are and must be country practitioners; the hardest work of the profession is done by them; in the winter nights, when the world is asleep, they have many a long and weary drive; they are far from libraries, from hospitals and museums, and from societies; and thus in their comparative isolation want that stimulus and guidance which tend to keep the city practitioner up to the mark. Struthers was father-in-law of nitroglycerine chemist David Orme Masson, who married his daughter Mary. He was grandfather of another explosives chemist, Sir James Irvine Orme Masson, and father-in-law of educator Simon Somerville Laurie, who married his daughter Lucy. ### Retirement On retiring from the University of Aberdeen, Struthers returned to Edinburgh. He lived at 15 George Square. He was buried in the north-east section of the central roundel of Warriston Cemetery, Edinburgh, in 1899; his wife Christina joined him there in 1907. The grave faces over a path to that of his brother, James Struthers. All three of their sons, Alexander, James and John also worked in the medical profession; John William Struthers followed his uncle James by working at Leith Hospital, and followed his father by working at Edinburgh Royal Infirmary and by becoming president of the Royal College of Surgeons. ## Awards and distinctions Struthers was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by the University of Glasgow in 1885 for his work in medical education. In 1892 he was given honorary membership of the Royal Medical Society; he also became president of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh. He was appointed to the General Medical Council in 1883 and remained a member until 1891. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1894. In 1895 he was made president of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh; he held the position for two years. In 1898, he was knighted (as Sir John Struthers) by Queen Victoria for his service to medicine. Glasgow University's Struthers Medal is named in his honour. ## Publications Struthers authored over 70 manuscripts and books, including the following. ### Books ### Papers

PJ Harvey

English musician (born 1969)

Polly Jean Harvey (born 9 October 1969) is an English singer-songwriter. Primarily known as a vocalist and guitarist, she is also proficient with a wide range of instruments. Harvey began her career in 1988 when she joined local band Automatic Dlamini as a vocalist, guitarist and saxophonist. The band's frontman, John Parish, became her long-term collaborator. In 1991, she formed an eponymous trio called PJ Harvey and subsequently began her career as PJ Harvey. The trio released two studio albums called Dry (1992) and Rid of Me (1993) before disbanding, after which Harvey continued as a solo artist. Since 1995, she has released a further nine studio albums with collaborations from various musicians including Parish, former bandmate Rob Ellis, Mick Harvey, and Eric Drew Feldman, and has also worked extensively with record producer Flood. Among the accolades Harvey has received are both the 2001 and 2011 Mercury Prize for Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea (2000) and Let England Shake (2011), respectively, making her the only artist to have been awarded the prize twice. She has also garnered eight Brit Award nominations, seven Grammy Award nominations and two further Mercury Prize nominations. Rolling Stone awarded her three accolades: 1992's Best New Artist and Best Singer Songwriter, and 1995's Artist of the Year. Rolling Stone also listed Rid of Me, To Bring You My Love, and Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea on its list of their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. In 2011, she was awarded for Outstanding Contribution To Music at the NME Awards. In the 2013 Birthday Honours, she was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) for services to music. ## Early life Polly Jean Harvey was born on 9 October 1969 in Bridport, Dorset, the second child of Ray and Eva Harvey. Her parents owned a quarrying business on Ham Hill, the site of a large Iron Age hillfort, and she grew up on the family farm in Corscombe. During her childhood, she attended Beaminster School in nearby Beaminster, where she received guitar lessons from folk singer-songwriter Steve Knightley. Her parents introduced her to music that would later influence her work, including blues, Captain Beefheart and Bob Dylan. Her parents were avid music fans and regularly arranged get-togethers and small gigs, counting Ian Stewart among their oldest friends. As a teenager, Harvey began learning saxophone and joined an eight-piece instrumental group, Bologne, run by composer Andrew Dickson. She was also a guitarist with folk duo the Polekats, with whom she wrote some of her earliest material. After finishing school, she joined Yeovil College and attended a visual arts foundation course. ## Career ### Automatic Dlamini: 1988–1991 In July 1988, Harvey became a member of Automatic Dlamini, a band based in Bristol with whom she gained extensive ensemble-playing experience. Formed by John Parish in 1983, the band consisted of a rotating line-up that at various times included Rob Ellis and Ian Oliver. Harvey had met Parish in 1987 through mutual friend Jeremy Hogg, the band's slide guitarist. Providing saxophone, guitars and background vocals, she travelled extensively during the band's early days, including performances in East and West Germany, Spain and Poland to support the band's debut studio album, The D is for Drum. A second European tour took place throughout June and July 1989. Following the tour, the band recorded Here Catch, Shouted His Father, their second studio album, between late 1989 and early 1990. This is the only Automatic Dlamini material to feature Harvey, but remains unreleased, although bootleg versions of the album are in circulation. In January 1991, Harvey left to form her own band with former bandmates Ellis and Oliver, though she had also formed lasting personal and professional relationships with other members, especially Parish, to whom she has referred as her "musical soulmate". Parish would subsequently contribute to, and sometimes co-produce, Harvey's solo studio albums and has toured with her a number of times. As a duo, Parish and Harvey have recorded two collaborative albums where Parish composed the music and Harvey wrote the lyrics. Additionally, Parish's girlfriend in the late 1980s was photographer Maria Mochnacz. She and Harvey became close friends and Mochnacz went on to shoot and design most of Harvey's album artwork and music videos, contributing significantly to her public image. Harvey has said of her time with Automatic Dlamini: "I ended up not singing very much but I was just happy to learn how to play the guitar. I wrote a lot during the time I was with them but my first songs were crap. I was listening to a lot of Irish folk music at the time, so the songs were folky and full of penny whistles and stuff. It was ages before I felt ready to perform my own songs in front of other people." She also credits Parish for teaching her how to perform in front of audiences, saying "after the experience with John's band and seeing him perform I found it was enormously helpful to me as a performer to engage with people in the audience, and I probably did learn that from him, amongst other things." ### PJ Harvey Trio; Dry and Rid of Me: 1991–1994 Harvey decided to name her new band the PJ Harvey Trio, rejecting other names as "nothing felt right at all or just suggested the wrong type of sound", and also to allow her to continue music as a solo artist. The trio consisted of Harvey on vocals and guitar, Ellis on drums and backing vocals, and Oliver on bass. Oliver later departed to rejoin the still-active Automatic Dlamini. He was subsequently replaced with Steve Vaughan. The trio's "disastrous" debut performance was held at a skittle alley in Charmouth Village Hall in April 1991. Harvey later recounted the event saying: "we started playing and I suppose there was about fifty people there, and during the first song we cleared the hall. There was only about two people left. And a woman came up to us, came up to my drummer, it was only a three piece, while we were playing and shouted at him 'Don't you realise nobody likes you! We'll pay you, you can stop playing, we'll still pay you!'" The group relocated to London in June 1991 when Harvey applied to study sculpture, still undecided as to her future career. During this time, the group recorded a set of demo songs and distributed them to record labels. Independent label Too Pure agreed to release the band's debut single "Dress" in October 1991, and later signed PJ Harvey. "Dress" received mass critical acclaim upon its release and was voted Single of the Week in Melody Maker by guest reviewer John Peel, who admired "the way Polly Jean seems crushed by the weight of her own songs and arrangements, as if the air is literally being sucked out of them ... admirable if not always enjoyable." However, Too Pure provided little promotion for the single and critics claim that "Melody Maker had more to do with the success of the "Dress" single than Too Pure Records." A week after its release, the band recorded a live radio session for Peel on BBC Radio 1 on 29 October featuring "Oh, My Lover", "Victory", "Sheela-Na-Gig" and "Water". The following February, the trio released "Sheela-Na-Gig" as their equally-acclaimed second single and their debut studio album, Dry (1992), followed in March. Like the singles preceding it, Dry received an overwhelming international critical response. The album was cited by Kurt Cobain of Nirvana as his sixteenth-favourite album ever in his posthumously published Journals. Rolling Stone also named Harvey as Songwriter of the Year and Best New Female Singer. A limited edition double LP version of Dry was released alongside the regular version of the album, containing both the original and demo versions of each track, called Dry Demonstration, and the band also received significant coverage at the Reading Festival in 1992. Island (PolyGram) signed the trio amid a major label bidding war in mid-1992, and in December 1992 the trio travelled to Cannon Falls, Minnesota in the United States to record the follow-up to Dry with producer Steve Albini. Prior to recording with Albini, the band recorded a second session with John Peel on 22 September and recorded a version of Bob Dylan's "Highway 61 Revisited," and two new songs "Me Jane" and "Ecstasy." The recording sessions with Albini took place at Pachyderm Recording Studio and resulted in the band's major label debut Rid of Me in May 1993. Rolling Stone wrote that it "is charged with aggressive eroticism and rock fury. It careens from blues to goth to grunge, often in the space of a single song." The album was promoted by two singles, "50ft Queenie" and "Man-Size", as well as tours of the United Kingdom in May and of the United States in June, continuing there during the summer. However, during the American leg of the tour, internal friction started to form between the members of the trio. Deborah Frost, writing for Rolling Stone, noticed "an ever widening personal gulf" between the band members, and quoted Harvey as saying "It makes me sad. I wouldn't have got here without them. I needed them back then – badly. But I don't need them anymore. We all changed as people." Despite the tour's personal downsides, footage from live performances was compiled and released on the long-form video Reeling with PJ Harvey (1993). The band's final tour was to support U2 in August 1993, after which the trio officially disbanded. In her final appearance on American television in September 1993 on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Harvey performed a solo version of "Rid of Me." As Rid of Me sold substantially more copies than Dry, 4-Track Demos, a compilation album of demos for the album was released in October and inaugurated her career as a solo artist. In early 1994, it was announced that U2's manager, Paul McGuinness, had become her manager. ### To Bring You My Love and Is This Desire?: 1995–1999 As Harvey embarked on her solo career, she explored collaborations with other musicians. In 1995 she released her third studio album, To Bring You My Love, featuring former bandmate John Parish, Bad Seeds multi-instrumentalist Mick Harvey and French drummer Jean-Marc Butty, all of whom would continue to perform and record with Harvey throughout her career. The album was also her first material to be produced by Flood. Simultaneously a more blues-influenced and more futuristic record than its predecessors, To Bring You My Love showcased Harvey broadening her musical style to include strings, organs and synthesisers. Rolling Stone said in its review that "Harvey sings the blues like Nick Cave sings gospel: with more distortion, sex and murder than you remember. To Bring You My Love was a towering goth version of grunge." During the successive tours for the album, Harvey also experimented with her image and stage persona. The record generated a surprise modern rock radio hit in the United States with its lead single, "Down by the Water." The music video received heavy rotation on MTV and became Harvey's most recognizable song. Three consecutive singles—"C'mon Billy", "Send His Love to Me" and "Long Snake Moan"—were also moderately successful. The album was a commercial success selling one million copies worldwide including 370,000 in the United States. It was also certified Silver in the United Kingdom within seven months of its release, having sold over 60,000 copies. In the United States, the album was voted Album of the Year by The Village Voice, Rolling Stone, USA Today, People, The New York Times and the Los Angeles Times. Rolling Stone also named Harvey 1995's Artist of the Year and Spin ranked the album third in The 90 Greatest Albums of the 1990s, behind Nirvana's Nevermind (1991) and Public Enemy's Fear of a Black Planet (1990). In 1996, Harvey also received her first Grammy Award nominations for Best Alternative Music and Best Female Rock Vocal Performance (Down By The Water). In July 2020, a vinyl reissue of To Bring You My Love was announced, including unreleased demos. In 1996, following the international success of To Bring You My Love and experimental collaboration album Dance Hall at Louse Point with John Parish, Harvey began composing material that would end up on her fourth studio album, during what she referred to as "an incredibly low patch". The material diverged significantly from her previous work and introduced electronica elements into her song-writing. During recording sessions in 1997 original PJ Harvey Trio drummer Rob Ellis rejoined Harvey's band, and Flood was hired again as producer. The sessions, which continued into April the following year, resulted in Is This Desire? (1998). Though originally released to mixed reviews in September 1998, the album was a success and received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Alternative Music Performance. The album's lead single, "A Perfect Day Elise," was moderately successful in the United Kingdom, peaking at number 25 on the UK Singles Chart, her most successful single to date. ### Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea and Uh Huh Her: 2000–2006 In early 2000, Harvey began work on her fifth studio album Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea with Rob Ellis and Mick Harvey. Written in her native Dorset, Paris and New York, the album showcased a more mainstream indie rock and pop rock sound to her previous albums and the lyrics followed themes of love that tied into Harvey's affection for New York City. The album also featured Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke on three tracks, including his lead vocals on "This Mess We're In". Upon its release in October 2000 the album was a critical and commercial success, selling over one million copies worldwide and charting in both the United Kingdom and the United States. The album's three singles—"Good Fortune", "A Place Called Home" and "This Is Love"—were moderately successful. The album also received a number of accolades including a BRIT Award nomination for Best Female Artist and two Grammy Award nominations for Best Rock Album and Best Female Rock Performance for the album's third single, "This Is Love". However, most notably, Harvey was nominated for, and won, the 2001 Mercury Music Prize. The awards ceremony was held on the same day as the September 11 attacks on the United States and Harvey was on tour in Washington, D.C., one of the affected cities, when she won the prize. Reflecting on the win in 2011, she said: "quite naturally I look back at that and only remember the events that were taking place across the world and to win the prize on that day—it didn't have much importance in the grand scheme of things", noting "it was a very surreal day". The same year, Harvey also topped a readers' poll conducted by Q Magazine of the 100 Greatest Women in Rock Music. During three years of various collaborations with other artists, Harvey was also working on her sixth studio album, Uh Huh Her, which was released in May 2004. For the first time since 4-Track Demos (1993), Harvey played every instrument—with the exception of drums provided by Rob Ellis—and was the sole producer. The album received "generally favourable reviews" by critics, though its production was often criticised. It was also a commercial success, debuting and peaking at number 12 in the UK Albums Chart and being certified Silver by the BPI within a month of its release. Harvey also did an extensive world tour in promotion of the album, lasting seven months in total. Selected recordings from the tour were included on Harvey's first live DVD, On Tour: Please Leave Quietly, directed by Maria Mochnacz and released in 2006. ### White Chalk and Let England Shake: 2007–2014 During her first performance since the Uh Huh Her tour at the Hay Festival of Literature & Arts on 26 May 2006, Harvey revealed that her next studio album would be almost entirely piano-based. Following the October release of The Peel Sessions 1991–2004, a compilation of songs recorded from 1991 to 2000 during her radio sessions with John Peel, she began recording her seventh studio album White Chalk in November, together with Flood, John Parish and Eric Drew Feldman and drummer Jim White in a studio in West London. White Chalk was released in September 2007 and marked a radical departure from her usual alternative rock style, consisting mainly of piano ballads. The album received favourable reviews, its style being described by one critic as containing "pseudo-Victorian elements—drama, restraint, and antiquated instruments and sounds." Harvey herself said of the album: "when I listen to the record I feel in a different universe, really, and I'm not sure whether it's in the past or in the future. The record confuses me, that's what I like—it doesn't feel of this time right now, but I'm not sure whether it's 100 years ago or 100 years in the future", summing up the album's sound as "really weird." During the tour for the album Harvey performed without a backing band, and also began performing on an autoharp, which continues to be her primary instrument after guitar and has influenced her material since White Chalk. March 2009 saw the release of her second collaboration with John Parish A Woman A Man Walked By. Written in the vein of punk blues, folk and experimental rock, it was preceded by the lead single Black Hearted Love. As with their first effort, Parish wrote all of the music and played most of the instruments, leaving Harvey to the lyrics and singing. In April 2010, Harvey appeared on The Andrew Marr Show to perform a new song titled "Let England Shake." In a pre-performance interview with Marr, she stated that the new material she had written had been "formed out of the landscape that I've grown up in and the history of this nation" and as "a human being affected by politics." Her eighth studio album Let England Shake was released in February 2011, and received universal critical acclaim. NME's 10/10 review summarised the album as "a record that ventures deep into the heart of darkness of war itself and its resonance throughout England's past, present and future" and other reviews also noted its themes and writing style as "bloody and forceful," mixing "ethereal form with brutal content," and "her most powerful." Dealing with the ongoing conflict in Afghanistan and other episodes from English history, the album featured John Parish, Mick Harvey and Jean-Marc Butty as Harvey's backing band and the quartet toured extensively in its promotion. Following the release of the album's two well-received singles—"The Words That Maketh Murder" and "The Glorious Land"—and the collection of short films by Seamus Murphy to accompany the album, Harvey won her second Mercury Music Prize on 6 September. The award marked her as the first artist to receive the award twice, entering her into The Guinness Book of Records as the only artist to have achieved this., and sales of Let England Shake increased 1,190% overnight following her win. On 23 September, Let England Shake was certified Gold in the United Kingdom and was listed as album of the year by MOJO and Uncut. On 3 August 2013, Harvey released a song Shaker Aamer in support of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp detainee by the same name who was the last British citizen to be held there. The song describes in detail what Aamer endured during his four-month hunger strike. ### The Hope Six Demolition Project, and I Inside the Old Year Dying: 2015–present On 16 January 2015, PJ Harvey began recording her ninth studio album, The Hope Six Demolition Project, in front of a live audience. A custom built recording studio was made in London's Somerset House. Uncut magazine noted that much like her previous album Let England Shake, many of the lyrics were politically charged, but this time it was more globally focused. While recording she was shown to be using saxophones, an autoharp and a bouzouki. Flood was confirmed to be the producer of the album. On 18 December 2015, Harvey released a 20-second teaser for the album, which contained a release date of spring 2016. On 21 January 2016, the debut single, "The Wheel", was played on Steve Lamacq's show on BBC Radio 6 Music. The album was released on 15 April. A new video, "The Orange Monkey", was shared on 2 June 2016. Directed by Irish filmmaker Seamus Murphy, it was made from footage of Murphy's and Harvey's trips to Afghanistan. Together they have also traveled to Washington, D.C., and Kosovo and their collaboration yielded the 2015 book The Hollow of the Hand, which collected her poems and his photographs. Their impressions from the journey and the creative process behind the recording of the new album were chronicled in the documentary called A Dog Called Money, which was premiered at the 69th Berlin International Film Festival. The album reached \#1 on the UK Albums Chart and was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best Alternative Music Album category. Harvey spent much of 2016 and 2017 touring the world with her nine-piece band, playing mainly on saxophone and taking her critically lauded live show around North America, South America, Europe and Australasia. Harvey remained active since then, frequently releasing folk songs for soundtracks to popular TV Series and films. In 2019, she released the instrumental soundtrack album to the Ivo van Hove stage adaptation of All About Eve with the vocals of Gillian Anderson and Lily James. In October 2022, she released another full soundtrack album to the Irish black comedy Apple TV+ TV Series Bad Sisters together with Tim Phillips. From 2020 up to 2022, UMC/Island Records and Beggars Group launched the reissue campaign of her studio work, accompanied by separate demo records to each album. In the culmination of the reissue project, the compilation of 59 songs, previously unavailable physically or digitally, titled B-Sides, Demos and Rarities was released on 4 November 2022. In June 2022, Harvey stated that her next studio album is scheduled to be released in summer 2023. In January 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Harvey at number 145 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. In April 2023, it was announced on Harvey's official website that her tenth studio album I Inside the Old Year Dying would be released on 7 July 2023 on Partisan Records. The first single A Child's Question, August premiered on 26 April 2023. Subsequent UK and European tour in support of the new album with 26 dates has been scheduled for September-October 2023. ## Collaborations and projects Besides her own work, Harvey has also collaborated with a number of other artists. In 1995, she recorded a duet of American folk song "Henry Lee" with partner Nick Cave and also featured on the Bob Dylan cover "Death is Not the End," both released on Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds' Murder Ballads (1996). In the same year she sang the theme song "Who Will Love Me Now?" on Philip Ridley's film The Passion of Darkly Noon. After her 1995 tour, she met Pascal Comelade and decided to collaborate with him, singing on several tracks including "Love too Soon" on his album L'Argot du Bruit. In May 1998, before the release of Is This Desire?, she featured on Tricky's Angels with Dirty Faces, performing lead vocals on "Broken Homes", and also contributed to Sparklehorse's 2001 album It's a Wonderful Life performing guitar, piano and background vocals on two songs, "Eyepennies" and "Piano Fire." Following the tour in promotion of Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea, she contributed vocals to eight tracks on Volume 9: I See You Hearin' Me and Volume 10: I Heart Disco by Josh Homme's side project The Desert Sessions, also appearing in the music video for "Crawl Home." Throughout 2004, Harvey produced Tiffany Anders' album Funny Cry Happy Gift, and also produced, performed on and wrote five songs for Marianne Faithfull's album Before the Poison, and contributed background vocals on "Hit the City," "Methamphetamine Blues" and "Come to Me" on Mark Lanegan's album Bubblegum. Harvey contributed the song "Slow-Motion Movie-Star", an outtake from Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea, to Mick Harvey's fourth studio album, Two of Diamonds, released in 2007. Harvey has also recorded two studio albums with long-time collaborator John Parish. Dance Hall at Louse Point (1996) was written collectively with Parish with the exception of the song "Is That All There Is?", written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller. The album also listed her as Polly Jean Harvey, which may have impacted album sales. Harvey has also reflected on how the album was "an enormous turning point" and "lyrically, it moved me into areas I'd never been to before." In 1998, she also performed lead vocals on "Airplane Blues," as a soundtrack accompaniment to the Wingwalkers art exhibition by Rebecca Goddard and Parish's wife, Michelle Henning, which was released as the closing song on Parish's second solo album How Animals Move in 2002. Following the release of White Chalk, Harvey reunited with Parish to record A Woman a Man Walked By, released in March 2009. Like Dance Hall at Louse Point, the album received positive reviews and was a moderate commercial success, peaking at number 25 in the UK Albums Chart. She collaborated with Egyptian artist Ramy Essam on "The Camp", a charity single released in June 2017 to benefit displaced children in the Lebanese Bekaa Valley fleeing the Syrian Civil War. Aside from collaborations, Harvey has also embarked on a number of projects as a composer. In January 2009, a new stage production of Henrik Ibsen's Hedda Gabler opened on Broadway. Directed by Ian Rickson and starring Mary-Louise Parker in the title role, the play featured an original score of incidental music written by Harvey. In November 2011, Harvey also composed part of the score for Young Vic's long-running production of Hamlet in London. She subsequently worked with Rickson a number of times, contributing music for his stage production of Electra, The Nest, and The Goat. In 2019, Harvey scored Ivo van Hove's West End production of All About Eve. She documented her artistic process for writing scores in an episode of the BBC Radio 4 programme 'Behind the Scenes' hosted by journalist John Wilson. In May 2012, Harvey composed two songs, "Horse" and "Bobby Don't Steal", for Mark Cousins' film What is This Film Called Love?, which also features "To Bring You My Love". In 2014, a number of Harvey's songs were featured in the second season of Peaky Blinders. In March 2018, Harvey and Parish released a song called "Sorry For Your Loss" as tribute to singer-songwriter Mark Linkous, who took his own life in 2010. In 2019, Harvey composed the score for Shane Meadows' miniseries, The Virtues, broadcast on Channel 4. In 2022, Harvey composed the score for Sharon Horgan, Dave Finkel, and Brett Baer's Apple TV+ series Bad Sisters. ## Musical style and influences Harvey possesses an expansive contralto vocal range. Harvey aims to not repeat herself in her music, which results in every album sounding different to her previous works. In an October 2004 interview with Rolling Stone, she said: "when I'm working on a new record, the most important thing is to not repeat myself ... that's always my aim: to try and cover new ground and really to challenge myself. Because I'm in this for learning." While her musical style has been described as alternative rock, punk blues, art rock, and avant-rock, she has experimented with various other genres including electronica, indie rock and folk music. She changes her physical appearance for each album by altering her mode of dress or hairstyle, creating a unique aesthetic that extends to all aspects of the album, from the album art to the live performances. She works closely with friend and photographer Maria Mochnacz to develop the visual style of each album. Around the time of To Bring You My Love, for example, Harvey began experimenting with her image and adopting a theatrical aspect to her live performances. Her former fashion style, which consisted of simple black leggings, turtleneck sweaters and Doc Martens boots, was replaced by ballgowns, catsuits, wigs and excessive make-up. She also began using stage props like a Ziggy Stardust-style flashlight microphone. She denied the influence of drag, Kabuki or performance art on her new image, a look she affectionately dubbed "Joan Crawford on acid" in an interview with Spin in 1996, but admitted that "it's that combination of being quite elegant and funny and revolting, all at the same time, that appeals to me. I actually find wearing make-up like that, sort of smeared around, as extremely beautiful. Maybe that's just my twisted sense of beauty." However, she later told Dazed & Confused magazine, "that was kind of a mask. It was much more of a mask than I've ever had. I was very lost as a person, at that point. I had no sense of self left at all", and has never repeated the overt theatricality of the To Bring You My Love tour. At an early age, she was introduced by her parents to blues music, jazz and art rock, which would later influence her: "I was brought up listening to John Lee Hooker, to Howlin' Wolf, to Robert Johnson, and a lot of Jimi Hendrix and Captain Beefheart. So I was exposed to all these very compassionate musicians at a very young age, and that's always remained in me and seems to surface more as I get older. I think the way we are as we get older is a result of what we knew when we were children." Other influential artists were "Nina Simone, the Rolling Stones, people like that I grew up listening to but find I returned to". During her teenage years, she began listening to new wave and synthpop bands such as Soft Cell, Duran Duran and Spandau Ballet, although later stated that it was a phase when she was "having a bit of a rebellion against my parents' record collection." In her later teenage years, she became a fan of Pixies, and she then listened to Slint. She has named Bob Dylan, and Neil Young, when talking about her influences. Many critics have compared Harvey to Patti Smith, which Harvey dismisses as "lazy journalism". However, recently Harvey has said that Smith is "so energising to see and so passionate with what she's doing". Harvey has also cited Siouxsie Sioux in terms of live performance, stating : "She is so exciting to watch, so full of energy and human raw quality". She has also drawn inspiration from Russian folk music, Italian soundtrack composer Ennio Morricone, classical composers like Arvo Pärt, Erik Satie, Samuel Barber, and Henryk Górecki. As a lyricist, Harvey has cited numerous poets, authors and lyricists as influences on her work including Harold Pinter, T. S. Eliot, William Butler Yeats, James Joyce, Ted Hughes and contemporaries such as Shane MacGowan and Jez Butterworth. Elvis Presley was also mentioned in her 2022 book Orlam and the 2023 single A Child's Question, August. ## Other ventures Outside her better-known music career, Harvey is also an occasional artist and actress. In 1998, she appeared in Hal Hartley's film The Book of Life as Magdalena—a modern-day character based on the Biblical Mary Magdalene—and had a cameo role as a Playboy Bunny in A Bunny Girl's Tale, a short film directed by Sarah Miles, in which she also performs "Nina in Ecstasy", an outtake from Is This Desire? (1998). Harvey also collaborated with Miles on another film, Amaeru Fallout 1972, which includes Harvey performing a cover of "When Will I See You Again". Harvey is also an accomplished sculptor who has had several pieces exhibited at the Lamont Gallery and the Bridport Arts Centre. In 2010, she was invited to be the guest designer for the summer issue of Francis Ford Coppola's literary magazine Zoetrope: All-Story. The issue featured Harvey's paintings and drawings alongside short stories by Woody Allen. Her most recent artwork features in her second book of poetry Orlam. In December 2013, Harvey gave her debut public poetry reading at the British Library. On 2 January 2014, she guest-edited BBC Radio 4's Today programme. In October 2015, Harvey published her first collection of poetry, a collaboration with photographer Seamus Murphy, entitled The Hollow of The Hand. To create the book, Harvey and Murphy made several journeys to Kosovo, Afghanistan and Washington, D.C. Their experiences were documented in Murphy's film A Dog Called Money, which was released in UK cinemas and online on 8 November 2019. The pair had previously worked together to create 12 short films for Let England Shake. In April 2022, she published a book-length narrative poem titled Orlam. ## Personal life Harvey rejects the notion that her song lyrics are autobiographical, telling The Times in 1998: "the tortured artist myth is rampant. People paint me as some kind of black witchcraft-practising devil from hell, that I have to be twisted and dark to do what I am doing. It's a load of rubbish". What is more, she later told Spin: "some critics have taken my writing so literally to the point that they'll listen to 'Down by the Water' and believe I have actually given birth to a child and drowned her." In the early 1990s, Harvey was romantically involved with drummer and photographer Joe Dilworth. From 1996 to 1997, following their musical collaborations, Harvey had a relationship with Nick Cave, and their subsequent break-up influenced Cave's follow-up studio album The Boatman's Call (1997), with songs such as "Into My Arms", "West Country Girl" and "Black Hair" being written specifically about her. Harvey has one older brother, Saul, and four nephews through him. She expressed a fondness for children in 1995 and stated that she would love to have them, saying: "I wouldn't consider it unless I was married. I would have to meet someone that I wanted to spend the rest of my life with. That's the only person who I would want to be the father of my children. Maybe that will never happen. I obviously see it in a very rational way but I'd love to have children." Harvey was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to music. ## Discography - Dry (1992) - Rid of Me (1993) - To Bring You My Love (1995) - Is This Desire? (1998) - Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea (2000) - Uh Huh Her (2004) - White Chalk (2007) - Let England Shake (2011) - The Hope Six Demolition Project (2016) - I Inside the Old Year Dying (2023) ## Personnel ### Current members - Polly Harvey – vocals, saxophone, guitar, autoharp, piano, organ, keyboards, violin, cello, vibraphone, marimba, bells and chimes, percussion, djembe, bass, melodica, zither, harmonica, harp, cigfiddle (since 1991) - John Parish – backing vocals, guitar, drums, keyboards, bass, banjo, organ, ukulele, trombone, rhodes, mellotron, xylophone, percussion (1994–1998, since 2006) - Jean-Marc Butty – backing vocals, drums, percussion (1994–1996, since 2006) - James Johnston – backing vocals, keyboards, violin, guitar, organ (1993 live performance guest, since 2014) - Giovanni Ferrario – backing vocals, guitar, bass, keyboards (2006–2009, since 2023) ### Former collaborators - Eric Drew Feldman – piano, keyboards, bass, optigan, mellotron, minimoog, backing vocals (1994–2009) - Mick Harvey – backing vocals, bass, keyboards, organ, guitar, drums, harmonium, accordion, bass harmonica, piano, rhodes, xylophone, percussion (1994–2001, 2009–2017) - Rob Ellis – drums and percussion, vocals, harmonium, piano, electric piano, tambourine, synthesizer, keyboards, bells, harpsichord, vibraphone (1991–1993, 1998–2004) - Steve Vaughan – bass (1991–1993) - Nick Bagnall – bass, keyboards (1994–1996) - Joe Gore – guitar, e-bow (1994–1996) - Jeremy Hogg – guitar (1996–1998) - Margaret Fiedler – guitar, cello (2000–2001) - Tim Farthing – guitar (2000–2001) - Simon "Dingo" Archer – bass (2004) - Josh Klinghoffer – guitar, drums, percussion (2004) - Jim White – drums (2006–2007) - Carla Azar – drums (2006–2008, studio guest) - Alain Johannes – backing vocals, guitars, keyboards, percussion, saxophone (2015–2017) - Enrico Gabrielli – backing vocals, percussion, bass clarinet, swanee whistle, basset clarinet (2015–2017) - Alessandro Stefana – backing vocals, guitars (2015–2017) - Terry Edwards – backing vocals, saxophones, percussion, keyboards, guitar, flute, bass harmonica, melodica, trumpet (1993 live performance guest, 1997 studio guest, 2015–2017) - Kenrick Rowe – backing vocals, percussion (2015–2017) ## Awards and nominations - List of awards and nominations received by PJ Harvey

WZDX

Fox/MyNetworkTV affiliate in Huntsville, Alabama

WZDX (channel 54) is a television station in Huntsville, Alabama, United States, affiliated with Fox and MyNetworkTV. Owned by Tegna Inc., the station maintains studios on North Memorial Parkway (US 72/231/431) in Huntsville, and its transmitter is located on Monte Sano Mountain. WZDX began broadcasting in April 1985 as the first independent station for the Huntsville area; it became a Fox affiliate in November 1987. Its original owner, Media Central, filed for bankruptcy that year and eventually sold the station in 1990 to a consortium of Citicorp and Milton Grant, marking the latter's return to TV station ownership after a prior bankruptcy. The station started a cable channel that served as the local affiliate of The WB—predecessor to its MyNetworkTV subchannel—in 2001. A local newscast, produced at first out-of-state and then by local ABC affiliate WAAY-TV, began to air in 2008. The Grant stations were acquired by Nexstar Broadcasting Group in 2013; Nexstar brought local news production in-house by establishing its own newsroom in 2016, and it formed a duopoly in the market by acquiring The CW affiliate WHDF two years later. When Nexstar acquired Tribune Media, owner of Huntsville CBS affiliate WHNT-TV, in 2019, it retained that station and WHDF and spun out WZDX along with other stations to Tegna. ## History ### Establishment and construction In 1975, Thomas Barr and James Cleary under the name Pioneer Communications petitioned the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to add another television channel to the Huntsville area for the purpose of building an independent station. At the time, only four channels were assigned to Huntsville: 19, 25, 31, and 48. The FCC proposed adding channel 54, but two Huntsville stations, WAAY-TV and WYUR-TV, opposed the proposal. In 1977, the FCC suggested inserting channel 54 at Decatur, Alabama, which already had channel 23. However, unlike channel 54, channel 23 could not be used at Monte Sano—the main television transmission site in the region, resulting in low interest. Channel 54 was ultimately added to Huntsville, but there were no applications on file until C. Michael Norton, an attorney from Nashville, Tennessee, applied for it in September 1981 after seeing it on a list of unused TV allocations. Norton was soon joined by other applicants, with the FCC selecting Community Service Broadcasting, a company owned by John Pauza of Chattanooga, Tennessee, and Joel Katz of Atlanta. Pauza owned Media Central, which specialized in the construction of new independent stations in medium markets. For two years, Media Central missed a series of deadlines. In February 1983, after being selected for the construction permit, Media Central announced it intended to begin broadcasting that fall. By that fall, the target date had shifted to spring 1984. Issues with locating the station's tower impeded a launch at that time, but in late 1984, channel 54 began to take shape. A tower site was purchased in August, the call letters WZDX were assigned in September, and construction began in November. Even then, the station did not start broadcasting in 1984; the antenna was not hoisted onto the station's new tower on Green Mountain until March 1985. From studios on Mastin Lake Road in northeast Huntsville, WZDX first signed on April 14, 1985, as Northern Alabama's first independent station and the area's first new outlet to launch in 22 years. Programming consisted of syndicated reruns, movies, and short local newsbreaks. The station cost the owners between \$5 and 6 million to put on the air. When the Fox network began late-night service on October 9, 1986, WZDX initially abstained from affiliating with the network unlike many other strong independent TV stations across the country that had signed on with them, despite the network wanting the station "badly". Program director David Godbout felt that his weekend shows were already attracting ratings and that he would have to charge too much for advertising within Fox programming for it to work economically. This was a posture shared by the entire Media Central chain at the network's launch. However, after Godbout left in late 1987, WZDX joined Fox in December of that year, becoming the fifth Media Central outlet to join the network in 1987. The late 1980s were times of uncertainty for Media Central. The company filed for bankruptcy protection in July 1987, and Act III Broadcasting submitted a bid to buy WZDX and WDBD in Jackson, Mississippi, the next year; both were among Media Central's most desirable properties. Act III's bid was rejected, as were proposals from Media Central itself and Maryland investment firm Donatelli & Klein, which did come away with WDBD and WDSI-TV in Chattanooga. ### Grant Broadcasting ownership The bankruptcy court approved the acquisition of the station by a consortium of Citicorp and Milton Grant in August 1989; the \$6.1 million transaction was approved in January 1990. While WZDX represented Citicorp's first venture into broadcasting, WZDX became the first outlet in Grant's return to station ownership. Grant Communications was the successor to the original Grant Broadcasting System, a three-station chain of independent outlets that filed for bankruptcy protection in 1986 and was ultimately sold to its bondholders. Grant obtained rights to The WB programming in the Huntsville market in 1999, airing the programming in late night hours on WZDX; the move was a consequence of Superstation WGN ceasing carriage of WB programs. The company then announced it would launch full-time WB channels in Huntsville and two other markets where it owned stations—the Quad Cities of Iowa and Illinois and Roanoke, Virginia—in December 2000. "WAWB", known as "The Valley's WB", launched as a cable channel in October 2001. When The WB and UPN merged into The CW in 2006, the merged network selected UPN affiliate WHDF (channel 15), and "WAWB" became "WAMY", broadcasting MyNetworkTV. WZDX began broadcasting a digital signal on June 1, 2002. In 2004, the station moved its broadcasting equipment from Green Mountain to Monte Sano on the replacement tower for WAAY-TV, whose mast collapsed during repair work in September 2003, killing three. ### Nexstar ownership On November 6, 2013, Nexstar Broadcasting Group announced that it would purchase the Grant stations, including WZDX, for \$87.5 million. The sale was completed on December 1, 2014. Four years later, in July 2018, Nexstar agreed to acquire WHDF from Lockwood Broadcast Group for \$2.25 million; Nexstar concurrently took over WHDF's operations through a time brokerage agreement. The sale was completed on November 9, creating a duopoly with WZDX. On December 3, 2018, less than a month after closing on its purchase of WHDF, Nexstar announced it would acquire the assets of Tribune Media—owner of CBS affiliate WHNT-TV since December 2013—for \$6.4 billion in cash and debt. WHNT-TV and WZDX, as two of the four highest-rated stations in the market, could not be owned together, though Nexstar could own either station plus WHDF. Nexstar decided to retain the higher-rated WHNT-TV along with WHDF and sell WZDX to Tegna Inc. after finalizing the Tribune sale; WZDX was one of 19 stations disposed by Nexstar to Tegna and the E. W. Scripps Company in separate deals worth \$1.32 billion. The sale of Tribune to Nexstar was approved by the FCC on September 16. ## News operation In January 2008, WZDX launched a 30-minute prime time newscast known as Fox 54 Nine O'Clock News. It was produced by Independent News Network (INN) in Davenport, Iowa; two local reporters contributed local news stories to the news program, which was presented from Davenport. It was the second prime time newscast in the market, as WAAY had previously produced one for air on WHDF from 2000 to 2001. The INN program continued to air for two and a half years and was replaced in September 2010 with a 9 p.m. newscast produced by WAAY; WAAY news personnel were joined by Ellis Eskew, a WZDX reporter. Nexstar announced in December 2015 that WZDX would launch a standalone news operation on April 4, 2016. Concurrently, the station's newscast was extended to an hour. ## Technical information ### Subchannels The station's signal is multiplexed: ### Analog-to-digital conversion WZDX shut down its analog signal, over UHF channel 54, on June 12, 2009, as part of the federally mandated transition from analog to digital television; the station continued to broadcast on channel 41, using virtual channel 54. It was then repacked to channel 18 in 2020.

Pennsylvania Route 370

State highway in Pennsylvania, US

Pennsylvania Route 370 (PA 370, designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation as SR 370) is a 16.73-mile-long (26.92 km) state highway located in Susquehanna and Wayne counties in Pennsylvania. The western terminus is at PA 171 in East Ararat. The eastern terminus is at PA 191 in Buckingham Township near Hancock, New York. PA 370 was first designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Highways in 1928 from the intersection with then PA 70 in East Ararat to an intersection with PA 570 in the hamlet of Preston Park (in Preston Township). The route was extended to an intersection with PA 90 (now PA 191) in 1946, when the 23-mile-long (37 km) PA 570 was decommissioned. ## Route description PA 370 begins at an intersection with PA 171 in the hamlet of East Ararat in Ararat Township. PA 370 heads to the northeast through tree patches and fields before entering a dense patch of woods. Upon leaving the woods, PA 370 crosses the county line from Susquehanna County to Wayne County and enters Preston Township. At the intersection with Mud Pond Road, the highway bends eastward but returns to its northeastern progression at an intersection with Blewett Road. PA 370 turns to the east once again and enters the community of Orson. In Orson, PA 370 passes local farms and some houses. Shortly after it intersects with the northern terminus of PA 670 (Belmont Turnpike North), which continues north as Oxbow Road. PA 370 continues eastward out of Orson, passing Orson Pond and several residences in a mainly rural area before entering the hamlet of Poyntelle. In Poyntelle, the highway passes to the north of Lake Lorain and Lake Lorain Golf Course. At the intersection with Lake Lorain Road, PA 370 turns to the northeast once again, paralleling Cribbs Road into downtown Poyntelle. The two roads cross a former alignment of the Ontario and Western Railroad before merging just north of Poyntelle. After Cribbs Road, PA 370 turns northward, entering Lakewood in dense woods. The route passes Little Hickory Lake and soon Hickory Lake. After entering the Tamarack Swamp and passing a local pond, PA 370 makes a gradual curve to the east at an intersection with Dixie Highway. The route remains rural, paralleling the Ontario and Western Railroad alignment into the hamlet of Tallmanville. In Tallmanville, the route is primarily residential, passing the local school. At the intersection with Como Road, PA 370 turns to the northeast, paralleling the railroad alignment into the hamlet of Preston Park. Through Preston Park, PA 370 intersects with an old alignment of itself twice before coming to the main intersection in town, the northern terminus of PA 247 (Creamton Drive) and its continuation Rabbit Run Road. The road turns northeastward and passes several residences before intersecting with Shehawken Road, where the road becomes mainly wooded once again. The route parallels an alignment of former PA 570 and the former Ontario and Western Railroad into Buckingham Township, where the route enters the hamlet of Starlight. In Starlight, PA 370 passes the former Ontario and Western station and turns eastward once the old alignment of PA 570 merges in. After passing a pond, the highway leaves Starlight and continues northeastward in dense forestry. A short while later, the route turns northward and weaves to an intersection with PA 191 (the Hancock Highway) in Buckingham Township. This serves as the northern terminus of PA 370. ## History PA 370 was first signed along Crosstown Highway in 1928 from its current western terminus of PA 171 (then designated PA 70) in Ararat Township to an intersection with PA 570, another spur of PA 70 in the hamlet of Preston Park. The entire stretch was paved by the Pennsylvania Department of Highways in 1932. At that point, PA 570 used the current alignment from the intersection with Shehawken Road to the intersection with PA 90 (now PA 191). PA 570, along with PA 470 and PA 270 were decommissioned in 1946 by the Department of Highways, and PA 370 was extended along the alignment from Shehawken Road to PA 90. In 1961, the routes at PA 370's termini changed from PA 70 to PA 171 and from PA 90 to PA 191. ## Major intersections ## See also - Pennsylvania Route 170 - the other remaining spur of PA 70.

Cristina Yang

Fictional character in Grey's Anatomy

Cristina Yang, M.D., Ph.D., F.A.C.S. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey's Anatomy, which has aired for 19 seasons on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, and is portrayed by actress Sandra Oh. Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, Yang worked her way up to resident level, eventually becoming a cardiothoracic surgical fellow, while her relationships with colleagues Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) and George O'Malley (T. R. Knight) formed a focal point of the series. Earlier in the series, Yang got engaged to Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington), in the past had a relationship with renowned surgeon and mentor Colin Marlow (Roger Rees), and married but later divorced Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd). Oh originally auditioned for the role of Miranda Bailey, although Chandra Wilson was ultimately cast in the part. Oh has received highly positive reviews for her portrayal, with Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considering her friendship with Meredith to be "the secret-core of Grey's". Oh has also garnered numerous awards and nominations for her role as Yang, including Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award wins in 2006. She was additionally nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series each year, from 2005 to 2009. Characterizing the character, ABC noted her competitiveness, ambition, and intelligence as her main traits, while her aggressive and tactless attitude was highlighted as her main weakness. In May 2012, E! Online reported that Oh had signed on for two more years, along with her fellow cast members. Oh left the show after season 10, and her character Cristina Yang was written out of the storyline as a main cast member. ## Storylines and character Cristina Yang is introduced as a graduate from Stanford University and a fellow surgical intern to Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) and George O'Malley (T.R. Knight); the five of them working under Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). An atheistic competitive intern of Korean-American ancestry, she first desired to become a doctor after a childhood car accident which killed her biological father. Yang also had dyslexia, and was raised in Beverly Hills, California by her mother and supportive Jewish stepfather. She has a B.S. in biochemistry from Smith College, an MD from Stanford University and a Ph.D. from University of California, Berkeley, making her a "double doctor". While her emotional pragmatism, competitive perfectionism, and logical nature lead many to view her as a cutthroat "robot", Cristina hits it off with Meredith on their first day and the pair soon become best-friends and each other's "person", sharing the same "dark and twisty" view of life and sense of humor. During her internship, Cristina has an on and off relationship with the chief of cardiothoracic surgery Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington) that leads to an accidental pregnancy. Yang schedules an abortion without telling him about the pregnancy due to Burke's behavior towards their lack of relationship status. However, Yang experiences an ectopic pregnancy and Burke discovers the pregnancy after Yang collapses from a burst fallopian tube while in the O.R. Burke and Yang resume their relationship in the aftermath of her miscarriage. Burke gets shot after a "shooting" at the hospital and needs surgery. After Burke is shot in the arm and develops a hand tremor, Yang helps him cover it up by forming a covert partnership wherein she performs most of his surgeries. Yang initially denies involvement during a confrontation, but then confesses everything to Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.), the chief of surgery. Yang's actions jeopardize Burke's chances of becoming chief, which he views as a huge betrayal. After a short breakup, Yang breaks the silence and Burke proposes marriage, which Yang accepts after eight days of hesitation. When the wedding day comes, Yang has a moment of panic before she is about to walk down the aisle but Burke leaves her because he was not sure if she was ready to commit. Burke then disappears and is not seen again until later in the series. Yang then proceeds to go on her honeymoon to Hawaii with Meredith to recover, returning to discover that Burke has disappeared from her life and transferred to a different hospital. Burke is replaced by Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), who immediately dislikes Yang for her trend of having affairs with famous surgeons, such as Burke, going so far as refusing to let her scrub in on cardiac surgeries. Eventually, Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) moves in with Yang, and she still tries to earn Hahn's approval. Hahn reveals that she dislikes Yang because she reminds her of an early version of herself and continues to cut Yang out of cardiac surgeries and neglects to teach her, before eventually quitting the hospital and leaving Seattle Grace without a head of cardio (due to a disagreement with Torres). Without a teacher, Yang begins to seriously doubt the purpose of remaining in her place at Seattle Grace when the program falls to twelfth on a list of the best teaching hospitals and Burke wins the Harper Avery award without mentioning her at all, despite her saving his career. Yang tells the Chief that her current existence in the hospital is "unbearable" and that she has turned into a ghost. Yang meets Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), an army trauma surgeon when he patches her up from being stabbed in the stomach by a falling icicle outside the hospital. The pair are immediately attracted to each other and share a brief kiss. Owen Hunt is later honorably discharged, he is hired as Seattle Grace's chief of trauma surgery and he and Yang begin a flirtation. Yang grows emotionally when she decides to support Meredith in her relationship with Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), despite her logical misgivings about their staying power, and begins to be more emotionally open towards Hunt. However, Hunt has repressed memories of his time in Iraq and PTSD which causes Hunt to behave erratically, and even attack and strangle her while asleep. Yang attempts to be emotionally supportive but ends their relationship as she is afraid of sleeping next to him. Cristina loses her shot at being the first resident to perform a solo surgery despite being unanimously chosen by the attending surgeons, having been disciplined from failing to report the irresponsible behavior of the new interns. Meredith and Cristina have a fight during the intern scandal, and Cristina chooses Alex to be her replacement. They eventually reconcile. When Izzie discovers her life-threatening cancer, Yang is the one she confides in over her other friends due to Yang's ability to remain emotionally distant. Yang saves Izzie's life by coming up with a treatment plan and forcing Izzie to tell their friends of her diagnosis. Hunt begins seeing a therapist, and Yang confesses her love for him. The pair begin a tentative relationship, hampered by Hunt's therapeutic progress and his hot and cold professional behavior, wherein he frequently ignores or penalizes Yang to avoid the appearance of favoritism. Hunt hires ex-colleague from the Army, Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), to become the chief of cardiothoracic surgery as a "gift" for Yang, after she breaks down over having no new head of cardio. Yang is unimpressed with Altman, neither published nor famous, but her calm proficiency and belief in Yang's skills win her over. A conflict arises in the trio due to Altman and Hunt's repressed feelings for each other. Altman chooses to resign her place as temporary head of cardio because of her feelings for Hunt. Devastated by the blow to her education and the depressing potential of returning to her previous directionless state, Yang begs Altman to stay and teach her, offering Hunt to Altman in exchange. Altman intellectually understands Yang choosing her gift over a man and their relationship is repaired, but Hunt is deeply hurt that Yang traded him away. Hunt subconsciously tries to sabotage Yang's education and the two break up again after Hunt is unable to decide between the two women. After Derek was shot by Gary Clark, a grieving widower who commits mass murder at the hospital, Cristina operates on Derek at gunpoint, thus saving his life. The shooter injures Hunt as well when he chooses to return for Yang over Altman and Grey treats him as Yang saves Grey's husband. Following the attack on the hospital, Yang and Hunt impulsively decide to get married. Yang had severe PTSD and is unable to bear being alone making marriage to Hunt, who understands what she's going through, attractive. Yang spends the early days of her marriage in shock and hiding at Meredith's. Due to having severe PTSD and being unable to do her job correctly anymore, Cristina quits and begins bartending and eventually throws a housewarming party. Derek helps Cristina emotionally and she ultimately decides to go to work after helping the victim of a school shooting. Yang discovers she is pregnant with Hunt's child and decides to get an abortion. Though Hunt accompanies her to the abortion, he is extremely angry with her decision. Yang then operates on Henry Burton (Scott Foley), Altman's husband, not knowing his identity. When the surgery fails and he dies, Yang is guilt-stricken upon learning of her patient's identity. Altman forgives Yang and forces Yang to realize that she did everything possible. Altman's mentorship of Yang is punishing at times and Altman brutally emphasizes that Yang must learn patience, compassion, and the basics over the flashy surgeries Yang prefers. Altman's tutelage is successful and Yang evolves into an aware and well-rounded surgeon because of it. Altman allows Yang to come up with a wish list of dream surgeries to fulfill before Altman resigns and moves on. Yang and Hunt distance themselves from each other as they keep fighting over the abortion, despite attending marriage counseling. Hunt has a one-night stand with a patient's friend, leaving Yang heartbroken. She decides to move on, unsure of her future with him. As the end of the fifth year of residency is near, the surgical residents, including Yang, prepare for their medical boards and for the different fellowships they plan on joining. After she passes her exams, Yang reconciles with Hunt and tells him she is leaving Seattle for the Mayo Clinic, Minnesota. Afterward, Yang, Meredith, Shepherd, Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), and Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) are involved in an aviation accident while on the way to Boise, Idaho to perform surgery on conjoined twins. Lexie dies, and Mark later succumbs to his injuries after they are rescued and dies. Following their rescue, Yang, traumatized, has brief reactive psychosis which provokes violent outbursts and makes her unresponsive. Yang leaves Seattle to become a cardiothoracic surgical fellow and goes, as planned, to the Mayo Clinic, but has difficulties adapting to her new colleagues' way of working. While in Minnesota, Yang develops a friendship with a near-retirement cardio surgeon, Craig Thomas (William Daniels). She mainly teases him with comments regarding his old age. She also begins an affair with the head of surgery Dr. Parker (Steven Culp) who has issues with Thomas. After Thomas dies from a heart attack, Yang returns to Seattle. Cristina is re-hired and Owen asks for a divorce once Cristina wants to reconcile. Shocked, Cristina agrees, but later finds out that the potential conflict of interest regarding the plane crash lawsuit was a key motive behind Owen's request and confronts him. Owen tells her that he 'feels responsible' and was worried as he thought she was dead. They have a sexual relationship after divorcing. The hospital is sued and found guilty of negligence. The surviving doctors, including Yang, must receive \$15 million of compensation each, which leads the hospital to a near-bankruptcy as the insurers refuse to pay. Yang, Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez), and the other surviving doctors buy the hospital with the help of the Harper-Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing, and each become members of the new directing board. After buying the hospital, Yang realizes that she was made for the O.R. and breaks things off with Owen because he still wants kids and she still does not. After breaking up with Owen, Cristina continues to excel at surgery and becomes de facto chief of cardio. Although supportive of Meredith's choice to become a mother, Cristina points out the fact that it has hurt Meredith's career and clinical judgment. This causes a wedge in their friendship. Grey attempts to catch up professionally with a research trial, but the divide widens when Cristina's trial overshadows Grey's and steals Grey's resources. When Dr. Shane Ross, a second-year resident, stands up to Meredith for her, Cristina kisses him, and later begins sleeping with him, as well as becoming his mentor and passing on the skills learned from Altman. Cristina's project is immensely successful, and she is informed that she could be considered for the Harper Avery award from her 3-D printing of a heart conduit. Grey and Yang reconcile when Grey acknowledges that Yang is correct, she has surpassed Grey, and that Grey is jealous of Yang's professional freedom and success, while her own is hampered by her family. Cristina is nominated for the Harper Avery award and is a strong candidate, however she is passed over due to her relationship with the Harper-Avery Foundation, that co-owns Grey-Sloan Memorial Hospital. Cristina goes to speak at a hospital in Zurich, Switzerland, orchestrated by Preston Burke who built his own hospital following his winning of the Harper Avery. He offers Cristina his job as the head of the hospital so that he can spend more time with his wife and kids. Cristina accepts the offer and interviews candidates for her replacement position at the hospital, including Maggie Pierce for the new chief of cardio. Cristina transfers her hospital shares to Alex Karev and recommends he take over her seat on the board. At the end of season 10, she says goodbye to her co-workers she has come to know and love including Owen, Derek and Meredith. Cristina and Meredith share special moments reminiscing about all the horrors they went through and dancing it out one last time. Cristina leaves for Zurich with surgical intern Shane Ross, who chooses to leave in order to study under her in Switzerland where she now owns a research hospital. There, Cristina thrives as the new owner. After Cristina left, the others mention her from time to time, going as far as in having a phone call with her. Her voice isn't heard. She is last seen from behind at Derek's funeral, sitting with Meredith. In season 16, Meredith gets text messages from Cristina saying she has given her a "gift". Meredith spends the episode looking for the gift and at the conclusion of the episode we find that the gift from Yang was the new pediatric surgeon Cormac Hayes (Richard Flood), affectionately called McWidow. He becomes a love interest for Meredith. ## Development ### Casting & Creation On the creation of Yang, Shonda Rhimes said the character contained "a little bit of [her] personality". Speaking with talk show host Oprah Winfrey, Rhimes said: "Cristina was second, simply because she's the kind of woman I know really well, and I like her. There's something interesting about a person who is that driven, a little bit emotionally disconnected but still a caring, sweet, and smart individual you could be friends with." Sandra Oh, initially auditioned for the character of Bailey, adding: "Thank God I did not get that part", explaining the show would not be the same without fellow cast member, Wilson. Discussing casting Oh as Yang, Rhimes said: "She brought this energy that felt very fresh. From the beginning, I've been shaping Cristina around Sandra a little bit. One of my favorite things to do is take as much of her dialogue out of a scene as possible because she does so much nonverbally. Then I just watch what she manages to do without having a word to say." The character of Yang was not originally supposed to be of Asian descent. Oh said her character was "a pert little blonde and the thing is the woman who runs the show, Shonda Rhimes, is a black woman, which makes a big fucking difference." In 2009, when asked why Oh signed on for Grey's Anatomy, Oh said: "I'm very proud of this show and I think it came along at the right time for me. It's a changing time on television because 5 or 10 years ago you wouldn't have a major network show where half of the cast were not white." Oh's original contract with the show expired after season 8, however, E! Online reported in May 2012, that Oh, as well as all original cast members, had signed on for 2 more years. ### Characterization The American Broadcasting Company (ABC) characterized Yang as "competitive", "ambitious", and "intelligent", while also noting her weaknesses: "bossy", "aggressive", and "tactless". Oh said of her character: "I've always tried to play Cristina with a tremendous amount of focus and ambition—which is the reality for a female surgeon. I mean, in real life there aren't many of them. But the ones you encounter are at the very top of their game. You have to have a kind of ascetic personality to survive." James Pickens Jr. who portrays Dr. Webber said: "That character itself set a bar in terms of how we look at millennial women: independent yet vulnerable, seriously competitive yet caring." Rhimes referred to Yang's relationship with Burke by the portmanteau "Burktina", citing "Losing My Religion" as one of her favorite episodes featuring them because it shows their evolution from the beginning of the second season to its end. Rhimes commented, "[We see] her struggle to suppress all of her humanity in pursuit of perfection. And in my mind, what we realize is that she is not cold. She is terrified. Scared that if she lets her emotions out, they will overtake her and she will be hurt. And you can't hate her. Because it's so incredibly human and understandable." Yang's friendship with Meredith has been looked upon as "sisterhood", and Yang has repeatedly referred to the former as "her person". This led to the two being dubbed "the twisted sisters". At the conclusion of season three, the duo went on a "honeymoon" together, and Rhimes called it her favorite detail of the finale. New York magazine wrote of the character: "There's probably no woman on TV right now more single-mindedly dedicated to her career than Cristina. It has long been her defining characteristic. If it occasionally makes her into a caricature, it has also unquestionably established that she would have an abortion in this circumstance." Talking about Yang's abortion in the eighth season, Rhimes explained she intended Yang to have an abortion already in the second season but changed it with an ectopic pregnancy at the suggestion of one of her writers because "that was so much more interesting, story-wise". As for the abortion in the eighth season, Rhimes commented: "I really wanted Cristina Yang to stay true to who Cristina Yang is. And I feel like that is a character who has never really wanted to be a mother. The idea that this woman would have a child that she did not want and resented for ruining her career and resented Owen for making her have [it] would have been hideous. [The abortion] made sense for the character." Discussing his onscreen relationship with Yang, McKidd said: "It's not going to be easy for them. What I read when I read the season premiere, and this is just my take on it, is that it was very much two very analytical people, Owen and Cristina. They're very similar in a way, I think, as people. Two analytical people see each other over a crowded ER room and their eyes meet." On the topic of Yang's triumphs and challenges in the eighth season, Oh said: "It has been an extremely challenging year that has had a lot of ups and downs, both challenging and exhilarating. We would shoot all our scenes for a day or two straight, and that was extremely challenging because emotionally and physically it becomes really exhausting." Oh said of Yang's expressions of emotions during season eight: "You see her express her emotions with only two people: her best-friend Meredith and her husband Owen. To see someone being pulled apart so intensely, which honestly most everyone goes through in their life in some ways, if you're lucky you're completely pulled apart and then you have to pull yourself together, which hopefully will be the exploration within hopefully the next season." Although the characters' marriage is tested, McKidd reported to The Hollywood Reporter: "I think they're meant for each other. I hold out faith in Cristina and Owen, even though they go to the darkest places out of all the couples on the show. It's going to get worse but it's going to get better soon." ## Reception ### Reviews The character received positive reviews from critics at the time of its inception and as the series went on the reviews turned to high acclaim and Yang went on the become an iconic character not just for Grey's, but for television itself. Kelli Catana of The Huffington Post named Yang "the best damn character" of the series. Yang appeared in Comcast's list of TV's Most Intriguing Characters, with the website commenting that she is "an engaging yet comedic factor for the prime-time soap Grey's Anatomy." Philadelphia Magazine included Yang in its list of the "10 Best Doctors on Television". However, the same periodical listed her as one of "The 12 Most Annoying Women on TV". Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considers her friendship with Meredith to be "the secret core of Grey's and perhaps creator Shonda Rhimes' greatest contribution to primetime." The Huffington Post's writer Kelli Catana agreed, saying: "the Meredith Grey/Cristina Yang relationship is probably the most true friendship on network television." Their friendship was listed in AOL TV's "Top 20: TV's Best BFFs" and in Entertainment Weekly's "30 Best TV Bromances/Gal Pals". Yahoo! Voices also put Yang on their list of "The Most Loyal TV best-friends of All Time". Television Without Pity writer Lauren Shotwell claimed Yang is "the only one of these five [residents] that regularly acts like an actual doctor". Yang's relationship with Burke was highly acclaimed; it was considered "one of the most interesting relationships on the show". Similarly, The Orange County Register wrote that their romance became "one of the most touching and funny attractions of Grey's Anatomy." Christopher Monfette of IGN was critical of their wedding planning in the third season, saying: "The will-they's and won't-they's fly and fall like hobbled pigeons until the season finale when the show solves both its personal and professional problems in the most obvious and least compelling of ways." UGO.com placed their break-up on its list of The Most Horrible TV Breakups. In 2009, Monfette said of Yang's relationship with Owen: "[Hunt's] interactions with Cristina were perfectly balanced for optimum drama, never together and never apart for so long that the back-and-forth became frustrating. Viewers could clearly see a softening of the typically hard-edged Cristina, a pleasant change for what had become something of a one-note character." Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly also praised the pairing, especially in "Elevator Love Letter", saying: "As good as they've been at amping up the romance crackling between Cristina and Owen, Sandra Oh and Kevin McKidd brought the Emmy consideration tonight from scene 1." She also added: "I loved seeing Cristina at least try to stand by her man." Of Yang and Hunt's wedding, Armstrong said: "Glad we made a clean disposal of the Cristina-Owen-Teddy love-triangle, though, when he quipped to Teddy, "I heard there's a guy," and she said she was happy for him." She also praised Owen's proposal scene, giving it an "A". Later, she praised their marriage, saying: "I am absolutely loving the stronger-than-ever lady-bond between these two this season. Is it because they're both married now? Just growing up? Whatever, it's the opposite of Blair and Serena's annoyingly fickle frenemy status on Gossip Girl, and I can't get enough." ''New York Magazine praised the abortion storyline, saying that the show "was brave enough to do what almost no other series will: show this one particular, totally legal medical procedure on TV" and that the abortion was "the only plausible resolution" for Yang's pregnancy. Tanner Stransky, also of Entertainment Weekly, said of Yang's actions after Owen's affair: "It alternately seems silly and not silly, when you really think about it." Robert Bianco of USA Today praised Yang's storylines in the eighth season, saying: "Their stories are effectively tied into that of a patient whose ability to move forward is complicated by a complex response to a hideous past." HitFix writer Liane Bonin Starr applauded Yang's brief departure from Seattle Grace to Mayo Clinic in the ninth season, which was "interesting" as "it showed us a new side of her—and after so many seasons, that was some welcome insight." The relationship between Meredith and Cristina has been highly acclaimed and been a highlight of the show. Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered the friendship to be "the secret-core of Grey's". Aisha Harris of Slate called their relation The Best Female Friendship on TV adding that "With those two characters, showrunner Shonda Rhimes and her team of writers created one of the most nuanced and realistic portrayals of female friendship on television." Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly called Meredith and Cristina the best female friends on TV because "they don't try to be". There's nothing fake about them, which is a rarity in how female friends are portrayed on television. She further went on to call them 'soulmate', "And even though they'd never dare get sappy enough to say it, they're soulmates. Margaret Lyons of Vulture called the friendship "dream-BFF-relationship." and the primary focus of the show, "One of the series' calling-cards has been its depiction of female friendship and particularly the primacy that friendship enjoyed over romantic relationships." E! at the time of Sandra Oh's exit wrote, "In Grey's Anatomy's 10-year history, the doctor-duo has been through a lot together: weddings, deaths, drownings, plane-crashes, bomb-threats, shootings, you name it, they've lived (and danced) through it." and added, "And with the 3 words, "You're My Person",'' Meredith Grey and Cristina Yang solidified their status as the small screen's best best-friends ever." ### Awards Oh has received numerous awards and nominations for her portrayal of Yang. In 2005, she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, which she was nominated for every year until 2009. Also in 2005, she was nominated for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 10th Satellite Awards. The next year, the cast won the Satellite Award for Best Cast – Television Series. In 2006, Oh won the award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards. In 2006, the cast was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series, which they won in 2007, and were nominated for again the following year. Also at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Oh won the award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series. In 2010, Oh was nominated for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series at the 41st NAACP Image Awards, which she was nominated for again in 2012, and in 2011, she was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series at the 42nd NAACP Image Awards. In 2011, Oh was nominated for Favorite TV Drama Actress and Favorite TV Doctor at the 37th People's Choice Awards an award she was nominated again for three years later at the 40th People's Choice Awards and also the subsequent year at the 41st People's Choice Awards. She was also nominated alongside Pompeo for the Favorite TV Gal Pals category.

Crag martin

Genus of birds

The crag martins are four species of small passerine birds in the genus Ptyonoprogne of the swallow family. They are the Eurasian crag martin (P. rupestris), the pale crag martin (P. obsoleta), the rock martin (P. fuligula) and the dusky crag martin (P. concolor). They are closely related to each other, and have formerly sometimes been considered to be one species. They are closely related to the Hirundo barn swallows and are placed in that genus by some authorities. These are small swallows with brown upperparts, paler underparts without a breast band, and a square tail with white patches. They can be distinguished from each other on size, the colour shade of the upperparts and underparts, and minor plumage details like throat colour. They resemble the sand martin, but are darker below, and lack a breast band. These are species of craggy mountainous habitats, although all three will also frequent human habitation. The African rock martin and the south Asian dusky crag martin are resident, but the Eurasian crag martin is a partial migrant; birds breeding in southern Europe are largely resident, but some northern breeders and most Asian birds are migratory, wintering in north Africa or India. They do not normally form large breeding colonies, but are more gregarious outside the breeding season. These martins build neat mud nests under cliff overhangs or in crevices in their mountain homes, and have readily adapted to the artificial cliffs provided by buildings and motorway bridges. Up to five eggs, white with dark blotches at the wider end, may be laid, and a second clutch is common. Ptyonoprogne martins feed mainly on insects caught in flight, and patrol cliffs near the breeding site with a slow hunting flight as they seek their prey. They may be hunted by falcons and infected with mites and fleas, but their large ranges and populations mean that none of the crag martins are considered to be threatened, and all are classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. ## Taxonomy The four Ptyonoprogne species are the Eurasian crag martin (P. rupestris) described as Hirundo rupestris by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1769, the pale crag martin (P. obsoleta), described by Jean Cabanis in 1850, the rock martin (P. fuligula), described by German zoologist Martin Lichtenstein in 1842, and the dusky crag martin (P. concolor) formally described in 1832 as Hirundo concolor by British soldier and ornithologist William Henry Sykes. They were moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach in 1850. The genus name is derived from the Greek ptuon (πτύον), "a fan", referring to the shape of the opened tail, and Procne (Πρόκνη), a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow. These are members of the swallow family of birds, and are placed in the subfamily Hirundininae, which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins. DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae, broadly correlating with the type of nest built. The groups are the "core martins" including burrowing species like the sand martin, the "nest-adopters", which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities, and the "mud nest builders". Ptyonoprogne species construct a mud nest and therefore belong to the last group; They resemble the Hirundo species in that they make open cup nests, whereas Delichon martins build closed cups, and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows, have retort-like closed nests with an entrance tunnel. The genus Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo into which it is often subsumed, but a DNA analysis showed that a coherent enlarged genus Hirundo should contain all the mud-builder genera. Although the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resembles those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow, the DNA research showed that if the Delichon house martins are considered to be a separate genus, as is normally the case, Cecropis, Petrochelidon and Ptyonoprogne should also be split off. The small, pale northern subspecies of crag martin found in the mountains of North Africa and the Arabian peninsula is now usually split as the pale crag martin, Ptyonoprogne obsoleta. The remaining birds are now identified as Eurasian crag martin. ### List of crag martin species ## Description These martins are 12–15 cm (4.7–5.9 in) long with drab brown or grey plumage and a short square tail that has small white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers. The eyes are brown, the small bill is mainly black, and the legs are brownish-pink. The sexes are similar, but juveniles show pale edges to the upperparts and flight feathers. The species differ in plumage shades and size, Eurasian crag martin being significantly larger than the others. The flight is slow, with rapid wing beats interspersed with flat-winged glides. The songs of these birds are simple twitterings, and contact calls include a high-pitched twee or chi, chi, and a tshir or trrt call like that of the house martin. These drab martins can only be confused with each other, or with sand martins of the genus Riparia. Even the smaller Ptyonoprogne species are slightly larger and more robust than the sand martin and brown-throated sand martin, and have the white tail spots which are absent from the Riparia martins. Where the ranges of Ptyonoprogne species overlap, the Eurasian crag martin is darker, browner and 15% larger than the rock martin, and larger and paler, particularly on its underparts, than the dusky crag martin. The white tail spots of the Eurasian crag martin are significantly larger than those of both its relatives. In the east of its range, the rock martin always has lighter, more contrasted underparts than the dusky crag martin. ## Distribution and habitat These are exclusively Old World species. The rock martin breeds throughout Africa and through the Middle East as far as Afghanistan and Pakistan, and is replaced by the dusky crag martin further east in India and Indochina. The Eurasian crag martin breeds from Iberia and northwesternmost Africa through southern Europe, the Persian Gulf and the Himalayas to southwestern and northeastern China. Northern populations of the Eurasian crag martin are migratory, with European birds wintering in north Africa, Senegal, Ethiopia and the Nile Valley, and Asian breeders going to southern China, the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East. Some European birds stay north of the Mediterranean, and, like populations in warmer areas such as India, Turkey and Cyprus, just move to lower ground after breeding. The dusky crag martin and rock are largely resident apart from local movements after breeding, when many birds descend to lower altitudes, although some pale northern rock martins from North African and southern Arabian may winter further south alongside the local subspecies in Ethiopia, Mali and Mauritania. The crag martins mainly breed on dry, warm and sheltered cliffs in mountainous areas with crags and gorges, and the Eurasian crag martin reaches 5,000 m (16,500 ft) in Central Asia. The use of buildings as artificial cliffs has enabled breeding expansion into lowland areas, particularly for the two tropical species, and the rock martin breeds in desert towns. In South Asia, migrant Eurasian birds sometimes join with flocks of the dusky crag martin and roost communally on ledges of cliffs or buildings in winter. ## Behaviour ### Breeding Martin pairs often nest alone, although where suitable sites are available small loose colonies may form. These are more common south of the Sahara, where up to 40 rock martin pairs together have been recorded. Crag martins aggressively defend their nesting territory against conspecifics and other species. The nest, built by both adults over several weeks, is made from several hundred mud pellets and lined with soft dry grass or sometimes feathers. It may be a half-cup when constructed under an overhang on a vertical wall or cliff, or shaped as a bowl like that of the barn swallow when placed on a sheltered ledge. The nest may be built on a rock cliff face, in a crevice or on a man-made structure, and is re-used for the second brood and in subsequent years. Usually two broods are raised, and the rock martin may nest for a third time in a season. The clutch is two to five eggs that are white with brownish, ruddy or grey blotches particularly at the wide end. The egg size ranges from an average 20.2 x 14.0 mm (0.80 x 0.55 in) with a weight of 2.08 g (0.073 oz) for the Eurasian crag martin to 17.7 x 13.0 mm (0.70 x 0.51 in) with a weight of 1.57 g (0.06 oz) for the dusky crag martin. Both adults incubate the eggs for 13–19 days to hatching, and feed the chicks at least ten times an hour until they fledge 24–27 days later. The fledged young continue to be fed by the parents for some time after they can fly. ### Feeding Ptyonoprogne martins feed mainly on insects caught in flight, although they will occasionally feed on the ground. When breeding, birds often fly back and forth along a rock face catching insects in their bills and usually feeding close to the nesting territory. To maintain the high frequency with which the young are fed, the adults mainly forage in the best hunting zones in the immediate vicinity of the nest, since the further they have to fly to catch insects, the longer it would take to bring food to the chicks in the nest. At other times, they may hunt low over open ground. The insects taken depend on what is locally available, but may include mosquitoes and other flies, aerial spiders, ants and beetles. Martins often feed alone, but sizeable groups may congregate if food is abundant, such as where insects are fleeing grass fires. The Eurasian crag martin may take aquatic species such as stoneflies, caddisflies and pond skaters. Cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas. Crag martins exploit the area close to the cliff when they hunt, relying on their high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns. ## Predators and parasites The crag martins may be hunted by fast, agile birds of prey such as the African hobby or Eurasian hobby that specialise in catching swallows and martins in flight, and by other falcons such as the peregrine and Taita falcons. Crows may attack migrating Eurasian crag martins, and that species also treats common kestrels, Eurasian sparrowhawks, Eurasian jays and common ravens as predators if they approach the nesting cliffs. The dusky crag martin has been recorded in the diet of the greater false vampire bat, Megaderma lyra. Crag martins may host parasites, including blood-sucking mites of the genus Dermanyssus such as D. chelidonis, and the nasal mite Ptilonyssus ptyonoprognes. Invertebrate species first found in nests of crag martin species include the tick Argas (A.) africolumbae from a rock martin nest and the fly Ornithomya rupes and the flea Ceratophyllus nanshanensis from European crag martin nests. ## Status All four species have extensive ranges and large populations, and the increasing use of artificial nest sites has enabled range expansion. The rock martin often breeds in lowland and desert towns, the Eurasian crag martin's range is expanding in Austria, Switzerland, the former Yugoslavia, Romania, and Bulgaria, and the dusky crag martin is spreading northeastwards into Guangxi, south into lowland Laos, and westwards to the hills and plains of Sindh. There is also a recent unconfirmed report from Cambodia. Their large ranges and presumed high numbers mean that none of the crag martins are considered to be threatened, and all are classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. ## Cited texts [Ptyonoprogne](Category:Ptyonoprogne "wikilink") [Taxa named by Ludwig Reichenbach](Category:Taxa_named_by_Ludwig_Reichenbach "wikilink")

So Happy I Could Die

2009 Song by Lady Gaga

"So Happy I Could Die" is a song from American singer Lady Gaga, taken from her second major release and her third EP, The Fame Monster (2009). It was written by herself, Nadir "RedOne" Khayat, and Nicolas "Space Cowboy" Dresti, with production helmed by RedOne. Inspired by Gaga's fear of what she described as the "Alcohol Monster", the song is about the influences of alcoholism, and also explores several sexual themes in its lyrics as well as liberalism. Musically, it is a Europop song with Auto-Tune effects. "So Happy I Could Die" received mostly positive reviews, with critics complimenting its sexual nature. The song charted in Hungary, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Performances for the song transpired during The Monster Ball Tour (2009–2011), during which Gaga wore a mechanically controlled moving dress while singing the song. ## Background and recording Lady Gaga collaborated with RedOne and Space Cowboy in writing and producing "So Happy I Could Die". All three of them were the main instrumentalists behind the song and recorded it at Record Plant Studios in Los Angeles. Other personnel who worked on the song includes Johny Severin for vocal editing and audio engineering, Dave Russell for audio engineering and Mike Orton for mixing the song at Sarm West Studios. An occasional drinker, the song represents Gaga's fear of what she describes as the "Alcohol Monster", as evident of several lyrics in the song, such as the chorus; "Happy in the club with a bottle of red wine, stars in our eyes cause we're having a good time." In an interview with MTV, Gaga professed that the song is about the euphoric effects of alcohol—the so-called "happy place"—and explained that her fear is split between two songs. "My fear of alcohol. My fear of drugs... fear of addiction. [...] But alcohol is funny because it takes you down to this very happy place and just like forgetting all your problems and for just a minute you're so happy, and then all of a sudden, [your] stomach turns and go way down... And that's my relationship with consumption and abuse." Other meaning behind the song was given by a writer for Elle magazine, which described it as "about masturbating while thinking about a woman". While writing the song, the singer was inspired by English singer Lily Allen and Tasmin Archer's hit "Sleeping Satellite" (1992). ## Music and lyrical interpretation "So Happy I Could Die" is a mid-tempo Europop song, makes use of an Auto-Tune effect. According to the music sheet published by Sony/ATV Music Publishing on the website Musicnotes.com, the song is written in the time signature of common time, and is composed in the key of A minor with a tempo of 100 beats per minute. Gaga's voice ranges from the tonal nodes of A₃ to A₄ and the song follows a basic sequence of F–G–Em–Am as its chord progression. As Gaga sings the chorus, its melody emulates Natasha Bedingfield's "Pocketful of Sunshine" (2008). Paul Lester of BBC suggested that "So Happy I Could Die" is reflective of the LGBT themes common in Gaga's songs, while Slant Magazine journalist Sal Cinquemani asserted that it telegraphed the "instructive" execution of the singer's rejection of "any and all intimacy with others". "'So Happy I Could Die' is a love song," he remarked, "but the object of her affection is herself—looking at herself, drinking with herself, dancing with herself, touching herself." Academic Richard J. Gray found parallels between the song and the fairy tale "Little Red Riding Hood". He noted that through the song's lyrics, Gaga embodied both the young girl as well as the "ravenous" wolf. Gaga acts as the viewer, the drinker as well as the sexual aggressor. In the book, The Performance Identities of Lady Gaga, Gray expanded on his analysis of the lyrics: > In the wilderness of the dance floor, Gaga recognizes the wolf-woman she has become and refuses to misrepresent herself any longer. She notes that in the quiet of the night, despite falsehoods and tears, she can feel satisfaction by touching herself. By stroking herself and perhaps her metaphorical wolf-pelt, Gaga is engaging in a moment of self-acceptance and self-soothing. Lady Gaga realizes that it will be difficult to maintain her dualistic nature, and alludes to upcoming death when she tells audiences that she is so content that she would welcome death. These words appear to foreshadow the end of [The Fame Monster], as the singer alludes to a calm acceptance of her spiritual/ghostly side. Comparisons between the song and Britney Spears's "Touch of My Hand" from the latter's fourth studio album In the Zone were made by music critics. However, Bradley Stern of the music website MuuMuse remarked that its lyrics and music were "too dark to place [it] in the same realm as Spears' ode to self-exploration". During the chorus Gaga sings, "Happy in the club with a bottle of red wine / Stars in our eyes 'cause we're having a good time / Hey-ey, Hey-ey / So happy I could die." Melinda Newman from the website HitFix compared the song's sound with Madonna while also noting similarities in the refrain containing the lines "hey-ey-hey-ey" to Rihanna. Tony Hardy from the website Consequence of Sound described "So Happy I Could Die" as a "chilled" song with lyrics open to interpretation. He felt that potential themes of the song may be Sapphic desires, the singer's alter ego and "transient" effects of wine and fame. A writer of Popjustice compared the song's "ravey" beats with work by DJ Tiësto. ## Critical response Describing it as a "pop fluff" song, Simon Price of The Independent wrote that "there's always a suggestion of something interesting going on behind those glitter-encrusted eyes". NME's Ben Patashnik applauded the song's suggestive nature; "'So Happy I Could Die' perfectly evokes the feeling of being alone in a crowded room with its icy beats, suggesting Gaga takes refuge in masturbation as the only way to retain control." "So Happy I Could Die" was declared as the twenty-seventh best Lady Gaga song by Rolling Stone, who concluded: "Gaga exults in the pleasures of club-hopping, drinking and bi-curiosity." Under the Radar columnist Nick Hyman avouched that "So Happy I Could Die" was an uninspiring track, while Evan Sawdey of PopMatters felt that Gaga's vocals were the worst out of any of her songs. "It's a bit of a disappointment, too, because for someone who is so painfully deliberate in crafting their unique visual image, it’s a let down to see that some of that quality control couldn’t be applied to the song selection that will ultimately define their legacy." Bradley Stern of MuuMuse felt that the song was a continuation to Gaga's own "Starstruck" from The Fame, as they had the same "squeaky synthesizers and urban flavoring to engage in some self-indulgence". He went on to describe its music and lyrics as "dark" while also calling the song "[m]inimal and moody". Digital Spy's Nick Levine described the singer as "titillating" in the song while singing about "'touching herself' at the sight of a 'lavender blonde'". Melinda Newman from the website HitFix felt the song gave a chance to Gaga to explore her singing talents and concluded, "Hypnotic and a fun sing-along, this could be a single." Tony Hardy from Consequence of Sound noted that the song, which had a "promising" title was "not that bad". An editor of Popjustice felt that the song was not suitable for a single release but noted it was important to "the whole 'Fame Monster' thing". A more mixed review came from a writer of the website MusicOMH who felt that the pace of The Fame Monster "slowed slightly" with "So Happy I Could Die". He went on to describe its lyrics as "too contrived" and added that it "lacks the fizz of the earlier tracks". Similarly, Andrew Ryce from Beats per Minute felt that the song was an "unconvincing anthem for hedonism, sounding more like a wistful lament than a party track". ## Chart performance Upon release of the album, "So Happy I Could Die" garnered minor commercial success. It attained its highest position in Hungary, where it peaked at number ten on the Hungarian Singles Chart on the chart issue dated November 23, 2009. In Europe, it managed to debut in musical charts in Sweden and the United Kingdom, where it debuted at number fifty-three and eighty-four, respectively. In the US, the song charted at number 35 on the Billboard Dance/Electronic Digital Songs for the issue dated April 3, 2010. ## Live performances "So Happy I Could Die" was part of the setlist of Gaga's second headlining concert tour, The Monster Ball (2009–2011). On the first version of the tour, Gaga performed the song alongside "Teeth", wearing a black leather corset. During the revamped Monster Ball shows, it was performed after playing some of her songs on the piano. She was then caught by a "tornado", which was portrayed by a cylinder shaped video screen lowered from the ceiling, covering the singer. Reappearing on stage, Gaga started performing the song while a hydraulic lift raised her high up in the air. She was seen wearing her "Living Dress", a white costume that moves on its own accord, complete with wings and a long train. The dress was mechanically and remotely controlled for its movements. It was inspired by the creations of designer Hussein Chalayan and was made by Vin Burnham. Gaga's references for the performance was both Dorothy as well as Glinda the Good Witch, from the 1939 film, The Wizard of Oz. According to Academic Richard J. Gray, Gaga merged both the characters in the performance, demonstrating the overall story arc of the tour, about self-sufficiency towards freedom and personal growth. He also listed is as the "most awe-inspiring and show stopping sight of the [tour]." ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Fame Monster. - Lady Gaga – vocals, songwriter, producer, keyboards, background vocals, arrangement - Nadir "RedOne" Khayat – songwriter, producer, programming, keyboards, arrangement, audio engineering - Nicolas "Space Cowboy" Dresti – songwriter, producer, programming, keyboards - Johny Severin – vocal editing, audio engineering - Dave Russell – audio engineering - Mike Orton – audio mixing ## Charts

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007 film)

2007 film by Tim Burton

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street is a 2007 musical slasher film directed by Tim Burton from a screenplay by John Logan, based on the stage musical of the same name by Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler, which in turn is based on the 1970 play Sweeney Todd by Christopher Bond. The film retells the melodramatic Victorian tale of Sweeney Todd (Johnny Depp), an English barber and serial killer who, while seeking revenge on Judge Turpin (Alan Rickman) who wrongfully convicted and exiled him to steal his wife, murders his customers and, with the help of his accomplice, Mrs. Lovett (Helena Bonham Carter), processes their corpses into meat pies. Having been struck by the cinematic qualities of the stage musical while young, Burton had entertained the notion of a film version since the early 1980s. However, it was not until 2006 that he had the opportunity to realize this ambition, when DreamWorks Pictures announced his appointment as replacement for director Sam Mendes. Sondheim, although not directly involved, was extensively consulted during production. Depp, not known for his singing, took lessons in preparation for his role, which producer Richard D. Zanuck acknowledged was something of a gamble. Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street had its premiere at the Ziegfeld Theater in New York City on 3 December 2007, and was released in the United States on 21 December 2007 and in the United Kingdom on 25 January 2008. The film received critical acclaim, and was praised for the performances of the cast, musical numbers, costume and set design, and faithfulness to the musical. It grossed over \$153 million against a production budget of \$50 million. Since its release, it has been widely assessed as one the greatest musical films of the 21st century. ## Plot In 1846, Benjamin Barker, a barber, arrives in London, accompanied by sailor Anthony Hope. Fifteen years earlier, he was falsely convicted and exiled to Australia by the corrupt Judge Turpin, who lusted after Barker's wife Lucy ("No Place Like London"). Barker adopts the alias "Sweeney Todd" and returns to his old Fleet Street shop, situated above Nellie Lovett's meat pie shop ("The Worst Pies in London"). Recognizing Barker, Lovett tells him that once he was exiled, Turpin raped Lucy and drove her to suicide ("Poor Thing") before adopting the couple's daughter, Johanna, as his ward. Todd vows revenge and re-opens his barbershop after Mrs. Lovett, who loves him unrequitedly, presents him with his old straight razors ("My Friends"). Wandering the streets where he encounters a beggar woman, Anthony becomes enamored with Johanna after seeing her sing by a window above the street ("Green Finch and Linnet Bird"/"Alms! Alms!"), but is caught by Turpin and driven away by his henchman, Beadle Bamford ("Johanna"). Rival barber and snake oil salesman Adolfo Pirelli is publicly humiliated by Todd ("Pirelli's Miracle Elixir"/"The Contest") in front of Bamford, but recognizes Todd by his razors and reveals himself as his former apprentice. He attempts to blackmail Todd, who suddenly flies into a rage and kills him. Lovett is shocked but accepts Todd's justifications, having grown emotionally attached to Pirelli's downtrodden assistant Toby Ragg, whom she adopts as a son ("Wait"). Intent on marrying Johanna, Turpin is recommended Todd's services by Bamford but they are interrupted by Anthony before Todd can kill him ("Ladies in Their Sensitivities"/"Pretty Women"), revealing Anthony's plans with Johanna and causing Turpin to storm out and throw Johanna into a madhouse. Believing Johanna to be lost to him forever, Todd vows to kill as many people as he can out of revenge and seduces Mrs. Lovett into being his partner in crime ("Epiphany"). She gets the idea to bake Todd's victims into pies ("A Little Priest"), and Todd rigs a trapdoor to drop his victims' bodies into her bakehouse. With both their businesses prospering, Mrs. Lovett tells an uninterested Todd of her hopes to marry him and retire ("God, That's Good!"/"By the Sea") while the unnamed beggar woman begins spreading rumors about the foul-smelling smoke rising from the shop chimneys. Anthony rescues Johanna, planning on hiding her in Todd's shop, however Todd sends Turpin a letter about the ploy to lure him back to the shop. Toby has become wary of Todd and tells Mrs. Lovett of his suspicions, vowing to protect her ("Not While I'm Around"). She assuages him but is forced to lock him in the basement after he discovers Pirelli's purse. Bamford arrives to inspect reports of the stink from her chimney, but is tricked and murdered by Todd. Mrs. Lovett informs Todd of Toby's suspicions, and the pair search for the boy after he escapes into the sewers. Meanwhile, Anthony brings Johanna, disguised as a boy, to the shop, and has her wait there while he leaves to find Todd. The beggar woman enters the shop looking for Bamford, and Johanna hides in the trunk. The woman recognizes Todd, but upon hearing Turpin coming, Todd kills her and sends her through the trapdoor. Todd explains to Turpin that Johanna had repented and is coming to him, offering a free shave in the meantime. Todd finally reveals himself as Benjamin Barker and stabs out Turpin's jugular. Todd discovers Johanna but doesn't recognize her, preparing to kill her as well before being forced to spare her by Mrs. Lovett's scream when the dying Turpin grabs at her dress downstairs. Todd discovers that the beggar woman was his wife Lucy, Mrs. Lovett having lied about her death to have him for herself causing Todd to kill Lovett by hurling her into the oven. Toby reappears and Todd allows him to slit his throat with his own razor as he mourns over the body of his dead wife ("Final Scene"). ## Cast ## Production ### Development Tim Burton first saw Stephen Sondheim's 1979 stage musical, Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, as a CalArts student in London in 1980. Burton recalled his experience of seeing the show, saying, "I was still a student, I didn't know if I would be making movies or working in a restaurant, I had no idea what I would be doing. I just wandered into the theatre and it just blew me away because I'd never really seen anything that had the mixture of all those elements. I actually went three nights in a row because I loved it so much." Burton was not a fan of the musical genre but was struck by how cinematic the musical was, and repeatedly attended subsequent performances. He described it as a silent film with music, and was "dazzled both by the music and its sense of the macabre." When his directing career took off in the late 1980s, Burton approached Sondheim with a view to making a cinematic adaptation, but nothing came of it. Sondheim said, "[Burton] went off and did other things." Director Sam Mendes had been working on a film version of the story for several years, and in June 2003 Sondheim was approached to write the script. Although he turned down the offer, Mendes and producer Walter F. Parkes obtained his approval to use writer John Logan instead. Logan had previously collaborated with Parkes on Gladiator, and claimed his biggest challenge in adapting the Sondheim stage play "was taking a sprawling, magnificent Broadway musical and making it cinematic, and an emotionally honest film. Onstage, you can have a chorus sing as the people of London, but I think that would be alienating in a movie." Mendes left to direct the 2005 film Jarhead, and Burton took over as director after his project, Ripley's Believe It or Not!, fell apart due to its excessive budget. When Burton was hired, he reworked the screenplay with Logan. Logan felt they agreed over the film's tone due to "share[d] stunted childhoods watching Amicus movies". Turning a three-hour stage musical into a two-hour film required some changes. Some songs were shortened, while others were completely removed. Burton said, "In terms of the show, it was three hours long, but we weren't out to film the Broadway show, we were out to make a movie, so we tried to keep the pace like those old melodramas. Sondheim himself is not a real big fan of movie musicals, so he was really open to honing it down to a more pacey shape." Burton and Logan also reduced the prominence of other secondary elements, such as the romance between Todd's daughter Johanna and Anthony, to allow them to focus on the triangular relationship between Todd, Mrs. Lovett, and Toby. ### Casting DreamWorks announced Burton's appointment in August 2006, and Johnny Depp was cast as Todd. Christopher Lee, Peter Bowles, Anthony Head, and five other actors were set to play the ghost narrators, but their roles were cut (Head does appear in an uncredited cameo as a gentleman who congratulates Depp after the shaving contest). According to Lee, these deletions were due to time constraints caused by a break in filming during March 2007, while Depp's daughter recovered from an illness. Burton's domestic partner Helena Bonham Carter was cast in October 2006, as well as Sacha Baron Cohen. In December 2006, Alan Rickman was cast. In January 2007, Laura Michelle Kelly was cast as Lucy Barker. Timothy Spall was added to the cast, and said he was urged to audition by his daughter, who wanted him to work with Depp. He recalled, "I really wanted this one – I knew Tim was directing and that Johnny Depp was going to be in it. My daughter, my youngest daughter, really wanted me to do it for that reason – Johnny Depp was in it. (She came on set to meet Depp) and he was really delightful to her, she had a great time. Then, I took her to the junket – and (Depp) greeted her like an old pal when he saw her. I've got plenty of brownie points at the moment." Three members of the cast had never been in a film before: Ed Sanders was cast as Toby, Jayne Wisener as Johanna, and Jamie Campbell Bower, who auditioned, and after four days got the part of Anthony said, "I think I weed myself. I was out shopping at the time and I got this call on my mobile. I was just like, 'OH MY GOD!' Honestly, I was like a little girl running around this shop like oh-my-god-oh-my-god-oh-my-god." ### Filming Filming began on 5 February 2007 at Pinewood Studios, and was completed by 11 May, despite a brief interruption when Depp's daughter was taken seriously ill. Burton opted to film in London, where he had felt "very much at home" since his work on Batman in 1989. Production designer Dante Ferretti created a darker, more sinister London by adapting Fleet Street and its surrounding area. Burton initially planned to use minimal sets and film in front of a green screen, but decided against it, stating that physical sets helped actors get into a musical frame of mind: "Just having people singing in front of a green screen seemed more disconnected". Depp created his own image of Todd. Heavy purple and brown make-up was applied around his eyes to suggest fatigue and rage, as if "he's never slept". Burton said of the character Sweeney Todd, "We always saw him as a sad character, not a tragic villain or anything. He's basically a dead person when you meet him; the only thing that's keeping him going is the one single minded thing which is tragic. You don't see anything else around him." Depp said of the character, "He makes Sid Vicious look like the innocent paper boy. He's beyond dark. He's already dead. He's been dead for years." Depp also commented on the streak of white in Todd's hair, saying, "The idea was that he'd had this hideous trauma, from being sent away, locked away. That streak of white hair became the shock of that rage. It represented his rage over what had happened. It's certainly not the first time anyone's used it. But it's effective. It tells a story all by itself. My brother had a white spot growing up, and his son has this kind of shock of white in his hair." Burton insisted that the film be bloody, as he felt stage versions of the play which cut back on the bloodshed robbed it of its power. For him, "Everything is so internal with Sweeney that [the blood] is like his emotional release. It's more about catharsis than it is a literal thing." Producer Richard D. Zanuck said that "[Burton] had a very clear plan that he wanted to lift that up into a surreal, almost Kill Bill kind of stylization. We had done tests and experiments with the neck slashing, with the blood popping out. I remember saying to Tim, 'My God, do we dare do this?'" On set, the fake blood was colored orange to render correctly on the desaturated color film used, and crew members wore bin liners to avoid getting stained while filming. This macabre tone made some studios nervous, and it was not until Warner Bros. Pictures, DreamWorks and Paramount had signed up for the project that the film's \$50 million budget was covered. Burton said "the studio was cool about it and they accepted it because they knew what the show was. Any movie is a risk, but it is nice to be able to do something like that that doesn't fit into the musical or slasher movie categories." After the filming, Burton said of the cast, "All I can say is this is one of the best casts I've ever worked with. These people are not professional singers, so to do a musical like this which I think is one of the most difficult musicals, they all went for it. Every day on the set was a very, very special thing for me. Hearing all these guys sing, I don't know if I can ever have an experience like that again." Burton said of the singing, "You can't just lip synch, you'd see the throat and the breath, every take they all had to belt it out. It was very enjoyable for me to see, with music on the set everybody just moved differently. I'd seen Johnny (Depp) act in a way I'd never seen before, walking across the room or sitting in the chair, picking up a razor or making a pie, whatever. They all did it in a way that you could sense." Depp said of working with Baron Cohen, when asked what he was like in real life (meaning, not doing one of his trademark characters), "He's not what I expected. I didn't look at those characters and think, 'This will be the sweetest guy in the world'. He's incredibly nice. A real gentleman, kind of elegant. I was impressed with him. He's kind of today's equivalent of Peter Sellers." ## Music Burton wanted to avoid the traditional approach of patches of dialogue interrupted by song, "We didn't want it to be what I'd say was a traditional musical with a lot of dialogue and then singing. That's why we cut out a lot of choruses and extras singing and dancing down the street. Each of the characters, because a lot of them are repressed and have their emotions inside, the music was a way to let them express their feelings." He cut the show's famous opening number, "The Ballad of Sweeney Todd", explaining, "Why have a chorus singing about 'attending the tale of Sweeney Todd' when you could just go ahead and attend it?" Sondheim acknowledged that, in adapting a musical to film, the plot has to be kept moving, and was sent MP3 files of his shortened songs by Mike Higham, the film's music producer, for approval. Several other songs were also cut, and Sondheim noted that there were "many changes, additions and deletions... [though]... if you just go along with it, I think you'll have a spectacular time." To create a larger, more cinematic feel, the score was re-orchestrated by the stage musical's original orchestrator, Jonathan Tunick, who increased the orchestra from 27 musicians to 78. The Deluxe Complete Edition soundtrack was released on 18 December 2007. Depp's singing was described by a New York Times reviewer as "harsh and thin, but amazingly forceful". Another critic adds that, though Depp's voice "does not have much heft or power", "his ear is obviously excellent, because his pitch is dead-on accurate... Beyond his good pitch and phrasing, the expressive colorings of his singing are crucial to the portrayal. Beneath this Sweeney’s vacant, sullen exterior is a man consumed with a murderous rage that threatens to burst forth every time he slowly takes a breath and is poised to speak. Yet when he sings, his voice crackles and breaks with sadness." ## Marketing The film's marketing has been criticized for not advertising it as a musical. Michael Halberstam of the Writers' Theatre said, "By de-emphasizing the score to the extent they did in the trailer, it is possible the producers were condescending to us – a tactic which cannot ultimately end in anything but tears." In the UK, a number of audience members walked out of the film on realizing it was a musical, and complaints that advertisements for the film were deliberately misleading were made to both the Advertising Standards Authority and Trading Standards agency. The studios involved opted for a low-key approach to their marketing. Producer Walter Parkes stated, "All these things that could be described as difficulties could also be the movie's greatest strengths." Warner Bros. felt it should take a similar approach to marketing as with The Departed, with little early exposure and discouraging talk of awards. ## Release Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street officially opened at the United States box office on 21 December 2007, in 1,249 theatres, and took \$9,300,805 in its opening weekend. Worldwide releases followed during January and February 2008, with the film performing well in the United Kingdom and Japan. The film grossed \$52,898,073 in the United States and Canada, and \$99,625,091 in other markets, accumulating a worldwide total of \$152,523,164. In the United States, the Marcus Theaters Corporation was not initially planning to screen the film following its premiere, because it was unable to reach a pricing agreement with Paramount. However, the dispute was resolved in time for the official release. ### Critical reception Although Sondheim was cautious of a cinematic adaptation of his musical, he was largely impressed by the results. Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street received critical acclaim, and the performances, visuals, production design, costume design and faithfulness to its source material were praised. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 86% of critics gave the film positive reviews based on 232 reviews and an average rating of 7.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Full of pith and Grand Guignol grossness, this macabre musical is perfectly helmed and highly entertaining. Tim Burton masterfully stages the musical in a way that will make you think he has done this many times before." Metacritic assigned the film an average score of 83 out of 100, based on 39 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Sweeney Todd appeared on many critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2007. Of the reviewers, Time rated it an A-minus and added, "Burton and Depp infuse the brilliant cold steel of Stephen Sondheim's score with a burning passion. Helena Bonham Carter and a superb supporting cast bring focused fury to this musical nightmare. It's bloody great." Time's Richard Corliss named the film one of its top ten movies of 2007, placing it fifth. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it four stars out of four, lauding Burton's visual style. In his review in Variety, Todd McCarthy called it "both sharp and fleet" and "a satisfying screen version of Stephen Sondheim's landmark 1979 theatrical musical ... things have turned out uniformly right thanks to highly focused direction by Tim Burton, expert screw-tightening by scenarist John Logan, and haunted and musically adept lead performances from Johnny Depp and Helena Bonham Carter. Assembled artistic combo assures the film will reap by far the biggest audience to see a pure Sondheim musical, although just how big depends on the upscale crowd’s tolerance for buckets of blood, and the degree to which the masses stay away due to the whiff of the highbrow." Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B-plus in its Movie Reviews section and stated, "To stage a proper Sweeney Todd, necks must be slit, human flesh must be squished into pastries, and blood ought to spurt in fountains and rivers of death. Enter Tim Burton, who ... has tenderly art-directed soup-thick, tomato-red, fake-gore blood with the zest of a Hollywood-funded Jackson Pollock." She went on to refer to the piece as "opulent, attentive ... so finely minced a mixture of Sondheim's original melodrama and Burton's signature spicing that it's difficult to think of any other filmmaker so naturally suited for the job." In its DVD Reviews section, EW's Chris Nashawaty gave the film an A-minus, stating, "Depp's soaring voice makes you wonder what other tricks he's been hiding... Watching Depp's barber wield his razors... it's hard not to be reminded of Edward Scissorhands frantically shaping hedges into animal topiaries 18 years ago... and all of the twisted beauty we would've missed out on had [Burton and Depp] never met." In Rolling Stone, Peter Travers awarded it 31⁄2 out of 4 stars and added, "Sweeney Todd is a thriller-diller from start to finish: scary, monstrously funny and melodically thrilling ... [the film] is a bloody wonder, intimate and epic, horrific and heart-rending as it flies on the wings of Sondheim's most thunderously exciting score." As with Time, the critic ranked it fifth on his list of the best movies of 2007. Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter said, "The blood juxtaposed to the music is highly unsettling. It runs contrary to expectations. Burton pushes this gore into his audiences' faces so as to feel the madness and the destructive fury of Sweeney's obsession. Teaming with Depp, his long-time alter ego, Burton makes Sweeney a smoldering dark pit of fury and hate that consumes itself. With his sturdy acting and surprisingly good voice, Depp is a Sweeney Todd for the ages." Harry Knowles gave the film a highly positive review, calling it Burton's best film since Ed Wood, his favorite Burton film, and said it was possibly superior. He praised all of the cast and the cinematography, but noted it would probably not appeal to non-musical fans due to the dominance of music in the film. ## Awards and nominations Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street received four Golden Globe nominations at the January 2008 65th Golden Globe Awards, winning two. The film won the award for Best Motion Picture in the Musical or Comedy genre, and Depp for his performance as Sweeney Todd. Burton was nominated for Best Director, and Helena Bonham Carter was nominated for her performance as Mrs. Lovett. The film was included in the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures's top ten films of 2007, and Burton was presented with their award for Best Director. The film was also nominated for two BAFTA awards, in the categories of Costume Design and Make Up and Hair. Sweeney Todd further received three Oscar nominations at the 80th Academy Awards: Best Actor in a Leading Role for Depp; Best Achievement in Costume Design; and Best Achievement in Art Direction, which it won. Depp won the award for Best Villain at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards, where he thanked his fans for "sticking with [him] on this very obtuse and strange road," and the Choice Movie Villain award at the Teen Choice Awards. At Spike TV's 2008 Scream Awards, the film won two awards: Best Horror Movie, and Best Actor in a Horror Movie or TV Show (Depp). It was listed as number 490 on Empire's 500 Greatest films of all time in 2008 and it appeared at number 88 on its list of the 100 Greatest Movies Of The 21st Century in 2020. ## Home media release Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street was released on DVD in the United States on 1 April 2008, and the United Kingdom on 19 May. A Blu-ray was released on 21 October 2008. An HD DVD release was announced for the same date, but due to the discontinuation of the format, Paramount canceled this version in preference for international distribution of the Blu-ray release. The DVD version has thus far sold approximately 1,892,489 copies, bringing in more than \$38 million in revenue.

New Cutie Honey

1994 original video animation anime series

New Cutie Honey (Japanese: 新・キューティーハニー, Hepburn: Shin Kyūtī Hanī, also known as New Super Android Cutey Honey or by the ADV Films title New Cutey Honey) is a 1994 Japanese anime series in the Cutie Honey media franchise created by Go Nagai. Inspired by continued popularity of the original 1973 Cutie Honey television series, and first announced by Toei Video in October 1993, it was the only Cutie Honey anime production to be licensed for distribution in the United States until Discotek Media released the 1973 series on DVD in November 2013. Unlike the original, it was developed as an OVA (original video animation), a type of anime made for home video. The OVAs were released by ADV Films in the US, and have also been sold in the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Australia, and New Zealand. Set one hundred years after the original, it follows protagonist Honey Kisaragi, along with her friends from the Hayami family, as she fights criminals in the fictional Cosplay City. Honey, a female android, has a device within her that allows her to transform into various personas, or summon weapons and other powers, by shouting "Honey Flash!" The first four episodes contain a complete story in which Honey battles the forces of Dolmeck, a man feared even by other criminals. In later episodes, she defeats other enemies empowered by her returning former nemesis, Panther Zora. The series staff planned to make at least twelve episodes, but it ended with eight in 1995. A 2004 DVD release included a scripted but unfilmed ninth episode—a Christmas story—as a drama CD. New Cutie Honey includes many characters and cameos from or based on prior works by Nagai, such as Mazinger Z and Devilman. It has inspired merchandise of its own, including many scale model kits of Honey. ADV's English language dub of the series features Jessica Calvello, whom Nagai picked for the title role. Critical responses to the series have focused on its production values and voice work, and have explored Honey's transformations—which often tear off her clothes and show her naked body as they occur—in relation to her strong character traits. It has also been compared and contrasted with other anime based on Nagai's works. ## Plot New Cutie Honey is set one hundred years after the events of the original 1973 Cutie Honey television series, in the fictional Cosplay City. Mayor Light (ライト市長, Raito shichō, voiced by Sho Hayami in its original Japanese and Jason Douglas in its English dub) vows to rein in a citywide crime wave and restore peace. However, a self-proclaimed "Lord of Darkness" named Dolmeck (ドルメック, v.b. Yūsaku Yara and Bryan Bounds), feared even by other criminals there, seeks to derail his efforts in the first four episodes. A large freelance gang of armored, axe-wielding mutant motorcyclists, joined by two of Dolmeck's allies—Black Maiden (ブラックメイドン, v.b. Taeko Yamada and Tamara Lo), a very young-looking red-haired girl who rides naked in a humanoid robot slightly shorter than him and can psychokinetically move objects and people; and Peeping Spider (ピーピングスパイダー, v.b. Hirohiko Kakegawa and Guil Lunde), who wears decorative robotic spider legs and an electronic trinocular scope, and can use stealth technology, see through objects, sense spacetime disturbances, and trap people in strong webs—attack an outdoor meeting of the Mayor and his fellow citizens. Dolmeck then halts the attackers and asks the Mayor to rule the city with and under him. Unknown to all, Light's secretary Honey Kisaragi (如月 ハニー, Kisaragi Hanī, v.b. Michiko Neya and Jessica Calvello) is a gynoid who previously could transform into the titular red-haired, sword-wielding heroine Cutie Honey or summon other personas and powers, often after shouting "Honey Flash!" She later confronts the biker gang and Deathstar, another female minion of Dolmeck, and inadvertently regains those abilities and lost memories before defeating the group. Light agrees to fight crime in the city with Honey's help. She moves into the home of Danbei Hayami (早見 団兵衛, Hayami Danbei, v.b. Kōsei Tomita and Tristan MacAvery), a returning character from the 1973 Cutie Honey series. He is now both a 150-year-old cyborg fitted with many sensors and tools, and a pervert who often tries to see Honey naked and even asks her to transform to do so. They live there with his young grandson Chokkei (早見 直慶, Hayami Chokkei, v.b. Rica Matsumoto and David Nance), who has a crush on Honey and wishes to become like Mayor Light; and Chokkei's parents, who themselves attempted to rob a city bank in the first episode. Chokkei's mother Daiko (早見 大子, Hayami Daiko, v.b. Rica Fukami and Tiffany Grant) is a self-proclaimed expert thief who can summon increased strength when her son is in danger, and a descendant of Seiji Hayami from the original TV series. His father Akakabu (早見 赤カブ, Hayami Akakabu, v.b. Wataru Takagi and Greg Stanley) loves his wife and son but, like Danbei, is not above peeking at Honey when she showers. Honey remembers that the minion she defeated injected liquid from a "capsule" to transform into a monster. She fights other capsule users, then seeks the capsules' source. After she defeats a female capsule distributor, Peeping Spider learns and reveals Honey's true robot form. He kidnaps Chokkei and sends him to Dolmeck's airship, and Honey and the rest of the Hayamis fly there to rescue him; they fight Peeping Spider, defeat Black Maiden, and attack a large structure in the ship along the way. Maiden then reveals herself to be Panther Zora (Honey's nemesis and the leader of the Panther Claw in the original series) reborn; Honey wounds Dolmeck, and his body releases the fallen evil souls of all the countless villains Honey has killed. Zora then absorbs them, evolving her body into that of a fully adult woman. Honey tries to re-seal Dolmeck's body, while Danbei destroys the airship. After the entire Hayami family escapes the ship with Danbei's jet pack, Honey emerges alive from within a falling rock. The next four episodes are set an unspecified time after the battle with Dolmeck. Chokkei has grown older and fond of Honey, and the Hayamis remain with her to fight off antagonists who transform and gain their power through direct influence by Zora. Mayor Light rarely appears in this half of the series. A girl named Natsuko (夏子, v.b. Junko Iwao and Jenny Strader) appears in the fifth episode as a criminal who wants to use a nuclear bomb to get a ransom; she joins Honey's group by the sixth episode, often stays near Chokkei, and calls him "boy" to his annoyance. Her presence reminds Honey of her old friend of the same name who died at the hands of Sister Jill in the original versions of Cutie Honey and vows to protect her. Natsuko is initially confused by this until Chokkei explains the reason why. Later Chokkei and Natsuko start to have feelings for each other. In the seventh, Daiko—now a leader of a "United Thug Alliance" of gangs—goes with Honey and the Hayamis to rescue fellow thugs imprisoned by an army of "Thug Hunters", and reveals she fell in love with Akakabu for his persistence in an earlier fight with her. Peeping Spider returns in the eighth, last episode; there, Honey and her friends capture him and use his technologies to defeat a teleporting gold thief. ## Production ### Background and development The first anime incarnation of Cutie Honey was broadcast from October 13, 1973 to March 30, 1974, alongside the Go Nagai Cutie Honey manga that had started publishing on October 1, 1973. Fred Patten wrote in the liner notes for Rhino Entertainment's CD The Best of Anime (1998) that the series, even untranslated, was a favorite among early anime fan clubs for its nude transformation sequences and innuendos. Even as brief nudity became commonplace in 1980s anime, the continued popularity of Honey inspired New Cutie Honey's creation in 1994. Toei Video announced the series in a press conference dated October 12, 1993, with Go Nagai, series director Yasuchika Nagaoka, Hitomi (the lead singer of the group les 5-4-3-2-1, who perform the series' Japanese theme song), and Honey and Chokkei's Japanese voice actors Neya and Matsumoto in attendance. The Japanese name of the series, 新・キューティーハニー, became officially romanized as New Super Android Cutey Honey or New Cutey Honey. It has also been spelled with "Cutie" instead of "Cutey". Unlike the original Cutie Honey, the series is an "OVA" (original video animation), one made for home video formats such as VHS tape. OVAs are known for their higher quality than anime television series, and Toei felt the new Honey was especially high-quality because (according to them) each episode used ten thousand cels, three times the usual number. By November 1994, series planner Naoko Takahashi said that Honey was tentatively set to last twelve episodes, with more to be considered later, but the series was cut short at the eighth episode, released in late November 1995. Several scenes in that episode have unshaded foregrounds, partly drawn characters with missing legs, or both. A script for a planned ninth episode was produced as a drama CD voiced by the series' original voice actors. Its English dub, made by ADV Films in 1998, features Jessica Calvello, who was hand-picked by Nagai to perform the voice of Honey. In a post at the Anime on DVD forums, voice actor and writer George Manley—who has worked for the Houston-based ADV—praised both Neya and Calvello's work in Honey as examples of "impressive" performances, and said that the series, whose dub was released four years before he began voice work, "was the title, and I often admit this, that brought me back to watching anime and started me on a long road to, 'Wow, I wonder what might happen if I moved to Houston...'". ### Themes and cameos At the 1994 Anime America convention, Nagai talked about the contrast between Honey and the dark Cosplay City: "I thought... well, what would Honey-chan do if she appeared in a dark futuristic city like in BATMAN. In the movie BATMAN, everything is dark. Dark background and dark characters. However, in the case of Honey-chan, she’s super cheerful and sunny. She really stands out due to the dark background." He believed that New Cutie Honey differed from other anime that focus on settings and characters' expositions, and that Honey instead "makes her own moves, and she carries the whole story". On the relative weakness of male characters in the series, he said, "Honey-chan is like a mother, and she loves to protect weak men. Their existence is her reason to live, like oh, 'I have to fight to protect you.'" Honey pays homage to some of Nagai's other creations, such as the Mazinger and Devilman series; the first two episodes alone include many cameos. The first shows Mayor Light and Chokkei in a picture with characters from Nagai's Harenchi Gakuen, Iyahaya Nantomo, and Oira Sukeban, while Devilman's titular character appears as a gargoyle. In the second, a scene in a downtown market in Cosplay City has cameos from Hige Godzilla from Harenchi Gakuen and Naojiro Abashiri from The Abashiri Family; a scene in Honey's bedroom shows a bust of Mazinger Z and a framed picture of her father, Dr. Kisaragi; and several scenes show Mazinger Z's Sayaka Yumi, The Abashiri Family's Kikunosuke, and an unnamed character from Kekkō Kamen as they get turned into plastic-coated statues. Cutie Honey's skin-tight, full-body costume uses the same design and tricolor (blue, black, and red) scheme as that of Nagai's original manga, but its chest opening—with rounded side edges—resembles the one in her 1973 anime attire. The opening sequence used in the first four episodes shows versions of Honey's original seven forms in the TV series: Kisaragi, Hurricane, Misty, Idol, Flash, Fancy, and Cutie. Danbei's techniques parody those of Nagai's super robots Mazinger Z and Grendizer. Later episodes feature appearances by Akira Fudo of Devilman and Professor Kabuto of Mazinger Z. In episode 7, Honey transforms herself into Kouji Kabuto. The title sequence of episodes 5 through 8 features Sirene, Devilman's nemesis, and Akira Fudo of Devilman along with Mazinger Z's Juzo Kabuto. Devilman can be briefly seen as one of the back-up guitarists for the one-time antagonist Saline in episode 3. ## Media ### Episodes and releases The eight 25-minute episodes of New Cutie Honey are directed by Yasuchika Nagaoka and produced by Toei Video, with animation services by Studio Junio. Their names in Japan are prefixed by "Stage.", followed by the episode number. Each episode title, from the fifth onward, is prefixed with "Dark Army Story (闇の軍団編, Yami no gundan hen)". ADV Films released the series in four two-episode VHS tapes with English subtitles. The subtitled versions were released between 1994 and 1996, and English dubs of the episodes were made in 1998. New Cutie Honey was followed by the TV series Cutie Honey Flash in 1997 and the three-episode OVA Re: Cutie Honey in 2004. The series has been reissued many times for various markets, and was eventually shown on television and posted on the Internet. Four-volume VHS versions were released in France and Italy in 1996: the French version (also called Cutey Honey: La Guerrière de L'amour) was dubbed by Chinkel and released by Dynamic Visions (now known as Dybex), and the Italian (Cutey Honey: La Combattente Dell'Amore) was released by Dynamic Italia (now Dynit). Toei re-released the entire series on DVD on May 21, 2004 as the New Cutie Honey Complete Pack. The release included a drama CD called based on a script for an unfilmed ninth episode. ADV reissued the series on two DVD collections in November and December 2000, as a single two-disc Essential Anime edition on May 25, 2004, and on a three-DVD bundle with the Kekkō Kamen OVA in April 2008. The series was published on two DVDs in the United Kingdom, released on September 20 and November 15, 2004, by ADV Films UK. Madman Entertainment followed with a two-DVD collection, released in Australia on February 2, 2007 and in New Zealand on March 14. Two episodes were broadcast each month on the Toei Channel satellite television network between January and April 2003 and episodes were shown on the Anime Network in April and May 2004. The Anime Network added the series to their on-demand Online Player service on July 9, 2009. By then, ADV had divested many of their assets: the company transferred licenses to Honey and other works to AEsir Holdings, their home video distribution arm to Section23 Films, and Anime Network to Valkyrie Media Partners on June 1 that year. The license was recently transferred to Discotek Media for a Blu-ray release on July 30, 2019. Writer and composer Takeo Watanabe are credited for both opening themes of the series: "Cutie Honey", performed by les 5-4-3-2-1 for the first four episodes; and "Cutie Honey (English Version)", translated by Masaki Takjao, arranged by Takao Konishi, and performed by Mayukiss for the next four. The themes are based on the original series' theme "Cutie Honey". The English theme, which has a softer beat than the les 5-4-3-2-1 cover, is also used for the prior episodes in ADV's November 2000 DVD release. Three ending themes are used: les 5-4-3-2-1 arranged and performed "Circle Game" for the first and second episodes and "Rendez-vous in Space" for the third, and Mayuki Hiramatsu performed "Legend of Good-Bye" for episodes 5 through 8. ### Soundtracks The music of New Cutie Honey has been released on several soundtracks, and some of the music has since been re-released on compilation albums. The first soundtrack, New Super Android Cutey Honey: Music Collection Vol. 1 (COCC-11513), was released on February 21, 1994 by Nippon Columbia Co. Ltd. (now Columbia Music Entertainment). It includes les 5-4-3-2-1's "Cutie Honey", advertised as a "more danceable" version of the original, and "Circle Game". It also has guitar work by Yoshio Nomura, background music by Kazuhiko Toyama, and dialogue between protagonists Honey and Chokkei. It was followed by Music Collection Vol. 2 (COCC-11840) on June 21, 1994, which includes a version of Cutie Honey sung by Michiko Neya, along with "Burning Up!", the theme of Saline used in the third episode; by Special Vocal Collection (COCC-12543) on April 29, 1995; and by Music Collection Vol. 3 (COCC-12551), which has the English Cutie Honey theme, on June 1, 1995. The three-CD compilation Gō Nagai Collection: Gō Nagai & Dynamic Production World \~True Music Version\~ (永井豪作品集 永井豪&ダイナミック・プロの世界~真・音楽篇~), released in June 1998, includes the les 5-4-3-2-1 version of Cutie Honey as the last of its 71 tracks. The 2004 compilation Cutie Honey Song Collection Special has six New Cutie Honey tracks. ### Merchandise New Cutie Honey and its characters have inspired a wide range of products, and the character Honey in particular prompted many model kits and figures. The New Cutey Honey Perfect Guide, an art book with character descriptions, interviews, and detailed summaries of the first two episodes, was released by Keibunsha on May 19, 1994. This was followed by New Cutey Honey Perfect Guide Vol. 2, made for the next two, on November 11 that year. The two books contain information on other series-based merchandise, such as Honey-themed telephone cards, posters, T-shirts, a 1/6 scale model kit of Honey by Noriyasu Tsushima, pencil boards, production materials, and a carrying case. A series special called "Flash.1", , was released on VHS and Laserdisc on November 21, 1994; it includes 30 minutes of selected scenes from the first four episodes and appearances by Nagai, Nagaoka, Neya, Matsumoto, and Fukami. In December 2005, a 283-page book by MEF containing drawings and production material from New Cutie Honey and the 1995 PC-FX video game Cutie Honey FX was released. Two sets of six Honey figures, based on various forms she takes throughout the series, were released by Banpresto. Both have three common figures: one of her Cutie form, another of her "S&M Queen" form, and one of her Armoroid form with broken armor (which she takes during a battle in the eighth episode). 1/8 scale models of her Cutie and standard "Kisaragi" form—the latter first taken at the end of the first episode—were made by Volks; both show her with one foot on a base labeled "CH". A 1/6 scale kit of Cutie Honey lying on her side, with her sword in hand, was released in limited quantities in 2000 and 2001. Three 1/5.5 scale Honey kits that depict her diving suit (from the sixth episode), tennis outfit (from the English-language title sequence), and Kisaragi form were created by Kurushima and released between late 2002 and early 2004. 1/6 scale kits based on Honey's Cutie and Kisaragi forms, and 1/5.5 scale kits of her Cutie and partially armored forms, were created by Yu Makimura of Left-Hand. ## Reception Chris Beveridge of Anime on DVD (now part of Mania.com) gave positive reviews to the two New Cutey Honey Collections released in 2000 by ADV; he "was really impressed with the production values of this show" and called it "quite a bit of fun, especially for those looking for fan-service with a bit more intelligence and style than some of the other offerings out there". Two reviews of Honey on the website Anime Jump greatly diverged: site maintainer Mike Toole rated the series 3.5 out of 5 stars and called it "tons of fun, a light, tasty action-comedy that's ... spirited and silly and tongue-in-cheek", and praised its character designs as "letter-perfect to Go Nagai's original (quite appealing!) character designs"; Jason Carter praised Calvello's voice work in his review of the 2004 ADV release, but rated it 1.5 out of 5 stars, said that much of Cosplay City "goes back and forth between looking like an ordinary modern metropolis and resembling some sort of Smurf town built of polluted marshmallows", and concluded "The characters are largely annoying, the plot is hackneyed, the nudity is absurd, the fighting is rarely more than average, and the whole thing is ultimately pointless – as the series' later attempts at developing Honey as a person make all too clear." Sandra Dozier of DVD Verdict was also unimpressed with Honey: "I can see why it is popular—the glossy animation, the well-endowed chicks, the scant clothing. If that isn't your thing, however, there is very little to draw you to this series." Reviewers have noticed Go Nagai's influence on New Cutie Honey; several considered it among the best anime based on his works, while others preferred different series. Dozier said that Nagai is "recognized in the anime world as an influential artist and storyteller who is known for preferring extra helpings of nudity and violence in his work", and that such influence "definitely comes through" in the series. Carlos Ross of THEM Anime gave earlier Nagai anime bad ratings, but called Honey "another Go Nagai-based anime that common logic should dictate that THEM rate harshly – except that we actually enjoyed it immensely", while calling its "awfully ugly backdrops, and weird-looking characters" "standard Go Nagai". Beveridge says he greatly preferred Honey over other Nagai offerings, but that "it really doesn't rise up too much higher than thinly veiled fan service with something of a story". Scott Green of Ain't It Cool News praised "Nagai's tasteless sense of strangeness" as the series' "highpoint", saying its "bright American style superhero design, with kaleidoscopic oddity, humorously gratuitous nudity and violence" make it "amusing nonsense". In his negative review, Carter said the Devilman-based Devil Lady was a more entertaining anime with a similar "impressively built woman fighting monsters" premise. Many reviewers also contrasted its portrayal of main character Honey as a powerful figure with how it also shows off her body through her nude transformation sequences. Susan J. Napier, author of Anime from Akira to Princess Mononoke, distinguished the series from more pornographic anime such as Wicked City, Twin Dolls, and La Blue Girl. Napier thought that the series "sends mixed messages" because even though Honey has great strength and heroism, her transformations are very sexual in nature. She wrote that "the presumably male viewer is invited in, to participate in the unclothing and clothing of her nude body, while both male and female viewer alike are allowed the vicarious participation in the ecstatic transformation process", but quickly added: "Despite the regressive and voyeuristic aspects of her characterization, she is still clearly the film's hero, one worthy of admiration and emulation ... in the film's several violent scenes she more than holds her own." Dozier did not share that sentiment: she said "Honey does have some appeal as a fighter and as someone who cares very much about the people who are important to her, but her android past and her family life aren't explored too deeply—mostly, she's too busy getting into compromising situations and fighting evil." Both Dozier and Yuricon president Erica Friedman wrote about the sexual nature of Honey, including the lesbian desire of the Jewel Princess (one of Honey's enemies) for her in the second episode. Friedman—who had looked for such "implied yuri" in Cutie Honey manga—called the Princess's appearance "\*just\* what I was hoping for", and praised Honey's change to her S&M Queen form in response. Ross said about the series: "It's seemingly exploitative, it's incredibly sexist, and the female members of my household – you'd expect them to be indignant, but, no, they were laughing their butts off because it was so blatant, and yet Honey was actually never objectified in the whole series." He further writes, "Honey Kisaragi is an extremely strong character who is no damsel in distress. If anyone needs help in this series, it's the guys!" Toole said that Jessica Calvello "gives the character a growling, tough-girl charm that was conspicuously absent from the original version", while Dozier said that Calvello captured "the combination of innocence and bravado [of Honey] that is both so confusing and yet so appropriate". Beveridge said the "fight sequences are pretty well done and provide some fun moments watching Honey battle the various demonic forms", but concluded that Honey's main goal is to showcase the lead heroine's changes: "Oh, lets face it. it's all about the half to completely naked transformation sequences. They're grrreat!" ## See also - Fan service - Wild Cardz (1997), another OVA directed by Nagaoka

Thomas Binger

Wisconsin government lawyer

Thomas Clair Binger is an American lawyer and government official who has served in the role of Kenosha County Assistant District Attorney since 2014. He was raised in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, where he attended the local Washington High School. He ran unsuccessfully as a Democrat for the office of the Racine County District Attorney in 2016. He served as the lead prosecutor in the 2021 trial of Kyle Rittenhouse following the 2020 Kenosha unrest shooting, which ended in Rittenhouse's acquittal. ## Early life and education Binger is a native of Sioux Falls, South Dakota. He attended Washington High School in Sioux Falls. While in high school, he competed nationally as a member of the high school's debate team, earning 4th place in a national debate competition alongside his debate partner. Binger earned his Juris Doctor from the University of Michigan Law School in 1996. ## Legal career Between 1999 and 2005, Binger worked for the Milwaukee County District Attorney's office as a prosecutor. In 2005, he argued a termination of parental rights case before the Wisconsin Supreme Court. The Supreme Court unanimously agreed with his argument that a biological father who has not yet been adjudicated as the father of a child may nonetheless have his parental rights termination for abandonment of the child prior to adjudication. In 2005, Binger began working in private practice at DeMark, Kolbe & Brodek S.C., where he focused on civil litigation. In 2008, he won a \$540,000 jury verdict for a local developer. He joined the Kenosha County District Attorney's Office in 2014. In 2015, he served as a prosecutor in the murder trial of Chester Mass, who was accused of murdering his girlfriend. The trial resulted in the conviction of Mass on charges of first-degree intentional homicide. As of November 2021, he continues to work as an Assistant District Attorney for Kenosha County. ### State v. Rittenhouse Binger served as the lead prosecutor in the trial of Kyle Rittenhouse following the Kenosha unrest shooting in which Rittenhouse shot three individuals. During the trial, prosecutors argued that Rittenhouse was seen as an active shooter and had provoked the other participants while defense lawyers argued the affirmative defense of self-defense on the grounds that Rittenhouse had been chased and attacked. Hearings held prior to the start of the trial showed a contentious atmosphere between Binger and Wisconsin circuit court judge Bruce Schroeder, who presided over the criminal case. In February 2021, Schroeder declined a motion by Binger to have Rittenhouse arrested after Rittenhouse allegedly violated conditions of his bail by failing to report a change of address. In a separate pre-trial hearing that took place in October 2021, Schroeder ordered Binger to refrain from referring to witnesses as "victims", drawing ire from Binger. Schroeder and Binger would continue to clash multiple times throughout the trial itself. Binger drew sharp criticism from Schroeder for his line of questioning directed towards Rittenhouse; Schroeder deemed a portion of the cross-examination of the defendant that challenged the motivation for Rittenhouse's post-arrest silence to be a "grave constitutional violation", referring to the right to remain silent guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment, and admonished Binger for bringing up aspects of a prior incident involving Rittenhouse that had been previously ruled inadmissible. Later, Binger criticized Schroeder for what he described as a "fairness issue" pertaining to the judge's handling of the defense's introduction of evidence into the trial. Citing state ethics guidelines, Binger told media on November 16 that he would not make public comments about the trial following a jury verdict. Three days later, Rittenhouse was acquitted on all charges by the jury. ## Political career In 2016, while working as a Kenosha County Assistant District Attorney, Binger unsuccessfully ran for the office of the Racine County District Attorney. Binger announced his candidacy in a Facebook post on April 25, 2016, stating that he would seek election to the role as a candidate of the Democratic Party. His Republican opponent, Tricia Hanson, announced her candidacy the following day. Binger focused his campaign on two top priorities—to address local problems caused by the opioid epidemic in the United States and to improve coordination between the Racine County District Attorney's office and the local victim's office, which provides support to crime victims. He campaigned to create a treatment program for non-violent drug offenders in which drug addicts would be administered Naltrexone over a twelve-month period in order to allow addicts to avoid prison. He argued that the treatment program would help to reduce the aggregate demand for illegal drugs in Racine County. Binger also supported the creation of separate mental health courts and sought to reduce what he described as racial disparities in how Wisconsinites are arrested and prosecuted. Financing for Binger's campaign came largely from lawyers and political committees. He received financial support from local affiliates of the Democratic Party, a United Auto Workers–affiliated PAC, as well as the campaign of then-Wisconsin state representative Cory Mason. He also financed his campaign with a ten-thousand dollar loan from himself, as well as donations from other individual and group donors. Binger lost the election to Hanson; Binger earned 36,988 votes while Hanson earned 51,074 votes. ## Personal life As of 2016, Binger was a resident of Caledonia, Wisconsin, and had lived in Racine County for over ten years. As of November 2021, Binger has had three children with Nicole Gustafson-Binger, a mental health counselor.

Amazing Grace (2018 film)

2018 American documentary film featuring Aretha Franklin

Amazing Grace is a 2018 concert film "realized and produced" by Alan Elliott. The film's footage was shot under the direction of Sydney Pollack, who does not receive directorial credit, just a "special thanks." Amazing Grace stars Aretha Franklin recording her 1972 live album of the same name. It co-stars James Cleveland, Alexander Hamilton, and the Southern California Community Choir, and features her father C. L. Franklin. The film was not released as scheduled in 1972 due to difficulty in synchronizing the audio with the visual print, and was relegated to a Warner Bros. vault until 2007, when producer Alan Elliott purchased the raw footage and attempted to synchronize it. The edited footage, 87 minutes in length, was planned for a 2011 release. However, Franklin sued Elliott for appropriating her likeness without permission, and the release date passed. Elliott made another attempt in 2015 to hold the film's premiere at the Telluride Film Festival, at the Toronto International Film Festival, and at the Chicago International Film Festival, but Franklin sued him again for reasons that have not been revealed. After Franklin's death in 2018, her family made an arrangement to release the film, which premiered at Doc NYC in 2018, before being released worldwide on April 5, 2019. The film has received critical acclaim. ## Synopsis American singer Aretha Franklin records her gospel album Amazing Grace live at the New Temple Missionary Baptist Church in Los Angeles in 1972. She is accompanied by the Southern California Community Choir, directed by Alexander Hamilton, positioned behind her as Franklin sings from the church's lectern or from the piano to a mostly African-American audience. James Cleveland appears as master of ceremonies, featured singer and piano accompanist. Franklin is also accompanied by Kenny Luper on organ, Cornell Dupree on guitar, Bernard Purdie on drums, Chuck Rainey on bass guitar and Poncho Moralaes on percussion. On the second night Mick Jagger and Charlie Watts appear in the audience, in Los Angeles at the time to finish the Rolling Stones' album Exile on Main St. Critic Jordan Hoffman believes the gospel inflections of songs such as "Shine a Light" and "Let It Loose" were inspired by this visit. ## Cast - Aretha Franklin - vocals, piano - James Cleveland - MC, vocals, piano - Alexander Hamilton - choir director - Cornell Dupree - guitar - Kenny Luper - organ - Poncho Morales - percussion - Bernard Purdie - drums - Chuck Rainey - bass - Southern California Community Choir Also appearing: - C. L. Franklin - speaker (Aretha Franklin's father) - Sydney Pollack - original director of film - Clara Ward - in audience - Mick Jagger - in audience - Charlie Watts - in audience ## Production In 1972, Joe Boyd, the Music Services director at Warner Bros., originally proposed that film director James Signorelli direct the film. At a later date, Warner CEO Ted Ashley approached Sydney Pollack to direct the film. Pollack accepted the assignment when he heard Franklin's name. Principal photography took place over two consecutive nights, on January 13 and 14, 1972, at the New Temple Missionary Baptist Church in Los Angeles, while Franklin recorded her Amazing Grace album. The album went on to become the highest-selling gospel music album of all time. Pollack shot 20 hours of raw footage using 16 mm cameras. The post-production and supervision of the film were completed by Final Cut USA, Inc. Since Pollack had not used clapperboards, it was considered impossible to sync the audio with the film in post-production. The project was halted, and the raw footage placed in a vault at Warner Bros; it went unseen through the 1990s. ## Release The Amazing Grace film was initially scheduled for a 1972 release together with Warner Bros.' Super Fly. In 2007, producer Alan Elliott purchased the raw footage. Subsequently, sound editor/mixer Serge Perron successfully synchronized the sound with all the film footage. Once all the sound and footage were synchronized, Jeff Buchanan edited the film. Now pared down to 87 minutes, the film was scheduled for a 2011 release. However, Franklin sued Elliott for appropriating her likeness without permission, and the release was postponed. After Franklin's original release contract was discovered at the Warner Bros. offices, Elliott decided to release the film at the Telluride Film Festival, the Toronto International Film Festival, and the Chicago International Film Festival in 2015. Franklin sued him again, this time for reasons that have not been published, and was granted an emergency injunction against the film screening, because she had not given permission to screen the footage. After Franklin's death in 2018, her family made an arrangement to release the film. It premiered at the Doc NYC on 12 November 2018, was released worldwide on 5 April 2019, and had its UK premiere on 10 May 2019. An expanded version of the film was developed with Neon and was scheduled to have a theatrical release in March 2020. ### Home media Amazing Grace was released in the United States on digital download and DVD on 6 August 2019, by Universal Studios. In the UK, StudioCanal released the film on DVD, digital and Blu-ray on 2 September 2019. The film debuted at No. 2 on the U.S. Billboard Music Video Sales chart on 17 August 2019. The following week it reached No. 1 replacing Live from the Artists Den by Soundgarden, based on sales of DVDs and other formats. The film debuted at No. 1 on the UK Official Music Video Chart (OCC). Amazing Grace grossed \$705,618 on Domestic DVD Sales, with 30,800 units sold. On 3 October 2019 Amazing Grace became available on streaming media Hulu. ## Reception ### Box office Amazing Grace grossed \$4,450,454 in the United States and Canada, and \$739,664 in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of \$5,190,118. On its domestic opening weekend the film grossed \$57,353, averaging \$19,118 per location. The film earned \$111,389 during its awards' qualifying run in December. Upon its general release on 5 April, the film made \$88,098 in its opening weekend across 8 screens finishing 30th at the box office. In its second weekend it made \$349,082, a 296% increase and \$603,302 in its third and highest, the film was added to 132 theatres over the previous week for a total of 190. #### Other territories In the United Kingdom it was released on 10 May 2019, by StudioCanal and grossed £166,593 on its opening weekend in 69 cinemas, and grossed a total of £586,110 (\$740,412) over a four-week period. In Norway it grossed a total of \$116,724 in its first week on 57 screens and \$53,241 on 53 screens on its second weekend for a total of \$258,667. By the fourth weekend it increased to 56 screens for a box office total of \$444,083. It was released in Australia on 29 August, making \$132,675 on its opening weekend ranking twelfth and \$94,199 on its second grossing a total of \$370,187. ### Critical response On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Brilliantly capturing a remarkable performer near the peak of her prodigious power, Amazing Grace is a thrilling must-watch documentary for Aretha Franklin fans." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 94 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "Universal acclaim". Odie Henderson of RogerEbert.com enthused, "Whether you're religious or not, you owe it to yourself to see this movie if the chance arises. You'll see how much love and feeling went into the construction of the resulting album." Variety's Owen Gleiberman noted, "The movie reveals how the fundamental distinction between "rock 'n' roll" and "rhythm and blues" was not only racist at its core, but a way for the consumer culture to slice the God out of music that was invented as a way to talk to God." Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian wrote, "The film is almost wall-to-wall music, with Franklin barely acknowledging the audience between songs." The Los Angeles Times' Justin Chang wrote: "Aretha Franklin didn't transcend the gospel or gospel music; as first her album and now this marvelous documentary remind us, she did more than most to fulfill its potential for truth and beauty, devotion and art." Hoffman wrote, "And we can quibble as to whether Pollack, Elliot or credited editor Jeff Buchanan is the true author of the piece." Producer Chiemi Karasawa claimed her work on the film was not compensated and filed an arbitration case against Alan Elliott upon its release. Armond White of National Review criticized the film's politics, writing: "Is playing into the approval of white people the only way that bourgeois black people can think to confirm their significance? To reduce Franklin's art to the propaganda of 'empowerment' and activism disrespects the daily significance of the civil-rights movement and its basis in the sanctified church." #### Accolades

KLRT-TV

Fox affiliate in Little Rock, Arkansas

KLRT-TV (channel 16) is a television station in Little Rock, Arkansas, United States, affiliated with the Fox network. It is owned by Mission Broadcasting alongside Pine Bluff–licensed CW affiliate KASN (channel 38); Mission maintains a local marketing agreement (LMA) with Nexstar Media Group, owner of NBC affiliate KARK-TV (channel 4) and MyNetworkTV affiliate KARZ-TV (channel 42), for the provision of certain services. All four stations share studios at the Victory Building on West Capitol Avenue and South Victory Street, near the Arkansas State Capitol, in downtown Little Rock; KLRT-TV's transmitter is located at the Shinall Mountain antenna farm, near the city's Chenal Valley neighborhood. KLRT-TV began broadcasting in June 1983 as the first independent station in the market and the first UHF station in central Arkansas in nearly 30 years. It was owned by a consortium dominated by MMT Sales, a national advertising sales representative for TV stations, and featuring six other partners who had been its competing applicants. After briefly becoming a Fox affiliate in September 1989 in connection with a planned acquisition of KASN assets that fell through, the network moved its affiliation for good to KLRT-TV in 1990. The next year, Clear Channel Television acquired KLRT-TV, followed by the assets of KASN, which Clear Channel then began controlling under a local marketing agreement. A local news program debuted in 2004. Clear Channel spun out its television stations to Newport Television, controlled by Providence Equity Partners, in 2007. In 2012, Nexstar purchased some of the stations of Newport; it then assigned the purchase of KLRT-TV and KASN to Mission Broadcasting, which then contracted with Nexstar for services. As a result, most of KLRT-TV's management and news staffers were dismissed as functions were consolidated with KARK-TV. The combined newsroom airs weekday morning, early evening, and late evening newscasts on channel 16. ## History The first proposal for a channel 16 station in Little Rock reached the construction permit stage with a grant by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in March 1966. The station would have been owned by the Victor Broadcasting Company, controlled by Connecticut industrialist Victor Muscat alongside Little Rock radio station KMYO. Originally planned to launch in 1967, its backers opted to wait until the FCC granted them an increase in their effective radiated power. The construction permit remained on the books until being deleted by the start of 1974. ### As an independent station Interest in building channel 16 was rekindled in the late 1970s by groups seeking different uses. One, Arkansas Christian Television, sought to build a Christian television station; others proposed subscription television programming. The final field of applicants for channel 16 numbered eight. Other notable bidders included Milton Grant's Grant Broadcasting Corporation; a group led by former KARK-TV news anchor Deborah Mathis; Central Arkansas Television, whose investors included former U.S. House Representative and eventual Arkansas Governor Jim Guy Tucker; May Broadcasting of Shenandoah, Iowa; and LRTV Limited Partnership, controlled by national station representation firm MMT Sales of New York and its executive Gary Scollard. Arkansas Christian Television, not wanting to face a comparative hearing process that it believed could stretch on for five years, withdrew the next month. At the end of 1981, the seven remaining applicants announced a settlement agreement to combine in a limited partnership dominated by MMT. The lopsided nature of the shareholdings prompted the FCC administrative law judge assigned to the comparative hearing case to initially reject the settlement, only to be overruled by the FCC's review board that June, an action that cleared the way for the construction permit to be granted. Little Rock Communications Associates (LRCA), the consortium of owners produced by the settlement agreement, proceeded to draft plans to construct the station on Shinall Mountain and purchase a building off Markham Street. The call letters KLRT-TV, for Little Rock Television, were assigned over the objections of Little Rock radio station KLRA. KLRT-TV first signed on the air on June 26, 1983. It was the first independent station in Arkansas; the first commercial television station to sign on in the region since CBS affiliate KTHV (channel 11) debuted 28 years earlier on November 27, 1955; and the first UHF station to operate in Little Rock since pioneering KRTV on channel 17 sold its facilities to KATV in 1954. It aired syndicated classic sitcoms, prime time movies, sports, and children's cartoons. Two more independents would launch in Central Arkansas to compete with KLRT during 1986. Bell Equities, Inc. signed on KRZB-TV (channel 26) in Hot Springs on February 7. While that station's signal did not reach Little Rock, and it ultimately closed in March 1988, TVX Broadcast Group signed on Pine Bluff-licensed KJTM-TV (channel 38) on June 17, subsequently becoming the market's original Fox affiliate on October 6 of that year. As the established independent in the market, KLRT continued to maintain a lead against its competitors. During the late 1980s, KLRT also maintained an innovative partnership with Storer Cable's Little Rock system; the station occasionally leased airtime to Storer to offer free previews of programming from basic and premium cable channels carried by the system, in addition to co-sponsoring various community service projects. ### As a Fox affiliate TVX sold KJTM in 1988 to MMC Television, which changed the station's call sign to KASN. In September 1989, KLRT-TV management announced that Fox programming would be moving to channel 16, which caught KASN management off guard. The two had been in discussions about channel 16 acquiring channel 38's Fox affiliation and most of its programming inventory, with KASN likely to fill its broadcast day with home shopping or other content, though nothing had been finalized. On September 27, however, KLRT management decided to pull out of the deal; Scollard reportedly notified MMC that the asset sale would not be moving forward in a letter faxed to station management. Fox shifted back to KASN after 42 days under a separate contract that MMC and Fox struck during the asset negotiations, which reverted the affiliation rights to KASN if the proposed asset merger was not completed by October 21, 1989. Fox changed hands again on April 28, 1990, when the network moved its programming to KLRT on a full-time basis. Little Rock became one of several markets in the South where the Fox affiliation moved during the course of 1990; three of the four cases, including Little Rock, involved former TVX stations losing Fox. After learning that KASN would lose its Fox affiliation for good, MMC Television filed a lawsuit against LRCA with the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois over the failed merger, alleging civil conspiracy, misappropriation of trade secrets, breach of contract, and fraud. MMC Television claimed the asset merger was a deliberate effort by KLRT management to "dismantle" KASN, while LRCA asserted that MMC misrepresented its actions and concealed KASN's financial difficulties in the suit. Clear Channel Communications purchased KLRT from the LRCA/Scollard partnership on March 6, 1991, for \$6.6 million (equivalent to \$ in ). Clear Channel purchased the non-license assets of KASN from the Pruett family that July, leasing them back to the station in a move that cleared channel 38's debts. The next year, Mercury Broadcasting, a company owned by Van H. Archer III, acquired KASN itself in exchange for the assumption of \$14.3 million in debt. Clear Channel then entered into a joint sales agreement (JSA) that September, allowing it to handle advertising and promotional services for KASN. The JSA was amended into a standard local marketing agreement (LMA) on January 1, 1995, with operations for KASN consolidated at KLRT's facilities. After the passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, Clear Channel then acquired five local FM stations in 1996 and 1997; upon the legalization of duopolies in December 1999, it purchased KASN and three other stations outright in a deal worth \$11.6 million (equivalent to \$ in ). A combined radio/television studio facility for Clear Channel's Little Rock stations, dubbed the "Clear Channel Metroplex", was opened in March 2001 in West Little Rock. The National Bank of Arkansas purchased KLRT–KASN's former Markham Street studios in 2003 for redevelopment. KLRT and KASN were included in the sale of Clear Channel's television station portfolio to Newport Television, controlled by Providence Equity Partners, for \$1.2 billion on April 20, 2007 (equivalent to \$ in ). The sale was made so Clear Channel could refocus around its radio, outdoor advertising and live event units. The sale received FCC approval on December 1, 2007; after settlement of a lawsuit filed by Clear Channel owners Thomas H. Lee Partners and Bain Capital against Providence to force the deal's completion, consummation took place on March 14, 2008. ### Mission ownership and Nexstar management As part of a liquidation of Newport Television's assets, Nexstar Broadcasting Group purchased KLRT and KASN in a 12-station deal worth \$285.5 million (equivalent to \$ in ) announced on July 19, 2012. Due to Nexstar already owning KARK-TV and KARZ-TV, KLRT and KASN were subsequently resold to Mission Broadcasting for \$59.7 million (equivalent to \$ in ), with Nexstar effectively taking over both stations under a new LMA, continuing a business practice established between the otherwise two separate companies. The transfer for KLRT and KASN to Mission was consummated on January 1, 2013. The creation of a four-station cluster in the same market resulted in substantial downsizing on January 3, 2013, with 20 employees from KLRT–KASN dismissed along with eight KARK–KARZ staffers; this included KLRT–KASN general manager Chuck Spohn, who was replaced with KARK–KARZ management. KLRT–KASN concurrently moved from the Clear Channel Metroplex to KARK–KARZ's studios at the Victory Building in Little Rock's downtown. ## News operation For most of its early history, KLRT-TV only provided news in the form of brief news and weather updates, originally known as Newscap 16. The original anchor was Bill Powell, formerly of KTHV. By 1988, news updates were presented by staff from Arkansas Radio Network flagship KARN (920 AM), while weather segments were presented by local radio personality Craig O'Neill, who often introduced segments as his radio character "Sherman Bonner, the Human Thermometer". On September 4, 2000, KLRT premiered Fox First Weather, a five-minute local weather segment aired at 10 p.m. and produced by AccuWeather. KLRT started building out a full-scale news department in September 2003 with the hiring of Michael Fabac from WNEM-TV in Bay City, Michigan, as news director; the Clear Channel Metroplex, selected because it was deemed of sufficient size to house a news operation, was also renovated. The brief news updates and First Weather segments were discontinued in December 2003 in advance of the debut of the hour-long Fox 16 News at Nine on March 28, 2004. It was the first attempt at a 9 p.m. newscast in the market following the closure of KKYK-TV's news department in September 1999. At launch, the newscast was anchored on weeknights by Donna Terrell, Kevin Kelly, Troy Bridges and David Raath, with weekends handled by Kim Betton, Nate Higgins and Justin Holgate; Dewayne Graham, formerly of KATV, was the station's lead investigative reporter. Ratings slowly inched up for the newscast, bringing KLRT just behind KARK-TV for third place in the overall market by May 2005. Weeknight newscasts at 5 and 5:30 p.m. were added on March 19, 2007, followed by a nightly 10 p.m. newscast on January 18, 2010. After Mission acquired KLRT in 2013, much of the station's news staff was laid off as the news department was to be consolidated with KARK, including news director Ed Trauschke (who replaced Fabac in 2007) and sports anchor David Raath. Weeknight anchors Terrell and Kelly and chief meteorologist Jeff Baskin were among those who remained with the station as Mission employees, while weekend anchor Kelly Dudzik left for an anchor/reporter role at WGRZ in Buffalo, New York. In early February, the news departments were consolidated. KLRT's 5 and 10 p.m. newscasts were discontinued, while the 5:30 and 9 p.m. newscasts were retained and a new morning show, Good Day Arkansas, was launched to supplant the existing 7 a.m. newscast on KARZ. As KLRT-TV moved in with KARK-TV at the latter's facility, the surplus KLRT-TV set was shipped by Nexstar to WATN-TV in Memphis, Tennessee, which moved into new studios and relaunched its news product that year. ## Technical information ### Subchannels The station's digital signal is multiplexed: Since 2016, KLRT has carried Ion Mystery as a subchannel via a groupwide deal between Mission/Nexstar and Katz Broadcasting. In July 2021, KLRT-TV became one of five participating Little Rock stations in the market's ATSC 3.0 (NextGen TV) deployment, carrying two subchannels of KARZ-TV while that station broadcasts KLRT-TV in 3.0. ### Analog-to-digital conversion KLRT-TV signed on its digital signal on UHF channel 30 on May 1, 2002. The station shut down its analog signal, over UHF channel 16, on the digital transition deadline date of June 12, 2009. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 30, using virtual channel 16.

Alone in the Dark (1992 video game)

Survival horror game

Alone in the Dark is a 1992 survival horror video game designed by Frédérick Raynal. Developed and published by Infogrames in 1992 for MS-DOS, the game was eventually ported to MacOS, the PC-98, the FM Towns, the 3DO, the Acorn Archimedes, and iOS. Alone in the Dark is set in 1920s Louisiana and challenges the player to escape a haunted mansion. To advance, the player must solve puzzles while banishing, slaying, or eluding various ghosts and monsters. The player can collect and use weapons, manage a weight-based inventory system, and explore a partially nonlinear map. Raynal was motivated to create Alone in the Dark due to his interest in 3D animation and his fondness for horror films. The game's storyline was inspired by the Cthulhu Mythos of H. P. Lovecraft and the work of directors like Dario Argento and George Romero; Raynal's programming team worked to convey much of this story via key texts scattered about the game's environment. To overcome technical limitations, the production team also employed a fixed camera angle system to dramatically frame the movement of three-dimensional characters on top of two-dimensional background images. Upon its release, Alone in the Dark received acclaim, with critics applauding its unsettling atmosphere, effective soundtrack, and technical inventiveness. The game also won several industry awards and is regularly included in lists of the best video games ever made. Often identified as the first 3D survival horror game, Alone in the Dark strongly influenced the production of Capcom's Resident Evil (1996), and it also spawned a series of follow-up games and two films. A reimagining of the original game, developed by THQ Nordic, is set to be released in October 2023. ## Gameplay Players choose between a male or female protagonist (Edward Carnby or Emily Hartwood, respectively), and are then trapped inside the haunted mansion of Derceto. The player character starts in the attic, having ascended to the top of the mansion without incident, and is tasked with finding a way out of the mansion while avoiding, outsmarting, or defeating various supernatural enemies. Although able to kill most enemies with fists and feet, the player can also find and utilize various weapons. Other opponents can only be beaten by solving a particular puzzle rather than a straight fight, and still others cannot be killed and instead must be avoided. Much of the game involves exploration and puzzle-solving, and the player can search through the house for clues as to what occurred before the player's arrival. The player can also open and close doors, push certain objects, and pick up and use key items. The game's inventory is limited, and the player must often discard items to make room. It is possible to discard items needed to complete the game, but discarded items remain in play and can be retrieved later, even if the player character leaves the room. Inventory space is determined by weight, not number of items; for example, a player may discard several lightweight items yet still be unable to pick up a heavy object. Alone in the Dark has a partially non-linear level design. The player character is initially restricted to the attic and third floor, whose rooms are arranged such that they must be traversed in a linear order. Completing the puzzle at the end of the third floor grants the player character access to the first and second floors. The player can explore the rooms in this area in any order and revisit the attic and third floor if desired. Upon completing a specific puzzle, the player gains access to the caverns beneath the mansion. The caverns are completely linear, and each puzzle must be overcome as it is encountered. ## Plot In 1924, Jeremy Hartwood, a noted artist and owner of the Louisiana mansion Derceto, has died by suicide. His death appears suspicious yet seems to surprise nobody, for Derceto is widely reputed to be haunted by an evil power. The player assumes the role of either Edward Carnby (a private investigator who is sent to find a piano in the loft for an antique dealer) or Emily Hartwood (Jeremy's niece, who is also interested in finding the piano because she believes it contains a secret note that explains Jeremy's suicide). Depending on whether the player chooses to play as Carnby or Hartwood, the game begins with that character going to the mansion to investigate. Upon entering the house, the doors mysteriously slam shut behind the player character, and once they make it to the attic, they are attacked by monsters. The player character progresses down through the house, fighting off various creatures and hazards. The player character finds documents throughout the house indicating that Derceto was built by an occultist pirate named Ezechiel Pregzt, and that beneath the house are caverns wherein Pregzt performed dark rituals to enlarge his fortune and unnaturally extend his life. Pregzt was shot, and Derceto was burned down by encamped Union soldiers during the American Civil War. However, Pregzt's spirit lived on, coming to inhabit an old tree in the caverns underneath Derceto. Over the course of the game, the player discovers that Jeremy Hartwood committed suicide to prevent his body being used by Pregzt as a host; for this reason, Pregzt is now targeting the player. If the player is incapacitated, their body is subsequently dragged to a sacrificial area and possessed by Pregzt, whereupon the game ends with an image of supernatural horrors being unleashed from the house into the world at large. The player character finds a passage into the caverns in Hartwood's study and makes their way to the tree where Pregzt resides. The player character hurls a lighted lantern at the tree, then flees the collapsing cavern. The flames consume Pregzt, and the house is purged of supernatural creatures and other effects caused by his influence. The player can finally open the front doors and leave the house (which, now empty of monsters, is largely safe to explore). The game ends with the player returning to their car, only to discover that the person behind the wheel is a zombie, who drives the car back to civilization. ### Cultural references The story is heavily influenced by the works of Edgar Allan Poe and H. P. Lovecraft. The setting for the story is inspired by Poe's "The Fall of the House of Usher". Grimoires found in the mansion's library include the Necronomicon and De Vermis Mysteriis, both taken from Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos. The last name of the character Edward Carnby is a reference to John Carnby, a character in the Mythos tale The Return of the Sorcerer by Clark Ashton Smith. Finally, several supernatural opponents are recognizable creatures from the Mythos (e.g., Deep Ones, Nightgaunts, Chthonians), and Pregzt even mentions Cthulhu. ## Development ### Background In 1991, the French video game developer Infogrames acquired the rights to adapt Chaosium's Call of Cthulhu role-playing game (based on H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos) into a series of video games. When brainstorming ideas for what an adaptation would entail, Infogrames CEO Bruno Bonnell proposed a game where players would use matches to gain snapshot views of a completely dark environment. Frédérick Raynal, a programmer at Infogrames, was struck by the concept: As a fan of horror film directors like Dario Argento and George Romero, Raynal had long wanted to create a horror-based game, and so he approached Bonnell, asking if he could lead the project. Raynal also proposed that the game be rendered using 3D animation. Bonnell, however, felt that such a game was not possible, given the technical limitations of the time, and so he assigned Raynal to work on a French port of Maxis's city-building simulator SimCity (1989). Despite this setback, Raynal was determined to realize his horror game concept, and to convince Bonnell that such a project was feasible, hewith the help of fellow Infogrames employee Didier Chanfrayspent his evenings working on a 3D animation engine to power the game. Chanfray played a significant role in developing the nascent game's tone and visual style during this stage of production. Using white chalk and black Canson paper, he created a concept sketch of an individual standing in a dark, eerie hallway, illuminating the environment with a lantern—a sketch that Raynal later called "iconic". To determine the game's set decorator, Raynal organized an internal contest among Infogrames' staff, inviting them to design potential background sets for the game. One of those who participated in this contest was Yaël Barroz, a graphic artist nearing the end of her fixed-term contract with Infogrames. Barroz's submissions emulated the style of traditional paintings, and Raynal found them so striking that he brought her on to help develop the look of the game's environments. In September 1991, Raynal and his team presented an early proof of concept of their horror game to Infogrames. At the time, the game only contained a few rooms, but when Bonnell and Infogrames head of productions Éric Motet saw this demo, they were convinced of the game's potential for success and officially approved the project. Infogrames subsequently diverted resources to Raynal's project, which resulted in the development team expanding from three individuals to seven. During this phase of production, the game went by several working titles, including In the Dark, Screams in the Dark, The Old Dark House, The Thing in the House, and The Evil Fear. The name Alone in the Dark was eventually settled upon, with the word "Alone" being added to "reinforce the tragic nature" of the game. ### Writing and animation To help develop the game's story, Infogrames hired Hubert Chardot, a screenwriter who had worked for 20th Century Fox. Chardot outlined the game's plot in only three afternoons, and he also wrote most of the game's dialogue. While Alone in the Dark would go on to be advertised as a game "inspired by the work of H. P. Lovecraft", Raynal has admitted that the works of Argento and Romero were stronger influences on the game and that Lovecraft was used simply to provide "ambiance, to give roots to the mystery and to add a few creatures to the bestiary". This decision to allude to the author's creations rather than directly adapt one of his works led Chaosium to contend that the game was "too far removed from the spirit of H. P. Lovecraft", and so they subsequently revoked Infogrames' Call of Cthulhu license. Other sources claim that Chaosium revoked their license because they believed Raynal's game to be too simple to do justice to the complex rules of their pen-and-paper game. Due to his belief that computer graphics at the time were not sufficiently frightening on their own, Raynal decided to integrate key texts into the game which could convey necessary backstory details: "A few polygons," he noted in an interview with GamaSutra, "[is] not very frightening, so I knew that I needed the text to put the situation into a very heavy background story for the game." In terms of time period and setting, Raynal also decided that the game should take place in a 1920s mansion, as such an expansive locale would be conducive to player exploration, and the specific time frame would allow "for weapons while avoiding the modern commodities that were too difficult to properly handle" or which would have "caused atmosphere and consistency problems". To heighten player anxiety, the game was designed so that simple tasks like walking down a hall, opening a door, or reading a book could potentially result in player death. While these deaths occurred in only a few areas, Raynal and his team included them to make the player worry about seemingly ordinary actions. Items and characters in Alone in the Dark are three-dimensional objects, with characters averaging around 250 polygons. These 3D objects are rendered upon a two-dimensional fixed background. Due to the technical limitations of the day, the mixing of polygons and pre-rendered background images required the use of fixed camera anglesa situation which the game's designers used to limit the player's field of view, thereby engendering an aura of "apprehension and fear". Initially, Raynal had wanted to use photos of an actual mansion built in the 1920s as backgrounds, but this idea proved too ambitious for the 3D rendering tools available, and the team instead resorted to using hand-drawn bitmaps. The soundtrack to Alone in the Dark was created by Infogrames' in-house composer Philippe Vachey with the use of Ad Lib, Inc. sound cards. Vachey's "haunting and organic" score incorporated sonic essential elements often found in horror soundtracks, including piano hits and plucked strings. Upon Raynal's request, Vachey also created musical compositions that corresponded to each of the game's many monsters. While Raynal intended these tracks to only play whenever a monster appeared on screen, Vachey proposed that they occasionally play even when an enemy was absent. This, Vachey reasoned, would scare the player into thinking they were in danger when they were otherwise perfectly safe. Raynal also wanted the game to incorporate realistic sound effects to heighten its atmosphere, and so Vachey incorporated Sound Blaster audio samples into his sound design. While absent from the original release, the 1993 CD-ROM re-release of Alone in the Dark featured introductory voice-overs. While most of Alone in the Dark's production cycle was defined by a spirit of optimism and creative enthusiasm, the bug-testing phase wore out the team. Raynal, in particular, grew dissatisfied with almost every aspect of Alone in the Dark and felt certain that players would notice all of its flaws. Raynal's mood further soured when, just before release, Bruno Bonnell requested that Raynal replace the line "Game created by Frédérick Raynal" in the game's credits with "Game created by Infogrames." Raynal complied but felt as if he was being denied full recognition for his work (a snub he later called "the trauma of [his] life"). After Alone in the Dark proved to be a success, Infogrames tapped Raynal to direct a sequel. However, they demanded that he "keep the same engine", which Raynal felt was too great of a restriction; he and his team left the company soon thereafter. ### Releases, ports, and remakes Initially released for the MS-DOS operating system, Alone in the Dark was published in 1992 for the European market by Infogrames. The game was released in the United States in 1993 by I•Motion and Interplay Entertainment; that same year, it was released in Japan by Arrow Micro-Techs Corp. for the PC-98 and FM Towns computers. In 1994, the game was ported to Mac OS by MacPlay and to the 3DO by Krisalis, and the following year, Krisalis created a port of the game for the Acorn Archimedes. Ports for the Atari Jaguar CD and the 32X were also in development by Infogrames but were never released. In 2014, Atari released an official port for iOS that had been co-developed by Kung Fu Factory. Before the release of Alone In The Dark (2008), Eden Games attempted to remake the original game, but after the 2008 installment was met with lukewarm reviews, parent company Atari laid off most of Eden's employees and ultimately canceled the game. In August 2022, an announcement was made that a reboot of the original was in development. THQ Nordic, the new owner of the Alone In The Dark franchise, will develop the game for the PC, PlayStation 5, and Xbox Series X/S. This remake will feature the same setting and protagonists as the original, but it will feature a completely new story written by Mikael Hedberg, a former Frictional Games writer who had worked on Penumbra: Black Plague (2008), Amnesia: The Dark Descent (2010), and SOMA (2015). The game is slated for an October 2023 release. ## Reception Alone in the Dark received positive reviews upon release, with many hailing it as a trailblazing piece of media. Dany Boolauck of the French gaming magazine Tilt called Alone in the Dark "a real revolution in the field of gaming" and compared it positively to other groundbreaking titles like Dungeon Master (1987), Prince of Persia (1989), and Another World. Likewise, Next Generation called Alone in the Dark "a breakthrough game", and AllGame wrote that, among the games released in the early 1990s, Alone in the Dark "stands out as a graphical gem". Several critics wrote highly of the game's atmosphere and sound design. In a review of the 3DO version of the game, Next Generation wrote that "Alone'''s subtle mix of eerie music, grim animation sequences, and suspense-filled storyline create an atmosphere of tense horror that adds an interesting new twist to the standard graphic adventure." Charles Ardai, in his review for Computer Gaming World, applauded the game's frightening ambiance, which he claimed caused him "jump in fright at the slightest sound [as if he had] been inside a real house". In the same issue of Computer Gaming World, Scorpia commended the game's designers for "establishing mood" through key interactables and for utilizing sound "to good effect". Similarly, GamePro's Lawrence Neves lauded the game's sound design, noting that "weird moaning, zombie laughter, and occasional hands-around-the-throat screams instill the right mood". Neves also held that the game's sparing use of music effectively enhanced key scenes. Alone in the Dark's fixed camera angle system also engendered critical discussion, specifically regarding its similarity to horror film cinematography. Jacob Blackford of Computer Shopper praised this system, asserting that it created an "engaging, movie-like" environment. Similarly, a review in Computer Gaming World noted that the game's "clever use of camera angles" added a "startlingly cinematic touch" to the overall experience. In her review, Scorpia called the game's camera system its "unique feature": "Years of watching horror movies," she wrote, "have taught us that when the viewing perspective changes, it usually means that something is up". For this reason, she argued that Alone in the Dark's decision to integrate perspective changes into the game "very effectively [keeps the player] alert and worried over what's about to happen". In a retrospective consideration of the game, John Cantees of GamingBolt wrote that the use of fixed camera angles was "a great way to set a cinematic tone" while also "work[ing] within the very tight technical limitations of the time." Conversely, criticism was aimed at the compatibility of the game's fixed camera angle system with some of its more action-heavy set pieces. Scorpia, for instance, wrote: "There are some situations where maneuvering the character while the angles change can make your life difficult. Imagine running around narrow library corridors while being chased by a critter ... while the perspective changes constantly as you move." Other criticisms were aimed at the ambiguity about which monsters can be killed, the existence of interactables that can kill the player without warning, the game's linear design, and the look of its monsters. ### Sales According to PC Research, Alone in the Dark was the second best-selling MS-DOS game of March 1993. In February 1997, it was reported that Alone in the Dark had sold 600,000 copies, and by January 2000, that number had grown to 2.5 million. ### Accolades Alone in the Dark won numerous gaming and industry awards, including the European Computer Trade Show awards for "Best Graphics", "Most Original Game", and "Best French Game of the Year" (1993), and the Consumer Electronics Show award for "Best Foreign Game" (1993). Alone in the Dark has been included on lists of the best video games ever made by Computer Gaming World, Empire, Game Informer, GamesMaster, GameSpot, Gameswelt, IGN, PC Gamer, Polygon, and Stuff magazine. The game was also included in Cassell Illustrated's reference book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die (2010). ## Legacy Alone in the Dark was followed by seven more games in the series: Jack in the Dark (1993), Alone in the Dark 2 (1993), Alone in the Dark 3 (1994), Alone in the Dark: The New Nightmare (2001), Alone in the Dark (2008), Alone in the Dark: Illumination (2015), and Alone in the Dark (2023). The game also inspired two live-action films: Alone in the Dark (2005) and Alone in the Dark II (2008). Alone in the Dark is often heralded as the first 3D survival horror game, and some commentators have asserted that the game was the first survival horror game regardless of graphical perspective. Critics have also credited Alone in the Dark with setting the standard for subsequent survival horror games by popularizing limited player inventory, a heavy focus on puzzle-solving, an emphasis on survival rather than direct combat, and the use of fixed camera angles. During the production of Capcom's 1996 horror game Resident Evil, the game's director Shinji Mikami discovered Alone in the Dark. Mikami believed that the game's cinematic fixed-view camera system enabled "greater expressiveness" and a higher level of detail than what was currently possible in fully 3D games, and so he decided to adopt a fixed-view camera system for his project. In several interviews, Mikami has stated that, if it were not for Alone in the Dark, the inaugural Resident Evil'' would have likely developed into a first-person shooter.

First Ward Wardroom

The First Ward Wardroom is a historic meeting hall at 171 Fountain Street in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. It is a single-story red brick building, with a low-pitch gable-over-hipped roof. Basically rectangular, an enclosed entry pavilion projects from the main block. The building, designed by William R. Walker & Son and built in 1886, is one of only three ward halls (structures built by the city and used as polling places and meeting halls) to survive in the state. Since about 1920 it has been the Major Walter G. Gatchell Post No. 306 of the Veterans of Foreign Wars. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. ## Design Designed by William R. Walker & Son and constructed by S. Mason & H. A. Smith in 1886, the one story red brick Queen Anne style building is basically rectangular with a low-pitched gable-over-hipped roof. The red bricks are laid in dark red mortar and is contrasted by the granite sill course and the now painted grey brownstone stringcourse, window sills and lintels and the lintels of the doors. The enclosed entry pavilion projects from the main block with two porches oriented to face Fountain Street and Blake Street. Three arched double hung windows with two-over-two sash run along the sides of the building with three smaller windows are in the entry pavilion. At the time of the National Register of Historic Places nomination, these smaller windows were boarded up and the porch oriented to Fountain Street was bricked in with the buildings original materials. One original eight-panel door remained on the Blake Street entry porch, but the rest of the exterior details were extant, including the boarded pavilion pediment with "1st Ward" in raised lettering. National Register of Historic Places nomination states that the interior of the building originally opened into a large meeting hall with some auxiliary service rooms at the rear of the building, but did not disclose any alterations made to the interior. ## Use The Fifth Ward Wardroom was constructed and used as a polling place and meeting hall in a critical time when Pawtucket was incorporated as a city before becoming the Major Walter G. Gatchell Post No. 306 of the Veterans of Foreign Wars. Since about 1920, the Gatchell Post has occupied the First Ward Wardroom, but the property is owned by the City of Pawtucket. In 2013, the building was in need of significant roof repairs and the Gatchell Post reached out to the community to help raise the necessary funds. ## Significance The First Ward Wardroom is significant as a historical reminder of the pivotal time in which Pawtucket was incorporated as a city and gave up its town-meeting form of governance. The building is also architecturally significant as a rare type of building, wardrooms, and is one of three extant examples in Rhode Island. William R. Walker & Son constructed three such structures in Pawtucket with the Fifth Ward Wardroom being extant and the third example having been demolished. Though both constructed by William R. Walker & Son, the two Pawtucket wardrooms are related, but not identical in construction and show variations by the firm. Another wardroom, with a bungalow style, is located in the Cato Hill Historic District in Woonsocket, Rhode Island. The First Ward Wardroom was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 18, 1983. ## See also - National Register of Historic Places listings in Pawtucket, Rhode Island

Unreal Tournament

1999 first-person shooter video game

Unreal Tournament is a first-person arena shooter video game developed by Epic Games and Digital Extremes. The second installment in the Unreal series, it was first published by GT Interactive in 1999 for Windows, and later released on the PlayStation 2 and Dreamcast by Infogrames in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Players compete in a series of matches of various types, with the general aim of out-killing opponents. The PC and Dreamcast versions support multiplayer online or over a local area network. Free expansion packs were released, some of which were bundled with a 2000 re-release: Unreal Tournament: Game of the Year Edition. Powered by the Unreal Engine, Unreal Tournament received universal acclaim, often being considered one of the greatest video games ever made, with reviewers praising the graphics, level design and gameplay, though the console ports were noted for having limitations. The design of the game shifted the series' focus to competitive multiplayer action with the releases of sequels Unreal Tournament 2003 in 2002, Unreal Tournament 2004 in 2004, and Unreal Tournament 3 in 2007. In 2014, a pre-alpha version of a new game in the series was released titled simply Unreal Tournament. In 2017, Epic cancelled the game. ## Gameplay Unreal Tournament is an arena first-person shooter, with head-to-head multiplayer deathmatches being the primary focus of the game. The single-player campaign is a series of arena matches played with bots, where the player competes for the title of Grand Champion. The player moves up the tournament ladder in order to challenge the current champion, Xan Kriegor, a mysterious being with exceptional skill. Also available is a practice mode, in which, as its name implies, the player practices a match. Match settings (such as score and time limits) can be customized. Also available are "mutators", which drastically alter gameplay aspects, such as "InstaGib", which makes players compete with instant-kill Shock Rifles instead of the normal weapons. Weapons include the Enforcer, the Rocket Launcher and the Ripper, which fires ricocheting blades. Each weapon has two firing modes which have different effects: for example, Rippers can also fire non-ricocheting blades that explode on impact. A special weapon is the Redeemer, which fires a miniature nuke and causes a very large and powerful explosion. Items such as body armor (which reduces damage taken), health packs (which heal players) and damage amplifiers are scattered across levels. Levels are set in a variety of environments, including spaceships, outposts and buildings like castles and monasteries. Many contain features such as elevators (lifts) and teleporters and obstacles such as water and lava. The game is backwards compatible with the majority of Unreal multiplayer maps. The PC version includes a level editor in which players can create their own levels, and the PlayStation 2 version supports the use of a USB keyboard and mouse, enabling players to play in a similar manner to the PC version. For team matches, bots are used to fill the roles of the player's teammates. The player can choose the bots' skill level or have it automatically adjust to the player's performance. Bots can be further customized by changing attributes such as names, appearance and weapon preferences. In team matches, players can give orders to bots on their team. The PC version supports multiplayer mode over the internet or a local area network (the original Unreal was mainly a single-player game). ### Game types - Assault: This game type is played with two teams, one assaulting a "base" and the other defending it. The map is set up with objectives which the attacking team must complete (usually in sequence) such as shutting down a power generator, or entering an area. The team who first attacks then defends, and attempts to defend for the entire time they attacked. If they accomplish this, they win. If the team defending first assaults the base faster than the other team, they win. If both teams defend for the maximum amount of time the match is a tie. The Dreamcast version does not feature this mode. - Capture the Flag: Players compete to capture the other team's flag and return it to their base. Competitive teams must use a great deal of teamplay. Both teams must defend the base from incoming attackers and get into the other team's base, take their flag and return to base. - Deathmatch: A classic every-man-for-himself player vs. player combat. The objective is to out-kill all opposing players. - Domination: Two teams compete to control various control points to earn points. Standard maps contain three control points. Control of these points is initially accomplished through occupation (physically occupying the space), but control of a point continues until a player from another team occupies the space. The first team to reach the point limit, or that has the most points when a time limit has expired, wins. - Last Man Standing: Similar to Deathmatch, the player's objective is to remain alive longer than their opponents, putting an emphasis on number of deaths rather than kills. Players start with all weapons (except the Redeemer) fully loaded and have a set number of lives. Power-ups, including health and ammunition packs, are unavailable. Once a player runs out of lives, they lose. - Team Deathmatch: Up to four teams compete to out-kill the opposing teams. Four "bonus packs" were released, each adding maps, characters, or features. For example, Bonus Pack 1 adds "relics" as mutators. Relics are special items that grant a significant advantage to their holder. They include (but are not limited to), the Relic of Vengeance, which creates an explosion when its holder dies, the Relic of Regeneration, which regenerates the health of the holder, and the Relic of Redemption, which makes its holder respawn elsewhere with full health and weapons intact when they would normally die. Bonus Pack 4 adds a new version of Xan Kriegor. ## Plot During the Human–Skaarj war, the New Earth Government was formed. Mining was the primary method of financing the war, but was unpopular with the working class, who grew weary of the working conditions and the war. The humans were losing the war, and riots broke out. The Terran system was surrounded by Skaarj forces, but a government team destroyed their mothership, and the Skaarj withdrew. Afterward, revolts and violence among the mining colonies were on the increase, and efforts to deal with them were unsuccessful. The government then came up with the idea of giving the violence an outlet instead. "Consensual murder" was legalized in the year 2291, enabling people to fight to the death under organized conditions. The Liandri Mining Corporation worked with the government and organized leagues and public exhibitions. Soon, these matches became more profitable than mining, and Liandri formed a professional league to compete in a "Grand Tournament", the most popular event in the sport. The game takes place in 2341, fifty years after the fights were first legalized. ## Development With a budget of \$2 million, using 350,000 lines of C++ and UnrealScript, Unreal Tournament took around a year and a half to develop. When Unreal (the first installment of the Unreal series) was released in May 1998, it was well received by the press. However, it soon became apparent that the quality of the network code used for multiplayer matches was hampering the game's further success. In the months following Unreal's release, improving the game's multiplayer part became the top priority of the development team. Epic Games started considering an official expansion pack intended to improve the network code while also featuring new maps and other gameplay elements. The team began work on the expansion in summer 1998, but the task became complicated by Epic's organizational structure. During the development of Unreal, the team members at Digital Extremes were working in Ontario, Canada, while the members at Epic were based in North Carolina, United States, requiring regular travel to Ontario. To remedy this, Epic decided to centralize the teams in Raleigh, North Carolina, and by September, work on the expansion could begin. Lead programmer Steve Polge set about laying the foundations for the new game types, such as Capture the Flag and Domination, and level designers created the first round of maps for testing. The content grew quickly, and soon the team realized that it had underestimated the task. In November, after a meeting with publisher GT Interactive, Mark Rein suggested releasing the work as a stand-alone game instead of an expansion. The team was reticent at first, but soon accepted the idea, and in December the game became known internally as Unreal: Tournament Edition. The development team for Unreal Tournament consisted of around 16 people. Most team members had worked on Unreal, though Epic hired a number of new developers to reinforce the team. Programmer Brandon Reinhart was one such hire, joining Epic in August 1998 to help with the support of Unreal and the development of Unreal Tournament. In December 1998, Reinhart discovered an Unreal mod called UBrowser, which provided a new user interface for finding multiplayer matches. After showing it to James Schmalz, the lead designer at Digital Extremes, Schmalz decided to hire the mod's author, Jack Porter. After only a few weeks Porter was already working with the team, replacing the game's existing menu system with his new interface. Epic founder Tim Sweeney worked on improving the networking code along with Steve Polge, who also wrote code for AI, player physics and general gameplay. Erik de Neve was responsible for the LOD character rendering, and various extra optimizations. During the game's development, the team lacked artists. The art director at Epic Games, Shane Caudle, and the artists at Digital Extremes could not make enough new textures because of the amount of diversity in characters and maps. To help with the skin and texture production, Epic contracted Steve Garofalo. The game's level and content management program, UnrealEd, was written in Visual Basic and considered buggy, but no one had time to fix it. The game engine had an object-oriented design, and the scripting language, UnrealScript, was considered to be more like Java. The modularity of the object-oriented design meant that programmers could make large changes without affecting other parts of the game. Other tools used during development included Microsoft Visual Studio and 3D Studio Max. All of the weapon sound effects were created by Sonic Mayhem. The soundtrack for the game, which employed the system of module files, was written by Alexander Brandon, Michiel van den Bos, Andrew Sega, Dan Gardopee, Peter Hajba and Tero Kostermaa. Unreal Tournament had support for the EAX Version 2.0 3D positional audio technology by Creative Labs and A3D 2.0 HRTF technology by Aureal Semiconductor out of the box. In 1999, Epic Games released a playable demo on September 16. This version of the demo was only compatible with Glide-based accelerators. An updated demo version, with support for OpenGL and Direct3D cards, was released on September 28. Unreal Tournament went gold (became ready for release) on November 16, shipping a few days later on November 22. The Mac version went gold on December 15. The Dreamcast version was developed by Secret Level, who had to drop Assault mode, along with many larger maps, due to the Dreamcast having insufficient memory. In December 28, Brandon Reinhart announced plans to release Linux libraries of Unreal Tournament through SourceForge: "I've chosen the Artistic License. I feel that it allows mod developers a lot of freedom with the open code, while not putting Epic into any weird positions with the undisclosed part of the engine". The goal of the project was to improve the quality of the Linux port of the game as well as strengthen the mod authoring community and teach Epic about open source projects. On August 1, 2000, Loki Software announced an exclusive agreement with Epic Games to maintain and support the Linux version of Unreal Tournament, offering new features, addressing any technical issues and achieving revision parity with the Windows version. Bonus Pack 1 was released on February 25, 2000. Unreal Tournament was re-released in fall (autumn) 2000 as Unreal Tournament: Game of the Year Edition, which includes the first three bonus packs and mods such as Rocket Arena, a one-on-one combat mode. ## Reception In the United States alone, Unreal Tournament sold 100,998 copies by the end of 1999, according to PC Data. The game's sales in the country reached 128,766 copies, for revenues of \$5.42 million, by early 2000. This placed it behind competitor Quake III: Arena over the same period. From January through October 2000, Unreal Tournament sold 234,451 units and earned \$8.94 million in the region. The game ultimately received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom. By November 2001, Unreal Tournament's total sales were close to 2 million units. Upon its release, Unreal Tournament received universal acclaim from critics, earning an overall score of 92 out of 100 on aggregate review website Metacritic. Similarly, Unreal Tournament earned an overall score of 94% on the video gaming review aggregator GameRankings. Mainstream press reviews lauded the title for its graphics, gameplay and level design, with Computer and Video Games concluding "Unreal Tournament is nothing short of a technical and game-playing marvel destined to hold you—as it did us—wailing with happiness and wasting far too many precious hours hammering keyboards. An absolute joy to behold". In March 2000, Unreal Tournament was second on a list of best-selling games in Computer Dealer News trade magazine. However, the development team believed sales would have been higher if the game was released in October 1999. Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot praised the graphics, noting: "As good as the original Unreal looked, Unreal Tournament looks even better. The character models and skins look excellent, and there are quite a few choices to make when designing your character". He also praised the multiplayer gameplay, weapons and level design: "The first-person shooter genre is fiercely competitive. But Unreal Tournament rises above the rest with its solid multiplayer performance, from its good weapon balance to its great level design". The game was similarly reviewed by GameSpy, who concluded: "Unreal Tournament raises the bar for first person teamplay games. The mutators, bots, teams and sheer number of maps give the game an awesome depth and replayability. This game is stuffed with content and polished until it gleams". British magazine PC Zone was pleased with the "very intelligent" bots, but criticized the "truly terrible" music. AllGame complimented the addictiveness of Assault mode, and the game's replay value, calling it "a glowing, shining beacon in a sea of multi-player games". Computer and Video Games found the game to have an "excellent" single-player mode, adding that with an average AI skill the player will "progress with little serious effort, taking a thrilling ride through spectacularly atmospheric levels and increasing numbers of opponents". Eurogamer echoed that sentiment, and commented that the game is playable on low-end systems. Writing for GamePro, Nash Werner said the multiplayer flexibility was "inmense", adding that mutators like low gravity, Sniper Arena and Chainsaw Melee "change everything about the way deathmatch is played". Game Revolution agreed and praised the bots and maps, although it complained that player models were not particularly varied and that the game was not "as visually appealing as the original Unreal". IGN stated that Unreal Tournament received the highest ever score at the time of their review, describing the game as nearly flawless. British magazine PC Gamer complimented the artificial intelligence, and its American counterpart did the same to the game's "gorgeous" graphics and "incredible" editing tools. Computer Games Strategy Plus described the artificial intelligence as "outstanding", and commented that the Domination and Assault modes add interest. The Electric Playground, who rated the game 10 out of 10, praised the "innovative" level design, while Computer Gaming World gave it five stars out of five, saying "UT has completely redeemed both Epic and the Unreal franchise to action gamers. With the combination of great AI, depth and variety of gameplay, and accessibility to both newbies and the hardcore, UT has shot the pulse-pounding mayhem of multiplayer shooters to new heights". The Macintosh version of Unreal Tournament was equally praised. IGN enjoyed the "perfect" gameplay and multiplayer options, but criticized the high system requirements and the user interface. Nevertheless, the game was described as "the must have title for your Mac". Happy Puppy described the game as "king of deathmatch" due to its "incredible value" gaming and "amazing" variety. Inside Mac Games praised the replay value, but criticized the high system requirements. In December 1999, Unreal Tournament was inducted into the Macworld Hall of Fame. Reviewing the Dreamcast version, Gamezilla complimented the sound, but criticized the graphics and lack of a plot. Happy Puppy described the game as "intensely fun", but criticized the "mediocre" sound. Edge criticized the lack of Assault mode. The British Dreamcast Magazine (not to be confused with the Official Dreamcast Magazine or DC-UK) was ambivalent to the port's gameplay, visuals and sounds, noting its "blasting" action and the removal of online multiplayer from the European version of the game. GameSpy cited both slow framerate speeds and low sound quality as problems with the Dreamcast version. Scott Steinberg of Maxim rated the game 4 out of 5 stars, labeling it as a "stone-cold killer" that "runs like Carl Lewis on a Jolt Cola binge" while noting its "surprisingly workable" standard game pad controls. The PlayStation 2 release did not fare as well as the PC and Dreamcast versions. GameSpy criticized the graphics of the PS2 version, saying "Graphically, the PS2 version of Unreal Tournament seems uninspired". Its conclusion said about sluggish gameplay, somewhat washed out colors and textures. IGN praised the replayability, and stated that the sound is faithful to the PC version. Gamezilla criticized the PlayStation 2 version's lack of multiplayer support compared to the PC version along with Game Informer, who said despite its flaws, the game "holds its own as one of the best FPSs out there". On the other hand, the port scored 3 out of 10 in the television show The Electric Playground, with the reviewer lauding the audio and graphics but feeling that the controls could have been better implemented: "Control, or lack thereof, is the biggest thorn in the side of Unreal Tournament. The game simply does not play well with the Dual Shock controller. Epic has implemented a dual analog layout (one stick controls movement while the other stick controls aim) which sounds good in theory, but is horrid in practice. We tried to use the Dual Shock layout for a solid hour and ended up doing nothing more than walking into walls and spinning around wildly. The other Unreal Tournament contestants probably thought that our character was possessed". In addition to receiving Eurogamer's first-ever perfect score, Unreal Tournament was named by the site one of the best games of 1999. Launch editor John Bye chose the shooter as the game of the past decade (1999–2009) and said: "Unreal Tournament is one of the few games in the early days of Eurogamer that I kept going back to months after I'd finished reviewing it, a game that I played to unwind after a long day playing other games. Whether it was trying to break the one-minute barrier in the speed running mayhem of Assault mode, battling back and forth amongst the alleyways of Domination, or dropping shrapnel shells at people's feet with the wonderfully chunky flak cannon in a fast and furious free-for-all deathmatch, Unreal Tournament was an endless source of entertainment". In 2004, Unreal Tournament was inducted into the Computer Gaming World Hall of Fame. Unreal Tournament was a nominee for PC Gamer US's 1999 "Best Action Game" and "Best Multiplayer Game" awards, which went to Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Rogue Spear and Team Fortress Classic, respectively. They called it "a brilliant multiplayer game that blew its main rival Quake III away with awesome bots, graphics, game types and online functionality". Unreal Tournament was named as a finalist by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences for "Game of the Year", "Computer Game of the Year", "Computer Action Game of the Year", and won "Outstanding Achievement in Visual Engineering" at the 3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. The Dreamcast version Unreal Tournament was a finalist for "11th Annual GamePro Readers' Choice Awards" for "Best Combat Game of The Year", but lost to Halo: Combat Evolved for Xbox. In 2011, G4tv included two maps from this game, Facing Worlds and DM-Deck 16, in its list of the "Most Influential FPS Multiplayer Maps Ever". In 2013, PC Gamer labeled the Flak Cannon the greatest gun in PC gaming. In 2014, Complex magazine placed Unreal Tournament as number three on its list of "The 50 Best First Person Shooters Of All Time", while Moviepilot placed it as number two on its list of "The 7 Most Influential Video Games Ever". In November 2014, Kotaku named Facing Worlds the best multiplayer map. In January 2016, Red Bull labeled Facing Worlds one of the 10 greatest FPS multiplayer levels of all time. In July 2016, the game was ranked number 20 on Bit-Tech's The 50 Best PC Games of All Time. ### Awards ### Player community Lead designer Cliff Bleszinski credited much of the game's success to its community. As he said in the November 2001 issue of Maximum PC, "Unreal Tournament would not have sold nearly two million copies if it did not have support from the community... We ship the very same tools that we used to build the game, and folks use these tools to realize their own visions of first-person action". Like Unreal, Unreal Tournament is designed to be easily programmable and highly modularized. Through its scripting environment UnrealScript and level editor UnrealEd, developers are able to modify easily most parts of the game to both manipulate default game behavior and to supplement the game with their own mods. These range from slight changes on some aspects of gameplay (such as map voting) to total conversions. One modification, ChaosUT, became popular enough that it was included with the 'Game of the Year' edition of the game, while Tactical Ops: Assault on Terror was released as a stand-alone retail product. Unreal Tournament was played at the World Cyber Games in 2001 and 2002. ## Legacy The success of the original Unreal Tournament spawned four sequels, including Unreal Tournament 2003 and Unreal Tournament 2004, Unreal Tournament 3 and the cancelled Unreal Tournament reboot. The yearly naming structure, based around marketing the franchise as a competitive sports title, was abandoned before the launch of the third sequel. Digital Extremes announced Dark Sector in 2000, which was planned as a spiritual successor to Unreal Tournament.

The Boat Race 1875

The 32nd Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 20 March 1875. The Cambridge crew contained four Blues to Oxford's two, the latter went into the race without a win since the 1869 race. In a race umpired by Joseph William Chitty, Oxford won by ten lengths in a time of 22 minutes 2 seconds, taking the overall record in the event to 17–15 in their favour. One of the Cambridge crew broke his slide during the race. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having defeated Oxford by 3+1⁄2 lengths in the previous year's race, while Oxford led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge's fifteen. Cambridge were coached by John Goldie, the Cambridge boat club president and rower for the 1869, 1870 and 1871 races, and Charles Stokes Read who had rowed for Cambridge in the previous three races. Oxford's coaches were S. D. Darbishire who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1868, 1869 and 1870 races, F. H. Hall who had coxed for three races between 1870 and 1872, Robert Wells Risley who had rowed four times between the 1857 and 1860 races, Edmund Warre (represented Oxford in 1857 and 1858), Frank Willan (four-time winning rower between 1866 and 1869) and Walter Bradford Woodgate who had rowed in the 1862 and 1863 races. Joseph William Chitty was the umpire for the race. He had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 (in March and December) and the 1852 race. The starter was Edward Searle. ## Crews The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 12.375 lb (75.3 kg), 1.625 pounds (0.7 kg) more than their opponents. Cambridge's crew contained four former Blues, including Herbert Edward Rhodes who was making his third appearance in the race. Oxford saw two rowers return from the 1874 race, in H. J. Stayner and J. P. Way. According to Drinkwater, the Oxford University Boat Club towards the end of 1874 produced a "fine crew", and of particular note was the inclusion of the former Eton Captain of the Boats Tom Edwards-Moss. In contrast, Cambridge's crew, with just two returning from the previous year's race, was completed with "material ... not of a very high order". ## Race Oxford were considered clear pre-race favourites to win their first Boat Race in five years; conditions were inclement with a "nasty north-west wind" but a "fair tide". They lost the toss and Cambridge elected to start from the Middlesex station, handing Oxford the Surrey side of the river. The race commenced at 1:13 p.m., and Cambridge made the better start, taking the lead from the outset with a higher stroke rate. Half a length ahead after a minute, the Light Blues nearly had a clear water advantage but tired in the strong headwind, and started to be caught by Craven Steps, around 1,000 yards (910 m) along the course. About a mile into the race, one of the Cambridge crew broke a slide. The crews were level at the Crab Tree pub and by Hammersmith Bridge, and with the advantage of the bend in the river, Oxford were clear and went on to win by ten lengths in a time of 22 minutes 2 seconds. It was their first victory since 1869 and took the overall record in the event to 17–15 in their favour.

One World Trade Center

Main building of the rebuilt World Trade Center in Manhattan, New York

One World Trade Center, also known as One World Trade, One WTC, and formerly called the Freedom Tower during initial planning stages, is the main building of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan, New York City. Designed by David Childs of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, One World Trade Center is the tallest building in the United States, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, and the seventh-tallest in the world. The supertall structure has the same name as the North Tower of the original World Trade Center, which was destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The new skyscraper stands on the northwest corner of the 16-acre (6.5 ha) World Trade Center site, on the site of the original 6 World Trade Center. It is bounded by West Street to the west, Vesey Street to the north, Fulton Street to the south, and Washington Street to the east. The construction of below-ground utility relocations, footings, and foundations for the new building began on April 27, 2006. One World Trade Center became the tallest structure in New York City on April 30, 2012, when it surpassed the height of the Empire State Building. The tower's steel structure was topped out on August 30, 2012. On May 10, 2013, the final component of the skyscraper's spire was installed, making the building, including its spire, reach a total height of 1,776 feet (541 m). Its height in feet is a deliberate reference to the year when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed. The building opened on November 3, 2014; the One World Observatory opened on May 29, 2015. On March 26, 2009, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) confirmed that the building would be officially known by its legal name of "One World Trade Center", rather than its colloquial name of "Freedom Tower". The building has 94 stories, with the top floor numbered 104. The new World Trade Center complex will eventually include five high-rise office buildings built along Greenwich Street, as well as the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, located just south of One World Trade Center where the original Twin Towers stood. The construction of the new building is part of an effort to memorialize and rebuild following the destruction of the original World Trade Center complex. ## History ### Original building (1971–2001) The construction of the original World Trade Center was conceived as an urban renewal project and spearheaded by David Rockefeller. The project was intended to help revitalize Lower Manhattan. The project was planned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which hired architect Minoru Yamasaki. The twin towers at 1 and 2 World Trade Center were designed as framed tube structures, giving tenants open floor plans, unobstructed by columns or walls. One World Trade Center was the North Tower, and Two World Trade Center was the South Tower. Each tower was over 1,350 feet (410 m) high, and occupied about 1 acre (0.40 ha) of the total 16 acres (6.5 ha) of the site's land. Of the 110 stories in each tower, 8 were set aside as mechanical floors. All the remaining floors were open for tenants. Each floor of the tower had 40,000 square feet (3,700 m²) of available space. The North and South tower had 3,800,000 square feet (350,000 m²) of total office space. Construction of the North Tower began in August 1966; extensive use of prefabricated components sped up the construction process. The first tenants moved into the North Tower in October 1971. At the time, the original One World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world, at 1,368 feet (417 m) tall. After a 360-foot (110 m)-tall antenna was installed in 1978, the highest point of the North Tower reached 1,728 ft (527 m). In the 1970s, four other low-level buildings were built as part of the World Trade Center complex. A seventh building was built in the mid-1980s. The entire complex of seven buildings had a combined total of 13,400,000 square feet (1,240,000 m²) of office space. #### Destruction At 8:46 a.m. (EDT) on September 11, 2001, five hijackers affiliated with al-Qaeda crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03 a.m. (EDT), a second group of five terrorists crashed the hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower, striking between the 77th and 85th floors. By 9:59 a.m. (EDT), the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. After burning for 102 minutes, the North Tower collapsed due to structural failure at 10:28 a.m. (EDT). When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center, damaging it and starting fires. The fires burned for hours, compromising the building's structural integrity. Seven World Trade Center collapsed at 5:21 p.m. (EDT). Together with a simultaneous attack on the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and a failed plane hijacking that resulted in a plane crash in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, the attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people (2,507 civilians, 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 hijackers). More than 90% of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact. In the North Tower, 1,355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped, and died of smoke inhalation, fell, jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames, or were killed when the building eventually collapsed. One stairwell in the South Tower, Stairwell A, somehow avoided complete destruction, unlike the rest of the building. When Flight 11 hit, all three staircases in the North Tower above the impact zone were destroyed, making it impossible for anyone above the impact zone to escape. 107 people below the point of impact also died. ### Current building (2013–present) #### Planning Following the destruction of the original World Trade Center, there was debate regarding the future of the World Trade Center site. There were proposals for its reconstruction almost immediately, and by 2002, the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation had organized a competition to determine how to use the site. The proposals were part of a larger plan to memorialize the September 11 attacks and rebuild the complex. Already the site was becoming a tourist attraction; in the year following the attacks the Ground Zero site became the most visited place in the United States. On September 10, 2002, the Viewing Wall, a temporary display containing information about the attacks and listing the names of the dead, opened to the public. When the public rejected the first round of designs, a second, more open competition took place in December 2002, in which a design by Daniel Libeskind was selected as the winner in February 2003. Other designs were submitted by Richard Meier, Peter Eisenman, Charles Gwathmey, and Steven Holl; William Pedersen; and Foster and Partners. This design underwent many revisions, mainly because of disagreements with developer Larry Silverstein, who held the lease to the World Trade Center site at that time. Peter Walker and Michael Arad's "Reflecting Absence" proposal was selected as the site's 9/11 Memorial in January 2004. There was criticism concerning the limited number of floors that were designated for office space and other amenities in an early plan. Only 82 floors would have been habitable, and the total office space of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex would have been reduced by more than 3,000,000 square feet (280,000 m²) in comparison with the original complex. The floor limit was imposed by Silverstein, who expressed concern that higher floors would be a liability in the event of a future terrorist attack or other incident. Much of the building's height would have consisted of a large, open-air steel lattice structure on the roof of the tower, containing wind turbines and "sky gardens". In a subsequent design, the highest occupiable floor became comparable to the original World Trade Center, and the open-air lattice was removed from the plans. In 2002, former New York Governor George Pataki faced accusations of cronyism for supposedly using his influence to get the winning architect's design picked as a personal favor for his friend and campaign contributor, Ronald Lauder. A final design for the "Freedom Tower" was formally unveiled on June 28, 2005. To address security issues raised by the New York City Police Department, a 187-foot (57 m) concrete base was added to the design in April of that year. The design originally included plans to clad the base in glass prisms in order to address criticism that the building might have looked uninviting and resembled a "concrete bunker". However, the prisms were later found to be unworkable, as preliminary testing revealed that the prismatic glass easily shattered into large and dangerous shards. As a result, it was replaced by a simpler facade consisting of stainless steel panels and blast-resistant glass. Contrasting with Libeskind's original plan, the tower's final design tapers octagonally as it rises. Its designers stated that the tower would be a "monolithic glass structure reflecting the sky and topped by a sculpted antenna." In 2006, Larry Silverstein commented on a planned completion date: "By 2012 we should have a completely rebuilt World Trade Center, more magnificent, more spectacular than it ever was." On April 26, 2006, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey approved a conceptual framework that allowed foundation construction to begin. A formal agreement was drafted the following day, the 75th anniversary of the 1931 opening of the Empire State Building. Construction began in May; a formal groundbreaking ceremony took place when the first construction team arrived. #### Construction The symbolic cornerstone of One World Trade Center was laid in a ceremony on July 4, 2004. The stone had an inscription supposedly written by Arthur J. Finkelstein. Construction was delayed until 2006 due to disputes over money, security, and design. The last major issues were resolved on April 26, 2006, when a deal was made between developer Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, so the cornerstone was temporarily removed from the site on June 23, 2006. Soon after, explosives were detonated at the construction site for two months to clear bedrock for the building's foundation, onto which 400 cubic yards (310 cubic meters) of concrete was poured by November 2007. In a December 18, 2006, ceremony held in nearby Battery Park City, members of the public were invited to sign the first 30-foot (9.1 m) steel beam installed onto the building's base. It was welded onto the building's base on December 19, 2006. Foundation and steel installation began shortly afterward, so the tower's footings and foundation were nearly complete within a year. An estimate in February 2007 placed the initial construction cost of One World Trade Center at about \$3 billion, or \$1,150 per square foot (\$12,400/m²). In January 2008, two cranes were moved onto the site. Construction of the tower's concrete core, which began after the cranes arrived, reached street level by May 17. The base was not finished until two years later, after which construction of the office floors began and the first glass windows were installed; during 2010, floors were constructed at a rate of about one per week. An advanced "cocoon" scaffolding system was installed to protect workers from falling, and was the first such safety system installed on a steel structure in the city. The tower reached 52 floors and was over 600 feet (180 m) tall by December 2010. The tower's steel frame was halfway complete by then, but grew to 80 floors by the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks, at which time its concrete flooring had reached 68 floors and the glass cladding had reached 54 floors. In 2009, the Port Authority changed the official name of the building from "Freedom Tower" to "One World Trade Center", stating that this name was the "easiest for people to identify with." The "Freedom Tower" name had also been subject to ridicule on programs like Saturday Night Live. The name change also served a practical purpose: real estate agents believed that it would be easier to lease space in a building with a traditional street address. The change came after board members of the Port Authority voted to sign a 21-year lease deal with Vantone Industrial Co., a Chinese real estate company, which would become the building's first commercial tenant to sign a lease. Vantone planned to create the China Center, a trade and cultural facility, covering 191,000 square feet (17,700 m²) on floors 64 through 69. Mass media company Condé Nast became One WTC's anchor tenant in May 2011, leasing 1 million square feet (93,000 m²) and relocating from 4 Times Square. While under construction, the tower was specially illuminated on several occasions. For example, it was lit in red, white, and blue for Independence Day and the anniversary of the September 11 attacks, and it was illuminated in pink for Breast Cancer Awareness Month. The tower's loading dock could not be finished in time to move equipment into the completed building, so five temporary loading bays were added at a cost of millions of dollars. The temporary PATH station was not to be removed until its official replacement, the World Trade Center Transportation Hub, was completed, blocking access to the planned loading area. Chadbourne & Parke, a Midtown Manhattan-based law firm, was supposed to lease 300,000 square feet (30,000 m²) in January 2012, but the deal was abruptly canceled that March. #### Topping-out and completion By March 2012, One WTC's steel structure had reached 93 stories, growing to the 94th story (labeled as floor 100) and 1,240 feet (380 m) by the end of the month. The tower's estimated cost had risen to \$3.9 billion by April 2012, making it the most expensive building in the world at the time. The tower's construction was partly funded by approximately \$1 billion of insurance money that Silverstein received for his losses in the September 11 attacks. The State of New York provided an additional \$250 million, and the Port Authority agreed to give \$1 billion, which would be obtained through the sale of bonds. The Port Authority raised prices for bridge and tunnel tolls to raise funds, with a 56 percent toll increase scheduled between 2011 and 2015; however, the proceeds of these increases were not used to pay for the tower's construction. The still-incomplete tower became New York City's tallest building by roof height in April 2012, passing the 1,250-foot (380 m) roof height of the Empire State Building. President Barack Obama visited the construction site two months later and wrote, on a steel beam that would be hoisted to the top of the tower, the sentence "We remember, we rebuild, we come back stronger!" That same month, with the tower's structure nearing completion, the owners of the building began a public marketing campaign for the building, seeking to attract visitors and tenants. One World Trade Center's steel structure topped out at floor 104, with a total height of 1,368 feet (417 m), in August 2012. The tower's spire was then shipped from Quebec to New York in November 2012, following a series of delays. The first section of the spire was hoisted to the top of the tower on December 12, 2012, and was installed on January 15, 2013. By March 2013, two sections of the spire had been installed. Bad weather delayed the delivery of the final pieces. On May 10, 2013, the final piece of the spire was lifted to the top of One WTC, bringing the tower to its full height of 1,776 feet (541 m), and making it the fourth-tallest building in the world at the time. In subsequent months, the exterior elevator shaft was removed; the podium glass, interior decorations, and other finishes were being installed; and installation of concrete flooring and steel fittings was completed. On November 12, 2013, the Height Committee of the Chicago-based Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) made the controversial announcement that One World Trade Center was the tallest building in the United States, declaring that the mast on top of the building is a spire since it is a permanent part of the building's architecture. By the same reasoning, the building was also the tallest in the Western Hemisphere. A report in September 2013 revealed that, at the time of the report, the World Trade Center Association (WTCA) was negotiating with regard to the "World Trade Center" name, as the WTCA had purchased the rights to the name in 1986. The WTCA sought \$500,000 worth of free office space in the tower in exchange for the use of "World Trade Center" in the tower's name and associated souvenirs. #### Opening and early years On November 1, 2014, moving trucks started moving items for Condé Nast. The New York Times noted that the area around the World Trade Center had transitioned from a financial area to one with technology firms, residences, and luxury shops, coincident with the building of the new tower. The building opened on November 3, 2014, and Condé Nast employees moved into 24 floors. Condé Nast occupied floors 20 to 44, having completed its move in early 2015. It was expected that the company would attract new tenants to occupy the remaining 40% of unleased space in the tower, as Condé Nast had revitalized Times Square after moving there in 1999. Only about 170 of 3,400 total employees moved into One WTC on the first day. At the time, future tenants included Kids Creative, Legends Hospitality, the BMB Group, Servcorp, and GQ. On November 12, 2014, shortly after the building opened supporting wire rope cables of a suspended working platform slacked, trapping a two-man window washing team. During the late 2010s, the Durst Organization leased most of the remaining vacant space. The tower reached 92 percent occupancy just before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020. By August 2020, Condé Nast indicated it wanted to leave One World Trade Center. This led Advance Publications, parent company of Conde Nast, to start withholding rent payments in January 2021. By March 2021, Condé Nast had filed plans to reduce the amount of office space that it leased. After a prolonged impasse, Condé Nast agreed in late 2021 to pay almost \$10 million in back rent. In December 2021, the New York Liberty Development Corporation announced that it would refinance 1 WTC with a \$700 million bond issue. The money from this bond issue would be used to retire the debt from the building's last refinancing in 2012. By March 2022, the building was 95 percent leased, a higher percentage than before the COVID-19 pandemic. One WTC's vacancy rate was half that of the city as a whole; its high occupancy rate contrasted with that of the original Twin Towers, which had never reached full occupancy until just before the September 11 attacks. ## Architecture Many of Daniel Libeskind's original concepts from the 2002 competition were discarded from the tower's final design. One World Trade Center's final design consisted of simple symmetries and a more traditional profile, intended to compare with selected elements of the contemporary New York skyline. The tower's central spire draws from previous buildings, such as the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building. It also visually resembles the original Twin Towers, rather than being an off-center spire similar to the Statue of Liberty. One World Trade Center is considered the first major building whose construction is based upon a three-dimensional Building Information Model. Just south of the new One World Trade Center is the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, which is located where the original Twin Towers stood. Immediately to the east is World Trade Center Transportation Hub and the new Two World Trade Center site. To the north is 7 World Trade Center, and to the west is Brookfield Place. ### Form and facade The building occupies a 200-foot (61 m) square, with an area of 40,000 square feet (3,700 m²), nearly identical to the footprints of the original Twin Towers. The tower is built upon a 185-foot (56 m) tall windowless concrete base, designed to protect it from truck bombs and other ground-level attacks. From the 20th floor upwards, the square edges of the tower's cubic base are chamfered back, shaping the building into eight tall isosceles triangles, or an elongated square antiprism. Near its middle, the tower forms a perfect octagon, and then culminates in a glass parapet, whose shape is a square oriented 45 degrees from the base. A 407.9-foot (124.3 m) sculpted mast containing the broadcasting antenna – designed in a collaboration between Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM), artist Kenneth Snelson (who invented the tensegrity structure), lighting designers, and engineers – is secured by a system of cables, and rises from a circular support ring, which contains additional broadcasting and maintenance equipment. At night, an intense beam of light is projected vertically from the spire and shines over 1,000 feet (300 m) above the tower. David Childs of SOM, the architect of One World Trade Center, said the following regarding the tower's design: > We really wanted our design to be grounded in something that was very real, not just in sculptural sketches. We explored the infrastructural challenges because the proper solution would have to be compelling, not just beautiful. The design does have great sculptural implications, and we fully understand the iconic importance of the tower, but it also has to be a highly efficient building. The discourse about Freedom Tower has often been limited to the symbolic, formal and aesthetic aspects but we recognize that if this building doesn't function well, if people don't want to work and visit there, then we will have failed as architects. Originally, the base was to be covered in decorative prismatic glass, but a simpler glass-and-steel façade was adopted when the prisms proved unworkable. The current base cladding consists of angled glass fins protruding from stainless steel panels, similar to those on 7 World Trade Center. LED lights behind the panels illuminate the base at night. There are cable-net glass facade panels on all elevations of the building, designed by Schlaich Bergermann, will be consistent with the other buildings in the complex. The facade panels are 60 feet (18 m) high, and range in width from 30 feet (9.1 m) on the east and west sides, 50 feet (15 m) on the north side, and 70 feet (21 m) on the south side. The curtain wall was manufactured and assembled by Benson Industries in Portland, Oregon, using glass made in Minnesota by Viracon. WSP Group was the lead structural engineer; Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JBB) provided MEP engineering; and Tishman Construction was the main contractor. ### Features One World Trade Center's top floor is officially designated as floor 104, despite the fact that the tower only contains 94 actual stories. The building has 86 usable above-ground floors, of which 78 are intended for office purposes (approximately 2,600,000 square feet (240,000 m²)). The base consists of floors 1–19, including a 65-foot-high (20 m) public lobby, featuring the 90-foot (27 m) mural ONE: Union of the Senses by American artist José Parlá. The office floors begin at floor 20, and go up to floor 63. There is a sky lobby on floor 64; office floors resume on floor 65, and stop at floor 90. Floors 91–99 and 103–104 are mechanical floors. The tenants have access to below-ground parking, storage, and shopping; access to PATH, New York City Subway trains, and the World Financial Center is also provided at the World Trade Center Transportation Hub; Fulton Street/Fulton Center; and Chambers Street–World Trade Center/Park Place/Cortlandt Street stations. The building allows direct access to West Street, Vesey Street, and Fulton Street at ground level. The building has an approximate underground footprint of 42,000 square feet (3,900 m²). #### One World Observatory The tower has a three-story observation deck, located on floors 100–102, in addition to existing broadcast and antenna facilities. Its height is 1,268 feet (386 m), making it the highest vantage point in New York City. Similar to the Empire State Building, visitors to the observation deck and tenants have their own separate entrances; one entrance is on the West Street side of the building, and the other is from within the shopping mall, descending down to a below-ground security screening area. On the observation deck, the actual viewing space is on the 100th floor, but there is a food court on the 101st floor and a space for events for the 102nd floor. To show visitors the city, and give them information and stories about New York, an interactive tool called City Pulse is used by Tour Ambassadors. The admission fee is \$32 per person, but admission discounts are available for children and seniors, and the deck is free for 9/11 responders and families of 9/11 victims. When it opened, the deck was expected to have about 3.5 million visitors per year. Tickets went on sale starting on April 8, 2015. The Manhattan District Attorney probed the Port Authority about the firm to which it awarded a contract to operate the deck. It officially opened on May 28, 2015, one day ahead of schedule. A plan to build a restaurant near the top of the tower, similar to the original One World Trade Center's Windows on the World, was abandoned as logistically impractical. The tower's window-washing tracks are located on a 16-square-foot area, which is designated as floor 110 as a symbolic reference to the 110 floors of the original tower. There are three eating venues at the top of the building: a café (called One Café); a bar and "small plates" grill (One Mix); and a fine dining restaurant (One Dining). Some commentators, including those for the New York Post and Curbed, have criticized the food prices; the need of a full observatory ticket purchase to enter; and their reputations compared to Windows on the World, the top-floor restaurant in the original One World Trade Center. #### Sustainability Like other buildings in the new World Trade Center complex, One World Trade Center includes sustainable architecture features. Much of the building's structure and interior is built from recycled materials, including gypsum boards and ceiling tiles; around 80 percent of the tower's waste products are recycled. Although the roof area of any tower is limited, the building implements a rainwater collection and recycling scheme for its cooling systems. The building's PureCell phosphoric acid fuel cells generate 4.8 megawatts (MW) of power, and its waste steam generates electricity. The New York Power Authority selected UTC Power to provide the tower's fuel cell system, which was one of the largest fuel cell installations in the world once completed. The tower also makes use of off-site hydroelectric and wind power. The windows are made of an ultra-clear glass, which allows maximum sunlight to pass through; the interior lighting is equipped with dimmers that automatically dim the lights on sunny days, reducing energy costs. Like all of the new facilities at the World Trade Center site, One World Trade Center is heated by steam, with limited oil or natural gas utilities on-site. One World Trade Center received a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold Certification, making it one of the most environmentally sustainable skyscrapers in the world. #### Security features Along with the protection provided by the reinforced concrete base, a number of other safety features were included in the building's design, so that it would be prepared for a major accident or terrorist attack. Like 7 World Trade Center, the building has 3-foot (91 cm) thick reinforced concrete walls in all stairwells, elevator shafts, risers, and sprinkler systems. There are also extra-wide, pressurized stairwells, along with a dedicated set of stairwells exclusively for the use of firefighters, and biological and chemical filters throughout the ventilation system. In comparison, the original Twin Towers used a purely steel central core to house utility functions, protected only by lightweight drywall panels. The building is no longer 25 feet (8 m) away from West Street, as the Twin Towers were; at its closest point, West Street is 65 feet (20 m) away. The Port Authority has stated: "Its structure is designed around a strong, redundant steel moment frame consisting of beams and columns connected by a combination of welding and bolting. Paired with a concrete-core shear wall, the moment frame lends substantial rigidity and redundancy to the overall building structure while providing column-free interior spans for maximum flexibility." In addition to safety design, new security measures were implemented. All vehicles will be screened for radioactive materials and other potentially dangerous objects before they enter the site through the underground road. Four hundred closed-circuit surveillance cameras will be placed in and around the site, with live camera feeds being continuously monitored by the NYPD. A computer system will use video-analytic computer software, designed to detect potential threats, such as unattended bags, and retrieve images based on descriptions of terrorists or other criminal suspects. New York City and Port Authority police will patrol the site. Before the World Trade Center site was fully completed, the plaza was not completely opened to the public, as the original World Trade Center plaza was. The initial stage of the opening process began on Thursday, May 15, 2014, when the "Interim Operating Period" of the National September 11 Memorial ended. During this period, all visitors were required to undergo airport style security screening, as part of the "Interim Operating Period", which was expected to end on December 31, 2013. Screening did not fully end until the official dedication and opening of the museum on May 21, 2014, after which visitors were allowed to use the plaza without needing passes. ### Design evolution The original design went through significant changes after the Durst Organization joined the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey as the project's co-developer in 2010. The 185-foot (56 m) tall base corners were originally designed to gently slope upward and have prismatic glass. The corners were later squared. In addition, the base's walls are now covered in "hundreds of pairs of 13-foot [4.0 m] vertical glass fins set against horizontal bands of eight-inch-wide [20 cm] stainless-steel slats." The spire was originally to be enclosed with a protective radome, described as a "sculptural sheath of interlocking fiberglass panels". The radome-enclosed spire was then changed to a plain antenna. Douglas Durst, the chairman of the Durst Organization, stated that the design change would save \$20 million. SOM strongly criticized the change, and Childs said: "Eliminating this integral part of the building's design and leaving an exposed antenna and equipment is unfortunate ... We stand ready to work with the Port on an alternate design." After joining the project in 2010, the Durst Organization had suggested eliminating the radome to reduce costs, but the proposal was rejected by the Port Authority's then-executive director, Christopher O. Ward. Ward was replaced by Patrick Foye in September 2011. Foye changed the Port Authority's position, and the radome was removed from the plans. In 2012, Douglas Durst gave a statement regarding the final decision: "(the antenna) is going to be mounted on the building over the summer. There's no way to do anything at this point." The large triangular plaza on the west side of One World Trade Center was originally planned to have stainless steel steps descending to West Street, but the steps were changed to a terrace in the final design. The terrace can be accessed through a staircase on Vesey Street. The terrace is paved in granite, and has 12 sweetgum trees, in addition to a block-long planter/bench. Durst also removed a skylight from the plaza's plans; the skylight was designed to allow natural light to enter the below-ground observation deck lobby. The plaza is higher than the adjacent sidewalk. The Port Authority formally approved all these revisions, and the revisions were first reported by the New York Post. Patrick Foye, the executive director of the Port Authority, said that he thought that the changes were "few and minor" in a telephone interview. A contract negotiated between the Port Authority and the Durst Organization states that the Durst Organization will receive a \$15 million fee and a percentage of "base building changes that result in net economic benefit to the project." The specifics of the signed contract give Durst 75% of the savings (up to \$24 million) with further returns going down to 50%; 25%; and 15% as the savings increase. ### Height The top floor of One World Trade Center is 1,368 feet (417 m) above ground level, along with a parapet; this is identical to the roof height of the original One World Trade Center. The tower's spire brings it to a pinnacle height of 1,776 feet (541 m), a figure intended to symbolize the year 1776, when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed. When the spire is included in the building's height, as stated by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), One World Trade Center surpasses the height of Taipei 101 (1,671-foot (509 m)), is the world's tallest all-office building, and the seventh-tallest skyscraper in the world as of May 2023, behind the Burj Khalifa, Merdeka 118, Shanghai Tower, Abraj Al Bait, Ping An Finance Centre and Lotte World Tower. One World Trade Center is the second-tallest freestanding structure in the Western Hemisphere, as the CN Tower in Toronto exceeds One World Trade Center's pinnacle height by approximately 40 ft (12.2 m). The Chicago Spire, with a planned height of 2,000 feet (610 m), was expected to exceed the height of One World Trade Center, but its construction was canceled due to financial difficulties in 2009. After design changes for One World Trade Center's spire were revealed in May 2012, there were questions as to whether the 407.9-foot (124.3 m)-tall structure would still qualify as a spire, and thus be included in the building's height. Since the tower's spire is not enclosed in a radome as originally planned, it could be classified as a simple antenna, which is not included in a building's height, according to the CTBUH. Without the spire, One World Trade Center would be 1,368 feet (417 m) tall, making it the seventh-tallest building in the United States, behind the Trump International Hotel & Tower in Chicago. Upon completion, the building became the tallest in New York City with the antenna, but its roof was surpassed in 2015 by 432 Park Avenue, which topped out at 1,396 feet (426 m) high. One World Trade Center's developers had disputed the claim that the spire should be reclassified as an antenna following the redesign, with Port Authority spokesman Steve Coleman reiterating that "One World Trade Center will be the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere." In 2012, the CTBUH announced that it would wait to make its final decision as to whether or not the redesigned spire would count towards the building's height. On November 12, 2013, the CTBUH announced that One World Trade Center's spire would count as part of the building's recognized height, giving it a final height of 1,776 feet (541 m), and making it the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere. ## Incidents In September 2013, three BASE jumpers parachuted off the then-under-construction tower. The three men and one accomplice on the ground surrendered to authorities in March 2014. They were convicted of several misdemeanors in June 2015 and sentenced to community service and a fine. In March 2014, tower security was breached by 16-year-old Weehawken, New Jersey resident Justin Casquejo, who entered the site through a hole in a fence. He was arrested on trespassing charges. He allegedly dressed like a construction worker, sneaked in, and convinced an elevator operator to lift him to the tower's 88th floor, according to news sources. He then used stairways to get to the 104th floor, walked past a sleeping security guard, and climbed up a ladder to get to the antenna, where he took pictures for two hours. The elevator operator was reassigned, and the guard was fired. It was then revealed that officials had failed to install security cameras in the tower, which facilitated Casquejo's entry to the site. Casquejo was sentenced to 23 days of community service as a result. ## Reception The social center of the previous One World Trade Center included a restaurant on the 107th floor, called Windows on the World, and The Greatest Bar on Earth; these were tourist attractions in their own right, and a gathering spot for people who worked in the towers. This restaurant also housed one of the most prestigious wine schools in the United States, called "Windows on the World Wine School", run by wine personality Kevin Zraly. Despite numerous assurances that these attractions would be rebuilt, the Port Authority scrapped plans to rebuild them, which has outraged some observers. The fortified base of the tower has also been a source of controversy. Some critics, including Deroy Murdock of the National Review, have said that it is alienating and dull, and reflects a sense of fear rather than freedom, leading them to dub the building "the Fear Tower". Nicolai Ouroussoff, the architecture critic for The New York Times, calls the tower base a "grotesque attempt to disguise its underlying paranoia". ## Owners and tenants One World Trade Center is principally owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Around 5 percent equity of the building was sold to the Durst Organization, a private real estate company, in exchange for an investment of at least \$100 million. The Durst Organization assisted in supervising the building's construction, and manages the building for the Port Authority, having responsibility for leasing, property management, and tenant installations. By September 2012, around 55 percent of the building's floor space had been leased, but no new leases were signed for three years until May 2014; the amount of space leased had gone up to 62.8 percent by November 2014. In 2006, the State of New York agreed to a 15-year 415,000 square feet (38,600 m²) lease, with an option to extend the lease's term and occupy up to 1,000,000 square feet (90,000 m²). The General Services Administration (GSA) initially agreed to a lease of around 645,000 square feet (59,900 m²), and New York State's Office of General Services (OGS) planned to occupy around 412,000 square feet (38,300 m²). However, the GSA ceded most of its floor space to the Port Authority in July 2011, and the OGS withdrew from the lease contract. In April 2008, the Port Authority announced that it was seeking a bidder to operate the 18,000 sq ft (1,700 m²) observation deck on the tower's 102nd floor; in 2013, Legends Hospitality Management agreed to operate the observatory in a 15-year, \$875 million contract. The building's first lease, a joint project between the Port Authority and Beijing-based Vantone Industrial, was announced on March 28, 2009. A 190,810 sq ft (17,727 m²) "China Center", combining business and cultural facilities, that would be planned between floors 64 and 69; it is intended to represent Chinese business and cultural links to the United States, and to serve American companies that wish to conduct business in China. Vantone Industrial's lease is for 20 years and 9 months. In April 2011, a new interior design for the China Center was unveiled, featuring a vertical "Folding Garden", based on a proposal by the Chinese artist Zhou Wei. In September 2015, China Center agreed to reduce the leased space to a single floor. On August 3, 2010, Condé Nast Publications signed a tentative agreement to move the headquarters and offices for its magazines into One World Trade Center, occupying up to 1,000,000 square feet (90,000 m²) of floor space. On May 17, 2011, Condé Nast reached a final agreement with the Port Authority, securing a 25-year lease with an estimated value of \$2 billion. On May 25, 2011, Condé Nast finalized the lease contract, obtaining 1,008,012 square feet (93,647.4 m²) of office space between floors 20–41 and 30,000 square feet (2,800 m²) of usable space in the podium and below grade floors. Condé Nast leased 133,000 square feet (10,000 m²) of space on floors 42 to 44 in January 2012. In the late 2010s and early 2020s, Condé Nast subleased some of its space to other companies. This included Ambac Financial Group in March 2019; Ennead Architects in April 2019; and Constellation Agency and Reddit in 2021. In August 2014, it was announced Servcorp signed a 15-year lease for 34,775 square feet (3,230.7 m²), taking the entire 85th floor. Servcorp subsequently subleased all of its space on the 85th floor as private offices, boardrooms and co-working space to numerous medium-sized businesses such as ThinkCode, D100 Radio, and Chérie L'Atelier des Fleurs. ## Key figures ### Developer Larry Silverstein of Silverstein Properties, the leaseholder and developer of the complex, retains control of the surrounding buildings, while the Port Authority has full control of the tower itself. Silverstein signed a 99-year lease for the World Trade Center site in July 2001, and remains actively involved in most aspects of the site's redevelopment process. Before construction of the new tower began, Silverstein was involved in an insurance dispute regarding the tower. The terms of the lease agreement signed in 2001, for which Silverstein paid \$14 million, gave Silverstein, as leaseholder, the right and obligation to rebuild the structures if they were destroyed. After the September 11 attacks, there were a series of disputes between Silverstein and insurance companies concerning the insurance policies that covered the original towers; this resulted in the construction of One World Trade Center being delayed. After a trial, a verdict was rendered on April 29, 2004. The verdict was that ten of the insurers involved in the dispute were subject to the "one occurrence" interpretation, so their liability was limited to the face value of those policies. Three insurers were added to the second trial group. At that time, the jury was unable to reach a verdict on one insurer, Swiss Reinsurance, but it did so several days later on May 3, 2004, finding that this company was also subject to the "one occurrence" interpretation. Silverstein appealed the Swiss Reinsurance decision, but the appeal failed on October 19, 2006. The second trial resulted in a verdict on December 6, 2004. The jury determined that nine insurers were subject to the "two occurrences" interpretation, referring to the fact that two different planes had destroyed the towers during the September 11 attacks. They were therefore liable for a maximum of double the face value of those particular policies (\$2.2 billion). The highest potential payout was \$4.577 billion, for buildings 1, 2, 4, and 5. In March 2007, Silverstein appeared at a rally of construction workers and public officials outside an insurance industry conference. He highlighted what he described as the failures of insurers Allianz and Royal & Sun Alliance to pay \$800 million in claims related to the attacks. Insurers state that an agreement to split payments between Silverstein and the Port Authority is a cause for concern. ### Key project coordinators David Childs, one of Silverstein's favorite architects, joined the project after being urged by him. Childs developed a design for One World Trade Center, initially collaborating with Daniel Libeskind. In May 2005, Childs revised the design to address security concerns. He is the architect of the tower, and is responsible for overseeing its day-to-day design and development. Architect Daniel Libeskind won the invitational competition to develop a plan for the new tower in 2002. He gave a proposal, which he called "Memory Foundations", for the design of One World Trade Center. His design included aerial gardens, windmills, and off-center spire. Libeskind later denied a request to place the tower in a more rentable location next to the PATH station. He instead placed it another block west, as it would then line up with, and resemble, the Statue of Liberty. Most of Libeskind's original designs were later scrapped, and other architects were chosen to design the other WTC buildings. However, one element of Libeskind's initial plan was included in the final design – the tower's symbolic height of 1,776 feet (541 m). Daniel R. Tishman – along with his father John Tishman, builder of the original World Trade Center – led the construction team from Tishman Realty & Construction, the selected builder for One World Trade Center. Douglas and Jody Durst, the co-presidents of the Durst Organization, a real estate development company, won the right to invest at least \$100 million in the project on July 7, 2010. In August 2010, Condé Nast, a long-time Durst tenant, confirmed a tentative deal to move into One World Trade Center, and finalized the deal on May 26, 2011. The contract negotiated between the Port Authority and the Durst Organization specifies that the Durst Organization will receive a \$15 million fee, and a percentage of "base building changes that result in net economic benefit to the project". The specifics of the signed contract give Durst 75 percent of savings up to \$24 million, stepping down to 50, 25, and 15 percent as savings increase. Since Durst joined the project, significant changes have been made to the building, including the 185-foot (56 m) base of the tower, the spire, and the plaza to the west of the building, facing the Hudson River. The Port Authority has approved all the revisions. ### Port Authority construction workers A WoodSearch Films short-subject documentary entitled How does it feel to work on One World Trade Center? was uploaded to YouTube on August 31, 2010. It depicted construction workers who were satisfied with the working conditions at the construction site. However, further analysis of the work site showed that dozens of construction-related injuries had occurred at the site during the construction of One World Trade Center, including 34 not reported to the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Workers left post-9/11-related graffiti at the site, which are meant to symbolize rebirth and resilience. ## See also ## Cited sources

Butch Allison

American gridiron football player (1944–2010)

Buford Needham "Butch" Allison (October 29, 1944 – April 2, 2010) was a professional gridiron football offensive lineman who played for the Baltimore Colts and New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL) and the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL). He played college football at the University of Missouri. Allison was drafted in both the seventh round of the 1966 AFL Draft by the Oakland Raiders and the second round of the 1966 NFL Draft by the Baltimore Colts, who he played the 1966 NFL season with. He played for both the New Orleans Saints and Edmonton Eskimos in 1967. ## Early career Allison played high school football at Parkview High School as a right tackle. As a senior in 1961, he was selected to the All-Ozark county team and designated as an All-American. Allison signed to play for the Missouri Tigers in college, and he went on to be named on the All-Big Eight conference team three years in a row. In his junior year, Allison was also named a second-team All-American. He received an honorable mention for the All-America team in 1965. The Tigers won the 1966 Sugar Bowl against the Florida Gators during Allison's senior year. ## Professional career Allison was drafted in both the National Football League and the American Football League in 1966. The Baltimore Colts of the National Football League selected Allison in the second round of the 1966 NFL Draft with the 31st overall pick. The Oakland Raiders of the American Football League also selected Allison in the seventh round of the 1966 AFL Draft with the 57th overall pick. Allison signed with the Colts and played for the team through the preseason. He was released by the Colts in September 1966, remaining with the team as a practice squad player. Before the 1967 season, the Colts traded Allison to the New Orleans Saints as part of a deal that also sent quarterback Gary Cuozzo to the Saints in exchange for a 1967 first round pick (#1-Bubba Smith), a 1967 third round pick (#54-Norman Davis), a 1969 seventh round pick (#163-Gary Fleming) and center Bill Curry. He played one regular season game for the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League in 1967. ## Personal life Allison was the brother of Wilson Allison, another former professional football player. Wilson Allison played college football at Baylor University and was drafted by the Baltimore Colts in the 1961 NFL draft. He later signed with the San Diego Chargers of the American Football League. Later in life, Butch Allison made a career in sports printing. Along with his second wife, Mary Ann (née Azar), he also managed the West End Galleries and the Clarksville Antique Mall. ## Death Allison died on April 2, 2010, in St. Louis, Missouri.

Jamestown, Saint Helena

Capital and chief port of Saint Helena

Jamestown is the capital city of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, located on the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is also the historic main settlement of the island and is on its north-western coast. Before the development of the port at Rupert's Bay, it was the island's only port and the centre of the island's road and communications network. It was founded when colonists from the English East India Company settled on the island in 1659 and was briefly occupied by the Dutch East India Company in 1673 before being recaptured. Many of the buildings built by the East India Company in the 18th century survive and give the town its distinctive Georgian flavour. The city briefly hosted Napoleon in 1815 during his exile on St. Helena and later served as a base for the Royal Navy's efforts to suppress the slave trade. It had no role during the First World War and only played a minor role during the Second World War. ## History Jamestown was founded in 1659 by the East India Company and is named after James, Duke of York, the future King James II of England. A fort, originally named the Castle of St John, was quickly built and, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the fort was renamed James Fort, the town Jamestown and the valley James Valley. The fort and associated gun batteries dominated James Bay and were sporadically improved over the years. In January 1673 the Dutch East India Company briefly seized control of the island until the English East India Company recaptured it in May. Since then the town has been continuously inhabited under English and then British rule. After his defeat in the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815 and the subsequent occupation of Paris, the Emperor of the French, Napoleon, surrendered to the British and was exiled to St Helena. He arrived on 21 October aboard the 74-gun ship HMS Bellerophon and resided at the Briars in Jamestown for several months until he was transferred to Longwood House in a more remote part of the island in December. Jamestown was chosen to host a vice admiralty court and a naval base for British efforts to interdict the slave traffic between Africa and the Americas. Captured slave ships were often brought to Jamestown to be sold and their cargos were off-loaded in Rupert's Valley. By the time that the naval station was closed in the 1870s, an estimated 25,000 slaves had been rescued, although about 5,000 died shortly after arrival and were buried in Rupert's Valley. Long lost, their graves were rediscovered in 2006 in conjunction with preliminary digging for the airport. A team of archaeologists arrived in mid-2008 to excavate the graves. Some of the finds from the excavations are on exhibit at the International Slavery Museum in Liverpool, England. The island was too isolated to play any role in the First World War and only played a minimal one during the Second World War. The oil tanker RFA Darkdale was sunk by the in James Bay on 22 October 1941 with only nine of the 50-man crew surviving. She had been sent to St Helena a few months earlier to refuel ships operating in the South Atlantic. The wreck leaked small amounts of oil until its gradual deterioration caused the Ministry of Defence to send a team of divers to pump out all the remaining oil in June 2015. ## Geography and description The city is built on igneous rock in the James Valley, sandwiched between steep cliffs. It is therefore rather long and thin. The walls of the valley are rough and steep, and rockfalls have been a problem, although now minimised by netting. A small stream, the Run, runs through the valley. The city is commonly divided into lower and upper parts, depending on the distance up James Valley. Being the island's main port (and with the Saint Helena Airport only receiving its first scheduled flight in October 2017) the city is still currently the main entrance to the island to visitors. Despite not being connected to Jamestown proper by road, Rupert's Valley, the next valley north, is also part of the city. It houses much of the island's infrastructure, such as its power station and associated fuel storage, and a one-ship wharf was completed in June 2016. The city has over 100 listed buildings, mostly from the Georgian era. Main Street has been described as "one of the best examples of unspoilt Georgian architecture anywhere in the world." Many buildings are built out of local volcanic rock. St James' Church dates from 1772 and is the oldest Anglican church in the Southern Hemisphere. Another of the city's prominent features is Jacob's Ladder, a staircase of 699 steps, built in 1829 to connect Jamestown to the former fort on Ladder Hill. The ladder is very popular with tourists, is lit at night and a timed run takes place there every year, with people coming from all over the world to take part. The Museum of Saint Helena is situated in Jamestown, one of two museums on the island (the other being Longwood House). ## Formal status Jamestown is formally a city, a status granted by Queen Victoria in 1859, and its full name is the "City of James Town". It is also one of the 8 districts (administrative divisions) and is the capital of both the island of Saint Helena and the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. The Castle, one of the oldest buildings in the city, is one of the main government buildings. ## Climate Jamestown features a tropical hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification: BWh) with essentially consistent temperatures throughout the year. Despite the fact that the city has a desert climate, its temperatures are moderated by the adjacent ocean and cold currents therein, leading to a cool climate for the deep tropical latitude. As a result, it seldom gets very hot in Jamestown. The temperature in the Jamestown area is some 5 degrees warmer than the rest of the island, because of the difference in altitude. While Jamestown receives less than 5 inches (13 cm) of rainfall per year, the higher parts of the island are also wetter than the city, which lies on the drier coast and in a sheltered location. The highlands above Jamestown receive up to 39 inches (99 cm) per year of precipitation and are lush with vegetation. The surrounding waters can be quite rough at times, and there is a sea wall to protect the settlement. ## Population As of 2016, the district Jamestown had 629 residents, a significant decline since the 2008 population of 714. The city's population has been shrinking and it is no longer the largest settlement on the island, having been surpassed by Half Tree Hollow, Saint Paul's and Longwood. ## Education As a British territory, the island follows the British education system. There is one primary school, serving children ages four to eleven, in Jamestown, Pilling Primary School, which was created by the amalgamation of Jamestown First School and Pilling Middle School in September 2007. The island's only secondary school is Prince Andrew School in Saint Paul's. ## Religion The Anglican Parish of St. James is one of the three parishes of the Diocese of St Helena on the island. St James' Church is the primary church in the parish and is the oldest Anglican Church in the southern hemisphere; the present building was put up in 1772. There are 3 daughter churches: St John's, in Upper Jamestown, St Mary's, the Briars, and St Michael's, in Rupert's Valley. The sole Catholic Church in St Helena, Sacred Heart Church, is located in Jamestown; as is a Baptist church. ## See also - List of towns in Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

Audrey Pauley

"Audrey Pauley" is the eleventh episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. It originally aired on the Fox network on March 17, 2002. It was written by Steven Maeda and directed by Kim Manners. The episode is a "monster-of-the-week" episode, a stand-alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology, or overarching fictional history, of The X-Files. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 4.8, being watched by 8 million viewers. It has generally received positive reviews from television critics. The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett (Robert Patrick), Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish), and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson). In this episode, after being in a car accident, Reyes awakens in a surreal hospital. Doggett and a comatose Reyes struggle to prevent her organ donor card from being acted upon. The two, however, soon discover a unique woman, Audrey Pauley, who has the ability to communicate with both those conscious and unconscious. "Audrey Pauley" guest starred Tracey Ellis as the title character; she had previously appeared as a major character in the third season episode "Oubliette". Gish has called the episode one of her favorites to film. In addition, it contained several elaborate stunts and effect sequences, many of which were created in unique manners. ## Plot After driving home from work, Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish) is struck by a drunk driver and transported to a hospital, where she is received by Dr. Preijers (Jack Blessing) and Nurse Edwards; she soon slips into a coma. Reyes, however, wakes up moments later in the same room all alone. Running to the door, she discovers that the hospital is floating in a void. She soon finds two other patients, Stephen Murdoch (Stan Shaw), and Mr. Barreiro (Del Zamora). They assume that they are dead. Reyes, however, maintains that they are still alive. Meanwhile, Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) tells John Doggett (Robert Patrick) that Reyes is braindead, a fact that Doggett refuses to believe. Preijers informs Doggett and Scully that, since Reyes was an organ donor, in a few days her life-support will be pulled and the hospital will harvest her remains. In the floating hospital, Reyes sees a woman (Tracey Ellis), standing in the hallway, whom Monica follows, but then the woman disappears. At that moment, Barreiro begins screaming and is engulfed in blue electricity before disappearing. In the real world, it is revealed that Barreiro, a fellow comatose patient, has had his life support removed by Preijers. Nearby stands the mystery woman that Reyes encountered: Audrey Pauley. Doggett begins looking into ways to save Reyes, noting an anomaly in her electrocardiograph that suggests stifled brain activity. While visiting her room, Doggett runs into Audrey who tells him that Reyes' soul is "not gone yet". Audrey walks to her room in the basement, where a model of the hospital has been built. By concentrating her mind, she is able to move into the floating hospital where Reyes is trapped. Once there, she finds Reyes who asks her to tell Doggett that he's a "dog person", a reference to a conversation the two had before Reyes' crash. After relaying the message, Doggett is determined that Reyes is not gone and, following Audrey, learns about her hospital model. Meanwhile, Nurse Edwards (Vernee Watson-Johnson) confronts Preijers about an injection she saw him give Reyes; he kills Edwards to cover his tracks. Later, in the floating hospital, Stephen collapses and disappears when he too is pulled off of life support. After Doggett is spotted with Audrey in the basement by Preijers, he begins to worry that she could expose what he is doing. He injects the same drug he used to kill Edwards, but Audrey is able to concentrate and move into the floating hospital one last time. She informs Reyes that her only way out is to jump into the void. Reyes does so and wakes up in her hospital bed moments before her organs are to be harvested. Doggett runs down to Audrey's room only to find that Preijers has killed her. Doggett manages to capture Preijers before he can escape. ## Production "Audrey Pauley" was written by Steven Maeda and directed by Kim Manners. The entry was Maeda's second ninth season entry after "4-D". The episode features guest star Tracey Ellis as the titular Audrey Pauley. Ellis had previously appeared as a major character in the third season episode "Oubliette". Annabeth Gish later noted that the episode, along with "4-D", were her "two favorite episodes" because they "are stand-alone episodes about Reyes and Doggett. Wonderful acting challenges, and the stories were fantastic." Robert Patrick, whose friend Ted Demme had recently died, was worried about bringing too much emotion onto the set. He later noted, "I was kind of raw. I remember being a little worried about bringing too much emotion to it. I felt safe with Kim; he knew I was going through a tough time." The episode contained several elaborate stunts and effect sequences. Gish performed all of her stunts in the episode, including one shot when she jumped from a thirty-foot descender. She later called the sequence "the biggest stunt of my career." For several of the special effect shots, Manners was forced to compromise on his original decision. For one shot, in which Audrey Pauley disappears after appearing in front of Gish, Manners had wanted to employ CGI technology. Eventually, the director decided to use practical effects by "t[ying] the two actresses [Gish and Ellis] together [...] and then [cutting] to Annabeth and in her face there's an 'oh shit' reaction, and then [panning] straight up on a crane, all right, and see that she's completely alone." He called effects like these "creative ways to trim [the] budget." To create the floating hospital scene, footage shot on a small door set was composited with a CGI hospital. Initially, the scene used a straight flat "piece of cement" as the bottom of the building. The effects team tried adding a "big piece of earth" under the building, but Paul Rabwin felt it looked too much like The Little Prince, so the piece of earth was removed. The final result also removed the cement-like base. ## Broadcast and reception "Audrey Pauley" originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 17, 2002, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on January 26, 2003. The episode's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 5.1 million households, 8 million viewers, and ranked as the sixty-eighth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 17. "Audrey Pauley" earned a Nielsen household rating of 4.8, meaning that roughly 4.8 percent of all television-equipped households, were tuned in to the episode. The episode has generally received positive reviews from television critics. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, gave the episode a glowing review and rated it five stars out of five. The two noted that "this is what The X-Files should be doing now" and that "this would have been the template on which to have built a series starring Doggett and Reyes." Furthermore, they noted that the script was "written and directed with so much restraint", that it makes many of the emotional scenes "more affecting". Shearman and Pearson ultimately called the end result "clever, thoughtful, [...] very moving" and "beautiful". Lionel Green from Sand Mountain Reporter named the episode one of his "13 all-time favorite episodes" of The X-Files, ranking it at number three. He wrote that the episode was "powerful" due to its themes of "faith, love and sacrifice." He concluded that it was "the best one starring the new agents, Doggett and Reyes." M.A. Crang, in his book Denying the Truth: Revisiting The X-Files after 9/11, praised the performances of Robert Patrick and Annabeth Gish while stating that the visuals in the dream sequences were "pitch-perfect". Alanna Reid of The Companion wrote that "Reyes' cognisance of her own reincarnated status, her ability to sense the embodiment of evil and comprehend the journey of her own soul between life and death is the mark of a powerful mystic; allowing the show to ... build and play out narratives that would seem more at home in Buffy the Vampire Slayer or Charmed than The X-Files." Jessica Morgan, however, from Television Without Pity, gave the episode a more mixed review. She criticized the character of Monica Reyes and called her "Moronica". She ultimately gave the episode a C+ grade. Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk called the entry "borderline weird" and used it as evidence that "the ninth season [is] arguably the worst season of the series." The A.V. Club's Zack Handlen was generally unenthused writing "It’s not a bad episode, exactly, but there doesn’t seem to be a lot of point to it. ... it makes for a forgettable hour."

Papi Chulo's

Mexican restaurant in Portland, Oregon, U.S.

Papi Chulo's is a restaurant with two locations in Portland, Oregon, in the United States. The original taqueria in the Pearl District was opened by restaurateur Ramzy Hattar in December 2019, with Antonio Javier Palma Caceres as the chef and Davide Bricca overseeing cocktails. The trio had previously worked together at River Pig Saloon and Two Wrongs, two neighboring establishments also owned by Hattar. A second location opened in northeast Portland in 2023. Papi Chulo's serves Mexican cuisine, such as tacos, burritos, nachos, birria, margaritas, and micheladas. ## Description Papi Chulo's is a Mexican restaurant with two locations in Portland. Eater Portland's Brooke Jackson-Glidden has described the original taqueria, located on 13th Avenue in northwest Portland's Pearl District, as "a colorful counter-service spot" with "design elements reminiscent" of similar establishments in California and Mexico. The interior has an "open-format" kitchen with multiple paintings, including one of the restaurant's name on the kitchen's hood and another of a bottle of Corona with a lime, as well as a mounted marlin above the ordering counter. In 2020, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, Willamette Week's Nick Zukin described the taqueria as "a popular late-night destination for hungry club and bar patrons". ### Menu Serving a variety of regional Mexican cuisine, the restaurant's menu has tacos (including Baja fish such as cod and Yucatecan cochinita pibil), burritos, nachos, birria with beef, lengua with habanero, margaritas on tap, and micheladas. Various ingredients include chile de árbol, cochinita pibil, consommé, queso blanco, salsa with guajillo chili, and "locally nixtamalized" tortillas made from Three Sisters masa. The pepper margarita has a syrup made on-site and uses habaneros, poblanos, and three other types of peppers. The "Princesa" margarita contains strawberry syrup and lime juice. The micheladas and Bloody Mary come with Tajín seasoning on the rim. Palomas are also featured on the drink menu. ## History The restaurant opened on December 7, 2019, in the space formerly occupied by PBJ's Grilled. Restaurateur Ramzy Hattar owns the taqueria, along with neighboring establishments River Pig Saloon and Two Wrongs. He had started developing a business plan for a taco restaurant after the chain Pink Taco reversed plans to open in Portland, and he confirmed the launch of Papi Chulo's in July 2019. The restaurant's opening was slightly delayed; in his September 2019 list of the city's most anticipated restaurant openings for the fall season, Eater Portland's Alex Frane said the taqueria was slated to open on October 23. Hattar opened the restaurant with Antonio Javier Palma Caceres, who was raised in Yucatán and had served as River Pig's chef, as well as Davide Bricca, who oversaw cocktails for both River Pig and Two Wrongs. Food from Papi Chulo's was being served at Two Wrongs by February 2020. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Papi Chulo's, River Pig, and Two Wrongs served customers in decorated and heated covered tents. With permission from the Portland Bureau of Transportation, Northwest 13th Avenue was closed off to traffic at Hoyt Street, creating a street plaza for dining. Papi Chulo's also continued to operate delivery and takeout services, opting to staff for deliveries rather than partner with a food delivery service (which Hattar deemed too expensive), as of May 2020. Sourcing quality beef in 2020 was frustrating and challenging for Hattar, who had to find meat outside SP Provisions because of the pandemic's impact on the food and meat industry. Someone burglarized the restaurant in October 2020, using a hand truck to remove a safe.In November 2020, the business confirmed plans for a second location in a new development in northeast Portland's Vernon neighborhood called Alberta Alley. The restaurant opened on February 17, 2023. The outpost has a similar menu and limited indoor seating, as well as a courtyard shared with neighboring establishments. ## Reception In March 2020, The Oregonian's Michael Russell included Papi Chulo's in his overview of "Portland's 40 best inexpensive restaurants" and said the birria tacos "are among the best lunch values you can find downtown". In May, Eater Portland's Brooke Jackson-Glidden included Papi Chulo's in her overview of Portland's "knockout tacos" with delivery and takeout service during the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2023, Papi Chulo's ranked eighth in a list of Portland's "highest-rated" restaurants for tacos, based on Yelp data. ## See also - COVID-19 pandemic in Portland, Oregon - Hispanics and Latinos in Portland, Oregon - Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the restaurant industry in the United States - List of Mexican restaurants

Kajaani

Town in Kainuu, Finland

Kajaani (), historically known as Cajanaburg (Swedish: Kajana), is the most populous town and the capital of the Kainuu Region of Finland. It is located southeast of Lake Oulu (Oulujärvi), which drains into the Gulf of Bothnia through the Oulu River (Oulujoki). As of 9 September 2023, it had a population of . The town was founded in the 17th century, fueled by the growth of the tar industry, but it was preceded by a long history of settlements. During the Great Northern War it succumbed to Russian forces, who ruined Kajaani Castle in 1716. Today, the local economy is mainly driven by the sawmill, lumber, and paper industries, although UPM Kymmene's paper mill, the main employer from 1907 until 2008, has since closed. Kajaani's church was built in 1896 in the Neo-Gothic style by the architect Jac Ahrenberg to replace an earlier church. Kajaani's town theatre was established in 1969. Kajaani is home to two football clubs, AC Kajaani and Kajaanin Haka, and the ice hockey team Hokki. The Kajaani University of Applied Sciences was established in 1992. ## History Kajaani was one of the cities founded in 1651 by the Swedish Governor General of Finland, Per Brahe. At that time, the Kainuu region—as wood country—was an important producer of tar derived from pine, and the tar trade was its major industry. In 1653-4 the district court sessions of Kajaani and Sotkamo were responsible for authorizing a road to be built between Säräisniemi and Raahe, improving communications in the region. During the Greater Wrath in the 18th century, Kajaani Castle was forced to surrender to Russian forces. The Russians blew the castle up in March 1716, and it has been in ruins ever since. On 17 October 1808, General Johan August Sandels won a key victory to the south of Kajaani near Iisalmi during the Battle of Koljonvirta of the Finnish War, when his army of just 1,800 defeated over 6,000 Russians. There is a monument on the east side of the river marking where the spot where Lieutenant Jakob Henrik Zidén and Major-General Mikhail Petrovich Dolgorukov fell. In early 1833, medical doctor Elias Lönnrot, best known for compiling the Kalevala, the national epic of Finland, was appointed district physician in Kajaani and was assigned to assist in dealing with the typhoid and cholera epidemic which was raging during the 1830s. The disease was difficult to treat and he soon fell ill himself with typhus at the end of February 1833 but recovered. Kajaani was severely affected by the famine in 1867-1868 which devastated much of Finland, but the town gradually recovered and by the end of the century had grown to more than 1200 inhabitants. Kajaani Town Hall was built in 1831, the former City Library in 1852, Kainuu's first elementary school in 1883, and Kajaani Church in 1896 as it grew into a notable settlement. The paper industry took off in Kajaani in the early 20th century in particular. Kajaani Paper Mill was built in 1907 and was run by the firm Kajaani Oy, which had a capital of FMK 5,000,000 (£137,615) in 1948. Kajaani Oy was eventually acquired by Valmet in 1983, and the subsidiary Kajaani Electronics was formed. Ämmäkoski power plant was built on the river in 1917 by the Kajaani Lumber Company, and underwent alterations under architect Eino Pitkänen in the 1940s. The city's grew in the 1960s to 14,600 inhabitants. Industrial development in the 1970s, and the merger of the separate rural municipality of Kajaani, Kajaanin maalaiskunta, and the city in 1977 saw the population jump to 34,574 by 1980. Vuolijoki was consolidated with Kajaani at the beginning of 2007. In 2012, an oil spill occurred in Kajaani. 110,000 liters of oily water leaked into a river that eventually flowed into the Oulujärvi lake. ## Geography Kajaani is situated in the heart of central Finland. By road is it 558 kilometres (347 mi) north-northwest of Helsinki, 170 kilometres (110 mi) north of Kuopio, and 182 kilometres (113 mi) southeast of Oulu. Villages in the vicinity include Jormua, Koutaniemi, Kuluntalahti, Lahnasjärvi, Lehtovaara, Linnantaus, Mainua, Murtomäki and Paltaniemi. Districts of Kajaani include: Heinisuo, Hetteenmäki, Hoikankangas, Huuhkajanvaara, Katiska, Kettu, Komiaho, Kuurna, Kylmä, Kättö, Kätönlahti, Laajankangas, Lehtikangas, Lohtaja, Nakertaja, Onnela, Palokangas, Petäisenniska, Puistola, Purola, Soidinsuo, Suvantola, Teppana, Tihisenniemi, Tikkapuro, Variskangas and Yläkaupunki. Kajaani lies on the Kajaani River, between the lakes of Oulujärvi, which drains to the Gulf of Bothnia along the Oulu River, and Nuasjärvi. Between Kajaani and Oulujärvi are the smaller lakes of Sokajärvi and Paltajärvi, which are frozen during winter. Paltajärvi stands between the Kajaani River and Oulujärvi. The Kajaani and Vuolijoki rivers are noted for their fishing. The island of Käkisaari lies on lake Oulujärvi to the northwest of the town and features residential houses and about 150 summer cottages and holiday apartments, and the island of Toukka lies in the eastern part of the lake. Also within the municipality is the 34.7 square kilometres (13.4 sq mi) Laakajärvi, a lake with a maximum depth of 25 metres (82 ft), which is a notable nesting area for Great black-backed gull and ospreys. The surrounding area is dominated by mainly conifer forest, with broad-leafed birch and alder woods on some of the steeper banks and streams. An early 20th century analysis of vegetation cover in Kajaani county recorded 385 different species of vascular plants. Talaskangas Nature Reserve, with nearly pristine natural forest and about 50 different wildlife species, is in the Vieremä and Sonkajärvi local area. Logging was planned in the 1980s, but environmental activists prevented exploitation through lobbying. The reserve was formally established in 1994. ### Climate Kajaani lies within the subarctic climate zone (Köppen: Dfc), but the proximity of the Baltic Sea and warm airflows from the Atlantic Ocean (as well as warm current) result in a much milder climate than many locations at this latitude. Summers are cool, with the hottest month usually in July, with the average high temperature reaching 20 °C (68 °F), although during severe heatwaves highs of 31 °C (88 °F) have been reached in July and August and a local record of 34.5 °C (94.1 °F), was registered in July during the heatwave of 2010. The summers also have the most rainfall, reaching a peak in July with 99 mm (4 in). Rainfall is fairly constant throughout the year, with no dry season. Winters can be harsh, and temperatures can drop below −30 °C (−22 °F). The peak of the cold season on average lasts from December 11 to March 8, with an average daily high temperature below −3 °C (27 °F), with the greatest snowfall in January. ## Demographics As of 9 September 2023, the municipality has a population of (around 34,000 in the town itself) and covers an area of Error in convert: Needs the number to be converted (help) of which Error in convert: Needs the number to be converted (help) is water. The population density is Error in convert: Needs the number to be converted (help). The municipality is unilingually Finnish (only 0% of people from Kajaani speak Swedish as their first language). ## Government The Kajaani City Council consists of 51 members and following the 2012 municipal election the seats are divided for the Centre Party (13), the Finns Party (9), the National Coalition Party (8), the Left Alliance (8), the Social Democratic Party (7), independent (3), the Green League (2) and the Christian Democrats (1). The chairperson of the City Council is Jaana Sankilampi from the Finns Party. The City Government, which includes all parties with the exception of the Christian Democrats and independents, is headed by Marjatta Immonen. The Mayor, whose duty is that of a civil servant independent of the city council, is Jari Tolonen. ## Economy The budgeted income of Kajaani was FIM 930 million in 1996. In its earlier history, Kajaani was a thriving center of the tar industry. A channel built in 1846 especially for the transportation of tar out of the town still exists today. Today the local economy is driven by mainly the sawmill, lumber and paper industries. Kajaani paper mill, established in 1907 by Kajaani Oy (ex Kajaanin Puutavara Osakeyhtio), was the largest private employer in Kajaani. The factories are on the river bank, at Tihisenniemi. They built a new paper machine in the town in 1980 which was projected to have an annual output of 170,000 tons. Kajaani Oy was eventually acquired by Valmet in 1983, and the subsidiary Kajaani Electronics was formed. Kajaani Electronics was cited as "one of the leading makers of special sensors and analyzers for the pulp and paper industry" in 1990. When the paper mill was acquired by UPM Kymmene in 1989 it became the third-largest paper company in Finland. It closed in 2008 due to lack of profitability and high energy costs, but has since continued its operations, and was sold to Pölkky Oy in 2012. In the early 1970s an electronics manufacturing plant was built in Kajaani, and the firm Kajaani Automation was established in 1980. As of 1999 the peat industry in Kajaani earned FIM 0.5 million annually. Some 222 hectares is allocated to peat production, with private firm Vapo Oy contracted to exploit it and deliver peat to the power plant. According to 1999 figures, Kajaani earns FIM 3 million a year by selling forestry products, and also receives a sizable income from tourist-related activities from its forests. Fishing also contributes to the income of people in the town. Kajaani has three main hotels, the 191-room Scandic Kajanus Kajaani, Hotel Kajaani and Original Sokos Hotel Valjus, although the Karolineburg Manor House now also functions as a hotel with 20 rooms. The Sirius restaurant, cited as the best restaurant in the town, serves Finnish cuisine, and is housed in a former government building which hosted conferences between Leonid Brezhnev and Urho Kekkonen. Also of note is the Chinese restaurant Golden Dragon, the Torero which serves Spanish cuisine, Hospoda Kourna and Pikantti. The Central Hospital of Kainuu, which serves the wider region, is situated in Kajaani. Opened in 1968, it has a number of specialist medical departments andworks in cooperation with the Oulu University Hospital. The town also has an eye clinic. Kainuu Brigade, a unit of the Finnish Army established in 1966, is the third biggest employer in the city. The brigade trains around 4,000 conscripts each year and employs 500 military personnel and 100 civilians. ## Landmarks Kajaani Castle, located on an island on the Kajaani river in the centre of the city, was originally built in 1604 and was commissioned by Charles IX of Sweden. The castle served as an administrative centre, prison, military base and a refuge for the citizens. The Town Hall of Kajaani, on the main square, Raatihuoneentori, was built to the design of Carl Engel in 1831 with a central rooftop clocktower and turret. It underwent restoration in 1990 when it was painted in a "fetching yellow ochre" color. Kajaani Church was built in 1896 in the Neo-Gothic style by architect Jac Ahrenberg. It replaced an earlier church on the spot which was originally built in 1656 and destroyed by the Russians in 1716 at the time when Kajaani castle was destroyed. The second church was built 1734-35 which served the parish for 160 years until replaced with Ahrenberg's new church. The church, built from wood, has three naves and features a delicate, slender bell tower. It is decorated with English Gothic style carvings. Kajaani Orthodox Church (Kajaanin ortodoksinen seurakunta), which has a regional membership of about 1880 members is centred at Christ Church of the Transfiguration in Kajaani. The church was completed in 1959 to designs by Ilmari Ahonen. It contains murals painted by Petros Sasaki and Alkiviadis Kepolas. In the suburb of Paltaniemi is a church, originally built in 1599, and considered to be the regional centre for the Lutheran Church. There is a mosque in the town, which is the center of the regional Kainuu Islamic community, which in 2013 had 174 members. Eino Leno House, containing a cafe, was built in 1978 to commemorate famous poet Eino Leino, a native of the town. Keisarintalli, a wooden stable, was used as a boarding house for Tsar Alexander I of Russia during his tour of Finland in 1819. Also of note is the Urho Kekkonen Memorial, dedicated to the eighth Finnish president, Urho Kekkonen. The 8 metres (26 ft) high monument was carved by sculptor Pekka Kauhanen and was unveiled on 3 September 1990, exactly 90 years after Kekkonen's birth. ## Culture The Kajaani Town Theatre, established in 1969, puts on plays and concerts, typically seen by around 200 people. The Art Museum of Kajaani (Kajaanin taidemuseo), located in a building that was a police station, which is connected to Kajaani's former city hall. was founded in 1993 and centers on Finnish modern art. Kainuu Museum (Kainuun Museo) displays information related to the tar industry, the Kalevala (the national epic of Finland) and author Elias Lönnrot and others on the ground floor, and regularly hosts temporary exhibitions upstairs. The most notable annual cultural events in Kajaani are Kajaanin Runoviikko (The Kajaani Poetry Week), originally known as Sana ja Sävel, and Kainuun JazzKevät (The Kainuu Jazz Spring). Kajaani Orchestra began in the 1950s, and was expanded when the Kuopio garrison band moved to Kajaani in 1963. Radio Kajaus, one of Finland's oldest local radios, began operations in Kajaani in 1989, and remains one of the few completely independent radio stations in Finland. Kainuu Radio, which belongs to the Yle, broadcasts Monday to Friday from 6.30 to 17.00. ## Education The town is served by the Kajaani University of Applied Sciences, a small university of applied sciences which was established in 1992. It provides courses in Activity Tourism, Information Systems, Nursing and Healthcare, Mechanical and Mining Engineering and Business and Innovations, and offers 8 Bachelor's degree programmes and 5 Master programmes delivered in Finnish. The Research Center for Developmental Teaching and Learning at Kajaani University Consortium is associated with the University of Oulu. There is also a polytechnical institute in Kajaani, which had an enrollment of 653 students in the mid 1990s. The 500 PetaFLOP Large Unified Modern Infrastructure supercomputer is being constructed to service 10 European countries. The government-run Kainuu Music Institute was founded in 1957, and is part of the Kaukametsä Congress and Culture Centre. It is one of the largest musical institutes in Finland, with an enrollment of about 900 from the wider Kainuu region. Kainuu Music dance department Ballet Kaukametsä teaches dance to dancers of different ages. The public library of Kajaani is situated on Kauppakatu street and has free Internet access, and there is also a mobile library service. The Kajaani Journal has been publishing since at least 1919. ## Sports Kajaani has two football clubs, AC Kajaani and Kajaanin Haka. AC Kajaani was formed in 2006 after the merger of FC Tarmo and Kajaanin Palloilijat (KaPa), and plays their home games at the Kajaanin Liikuntapuisto. The men's football first team currently plays in the Kakkonen (Division 2). Kajaanin Haka was formed in 1953 and plays at the Kajaanin liikuntapuisto stadium. The men's football first team currently plays in the Kolmonen (Division 3). The local ice hockey team, Hokki, plays in the Mestis league. Kajaani ice rink (Kajaanin jäähalli) was inaugurated in 1989 and accommodates for 2372 spectators, 781 in seating and 1591 in standing. There is a race course (Kajaanin ravirata) about 9 miles (14 km) to the north of the centre of Kajaani in Kuluntalahden, which hosts competitions only during the summer season. The track was completed in 2008 with a new café-restaurant. Kajaani has hiking paths, skiing tracks, gyms, and sports grounds within the municipality. Pöllyvaara and the Vimpeli Hills are notable local ski areas, frequented by tourists during the winter months. Fishing is popular along the banks of the river. Kajaani also has a golf course, and there are also several dancing pavilions in the town. ## Transport There are two important highways from the direction of Helsinki to Kajaani: Highway 5 (E63) and Highway 6. In addition, Highway 22 leads to Kajaani from the direction of Oulu. There is a daily bus service operating between Kajaani, Oulu, Kemijärvi and Rukatunturi, and Bus No.4 runs hourly during weekdays from Pohjolankatu in Kajaani to Paltaniemi. During the summer months there is a cruise service operating between Joensuu and Nurmes. Kajaani railway station opened in 1905 when the railway from Iisalmi to Kajaani was completed as an extension to the Savonia railroad. The station building was designed by Gustaf Nyström. The Kajaani station trackyard underwent significant upgrading and repair work in 2005, when the railway from Iisalmi to Kontiomäki was electrified. Four trains arrive daily from Helsinki via Kouvola and Kuopio, with the journey taking 7–10 hours to Helsinki depending on the train. There are also daily trains from Joensuu, and connecting trains between Nurmes and Kajaani. Kajaani Airport, approximately 7 kilometres (4 mi) northwest of Kajaani in the Paltaniemi area, is the main local airport. It is operated by Finavia, and also serves needs of non-commercial general aviation. Construction of the airport began in 1939 with the runway being completed in the autumn, but due to World War it was not fully opened until 22 June 1956. Aegean Airlines and Flybe Nordic provides flights to Chania and Helsinki. The Finnair connection to Helsinki operates during the summer twice daily and three times a day during the winter schedule period. In 2013 the airport served 74,558 passengers. ## Notable people - Antti Halonen, ice hockey player - Eino Leino, poet and journalist - Elias Lönnrot, philologist and poetry collector; compiler of The Kalevala - Henrik Flöjt, biathlon athlete - Jorma Korhonen, judoka - Jouko Karjalainen, skier - Marko Kemppainen, skeet shooter - Matti Heikkinen, skier - Olli Malmivaara, ice hockey player - Pekka Suorsa, ski jumper - Riku Nieminen, actor and dancer - Sakari Kukko, musician - Tommi Leinonen, ice hockey player - Urho Kekkonen, 8th President of Finland - Kasperi Heikkinen, Guitar player ## International relations ### Twin towns — Sister cities Kajaani is twinned with: ## See also - Kuusamo - Oulu - Sotkamo - Vuolijoki

USS North Dakota (BB-29)

Dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy

USS North Dakota (BB-29) was a dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy, the second member of the Delaware class, her only sister ship being Delaware. North Dakota was laid down at the Fore River Shipyard in December 1907, was launched in November 1908, and commissioned into the US Navy in April 1910. She was armed with a main battery of ten 12-inch (305 mm) guns and was capable of a top speed of 21 kn (24 mph; 39 km/h). North Dakota was the first vessel of the US Navy to be named after the 39th state. North Dakota had a peaceful career; she was present during the United States occupation of Veracruz in 1914, but did not see action. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, North Dakota remained in the US, training crewmen for the rapidly expanding wartime Navy, and therefore did not see combat. She remained on active duty through the early 1920s, until she was decommissioned under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty in November 1923, and converted into a radio-controlled target ship. She served in that capacity until 1930, when she was replaced in that role by Utah. In 1931, she was sold for scrapping and thereafter dismantled. ## Design The two Delaware-class battleships were ordered in response to the British battleship HMS Dreadnought, the first all-big-gun battleship to enter service. The previous American dreadnoughts, the South Carolina class, had been designed before the particulars of HMS Dreadnought were known. The Navy decided that another pair of battleships should be built to counter the perceived superiority of Dreadnought over South Carolina, and so Rear Admiral Washington L. Capps prepared a design for a ship with an additional main battery gun turret to match Dreadnought's ten guns. But unlike Dreadnought, all ten of North Dakota's guns could fire on the broadside. At the time of her construction, North Dakota was the largest and most powerful battleship then being built in the world. North Dakota was 518 ft 9 in (158 m) long overall and had a beam of 85 ft 3 in (26 m) and a draft of 27 ft 3 in (8 m). She displaced 20,380 long tons (20,707 t) as designed and up to 22,400 long tons (22,759 t) at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft Curtis steam turbines and fourteen coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers, generating a top speed of 21 knots. The ship had a cruising range of 6,500 nautical miles (12,000 km; 7,500 mi) at a speed of 12 kn (14 mph; 22 km/h). She had a crew of 933 officers and men. Her bow had an early example of bulbous forefoot. The ship was armed with a main battery of ten 12-inch (305 mm)/45 Mark 5 guns in five twin Mark 7 gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other three turrets were placed aft of the superstructure. The secondary battery consisted of twenty-one 5-inch (127 mm)/50 Mark 6 guns mounted on Mark 9 and Mark 12 pedestal mounts in casemates along the side of the hull. As was standard for capital ships of the period, she carried a pair of 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside. North Dakota's main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick, while the armored deck was 2 in (51 mm) thick. The gun turrets had 12 in (305 mm) thick faces and the conning tower had 11.5 in (292 mm) thick sides. ## Service history ### Construction – 1917 The keel for North Dakota was laid down at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts, on 16 December 1907. She was launched on 10 November 1908, and completed on 11 April 1910, thereafter being commissioned into the fleet. On 8 September 1910, the ship suffered an oil-tank explosion and fire while at sea. Six men—Chief Watertenders August Holtz and Patrick Reid, Chief Machinist's Mates Thomas Stanton and Karl Westa, Machinist's Mate First Class Charles C. Roberts, and Watertender Harry Lipscomb—each received the Medal of Honor "for extraordinary heroism in the line of his profession" during the fire. After her commissioning, North Dakota was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet; she participated in the normal peacetime routine of training cruises, fleet maneuvers, and gunnery drills in the Atlantic and in the Caribbean Sea. On 2 November 1910, she crossed the Atlantic for the first time, on a good-will visit to Britain and France. Fleet maneuvers followed in the Caribbean the next spring. Midshipmen training cruises for cadets from the Naval Academy occupied North Dakota's time in the summers of 1912 and 1913. On 1 January 1913, she joined the honor escort for the British armored cruiser HMS Natal, which was carrying the remains of Whitelaw Reid, the United States Ambassador to Great Britain. The United States remained neutral when war in Europe broke out in August 1914; in the Americas, political disturbances in Mexico during that country's revolution kept the US Navy occupied that year. North Dakota steamed off Veracruz, where she arrived on 26 April 1914, five days after American sailors had occupied the city. She cruised the coast of Mexico to protect Americans in the country until October, when she returned to Norfolk, Virginia, arriving on 16 October. As war loomed, the Atlantic Fleet began intensive training to prepare for a possible American entrance into the conflict. ### World War I North Dakota was conducting gunnery training in Chesapeake Bay when the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917. Unlike her sister Delaware, North Dakota remained in American waters for the duration of the war, and did not see action. She was based out of York River, Virginia and New York City, and was tasked with training gunners and engine room personnel for the rapidly expanding wartime fleet. Admiral Hugh Rodman requested that North Dakota remain behind because he did not trust the reliability of her engines. In 1917, her engines were replaced with new geared turbines, and new fire control equipment was installed. On 13 November 1919, North Dakota left Norfolk, carrying the remains of the Italian Ambassador to the United States, Vincenzo Macchi di Cellere, who had died 20 October in Washington, D.C. The ship stopped in Athens, Constantinople, Valencia, and Gibraltar while cruising the Mediterranean Sea. She thereafter returned to the United States, and participated in fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean in the spring of 1920. In July 1921, she was present during the joint Army-Navy bombing tests, where the ex-German battleship SMS Ostfriesland and cruiser SMS Frankfurt were sunk in an air-power demonstration. North Dakota returned to the normal peacetime routine of training exercises, including two midshipmen cruises in the summers of 1922 and 1923; the latter cruise went to European waters, where she visited Spain, Scotland, and Scandinavia. In the years immediately following the end of the war, the United States, Britain, and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs. All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill-advised, and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations, which produced the Washington Naval Treaty, signed in February 1922. Under the terms of Article II of the treaty, North Dakota and her sister Delaware were to be scrapped as soon as the new battleships Colorado and West Virginia, then under construction, were ready to join the fleet. North Dakota was decommissioned on 22 November 1923 in Norfolk in accordance with the terms of the treaty. She was disarmed and reclassified as an "unclassified" ship on 29 May 1924, and thereafter converted into a radio-controlled gunnery target ship. Her turbines were removed for later use aboard the battleship Nevada when she was modernized in the 1930s. She served in that capacity until 1930, when she was replaced by the battleship Utah. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 7 January 1931 and sold to the Union Shipbuilding Co of Baltimore on 16 March 1931 for dismantling.

New Ancient Strings

1999 studio album by Toumani Diabaté with Ballaké Sissoko

New Ancient Strings (French: Nouvelles cordes anciennes) is a studio album by the Malian musicians Toumani Diabaté and Ballaké Sissoko, released on 22 June 1999 by the British label Hannibal Records. The album comprises eight instrumental duets composed by Diabaté for kora, a stringed instrument of West African music. Diabaté and Sissoko are esteemed as the best and the second-best kora players of their generation, respectively. Their duets were recorded in a single live take within a marble hallway of Bamako's conference centre on the night of 22 September 1997, coinciding with Mali's Independence Day. New Ancient Strings was inspired by the 1970 album Ancient Strings, a landmark kora album featuring the musicians' fathers, Sidiki Diabaté and Djelimadi Sissoko. By the mid-1990s, Toumani Diabaté had accrued a significant international profile after recording several crossover collaborations. Having brought the kora to wider attention with these genre fusion projects, New Ancient Strings represented his return to his roots in acoustic Mande music. The music balances elements of traditional and modern styles. Diabaté and Sissoko intended to honour their fathers' musical legacy while showcasing the significant developments that had occurred in Malian music during the nearly three decades since the recording of Ancient Strings. For example, the duo's kora playing makes use of novel techniques not used by their fathers, and also incorporates stylistic flourishes influenced by non-Malian music, such as flamenco guitar. Although the album's release was not publicized by its label, it received favourable reviews in the Western music press and became popular on "world music" radio stations across Europe and the United States. Its longterm sales have greatly exceeded industry expectations for its genre, as it reached an audience through word of mouth. Widely cited as an exemplary recording of Malian music, New Ancient Strings has become a symbol of the country's musical heritage and the kora in particular. Several artists have cited the album among their personal favourites, notably the Icelandic pop star Björk, who professed its influence on her own music and later recorded with Diabaté. ## Background The kora is a 21-string instrument of West African music, similar to the harp or lute, with origins in the 13th-century during the Mali Empire. A kora was historically played only by a jeli (plural jeliw)—also known as a griot—a member of a hereditary class of musicians and storytellers responsible for conveying cultural history through oral tradition. The kora is traditionally played as musical accompaniment for a singer. Sidiki Diabaté and Djelimadi Sissoko—both kora-playing jeliw born in Gambia from malians parents—relocated to Bamako to join the Ensemble Instrumental National du Mali [fr]. Sidiki's son Toumani Diabaté was born in 1965, while Djelimadi's son Ballaké Sissoko was born in 1967; the two boys, who were also distant cousins, grew up as neighbors. In 1970, the elder Diabaté and Sissoko participated in the recording of Ancient Strings (French: Cordes anciennes), the first album of instrumental kora music. In 1987, Toumani Diabaté first collaborated with ethnomusicologist Lucy Durán on the production of his debut album, Kaira, which became the first commercially released recording of instrumental music for solo kora. By the mid-1990s, the trend in kora playing, and Malian music in general, moved toward electrification and amplification. Durán—who at that point had produced several more recordings by Diabaté, typically cross-genre fusion projects in collaboration with various other artists—came up with the idea of the "new ancient strings" project. She proposed a "back-to-basics" acoustic recording of kora that would remain faithful to the premise of "ancient strings", while also showcasing how far kora-playing had progressed since the early 1970s. The original plan for the project was a recording of Toumani playing kora duets with his father. However, Sidiki Diabaté died in 1996 before the planned sessions could be realized. ## Recording For the recording of New Ancient Strings, Durán flew from the United Kingdom to Mali's capital city of Bamako with audio engineer Nick Parker. After a period of location-scouting, they received permission to conduct a nighttime session inside the city's then recently completed conference centre, the Palais des Congrès. Recording took place within a marble hallway between two meeting rooms. As Parker explained in the album's liner notes, the hallway's "hermetic" architectural acoustics were crucial to the recording's natural reverberation. Most other potential indoor recording locations in the country at the time, according to Parker, lacked this quality. Buildings in Mali are commonly constructed with porous materials, usually resulting in subpar resonance; while urban buildings were often made with firmer materials, it was still rare to find one adequately soundproofed to block out the surrounding urban noise pollution. By comparison, Parker felt the Palais des Congrès rivaled European recording studios for its remarkable interior silence, and was "all the more extraordinary when you take into account how very quiet these instruments are in reality." The album was recorded in a single live take on the night of Mali's national independence day, 22 September 1997. Durán and Parker used four omnidirectional microphones and a portable Nagra four-track recorder. The recording team then returned to London, where Parker mixed the album with Tim Handley. The editing process was minimal. No artificial reverb or other effects were applied to the audio. ## Music Composed by Diabaté, the album's eight duets each reinterpret or adapt a piece from the traditional jeli repertoire. Two of the eight tracks are new versions of pieces from Ancient Strings under different titles. Critics have compared the sound of the kora duets on New Ancient Strings to Western classical music. Francis Dordor of the French music magazine Les Inrockuptibles likened the album's fusion of traditional and modern elements to a collaboration between the 18th-century French classical composer Marin Marais and the 20th-century American minimalist composer Terry Riley. Mark Jenkins of the Washington Post said the kora duets "suggest Bach more than Robert Johnson"—distinguishing New Ancient Strings from Diabaté's next album, Kulanjan, a collaboration with the American musician Taj Mahal intended to emphasize continuities between West African music and blues in the United States. In terms of resemblance to classical music, Diabaté and Sissoko's duets are similar to their father's performances on Ancient Strings, which Durán said "had a very classical feel, almost like Bach with an African tinge." However, Sissoko noted that their playing incorporated techniques that their fathers had never used, such as muffling strings and other techniques inspired by flamenco guitar. According to critic Simon Broughton, the playing on New Ancient Strings sounds "much more effortless than Ancient Strings". ## Release New Ancient Strings was released on compact disc on 22 June 1999 by Hannibal Records, an imprint of Rykodisc. The album arrived without promotion or publicity efforts from the label. According to Durán, "it was a fight to get the record company to support the project; they did not believe that anyone would be interested." Within two weeks, Hannibal released Diabaté's album with Taj Mahal, Kulanjan, which also featured Sissoko and other Malian musicians. Kulanjan was promoted with an international concert tour and a budget-priced compilation of recordings from the two musicians' respective back catalogs. Despite the lack of promotion, New Ancient Strings sold well, its reputation spreading by word of mouth. Tracks from New Ancient Strings received significant radio airplay on "world music" stations. The album topped the European Broadcasting Union's monthly World Music Charts Europe [de; nl] in May 1999, and it spent nine weeks on the American CMJ New Music Report's "New World" chart, peaking at number 12. On 11 July 2006, Rhino Entertainment and Rykodisc made the album available for digital download for the first time. As of 2011, the album had sold more than 60,000 copies—well above expectations for an album of acoustic music in the "world music" category, which more typically would have been expected to sell no more than about 5,000 copies. ## Reception Early critical response to the album from the European and American press was generally enthusiastic. Writing for The Boston Phoenix, American musicologist Banning Eyre called it the "most definitive statement to date" of the Malian kora tradition, writing that "[n]o kora player has ventured so far out of the old tradition, and none has brought more back. The kora's tapestry of rhythms and melodies have never sounded richer." Francis Dordor at Les Inrockuptibles anticipated that the recording would endure as a musicological document of the kora and the music of the Mandinka people. In a review for British magazine The Wire, Julian Cowley predicted the album "will surely prove to be a defining moment in the history of recorded kora music". Cowley praised the musicians for exploring "the technical potential of the instrument and their own innate musicality", creating a fully "contemporary" sound without resorting to stylistic "hybridisation" (in the sense of crossover music). At JazzTimes, Josef Woodard wrote that "this album, beautifully played and sensitively realized, confirms our suspicions that the kora is not only one of the most fascinating and inspiring instruments in Africa, but in the world at large." Canadian critic Roger Levesque, who gave the album a five-star rating in Edmonton Journal, said it "offers a wonderful, airy, multi-layered sound as a simultaneous source of melody and pulsing rhythms ... but as often as not the two musicians conjure up a dreamlike atmosphere that serves well for ambient aural backdrops.". The American critic Robert Christgau dissented from the otherwise favorable contemporary consensus, rating the album a "dud" in The Village Voice and his Consumer Guide: Albums of the '90s book. Though Christgau enjoyed Diabaté's work with Taj Mahal on Kulanjan, he dismissed Diabaté and Sissoko's record for sounding "as New Agey as its title, which is, oh my, New Ancient Strings". ## Legacy Since its release, New Ancient Strings has continued to receive acclaim from listeners, critics and musicians. In the long run, its success helped to elevate the prestige of kora music on both an international stage and within Mali. Former Malian president Amadou Toumani Touré (in office from 2002–2012) presented important guests and dignitaries with a miniature kora and a copy of New Ancient Strings as a diplomatic gift. The country's national broadcaster, the Office of Radio and Television of Mali (ORTM), regularly used the song "Cheikhna Demba" as theme music. The album's success has been credited for launching Sissoko's career on the global stage. While Diabaté had already established a substantial profile outside Mali prior to the album's release, the album brought Sissoko's music to a sizable international audience for the first time. In 2021, British journalist Nigel Williamson said Sissoko was second only to Diabaté in terms of global preeminence among kora players. As of that same year, the two musicians remained neighbors in Bamako. In 2014, Diabaté and his son, Sidiki Diabaté (named after his grandfather), released Toumani & Sidiki, the third album of kora duets in history after Ancient Strings and New Ancient Strings. The British magazine Songlines ranked New Ancient Strings at 20th place in its 2003 list of the top 50 "must-have world-music" albums and, in 2021, as the third most-essential recording of kora music. Tom Moon included the album in his 2008 book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die, writing that Diabaté and Sissoko "engage in fiery jazz-like back-and-forth exchanges" and "sustain an intense conversation throughout, trading solo and accompaniment roles seamlessly, generating spiderwebbed clusters of notes that, despite all the finger wizardry, communicate on a pure spirit level." The Observer's Mark Hudson named it among ten recommended records of African music for the unacquainted listener, while Jon Pareles of The New York Times included it among his ten recommended albums of contemporary Malian music. Björk cited the album's sound as a major influence on her 2001 album Vespertine, noting that it affected her approach to "mess[ing] up the sound of too angelic instruments" such as the harp. Diabaté later recorded with Björk, playing kora on the track "Hope" from her 2007 album Volta; according to Diabaté, "[s]he listened to New Ancient Strings and decided to include kora in her music." Other musicians who have named the album a personal favorite include Malian singer-songwriter Fatoumata Diawara and Italian pianist-composer Ludovico Einaudi. In November 2020, American musician Donald Glover tweeted a recommendation to listen to the album outside. ## Track listing Source material Diabaté's compositions on New Ancient Strings interpret or adapt aspects of traditional Malian compositions. The following descriptions of the album's source material are adapted from the original CD liner notes. 1. "Bi Lambam" is based on "Lambam", a composition dating to the 13th century; a lambam is the traditional dance of the jeliw (griots). 2. "Salaman" is based on "Tita", a love song from western Mali. 3. "Kita Kaira" is based on "Kaira", a song popularized in the 1940s by Sidiki Diabaté and previously recorded by Toumani Diabaté on Kaira (1988). 4. "Bafoulabe" is based on "Mali Sajio", a song commemorating and mourning the killing of a hippopotamus at Bafoulabé in western Mali, where the rivers Senegal and Bafing meet. 5. "Cheikhna Demba" is based on "Bambugu Nce", a traditional composition from central Mali originally dedicated to the 18th-century Bambara king Bambuguchi Diarra in praise of his work to construct an irrigation canal from the Niger River to Ségou. 6. "Kora Bali" is based on "Tutu Diarria", a traditional composition originally dedicated to the 18th-century Bambara king Tutu Diarria, specifically drawing on the version recorded by Sidiki Diabaté and Djelimadi Sissoko for Ancient Strings. 7. "Kadiatou" is based on "Baninde" (lit. 'To Refuse'), a traditional composition originally dedicated to the 19th-century king Sanuge Gimba, who ruled a town called Kaba near the Mali–Guinea border. 8. "Yamfa" is based on the traditional composition "Alla l'aa ke" (previously recorded by Diabaté on Kaira) and a melody composed by Nene Koita, Diabaté's mother. ## Personnel Credits adapted from the original CD packaging and liner notes. - Toumani Diabaté – kora - Ballaké Sissoko – kora - Lucy Durán – production, photography, liner notes - Nick Parker – recording engineer, editing, mixing, liner notes - Tim Handley – editing, mixing - Olivia Design – artwork

Patricia Mancilla

Bolivian politician (born 1967)

Patricia Mancilla Martínez (born 9 October 1967) is a Bolivian politician and trade unionist who served as a party-list member of the Chamber of Deputies from La Paz from 2010 to 2015. A member of the Movement for Socialism, she previously served on the Cairoma Municipal Council from 2000 to 2005. Mancilla was raised in Asiento Araca in the agricultural Araca Valley. She worked as a promotora and delivered catechesis on Catholic theology. In tandem, Mancilla played an active role in regional trade unionism, holding positions within the Bartolina Sisa Confederation of peasant women throughout the 1990s. Elected to the Cairoma Municipal Council as a member of Conscience of Fatherland in 1999, Mancilla quickly defected to the Movement for Socialism and held positions within the party's internal structure. As a member of the Chamber of Deputies, Mancilla launched a court petition seeking the decriminalization of abortion, which failed but did produce some modest outcomes for the abortion-rights movement. She was not nominated for reelection. ## Early life and career ### Early life and education Patricia Mancilla was born on 9 October 1967 in Asiento Araca, a rural settlement in Cairoma – then part of Luribay – in the Loayza Province of southern La Paz Department. The village lies in the predominantly Aymara-populated Araca Valley, at the junction between three ecoregions: highland Altiplano, subtropical Yungas, and mid-elevation Valle [es]. The temperate climate makes the area prime for agricultural production, especially potato cultivation; families like Mancilla's lived and worked as campesinos, producing such crops for market consumption and mild subsistence. Mancilla attended the Germán Busch School in Cairoma, where she completed primary and secondary and received her baccalaureate. The eldest among six siblings, familial duties prevented her from pursuing higher education, only attending preparatory courses in linguistics at the Higher University of San Andrés. Later, Mancilla participated in popular communication programs at the Bolivian Catholic University and received a diploma in municipal administration. ### Career and trade unionism Mancilla settled in the city of La Paz as a young adult but retained close ties to her home community – as is customary among many rural-urban migrants. In Cairoma, she worked as a promotora, providing basic women's health and vocational education. Mancilla also served as a catechist of the Catholic Church, a position that – beyond the religious element – played an elevated public role in rural areas, fomenting the presence and leadership of women in agrarian communities. From the mid-1990s, Mancilla scaled positions within the peasant labor movement as part of the region's agrarian and women's unions. She held membership in the workers' sub-center of Cairoma in 1994 and joined the municipality's agrarian workers' center the following year. From 1996 to 1997, she served as provincial executive of the Bartolina Sisa Confederation in Loayza Province and was secretary of relations of its departmental affiliate from 2007 to 2008. ## Chamber of Deputies ### Election Mancilla first forayed into politics as a member of Conscience of Fatherland (CONDEPA) in 1999. The party – already in steep decline when Mancilla joined – faced numerous difficulties, engulfed in disputes between deceased leader Carlos Palenque's principal successors: daughter Verónica Palenque and life partner Remedios Loza. Although Mancilla won a seat on the Cairoma Municipal Council representing CONDEPA in that year's elections, she defected shortly thereafter, as the party's hemorrhaging partisan base was absorbed into the Movement for Socialism (MAS). Already in 2000, Mancilla joined the MAS, and from 2002 to 2004, she served as regional director of the party in the provinces of La Paz. Mancilla's rise to senior positions within both the MAS and trade union sector resulted in her inclusion on the party's parliamentary slate in the 2009 election. She won a seat representing La Paz in the Chamber of Deputies. ### Tenure Within the majority MAS caucus, Mancilla composed part of the small delegation of women legislators representing the Bartolina Sisa Confederation – ten in total, with six in the lower chamber. Mancilla served on the Chamber of Deputies' Human Rights Commission for the length of her term, spending two years on the Human Rights Committee before being reassigned to the Gender Rights Committee for the following three.^[§] Backed by the non-governmental organization Ipas, Mancilla launched a petition before the Plurinational Constitutional Tribunal, seeking that a dozen articles covering women's issues in Bolivia's antiquated Penal Code – including those outlawing abortion – be declared unconstitutional under the country's new constitution. The action was taken independently of her party and generated unusual disunity within the MAS: President Evo Morales classified the practice as "a crime" but remained largely neutral on the topic; parliamentary leaders like Emeliana Aiza and Eugenio Rojas expressed outright opposition, while yet more legislators and cabinet members backed the prospect. The constitutional court issued a ruling on the case in early 2014, upholding most provisions in the penal code while expunging the controversial requirement for judicial authorization before any legal abortion could take place. Abortion-rights advocates accepted the ruling as a moderate success for reproductive rights, with Mancilla expressing support for the court's final judgment. Mancilla was not nominated for reelection at the end of her term. ### Commission assignments - Human Rights Commission - Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Committee (2010–2012) - Gender Rights Committee (2012–2015) ## Electoral history

Hypacrosaurus

Extinct genus of reptiles

Hypacrosaurus (meaning "near the highest lizard" [Greek υπο-, hypo- = less + ακρος, akros, high], because it was almost but not quite as large as Tyrannosaurus) was a genus of duckbill dinosaur similar in appearance to Corythosaurus. Like Corythosaurus, it had a tall, hollow rounded crest, although not as large and straight. It is known from the remains of two species that spanned 75 to 67 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous of Alberta, Canada, and Montana, United States, and is the latest hollow-crested duckbill known from good remains in North America. It was an obscure genus until the discovery in the 1990s of nests, eggs, and hatchlings belonging to H. stebingeri. ## Discovery and history The type remains of Hypacrosaurus were collected in 1910 by Barnum Brown for the American Museum of Natural History. The remains, a partial postcranial skeleton consisting of several vertebrae and a partial pelvis (AMNH 5204), came from along the Red Deer River near Tolman Ferry, Alberta, Canada, from rocks of what is now known as the Horseshoe Canyon Formation (early Maastrichtian, Upper Cretaceous). Brown described these remains, in combination with other postcranial bones, in 1913 as a new genus that he considered to be like Saurolophus. No skull was known at this time, but two skulls were soon discovered and described. During this period, the remains of small hollow-crested duckbills were described as their own genera and species. The first of these that figure into the history of Hypacrosaurus was Cheneosaurus tolmanensis, based on a skull and assorted limb bones, vertebrae, and pelvic bones from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation. Not long after, Richard Swann Lull and Nelda Wright identified an American Museum of Natural History skeleton (AMNH 5461) from the Two Medicine Formation of Montana as a specimen of Procheneosaurus. These and other taxa were accepted as valid genera until the 1970s, when Peter Dodson showed that it was more likely that the "cheneosaurs" were the juveniles of other established lambeosaurines. Although he was mostly concerned with the earlier, Dinosaur Park Formation genera Corythosaurus and Lambeosaurus, he suggested that Cheneosaurus would turn out to be composed of juvenile individuals of the contemporaneous Hypacrosaurus altispinus. This idea has become accepted, although not formally tested. The Two Medicine Procheneosaurus, meanwhile, was not quite like the other Procheneosaurus specimens studied by Dodson, and for good reason: it was much more like a species that would not be named until 1994, H. stebingeri. ### Species H. altispinus, the type species, is known from 5 to 10 articulated skulls with some associated skeletal remains, from juvenile to adult individuals found in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation. H. stebingeri is known from an unknown but substantial number of individuals, with an age range of embryos to adults. The hypothesis that H. altispinus and H. stebingeri form a natural group excluding other known hadrosaur species may be incorrect, as noted in Suzuki et al.'''s 2004 redescription of Nipponosaurus; their phylogenetic analysis found that Nipponosaurus was more closely related to H. altispinus than H. stebingeri was to H. altispinus. This was rejected by Evans and Reisz (2007), though. The new species Hypacrosaurus stebingeri was named for a variety of remains, including hatchlings with associated eggs and nests, found near the top of the late Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) Two Medicine Formation in Glacier County, Montana, and across the border in Alberta. These represent "the largest collection of baby skeletal material of any single species of hadrosaur known". ## Description Hypacrosaurus is most easily distinguished from other hollow-crested duckbills (lambeosaurines) by its tall neural spines and the form of its crest. The neural spines, which project from the top of the vertebrae, are 5 to 7 times the height of the body of their respective vertebrae in the back, which would have given it a tall back in profile. The skull's hollow crest is like that of Corythosaurus, but is more pointed along its top, not as tall, wider side to side, and has a small bony point at the rear. Unlike other lambeosaurines, the passages for the airways do not form an S-curve in the crest (at least not in H. altispinus). The animal is estimated to have been around 9.1 meters (30 feet) long, and to have weighed up to 4.0 tonnes (4.4 tons). As with most duckbills, its skeleton is otherwise not particularly remarkable, although some pelvic details are distinctive. Like other duckbills, it was a bipedal/quadrupedal herbivore. The two known species, H. altispinus and H. stebingeri, are not differentiated in the typical method, of unique characteristics, as H. stebingeri was described as transitional between the earlier Lambeosaurus and later Hypacrosaurus. ## Classification Hypacrosaurus was a lambeosaurine hadrosaurid, and has been recognized as such since the description of its skull. Within the Lambeosaurinae, it is closest to Lambeosaurus and Corythosaurus, with Jack Horner and Phil Currie (1994) suggesting that H. stebingeri is transitional between Lambeosaurus and H. altispinus, and Michael K. Brett-Surman (1989) suggesting that Hypacrosaurus and Corythosaurus are the same genus. These genera, particularly Corythosaurus and Hypacrosaurus, are regarded as the "helmeted" or "hooded" branch of the lambeosaurines, and the clade they form is sometimes informally designated Lambeosaurini. Although Suzuki et al.'s 2004 redescription of Nipponosaurus found a close relationship between Nipponosaurus and Hypacrosaurus stebingeri, indicating that Hypacrosaurus may be paraphyletic, this was rejected in a later, more comprehensive reanalysis of lambeosaurines, which found the two species of Hypacrosaurus to form a clade without Nipponosaurus, with Corythosaurus and Olorotitan being the closest relatives. The following cladogram illustrating the relationships of Lambeosaurus and its close relatives was recovered in a 2022 phylogenetic analysis by Xing Hai and colleagues. Unlike other modern analyses, they found the genus Magnapaulia to be within Hypacrosaurus, indicating it could be a potential third species. ## Paleobiology As a hadrosaurid, Hypacrosaurus would have been a bipedal/quadrupedal herbivore, eating a variety of plants. Its skull permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing, and its teeth were continually replacing and packed into dental batteries that contained hundreds of teeth, only a relative handful of which were in use at any time. Plant material would have been cropped by its broad beak, and held in the jaws by a cheek-like organ. Its feeding range would have extended from the ground to about 4 m (13 ft) above. ### Crest functions The hollow crest of Hypacrosaurus most likely had social functions, such as a visual signal allowing individuals to identify sex or species, and providing a resonating chamber for making noises. The crest and its associated nasal passages have also figured in the debate about dinosaur endothermy, specifically in discussions about nasal turbinates. Turbinates are thin bones or cartilages that come in two types, with two functions. Nasal olfactory turbinates are found in all living tetrapods and function in smell. Respiratory turbinates function to prevent water loss through evaporation and are found only in birds and mammals, modern endotherms (warm-blooded animals) who could lose a great deal of water while breathing because they breathe more often than comparably sized ectotherms (cold-blooded animals) to support their higher metabolism. Ruben and others in 1996 concluded that respiratory turbinates were probably not present in Nanotyrannus, Ornithomimus or Hypacrosaurus based on CT scanning, thus there was no evidence that those animals were warm-blooded. ### Thermoregulation Examining the oxygen-isotope ratio from the bones from different parts of an extinct animal's body should indicate which thermoregulation mode an animal used during its lifetime. An endothermic (warm-blooded) animal should maintain a very similar body temperature throughout its entire body (which is called homeothermy) and therefore there should be little variation in the oxygen-isotope ratio when measured in different bones. Alternatively, the oxygen-isotope ratio differs considerably when measured throughout the body of an organism with an ectothermic (cold-blooded) physiology. Oxygen-isotope ratios calculated for Hypacrosaurus suggesting that the ratios varied little, indicating that Hypacrosaurus was a homeotherm, and likely was endothermic. This is in contrast to the Ruben et al. (1996) finding that Hypacrosaurus was not warm-blooded, which was based on the absence of nasal turbinates (see Crest functions subsection, above). ### Nests and growth Hypacrosaurus stebingeri laid roughly spherical eggs of 20 by 18.5 cm (7.9 by 7.3 in), with embryos 60 cm (24 in) long. Hatchlings were around 1.7 m (5.6 ft) long. Studies of lines of growth (i.e. lines of von Ebner) in the teeth of embryonic H. stebingeri suggests plesiomorphically long incubation times, with a minimum incubation time of 171.4 days for H. stebingeri. Young and embryonic individuals had deep skulls with only slight expansion in the bones that would one day form the crest. Growth was faster than that of an alligator and comparable to ratite growth, for several years, based on the amount of bone growth seen between lines of arrested growth (analogous to growth rings in trees). Research by Lisa Cooper and colleagues on H. stebingeri indicates that this animal may have reached reproductive maturity at the age of 2 to 3 years, and reached full size at about 10 to 12 years old. The circumference of the thigh bone at postulated reproductive maturity was about 40% that of its circumference at full size. The postulated growth rate of H. stebingeri outpaces those of tyrannosaurids (predators of hypacrosaurs) such as Albertosaurus and Tyrannosaurus; rapidly growing hypacrosaurs would have had a better chance to reach a size large enough to be of defensive value, and beginning reproduction at an early age would also have been advantageous to a prey animal. Secondary cartilage has been found in the skull of a hatchling specimen of H. stebingeri. ### Cells In 2020, Alida M. Bailleul and colleagues reported cartilage traces on a hatchling specimen of H. stebingeri. The team performed histological analyses on skull and limb bones of nestling individuals of the specimen MOR 548, a large nesting ground in the Two Medicine Formation attributed to H. stebingeri, and the results showed calcified cartilage within a supraoccipital bone, and upon microscopic magnification, chondrocyte-like structures were found. Several of these structures were preserved in the final stages of mitosis, with some preserving putative traces of celular nuclei. Bailleul and colleagues isolated some of these cells in order to be tested with DNA staining: stains DAPI and PI. They also exposed emu chondrocytes, and these tied up to DNA fragments. H. stebingeri cells tested positive to possible chemical markers of DNA, in a similar way to the emu cells, suggesting the potential preservation of this molecule. The team concluded that the find was not a product of fossil contamination, and DNA may last much longer than previously assumed. ### Paleopathology The discovery of tooth marks in the fibula of a Hypacrosaurus specimen inflicted by a bite from the teeth of a tyrannosaurid indicated that this, and other hadrosaurids were either preyed upon or scavenged by large theropod dinosaurs during the Late Cretaceous period. ## Paleoecology ### Taphonomy The large, monospecific assemblage of Hypacrosaurus stebingeri in Montana was interpreted as a group of dinosaurs that was killed by a volcanic ashfall. This assemblage is considered autochthonous, meaning that the remains are thought to have been buried on or near the same spot where the individuals died. The variety of ages in this group supports that this was a biocoenosis—an actual life assemblage of animals. The cause of death in a volcanic ashfall is suffocation by the ash and by the gases released from volcanic eruptions. The preservation of this diverse group of dinosaurs provides researchers with a growth series, which is a sequence of growth stages from juvenile to adult. ### Environment H. altispinus shared the Horseshoe Canyon Formation with fellow hadrosaurids Edmontosaurus and Saurolophus, hypsilophodont Parksosaurus, ankylosaurid Anodontosaurus, nodosaurid Edmontonia, horned dinosaurs Montanoceratops, Anchiceratops, Arrhinoceratops, and Pachyrhinosaurus, pachycephalosaurid Stegoceras, ostrich-mimics Ornithomimus and Struthiomimus, a variety of poorly known small theropods including troodontids and dromaeosaurids, and the tyrannosaurs Albertosaurus and Daspletosaurus. The dinosaurs from this formation are sometimes known as Edmontonian, after a land mammal age, and are distinct from those in the formations above and below. The Horseshoe Canyon Formation is interpreted as having a significant marine influence, due to an encroaching Western Interior Seaway, the shallow sea that covered the midsection of North America through much of the Cretaceous. H. altispinus may have preferred to stay more landward. The slightly older Two Medicine Formation, home to H. stebingeri, was also populated by another well-known nesting hadrosaur, Maiasaura, as well as the troodontid Troodon, which is also known from nesting traces. The tyrannosaurid Daspletosaurus, caenagnathid Chirostenotes, dromaeosaurids Bambiraptor and Saurornitholestes, armored dinosaurs Edmontonia, Oohkotokia, and Scolosaurus, hypsilophodont Orodromeus, hadrosaur Prosaurolophus, and horned dinosaurs Achelousaurus, Brachyceratops, Einiosaurus, and Rubeosaurus'' were also present. This formation was more distant from the Western Interior Seaway, higher and drier, with a more terrestrial influence. ## See also - Timeline of hadrosaur research

Let's Get Down (Bow Wow song)

"Let's Get Down" is a song by American rapper Bow Wow, released on June 24, 2003 as the first single off his third album Unleashed (2003). The song was written by Shad Moss, Phalon Alexander, Rahman Griffin and a then-unknown T.I. It was produced by Jazze Pha and features rapper Birdman under his former alias "Baby". It's the first song to be released by Bow Wow without the "Lil'" moniker in his name after making his film debut in 2002's Like Mike and releasing his cover of "Basketball" for the film's soundtrack. Bow Wow said that following the name change, he wanted to do the same with his music by contributing more into the songwriting process of the album and release a single that matched his new image. "Let's Get Down" garnered a positive reception from critics who credited Bow Wow for displaying some maturity in his music. It peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100, his highest charting single on that chart until 2005's "Like You" and "Let Me Hold You". It also peaked at numbers 6, 8 and 12 on the Hot Rap Songs, Rhythmic Top 40 and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts respectively. A music video by Bryan Barber was made to promote the single that features Bow Wow getting his driver's license. ## Background and development In 2002, after finishing production on his debut film Like Mike and releasing his cover of "Basketball" for the film's soundtrack, In 2003, Bow Wow dropped the "Lil'" moniker from his name completely. In an interview with MTV, he said he wanted to distinguish himself from the other rappers who had the word in their moniker: > "All these Lil' rappers, I’m just kind of getting real irritated by it. I said, 'You know what? Drop the Lil'. Forget it. I'm Bow Wow.' Besides, I'm growing up, I'm not little anymore. [I just decided] two weeks ago. I really got irritable. It's all these Lil' cats, forget it. I’m Bow Wow now. Everything is just 'Bow Wow,' no 'Lil' Bow Wow.'" "Let's Get Down" was produced by Jazze Pha, who previously did production for other rappers like Erick Sermon and Ludacris. The song was written by Shad Moss, Phalon Alexander, Rahman Griffin and Clifford Harris (aka then-unknown T.I.). Donnie Kwak of Vibe described the song as a clone of Baby's "Do That...," with "youthful flirting replacing sleazy come-ons." In an interview with Billboard, he commented on wanting to make an impact after changing his name and wanting to work with rapper Baby, saying that he was looking for a single that would grab people's attention and that Baby's inclusion almost didn't happen but then changed his mind to work with him on the song. In a September 2003 interview with website Whudat, T.I. talked about his contribution to Bow Wow's third album Unleashed and the song itself: > "Yeah this time around I wrote some songs for him. Even on the single, 'Let's Get Down'. I wrote the third verse and the hook. Usually how we did it was [Jazze Pha] he'll write one verse, Bow Wow would write one verse, his homeboy Rocka would write one, and I'd write a verse and come up with the hook." In a 2009 interview with HipHopDX, Bow Wow commented on how getting T.I. to ghostwrite for him on his third album didn't tarnish his credibility as a rapper, saying that he learned about the songwriting process by contributing about 85 percent to the album while T.I. wrote a full song and a couple verses to a few tracks. ## Critical reception "Let's Get Down" received a positive reception from music critics. Rashaun Hall of Billboard praised Jazze Pha's production and Bow Wow for maturing as an MC. He added that, "[w]hile Bow Wow's more mature stance suits him well, it will be interesting to see how his younger fans and mainstream R&B radio react to the teenage MC's new image. Either way, Bow Wow has proven that his act is no child's play." Steve 'Flash' Juon of RapReviews was also positive towards the song saying, "Annoying bird calls aside, it is a catchy song about Bow Wow trying to catch a little punani." In 2004, it won an award in the R&B/Hip-Hop category at the SESAC 2004 New York Music Awards, along with the second single "My Baby". In 2013, Complex added the song in its list of nineteen great songs made by teenage rappers in the last 19 years. Complex editor Kyle Kramer praised Bow Wow's transition from child to teen rapper through his boasting ability, saying "With a T.I.-esque flow, paired with a killer, clattering faux-Neptunes beat courtesy of Jazze Pha, the kid, the self-proclaimed “Mr. 106 and Park,” was unstoppable." ## Chart performance "Let's Get Down" debuted at number 90 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of July 5, 2003. Six weeks later, it entered the top 40 at number 30 for the week of August 16, 2003. It peaked at number 14 for the week of September 20, 2003 and was present on the chart for a total of seventeen weeks. This gave Bow Wow his third top 20 hit and highest charting single on that chart until 2005's "Like You" and "Let Me Hold You". The song was also Birdman's fourth top 40 hit on that chart (his third as a featured artist). It peaked at number 12 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, number 6 on the Hot Rap Songs chart and number 8 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart. The song charted in Australia, debuting at number 50 for the week of October 27, 2003 before leaving the next week. ## Music video Directed by Bryan Barber, the video takes place at the Atlanta DMV where Bow Wow is getting ready for his driver's test. Birdman plays his driving instructor and gives him tasks that need to be completed. Intercut are scenes of Bow Wow attracting the attention of various women. It ends with Bow Wow getting his picture taken for his driver's license. Jazze Pha makes a cameo appearance. The video made its premiere on June 30, 2003. In an interview with MTV, Bow Wow explained how the video relates getting a driver's license to being able to attract women: "The concept of the video is that I go to the DMV to get my license. I get in the car and Baby’s my instructor. We’re in Atlanta taking a tour [and] Baby is like, ‘Bow, pull over. Tell this to shorty.’ He tests me on my speaking game with the ladies. A normal DMV person would be testing you on your right turn, [saying] ‘check your mirrors.’ Me, I was tested on did I spit game to the girl correctly." ## Formats and track listing Europe CD 1. "Let's Get Down" (Album Version) – 4:41 US 12" 1. "Let's Get Down" (Album) – 4:21 2. "Let's Get Down" (Instr.) – 4:20 3. "Take Ya Home" (Album) – 3:59 4. "Let's Get Down" (Acapella) – 4:15 US 12" maxi-single 1. "Follow Me" (Album Version) – 3:53 2. "Follow Me" (Instrumental) – 3:52 3. "Follow Me" (A Capella) – 3:47 4. "Let's Get Down" (Album Version) – 4:29 5. "Let's Get Down" (Instrumental) – 4:35 6. "Let's Get Down" (A Capella) – 4:30 US CD 1. "Let's Get Down" (Album) – 4:21 2. "Let's Get Down" (Instru.) – 4:20 US digital download 1. "Let's Get Down" (feat. Baby) – 4:21 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unleashed. Recording - Recorded and mixed at PatchWerk Studios, Atlanta, GA Personnel - Jazze Pha – producer - Jermaine Dupri - producer - Josh Butler – recording engineer - Steve Fisher – recording engineer, assistant mix engineer - Cory Williams – assistant recording engineer - Leslie Brathwaite – mix engineer - Charles Pettaway – guitar - Tameka "Tiny" Cottle – background vocals - Rahman "Rocky" Griffin – vocal arrangements ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts

Everett, Washington

Everett (/ˈɛvərɪt/) is the county seat and largest city of Snohomish County, Washington, United States. It is 25 miles (40 km) north of Seattle and is one of the main cities in the metropolitan area and the Puget Sound region. Everett is the seventh-largest city in the state by population, with 110,629 residents as of the 2020 census. The city is primarily situated on a peninsula at the mouth of the Snohomish River along Port Gardner Bay, an inlet of Possession Sound (itself part of Puget Sound), and extends to the south and west. The Port Gardner Peninsula was historically inhabited by the Snohomish people, who had a winter village named Hibulb near the mouth of the river. Modern settlement in the area began with loggers and homesteaders arriving in the 1860s, but plans to build a city were not conceived until 1890. A consortium of East Coast investors seeking to build a major industrial city acquired land in the area and filed a plat for "Everett", which they named in honor of Everett Colby, the son of investor Charles L. Colby. The city was incorporated in 1893, shortly after the arrival of the Great Northern Railway, and prospered as a major lumber center with several large sawmills. Everett became the county seat in 1897 after a dispute with Snohomish contested over several elections and a Supreme Court case. The city was the site of labor unrest during the 1910s, which culminated in the Everett massacre in 1916 that killed several members of the Industrial Workers of the World. The area was connected by new interurban railways and highway bridges in the 1920s, transforming it into a major commercial hub, and gained an airport at Paine Field in 1936. The city's economy transitioned away from lumber and towards aerospace after World War II, with the construction of Boeing's aircraft assembly plant at Paine Field in 1967. Boeing's presence brought additional industrial and commercial development to Everett, as well as new residential neighborhoods to the south and west of the peninsula that was annexed by the city. Boeing remains the city's largest employer, alongside the U.S. Navy, which has operated Naval Station Everett since 1994. Everett remains a major employment center for Snohomish County, but has also become a bedroom community for Seattle in recent decades. It is connected to Seattle by Interstate 5 and various public transit services at Everett Station, including the Sounder commuter train, Amtrak, and commuter buses. Everett stages several annual festivals and is also home to minor league sports teams, including the Everett Silvertips at Angel of the Winds Arena and Everett Aquasox at Funko Field. ## History ### Early history and settlement The Port Gardner Peninsula was originally inhabited by local Coast Salish tribes who arrived in the region 10,000 years before present and settled near modern-day Everett approximately 2,000 years before present. The Snohomish people lived around local waterways in the Possession Sound estuary and had a fortified winter village at Hibulb (also called Hebolb) at the mouth of the Snohomish River. The first Europeans in the area were explorers from the 1792 Vancouver Expedition, who landed on a beach on the modern Everett waterfront and claimed the land for England on June 4, the birthday of King George III. Puget Sound was further explored and charted by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1824 and the United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes in 1841, ahead of a larger American presence in the area. The Snohomish and other Coast Salish tribes were signatories to the Treaty of Point Elliott in 1855, which relinquished their lands to the Washington territorial government and established the nearby Tulalip Indian Reservation, where they would be relocated. The first permanent American settler to arrive on the peninsula was Dennis Brigham, a carpenter from Worcester, Massachusetts, who claimed a 160-acre (65 ha) homestead and built a cabin for himself. Several other families established their own homesteads, as well as a general store and a sawmill that quickly went out of business. Over the next several years a handful of loggers moved to the area, but plans for a settlement were not conceived until 1890. During an Alaskan cruise via the Inside Passage aboard the steamship Queen of the Pacific in July 1890, lumberman Henry Hewitt Jr. and railroad executive Charles L. Colby drew up plans for an industrial city on Port Gardner Bay. Hewitt and Colby had previously met in Wisconsin, where they operated lumber and maritime businesses, respectively, and in Tacoma, Washington, from which the voyage began. The pair sought to build an industrial center at a site they speculated would be the first ocean port for Great Northern Railway, to be constructed by James J. Hill, and turn it into a "Pittsburgh of the West". On August 22, 1890, the plat for a 50-acre (20 ha) townsite on the peninsula was filed by the Rucker Brothers, who had moved north from Tacoma and had more modest plans for the area. By September, Colby had secured \$800,000 in funding (equivalent to \$ in dollars) from oil magnate John D. Rockefeller and his railroad associate Colgate Hoyt to begin acquiring land while avoiding property speculators. The Hewitt–Colby syndicate decided to use a name that would not identify a specific location, naming their planned city after Everett Colby, the fifteen-year-old son of investor Charles L. Colby, who had displayed a "prodigious appetite" at a group dinner. The Everett Land Company was incorporated in Pierce County on November 19, 1890, and acquired 434.15 acres (175.69 ha) of property from the Rucker Brothers a week later. Several businesses had already been established on the peninsula, generally dividing themselves between the Bayside facing Port Gardner and Riverside facing the Snohomish River. The Rucker Brothers' plat was withdrawn after an agreement to donate half of their holdings was reached with Hewitt, who promised a series of industrial developments under the "Remarkable Document", which was also used to acquire property from other landowners in the area. Everett gained its first businesses in early 1891, as the new settlement on the Snohomish River attracted land speculators and commitments to build lumber mills and other industrial enterprises. The first post office opened in July at a general store on the bayfront, where the Seattle and Montana Railroad was built in October. By the end of the year, Everett had gained its first school, saloon, church, and sawmill. The Swalwell Brothers had begun selling property in Riverside along Hewitt Avenue, which was laid 100 feet (30 m) wide and became the main east–west thoroughfare from the riverfront when it was completed in June 1892. The Everett Land Company did not initially organize a municipal government, leaving local issues to be resolved by a "citizen's committee" formed by 21 residents on March 21, 1892. The area had an estimated population of 5,000 by the end of the year, shortly before the completion of the Great Northern Railway across Stevens Pass on January 6, 1893. The railroad did not terminate in Everett as originally hoped by land speculators, instead continuing along the shoreline of Puget Sound to Seattle. ### Incorporation and early years Following the acquisition of tidelands on the waterfront, which had been in dispute, the Everett Land Company allowed for a municipal government to be formed. The initial city boundaries were set by the company to avoid taxing the industrial areas and exclude the town of Lowell, which predated Everett. On April 27, 1893, the citizens of Everett voted 670–99 in favor of incorporating as a city, and elected Thomas Dwyer as mayor. The incorporation was certified by the Snohomish County government on May 4, 1893. The city's privately owned streetcar system launched on July 3, 1893, with lines connecting the Hewitt Avenue commercial district to mills, smelters, and areas as far as Lowell. The Everett Land Company ran into financial trouble within months of the city's incorporation as the impact of the Panic of 1893 was felt in the region. The company's investment in the Monte Cristo area yielded ore of poorer quality than expected and it was unable to meet the promises in the "Remarkable Document", which was amended several times with the Rucker Brothers, by then junior partners in the company. Rockefeller called his investment into question and appointed Frederick Gates to begin divestment while Colby and Hoyt remained as the leaders of the company. Several of the major businesses in Everett closed or failed during the three-year peak of the economic depression, but work on Alexander McDougall's Whaleback was finished with the launch of SS City of Everett in October 1894, the largest to be built on Puget Sound at the time. The Everett Women's Book Club was established in 1894 and opened the city's first hospital and public library, which would later expand into the Everett Public Library system. Despite the economic turmoil, Everett continued to grow with the addition of new businesses as the area's lumber activities increased. Other industries also expanded in Everett, including a local cannery, a brick factory, and several ore smelters. The discovery of new mineral deposits in Monte Cristo fueled a population boom, along with the completion of the Everett and Monte Cristo Railway under the ownership of Rockefeller. The city also benefited from the Klondike Gold Rush, building several steamboats to transport prospectors and entrepreneurs. In its early years, Everett launched a campaign to become county seat by replacing Snohomish, which had waned in importance following the completion of several railroads serving other cities in the county. An election to determine which city would be named county seat was scheduled for November 6, 1894, beginning a heated debate by citizens and newspapers. The initial count by the commissioners was announced on December 19 in Everett's favor, amid accusations of fraud and bought votes from both sides. Following an appeal from Snohomish, the Washington Supreme Court declared the result to be invalid and blocked the move, but a recount by the commissioners in October 1895 remained in Everett's favor. A long legal battle was fought between the two cities and was decided in October 1895 by the Supreme Court, who ruled that Everett would become county seat per the legal and binding recount. In January 1897, the county government's records were moved by wagons from Snohomish to Everett, where a three-story courthouse was opened on February 1, 1898. ### Milltown and labor unrest After outside investors withdrew their shares in the Everett Land Company, its holdings were transferred in 1899 to the Everett Improvement Company, controlled by James J. Hill and his trusted associate John T. McChesney. Friedrich Weyerhäuser acquired Hill's timberland holdings in the Pacific Northwest and chose Everett for the site of his major lumber mill, which opened in 1902. By the end of the decade, Everett had 11 lumber mills, 16 shingle mills, and 17 combined mills—surpassing every other city in the state and earning it the nicknames of "Milltown" and the "City of Smokestacks". The Weyerhaeuser Company opened its larger second mill, named Mill B, on the Snohomish River in April 1915 with a 203-foot (62 m) smokestack and the ability to process 1,000,000 board feet of timber. The city gained its first interurban railway in 1903 with the opening of the Snohomish Interurban. This was followed by the Seattle Interurban on May 2, 1910, which ran hourly on an inland route via Alderwood Manor. Everett became a first-class city in 1907 and had a population of nearly 25,000 residents by 1910, a quarter of whom were foreign-born. The local lumber economy prospered during the rebuilding of San Francisco following the 1906 earthquake, which created a high demand for West Coast wood products. Everett itself suffered from a major fire on August 2, 1909, that destroyed 12 commercial buildings and the county courthouse. The city's growth was not hindered by the fire and a new county courthouse opened in 1910 alongside the Everett High School campus. Everett voters approved a new city charter in 1912 that reorganized the city government into a three-commissioner council with a ceremonial mayor. During the first decade of the 20th century, workers at mills and other factories began organizing labor unions under the Everett Central Trades Council, which had 27 member trades and six unions by 1901. The council had 25 unions by 1907 and became affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, using its influence to stage strikes and work stoppages that resulted in wage increases and safer conditions at mills, where 35 workers had died in 1909. Everett was also home to local socialist groups and organizers, who published the Labor Journal and The Commonwealth on a weekly basis until 1914. Several survivors of the September 1907 anti-Indian riots in Bellingham settled in Everett for two months, but were beaten and forcefully evicted by a mob. The city's labor unrest culminated in the Everett massacre on November 5, 1916, the deadliest event in Pacific Northwest labor history. A strike of shingle weavers began at local mills in May 1916 and continued for months with violent attacks from mill owners, which attracted attention from the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a radical socialist union who provided speakers at Everett events. The city government passed a new ordinance to restrict street speaking as a result of tensions between the IWW and county sheriff Donald McRae, who armed a local militia and beat 41 union members who were attempting to enter the city by boat on October 30, 1916. The beatings drew anger from union members and other Everett citizens, prompting 300 IWW members to travel on the steamers Verona and Calista from Seattle to Everett on November 5, when they were confronted at the docks by McRae and his posse of 200 citizen deputies, who feared violence and arson from the group. After a heated debate followed by several minutes of gunfire, five people on the Verona were killed and two deputies on the dock had been mortally wounded from friendly fire; an unofficial death toll of twelve IWW members was determined from the recovery of underwater bodies. At least 50 people were injured, including McRae, and 297 were arrested in Everett and Seattle; only one IWW member, Thomas Tracy, was ultimately tried and found not guilty of first-degree murder after a two-month trial. The shingle weavers strike ended on November 10, 1916, with no concessions from the mill owners, and local residents turned against the IWW for escalating the dispute. The labor tensions subsided with the entry of the U.S. into World War I, despite an attempted comeback by the IWW in disrupting logging for the war effort. As a result of the massacre, the state government passed laws to prohibit citizens from advocating for anarchy or violent overthrow, which were not repealed until 1999. The massacre was largely unacknowledged by local residents until the late 20th century, when book accounts were published and a historic marker was installed overlooking the former docks. ### Inter-war years The local timber industry continued its boom and bust cycle into the 1920s, suffering from price swings but benefiting from the 1923 Japanese earthquake to supply lumber and the opening of the Panama Canal. The Clough-Hartley shingle mill claimed to be the largest in the world, producing 1.5 million wood shingles per day; the city produced approximately 4.5 million shingles and 3.5 million board feet of lumber per day in 1920. The Port of Everett was created on July 13, 1918, to enable public ownership of the waterfront and promote economic development in the city. By the end of the 1920s, the port had opened the county's first airport on Ebey Island and acquired the 14th Street Dock and Jetty Island from the Everett Improvement Company. The city also acquired the private water system in 1915 and replaced it with a new supply from the Sultan River basin that was fully activated four years later. Everett's central commercial district grew from a handful of businesses into a busy downtown during the 1920s, including the construction of several multi-story office and retail buildings, two junior high schools, a modern city hall, and additions to the city's two hospitals. The six-story Monte Cristo Hotel opened in 1925 with 140 guest rooms, elaborate furnishings, and a banquet hall that would host civic functions for several decades. The county's first radio station, KFBL (now KRKO), began broadcasting on August 25, 1922, and was among the earliest in the state. In 1924, a third mill at the Weyerhaeuser complex, which employed 1,500 people and contributed to \$28.125 million (equivalent to \$ in dollars) in annual timber output by the end of the decade. The widespread adoption of the automobile lead to the construction of new roads out of Everett and Snohomish County to neighboring regions. The earliest iteration of the Stevens Pass Highway opened in 1925, providing the second automobile crossing of the Cascade Mountains in the state and access to new timberland and other resources. The highway was later improved with the opening of the Hewitt Avenue Trestle in 1939, crossing the Snohomish River and Ebey Island on an elevated viaduct. The Pacific Highway (part of U.S. Route 99) was completed in 1927 with the opening of four bridges across the Snohomish River delta to Marysville. Everett was also among the first cities in the U.S. to replace its streetcars with buses, doing so in 1923, and the last train on the Seattle–Everett Interurban ran on February 20, 1939. Everett experienced a major rise in unemployment as demand for lumber products dropped, with an estimated 32 percent of property taxes left unpaid in 1932. Charitable organizations in the area set up relief programs and provided work for unemployed residents, including commencing work on a 185-acre (75 ha) park and golf course in North Everett that later became American Legion Memorial Park. The federal Works Progress Administration employed local workers to construct a new downtown public library, develop parks, expand schools, and improve streets. The works program also built a new county airport, later named Paine Field, that opened southwest of Everett in 1936 to serve commercial uses. The airport was appropriated for military use during World War II, but was later turned over to county ownership. The war also brought a new shipyard operated by the Everett-Pacific Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company, which employed 6,000 workers and closed in 1949. ### Boeing and suburban development Downtown Everett continued to grow as the regional commercial center following the end of the war, with four large department stores and dozens of smaller retailers and restaurants in a six-block radius of Hewitt Avenue and Colby Avenue. The population boom triggered construction of new housing areas around the peninsula and new schools, with enrollment in the Everett School District increasing from 6,000 in 1941 to 11,600 in 1951. The school district also built Everett Memorial Stadium in 1947 to host high school sports and civic events. A new public housing complex, Baker Heights, was built in 1943 to house military personnel amid a local shortage, providing 1,275 apartments that later went to low-income families. The first suburban-style supermarket opened on Evergreen Way (part of U.S. Route 99) in 1950 and was followed by strip malls and similar big box stores along the highway by the end of the decade. The areas surrounding the highway were developed into suburban housing and made up the bulk of the city's then-largest annexation, of 900 acres (360 ha) near Madison Street on December 31, 1959. A second round of South Everett annexations completed in 1961 and 1972 added 10,300 acres (4,200 ha) to the city, including the Lowell area, and boosted its population to over 50,000. Everett's second high school, Cascade High School, opened in 1961 to serve the annexed areas. The new suburban neighborhoods were linked via Interstate 5, which opened from North Seattle to Everett in February 1965 and bypassed U.S. Route 99 with a six-lane freeway roughly following the former interurban railway. The freeway was extended around the east side of Downtown Everett in January 1968 and Interstate 5 was completed within Washington with the opening of the section connecting the city to Marysville in May 1969. The Boeing Company opened its first Everett factory in 1943 as part of its wartime production for the B-17 program. The company moved to the Everett–Pacific Shipyard in 1956 and grew to be the city's largest single employer by 1965, with 1,728 employees. Boeing approved early development of its Boeing 747 passenger jetliner in March 1966 and purchased 780 acres (320 ha) near Paine Field in June to build its assembly plant for the plane, which would become the world's first "jumbo jet". Work on the first 747 plane, named the "City of Everett", began at the unfinished factory in January 1967. It was unveiled in September 1968 and made its maiden flight on February 9, 1969. The Everett factory was expanded several times to accommodate later Boeing programs, including the 767, 777, and 787 Dreamliner. The impending construction of the Boeing plant triggered a new residential and commercial development in Everett and surrounding communities in the late 1960s. By the end of the decade, Everett had annexed additional areas to stretch the city boundaries west to Mukilteo and south to Silver Lake. A new freeway, State Route 526, was built to connect the plant to Interstate 5 at the Eastmont Interchange, where the Everett Mall was planned to be built. The mall was built in stages, beginning with a Sears store in February 1969 and ending with a grand opening on October 9, 1974, with 14 stores. The development of the mall was slowed by a local economic crash that began with the cancellation of Boeing's supersonic jetliner program in 1971 and financial issues for airlines that affected sales of the Boeing 747. The Everett factory reduced its number of employees from 25,000 to 4,700, causing a spike in local unemployment rates and an exodus of former employees; the Everett School District closed three of its elementary schools as enrollment dropped by 3,000 students. During the 1970s, several of Everett's surviving lumber and pulp mills closed as they were too costly to renovate or replace, marking the end of the "Mill Town". Lowell's pulp mill closed in 1972 and was followed by Weyerhaeuser's Mill B in 1979 and Mill A in 1981. The final Weyerhaeuser mill closed in 1992, leaving the Scott Paper Company as the last remaining paper mill in Everett until its closure in 2012. The city instead deepened its connections to the aerospace and high-tech industry, opening facilities in the 1980s for Hewlett-Packard, Fluke, and other electronics firms. Downtown Everett also declined as an activity center as retailers and car dealerships moved to suburban areas, despite the opening of a large hotel and several high-rise office building. A city landfill southeast of Downtown Everett was turned into a recycling plant for millions of rubber tires, nicknamed "Mount Firestone", which caught fire in September 1984 and burned for seven months as the incident gained national media attention. ### Naval base and downtown revival Boeing recovered from its sales slump and increased employment at its Everett plant to 18,000 people in 1980 as it prepared to unveil the Boeing 767, the second family of jetliners to be produced in Everett. A neighboring industrial park along Seaway Boulevard was developed in the 1980s as demand for commercial space in the city grew. The Port of Everett began developing a new shopping and retail complex on Port Gardner Bay as it looked to diversify away from industrial uses, but the project ran into financial issues as Everett-area employers failed or laid off workers amid an aerospace slump in 1981–82. The U.S. Navy selected the former shipyard site on Port Gardner Bay as the site of a new military base in 1984 under the Strategic Homeport program. Naval Station Everett and its 1,600-foot (490 m) pier were constructed between 1987 and 1994 alongside auxiliary facilities located to the north in Smokey Point. The first ships arrived in September 1994. Naval Station Everett was the long-term home of several aircraft carriers, including the USS Abraham Lincoln. The city underwent an urban revival in the 1990s, fueled by the upcoming centennial celebrations and a third expansion of the Boeing plant for the Boeing 777 program. The plant expansion was completed in 1993, enlarging the world's largest building by volume to 472,000,000 cubic feet (13,400,000 m³) covering 96 acres (39 ha). Everett's inner neighborhoods grew with new residential and commercial development, including Downtown Everett, where a beautification and restoration program had begun in the 1980s. The downtown program included a road diet for Colby Avenue, planter boxes on widened sidewalks, and new parks. Several new office buildings were completed in Downtown Everett, including the 11-story Everett Mutual Tower, and other historic buildings were renovated or restored. The city also annexed 465 acres (188 ha) near Paine Field in March 2000, bringing Everett's population to over 91,000. Everett was recognized as an All-America City by the National Civic League in 2002 and has been a member of the Tree City USA program since 1993. The city's Delta neighborhood underwent extensive environmental cleanup that began in the 2000s with funds from Asarco after the discovery of soil contamination from the shuttered smelter. Everett was identified as a key transport hub under the regional Sound Transit system, which was approved in a ballot measure in 1996 after an earlier failed attempt. The transit agency opened a multimodal train and bus center, Everett Station, in February 2003 to replace scattered downtown facilities for Amtrak, Greyhound, and local transit. It would also serve as the northern terminus for Sounder commuter rail and Sound Transit Express buses, which both connect Everett to Seattle. A six-mile (9.7 km) section of Interstate 5 was rebuilt by the state government from 2005 to 2008 by adding new lanes and improving several interchanges at a cost of \$263 million. Everett remains home to one of the most congested stretches of I-5, which is also among the worst in the United States for travel delays. Downtown Everett remained a center for new development in the 2000s and 2010s, with several projects completed by local governments and private developers. The Everett Events Center (now Angels of the Winds Arena) opened in 2003 as an indoor sports venue, convention center, and community ice rink. The county government redeveloped its Everett office campus by building a new administrative center, jail, parking garage, and public plaza that opened in 2005. In the 2010s, two new downtown hotels were opened along with several apartment buildings that were encouraged by relaxed zoning policies. As the region's homeless population grew, Everett added two supportive housing buildings in downtown to provide 150 units of low-income housing with access to social services. Boeing selected Everett as the main site of its 787 Dreamliner and 747-8 programs, which did not require major building expansions. The company also partnered with the county government to create the Future of Flight Aviation Center & Boeing Tour, an aviation museum at Paine Field that opened in 2005. The Boeing 777X program launched in 2013 with plans to build a wing assembly center adjacent to the Everett plant, which opened in 2016. Commercial passenger service at Paine Field resumed at a new terminal on March 4, 2019, after earlier plans from the 1980s onward were blocked by nearby residents. ### Contemporary redevelopment The city government began planning for a major redevelopment of a former landfill on the Snohomish River waterfront in the late 1990s, but the project was stalled as private developers declined to move the project forward. The original concept for the 139-acre (56 ha) property was an entertainment center with shopping, housing, offices, and parks. The riverfront project was ultimately divided into three sections: a southern portion for 235 single-family homes that was constructed in 2016; a center portion with commercial space, apartments, a movie theater, and a small park; and a northern portion with 190 townhomes. A similar redevelopment plan for the Port of Everett's 65 acres (26 ha) on the bayside waterfront, known as Port Gardner Wharf, was shelved in 2007 by the developer's financial issues. A new development, named Waterfront Place, began construction in 2018 with a hotel, apartments, restaurants, and shops adjacent to the city's public marina. Providence Regional Medical Center, formed from a merger of Everett's two hospitals in 1994, completed a major expansion of its North Everett campus in 2011 by opening a 12-story medical tower. The first U.S. case of coronavirus disease 2019 was identified in a Snohomish County resident at Providence Regional Medical Center on January 20, 2020. As the coronavirus pandemic worsened in the state, mayor Cassie Franklin declared the first shelter-in-place order for Washington state on March 21, 2020. In response to a projected revenue shortfall of \$14 million caused by the shelter-in-place order, which later spread statewide, the city government laid off 160 employees in May 2020 and plans to cut services. The city's original 2020 budget had already been constrained due to a projected deficit caused by a spending gap identified in 2017. ## Geography Everett is one of the core cities comprising the Seattle metropolitan area and is 25 miles (40 km) north of Seattle. It is primarily situated on the Port Gardner Peninsula, bordered to the west by Port Gardner Bay (part of Possession Sound in the Puget Sound estuary), and to the north and east by the Snohomish River delta. The city also encompasses suburban and industrial areas to the south and southwest of the peninsula, which were annexed during the mid-to-late 20th century. Everett has 11 miles (18 km) of freshwater shoreline and 11 miles (18 km) of saltwater shoreline, including public access points at parks and boat ramps on Port Gardner Bay and the Snohomish River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 48.49 square miles (125.59 km²), of which 33.45 square miles (86.64 km²) is land and 15.04 square miles (38.95 km²) is water. The city's western boundary with Mukilteo is generally defined by Japanese Gulch on the edge of the Boeing Everett Assembly Plant and its auxiliary buildings. The southwestern edge of Everett borders an unincorporated area that includes Paine Field and the Lake Stickney/Mariner neighborhoods, which are part of the city's designated urban growth area that extends south towards Lynnwood. The southern boundary wraps around Silver Lake and follows State Route 527 to State Route 96 at Murphy's Corner, where it borders Mill Creek. Everett's boundaries follow various housing subdivisions in the Eastmont area before reaching the Snohomish River, which forms the primary eastern border. The northeastern boundary includes portions of Smith Island in the river delta reaching towards Marysville; a series of highway bridges connect Everett to Marysville to the north and Lake Stevens to the east by crossing the Snohomish River delta. The city boundaries also include 3,729 acres (1,509 ha) of forest surrounding Lake Chaplain, a reservoir in the Cascade Mountains that provides part of the municipal water supply. The Port Gardner Peninsula was formed during the northward retreat of Vashon Glaciation during an ice age 14,000 years before present. The underlying soil is generally loamy and includes gravelly sand in the glacial outwash. Everett is near the Southern Whidbey Island Fault, a shallow earthquake fault zone that runs near the western edge of the city and was discovered in 1994. In the 1990s, local geologists also found evidence of a tsunami and soil liquefaction in deposits under the Snohomish River delta that were not directly connected to the South Whidbey Island Fault. The city government established its emergency management and preparedness office in 2002 and conducts regular disaster drills to simulate a potential response. The southwestern neighborhoods of Everett include several ravines formed by local creeks that drain into Port Gardner Bay. The area is also prone to mudslides that interrupt passenger and freight service on the railroad that runs along the coastline of the bay. Other areas of the city drain into the watersheds of the Snohomish River and Lake Washington. ### Cityscape and neighborhoods The city of Everett maintains an Office of Neighborhoods which facilitates communication between the city and recognized neighborhood associations. The neighborhood associations are independent from the city and have elected leaders. Various neighborhoods in Everett have views of the Cascade and Olympic mountains, including Mount Baker and Mount Rainier. As of 2019, Everett's 19 recognized neighborhood associations are: - Bayside, which includes most of Downtown Everett, the Port of Everett, and Naval Station Everett, and surrounding residential areas. - Boulevard Bluffs, a primarily residential area of the city bordering Mukilteo - Cascade View, a residential area in South Everett, north of Everett Mall - Delta, a primarily residential area north of Downtown Everett - Evergreen, a primarily residential area in South Everett - Glacier View, an older residential area south of downtown - Harborview–Seahurst–Glenhaven, consisting of older residential areas south of downtown - Holly, a mix of residential, commercial, and industrial areas on the southern edge of the city - Lowell, a primarily residential area southeast of downtown and formerly an independent town founded in 1863 - Northwest Everett, which includes older residential areas northwest of downtown, a historic district, and the Everett Community College campus - Pinehurst–Beverly Park, a mix of residential and commercial areas in South Everett - Port Gardner, which includes parts of Downtown Everett and residential areas on Rucker Hill, a historic district - Riverside, includes residential areas northeast of downtown and a historic district - Silver Lake, includes residential and commercial areas surrounding Silver Lake in the extreme southeastern part of the city - South Forest Park, a residential neighborhood near downtown - Twin Creeks, which includes the area surrounding Everett Mall and a mix of residential and commercial areas. - Valley View–Sylvan Crest–Larimer Ridge, residential areas in southeast Everett - View Ridge–Madison, residential areas west and southwest of Forest Park - Westmont, a primarily multi-family housing area in the southwestern part of the city #### Downtown Downtown Everett is generally defined as the area north of Pacific Avenue, east of West Marine View Drive, south of Everett Avenue, and west of Broadway. It is home to city and county government offices, high-rise office buildings, hotels, and apartment buildings. The Angel of the Winds Arena is on the west side of Broadway, anchoring a small historic district on Hewitt Avenue. Several downtown streets are named for the founders of the Everett Land Company and their associates, including John D. Rockefeller, the Rucker Brothers, Charles L. Colby, and shipbuilder Alexander McDougall. The city government approved plans in 2018 to allow for high-rise buildings as tall as 25 stories and with reduced parking requirements to encourage denser development in anticipation of a future Link light rail station. In the early 2020s, several apartment buildings with a combined 650 units were completed in downtown and the waterfront district. ### Climate Everett generally has an oceanic climate similar to most of the Puget Sound lowlands, with year-round moderate temperatures influenced by marine air masses. The variation of normal weather between seasons is less extreme than inland areas, with dry summers and mild, rainy winters due to the proximity of the Pacific Ocean. Under the Köppen climate classification system, Everett is described as having a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb). The city marks the north end of the Puget Sound Convergence Zone, a local weather phenomenon caused by colliding air currents from the region's mountain ranges that produces heavier rain and stronger winds than the rest of the region. The warmest month for Everett is August, with average high temperatures of 72.7 °F (22.6 °C), while January is the coolest, at an average high of 44.9 °F (7.2 °C). The highest recorded temperature at Paine Field, 100 °F (38 °C), first occurred on July 29, 2009; it was tied on August 16, 2020, and tied again on June 28, 2021, during a regional heat wave. The lowest, 0 °F (−18 °C), occurred on November 11, 1993. The city receives 35.71 inches (907 mm) of annual rainfall, which mostly falls from October to March and peaks in December. Everett rarely receives significant snowfall and its highest total, 26.6 inches (68 cm), occurred in 1965. ## Economy Everett has a workforce population of 88,146 people with 59,599 who are employed, according to a 2018 estimate from the U.S. Census Bureau. The city also had an estimated 7,335 registered businesses in 2012 providing 94,000 jobs. Everett's economy is centered around aerospace manufacturing, maritime activities, the technology sector, and the service industry. The largest employer in the city is airplane manufacturer Boeing, with 31 percent of all jobs. The company's main manufacturing plant near Paine Field is the world's largest building by volume. The local economy of Everett and Snohomish County is heavily affected by Boeing's performance, with layoffs and strikes causing downturns in other industries. The city's economy in the 19th and early 20th centuries was tied to the lumber trade and maritime industries, including fishing and boat manufacturing. Everett's last remaining wood pulp mill, owned by Kimberly-Clark, shut down in April 2012 and was demolished a year later, marking the end of the lumber economy's dominance. The aerospace industry in Everett began growing in the late 1960s after Boeing began constructing its assembly plant at Paine Field, bringing suppliers and subcontractors to the area. Since the 1990s, the city government has encouraged economic development in other industries to add diversity, particularly in the technology sector. The Port of Everett has also developed its own industrial park in North Everett that is home to an aerospace supplier and distribution centers for Amazon and FedEx. As of 2018, the largest industry in Everett is manufacturing, with 18 percent of residents employed there, followed by educational services (18%), retail (12%), professional services (11%), and entertainment (11%). Electronics manufacturer Fluke Corporation (now part of Fortive) is based in Everett and has 1,000 employees in Washington state. Toymaker Funko is also headquartered in Downtown Everett, where it has its own retail store that opened in 2017, and operates a distribution center in the city. Electric motor manufacturer MagniX moved its headquarters from Redmond to Everett in 2021, which was followed by a research facility that was relocated from Australia. In 2020, Bellevue-based TerraPower opened a research facility near Paine Field to develop smaller nuclear reactors for use in power plants. Other large employers in Everett include the Providence Regional Medical Center with 4,900 employees, the U.S. Navy with 2,900 employees, and Everett Public Schools with 2,440 employees. Approximately 28 percent of Everett workers are employed at businesses within the city limits, while 15 percent commute to Seattle. The majority of the city's employed residents (70%) commute to work in single-occupant vehicles, while 14 percent use carpools and 6 percent use public transportation. Everett workplaces have employees who live across Snohomish and King counties, with 15 percent from within the city, 7 percent from Marysville, 5 percent from Seattle, and 4 percent from Lake Stevens. The changing of first shift at the Boeing facility in Everett causes a spike in traffic congestion during the mornings and early afternoons that spills out from freeways onto local streets. The city's retailers had total sales of \$2 billion in 2012 and are concentrated along two major highways, Evergreen Way and Everett Mall Way, in strip malls and standalone big-box stores. The intersection of the two corridors is home to a large auto row that developed in the 1980s after dealerships relocated from Downtown Everett. The Everett Mall opened in 1974 and has over 100 stores. The mall was expanded in 2005, adding a movie theater and a new set of stores, but has since lost two major retailers and several other tenants. ### Largest employers ## Demographics Everett is the largest city in Snohomish County and the seventh largest in Washington state by population, ranking between Kent and Renton. It had a population of 110,629 at the time of the 2020 U.S. census. The city's urban growth area has a population of 44,596 residents as of 2016 that are part of unincorporated Snohomish County. Everett's population grew by 47 percent from 1990 to 2000 and 13 percent from 2000 to 2010, due to annexations and increased housing development. It is projected to increase by 40,000 to 60,000 residents by 2035 as part of state-mandated growth plans. The city's population growth since 1990 has largely been driven by non-Caucasian racial groups, with the white majority decreasing from 92 percent in 1990 to 75 percent in 2010. The city had 16,394 housing units in 2010, 9,181 of which were single-family homes and 7,213 of which were in multi-family housing. Everett's homeownership rate is among the lowest in Washington, with 44 percent of homes occupied by their owners, and its residents have a low median income relative to the county and Seattle metropolitan area. The average monthly rent for housing units in Everett in 2013 ranged from \$700 for a studio apartment to \$2,723 for a five-bedroom home. The city also has several affordable housing complexes that provide 2,461 units to low-income households through federal and local grants. ### 2010 census As of the 2010 U.S. census, there were 103,019 people, 41,312 households, and 23,282 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,079.8 inhabitants per square mile (1,189.1/km²). There were 44,609 housing units at an average density of 1,333.6 per square mile (514.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 74.6% White, 4.1% African American, 1.4% Native American, 7.8% Asian, 0.7% Pacific Islander, 6.1% from other races, and 5.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 14.2% of the population. There were 41,312 households, of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.2% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.6% were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.09. The median age in the city was 34.4 years. 22.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 11.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.6% were from 25 to 44; 25% were from 45 to 64; and 10.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.9% male and 49.1% female. ### 2000 census As of the 2000 U.S. census, there were 91,488 people, 36,325 households and 21,613 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,814.6 people per square mile (1,086.9/km²). There were 38,512 housing units at an average density of 1,184.8 per square mile (457.5/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 56% White, 9% African American, 1.56% Native American, 10% Asian, 4% Pacific Islander, 3.13% from other races and 4.25% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 13% of the population. There were 36,325 households, out of which 31.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.1% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.5% were non-families. 31.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.04. In the city, 25.1% of the population was under the age of 18, 12.3% from 18 to 24, 33.3% from 25 to 44, 18.9% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.8 males. The median income for a household in the city was \$40,100 and the median income for a family was \$46,743. Males had a median income of \$35,852 versus \$28,841 for females. The per capita income for the city was \$20,577. About 10.1% of families and 19.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16% of those under the age of 18 and 12.1% of those ages 65 and older. ### Crime The Everett Police Department has 201 uniformed police officers and five unfilled positions as of 2020. The city had 422 violent crimes and 6,198 property crimes reported to law enforcement in 2015. The number of reported crimes in Everett has declined since reaching a peak in 2009–10, with 610 violent crimes and 7,672 property crimes. Everett had ranked in the top 20 percent of U.S. cities for reported crimes in reports by CQ Press, which included property crimes and burglary among violent crimes. It was ranked 49th among cities in Washington for crimes per capita in a 2019 study by the National Council for Home Safety and Security. The Everett Police Department and Snohomish County Sheriff's Office began criminal investigations against operators and employees of various bikini barista coffee stands in 2009 for violating adult entertainment laws. The city government passed a dress code ordinance for food service workers in August 2017, but were met with a lawsuit from stand operators and employees over the constitutionality of the ordinance. The ordinance was suspended by a preliminary injunction from the U.S. District Court of Western Washington in December 2017, but the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor of the city government in 2019. After the U.S. Supreme Court declined a petition from the plaintiffs to hear the case in March 2020, it was referred back to the U.S. District Court, where the ordinance was ruled unconstitutional in October 2022; both sides settled in April 2023, with the city agreeing to pay \$500,000 to the plaintiffs while rolling back the scope of the ordinance to align it with existing municipal legislation on lewd conduct. The city has a high rate of opioid abuse, particularly OxyContin and heroin, fueled by cross-state drug trafficking. The Providence Regional Medical Center reported 655 patients with opioid overdoses from January to August 2017, while 34 percent of residents booked into the county jail tested positive for opioids. The widespread opioid use also contributed to a 65 percent rise in homelessness in Everett from 2015 to 2017, straining local shelters and supportive housing systems. The city government filed a lawsuit against OxyContin manufacturer Purdue Pharma in January 2017, claiming that the company had been grossly negligent in distributing the drug and containing its effect on Everett residents. The lawsuit also identified a drug trafficking ring based in Los Angeles, large prescriptions by doctors to procure the drug, and direct marketing by Purdue Pharma as contributing factors to the rise in opioid cases. Everett's lawsuit was joined by complaints from other jurisdictions, including Snohomish County and the Tulalip Tribes, and was heard in the U.S. District Court of Northern Ohio. ## Government and politics Everett is a first-class city with an organized charter and a mayor–council government. The city's mayor and seven councilmembers are elected to four-year terms in staggered elections that take place during odd-numbered years. The city council has five positions elected from the city's districts, which were implemented in 2021, while the remaining two positions are at-large seats. The city council meets weekly on Wednesdays and offers live television and web broadcasts via The Everett Channel. The city government is based out of the Everett Municipal Building (formerly known as the Wall Street Building) in Downtown Everett, a 10-story office tower adjacent to the historic Everett City Hall—now home to the city police department and city council chambers. Cassie Franklin, a former city councilmember, was elected as mayor in 2017 and is the second woman and first non-appointee to hold the office. The mayor of Everett is responsible for appointing the heads of various city departments, the city clerk, the city treasurer, the police and fire chiefs, and members of service commissions and boards. The city government has 1,200 employees and an operating budget of \$148.7 million for 2020. It provides a range of municipal services, including police, fire, emergency medical services, public works, a housing authority, zoning and planning, parks and recreation, and some utilities. Everett also has a municipal court that was established in 1987 and has two judges who are elected to four-year terms. The city government runs its own public transit and library systems, which are separate from the countywide Community Transit and Sno-Isle Libraries. Everett is also the county seat of Snohomish County and houses several major government facilities on a campus in Downtown Everett. The campus includes the county courthouse, county jail, administrative offices, and the main precinct of the county sheriff. At the federal level, Everett is part of the 2nd congressional district, represented by Democrat Rick Larsen since 2001. At the state level, most of the city is in the 38th legislative district alongside Marysville and the Tulalip Indian Reservation. The southern neighborhoods of the city, including Silver Lake, are part of the 21st legislative district, shared with Edmonds and Mukilteo. Everett is also part of the Snohomish County Council's 2nd district, which also includes Mukilteo and the Tulalip Indian Reservation. ## Culture ### Arts Everett is described as a "largely blue-collar city", but is home to a regional arts scene that includes galleries, community theaters, music, and artwork. The city has five major performing arts venues that host various groups and traveling events. The 834-seat Historic Everett Theatre on Colby Avenue opened in 1901 and hosts community theater productions, musical groups, improv comedy, and film screenings. The city once had a "theater district" in downtown that included the Everett, Granada, Balboa, and Roxy theaters, all opened during the early 20th century, but the district later declined with two closures in the 1950s. The Everett Theatre is the last surviving theater from the era, having been partially rebuilt following a fire in December 1923, renovated into a triplex theater in 1979, closed in 1989, and restored to its original state beginning in 2000. The regional Village Theatre performs in Issaquah and at the Everett Performing Arts Center, a city-owned facility that opened in 1993 and is also home to the Everett Chorale. The Village Theatre opened KidStage, a venue for young performers, in 2011 by converting a former bank branch building adjacent to the Everett Performing Arts Center. The Everett Civic Auditorium at Everett High School was completed in 1939 and is home to the Everett Philharmonic Orchestra, which was formed in 2010 by musicians from the former Everett Symphony after it ran into financial issues. The city's public art program is managed by the Everett Cultural Arts Commission, a citizen advisory board established in 1974 alongside a percent for art program for public projects. In addition to public art, the commission manages 16 street pianos in Downtown Everett that are painted by local artists and available for public use every August. Everett's main arts district is on a three-block section of Hoyt Avenue in downtown, which is home to the Schack Art Center and several sculptures installed in the late 2000s. The Schack Art Center opened in 2011 as a multipurpose exhibition space and artist workshop, with facilities for various mediums and housing for artists provided by Artspace. The center was originally the Arts Council of Snohomish County and named in honor of John and Idamae Schack, longtime supporters of the organization and arts in the region; in its first year, the Schack Art Center had 265 artists on exhibit and 33,000 visitors, helping to revitalize downtown during the Great Recession. The Everett area has attracted artists and musicians from Seattle due to its relative affordability and incentives from the city government. The Everett area has been featured in several film and television productions, both as a setting and as a film location. It was the setting for the 2014 crime film 7 Minutes and the 2000 television series The Fugitive. The television series Twin Peaks, which was primarily filmed in North Bend, used an Everett house for interior shots. ### Events and tourism The city hosts several annual events and festivals, usually during the summer months. The city's waterfront hosts an annual fireworks display on Independence Day a few hours after a downtown parade. Everett has hosted a downtown sausage and street festival annually in September since 1977. Several annual festivals were established in the 1990s, including a film festival in February, the Cruzin' to Colby classic car show in May, the Sorticulture garden festival in June, and the Fresh Paint art show in August. The city's largest annual summer festival, the Salty Sea Days, was established in 1970 and included a parade, hydroplane races, a classic auto show, and other events. It was originally subsidized using city lodging taxes until 2003, and shut down three years later. The Everett Farmers Market began in 1994 and operates on Sundays from May to October with 200 vendors and about 5,000 weekly visitors. It was originally located at the Port of Everett but moved in 2019 to Wetmore Avenue in downtown because of parking and accessibility issues at the waterfront site. The farmers market also operates popup bazaars during the off-season and a Wednesday market at Everett Station during the summer. The waterfront remains home to a summer concert series that has been staged annually since 1991. Everett's government and the Everett Downtown Association have also launched tourism initiatives that have created new events and promotional branding for Everett. The city government launched a logo design contest in 2014 that had 850 entries and 5,700 votes from local residents. The winning design was later withdrawn due to its similarity to the logo of financial services company Envestnet and was replaced by a new brand design in 2019. A craft beer festival was established in 2012 by the Washington Beer Commission and was later renamed to the Upper Left Beerfest in 2017 after the city government took over operations. The Fisherman's Village Music Festival, established in 2014, takes place annually over a three-day weekend in May at four stages in Downtown Everett. The music festival includes performances from 50 local and national artists as well as art exhibitions. An annual 3-on-3 basketball tournament was established in 2022 and takes place on downtown streets during a July weekend. The Everett area has several major tourist attractions, particularly those themed around aviation. The Future of Flight Aviation Center at Paine Field, owned by the county government and operated by Boeing, has several aviation exhibits and includes a tour of the Boeing assembly plant. It is the most popular tourist attraction in Snohomish County, with 495,000 visitors in 2017. The Flying Heritage & Combat Armor Museum opened in 2008 at a renovated Paine Field hangar and houses a collection of restored 20th century military planes and vehicles. The Imagine Children's Museum opened in 2004 at a renovated bank building in Downtown Everett after relocating from Marysville. It has interactive exhibits designed to teach children about local history, science, and the arts. ### Media The Everett Herald is the city's daily newspaper, providing local and national news for 40,000 subscribers in Snohomish County. It began publication on February 11, 1901, emerging as the city's lone daily newspaper from a field of three competitors established in the early 1890s: the Everett News, Everett Times, and Everett Tribune. The newspaper remained under local ownership until it was purchased by The Washington Post Company in 1978 and it was sold to Sound Publishing in 2013. The Herald launched its online website on January 5, 1997, the monthly Herald Business Journal in 1998, and began publishing a weekly Spanish-language newspaper, La Raza del Noroeste, in April 2006. My Everett News is an independent online news outlet for Everett that was established in 2011 and is affiliated with The Seattle Times. The city is part of the Seattle–Tacoma media market, ranked 13th among U.S. metro areas, which includes several major television and radio stations. KONG-TV, a Seattle-based broadcast channel that is affiliated with KING-TV, has been licensed to Everett since 1984 and debuted in 1997. The City of Everett also runs The Everett Channel (formerly Everett TV), a government-access television station that broadcasts local events, city meetings, and special programming. Everett itself has four radio stations. The Skotdal family owns two stations in Everett that share facilities with the Everett Post: KRKO-AM, which began broadcasting in 1922 and primary plays classic hits along with local sports; and KKXA-AM, a country music station launched in 2011. KSER-FM is an independent public radio station founded in 1991 to serve Snohomish County, carrying local news, music programming, and nationally syndicated news. Everett is also the home to KWYZ-AM (Radio Hankook), a Korean language news and entertainment station that launched in 1997 and is broadcast from Federal Way. ### Libraries The Everett Public Library system has two locations with 258,133 total items and serves 45,205 registered members in the city and surrounding communities as of 2018. The library was founded in 1894 and moved into a permanent building in 1905. The current downtown library opened in 1934 and was expanded in 1991; a branch library in South Everett opened in 1985 and was renovated in 2019. In 2017, Sno-Isle Libraries, the countywide library system, opened a demonstration branch at a strip mall in South Everett to serve the Mariner area. ### Historic preservation Everett is home to 14 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The city maintains its own register of historic places that began in 1987 and has 35 listed properties. A non-profit preservation group, Historic Everett, was founded in 2002 and hosts educational events and tours of the city. In addition to historic properties, the city has several designated historic districts: Hewitt Avenue Historic District in Downtown Everett; the Rucker Hill Historic District; and the Swalwell Block. Several historic overlay districts are designated by the city government, including the Riverside Overlay, the Norton–Grand Overlay, and the Rucker–Grand Overlay, which includes the home of the former U.S. Senator Henry M. Jackson. Several properties within the historic districts have undergone renovation and restoration work in the 21st century to preserve their historic value, partially in response to the demolition of other buildings for new construction. The Everett Museum of History was established in 1953 as a countywide historical association and maintained its own museum until 2007. The organization's collections were then moved to several buildings for storage, including the former Everett Carnegie Library and part of the Everett Mall, while a permanent location was sought. A new museum at the former downtown offices of the Everett Herald is planned to open in 2021, using donated funds to purchase and renovate the building. ### Sports Everett is home to two sports venues that are used by professional minor league teams and for other events. The Angel of the Winds Arena, an indoor arena in downtown which seats 8,149, is home to the Everett Silvertips of the Western Hockey League. It opened in 2003 at a cost of \$83 million and includes a community ice rink and a convention center for use by other events. The arena has hosted basketball games for the Seattle Storm of the WNBA, indoor tennis events including the 2020 Fed Cup, and two editions of the Skate America figure skating championships in 2008 and 2018. The Everett AquaSox (formerly the Giants) are part of the Northwest League and play at Funko Field, a 3,682-seat baseball stadium that is part of the Everett Memorial Stadium complex. The Memorial Stadium complex was built in 1947 and includes a 12,000-seat football and track stadium that is used by the city's various high school teams. The city formerly had additional indoor sports teams who played in minor leagues: the Snohomish County Explosion, which played from 2007 to 2010 in the defunct International Basketball League and later the National Athletic Basketball League; the Everett Hawks of the National Indoor Football League and AF2, who folded in 2007; the Everett Raptors of the Indoor Football League, who played for one season in 2012; and the Washington Stealth of the National Lacrosse League, who moved to British Columbia in 2014. A new Arena Football League franchise was awarded to Everett in 2023 and is planned to begin play in 2024. Everett has also hosted several minor league soccer teams, including the Everett BigFoot of the third-division USISL Pro League, who began play in 1995 and moved to West Seattle in 1997. The North Sound SeaWolves of the USL Premier Development League began play at Mariner High School in 2011 and moved to Edmonds the following season. Everett Jets FC are an amateur team in the Evergreen Premier League who were set to begin their inaugural season in 2020 at Memorial Stadium until the COVID-19 pandemic suspended league play. They debuted in 2021 and play home matches at Mariner High School's Goddard Stadium. The Seattle Spartans, a women's football team that plays in the Women's Football Alliance, was founded in 2012 and originally named the Everett Reign. The team plays its home games at Mariner High School. ## Parks and recreation Everett has more than 40 parks, trails, golf courses, and playgrounds maintained by the city government's Parks and Recreation Department. The department manages a total of 693 acres (280 ha) of land, with most areas set aside for nature conservation and others developed for use by residents and visitors. The department also organizes recreational activities at city parks and throughout the city, including sports leagues, swimming lessons, hiking trips, and classes on cooking and gardening. The city's first park, now known as Clark Park, was established in 1894 and functioned as a town square with regular concerts and protests until its bandstand was demolished in 1979. The largest park in Everett, Forest Park, was acquired in late 1894 and was left largely undeveloped until the 1930s. The parks system includes several facilities with sports fields and courts, including Garfield Park, Kasch Park, Henry M. Jackson Park, and Phil Johnson Ballfields. The city operates two public golf courses at American Legion Memorial Park (opened in 1934) and Walter E. Hall Park (opened in 1972). A private golf course, the Everett Golf & Country Club, was established in 1910 on 66 acres (27 ha) south of downtown. The municipal parks system includes several miles of public shoreline access at Howarth Park on Port Gardner Bay, Rotary Park and Langus Riverfront Park on the Snohomish River, and Thornton A. Sullivan Park on Silver Lake. The shoreline parks have public beaches and boat launches for recreational boating. The Port of Everett has a large public marina and its own boat launch at 10th Street that also serves a ferry to Jetty Island. The state and county governments also maintain their own parks in the Everett area, including the jointly maintained Spencer Island Regional Park. The city government is also responsible for maintaining a section of the Interurban Trail, which connects Everett to Lynnwood, Mountlake Terrace, Shoreline, and Seattle. North Everett is ringed by the Mill Town Trail, a six-mile (9.7 km) multi-use pathway with interpretive signs to commemorate the city's industrial history. ### Major parks Forest Park, located southwest of Downtown Everett, is the largest park in the city system at 197 acres (80 ha). The park is situated along Pigeon Creek, with recreational facilities on a hilltop overlooking the ravine and several miles of hiking trails. It was acquired by the city in 1894 and named Forest Park in 1913. A public zoo was established at Forest Park in 1914 by parks director Oden Hall, who collected animals through trades and gifts from other zoos and traveling circuses. The zookeeper position was eliminated in 1958 and the zoo was demolished in 1962 after three bond issues to upgrade the facilities failed. Forest Park's main facilities were built during the 1930s by the Works Progress Administration, including the Floral Hall, playgrounds, terrace hillsides, and picnic shelters. The public swimming pool opened at Forest Park in 1976 and a permanent structure was built around it in 1984. Major renovations of the facilities in the park were completed in 1997 and 2020. The largest park in North Everett is American Legion Memorial Park, a 140-acre (57 ha) open space on the peninsula's northwest bluff at the site of a former Snohomish village and smelter. The majority of the park is occupied by a golf course that was built by the American Legion and transferred to the city government alongside the rest of the park in 1935. The Evergreen Arboretum was built in 1963 at the northwest edge of the golf course, alongside a picnic shelter and the county's history museum. A scenic viewpoint on the park grounds with views of the Olympic Mountains was named Hibulb Lookout in 2014, commemorating the historic Snohomish village at the site. Jetty Island is an artificial island in Port Gardner Bay that is home to sandy beaches and protected wildlife habitats. The two-mile (3.2 km) island was formed from dredging of the Snohomish River in the early 20th century and acquired by the Port of Everett in 1929. The city began operating a seasonal ferry between the island and a waterfront parking area in 1985; the ferry now runs from July to September, serving 50,000 visitors annually. Jetty Island is home to more than 115 identified bird species, salmon habitats, and mollusks. ## Education The city's public education system is managed by Everett Public Schools (officially the Everett School District), which has 26 schools, 2,000 staff members, and an enrollment of 20,000 students. The school district is managed by a five-member elected board and covers 52 square miles (130 km²), including most of Everett, the city of Mill Creek, and the unincorporated area of Silver Firs. The southern and western neighborhoods of Everett are served by the Mukilteo School District, which also has its own high school (Mariner) in the area. Everett Public Schools has three high school campuses: Everett High School near downtown, Cascade High School near Casino Corner, and Henry M. Jackson High School in Mill Creek. The school district was recognized in 2016 for its high graduation rates of 90 percent for four-year students and 94.5 percent for five-year students. A fourth high school campus, planned to cost \$220 million to build, was part of a bond measure in February 2018 that was rejected by voters, resulting in boundary changes for the existing schools. The school district also has five middle schools and 18 elementary schools in Everett and Mill Creek. The city is also home to two alternative schools: Sequoia High School, operated by Everett Public Schools, and ACES High School, operated by the Mukilteo School District. The Everett area is also home to several private school systems operated by religious organizations and independent educators, including those that cater to commuters from around the county. The largest private high school in the county is Archbishop Murphy High School, a Catholic school in southeastern Everett, with an enrollment of 500 students. Other major private religious schools include the Everett Christian School, Cedar Park Christian School, and Northshore Christian Academy. ### Higher education Everett Community College (EvCC) is a two-year public community college that has enrolled 19,000 students from around Snohomish County and 463 total faculty members. The college's main campus is in North Everett on the south side of Legion Memorial Golf Course. It was established in 1941 at a former downtown elementary school and moved to its North Everett location in 1958, where it has since expanded several times. Civic and business leaders from the Everett area began lobbying the state legislature for a four-year college in the 1990s, proposing a branch of an existing state college to serve Snohomish, Island, and Skagit counties. A site in Bothell was instead chosen for a northern branch campus for the University of Washington (UW), but only 27 percent of its students were from Snohomish County. In 2007, the state legislature authorized planning funds for a UW branch campus in Snohomish County and a site near Everett Station was named as a finalist alongside candidates in Lake Stevens and Marysville. The branch campus project was shelved by the state legislature in 2008 amid a funding shortfall for the education system. Washington State University Everett opened in 2017 as a branch campus of WSU and is adjacent to the EvCC campus in North Everett. The branch campus was conceived as a replacement for the UW proposal and included a WSU takeover of the University Center of North Puget Sound, an alternative degrees program at EvCC, in 2014. The EvCC campus also houses a branch of Western Washington University, which it established in 1986. Everett is also home to several private and specialized colleges, including City University and Everest College near the Everett Mall. The city also has branch campuses for Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University near the Boeing assembly plant and Columbia College at Naval Station Everett. Everett's two major Lutheran churches operated a pair of short-lived private colleges in the early 20th century, Bethania College and Columbia College. Henry Cogswell College, a private institution, moved from Kirkland to Everett in 1996 and closed in 2006. In the 2010s, Bryman College and Trinity Lutheran College both closed their Everett campuses. ## Infrastructure ### Transportation The city is bisected by Interstate 5 (I-5), a major north–south freeway that connects Everett to Seattle and Vancouver, British Columbia. The Everett–Seattle section of I-5 is rated as one of the most congested in the United States during commuting hours, with an average of 94 minutes to travel 24 miles (39 km) and 182,000 daily vehicles in South Everett. The city also has several major highways with intercity connections, including U.S. Route 2 to Wenatchee via Stevens Pass; State Route 99 from the Everett Mall to Seattle; State Route 526 to Mukilteo; State Route 527 from the Everett Mall to Mill Creek; and State Route 529 from the waterfront to Marysville. Everett has several public transit and intercity transport services that intersect at Everett Station, a multimodal train and bus station that opened in 2002. The station is served by two Amtrak routes: Cascades, which connects Vancouver to Seattle and Portland, Oregon; and the Empire Builder, which travels from Seattle to Chicago. Everett is also the northern terminus of the Sounder commuter rail system, which is operated by Sound Transit and travels south to Seattle during peak hours with stops in Mukilteo and Edmonds. The station is served by intercity buses from Greyhound Lines, BoltBus, and Northwestern Trailways, which connect Everett to cities in the Pacific Northwest. The passenger trains operate on tracks owned by BNSF Railway, which operates freight service and maintains a major railyard in Northeast Everett. The city-run Everett Transit system was established in 1969, replacing a private operator that had opened the first streetcar lines in the city in 1893. The countywide Community Transit system, based in Everett, connects to surrounding cities and operates a commuter bus network. Its bus rapid transit system, Swift, has two lines that travel through the city: the Blue Line from Downtown Everett to Shoreline via State Route 99; and the Green Line, which connects the Boeing plant to Mill Creek and northern Bothell. Sound Transit also provides express bus service to Bellevue during peak hours and Downtown Seattle at all hours. The agency plans to extend its Link light rail service to Paine Field in 2037 and Downtown Everett in 2041 as part of the Sound Transit 3 plan passed by voters in 2016. The city has 53 miles (85 km) of marked bicycle lanes, 13 miles (21 km) of designated bicycle trails, and 16 miles (26 km) of shared spaces for cyclists and other modes. During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the city government temporarily closed three low-traffic streets to through traffic and converted them to "Healthy Streets" that would encourage cycling and walking. The Interurban Trail, a major inter-city bicycle and pedestrian trail, begins in Everett and continues south towards Seattle on the right-of-way of a former interurban railway that ran from 1910 to 1939. The city has hosted several scooter-sharing systems since 2019, when it introduced Lime scooters. The city permitted Bird to operate scooters in 2022; during the first five months of the program, over 26,000 trips were taken on scooters in the city that covered 48,500 miles (78,100 km). Everett's airport, Paine Field, is operated by Snohomish County primarily for aerospace businesses and general aviation. The airport was opened in 1936 and was used as a military base and commercial airport until 1966, when Boeing selected it for the site of a major assembly plant. Commercial passenger service to Paine Field resumed on March 4, 2019, after the construction of a new terminal operated by a private company. The nearest major airports are Boeing Field in Seattle and Seattle-Tacoma International Airport in southern King County. A private passenger ferry from the Port of Everett provides access to Hat Island in Possession Sound. ### Utilities Electric power for Everett is provided by the Snohomish County Public Utility District (PUD), a consumer-owned public utility that serves all of Snohomish County and derives 90 percent of its electricity from hydropower. The privately run Puget Sound Energy provides natural gas service to the city's residents and businesses. The city government contracts with Rubatino Refuse Removal and Waste Management for curbside garbage, recycling, and yard waste collection and disposal. Everett's municipal wastewater and sewage system, which is combined with stormwater treatment, includes 145 miles (233 km) of pipes that primarily feed into the Everett Water Pollution Control Facility on Smith Island and empties in the Snohomish River delta. The City of Everett maintains a tap water system that supplies 80 percent of Snohomish County through interlocal agreements with other municipalities and water districts. The system primarily sources its water from Spada Lake, an artificial reservoir on the Sultan River created by the Culmback Dam and located 25 miles (40 km) east of Everett in the Cascade Mountains. The water is treated at a filtration plant at Lake Chaplain, the system's secondary water source, which has a capacity of 134 million US gallons (510,000 kl) per day and typically handles 50 million US gal (190,000 kl) per day. The Sultan River basin has been used as the main source of the city's water since 1917 and uses a 25-mile (40 km) network of pipes to reach Everett; the modern Spada Lake reservoir was formed in 1965 by the construction of the Culmback Dam, co-owned by Everett and the Snohomish County PUD. The city is covered by several telecommunications companies that provide telephone, broadband internet, and other services. Ziply Fiber (formerly part of Frontier Communications) is the largest telecommunications provider in the city and inherited its legacy system from GTE Northwest and Verizon. The company is based in Everett at a building near the Boeing Factory that was completed in 1981 for GTE. Other major providers in the Everett area include Comcast Xfinity, CenturyLink, and Wave Broadband. ### Healthcare Everett is home to Providence Regional Medical Center Everett, a system of two general hospitals operated by Providence Health & Services. The hospital system was formed in 1994 by the merger of two existing hospitals in Everett: the Everett General Hospital, opened in January 1894 as the city's first hospital; and Providence Hospital, established in 1905 near Downtown Everett. The existing Providence Hospital was renamed the Providence Pacific Campus, while the former General Hospital became the Colby Campus, which was expanded in 2011 with a 12-story medical tower. The Providence campuses have a combined 3,300 employees and 571 beds, and are rated as a Level II trauma center. The city also has several medical services with clinics and specialized facilities operated by Providence and other providers. Kaiser Permanente has a five-story medical tower in Downtown Everett with a walk-in clinic, specialty services, and an urgent care clinic. The building originally opened for Group Health in 1994 to consolidate its three clinics in Everett and is being expanded with a new building that began construction in 2020. The Everett Clinic is based in the city and operates medical facilities across Snohomish County, serving 320,000 patients. The system was founded in 1924 and acquired in 2016 by DaVita Inc.; it was then sold to UnitedHealth Group's Optum a year later. The non-profit Community Health Center of Snohomish County operates four medical clinics in Everett, providing services to primarily low-income and uninsured patients. ## Notable people The city's residents are known as Everettites. Among them are U.S. Senator Henry M. Jackson, Washington governors Roland H. Hartley and Monrad Wallgren, and several other members of the U.S. Congress and Washington state legislature. The city has also produced several American football coaches under the tutelage of Everett High School coach Jim Ennis, including Jim Lambright, Mike Price, and Dennis Erickson. ## Sister cities Everett has the following sister city relationships: - Iwakuni, Yamaguchi, Japan (since 1962) - Sligo, County Sligo, Ireland

Glorieta de las mujeres que luchan

Anti-monument in Mexico City

On the afternoon of 25 September 2021, a group of anonymous feminists intervened in the Christopher Columbus roundabout on Paseo de la Reforma Avenue, Mexico City. On an empty plinth surrounded by protective fences, they installed a wooden antimonumenta, a guerrilla sculpture that calls for justice for the recurrent acts of violence against women in Mexico. It was originally called Antimonumenta Vivas Nos Queremos (lit. transl. Anti-monument We Want Us Alive), subsequently known as Justicia, and depicts a purple woman holding her left arm raised and the word justice carved into a support on the back. Additionally, the Columbus roundabout was also symbolically renamed the Glorieta de las mujeres que luchan (Roundabout of the Women Who Fight). The traffic circle formerly honored Columbus with a statue sculpted by French artist Charles Cordier, which was installed in 1887. Prior to a 2020 anti-Columbus Day protest, Mexico City's administration, led by mayor Claudia Sheinbaum, removed it from the pedestal under the pretense of restoration. Months later, Sheinbaum announced that the statue would not be returned to its original site and that, following a request from 5,000 indigenous women to decolonize the avenue, a monument would be installed to honor them. The project was named Tlalli and proposed a sculpture created by a non-indigenous male artist who drew inspiration from the existing Olmec colossal heads, all of which depict men. Feminists objected to the proposal because they considered that the sculptor unsuited to honor indigenous women and a few days later they installed their own design on the plinth. Justicia was not initially intended to be permanent; according to the installers, the city could select the sculpture's design but should rename the traffic circle to their suggested name instead. Since its placement, feminists have organized cultural events at the roundabout to honor all the women who they describe as fighters and men who fight for them and have had their names memorialized on the protective fences, installed a clothesline to denounce the injustices that they have experienced from authorities and society, and replaced the original woodwork with a steel one. Sheinbaum, on the other hand, had commented that the government of the city wanted to officially replace the Monument to Columbus with a replica of The Young Woman of Amajac, a Huastec sculpture, and thus relocate the Vivas Nos Queremos anti-monument elsewhere, an action to which feminists were opposed unless their demands were met. Following months of discussion, in February 2023, Sheinbaum declared that both Justicia and The Young Woman of Amajac would coexist in the same traffic circle, while the Columbus sculpture would be relocated to the National Museum of the Viceroyalty, in Tepotzotlán, State of Mexico. To avoid further conflicts, Sheinbaum's successor, Martí Batres, relocated the replica project to an adjacent traffic island. ## Background The statue of Christopher Columbus in Paseo de la Reforma, one of two Mexico City monuments dedicated to Christopher Columbus, was removed on 10 October 2020 prior to an attempted demonstration to topple it two days later—on Columbus Day. According to the government of the city, it was removed as part of a series of restorations performed by the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). Mayor Claudia Sheinbaum announced that public discussions on the monument's future would take place in 2021. However, these were not conducted, and the government of the city decided to replace the statue of Columbus with Tlalli, a large female head statue by Pedro Reyes who was inspired by the male Olmec colossal heads and whose intention was to honor 500 years of the resistance of Mexican indigenous women. The city government explained that the removal occurred after receiving 5,000 signatures from indigenous women who asked to "decolonize Paseo de la Reforma". Tlalli sparked several controversies, including the selection of Reyes, a mestizo male, to represent Mexican indigenous women, or its design and name, which were questioned by academics like researcher Lucía Melgar and Mixe writer Yásnaya Aguilar [es]. Melgar said that it was an example of how women and indigenous women are seen as "generic, mute and immobilized" while Aguilar questioned the use of a Nahuatl word (which means land or earth) to name a project based on the Mixe–Zoque-speaking Olmec culture. Sheinbaum postponed the installation and declared that a committee would handle the situation as a result of the controversies. ## History ### Installation and description On the afternoon of 25 September 2021, a group of feminists crossed the protective fences surrounding the monument and installed on the empty plinth a wooden antimonumenta depicting a 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) tall purple woman with her left fist raised. They used multiple ropes and the already-existing steel staples fixed with cement to hold it on the pedestal. The installers referred to the sculpture as the Antimonumenta Vivas Nos Queremos (Anti-monument We Want Us Alive), Justicia (Justice), or La Muchacha (The Girl) and symbolically renamed the traffic circle as the Glorieta de las mujeres que luchan (Roundabout of Women Who Fight). The installation occurred as a protest against the recurrent acts of violence against women in Mexico, a country that is commonly ranked among unequal and hostile countries for women, according to reports that include those of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Georgetown University's Women Peace and Security Index 2019/20, or the United Nations Development Programme's Gender Inequality Index. Feminists during the installation requested the formation of an artistic committee with indigenous female members to choose a replacement by consensus and added that they did not want to impose their choice of a statue, saying, "You decide the figure, we have renamed the roundabout". They further explained that their representation was created in honor of all the women who have fought for justice throughout the nation, that is, from "the brave women of independence up to the present day and also those who were killed fighting for justice". As stated by the authors, the project arose after the removal of the statue of Columbus but remained under planning until the announcement of Tlalli. They came to their conclusion with its organization and installation after observing the various errors made by the authorities. Throughout those months, various women's organizations clandestinely planned the placement of the artwork and invited victims and human rights advocates to take part. Additionally, while a group installed the Justicia sculpture, another one painted the names of murdered and disappeared women on the protective fences, like that of Marisela Escobedo Ortiz, a woman who was killed while she was protesting the murder of her daughter. Some names include those of living women who, they say, have resisted injustice. In preparation for the action, research was done on indigenous women, mothers of victims of femicide, historical women, defenders of water, land, life, and women journalists. The city government covered those names with white paint hours later. Sheinbaum said it was a common action, as cleanup groups are authorized to conduct cleanup works after demonstrations in the city. A group of feminists came back the following day on the seventh anniversary of the Iguala mass kidnapping and painted the names once more with the addition, "You will not erase us". During an abortion rights demonstration on 3 October 2021, the names were restored after having been covered again during the week. In addition, the names of men who have fought for women or who have been murdered or disappeared were mentioned and written down. ### Events after its installation On 25 November 2021, the date commemorating the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women, feminists installed complaints clotheslines – inspired by The Clothesline Project [es], an installation art project by Mónica Mayer – where they clothespinned the names of public officials and of institutions that they considered had not followed up on their complaints or had ignored or minimized them. They also sang a protest song there. The next day, male police officers broke the clotheslines and attempted to remove the protective fences bearing the written names; when they noticed that groups of women were filming them, they repositioned them. On 31 October, a Day of the Dead altar was set up on the main path of the roundabout, where feminists wrote: "México Feminicida" (Mexico Femicidal). They also placed cempasúchil flowers and papel picado sheets with the phrase "Fue el estado" (It was the state) cut into them. Feminists replaced the original artwork on 5 March 2022 with a steel monument that is 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in) tall in anticipation for International Women's Day demonstrations on the following 8 March. Also, the Garden of Memory (Jardín de la Memoria) was set up, featuring another clothesline with 300 complaints and whose intention is "bearing the names of historical women [...] who teach us every day with their struggles that dignity has to be customary". Human rights groups unofficially renamed the Glorieta de Colón and Hamburgo stations of the Mexico City Metrobús as the "Glorieta de las Mujeres Que Luchan" and "Glorieta de las y los Desaparecidos" stations, respectively, on 24 July 2022. The latter was done in honor of the nearby anti-monument of the same name. The signage maintained the style used by the system and the pictograms of the stations were replaced with their protest symbols. The actions are part of the symbolic renaming of Paseo de la Reforma to the Ruta de la Memoria (Route of Memory), in reference to the various anti-monument memorials located on the avenue. A number of events were held at the roundabout on the first anniversary of the Justicia installation, including the installation of a pink cross, the hanging of photos of the missing and murdered, and a dance and song performance. In reiterating their stance on the proposed relocation, the collectives said that the location "not only has to do with the issue of femicide and disappearance but also the various struggles that women have in the country, namely, the indigenous mothers, the struggle for the defense of land [or] water". ### Attempted removal On 12 October 2021, the city government announced that it intended to replace the monument to Columbus with a replica of The Young Woman of Amajac. Three days later, feminist groups urged the authorities to not remove the piece unless the roundabout is formally renamed the Glorieta de las mujeres que luchan. They also criticized that the artwork that is expected to replace theirs is believed to have been a young elite woman or a ruler. The mother of a murdered teenager said that any alteration would be "an act of direct aggression to the demands of justice". Sheinbaum stated in June 2022 that the replica of The Young Woman of Amajac was almost complete and that she was in talks with feminist collectives to reach an agreement on the relocation of the main sculpture. In response, feminist groups stated that no such talks had taken place as of August 2022 and claimed that the government was only interested in advancing its political agenda, adding that "the state wants to hide the fact that 11 to 13 women are murdered each day [and] that more than 30 people disappear each day". City officials met with representatives of various human rights groups in November 2022 to reach a consensus on the future of the traffic circle. Ricardo Ruiz, Undersecretary of Government, assured that although the requests of the groups are respected, there cannot be an imposition by any party and that the space must be public. Ingrid Gómez Saracíbar, Secretary of Women, proposed a common agreement to generate a space for coexistence. Argelia Betanzos, a Mazatec lawyer, commented that the government does not believe that there is a coexistence but in relation to the statues, as she felt that there is already a coexistence of indigenous women in the Glorieta de las mujeres que luchan. She added that The Young Woman of Amajac does not arise from the wishes of indigenous women but rather from an electoral intention on the part of Sheinbaum's team and requested that, before seeking to place a symbol in the name of indigenous people, they should first apologize for the crimes committed against indigenous peoples by the country's governments. At the event, a letter written by Otomi women was read, requesting that—instead of replacing the anti-monument in Reforma—the city government replace another statue honoring Columbus in the city (Manuel Vilar, 1892) with the sculpture of The Young Woman of Amajac, as they considered that Paseo de la Reforma had already been decolonized. Following months of discussion, in February 2023, Sheinbaum announced that both Justicia and The Young Woman of Amajac would coexist in the traffic circle, while the Columbus sculpture would be relocated to the National Museum of the Viceroyalty, in Tepotzotlán, State of Mexico. About it, Sheinbaum added, "We do it because we women have been silenced for a long time [...] And those who have been silenced the most are the indigenous women". Days later, during a speech in Morelia, Michoacán, Sheinbaum said that there were "deeply racist and classist" women who opposed the installation of The Young Woman of Amajac. The following day, when confronted by feminists and human rights groups, Sheinbaum said that she was not referring to these groups in that context. On 7 March 2023, dozens of collective groups published through Amnesty International an open letter addressed to Sheinbaum. In it, the collectives mentioned that they "were very concerned that the Mexico City government does not recognize the value of the social mobilization of thousands of women [...] who have been and are fundamental for the human rights of all women to be recognized, guaranteed, protected, promoted and respected". The document concludes with four requests: to recognize the contributions of women in the recent history of the country, to respect the placement of Justicia and the Glorieta de las mujeres que luchan, to officially rename the roundabout as Glorieta de las mujeres que luchan, and to listen and attend the requests for justice to guarantee the right to live with dignity. After the resignation of Sheinbaum, Martí Batres, her interim successor, accepted to relocate the project of The Young Woman of Amajac to an adjacent traffic island. ## Reception Author Sabrina Melenotte noted that the installation roughly "links art, memory and public space" and raises questions on "the role and the legitimate place of artistic and social expressions that serve as monuments". David Pérez wrote for Milenio that the set of protest acts located in the Glorieta de las mujeres que luchan serve to reflect on the recurring episodes of violence and that it serves as a medium that highlights the meaning that is given to the use of memory in response to violence. Carmen Contreras, consultant in gendered urban development, mentioned that the installation follows the line of interventions in the urban space that show that the actions of public institutions do not work and that a change is required to avoid discrimination among citizens in order to achieve justice. Diana Murrieta, founder of the feminist group Nosotras Para Ellas, wrote in an opinion column in the El Heraldo de México newspaper that the appropriation of public spaces is important to let the women of the country know that equality is achievable as long as actions are performed collectively. Ayahuitl Estrada, founder of the feminist collective Restauradoras con Glitter, said that with such acts feminist women are "changing the discourse imposed by the state of what the representation of vulnerable women should be". In her column for Voces México, art critic Avelina Lésper [es] commented negatively on the artwork and its installation, saying that such actions harm feminism, which society calls unjustified, radical and violent, and asked feminists not to speak for all women because she interprets the appropriation as an act of "ideological, populist arrogance, supported by the propaganda of [social] networks". Regarding the Vivas Nos Queremos anti-monument, she called it an "aesthetic eyesore" that denigrates women in history and demeans them to a symbol similar to the pictogram indicating the women's restroom. Regarding comments on the government and its position on the anti-monument, Fausta Gantús from the Instituto Mora [es] opined that Sheinbaum avoids recognizing the Glorieta de las mujeres que luchan and instead supports an "officialist feminism", endorsed by the female governors from her political party, the National Regeneration Movement. According to Gantús, this posture only seeks to support the president of Mexico and former leader of their party, Andrés Manuel López Obrador. Scholar Lucía Melgar commented that if Sheinbaum would stop "wallowing in imaginary achievements, repeating empty speeches, and inventing a courtly 'people'" she could learn to respect the space that feminists chose to protest against violence. In her opinion column in SDP Noticias, Claudia Santillana Rivera recommended that Sheinbaum pay attention to the installation because women would not necessarily vote for her if she were the candidate in the 2024 Mexican general election, especially if she does not show interest in resolving the problems experienced by women in the nation. ## Gallery ## See also - 2021 in art - Antimonumenta (Mexico City), another work in the city - Feminist art

Clifton Hall, Cumbria

Manor house in Cumbria,England

Clifton Hall was a fortified manor house in the village of Clifton, Cumbria. Dating from around 1400, it was constructed by either Elianor Engaine or her son-in-law William Wybergh, and was held by the Wybergh family until the 19th century. Initially taking the form of an "H"-plan design built around a central hall, around 1500 a three-storey stone pele tower was added, providing both additional security and acting as a status symbol for the family. At the start of the 17th century a new stone hall was added to the south of the tower. The Wyberghs were able to retain Clifton Hall, despite the challenges of the English Civil War, but the house was caught up in the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745. In the early 19th century most of Clifton Hall was pulled down to make way for a new farmhouse, and only the pele tower survived. In the 21st century the tower is in the care of English Heritage and operates as a tourist attraction. ## History ### 15th – 16th centuries Clifton Hall was originally built around 1400 in the village of Clifton, south of Penrith, Cumbria, by either Elianor Engaine or her son-in-law William Wybergh. The Engaines had held the manor of Clifton since at least the 12th century, providing military service to the regional feudal lords in exchange for the land, and may have built an earlier manor house on a different site, possibly close to the village church of St Cuthbert. Clifton Hall was initially constructed around an "H"-plan, with a central hall bracketed by two cross-wings, one wing containing the family's living accommodation, the other the kitchen and the other service rooms. This style was popular at this time across Cumbria, and indeed England more generally. William Wybergh and his descendants owned and lived in Clifton Hall until the 19th century. Around 1500, the three-storey tower that survives today was built onto the western end of the range, replacing the existing buildings there. "H"-plan houses with towers were common during this period, but the towers were often added on subsequently; the tower was probably constructed by Elianor's grandson, another William Wybergh. The tower was probably built in response to the security situation along the troubled Anglo-Scottish border at the time, but it would also have made a social statement about the status and wealth of the Wybergh family, and would have provided additional accommodation. A timber building was then built early in the 15th century to the south of the tower, probably to provide further chambers. ### 17th – 18th centuries At the start of the 17th century, possibly around 1600, a new hall was built in stone to replace the older timber-framed one; it was positioned to the south, replacing the earlier 15th-century extension. The new hall was slightly anachronistic, having only one floor, unlike most new halls from this period which had two storeys. The old hall was then probably adapted for use as a service area. After this investment, the Wybergh family's fortunes began to deteriorate. When the English Civil War broke out in 1642 between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament, Thomas Wybergh was a Royalist supporter and found himself on the losing side in the war. He was fined by Parliament as a Royalist "delinquent" in 1652, and mortgaged the surrounding manor to Sir John Lowther for £846, but not the hall itself or the lands immediately to the north. The mortgage led to a prolonged legal dispute, and in 1706 John's grandson successfully claimed the mortgaged estates, in exchange for giving the Wybergh's £400. Further work was done on the property in the early 18th century, providing an additional service room and bedrooms. The Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 impacted on the hall, which was close to the Scottish border. In 1715, William Wybergh, the owner, was abducted by Scottish soldiers, and in 1745, shortly before the Clifton Moor Skirmish, it was occupied and looted by the rebel forces. ### 19th – 21st centuries By the early 19th century, the medieval structure of the property had become quite limiting for the owners. The buildings on either side of the tower were then pulled down to allow for the construction of Hall Farm, including a more modern farm house; only the tower survived to become an ancillary farm building. In 1973 the Lonsdale Estate, who owned Hall Farm, placed the tower into the guardianship of the Department of the Environment, who decided to open it to the public. An archaeological excavation of the site took place between 1977 and 1979, making it one of only a handful of such sites in Cumbria to have been investigated in this way. In the 21st century the tower is in the care of English Heritage as a tourist attraction, and is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument. ## Architecture The only surviving part of Clifton Hall is the early 16th-century tower wing of the hall, often referred to as a pele tower. Despite this label, its construction date is relatively late compared to similar fortifications, and it is less robustly designed than equivalent towers in the region. The tower measures 33 ft (10 m) by 26 ft (7.9 m), with red sandstone walls around 3 ft (0.91 m) thick and 37 ft (11 m) high. The ground floor was originally the parlour, with a carved wooden ceiling and a fireplace, with doors leading externally and into the hall. Originally, the stairs did not reach down to the ground floor. The first floor formed the principal chamber in the tower, accessed from stairs in the hall; it had a fireplace, a garderobe and its walls would have been plastered and painted, with wood panelling. Stairs led up to the second floor, again equipped with a fireplace and wood panelling, and up onto the roof. Few of the original windows survive in the tower, but those that remain are larger than in some of the other older peles, suggesting it may have been built with defence less in mind than in some earlier pele towers. The originals have mainly been replaced by 17th- and 18th-century versions. The original roof would have resembled that at nearby Yanwath Hall, but was replaced at a later date with the current hipped-roof design, probably during the late 16th or the 17th century. The current roof was further restored in 1979. ## See also - Castles in Great Britain and Ireland - List of castles in England

Jordan Slew

British footballer (born 1992)

Jordan Michael Slew (born 7 September 1992) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for club Morecambe. Born in Sheffield, Slew began his footballing career at Sheffield United's academy in 2006, joining the club at the age of 11. After making his first-team debut in 2010, he attracted the interest of a number of clubs including Blackburn Rovers, for whom he signed in September 2011 for a £1.1 million fee. Slew also made two appearances for the England U19s in 2011. He subsequently spent time on loan at Stevenage, Oldham Athletic, Rotherham United, Ross County, and Port Vale. He joined Cambridge United in February 2015 and stayed with the club for 12 months. He signed with Chesterfield in February 2016, and then joined Plymouth Argyle four months later. He helped Plymouth to win promotion out of EFL League Two in 2016–17. He joined Rochdale in September 2017, before dropping into non-League football with Radcliffe four months later. He joined Boston United in October 2018 and then moved on to Ashton United 12 months later. He returned to the EFL with Morecambe in January 2020, dropping back into the National League with FC Halifax Town in August 2021. He rejoined Morecambe in July 2023. ## Club career ### Sheffield United Having started his career as a youngster with the Sheffield United academy, Slew made his first-team debut at the start of October 2010, coming on as an 86th-minute substitute in a 1–0 home defeat to Watford. He then signed his first senior professional contract with Sheffield United at the start of November, a deal designed to tie him to the club until the summer of 2012. After two further late-substitute appearances, he made his first start for Sheffield United in April 2011, playing the whole game and scoring in a 3–1 defeat to Preston North End at Deepdale. He made eight appearances in total for the club during the 2010–11 campaign, scoring twice. As well as his breakthrough into the first-team, Slew also played an instrumental part in Sheffield United's run in the 2010–11 FA Youth Cup, where they reached the final before losing to Manchester United's Academy side over two legs. Slew scored three goals during the cup run, including a goal in the first leg of the final. By May 2011, a number of Premier League and Championship teams had enquired about acquiring Slew's services, with United turning down a £500,000 offer from Fulham. Shortly after, Slew agreed an improved two-year deal to keep him at Bramall Lane until 2014. He began the 2011–12 season as a first team regular, playing in all of United's games during that August, scoring once. ### Blackburn Rovers Despite having only recently signed an extended deal with Sheffield United, Slew signed for Premier League side Blackburn Rovers on August transfer deadline day 2011. Blackburn paid a fee of £1.1 million for the player, with Slew signing a four-year contract. Arriving as a squad player, Slew had to wait until December 2011 to make his debut for Blackburn, coming on as an 89th-minute substitute against Manchester United at Old Trafford. Unable to achieve a regular place in the Blackburn first team, Slew joined League One side Stevenage on loan in March 2012, agreeing a deal to run until the end of the 2011–12 season. He made his debut for Stevenage a day after joining the club, playing in a 1–1 away draw against Exeter City. During his fifth appearance for Stevenage, Slew received a straight red card for "inexplicably raising his arms" to Colchester United midfielder Anthony Wordsworth. Slew returned to Ewood Park having played nine games for Stevenage, but failed to score a goal. With Blackburn now in the Championship, Slew was still unable to make the break into the first team and was instead loaned to League One side Oldham Athletic for six months in August 2012. Slew scored on his Oldham debut, netting in a 2–4 League Cup loss to Sheffield Wednesday a week after signing. After only four appearances for his temporary club, Slew suffered a stress fracture to his back and was sidelined for over three months, returning to Blackburn Rovers for treatment, and effectively ending his loan spell. Having recovered from his injury, Slew signed a six-week loan deal with League Two side Rotherham United at the end of January 2013. Slew's first appearance for Rotherham came just two days later, in a 3–1 win against promotion rivals Northampton Town, and he played regularly for the duration of his loan spell, making seven appearances in total. Despite Rotherham hoping to retain Slew's services until the end of the season, they were unable to agree a deal with Blackburn Rovers, and Slew returned to Ewood Park once more. The following season, Slew failed to make a first team appearance for Blackburn and on 1 January 2014 he joined Scottish Premiership side Ross County on loan until the end of the season. He made his debut that same day in the Highland derby with Inverness Caledonian Thistle at Caledonian Stadium, helping Derek Adams's "Staggies" to a 2–1 win. He went on to make 20 appearances during his time at Victoria Park, and scored one goal in his final appearance, a 3–2 win over Partick Thistle on 10 May. After being transfer-listed at Blackburn, Slew agreed a loan move to Port Vale in summer 2014, though manager Micky Adams stated it was "a frustrating chase" as Rovers manager Gary Bowyer refused to sanction the loan agreement until he was sure that a permanent offer would not be made for the player. A loan deal lasting until January 2015 was eventually agreed on 29 August, and Slew scored his first goal for the Valiants on 6 September, netting a late consolation goal in a 3–1 defeat at Peterborough United. On 4 October he was sent off in a 1–0 defeat at Fleetwood Town after striking an opposition player. He failed to win back his first team spot after returning from suspension, and his loan deal was not extended by manager Rob Page. He had his contract with Blackburn terminated by mutual consent in January 2015. ### Cambridge United In February 2015, Slew signed an 18-month contract with League Two side Cambridge United. He scored one goal in 13 games in the second half of the 2014–15 season, and was transfer listed in May by manager Richard Money after Slew admitted he was playing "nowhere near his best". He failed to score in 12 appearances during the 2015–16 season and his contract with the club was cancelled by mutual consent on 1 February. ### Chesterfield Slew joined League One side Chesterfield on a short-term deal in February 2016, after manager Danny Wilson needed cover for injured strikers Sylvan Ebanks-Blake and Lee Novak. He was released at the end of the 2015–16 season having made just seven substitute appearances for the club. ### Plymouth Argyle In July 2016, Slew signed a one-year contract with League Two club Plymouth Argyle. He scored his first goal for Plymouth in a 4–1 win over Newport County in an EFL Trophy match on 30 August 2016. He went on to score six goals in 40 appearances across the 2016–17 campaign as the "Pilgrims" secured promotion with a second-place finish; despite this however, he was released in May 2017. ### Rochdale On 12 September 2017, Slew joined League One club Rochdale on a short-term deal after spending what he called "a rough couple of months" without a club. He made his debut later the same day as a second-half substitute in a 2–1 victory over Doncaster Rovers at Spotland Stadium. Slew left Rochdale in January 2018 when his contract expired. ### Non-League Slew joined Northern Premier League Division One North club Radcliffe in January 2018. He made his "Boro" debut in a 1–1 draw with Atherton Collieries on 5 February. Radcliffe finished the 2017–18 season in 20th-place under the stewardship of Jon Macken. On 12 October 2018, Slew joined Boston United of the National League North, making his début for the club in a 4–0 win over Blyth Spartans at York Street the following day. He scored two goals in 13 league appearances during the 2018–19 season. On 1 October 2019, he joined Ashton United of the Northern Premier League Premier Division. ### Morecambe On 2 January 2020, Slew secured a return to the English Football League after signing for League Two side Morecambe; he was one of Derek Adams's first signings as "Shrimps" manager. He featured 11 times before the 2019–20 season was curtailed early due to the COVID-19 pandemic in England. He went on to agree to a new deal to keep him at the Globe Arena for another year. He scored one goal from 25 appearances in the 2020–21 season after fracturing his fibula in March and was forced to watch his teammates win the play-offs in his absence. He was released at the end of his contract. ### Halifax Town On 3 August 2021, Slew signed with FC Halifax Town in the National League. He scored his first goal for the club in a 2–0 win against Altrincham on 30 August. He scored 11 goals from 45 games in the 2021–22 campaign, finishing as the club's third-highest scorer after Billy Waters and Matty Warburton. Pete Wild's "Shaymen" qualified for the play-offs with a fourth-place finish, which Slew said was a "huge achievement". However they were beaten 2–1 by Chesterfield in the play-off quarter-finals. He made just nine league starts in the 2022–23 season, with two goals in a total of twenty appearances. He was told he could find a new club in March and his departure from the club was announced on 15 April. ### Return to Morecambe On 7 July 2023, he returned to Morecambe on a one-year deal; it was the fourth time he was signed by Derek Adams. ## International career Slew made his international debut for the England U19 side in a 1–0 defeat to Germany on 8 February 2011, replacing Connor Wickham after 60 minutes. He earned his second cap against the Netherlands on 29 March 2011, coming on as a 72nd-minute substitute in a 3–0 defeat. ## Personal life Born in Sheffield Slew is a lifelong supporter of his first club, Sheffield United. He enjoys classical music and when interviewed by radio station Classic FM, Slew described himself as "...like an old man in a young man's body!", after revealing he listened to the station while driving. In March 2015 he was caught by police speeding at 156 miles per hour (251 km/h) in his BMW M4 on the Cambridgeshire section of the A1, in what was the fastest recorded speed on a public road in the UK for more than three years; he was banned from driving for six months and handed a £1,400 fine. ## Career statistics ## Honours Plymouth Argyle - EFL League Two second-place promotion: 2016–17

Readville station

Railway station in Boston, Massachusetts

Readville station is a Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) commuter rail station located in the Readville section of the Hyde Park neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. It is served by MBTA Commuter Rail Fairmount Line and Franklin Line. Readville is the outer terminus for most Fairmount service, though some trips continue as Franklin Line trains. The station is located at a multi-level junction, with the Northeast Corridor tracks at ground level and the Dorchester Branch (used by the Fairmount Line) above; Franklin lines use a connecting track with a separate platform. Platforms are available for the Providence/Stoughton Line on the Northeast Corridor tracks, but they are not regularly used. An MBTA maintenance and storage yard and a CSX Transportation freight yard are located near the station. Passenger service to Dedham Low Plain began in 1834 with the Boston and Providence Railroad (B&P). A branch line to Dedham was built in 1835, and the neighborhood and station were renamed Readville in 1847. The Boston and New York Central Railroad opened its Midland Branch (Dorchester Branch) through Readville in 1855, crossing over the B&P. Its station there was originally named Blue Hill, but later renamed Readville as well. Both railroads were consolidated under the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in the 1890s. The New Haven built a two-level union station at Readville as part of an 1897–98 grade separation project, then constructed its Readville Shops car repair facility just to the west in 1900–03. Dorchester Branch service ended in 1944, and Dedham Branch service in 1967 when the newly formed MBTA ended its subsidies. Dorchester Branch service returned in 1979 as a Southwest Corridor construction bypass and became permanent as the Fairmount Line in 1987. The disused station building burned in a suspicious fire in 1983. The MBTA built accessible platforms and a footbridge in 1990–92. Readville 5-Yard, the former location of the 1958-closed Readville Shops, underwent decontamination in 2011–12 for reuse to allow construction of an industrial and office development. ## Station layout Readville station is located at the crossing of two rail lines: the north–south Northeast Corridor and the northeast-southwest Dorchester Branch (Midland Division). The three-track Northeast Corridor is at grade, with the single-track Dorchester Branch on an embankment. On the west side of the station, a single track runs from the Northeast Corridor up to the Dorchester Branch, which continues as the Franklin Branch. A single side platform is located on the north side of the Dorchester Branch east of its bridge over the Northeast Corridor. Two side platforms are located on the outside of the Northeast Corridor tracks, while the connector track has platforms on both sides. West of the connector track, two stub tracks that formerly ran to the Dedham Branch and Readville 5-Yard are used for Amtrak equipment storage. Fairmount Line trains run on the Dorchester Branch; most terminate at Readville. Most Franklin Line trains use the connector track and run on the Northeast Corridor north of Readville, though some run on the Dorchester Branch as Fairmount Line trains to avoid congestion in the crowded Southwest Corridor. Providence/Stoughton Line trains on the Northeast Corridor do not stop at Readville in regular service; the platforms are occasionally used during service disruptions when Fairmount Line service is not running or when trains cannot stop at Hyde Park. The station has entrances and parking lots at both levels off Hyde Park Avenue on the east side, and a ground-level entrance and parking lot off Milton Street on the west side. Readville station is accessible; all platforms (except one of the pair on the connector track) have a 1-car length ("mini-high") high-level platform. The platforms and east entrance are connected by a system of footbridges and accessible ramps; the west entrance is not accessible. In 2016, the MBTA considered the addition of elevators to supplement the ramps and add an accessible route to the Milton Street parking lot; however, this was not pursued. Readville station is bounded by several active and former railroad yards. East of the station on the Fairmount Line is the Readville Interim Repair Facility, an MBTA commuter rail maintenance facility and layover yard. Readville 1-Yard is an active CSX freight yard located south of the station, connecting the Dorchester Branch to the Northeast Corridor. West of the station, the former Readville 5-Yard lies south of the former Dedham Branch on both sides of the Franklin Branch. Readville is served by two MBTA bus routes: route runs on Hyde Park Avenue on the east side of the station, while route runs on Readville Street just to the west. ## History ### Early stations The Boston and Providence Railroad (B&P) was chartered on June 22, 1831, to build a rail line between its two namesake cities. Construction began in late 1832, and the B&P opened from Park Square, Boston to Sprague Mansion in Dedham Low Plain (just south of the modern station) on June 4, 1834. A second daily round trip and a stagecoach connection from Sprague Mansion to Dedham began on July 28. The line closed on August 25; it reopened on September 12 with an extension to Canton but only one daily round trip. The remaining section of the B&P main line from Canton to Providence opened the following year with the completion of the Canton Viaduct. The Dedham Branch from Dedham Low Plain to Dedham – the first branch line in Massachusetts – opened on February 5, 1835, with service allowing day trips to Boston. Dedham Branch service varied between through trains to Boston, and horse-drawn cars split from Providence trains at Dedham Low Plain, for the next seven years. Dedham Specials became permanent in June 1842, allowing commuting from Dedham and Dedham Low Plain to Boston. Double track was built from Boston to Roxbury in 1839, and extended to Dedham Low Plain in 1845. The neighborhood of Dedham Low Plain was renamed Readville after mill owner James Read in 1847. Commuting from Readville was not possible for several years after the 1850 completion of the West Roxbury Branch rerouted Dedham service via West Roxbury. Commuter service from began in 1855; it was replaced in 1858 by Dedham service via Readville, and supplemented by Providence commuter service in 1864. Readville became a short turn terminal in 1868. A new 30-by-80-foot (9.1 m × 24.4 m) one-story wooden station was built in 1873, with the old station converted to a freight house. A third track opened from Boston to Readville in 1874. The Norfolk County Railroad opened from to on April 23, 1849, using the B&P from Dedham to Boston. The Boston and New York Central Railroad (the 1853 successor to the Norfolk County) opened its Midland Branch (Dorchester Branch) from to Boston via Readville on January 1, 1855, providing the railroad with its own entrance to Boston. The Midland Branch was intermittently operated over the next decade due to a lawsuit about grade crossings and financial issues of the parent railroad. Regular service did not resume until February 11, 1867, when it was sold to the Boston, Hartford and Erie Railroad (BH&E), which was in turn was acquired by the New York and New England Railroad (NY&NE) in 1875. The BH&E shops were located at Readville from 1867 until they burned in 1873; they were then moved to . The Midland Branch crossed the B&P on a bridge; there was no track connection between the two railroads. The Midland Branch station, located on the upper level east of the B&P tracks, was originally called Blue Hills after the nearby range of hills. It was renamed Readville in the 1870s or 1880s. The station served as a short turn terminal for Midland Branch trains from 1867 to 1880 and after 1899. ### Consolidation The B&P was leased in 1888 by the Old Colony Railroad, which was in turn leased by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad (New Haven) in 1893; the B&P became the Providence Division. In 1896, the New Haven eliminated Readville short turns in favor of higher-frequency service north of on its newly elevated mainline. The NY&NE fell under control of the New Haven in 1895, and it was leased in 1898. On October 1, 1897, the New Haven began a \$1.2 million project (equivalent to \$ million in ) to eliminate several grade crossings at Readville. New road bridges were built to carry Sprague Street and Milton Street over the tracks, and a new 5-track bridge for the Midland Branch over the Providence Division. A 165-foot (50 m)-wide stone arch with an 80-foot (24 m) span – the widest such bridge of that span in the country – was built to carry the Midland Branch over Hyde Park Avenue. Connecting tracks were built between the Midland Branch and the Providence Division. A two-story triangular union station, 120 by 180 feet (37 m × 55 m), was constructed at the northeast corner of the junction. It was made of yellow brick trimmed with Fitchburg granite. An under-track passage provided access to the southbound Providence Division platform, platform on the Midland Branch connector track, and the Dedham Branch platforms. The work was completed around October 15, 1898. In September 1899, most service from the southwest on the Midland Branch was routed onto the Providence Division at Readville, allowing use of express tracks and the new Back Bay station. In 1900, the New Haven began construction of Readville Shops, a large coach repair yard complex located in the wedge-shaped space between the Midland and Dedham lines. The shops were built to consolidate the scattered shops of the New Haven and its recent acquisitions (including the NY&NE and the Old Colony). Upon opening in 1903, Readville Shops employed as many as 3,000 workers, and could repair 200 passenger cars and 1,000 freight cars monthly. The powerhouse of the shops was designed to also power a planned electric suburban service, which was to run from Dedham to the new South Station on two routes via Readville and via West Roxbury to compete with the new Washington Street Elevated. (The electric service was not implemented; it was again proposed in 1913, but never constructed.) The addition of the shops increased residential development in Readville. A 150-by-900-foot (46 m × 274 m) locomotive shop was added to the facilities in 1907. ### Decline Rail service in the Boston area peaked in the early 20th century and began to decline after World War 1. Between 1926 and 1938, trains operated on a loop using the Dedham Branch and the West Roxbury Branch (part of which is now part of the Needham Line) – the same loop previously proposed for electrification. Readville–Boston service on the Midland Branch (four daily round trips) was discontinued on July 18, 1938, as part of the 88 stations case; it was restored in 1940, but ended again on Mar 12, 1944. Midland Branch service southwest of Readville continued, though it was cut back from to in 1955. The Midland Branch bridge over the Providence Division, originally five parallel spans, was reduced to two spans by 1930 and one by the 1980s. By the early 1960s, Readville was served only by peak-hour peak-direction trains on the Providence and Blackstone lines, plus the single weekday Dedham round trip. The two-story depot served the lower level (Providence Division, later Northeast Corridor) tracks, while the elevated connector track to Franklin and beyond was served by a small shack with stairs to the lower level and to the Dedham Branch track. In August 1964, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) was formed to subsidize suburban commuter rail service; initially, only trains that the Interstate Commerce Commission has approved for discontinuance were subsidized. On April 24, 1966, the MBTA began subsidizing some New Haven commuter service, including the Dedham and Blackstone lines (the later cut back to Franklin that day). The lone Dedham round trip ended on April 21, 1967. The MBTA purchased most of the New Haven's former commuter lines, including the Providence, Franklin, and abandoned Dedham routes, from Penn Central on 27, 1973. Subsidies began for Canton Junction and Sharon service in June 1973, and for Providence service on 1976. ### MBTA era Construction of the Southwest Corridor necessitated closure of the main line between Back Bay and Forest Hills. The MBTA purchased the then-freight-only Midland Branch in 1976 and modernized it for passenger use. From November 3, 1979, until October 5, 1987, all Franklin Line and Providence/Stoughton Line service ran to Boston on the Midland Division via Readville. The two-story station building was destroyed by a fire on June 11, 1983. The building had been vacant since the early 1970s and was a frequent target of vandalism; the fire was judged to be of suspicious origin. From 1986 to 1988, Readville was an intermediate stop for Boston– service for special events at Foxboro Stadium. When Franklin and Providence/Stoughton service returned to the main line, service on the Midland had become popular enough to justify a continued shuttle service along the line from Boston to . The Fairmount shuttle was extended to Readville on November 30, 1987, as the Fairmount Line. Since 1987, Providence/Stoughton Line service has run through Readville without making a station stop, even though there are platforms in place to allow such use. (Until 2004, a small number of Providence/Stoughton Line trains diverted to the Dorchester Branch at Readville without stopping at the station; such a diversion has also been used during service disruptions on the Northeast Corridor.) The MBTA renovated the station in 1990–92. The accessible platforms and footbridges were constructed, the parking lots and platforms paved, and the pedestrian underpass filled. The 1898-built truss bridge over the Northeast Corridor, still used by Fairmount Line trains laying over plus Franklin Line trains running via Fairmount, needed replacement in the 2010s. The span was replaced with a prebuilt bridge in two weekends with minimal impact to Amtrak and MBTA service on the Corridor, with the old abutments left in place as retaining walls. The design contract was awarded in 2012, and a construction contract was awarded in September 2015. The bridge was replaced in November 2016. ### Rail yard reuse The New Haven Railroad closed Readville Shops in 1958, with its functions moved to Cedar Hill Yard in New Haven, Connecticut. The railroad intended to create an industrial park on the 124-acre (50 ha) site. The railroad was merged into Penn Central Railroad in 1968; the property was transferred to Conrail on March 30, 1976, and to Amtrak a day later. The MBTA acquired the yard from Amtrak on November 11, 1987, and used it to store railroad-related materials. In the late 1980s, the yard was used for final assembly of new Green Line vehicles. A number of yard buildings, including the power station and several repair shops, remained extant. 1-Yard remained in use as a freight yard by the New Haven, Penn Central, Conrail, and finally CSX Transportation. The MBTA opened a track maintenance facility (Readville Interim Repair Facility) in 2-Yard in 1996, and a midday storage yard for commuter rail trains in August 1997. A 1999 proposal to expand the 12-track facility by 8-10 tracks (as Amtrak's Northend Electrification Project reduced MBTA midday storage at Southampton Street Yard) was opposed by then-mayor Thomas Menino, who lived several blocks away. In 1989–90, while analyzing 5-Yard for potential use as a commuter rail facility, the MBTA discovered high levels of environmental contamination including lead and petroleum hydrocarbons in the soil. In October 2001, Massachusetts Attorney General Thomas F. Reilly sued the MBTA for failing to decontaminate the site. The MBTA quickly agreed to a decontamination program. Site remediation for contamination including lead, arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons took place in 2011–12. In March 2012, the MBTA announced that the contamination had been fully removed, and revealed plans to place solar panels in the west part of 5-Yard. The panels would be installed and maintained for at least 20 years by an outside contractor. Bidding began in May 2012, with the stipulation that the solar array would be operational by the spring of 2013. The contract was chosen in September 2012, with a revised completion date of October 2013. In July 2013, MassDOT (the MBTA's parent agency) announced that construction would not begin until at least 2014 due to a state solar program reaching capacity earlier than expected. By January 2015, the installation was planned for that June, but it did not occur. Readville 5-Yard was considered for use as a midday layover yard in 2013 as part of South Station Expansion planning, but was rejected because the MBTA had committed to Boston that the site could be used for development. 1-Yard was rejected because it would interfere with CSX freight operations, while expanded use of 2-Yard was advanced for further planning. Planning began in 2014 for a five-building industrial and office development on the Boston portion of 5-Yard; construction began in 2018. In May 2021, the MBTA issued a contract for planning and preliminary engineering of an expanded 2-Yard layover facility. Construction of a southside maintenance facility at Readville is planned for 2023 to 2028, as the Grand Junction Branch will be closed for several years during the I-90 project, cutting off the southside from the MBTA Commuter Rail Maintenance Facility. A temporary layover yard will be constructed in the 1-Yard to allow construction on the existing layover site. ### Proposed Orange Line extension Readville is located in a densely populated neighborhood just nine miles from downtown Boston, making it a strong candidate for rapid transit service rather than conventional low-frequency commuter rail service. The 1945 Coolidge Commission Report recommended that an extension of the Main Line Elevated (now the Orange Line) south from be built to Dedham via rather than Hyde Park and Readville. The 1966 Program for Mass Transportation recommended a bifurcated Orange Line, with one branch to West Roxbury or and another to Readville or via Hyde Park. Various reports over the next two decades continued to recommend various combinations of the extensions; however, due to cost, the 1987 relocation of the Orange Line to the Southwest Corridor was terminated at Forest Hills. The 2004 Program for Mass Transportation included an Orange Line extension to Route 128, with intermediate stops at , Hyde Park, and Readville at a cost of \$342.8 million. The extension was listed as low priority due to environmental issues with crossing the wetlands south of Readville, and because the corridor already had commuter rail service.

Report on the restitution of African cultural heritage

Report on cultural relations between France and Africa south of the Sahara

The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage. Toward a New Relational Ethics (in French: Rapport sur la restitution du patrimoine culturel africain. Vers une nouvelle éthique relationnelle) is a report written by Senegalese academic and writer Felwine Sarr and French art historian Bénédicte Savoy, first published online in November 2018 in a French original version and an authorised English translation. Commissioned by the president of France, Emmanuel Macron, the aim of the report was to assess the history and present state of publicly owned French collections of African artworks originating from illicit or otherwise disputed acquisitions, as well as claims and a plan for subsequent steps for eventual restitutions. More specifically, the report also presents recommendations for the preparation of restitutions, such as international cultural cooperation, provenance research, legal frameworks, and ends with a list of the cultural objects involved, as well as ways to present them in the near future in African museums. The commission of this report marks the first time a French president announced the restitution of African artefacts, and it has since prompted numerous debates and plans for a decolonization of museums in a number of countries. In 2020, their report and its public response earned Bénédicte Savoy and Felwine Sarr the third place in the annual ranking of the "most influential people in the international art world", established by ArtReview magazine; and Time magazine listed them among the "100 most Influential People of 2021". ## Background The report followed a speech by Emmanuel Macron, president of France, on 28 November 2017 at Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, in which he addressed the policy of France in sub-Saharan Africa. The French president commissioned two academics to assess the history and composition of state-owned collections in France, as well as claims and reasons and subsequent steps for eventual restitutions. His motivation for a fundamental reorientation of the cultural policy of France with regard to Africa was expressed in the following words: "I am from a generation of French people for whom the crimes of European colonization cannot be disputed and are part of our history." For the first time, a French president and his government recognized a moral right of restitution of cultural heritage, items of which are, according to French law, considered to be the inalienable property of the French state. Macron's predecessors never supported the return of African artefacts and other cultural objects in France; for example, Jacques Chirac supported collections of African art and is named in the official title of the Musée du quai Branly - Jacques Chirac. Macron's declaration has therefore been regarded as historic, regardless of how much art will eventually be returned to African countries. The report was presented to the public on 23 November 2018, and since then has triggered numerous reactions in the French and international discussion about its claims for restitution of African art from museums in Europe or America. Despite Macron's announcement of a timely restitution, the legal requirements for such restitutions pose considerable obstacles: in France, all public assets, including the contents of publicly owned collections, such as museums, libraries or other cultural institutions, are regarded as inalienable possessions. ## The authors and their mission The Senegalese social scientist, musician and economist Felwine Sarr became known for his essay Afrotopia, where he proposes postcolonial theories for a present and future understanding of African countries. He argues that the further development of African democracies should not be brought about by reproducing Western models; instead Africa should reinvent itself through a synthesis of traditional and contemporary forms of social organization. His lectures and academic research focus on postcolonial theory, economic policies, development, economy, econometrics, epistemology and the history of religious ideas. Formerly a professor of economics at the Gaston Berger University (Senegal), he joined Duke University in the United States in 2020. The French art historian Bénédicte Savoy teaches art history at the Technical University of Berlin in Germany and is also a professor at the Collège de France in Paris. Savoy has published several works on topics such as world art on Western markets, on museums in international contexts or on the illicit acquisition of cultural heritage. Since publication of the report, she has also become known as a proponent for the restitution of African cultural heritage in German collections and actively participates in research and public discussions about this issue. In his official letter of appointment, Macron instructed the two authors to engage in discussions and workshops with various stakeholders in Africa as well as in France, including research on the colonial history of African cultural heritage. Furthermore, Macron requested concrete proposals and a timetable with proposed actions for the return of cultural objects. Through his explicit statement, "Dialogue and participation must accompany all stages of this work", Macron not only indicated a specific approach, but also opened the door for public debate about his new cultural policy and the resulting report. Since then, this public debate has intensified both in Africa, Europe and the U.S. ## The contents of the report In this report, the authors discuss the reasons and suggest measures for restitutions of African cultural objects from French publicly owned collections to their countries or communities of origin. In accordance with Macron's commission, the scope of the report specifically relates to former French sub-Saharan colonies, and whose cultural heritage has been largely taken to France during and following colonial times. The introductory chapter, entitled "A Long Duration of Losses" describes the history of African cultural heritage in the context of European colonisation. Central themes are the forceful appropriation of cultural objects as crime against the communities of origin. Also, the importance of collecting, studying and exhibiting African heritage, first as curios and later as ethnological objects, by European museums and scientists is presented as a central aspect of a "history of violence" and domination. Referring to similar intentions to those expressed in their own report, Sarr and Savoy recall that in 1978, Amadou-Mahtar M’Bow, who was then the director of UNESCO, pleaded in favour of a rebalancing of global cultural heritage between the northern and the southern hemispheres. They quote M'Bow's speech "A plea for the return of an irreplaceable cultural heritage to those who created it": > The peoples who have been victims of this plunder, sometimes for hundreds of years, have not only been despoiled of irreplaceable masterpieces, but also robbed of a memory which would doubtless have helped them to greater self-knowledge and would certainly have helped others understand them better. [...] They know, of course, that art is for the world and are aware of the fact that this artwork, which tells the story of their past and shows what they really are, does not speak to them alone. They are happy that men and women elsewhere can study and admire the work of their ancestors. They also realize that certain works of art have for too long played too intimate a part in the history of the country to which they were taken for the symbols linking them with that country to be denied and for the roots that have taken hold to be severed. [...] These men and women who have been deprived of their cultural heritage therefore ask for the return of at least the art treasures which best represent their culture, which they feel are the most vital and whose absence causes them the greatest anguish. This is a legitimate claim. Furthermore, the report considers the advocacy of public opinion since the beginning of the 2010s to be one of the main motivations for a change of attitudes in Europe. Based on their assessment that approximately 90% of all cultural heritage from sub-Saharan Africa is in the possession of Western collections, the authors understand their report primarily as a call for the timely restitution of artefacts and for the establishment of a new relationship of Europe towards Africa on the basis of mutual recognition. After this brief, but focused history of African colonial art in Western collections and earlier claims for restitution, the three following chapters entitled "To Restitute", "Restitutions and Collections" and "Accompanying the Returns" discuss the central aspects of the tasks associated with such restitutions. Here, the authors suggest both criteria for restitution as well as a concrete timetable for the French and African authorities to follow. Finally, the appendices of the report describe the methods and steps followed by the authors, supported by corresponding documents, charts and figures on the collections in France as well as information on museums in Africa. Due to its extensive holdings of approximately 70,000 objects from Africa and its detailed archives on the provenance of the objects, the Musée du quai Branly in Paris occupies a special position in the report's list. It ends with photographs and detailed information on thirty outstanding objects in this museum, which are considered as priorities for future restitution. The report also identifies the following important measures for a comprehensive reorientation of cultural relations: only through respectful international cooperation, with access to research, archives and documentation for people in Africa or in the African diaspora can the wide gaps between Africa and the West relating to the preservation, study and wider appreciation of African culture be narrowed. These measures include joint research and training by the participating museums, the exchange of temporary exhibitions—also among African countries—as well as the material support for appropriate networks or infrastructures for the museums in Africa and the experts working for them. To ensure that knowledge of African cultural heritage reaches younger generations, the authors also recommend effective educational initiatives. > The historical window that opened up in Ouagadougou on November 28, 2017 [...] establishes a new era in cultural relations between France and Africa, and in a larger and more general manner, between Europe and Africa. By recognizing the legitimacy of the requests made by African countries to recover a significant part of their cultural heritage and their memory, while at the same time working toward a better understanding about this moment of colonial history, the process of restitution allows for the possibility of writing a new page of a shared and peaceful history, where each protagonist can provide his or her fair piece of the common story. ## The historical and geopolitical context Although the Sarr/Savoy report and the accompanying debates refer to the restitution of cultural heritage from Africa, Macron's announcement on his first visit to Africa as president of France stands in the wider context of the history, present and future of French political relations with Africa. In view of the growing political emancipation of some African countries from France, as well as the influence of China in Africa, French foreign policy is interested to maintain and develop its privileged relationship with West African countries and the wider Francophone world. Finally, the discussions and ethical justification of restitutions are examples of a changing view of European colonialism in Africa. Due to each country's colonial past and the present public assessment of this past, this historical re-evaluation has taken different paths in France, Great Britain, Belgium or Germany. ## Reactions and first restitutions following the report Since the report was published, its analysis and recommendations have provoked numerous critical, affirmative or negative comments, both in France and other European countries. Museums and government sources in Germany and the Netherlands have issued new guidelines on future restitutions, provenance research and international cooperation. Subsequent restitutions have been made to Namibia from Germany and to Indonesia from the Netherlands. In April 2021, the Ethnological Museum in Berlin and the University of Aberdeen in Scotland announced the return of Benin Bronzes by 2022. Contrary to some public reactions by art historians and journalists, who evoked the vision of almost empty museums, the report does not recommend a sweeping return of all African cultural heritage from France. Rather, Sarr and Savoy propose that bilateral diplomatic arrangements be made with African governments for the restitution of significant pieces on the basis of proposals by African experts. As a general recommendation, however, the authors plead for a permanent restitution of illegally acquired cultural objects. They explicitly reject a temporary return of such items as mentioned by Macron and favoured by some museum curators, such as Stéphane Martin, former director of the quai Branly museum. At a conference in June 2019, attended by some 200 academics and representatives of Ministries of Culture from Europe and Africa, the French Minister of Culture pledged that "France will examine all requests presented by African nations", but asked them not to "focus on the sole issue of restitution". On 24 December 2020, the French government enacted a new law that allows for the permanent restitution of several cultural objects from French collections to Senegal and the Republic of Benin. Already in November 2019, the French prime minister had presented an historic sabre to the Museum of Black Civilisations in Dakar, Senegal, that is said to have belonged to Omar Saïdou Tall, a prominent 19th-century West African spiritual leader who fought French colonialists in the 1850s. This symbolic item, as well as 26 African statues that had been looted by French troops during the sacking of the Royal Palaces of Abomey in 1892 and donated by the French general Alfred Dodds to a predecessor of the Musée du quai Branly in Paris, constitute the first permanent restitutions under the new law. This restitution had already been demanded by the government of Benin in 2016, but was denied by earlier French governments. In May 2021, new signboards explaining their future restitution were added to a group of three anthropomorphic statues representing historical kings Glélé, Ghézo and Béhanzin of Dahomey. Prior to the return of 26 objects to Benin, the museum hosted a week of lectures, discussions and historical documentary films, dedicated to the history of Dahomey. Further, a loan of 20 million Euros from the French Development Agency was allocated towards a new museum and to rehabilitate the four historical royal palaces in Abomey, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985. On 19 February 2022, an exhibition presenting contemporary Benin art as well as the 26 returned artworks was opened by the president of Benin at the Palais de la Marina in Cotonou. The opening ceremony was attended by artists, traditional chiefs and politicians, and more than 1000 visitors came the next day to see the wooden sculptures, celebrating their homecoming. ### Digitisation and open access Among other recommendations, the report called for digitisation of all information of collections of African cultural objects and research and for making this information available worldwide by free access over the Internet. In a statement on this suggestion, more than 100 international experts on digitisation and research of cultural objects pointed out their specific reservations. In particular, they cautioned against a unilateral action by Western collections and demanded that African countries must participate in such decisions. Further, African institutions should obtain copyrights for such data, since digital information is considered be of equal importance as the restitution of physical cultural objects. ### Webpage on holdings of French collections In September 2021, the webpage "Le Monde en musée", was published by the Institut National d’Histoire de l’Art (INHA). It provides access to an annotated map of objects from Africa and Oceania in more than 240 French public collections. It was designed as a publicly accessible research tool and link between museums and research institutions, regardless of their location in the world. For each of the collections, the official name with description of its holdings, as well as information on their provenance is given. ## Reactions from African countries As commentators from African countries such as Benin, Ethiopia, Mali, Nigeria, or Namibia have, for several decades, made requests for restitution to France, Great Britain, Germany and other countries, the report by Sarr and Savoy has prompted positive comments and generated high expectations: Kwame Opoku, a Ghanaian cultural journalist and former staff member of the United Nations office in Vienna, reported in 2019 that the International Council of African Museums (AFRICOM) has "formally addressed support" for the restitutions as suggested by the Sarr/Savoy report. Some African curators also have reacted critically to one-sided Western initiatives regarding restitutions. Flower Manase, a curator at the National Museum of Tanzania, said that first of all, African experts have to be involved as equal partners, share their own narratives and involve the communities of origin. Other African cultural commentators, like Tanzanian journalist Charles Kayuka, have pointed to the ethnocentric Western nature of museum exhibitions, which explains why they tend not to find much interest with local visitors in Africa. Another argument of his questions the importance of traditional cultural heritage for modern, globalized African societies: > It's time to repair our stolen identity. (...) But the masks and fetishes that are now stored in European museums—there would be no point in giving them back, because these pieces have no value for the Africans. They are empty, dead, de-souled—they have lost their original meaning because they are torn from their context and thus have become meaningless objects. Because they were not art objects, but religious, ritual, and magic objects. That's why they were so important to African societies back then. In their report, Sarr and Savoy have, however, taken account of such differences by calling for international cooperation and community involvement. With regard to the consequences for national cultural policy in African states, Felwine Sarr said in an interview with a German newspaper: > "We want to advise the African participants (on restitution efforts) to steer the discussion in their countries. There is already a place at the Museum for Black Civilizations in Dakar. The infrastructures vary across countries, but the museums as institutions are similar." ## See also - African art in Western collections - Deaccessioning - Decolonization of museums - International Inventories Programme (project for cultural heritage from Kenya in Western collections) ## Works cited and further reading [African art](Category:African_art "wikilink") [African art museums](Category:African_art_museums "wikilink") [Art and cultural repatriation](Category:Art_and_cultural_repatriation "wikilink") [\*](Category:Ethnographic_museums_in_France "wikilink") [Foreign relations of France](Category:Foreign_relations_of_France "wikilink") [Restitution](Category:Restitution "wikilink")

Aama (1964 film)

1964 Nepali film by Hira Singh Khatri

Aama (Nepali: आमा, lit. 'Mother') is a 1964 Nepali film directed by Hira Singh Khatri in his directorial debut. The film is written by Durga Shrestha and Chaitya Devi. Aama was produced by King Mahendra of Nepal under the banner of Information Department of Government of Nepal (formally Royal Nepal Film Corporation). The film stars Shiva Shankar and Bhuwan Chand, with Basundhara Bhusal, Chitya Devi Singh, Hira Singh Khatri and Hari Prasad Rimal, in supporting roles. It follows a young man who returns home after serving in his country's army. Hira Singh Khatri, was requested by Mahendra of Nepal to direct Aama. The film's post-production and indoor filming were mainly done in Kolkata, India. It was released on 7 October 1964. After the release, Aama became the first Nepalese film to be produced in Nepal. After the film's release in Nepal, it quickly became popular in the country. After the success of Aama, Khatri directed the films Hijo Aaja Bholi (1967), and Parivartan (1971) for the Nepalese government, both of which were used to convey patriotism to Nepalese citizens. Aama is regarded as one of the most important films in the history of Nepalese cinema. ## Plot Harka Bahadur is an alcoholic who physically abuses his wife. One day later, his house is being repossessed due to non-payment of loan repayments, after which Harka Bahadur promises his wife he will give up drinking. Later that day, he returns to his house drunk and starts attacking his wife but dies after being struck by lightning. After his death, Harka's son Man Bahadur (Shiva Shankar) leaves his house to join the army. A few years later, Man returns home after serving in a foreign army for two years but cannot find his mother. After hearing about his mother's death, Man decides to leave Nepal but his neighbours persuade him to stay in the village and serve the community, saying that "service to the motherland is equally virtuous as service to a mother". Man Bahadur says he will remain in Nepal to help his country's growing economy. ## Cast Credits adapted from Films Of Nepal. - Shiva Shankar - Bhuwan Chand - Basundhara Bhusal - Hari Prasad Rimal - Uttam Nepali ## Production Mahendra of Nepal requested prominent film director Hira Singh Khatri, who was mainly working in Indian cinema, to direct Aama, which was made to develop Nepali cinema and to promote Nepali art and culture through it. In the early years of Nepalese cinema there was no professional infrastructure in the country to produce, distribute, and present Nepalese cinema. There were no professional actors so the director chose Nepalese singer-songwriter Shiva Shankar and theatrical performer Bhuwan Chand. Shiva Shankar was chosen to play the lead actor in the film because the director's original choice for the role was home sick. The leading female actor Bhuwan Chand remembered being "very excited" about acting in the film; she said it "was one of the incidents of my life I can never forget". At the age of fourteen, Hari Prasad Rimal also made his acting debut in Aama. Filming on the project lasted between three and four months, and the post-production work, which was completed in Kolkata, India, took about six months. Most of the scenes were filmed in a single take. Bhuwan Chand was paid about 5,000 rupees (\$45.01 as of April 2019). Chand told Kathmandu Craze, "the director of the film had asked for cameramen's opinion and he responded in my favour. So it was cameraman Dev and of course the director who were responsible for me receiving the part." ## Release The film premiered on 7 October 1964, in the Kathmandu Valley. Upon release, the film met with success. Sunita of Films Of Nepal wrote, "Aama took the nation by storm". After the success of the film, director Hira Singh Khatri went on to direct Hijo Aaja Bholi (1967), and Parivartan (1971), films which were used to convey patriotism to Nepalese citizens. Aama became an important film in history of Nepalese cinema, after becoming the first Nepalese film to be produced in Nepal. Following its release, the leading actors became publicly prominent. Kathmandu Films, wrote "This [Aama] was the most important event in history of filming in Nepal". ### Critical response BossNepal wrote, "The title of the movie did justice to it ... Aama (mother) gives us a glimpse of what to expect and meets people's expectations as well. It goes perfectly with the theme of the movie". The reviewer also said, "Aama deserves a watch". Philip Cryan Marshall of Migyul wrote, "Aama was clearly a nation-building tool", and "The image of the mother, a universal symbol of national unity, was used to forward themes of nationalization. Characters ... were dressed in distinct garbs of the nation – men in daura suruwal and dhaka topi and women draped in saree and cholo fariya".

History of macroeconomic thought

Macroeconomic theory has its origins in the study of business cycles and monetary theory. In general, early theorists believed monetary factors could not affect real factors such as real output. John Maynard Keynes attacked some of these "classical" theories and produced a general theory that described the whole economy in terms of aggregates rather than individual, microeconomic parts. Attempting to explain unemployment and recessions, he noticed the tendency for people and businesses to hoard cash and avoid investment during a recession. He argued that this invalidated the assumptions of classical economists who thought that markets always clear, leaving no surplus of goods and no willing labor left idle. The generation of economists that followed Keynes synthesized his theory with neoclassical microeconomics to form the neoclassical synthesis. Although Keynesian theory originally omitted an explanation of price levels and inflation, later Keynesians adopted the Phillips curve to model price-level changes. Some Keynesians opposed the synthesis method of combining Keynes's theory with an equilibrium system and advocated disequilibrium models instead. Monetarists, led by Milton Friedman, adopted some Keynesian ideas, such as the importance of the demand for money, but argued that Keynesians ignored the role of money supply in inflation. Robert Lucas and other new classical macroeconomists criticized Keynesian models that did not work under rational expectations. Lucas also argued that Keynesian empirical models would not be as stable as models based on microeconomic foundations. The new classical school culminated in real business cycle theory (RBC). Like early classical economic models, RBC models assumed that markets clear and that business cycles are driven by changes in technology and supply, not demand. New Keynesians tried to address many of the criticisms leveled by Lucas and other new classical economists against Neo-Keynesians. New Keynesians adopted rational expectations and built models with microfoundations of sticky prices that suggested recessions could still be explained by demand factors because rigidities stop prices from falling to a market-clearing level, leaving a surplus of goods and labor. The new neoclassical synthesis combined elements of both new classical and new Keynesian macroeconomics into a consensus. Other economists avoided the new classical and new Keynesian debate on short-term dynamics and developed the new growth theories of long-run economic growth. The Great Recession led to a retrospective on the state of the field and some popular attention turned toward heterodox economics. ## Origins Macroeconomics descends from two areas of research: business cycle theory and monetary theory. Monetary theory dates back to the 16th century and the work of Martín de Azpilcueta, while business cycle analysis dates from the mid 19th. ### Business cycle theory Beginning with William Stanley Jevons and Clément Juglar in the 1860s, economists attempted to explain the cycles of frequent, violent shifts in economic activity. A key milestone in this endeavor was the foundation of the U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research by Wesley Mitchell in 1920. This marked the beginning of a boom in atheoretical, statistical models of economic fluctuation (models based on cycles and trends instead of economic theory) that led to the discovery of apparently regular economic patterns like the Kuznets wave. Other economists focused more on theory in their business cycle analysis. Most business cycle theories focused on a single factor, such as monetary policy or the impact of weather on the largely agricultural economies of the time. Although business cycle theory was well established by the 1920s, work by theorists such as Dennis Robertson and Ralph Hawtrey had little impact on public policy. Their partial equilibrium theories could not capture general equilibrium, where markets interact with each other; in particular, early business cycle theories treated goods markets and financial markets separately. Research in these areas used microeconomic methods to explain employment, price level, and interest rates. ### Monetary theory Initially, the relationship between price level and output was explained by the quantity theory of money; David Hume had presented such a theory in his 1752 work Of Money (Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary, Part II, Essay III). Quantity theory viewed the entire economy through Say's law, which stated that whatever is supplied to the market will be sold—in short, that markets always clear. In this view, money is neutral and cannot impact the real factors in an economy like output levels. This was consistent with the classical dichotomy view that real aspects of the economy and nominal factors, such as price levels and money supply, can be considered independent from one another. For example, adding more money to an economy would be expected only to raise prices, not to create more goods. The quantity theory of money dominated macroeconomic theory until the 1930s. Two versions were particularly influential, one developed by Irving Fisher in works that included his 1911 The Purchasing Power of Money and another by Cambridge economists over the course of the early 20th century. Fisher's version of the quantity theory can be expressed by holding money velocity (the frequency with which a given piece of currency is used in transactions) (V) and real income (Q) constant and allowing money supply (M) and the price level (P) to vary in the equation of exchange: $M\cdot V = P\cdot Q$ Most classical theories, including Fisher's, held that velocity was stable and independent of economic activity. Cambridge economists, such as John Maynard Keynes, began to challenge this assumption. They developed the Cambridge cash-balance theory, which looked at money demand and how it impacted the economy. The Cambridge theory did not assume that money demand and supply were always at equilibrium, and it accounted for people holding more cash when the economy sagged. By factoring in the value of holding cash, the Cambridge economists took significant steps toward the concept of liquidity preference that Keynes would later develop. Cambridge theory argued that people hold money for two reasons: to facilitate transactions and to maintain liquidity. In later work, Keynes added a third motive, speculation, to his liquidity preference theory and built on it to create his general theory. In 1898, Knut Wicksell proposed a monetary theory centered on interest rates. His analysis used two rates: the market interest rate, determined by the banking system, and the real or "natural" interest rate, determined by the rate of return on capital. In Wicksell's theory, cumulative inflation will occur when technical innovation causes the natural rate to rise or when the banking system allows the market rate to fall. Cumulative deflation occurs under the opposite conditions causing the market rate to rise above the natural. Wicksell's theory did not produce a direct relationship between the quantity of money and price level. According to Wicksell, money would be created endogenously, without an increase in quantity of hard currency, as long as the natural exceeded the market interest rate . In these conditions, borrowers turn a profit and deposit cash into bank reserves, which expands money supply. This can lead to a cumulative process where inflation increases continuously without an expansion in the monetary base. Wicksell's work influenced Keynes and the Swedish economists of the Stockholm School. ## Keynes's General Theory Modern macroeconomics can be said to have begun with Keynes and the publication of his book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in 1936. Keynes expanded on the concept of liquidity preferences and built a general theory of how the economy worked. Keynes's theory brought together both monetary and real economic factors for the first time, explained unemployment, and suggested policy achieving economic stability. Keynes contended that economic output is positively correlated with money velocity. He explained the relationship via changing liquidity preferences: people increase their money holdings during times of economic difficulty by reducing their spending, which further slows the economy. This paradox of thrift claimed that individual attempts to survive a downturn only worsen it. When the demand for money increases, money velocity slows. A slowdown in economic activities means markets might not clear, leaving excess goods to waste and capacity to idle. Turning the quantity theory on its head, Keynes argued that market changes shift quantities rather than prices. Keynes replaced the assumption of stable velocity with one of a fixed price-level. If spending falls and prices do not, the surplus of goods reduces the need for workers and increases unemployment. Classical economists had difficulty explaining involuntary unemployment and recessions because they applied Say's Law to the labor market and expected that all those willing to work at the prevailing wage would be employed. In Keynes's model, employment and output are driven by aggregate demand, the sum of consumption and investment. Since consumption remains stable, most fluctuations in aggregate demand stem from investment, which is driven by many factors including expectations, "animal spirits", and interest rates. Keynes argued that fiscal policy could compensate for this volatility. During downturns, governments could increase spending to purchase excess goods and employ idle labor. Moreover, a multiplier effect increases the effect of this direct spending since newly employed workers would spend their income, which would percolate through the economy, while firms would invest to respond to this increase in demand. Keynes's prescription for strong public investment had ties to his interest in uncertainty. Keynes had given a unique perspective on statistical inference in A Treatise on Probability, written in 1921, years before his major economic works. Keynes thought strong public investment and fiscal policy would counter the negative impacts the uncertainty of economic fluctuations can have on the economy. While Keynes's successors paid little attention to the probabilistic parts of his work, uncertainty may have played a central part in the investment and liquidity-preference aspects of General Theory. The exact meaning of Keynes's work has been long debated. Even the interpretation of Keynes's policy prescription for unemployment, one of the more explicit parts of General Theory, has been the subject of debates. Economists and scholars debate whether Keynes intended his advice to be a major policy shift to address a serious problem or a moderately conservative solution to deal with a minor issue. ## Keynes's successors Keynes's successors debated the exact formulations, mechanisms, and consequences of the Keynesian model. One group emerged representing the "orthodox" interpretation of Keynes; They combined classical microeconomics with Keynesian thought to produce the "neoclassical synthesis" that dominated economics from the 1940s until the early 1970s. Two camps of Keynesians were critical of this synthesis interpretation of Keynes. One group focused on the disequilibrium aspects of Keynes's work, while the other took a fundamentalist stance on Keynes and began the heterodox post-Keynesian tradition. ### Neoclassical synthesis The generation of economists that followed Keynes, the neo-Keynesians, created the "neoclassical synthesis" by combining Keynes's macroeconomics with neoclassical microeconomics. Neo-Keynesians dealt with two microeconomic issues: first, providing foundations for aspects of Keynesian theory such as consumption and investment, and, second, combining Keynesian macroeconomics with general equilibrium theory. (In general equilibrium theory, individual markets interact with one another and an equilibrium price exists if there is perfect competition, no externalities, and perfect information.) Paul Samuelson's Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) provided much of the microeconomic basis for the synthesis. Samuelson's work set the pattern for the methodology used by neo-Keynesians: economic theories expressed in formal, mathematical models. While Keynes's theories prevailed in this period, his successors largely abandoned his informal methodology in favor of Samuelson's. By the mid-1950s, the vast majority of economists had ceased debating Keynesianism and accepted the synthesis view; however, room for disagreement remained. The synthesis attributed problems with market clearing to sticky prices that failed to adjust to changes in supply and demand. Another group of Keynesians focused on disequilibrium economics and tried to reconcile the concept of equilibrium with the absence of market clearing. ### Neo-Keynesian models In 1937 John Hicks published an article that incorporated Keynes's thought into a general equilibrium framework where the markets for goods and money met in an overall equilibrium. Hick's IS/LM (Investment-Savings/Liquidity preference-Money supply) model became the basis for decades of theorizing and policy analysis into the 1960s. The model represents the goods market with the IS curve, a set of points representing equilibrium in investment and savings. The money market equilibrium is represented with the LM curve, a set of points representing the equilibrium in supply and demand for money. The intersection of the curves identifies an aggregate equilibrium in the economy where there are unique equilibrium values for interest rates and economic output. The IS/LM model focused on interest rates as the "monetary transmission mechanism," the channel through which money supply affects real variables like aggregate demand and employment. A decrease in money supply would lead to higher interest rates, which reduce investment and thereby lower output throughout the economy. Other economists built on the IS/LM framework. Notably, in 1944, Franco Modigliani added a labor market. Modigliani's model represented the economy as a system with general equilibrium across the interconnected markets for labor, finance, and goods, and it explained unemployment with rigid nominal wages. Growth had been of interest to 18th-century classical economists like Adam Smith, but work tapered off during the 19th and early 20th century marginalist revolution when researchers focused on microeconomics. The study of growth revived when neo-Keynesians Roy Harrod and Evsey Domar independently developed the Harrod–Domar model, an extension of Keynes's theory to the long-run, an area Keynes had not looked at himself. Their models combined Keynes's multiplier with an accelerator model of investment, and produced the simple result that growth equaled the savings rate divided by the capital output ratio (the amount of capital divided by the amount of output). The Harrod–Domar model dominated growth theory until Robert Solow and Trevor Swan independently developed neoclassical growth models in 1956. Solow and Swan produced a more empirically appealing model with "balanced growth" based on the substitution of labor and capital in production. Solow and Swan suggested that increased savings could only temporarily increase growth, and only technological improvements could increase growth in the long-run. After Solow and Swan, growth research tapered off with little or no research on growth from 1970 until 1985. Economists incorporated the theoretical work from the synthesis into large-scale macroeconometric models that combined individual equations for factors such as consumption, investment, and money demand with empirically observed data. This line of research reached its height with the MIT-Penn-Social Science Research Council (MPS) model developed by Modigliani and his collaborators. MPS combined IS/LM with other aspects of the synthesis including the neoclassical growth model and the Phillips curve relation between inflation and output. Both large-scale models and the Phillips curve became targets for critics of the synthesis. ### Phillips curve Keynes did not lay out an explicit theory of price level. Early Keynesian models assumed wage and other price levels were fixed. These assumptions caused little concern in the 1950s when inflation was stable, but by the mid-1960s inflation increased and became an issue for macroeconomic models. In 1958 A.W. Phillips set the basis for a price level theory when he made the empirical observation that inflation and unemployment seemed to be inversely related. In 1960 Richard Lipsey provided the first theoretical explanation of this correlation. Generally Keynesian explanations of the curve held that excess demand drove high inflation and low unemployment while an output gap raised unemployment and depressed prices. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Phillips curve faced attacks on both empirical and theoretical fronts. The presumed trade-off between output and inflation represented by the curve was the weakest part of the Keynesian system. ### Disequilibrium macroeconomics Despite its prevalence, the neoclassical synthesis had its Keynesian critics. A strain of disequilibrium or "non-Walrasian" theory developed that criticized the synthesis for apparent contradictions in allowing disequilibrium phenomena, especially involuntary unemployment, to be modeled in equilibrium models. Moreover, they argued, the presence of disequilibrium in one market must be associated with disequilibrium in another, so involuntary unemployment had to be tied to an excess supply in the goods market. Many see Don Patinkin's work as the first in the disequilibrium vein. Robert W. Clower (1965) introduced his "dual-decision hypothesis" that a person in a market may determine what he wants to buy, but is ultimately limited in how much he can buy based on how much he can sell. Clower and Axel Leijonhufvud (1968) argued that disequilibrium formed a fundamental part of Keynes's theory and deserved greater attention. Robert Barro and Herschel Grossman formulated general disequilibrium models in which individual markets were locked into prices before there was a general equilibrium. These markets produced "false prices" resulting in disequilibrium. Soon after the work of Barro and Grossman, disequilibrium models fell out of favor in the United States, and Barro abandoned Keynesianism and adopted new classical, market clearing hypotheses. While American economists quickly abandoned disequilibrium models, European economists were more open to models without market clearing. Europeans such as Edmond Malinvaud and Jacques Drèze expanded on the disequilibrium tradition and worked to explain price rigidity instead of simply assuming it. Malinvaud (1977) used disequilibrium analysis to develop a theory of unemployment. He argued that disequilibrium in the labor and goods markets could lead to rationing of goods and labor, leading to unemployment. Malinvaud adopted a fixprice framework and argued that pricing would be rigid in modern, industrial prices compared to the relatively flexible pricing systems of raw goods that dominate agricultural economies. Prices are fixed and only quantities adjust. Malinvaud considers an equilibrium state in classical and Keynesian unemployment as most likely. Work in the neoclassical tradition is confined as a special case of Malinvaud's typology, the Walrasian equilibrium. In Malinvaud's theory, reaching the Walrasian equilibrium case is almost impossible to achieve given the nature of industrial pricing. ## Monetarism Milton Friedman developed an alternative to Keynesian macroeconomics eventually labeled monetarism. Generally monetarism is the idea that the supply of money matters for the macroeconomy. When monetarism emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, Keynesians neglected the role money played in inflation and the business cycle, and monetarism directly challenged those points. ### Criticizing and augmenting the Phillips curve The Phillips curve appeared to reflect a clear, inverse relationship between inflation and output. The curve broke down in the 1970s as economies suffered simultaneous economic stagnation and inflation known as stagflation. The empirical implosion of the Phillips curve followed attacks mounted on theoretical grounds by Friedman and Edmund Phelps. Phelps, although not a monetarist, argued that only unexpected inflation or deflation impacted employment. Variations of Phelps's "expectations-augmented Phillips curve" became standard tools. Friedman and Phelps used models with no long-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment. Instead of the Phillips curve they used models based on the natural rate of unemployment where expansionary monetary policy can only temporarily shift unemployment below the natural rate. Eventually, firms will adjust their prices and wages for inflation based on real factors, ignoring nominal changes from monetary policy. The expansionary boost will be wiped out. ### Importance of money Anna Schwartz collaborated with Friedman to produce one of monetarism's major works, A Monetary History of the United States (1963), which linked money supply to the business cycle. The Keynesians of the 1950s and 60s had adopted the view that monetary policy does not impact aggregate output or the business cycle based on evidence that, during the Great Depression, interest rates had been extremely low but output remained depressed. Friedman and Schwartz argued that Keynesians only looked at nominal rates and neglected the role inflation plays in real interest rates, which had been high during much of the Depression. In real terms, monetary policy had effectively been contractionary, putting downward pressure on output and employment, even though economists looking only at nominal rates thought monetary policy had been stimulative. Friedman developed his own quantity theory of money that referred to Irving Fisher's but inherited much from Keynes. Friedman's 1956 "The Quantity Theory of Money: A Restatement" incorporated Keynes's demand for money and liquidity preference into an equation similar to the classical equation of exchange. Friedman's updated quantity theory also allowed for the possibility of using monetary or fiscal policy to remedy a major downturn. Friedman broke with Keynes by arguing that money demand is relatively stable—even during a downturn. Monetarists argued that "fine-tuning" through fiscal and monetary policy is counterproductive. They found money demand to be stable even during fiscal policy shifts, and both fiscal and monetary policies suffer from lags that made them too slow to prevent mild downturns. ### Prominence and decline Monetarism attracted the attention of policy makers in the late-1970s and 1980s. Friedman and Phelps's version of the Phillips curve performed better during stagflation and gave monetarism a boost in credibility. By the mid-1970s monetarism had become the new orthodoxy in macroeconomics, and by the late-1970s central banks in the United Kingdom and United States had largely adopted a monetarist policy of targeting money supply instead of interest rates when setting policy. However, targeting monetary aggregates proved difficult for central banks because of measurement difficulties. Monetarism faced a major test when Paul Volcker took over the Federal Reserve Chairmanship in 1979. Volcker tightened the money supply and brought inflation down, creating a severe recession in the process. The recession lessened monetarism's popularity but clearly demonstrated the importance of money supply in the economy. Monetarism became less credible when once-stable money velocity defied monetarist predictions and began to move erratically in the United States during the early 1980s. Monetarist methods of single-equation models and non-statistical analysis of plotted data also lost out to the simultaneous-equation modeling favored by Keynesians. Monetarism's policies and method of analysis lost influence among central bankers and academics, but its core tenets of the long-run neutrality of money (increases in money supply cannot have long-term effects on real variables, such as output) and use of monetary policy for stabilization became a part of the macroeconomic mainstream even among Keynesians. ## New classical economics "New classical economics" evolved from monetarism and presented other challenges to Keynesianism. Early new classicals considered themselves monetarists, but the new classical school evolved. New classicals abandoned the monetarist belief that monetary policy could systematically impact the economy, and eventually embraced real business cycle models that ignored monetary factors entirely. New classicals broke with Keynesian economic theory completely while monetarists had built on Keynesian ideas. Despite discarding Keynesian theory, new classical economists did share the Keynesian focus on explaining short-run fluctuations. New classicals replaced monetarists as the primary opponents to Keynesianism and changed the primary debate in macroeconomics from whether to look at short-run fluctuations to whether macroeconomic models should be grounded in microeconomic theories. Like monetarism, new classical economics was rooted at the University of Chicago, principally with Robert Lucas. Other leaders in the development of new classical economics include Edward Prescott at University of Minnesota and Robert Barro at University of Rochester. New classical economists wrote that earlier macroeconomic theory was based only tenuously on microeconomic theory and described its efforts as providing "microeconomic foundations for macroeconomics." New classicals also introduced rational expectations and argued that governments had little ability to stabilize the economy given the rational expectations of economic agents. Most controversially, new classical economists revived the market clearing assumption, assuming both that prices are flexible and that the market should be modeled at equilibrium. ### Rational expectations and policy irrelevance Keynesians and monetarists recognized that people based their economic decisions on expectations about the future. However, until the 1970s, most models relied on adaptive expectations, which assumed that expectations were based on an average of past trends. For example, if inflation averaged 4% over a period, economic agents were assumed to expect 4% inflation the following year. In 1972 Lucas, influenced by a 1961 agricultural economics paper by John Muth, introduced rational expectations to macroeconomics. Essentially, adaptive expectations modeled behavior as if it were backward-looking while rational expectations modeled economic agents (consumers, producers and investors) who were forward-looking. New classical economists also claimed that an economic model would be internally inconsistent if it assumed that the agents it models behave as if they were unaware of the model. Under the assumption of rational expectations, models assume agents make predictions based on the optimal forecasts of the model itself. This did not imply that people have perfect foresight, but that they act with an informed understanding of economic theory and policy. Thomas Sargent and Neil Wallace (1975) applied rational expectations to models with Phillips curve trade-offs between inflation and output and found that monetary policy could not be used to systematically stabilize the economy. Sargent and Wallace's policy ineffectiveness proposition found that economic agents would anticipate inflation and adjust to higher price levels before the influx of monetary stimulus could boost employment and output. Only unanticipated monetary policy could increase employment, and no central bank could systematically use monetary policy for expansion without economic agents catching on and anticipating price changes before they could have a stimulative impact. Robert E. Hall applied rational expectations to Friedman's permanent income hypothesis that people base the level of their current spending on their wealth and lifetime income rather than current income. Hall found that people will smooth their consumption over time and only alter their consumption patterns when their expectations about future income change. Both Hall's and Friedman's versions of the permanent income hypothesis challenged the Keynesian view that short-term stabilization policies like tax cuts can stimulate the economy. The permanent income view suggests that consumers base their spending on wealth, so a temporary boost in income would only produce a moderate increase in consumption. Empirical tests of Hall's hypothesis suggest it may understate boosts in consumption due to income increases; however, Hall's work helped to popularize Euler equation models of consumption. ### The Lucas critique and microfoundations In 1976 Lucas wrote a paper criticizing large-scale Keynesian models used for forecasting and policy evaluation. Lucas argued that economic models based on empirical relationships between variables are unstable as policies change: a relationship under one policy regime may be invalid after the regime changes. The Lucas's critique went further and argued that a policy's impact is determined by how the policy alters the expectations of economic agents. No model is stable unless it accounts for expectations and how expectations relate to policy. New classical economists argued that abandoning the disequilibrium models of Keynesianism and focusing on structure- and behavior-based equilibrium models would remedy these faults. Keynesian economists responded by building models with microfoundations grounded in stable theoretical relationships. ### Lucas supply theory and business cycle models Lucas and Leonard Rapping laid out the first new classical approach to aggregate supply in 1969. Under their model, changes in employment are based on worker preferences for leisure time. Lucas and Rapping modeled decreases in employment as voluntary choices of workers to reduce their work effort in response to the prevailing wage. Lucas (1973) proposed a business cycle theory based on rational expectations, imperfect information, and market clearing. While building this model, Lucas attempted to incorporate the empirical fact that there had been a trade-off between inflation and output without ceding that money was non-neutral in the short-run. This model included the idea of money surprise: monetary policy only matters when it causes people to be surprised or confused by the price of goods changing relative to one another. Lucas hypothesized that producers become aware of changes in their own industries before they recognize changes in other industries. Given this assumption, a producer might perceive an increase in general price level as an increase in the demand for his goods. The producer responds by increasing production only to find the "surprise" that prices had increased across the economy generally rather than specifically for his goods. This "Lucas supply curve" models output as a function of the "price" or "money surprise," the difference between expected and actual inflation. Lucas's "surprise" business cycle theory fell out of favor after the 1970s when empirical evidence failed to support this model. ### Real business cycle theory While "money surprise" models floundered, efforts continued to develop a new classical model of the business cycle. A 1982 paper by Kydland and Prescott introduced real business cycle theory (RBC). Under this theory business cycles could be explained entirely by the supply side, and models represented the economy with systems at constant equilibrium. RBC dismissed the need to explain business cycles with price surprise, market failure, price stickiness, uncertainty, and instability. Instead, Kydland and Prescott built parsimonious models that explained business cycles with changes in technology and productivity. Employment levels changed because these technological and productivity changes altered the desire of people to work. RBC rejected the idea of high involuntary unemployment in recessions and not only dismissed the idea that money could stabilize the economy but also the monetarist idea that money could destabilize it. Real business cycle modelers sought to build macroeconomic models based on microfoundations of Arrow–Debreu general equilibrium. RBC models were one of the inspirations for dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models. DSGE models have become a common methodological tool for macroeconomists—even those who disagree with new classical theory. ## New Keynesian economics New classical economics had pointed out the inherent contradiction of the neoclassical synthesis: Walrasian microeconomics with market clearing and general equilibrium could not lead to Keynesian macroeconomics where markets failed to clear. New Keynesians recognized this paradox, but, while the new classicals abandoned Keynes, new Keynesians abandoned Walras and market clearing. During the late 1970s and 1980s, new Keynesian researchers investigated how market imperfections like monopolistic competition, nominal frictions like sticky prices, and other frictions made microeconomics consistent with Keynesian macroeconomics. New Keynesians often formulated models with rational expectations, which had been proposed by Lucas and adopted by new classical economists. ### Nominal and real rigidities Stanley Fischer (1977) responded to Thomas J. Sargent and Neil Wallace's monetary ineffectiveness proposition and showed how monetary policy could stabilize an economy even in a model with rational expectations. Fischer's model showed how monetary policy could have an impact in a model with long-term nominal wage contracts. John B. Taylor expanded on Fischer's work and found that monetary policy could have long-lasting effects—even after wages and prices had adjusted. Taylor arrived at this result by building on Fischer's model with the assumptions of staggered contract negotiations and contracts that fixed nominal prices and wage rates for extended periods. These early new Keynesian theories were based on the basic idea that, given fixed nominal wages, a monetary authority (central bank) can control the employment rate. Since wages are fixed at a nominal rate, the monetary authority can control the real wage (wage values adjusted for inflation) by changing the money supply and thus impact the employment rate. By the 1980s new Keynesian economists became dissatisfied with these early nominal wage contract models since they predicted that real wages would be countercyclical (real wages would rise when the economy fell), while empirical evidence showed that real wages tended to be independent of economic cycles or even slightly procyclical. These contract models also did not make sense from a microeconomic standpoint since it was unclear why firms would use long-term contracts if they led to inefficiencies. Instead of looking for rigidities in the labor market, new Keynesians shifted their attention to the goods market and the sticky prices that resulted from "menu cost" models of price change. The term refers to the literal cost to a restaurant of printing new menus when it wants to change prices; however, economists also use it to refer to more general costs associated with changing prices, including the expense of evaluating whether to make the change. Since firms must spend money to change prices, they do not always adjust them to the point where markets clear, and this lack of price adjustments can explain why the economy may be in disequilibrium. Studies using data from the United States Consumer Price Index confirmed that prices do tend to be sticky. A good's price typically changes about every four to six months or, if sales are excluded, every eight to eleven months. While some studies suggested that menu costs are too small to have much of an aggregate impact, Laurence Ball and David Romer (1990) showed that real rigidities could interact with nominal rigidities to create significant disequilibrium. Real rigidities occur whenever a firm is slow to adjust its real prices in response to a changing economic environment. For example, a firm can face real rigidities if it has market power or if its costs for inputs and wages are locked-in by a contract. Ball and Romer argued that real rigidities in the labor market keep a firm's costs high, which makes firms hesitant to cut prices and lose revenue. The expense created by real rigidities combined with the menu cost of changing prices makes it less likely that firm will cut prices to a market clearing level. ### Coordination failure Coordination failure is another potential explanation for recessions and unemployment. In recessions a factory can go idle even though there are people willing to work in it, and people willing to buy its production if they had jobs. In such a scenario, economic downturns appear to be the result of coordination failure: The invisible hand fails to coordinate the usual, optimal, flow of production and consumption. Russell Cooper and Andrew John (1988) expressed a general form of coordination as models with multiple equilibria where agents could coordinate to improve (or at least not harm) each of their respective situations. Cooper and John based their work on earlier models including Peter Diamond's (1982) coconut model, which demonstrated a case of coordination failure involving search and matching theory. In Diamond's model producers are more likely to produce if they see others producing. The increase in possible trading partners increases the likelihood of a given producer finding someone to trade with. As in other cases of coordination failure, Diamond's model has multiple equilibria, and the welfare of one agent is dependent on the decisions of others. Diamond's model is an example of a "thick-market externality" that causes markets to function better when more people and firms participate in them. Other potential sources of coordination failure include self-fulfilling prophecies. If a firm anticipates a fall in demand, they might cut back on hiring. A lack of job vacancies might worry workers who then cut back on their consumption. This fall in demand meets the firm's expectations, but it is entirely due to the firm's own actions. ### Labor market failures New Keynesians offered explanations for the failure of the labor market to clear. In a Walrasian market, unemployed workers bid down wages until the demand for workers meets the supply. If markets are Walrasian, the ranks of the unemployed would be limited to workers transitioning between jobs and workers who choose not to work because wages are too low to attract them. They developed several theories explaining why markets might leave willing workers unemployed. Of these theories, new Keynesians were especially associated with efficiency wages and the insider-outsider model used to explain long-term effects of previous unemployment, where short-term increases in unemployment become permanent and lead to higher levels of unemployment in the long-run. #### Insider-outsider model Economists became interested in hysteresis when unemployment levels spiked with the 1979 oil shock and early 1980s recessions but did not return to the lower levels that had been considered the natural rate. Olivier Blanchard and Lawrence Summers (1986) explained hysteresis in unemployment with insider-outsider models, which were also proposed by Assar Lindbeck and Dennis Snower in a series of papers and then a book. Insiders, employees already working at a firm, are only concerned about their own welfare. They would rather keep their wages high than cut pay and expand employment. The unemployed, outsiders, do not have any voice in the wage bargaining process, so their interests are not represented. When unemployment increases, the number of outsiders increases as well. Even after the economy has recovered, outsiders continue to be disenfranchised from the bargaining process. The larger pool of outsiders created by periods of economic retraction can lead to persistently higher levels of unemployment. The presence of hysteresis in the labor market also raises the importance of monetary and fiscal policy. If temporary downturns in the economy can create long term increases in unemployment, stabilization policies do more than provide temporary relief; they prevent short term shocks from becoming long term increases in unemployment. #### Efficiency wages In efficiency wage models, workers are paid at levels that maximize productivity instead of clearing the market. For example, in developing countries, firms might pay more than a market rate to ensure their workers can afford enough nutrition to be productive. Firms might also pay higher wages to increase loyalty and morale, possibly leading to better productivity. Firms can also pay higher than market wages to forestall shirking. Shirking models were particularly influential. Carl Shapiro and Joseph Stiglitz (1984) created a model where employees tend to avoid work unless firms can monitor worker effort and threaten slacking employees with unemployment. If the economy is at full employment, a fired shirker simply moves to a new job. Individual firms pay their workers a premium over the market rate to ensure their workers would rather work and keep their current job instead of shirking and risk having to move to a new job. Since each firm pays more than market clearing wages, the aggregated labor market fails to clear. This creates a pool of unemployed laborers and adds to the expense of getting fired. Workers not only risk a lower wage, they risk being stuck in the pool of unemployed. Keeping wages above market clearing levels creates a serious disincentive to shirk that makes workers more efficient even though it leaves some willing workers unemployed. ## New growth theory Following research on the neoclassical growth model in the 1950s and 1960s, little work on economic growth occurred until 1985. Papers by Paul Romer were particularly influential in igniting the revival of growth research. Beginning in the mid-1980s and booming in the early 1990s many macroeconomists shifted their focus to the long-run and started "new growth" theories, including endogenous growth. Growth economists sought to explain empirical facts including the failure of sub-Saharan Africa to catch up in growth, the booming East Asian Tigers, and the slowdown in productivity growth in the United States prior to the technology boom of the 1990s. Convergence in growth rates had been predicted under the neoclassical growth model, and this apparent predictive failure inspired research into endogenous growth. Three families of new growth models challenged neoclassical models. The first challenged the assumption of previous models that the economic benefits of capital would decrease over time. These early new growth models incorporated positive externalities to capital accumulation where one firm's investment in technology generates spillover benefits to other firms because knowledge spreads. The second focused on the role of innovation in growth. These models focused on the need to encourage innovation through patents and other incentives. A third set, referred to as the "neoclassical revival", expanded the definition of capital in exogenous growth theory to include human capital. This strain of research began with Mankiw, Romer, and Weil (1992), which showed that 78% of the cross-country variance in growth could be explained by a Solow model augmented with human capital. Endogenous growth theories implied that countries could experience rapid "catch-up" growth through an open society that encouraged the inflow of technology and ideas from other nations. Endogenous growth theory also suggested that governments should intervene to encourage investment in research and development because the private sector might not invest at optimal levels. ## New synthesis A "new synthesis" or "new neoclassical synthesis" emerged in the 1990s drawing ideas from both the new Keynesian and new classical schools. From the new classical school, it adapted RBC hypotheses, including rational expectations, and methods; from the new Keynesian school, it took nominal rigidities (price stickiness) and other market imperfections. The new synthesis implies that monetary policy can have a stabilizing effect on the economy, contrary to new classical theory. The new synthesis was adopted by academic economists and soon by policy makers, such as central bankers. Under the synthesis, debates have become less ideological (concerning fundamental methodological questions) and more empirical. Woodford described the change: > It sometimes appears to outsiders that macroeconomists are deeply divided over issues of empirical methodology. There continue to be, and probably will always be, heated disagreements about the degree to which individual empirical claims are convincing. A variety of empirical methods are used, both for data characterization and for estimation of structural relations, and researchers differ in their taste for specific methods, often depending on their willingness to employ methods that involve more specific a priori assumptions. But the existence of such debates should not conceal the broad agreement on more basic issues of method. Both “calibrationists” and the practitioners of Bayesian estimation of DSGE models agree on the importance of doing “quantitative theory,” both accept the importance of the distinction between pure data characterization and the validation of structural models, and both have a similar understanding of the form of model that can properly be regarded as structural. Woodford emphasized that there was now a stronger distinction between works of data characterization, which make no claims regarding their results' relationship to specific economic decisions, and structural models, where a model with a theoretical basis attempts describe actual relationships and decisions being made by economic actors. The validation of structural models now requires that their specifications reflect "explicit decision problems faced by households or firms". Data characterization, Woodford says, proves useful in "establishing facts structural models should be expected to explain" but not as a tool of policy analysis. Rather it is structural models, explaining those facts in terms of real-life decisions by agents, that form the basis of policy analysis. New synthesis theory developed RBC models called dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models, which avoid the Lucas critique. DSGE models formulate hypotheses about the behaviors and preferences of firms and households; numerical solutions of the resulting DSGE models are computed. These models also included a "stochastic" element created by shocks to the economy. In the original RBC models these shocks were limited to technological change, but more recent models have incorporated other real changes. Econometric analysis of DSGE models suggested that real factors sometimes affect the economy. A paper by Frank Smets and Rafael Woulters (2007) stated that monetary policy explained only a small part of the fluctuations in economic output. In new synthesis models, shocks can affect both demand and supply. More recent developments in new synthesis modeling has included the development of heterogeneous agent models, used in monetary policy optimization: these models examine the implications of having distinct groups of consumers with different savings behavior within a population on the transmission of monetary policy through an economy. ## 2008 financial crisis, Great Recession, and the evolution of consensus The 2007–2008 financial crisis and subsequent Great Recession challenged the short-term macroeconomics of the time. Few economists predicted the crisis, and, even afterwards, there was great disagreement on how to address it. The new synthesis formed during the Great Moderation and had not been tested in a severe economic environment. Many economists agree that the crisis stemmed from an economic bubble, but neither of the major macroeconomic schools within the synthesis had paid much attention to finance or a theory of asset bubbles. The failures of macroeconomic theory at the time to explain the crisis spurred macroeconomists to re-evaluate their thinking. Commentary ridiculed the mainstream and proposed a major reassessment. Particular criticism during the crisis was directed at DSGE models, which were developed prior to and during the new synthesis. Robert Solow testified before the U.S. Congress that DSGE modeling "has nothing useful to say about anti-recession policy because it has built into its essentially implausible assumptions the 'conclusion' that there is nothing for macroeconomic policy to do." Solow also criticized DSGE models for frequently assuming that a single, "representative agent" can represent the complex interaction of the many diverse agents that make up the real world. Robert Gordon criticized much of macroeconomics after 1978. Gordon called for a renewal of disequilibrium theorizing and disequilibrium modeling. He disparaged both new classical and new Keynesian economists who assumed that markets clear; he called for a renewal of economic models that could included both market clearing and sticky-priced goods, such as oil and housing respectively. The crisis of confidence in DGSE models did not dismantle the deeper consensus that characterizes the new synthesis, and models which could explain the new data continued development. Areas that had seen increased popular and political attention, such as income inequality, received greater focus, as did models which incorporated significant heterogeneity (as opposed to earlier DSGE models). Whilst criticizing DGSE models, Ricardo J. Caballero argued that work in finance showed progress and suggested that modern macroeconomics needed to be re-centered but not scrapped in the wake of the financial crisis. In 2010, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis president Narayana Kocherlakota acknowledged that DSGE models were "not very useful" for analyzing the financial crisis of 2007–2010, but argued that the applicability of these models was "improving" and claimed that there was a growing consensus among macroeconomists that DSGE models need to incorporate both "price stickiness and financial market frictions." Despite his criticism of DSGE modeling, he stated that modern models are useful: > In the early 2000s, ...[the] problem of fit disappeared for modern macro models with sticky prices. Using novel Bayesian estimation methods, Frank Smets and Raf Wouters demonstrated that a sufficiently rich New Keynesian model could fit European data well. Their finding, along with similar work by other economists, has led to widespread adoption of New Keynesian models for policy analysis and forecasting by central banks around the world. University of Minnesota professor of economics V.V. Chari said in 2010 that the most advanced DSGE models allowed for significant heterogeneity in behavior and decisions, from factors such as age, prior experiences and available information. Alongside such improvements in DSGE modeling, work has also included the development of heterogeneous-agent models of more specific aspects of the economy, such as monetary policy transmission. ## Environmental issues From the 21st century onwards, the concept of ecosystem services (the benefits to humans provided by the natural environment and from healthy ecosystems) are more widely studied in economics. Also climate change is more widely acknowledged as a major issue in economics, sparking debates about sustainable development in economics. Climate change has also become a factor in the policy of for example the European Central Bank. Also the field of ecological economics became more popular in the 21st century. In their macroeconomic models, the economic system is a subsystem of the environment. In this model, the circular flow of income diagram is replaced in ecological economics by a more complex flow diagram reflecting the input of solar energy, which sustains natural inputs and environmental services which are then used as units of production. Once consumed, natural inputs pass out of the economy as pollution and waste. The potential of an environment to provide services and materials is referred to as an "environment's source function", and this function is depleted as resources are consumed or pollution contaminates the resources. The "sink function" describes an environment's ability to absorb and render harmless waste and pollution: when waste output exceeds the limit of the sink function, long-term damage occurs. Another example of a model in ecological economics is the doughnut model from economist Kate Raworth. This macroeconomic model includes planetary boundaries, like climate change into its model. These macroeconomic models from ecological economics, although more popular, are not fully accepted by mainstream economic thinking. ## Heterodox theories Heterodox economists adhere to theories sufficiently outside the mainstream to be marginalized and treated as irrelevant by the establishment. Initially, heterodox economists including Joan Robinson, worked alongside mainstream economists, but heterodox groups isolated themselves and created insular groups in the late 1960s and 1970s. Present day heterodox economists often publish in their own journals rather than those of the mainstream and eschew formal modeling in favor of more abstract theoretical work. According to The Economist, the 2008 financial crisis and subsequent recession highlighted limitations of the macroeconomic theories, models, and econometrics of the time. The popular press during the period discussed post-Keynesian economics and Austrian economics, two heterodox traditions that have little influence on mainstream economics. ### Post Keynesian economics While neo-Keynesians integrated Keynes's ideas with neoclassical theory, post-Keynesians went in other directions. Post-Keynesians opposed the neoclassical synthesis and shared a fundamentalist interpretation of Keynes that sought to develop economic theories without classical elements. The core of post-Keynesian belief is the rejection of three axioms that are central to classical and mainstream Keynesian views: the neutrality of money, gross substitution, and the ergodic axiom. Post-Keynesians not only reject the neutrality of money in the short-run, they also see money as an important factor in the long-run, a view other Keynesians dropped in the 1970s. Gross substitution implies that goods are interchangeable. Relative price changes cause people to shift their consumption in proportion to the change. The ergodic axiom asserts that the future of the economy can be predicted based on the past and present market conditions. Without the ergodic assumption, agents are unable to form rational expectations, undermining new classical theory. In a non-ergodic economy, predictions are very hard to make and decision-making is hampered by uncertainty. Partly because of uncertainty, post-Keynesians take a different stance on sticky prices and wages than new Keynesians. They do not see nominal rigidities as an explanation for the failure of markets to clear. They instead think sticky prices and long-term contracts anchor expectations and alleviate uncertainty that hinders efficient markets. Post Keynesian economic policies emphasize the need to reduce uncertainty in the economy including safety nets and price stability. Hyman Minsky applied post-Keynesian notions of uncertainty and instability to a theory of financial crisis where investors increasingly take on debt until their returns can no longer pay the interest on leveraged assets, resulting in a financial crisis. The financial crisis of 2007–2008 brought mainstream attention to Minsky's work. ### Austrian business cycle theory The Austrian School of economics began with Carl Menger's 1871 Principles of Economics. Menger's followers formed a distinct group of economists until around World War II, when the distinction between Austrian economics and other schools of thought had largely broken down. The Austrian tradition survived as a distinct school, however, through the works of Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek. Present-day Austrians are distinguished by their interest in earlier Austrian works and abstention from standard empirical methodology including econometrics. Austrians also focus on market processes instead of equilibrium. Mainstream economists are generally critical of its methodology. Hayek created the Austrian business cycle theory, which synthesizes Menger's capital theory and Mises's theory of money and credit. The theory proposes a model of inter-temporal investment in which production plans precede the manufacture of the finished product. The producers revise production plans to adapt to changes in consumer preferences. Producers respond to "derived demand," which is estimated demand for the future, instead of current demand. If consumers reduce their spending, producers believe that consumers are saving for additional spending later, so that production remains constant. Combined with a market of loanable funds (which relates savings and investment through the interest rate), this theory of capital production leads to a model of the macroeconomy where markets reflect inter-temporal preferences. Hayek's model suggests that an economic bubble begins when cheap credit initiates a boom where resources are misallocated, so that early stages of production receive more resources than they should and overproduction begins; the later stages of capital are not funded for maintenance to prevent depreciation. Overproduction in the early stages cannot be processed by poorly maintained later stage capital. The boom becomes a bust when a lack of finished goods leads to "forced saving" since fewer finished goods can be produced for sale.

The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt

2015 video game

The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is a 2015 action role-playing game developed and published by CD Projekt. It is the sequel to the 2011 game The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings and the third game in The Witcher video game series, played in an open world with a third-person perspective. The games follow the Witcher series of fantasy novels written by Andrzej Sapkowski. The game takes place in a fictional fantasy world based on Slavic mythology. Players control Geralt of Rivia, a monster slayer for hire known as a Witcher, and search for his adopted daughter, who is on the run from the otherworldly Wild Hunt. Players battle the game's many dangers with weapons and magic, interact with non-player characters, and complete quests to acquire experience points and gold, which are used to increase Geralt's abilities and purchase equipment. The game's story has three possible endings, determined by the player's choices at key points in the narrative. Development began in 2011 and lasted for three and a half years. Central and Northern European cultures formed the basis of the game's world. The game was developed using the REDengine 3, which enabled CD Projekt to create a complex story without compromising its open world. The music was primarily composed by Marcin Przybyłowicz and performed by the Brandenburg State Orchestra. The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt was released for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One in May 2015, with a Nintendo Switch version released in October 2019, and PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S versions titled The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt - Complete Edition which was released in December 2022. The game received critical acclaim, with praise for its gameplay, narrative, world design, combat, and visuals, although it received minor criticism due to technical issues. It holds more than 200 game of the year awards and has been cited as one of the greatest video games ever made. Two expansions were also released to critical acclaim: Hearts of Stone and Blood and Wine. A Game of the Year edition was released in August 2016, with the base game, expansions and all downloadable content included. The game has sold over 50 million units as of March 2023, making it one of the best-selling video games of all time. ## Gameplay The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is an action role-playing game with a third-person perspective. Players control Geralt of Rivia, a monster slayer known as a Witcher. Geralt walks, runs, rolls and dodges, and (for the first time in the series) jumps, climbs and swims. He has a variety of weapons, including bombs, a crossbow and two swords (one steel and one silver). The steel sword is used primarily to kill humans while the silver sword is more effective against creatures and monsters. Players can draw out, switch and sheathe their swords at will. There are two modes of melee attack; light attacks are fast but weak, and heavy attacks are slow but strong. Players can block and counter enemy attacks with their swords. Swords have limited endurance and require regular repair. In addition to physical attacks, Geralt has five magical signs at his disposal: Aard, Axii, Igni, Yrden and Quen. Aard prompts Geralt to unleash a telekinetic blast, Axii confuses enemies, Igni burns them, Yrden slows them down and Quen offers players a temporary, protective shield. The signs use stamina, and cannot be used indefinitely. Players can use mutagens to increase Geralt's magic power. Geralt loses health when attacked by enemies, although wearing armour can help reduce health loss. Health is restored with meditation or consumables, such as food and potions. Players occasionally control Ciri, Geralt's adoptive daughter who can teleport short distances. The game has responsive, advanced artificial intelligence (AI) and dynamic environments. The day-night cycle influences some monsters; a werewolf becomes powerful during the night of a full moon. Players can learn about their enemies and prepare for combat by reading the in-game bestiary. When they kill an enemy, they can loot its corpse for valuables. Geralt's witcher sense enables players to find objects of interest, including items that can be collected or scavenged. Items are stored in the inventory, which can be expanded by purchasing upgrades. Players can sell items to vendors or use them to craft potions and bombs. They can visit blacksmiths to craft new weapons and armorers to craft new armour with what they have gathered. The price of an item and the cost of crafting it depend on a region's local economy. Players earn experience points by completing quests. When a player earns enough experience, Geralt's level increases and the player receives ability points. These points may be used on four skill trees: combat, signs, alchemy and general. Combat upgrades enhance Geralt's attacks and unlock new fighting techniques; signs upgrades enable him to use magic more efficiently, and alchemy upgrades improve crafting abilities. General upgrades have a variety of functions, from raising Geralt's vitality to increasing crossbow damage. The game focuses on narrative and has a dialogue tree which allows players to choose how to respond to non-player characters. Geralt must make decisions which change the state of the world and lead to 36 possible endings, affecting the lives of in-game characters. He can have a romantic relationship with some of the game's female characters by completing certain quests. In addition to the main quests, books offer more information on the game's world. Players can begin side quests after visiting a town's noticeboard. These side missions include Witcher Contracts (elaborate missions requiring players to hunt monsters) and Treasure Hunt quests, which reward players with top-tier weapons or armour. The game's open world is divided into several regions. Geralt can explore each region on foot or by transportation, such as a boat. Roach, his horse, may be summoned at will. Players can kill enemies with their sword while riding Roach, but an enemy presence may frighten the horse and unseat Geralt. Points of interest may be found on the map, and players receive experience points after completing mini-missions in these regions. Players can discover Places of Power for additional ability points. Other activities include horse racing, boxing and card playing; the card-playing mechanic was later expanded into a standalone game, Gwent: The Witcher Card Game. ## Synopsis ### Setting The game is set in the Continent, a fictional fantasy world based on Slavic paganism. It is surrounded by parallel dimensions and extra-dimensional worlds. Humans, elves, dwarves, monsters and other creatures co-exist on the Continent, but non-humans are often persecuted for their differences. The Continent is caught up in a war between the empire of Nilfgaard—led by Emperor Emhyr var Emreis (Charles Dance), who invaded the Northern Kingdoms—and Redania, ruled by King Radovid V. Several locations appear, including the free city of Novigrad, the Redanian city of Oxenfurt, the no man's land of Velen, the city of Vizima (former capital of the recently conquered Temeria), the Skellige islands (home to several Norse-Gaels Viking clans) and the witcher stronghold of Kaer Morhen. The main character is the Witcher, Geralt of Rivia (Doug Cockle), a monster hunter trained since childhood in combat, tracking, alchemy and magic, and made stronger, faster and resistant to toxins by mutagens. He is aided by his lover, the powerful sorceress Yennefer of Vengerberg (Denise Gough), his former love interest Triss Merigold (Jaimi Barbakoff), the bard Dandelion (John Schwab), the dwarf warrior Zoltan Chivay (Alexander Morton), and Geralt's Witcher mentor Vesemir (William Roberts). Geralt is spurred into action by the reappearance of his and Yennefer's adopted daughter, Ciri (Jo Wyatt). Ciri is a Source, born with innate (and potentially vast) magical abilities; after the apparent death of her parents, she was trained as a witcher while Yennefer taught her magic. Ciri disappeared years before to escape the Wild Hunt, a group of spectral warriors led by the King of the Wild Hunt: the elf Eredin, from a parallel dimension. ### Plot Geralt and his mentor Vesemir arrive at the town of White Orchard after receiving a letter from Geralt's long-lost lover Yennefer. After defeating a griffin for the local Nilfgaardian garrison, Geralt accompanies Yennefer to the city of Vizima, where they meet with Emperor Emhyr. Emhyr orders Geralt to find Ciri, who is Emhyr's biological, and Geralt's adopted daughter. Ciri is a Child of the Elder Blood, the last heir to an ancient Elven bloodline that grants her the power to manipulate time and space, and is being relentlessly stalked by the enigmatic Wild Hunt. Geralt learns of three places Ciri was recently seen: the war-ravaged swamp province of Velen, the free city-state of Novigrad, and the Skellige Isles. In Velen, Geralt tracks Ciri to the fortress of the Bloody Baron, a warlord who recently took over the province. The Baron demands that Geralt find his missing wife and daughter in exchange for information about Ciri. Geralt learns that the Baron drove his own family away with his drunken rages; while his daughter fled to Oxenfurt, his wife Anna became a servant of the Crones, three malicious witches that watch over Velen. He also discovers that Ciri was briefly captured by the Crones, but escaped to the Baron's stronghold before continuing on to Novigrad. At Novigrad, Geralt reunites with his former lover Triss Merigold, who has gone underground to escape persecution by the Church of the Eternal Fire. He learns that Ciri and his old friend Dandelion ran afoul of Novigrad's powerful crime bosses while seeking to break a curse related to a mysterious phylactery. With the help of Triss and several old acquaintances, Geralt rescues Dandelion, who tells him that Ciri teleported away to escape pursuit by guards. Geralt sails to Skellige and reunites with Yennefer, who is investigating a magical explosion near where Ciri was last seen. They discover that Ciri visited the island of Lofoten, but when the Wild Hunt attacked again, fled in a boat with an unidentified elf. When the boat returned to shore, its only occupant was Uma, a deformed creature Geralt previously saw living with the Bloody Baron. Deducing that Uma was the victim of the curse Ciri tried to lift in Novigrad, Geralt collects Uma in Velen and takes him to the nearly abandoned witcher school at Kaer Morhen. Working with Yennefer and his fellow witchers, Geralt breaks the curse and restores Uma's true identity: Avallac'h, Ciri's teacher and the elf seen with her on her travels. Avallac'h tells Geralt that he placed Ciri in an enchanted sleep on the Isle of Mists to keep her temporarily safe from the Wild Hunt. Geralt finds Ciri on the Isle of Mists and learns from her that Eredin, the leader of the Wild Hunt, wants her Elder Blood powers to save his homeworld from a catastrophe known as the White Frost. They return to Kaer Morhen and fortify it against the inevitable arrival of the Hunt. In the battle that ensues, Vesemir is killed, causing Ciri to unleash her uncontrolled power and temporarily send the Hunt into retreat. Realizing that the Hunt will never stop, Ciri and Geralt decide to fight Eredin at a time and place of their choosing. While Triss and Yennefer reform the Lodge of Sorceresses to aid in the fight, Geralt recovers the Sunstone, an artifact that can communicate between worlds. Using the Sunstone, Avallac'h lures Eredin to Skellige, where Geralt defeats him in combat. As he dies, Eredin tells Geralt that Avallac'h has betrayed him, and plans to use Ciri's power for his own ends. As the White Frost begins to encroach on the Continent, Geralt and Yennefer pursue Avallac'h, but find Ciri alive and well. She tells Geralt that Avallac'h is not a traitor, and has only ever intended to fight the White Frost. Thinking back on her relationship with Geralt, Ciri finds the strength to stop the cataclysm; if Geralt patronized and protected her throughout the game, she dies in the attempt, but if he guided her to mature and make her own choices, she survives. The player's choices can lead to several different endings. If Ciri survives after defeating the White Frost and Geralt took her to meet her father, she will become the Empress of Nilfgaard. If Ciri survives but did not meet the emperor, Geralt helps her fake her death, and she becomes a witcher. If Ciri is killed in her confrontation with the White Frost, the story ends with Geralt retrieving her medallion from the last remaining Crone. The player's choices also determine whether Geralt ends up in a romantic relationship with Yennefer, Triss, or neither, and how much of the North is ultimately conquered by Nilfgaard. ## Development Although the game was planned to begin production in 2008, CD Projekt Red's preoccupation with Rise of the White Wolf pushed it back to 2011. The company developed The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt with a self-funded budget of US\$81 million over three-and-a-half years. The project began with 150 employees, eventually growing to over 250 in-house staff. 1,500 people were involved in the production globally. While the game is based on Andrzej Sapkowski's novels, it is not an official continuation of them, and Sapkowski's involvement with the game was limited to the creation of its in-game map. The game was localised in 15 languages, with a total of 500 voice actors. The game was scripted concurrently in Polish and English to alleviate difficulty in localisation. According to Side (the company which handled voice casting and recording), the 450,000-word script had 950 speaking roles. The voices were recorded from late 2012 to early 2015. CD Projekt Red wanted the game to be free of any digital rights management (DRM) due to the developer's unsuccessful control of piracy with its predecessor, The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings, whose DRM also made it run slowly. The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt was created with the REDengine 3, CD Projekt Red's proprietary game engine designed for nonlinear role-playing video games set in open world environments, aided by the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles and prepared for use in October 2014. The first play-through indicated to the developers that the open world, despite its content and generation around the quests, seemed empty. As a solution, they added points of interest. The game had 5,000 bugs that December, which (with a launch date of February 2015) necessitated its postponement. Like the previous two Witcher games, players are given a complex story with multiple choices and consequences. Unlike other game engines, REDengine 3 permits a complex storyline without sacrificing virtual world design. The user interface was made more intuitive with grid-based solutions. The camera system was improved to use long shots for battles with multiple enemies and close-ups for more-intimate confrontations. More animations were used for combat sequences than in The Witcher 2, with each lasting less than one second for quick succession. Game director Konrad Tomaszkiewicz and senior game designer Damien Monnier cited Dark Souls and Demon's Souls as influences on Wild Hunt's combat system, and level designer Miles Tost and senior environment artist Jonas Mattsson cited The Legend of Zelda series and Red Dead Redemption as influencing the game's level designs and environments. Months before its release date, the game's economy, crafting, and inventory systems were incomplete and apparently unable to meet the deadline. Senior gameplay designer Matthew Steinke thought of a remedy and drew up a system context diagram. To allocate prices, Steinke wrote a formula based on rate of damage, defence, or healing. Polynomial least squares were used to determine its efficacy, and it was found to eliminate bugs from the system and reduce loading times. Each character was given a unique personality to contrast the fetch-quest system typically used in video games. It was decided early that the writing would be witty, with metaphors and implied meanings. The dialogue was limited to 15 lines, with occasional exceptions, to retain content originality. Player options were written as morally ambiguous, reflecting real life and Andrzej Sapkowski's original Witcher series. Alcoholism, abuse and sexuality, depicted as normal parts of the medieval world, were incorporated into the story for authenticity. Areas of the open world were based on Poland, Amsterdam, and Scandinavia. Objects were modelled by hand. Storylines such as Yennefer imprisoning Geralt on an island and Geralt's covert recruitment to the Wild Hunt were discarded to make the game smaller and avoid splitting it into two parts. The card game Gwent was preceded by other mini-game proposals, including a drinking game, knife throwing, and ice skating. A re-enactment of the Battle of Grunwald was recorded for the sounds of battle, marching, blacksmithing, and the firing of arrows. Recording the knights' voices for post-processing, the speakers wore helmets for an authentic sound. Marcin Przybyłowicz was the game's music director and composer, with additional music contributed by Polish folk band Percival. According to Przybyłowicz, working with Percival was a challenge; he expected an academic approach before learning that most of the group were not formally trained, and much of the music was improvised. Multi-instrumentalist Robert Jaworski of the folk band Żywiołak recorded lute, Renaissance fiddle, bowed gusle, and hurdy-gurdy sections. The score was performed in Frankfurt an der Oder by the Brandenburg State Orchestra, conducted by Bernd Ruf. ## Release The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt was announced in 2013, then to be released for PC, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One the following year. The release date was later delayed from the third quarter of 2014 to February 2015. After missing its planned release date of 24 February, CD Projekt Red confirmed in April that the game was released to manufacturing. The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt was released worldwide on 19 May 2015. Polish Prime Minister Ewa Kopacz and President Bronisław Komorowski visited CD Projekt Red to celebrate the launch. As with the second game, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment and Bandai Namco Entertainment each handled physical distribution of the game in North America and Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand respectively. In addition to the standard edition, players can also purchase the Collector's Edition, which includes the base game and items such as an artbook, a statue of Geralt fighting against a griffin, and a Witcher medallion. At E3 2019, a port for the Nintendo Switch, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt – Complete Edition, was announced. It was developed in cooperation with Saber Interactive, and was released on 15 October 2019. The port features slight graphical downgrades to compensate for the Switch's less powerful hardware, but is otherwise identical to existing versions. CD Projekt Red co-founder Marcin Iwiński listed three pillars that he considered integral to marketing: game quality, a "gamer-centric value proposition", and communication with fans. To achieve the second, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt was marketed as "Skyrim in a Game of Thrones sauce". The third explained in detail the visual downgrade from earlier promotional footage to the finished product, which Iwiński thought effective. The logo was re-designed to make it less obvious that The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt was a sequel; the number three suggested a claw mark or mask to an audience unfamiliar with the series, while fans would recognise it as the mark of the Wild Hunt. ### Downloadable content The developer studied Witcher forums and websites such as Reddit to predict what players generally desired from downloadable content (DLC). A collection of 16 free DLC was released, as announced before release by the developers. They included cosmetic and additional gameplay content and the New Game Plus mode. CD Projekt Red announced two expansion packs: Hearts of Stone and Blood and Wine. Hearts of Stone was released on 13 October 2015, and Blood and Wine on 31 May 2016. Hearts of Stone follows Geralt as he contacts a mysterious entity known as the Man of Glass and an immortal man, Olgierd von Everec. The expansion was critically acclaimed. The second expansion pack, Blood and Wine, follows Geralt as he travels to Toussaint (a Nilfgaardian duchy untouched by war) to track down a mysterious beast that is terrorizing the region. It was also critically acclaimed, winning the Best RPG category at The Game Awards 2016. A Game of the Year edition, with the base game, both expansions and all DLC, was released on 30 August 2016. ## Re-release In December 2022, the publisher re-released the game for the PlayStation 5, Windows, and Xbox Series X/S. The re-released game became available as a free upgrade for existing owners on PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One, but also could be purchased separately. The re-release has been lauded for numerous visual enhancements made to the game. In 2021, video game news site Kotaku had reported that the re-release would include content from mods produced by fans; "HalkHogan", creator of a mod that improves the game's textures, announced that the developer had entered talks to include content from "The Witcher 3 HD Reworked Project" in the release. CD Projekt Red confirmed to Kotaku that they had entered talks with mod creators, prompting discussion about why the company, which earned \$300mil in 2020, sought out community assistance. The re-release was originally scheduled for the second half of 2021, but was delayed to the second quarter of 2022. The re-released game was originally being developed by Saber Interactive. On 13 April 2022, CDPR announced that its in-house development team would be taking over the remaining work on the re-release, and that its release date would be postponed. In November, a release date of 14 December 2022 was announced. The next-gen update included new outfits and a quest inspired by the Netflix series, improved visuals, performance, and bug fixes as well as all previously released downloadable content. The re-release was published on schedule, but was criticized for introducing performance issues and bugs. Later that day, CD Projekt Red announced that they were investigating the issues and working on fixes. ## Reception ### Critical reception The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt received "universal acclaim" for the PC, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S versions, and "generally favorable reviews" for the Switch version, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Critics agreed that it was an ambitious action role-playing game which was grand in scale, but marred by technical difficulties and a lack of innovation. GameSpot and Eurogamer gave the game their highest rating. The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt has been considered one of the greatest games of all time. The game world received widespread praise from critics. Kimberly Wallace of Game Informer called it "immersive", and was impressed by its attention to detail. Destructoid's Chris Carter praised its size, which he found enormous and would take players hours to explore. Jonathon Leack, writing for Game Revolution, praised the game's effective use of its large world. Leack wrote that every region had quests and activities for players to try, although he thought that much was filler which extended its length. Tom Senior of GamesRadar praised the open world's variety, describing it as an "exciting realization of the Ronin fantasy". GameTrailers' Daniel Bloodworth praised the game for encouraging exploration; many quests would only become available to players after they met non-playable characters in different parts of the world. Vince Ingenito of IGN and Shaun Prescott of PC Gamer were impressed by the game's scenery and its day-night cycle, with Ingenito saying that it highlighted the game world's authenticity. Its narrative received critical acclaim. Carter praised the cast of characters, which he called unique and interesting. He considered the narrative more involving, with players witnessing key events and making consequential choices. Wallace praised the game's dialogue and its side-quests; each was similar to a short story, and player decisions in the quests would influence the state of the world. She liked the main quest, which added more character to Geralt, and said that the romance options were a significant improvement over its predecessors. However, she was disappointed with the quality of the game's endings. Kevin Van Ord of GameSpot echoed Wallace, noting that The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt's story had more characterisation for Geralt than the previous games. He welcomed the change, since it gave players emotional connections to the in-game characters. Senior enjoyed the side-quests, calling them "a compilation of dark fantasy short stories" which overshadowed the main quests. Ingenito was disappointed with the main story, saying that there was too much padding and too many dull quests. PC Gamer's Shaun Prescott agreed, saying that the narrative would have felt rote if the side content was not engaging. Van Ord, Wallace and Brett Phipps of VideoGamer.com praised the voice acting, with Wallace calling it the series' best. Arthur Gies from Polygon criticized that some of the female characters are overly sexualized and that there are no people of color in the main game. The game's combat had a generally-positive reception. Bloodworth found Geralt more mobile and agile with the new climbing and swimming mechanic. Carter said that it was significantly streamlined and its predecessors' strategic elements removed, but appreciated its action. Wallace wrote that with a simplified alchemy system, a decent user interface and diverse difficulty settings the combat was more accessible, although she disliked the disruptive weapon-degradation system and unrefined crossbow shooting mechanic. Leack thought the system lacked complexity and criticised its lack of polish, caused by the unreliable lock-on system, camera issues and excessively-long combat animation. Senior noted that some gameplay mechanics, such as rolling and dodging, were inconsistent and made the system feel unfair. Ingenito praised the combat, describing its fluidity as a significant improvement over its predecessors. Other gameplay aspects received mixed reviews. Van Ord praised the game's customisation and upgrade system (which offered players a sense of progression), since it hardened as the story unfolded. Ingenito called its upgrade system deep and flexible, since players have considerable freedom when customising Geralt's skills. Leack disliked the upgrade system, calling it "unexciting". Carter was disappointed with the Witcher Senses, finding it repetitive, but Senior considered them superior to objective markers—the norm for role-playing games. Prescott disliked the user interface for its clumsiness and tedium. Senior found the Gwent card game an addictive minigame. The game was criticised for its technical issues. Carter called its climbing animations stiff, noting that some gameplay bugs would hinder player progress. According to Wallace, the game's load times were too long. Leack noted that the game had a graphic downgrade, and the actual game did not look as good as the 2013 demonstration. Senior, Phipps and Ingenito noted frame rate issues; although Ingenito thought it did not impact the gameplay, Phipps called it a persistent problem which overshadowed many of the game's achievements. ### Sales Before its release, over 1.5 million people pre-ordered the game. The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt debuted atop the UK software sales chart in its first week, when it earned 600% more than predecessor The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings. It was the best-selling video game of the year in the UK, breaking the record held by Battlefield Hardline. It debuted atop the Japanese video-game sales charts, selling 67,385 units in its first week. Four million units of the game were sold in its first two weeks of release. By June 2015, over 690,000 players had activated the game through GOG Galaxy. The game sold over six million units in the next six weeks, and the studio made a profit of \$63.3 million in the first half of 2015. In March 2016, CD Projekt Red reported that the game had shipped nearly 10 million units worldwide. By the end of 2017, the series as a whole had sold over 33 million. By June 2019, that number had risen to over 40 million, with The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt accounting for over half of that figure. Following the release of the first season of Netflix' television series The Witcher in December 2019, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt had a 554% increase in sales that month compared to December 2018. By December 2019, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt had sold over 28 million units. And by April 2021 it had sold over 30 million units, while the series as a whole had sold over 50 million. By April 2022, the game had sold 40 million units. As of March 2023, the game has sold over 50 million units. ### Awards The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt received pre-release awards at E3 in 2013 and 2014. It was voted the best role-playing game at the IGN Best of E3 Awards in 2013 and 2014. It won IGN's E3 People's Choice Award in 2013 and 2014, GameSpot's E3 People's Choice Award in 2014, and the Most Wanted Award at the 31st and 32nd Golden Joystick Awards. It was the Most Anticipated Game at the Game Awards 2014 in Las Vegas. It received 260 game of the year awards and was the most awarded game of all time until 2021, when it was overtaken by The Last of Us Part II. By August 2016, it had received over 800 awards. On 2020, Gamesradar listed it as the top game of the generation. Its accolades are from several events, including the Golden Joystick Awards, The Game Awards, D.I.C.E. Awards, Game Developers Choice Awards, SXSW Gaming Awards and the National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers (NAVGTR) awards. The Witcher 3 was recognized as game of the year by IGN, GameSpot, Game Informer and other gaming publications. The game received a Golden Joystick Award for Best Storytelling, Best Visual Design and Best Gaming Moment, and the Game Awards for Best Role-Playing Game and Studio of the Year for CD Projekt Red. It won Outstanding Achievement in Game Design, Outstanding Technical Achievement and Outstanding Achievement in Story at the 19th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards, and won the Game of the Year and Best Technology awards at the 16th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards. A 2023 poll conducted by GQ which surveyed a team of video game journalists across the industry ranked the title as the fifth best video game of all time.

M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage

The M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage, also known as the M16 half-track, was an American self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon built during World War II. It was equipped with four .50 caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns in an M45 Quadmount. 2700 were produced by White Motor Company from May 1943 to March 1944, with 568 M13 MGMCs and 109 T10 half-tracks being converted into M16s as well. The chassis was derived from the T1E2 chassis, an earlier version of the M13. Based on an M3 half-track chassis, it replaced the M13 MGMC half-track after early 1944. As aircraft became more advanced, the usefulness of the M16 was reduced. In the Korean War, it was relegated primarily to the ground-support role, being put out of service in the U.S. Army in 1954. Nicknamed the "Meat Chopper", the M16 was famous for its effectiveness against low-flying aircraft and infantry, making it extremely popular with soldiers. It was used by the United States Army, the British Commonwealth, and South Korea. A similar version of the M16, the M17, was based on the M5 half-track and exported via Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. ## Specifications The specifications of the M16 were similar to those of the M3 half-track. It was 21 ft 4 in (6.5 m) long (with a wheelbase of 135.5 in (3.44 m)), 7 ft 1 in (2.16 m) wide, and 7 ft 8 in (2.34 m) high and weighed 9.9 short tons (9 t). It had suspension consisting of vertical volute spring suspension for the tracks and leaf springs for the wheels. It was powered by a 128-horsepower (95 kW) White 160AX 386 cubic inch (6,300 cc) 6-cylinder gasoline engine. It had a compression ratio of 6.3:1 and a 60 US gallon (230 L) fuel tank. It could reach a top speed of 41.7 mph (67.1 km/h) and a range of 175 miles (282 km) and a power to weight ratio of 15.8 horsepower per tonne. It had a main armament of four 0.5 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in a M45 Quadmount and 12 millimeters of armor on the front and the sides. ## Development The M16 was an improvement on the twin .50 caliber M2 Browning heavy machine gun equipped M13 MGMC and M14 MGMC (built on an M3 and M5 half-track chassis respectively). It was based on an earlier model of the M13 (the T1E2), but the M33 Maxson mount was replaced with the M45 Quadmount and the M2 half-track chassis was replaced by the M3 chassis. This prototype was originally designated as the T61 MGMC, but after trials at Aberdeen it was accepted as the M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage. A few corrections were made on a pilot vehicle in early 1943 (including the addition of a gun shield) before production started. A total of 2,877 were produced by the White Motor Company during the period from May 1943 to March 1944, while 568 M13s and 109 T10 half-tracks were also converted into M16s. Further production of the M13 and M14 was ceased in favor of production of the M16 and M17 (an M16 built on a M5 half-track chassis). ## Service history The M16 MGMC entered service in early 1944, with the M13 taken out of action soon after. The M16 was nicknamed "The Meat Chopper" for its deadly firepower, and was extremely popular with troops. In addition to its anti-aircraft role, the M16 was used in an infantry support role, frequently accompanied by the M15 half-track. The M17 MGMC primarily served with the Soviet Union as part of Operation Bagration and a few other battles. The M16 saw service with U.S. forces in the Italian Campaign, and Operation Overlord, the Battle of Arracourt, and the Ardennes Offensive in northern Europe. Small numbers were supplied to the United Kingdom and France under Lend-Lease. The vehicle was also used widely in the Korean War by the South Korean army, the United States Marine Corps, and the U.S. Army. As aircraft became more advanced over the M16's lifetime, its role as a mobile anti-aircraft weapon became limited, and the newer M19 MGMC was more heavily-armed with more powerful and longer-range guns. During the Korean War, it served mainly in the ground-support role, at which it was highly effective. In late 1951, it was declared as "limited standard" and largely taken out of service from the U.S. Army in Korea, although a few examples served until the end of the war. It was declared obsolete by the U.S. Army in 1958. ## Operators - USA: United States – United States Army, U.S. Marine Corps - UK: United Kingdom – Two received through the Lend-Lease program - Free France: Free French Forces – Seventy received through the Lend-Lease program - France - the French Army still had 300 in service in 1984 - Nazi Germany: Wehrmacht – Captured from the U.S. - Germany: Bundeswehr 1956 - 1962 - Belgium: Belgian Army – post-war use - Israel: Israel Defense Forces – few units during its early ages - Japan: Japan Ground Self-Defense Force – Lent by the U.S. - Philippines: Philippine Army - Portugal: Portuguese Army - South Korea: Republic of Korea Army – Lent by the U.S. - Thailand: Royal Thai Army – Still using in some Anti air unit - Netherlands: Royal Netherlands Army – Several bought from war dumps and used in the anti air units. ## Variants - M16 – A T1E2 with a M45D quad-mount and a M3 half-track chassis. - M16A1– An M16 with a M3A1 half-track chassis equipped the M45F Quad-mount. - M16A2 – M16s with the M45D quad-mount replaced with the M45F Quad-mount. - M17 MGMC – M5 half-tracks with the M45F quad-mount supplied under Lend Lease to the USSR. A total of 1,000 were produced by International Harvester from December 1943 to March 1944. Up to half of the Soviet Union's air defense forces consisted of M17s. ## See also - List of U.S. military vehicles by model number - List of U.S. military vehicles by supply catalog designation

Butters' Bottom Bitch

"Butters' Bottom Bitch" is the ninth episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park. The 190th overall episode of the series, it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 14, 2009. In the episode, Butters pays a girl \$5 to give him his first kiss, which prompts Butters to start his own "kissing company" and eventually become a pimp. The episode was written and directed by series co-founder Trey Parker. "Butters' Bottom Bitch" received particular attention for a scene in which Butters visited an ACORN office seeking benefits for his prostitutes, a reference to the real-life 2009 scandal. The episode received generally positive reviews and was seen by 2.56 million overall households, according to Nielsen Media Research. The episode was rated TV-MA-LS in the United States. ## Plot Tired of being the only boy in his class to have never kissed a girl, Butters purchases his first kiss from Sally Darson, who sells kisses for \$5. Having won the respect of his classmates, he devises a plan to advertise Sally's services to other unpopular boys at the school. Sally gives Butters a 40 percent cut for his advertising and managing services, and Butters soon turns the venture into a full-fledged "kissing company" by recruiting more girls to fill in during times in which Sally is busy. Upon learning about Butters' business, Kyle tells him that he is "nothing but a common pimp". Oblivious to what the word means, Butters attends a pimp convention where he seeks advice from more-experienced pimps, including one called Keyshawn. Afterward, he starts to mimic the pimp jargon, such as referring to Sally as his "bottom bitch", and incorporating "Do you know what I am saying?" into his conversations. To combat the apparent rise in prostitution, Sergeant Yates of the Park County Police goes undercover (albeit poorly disguised) as a female prostitute named "Yolanda". During stings, to the bewilderment of the police, Yates waits until he is done engaging in actual sex acts with his male patrons before making an arrest. After he engages in group sex with numerous members of the fraternity house Alpha Tau Omega and doing business for Keyshawn, Yates' fellow officers begin to openly suggest to Yates that he is getting too carried away with his duties, as Yates now also has a pimp, Keyshawn. Meanwhile, Butters' reputation as the respectful "new pimp" spreads throughout the county, prompting actual adult prostitutes to seek employment with him. He also starts holding onto all the money the company makes, since "bitches can't be trusted with it." Repulsed at what Butters is doing, Stan and Kyle try to persuade him to stop, but Butters ignores them, paying Clyde to keep Stan away from him, and brushing off Kyle's protests in an almost threatening manner. As his workforce expands, Butters starts offering health care and other benefits to his employees, attracting more and more adults. To this end, he visits the local ACORN office to apply for low-income housing benefits, seek mortgage loans, and inquire about the tax-status of his business. Butters is initially refused until he identifies the boss as a client of some of the real prostitutes working for Butters. Sergeant Yates, still undercover, seeks employment with Butters. But Keyshawn soon appears outside and begs for "Yolanda" back, asking for her hand in marriage. Butters insists that he cannot force "Yolanda" to work for him, claiming it would interfere with the "true love" Keyshawn and "Yolanda" share. "Yolanda" accepts the proposal, and Butters decides to quit his job as a pimp. To the delight of his employees, he encourages them to function under the self-management of the company so they can keep whatever they earn for themselves. While "Yolanda" and Keyshawn are shown celebrating their first anniversary together in a small chalet in the mountains in Switzerland, Yates suddenly decides to spring his sting operation. Revealing his true identity, he pulls out his gun and badge and informs Keyshawn that he is under arrest. ## Production and cultural references "Butters' Bottom Bitch" was written and directed by series co-founder Trey Parker. It first aired on October 14, 2009 in the United States on Comedy Central. The scene in which Butters visits the ACORN office seeking benefits for his prostitutes is a reference to the real-life 2009 scandal in which activist James O'Keefe secretly filmed himself posing as a pimp during meetings with ACORN employees. The scene generated the greatest amount of media attention for "Butters' Bottom Bitch" after its original broadcast. The pimp convention includes references to Pimps Up, Ho's Down, an HBO documentary about the pimping lifestyle, featuring real-life pimps. The scene in which the lieutenant calls his john a "nasty fucker" during sex, mirrored a scene from the documentary, Hookers at the Point. The song that plays during the lieutenant's stripper scene at the fraternity party is "Fuck the Pain Away", by Peaches. ## Reception In its original American broadcast on October 14, 2009, "Butters' Bottom Bitch" was watched by 2.56 million overall households, according to Nielsen ratings. It received a 1.7 rating/3 share, and a 1.3 rating/4 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49. In a surprise, South Park was outperformed in the 18 to 49 age group by the Bravo reality television series Top Chef, which was seen by 2.67 million viewers. "Butters' Bottom Bitch" also tied for the evening in the 18–49 rating with the Syfy reality television series Ghost Hunters (2.9 million household viewers) and only slightly outperformed the Discovery Channel popular science television program MythBusters (2.69 million household viewers), which surprised TV by the Number's Robert Seidman. "Butters' Bottom Bitch" was also outperformed by the Spike TV mixed martial arts competition series The Ultimate Fighter, which was watched by 2.82 million household viewers and had the highest cable ratings for the night in the 18 to 49 age group. "Butters' Bottom Bitch" received generally positive reviews. Ramsey Isler of IGN gave the episode an 8.2 out of 10 rating. He said although it started slow, "once this episode found its legs, it was non-stop funny." Isler praised the South Park writers for coming up with a surprisingly funny plot, and said it ranked among Butters' best moments in the series. Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine said it was good to see an episode focused strictly on comedy, after a string of episodes focusing on social satire. Delgado said the premise of the episode was absurd and over-the-top, but appreciated that South Park was continuing to push boundaries by mocking such issues as prostitution. The A.V. Club writer Josh Modell said the episode "was pretty damn funny, but I'm predisposed to Butters in general as well as the wide world of pimping." Wired writer Chris Kohler said the topical and timely jokes in "Butters' Bottom Bitch", such as the satire on ACORN, were a strong example of what kept South Park funny and relevant. Not all reviews were positive. Sean O'Neal, also of The A.V. Club, gave the episode a C grade, and said "It was basically one note held for the run of the ep, in service of a simple little story without many surprises." O'Neal said the subplot involving the police was "similarly repetitious", but he liked how the two plots came together to resolve each other. ## Home media "Butters' Bottom Bitch", along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park'''s thirteenth season, were released on a three-disc DVD set and two-disc Blu-ray set in the United States on March 16, 2010. The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode, a collection of deleted scenes, and a special mini-feature Inside Xbox: A Behind-the-Scenes Tour of South Park Studios, which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson. The episode was also released on the two-disc DVD collection A Little Box of Butters''.

Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 10)

Roman general and senator active during the reigns of Emperors Augustus and Tiberius

Publius Cornelius Dolabella (fl. c.10–c.28 AD) was active Roman senator during the Principate. He was consul in AD 10 with Gaius Junius Silanus as his colleague. Dolabella is known for having reconstructed the Arch of Dolabella (perhaps formerly the Porta Caelimontana) in Rome in AD 10, together with his co-consul Junius Silanus. Later, Nero used it for his aqueduct to the Caelian Hill. In 24 he was appointed proconsul of the province of Africa (modern Tunisia), supposedly pacified after ten years of insurgency. This turned out to be far from the case and Dolabella was pressed hard. Despite only having half the number of soldiers of his predecessor Dolabella conceived an effective strategy. He eventually forced the insurgents to battle, slew their leader, Tacfarinas, and brought the conflict to a conclusion. He then initiated the conversion of the Tunisian grasslands to arable fields, which were to be the breadbasket of Rome for centuries to come. ## Family Dolabella was a member of a patrician branch of the gens Cornelii. Tacitus provides us with the hint that he was the son of Quinctilia, a sister of the Roman politician and general Publius Quinctilius Varus, and a Publius Cornelius Dolabella; however, authorities differ over which Dolabella was his father. In his book The Augustan Aristocracy, Ronald Syme identifies the father with Publius Cornelius Dolabella, consul in 44 BC and son-in-law of Cicero. At the time, he was the only Cornelius Dolabella known to fit. However, since the publication of Syme's book, a new fragment of the Fasti Tauromenium has been recovered which attests to another one: Publius Cornelius Dolabella, suffect consul in 35 BC. Patrick Tansey provides several arguments that favour identifying the consul of 35 BC as the father of the consul of AD 10. Frank Burr Marsh believes that the consul of 44 BC was the grandfather of the consul of 10 AD. Dolabella married Sulpicia Galbilla, and their son was Publius Cornelius Dolabella, consul in 55. ## Biography Dolabella served as consul from January to June 10 AD with Gaius Junius Silanus. Around the time he held the consulate Cornelius Dolabella was co-opted into two Roman priesthoods: the septemviri epulones, one of the four most prestigious ancient Roman priesthoods, and the lesser order of the sodales Titensis. When the emperor Augustus died in 14, Dolabella was governor of Dalmatia. Augustus' successor Tiberius, as came to be habitual, delayed the end of Dolabella's tenure to 19 or 20; the next governor of Dalmatia, Lucius Volusius Saturninus, found himself delayed in the office until after Tiberius died in the year 37. Once back in Rome, Dolabella is recorded as twice making excessively sycophantic proposals that Tiberius rejected. The first was in the year 21, following Gaius Silius' suppression of a rebellion of Gaulish debtors led by Julius Florus and the Aeduan Julius Sacrovir. Dolabella proposed that Tiberius return from Campania and enter Rome with an ovation for the victory. Tiberius rejected the proposal with an angry letter, stating that he was not so destitute of renown as to covet the meaningless honour of a tour of the neighbourhood of Rome. The second was in the following year, when his colleague in the consulship, Junius Silanus, was condemned for majestas. Dolabella proposed an inquiry into the morals of provincial magistrates with Tiberius as the judge. Tiberius rejected this proposal because a crime should always precede any punishment. ### Africa Dolabella was awarded the proconsular governorship of Africa for AD 23–24. The previous proconsul had been Blaesus, the uncle of Sejanus, Tiberius' commander of the Praetorian Guard and trusted right-hand man. His main concern had been combatting the 10-year uprising led by Tacfarinus, a Numidian Berber and deserter from the Roman army. After a war of attrition Blaesus' campaign achieved its crowning success in AD 22, when his men captured Tacfarinas' brother. Tiberius accepted this as marking the end of the war. He granted Blaesus the rare privilege of adopting the honorary title of imperator, "victorious general", the last time this was accorded to a person outside the imperial house, and the third awarded for defeating Tacfarinas. When Blaesus returned to Rome at the end of his term in 23, he was also accorded triumphal honours. The emperor ordered the withdrawal of Legio IX Hispana from Africa, confident that it was no longer needed. But Tacitus suggests that Blaesus and Tiberius were being over-optimistic about the situation, given that Tacfarinas himself was still at large with a substantial following. The Romans were soon disabused of their complacency. Tacfarinas' great strength was that there was an inexhaustible supply of would-be raiders among the desert tribes. So even if he lost many of his followers in encounters with the Romans, which he frequently did, he could rapidly reconstitute his raiding-bands. Moreover, Tacfarinas started posing as the leader of a war of national liberation. He used the news of the withdrawal of half the Roman garrison to spread rumours that the empire was crumbling due to native revolts in its other regions, forcing the Romans to run down their forces in Africa. He claimed that the remaining garrison could be overcome, and Numidia permanently freed, by a concerted effort of all Numidians. His propaganda was highly effective and large numbers of Mauri warriors joined him, turning their backs on their young pro-Roman king, Ptolemy, who had recently succeeded his father, Juba II. In addition, many peasants, the poorest stratum of society, abandoned their fields and joined the insurgents. Tacfarinas also received "deniable" assistance from the king of the Garamantes, who, although officially allied with Rome, was making handsome profits as receiver of Tacfarinas' plunder and consequently made little effort to prevent substantial numbers of his warriors from joining the insurgents. Given the emergency, Dolabella would have been justified in requesting the postponement of the 9th Legion's imminent departure. However, he did not dare confront Tiberius with the grim reality of the situation in Africa. By the start of the 24 campaign season, Tacfarinas felt strong enough to lay siege to the Roman strong-point of Thubuscum (Khamisa, Algeria or Teboursouk, Tunisia). Dolabella hurriedly assembled all his available troops and rushed to raise the siege. As usual, the Numidians proved unable to withstand the Roman infantry charge and were routed by the first assault; they fled westwards into Mauretania. Dolabella now embarked on an all-out effort to hunt down the ever-elusive Tacfarinas, as it was evident that, unless its leader was eliminated, the insurgency would never end. The proconsul summoned assistance from Ptolemy, in whose kingdom Tacfarinas had taken refuge, and who supplied large numbers of the Mauri horsemen who had remained loyal to him. Thus reinforced, Dolabella divided his force into four divisions advancing in parallel to cover as much territory as possible, with the allied cavalry acting as scouts, criss-crossing between the main columns. These tactics soon paid off, as the crucial intelligence was obtained that Tacfarinas had established a camp near the half-ruined fort of Auzea (Sour el-Ghozlane, south-east of Algiers), which Tacfarinas' men had previously burnt down. Well to the west of the Roman province, the site was surrounded by extensive forests. Tacfarinas evidently discounted the possibility that the Romans could discover his location, as he apparently failed to post a screen of sentries in the woods. Dolabella immediately despatched a strike-force of lightly-armed infantry and Numidian cavalry. They approached Tacfarinas' camp unobserved, under cover of the woods and the pre-dawn darkness. At dawn the Romans attacked the camp in full battle-order as the disorganised Numidians scrambled to pick up their weapons and to find their horses. The complete surprise resulted in a massacre, made all the bloodier by the Romans' lust for revenge after years of humiliation. Acting on strict orders the Roman centurions directed their men against Tacfarinas himself. The latter and his entourage were soon surrounded by overwhelming numbers and in a fierce fight his bodyguards were killed and his son taken prisoner. Recognising that there was no possibility of escape, Tacfarinas impaled himself on the massed spears of his assailants. The death of Tacfarinas put an end to Musulamii hopes of halting the Roman takeover of their traditional grazing lands. Dolabella launched the registration of the whole plateau for tax purposes immediately after Tacfarinas' demise and completed it by 29 or 30, as evidenced by the stone markers laid down by the Roman surveyors, some of which survive to this day. The surveyors reach as far as the Chott el Jerid on the province's southern border. The region was largely turned to grain production and the Musulamii and other tribes permanently excluded from their former grazing areas. Dolabella applied to the Senate for triumphal honours. His motion was voted down at the behest of Tiberius, despite the fact that arguably Dolabella deserved the accolade more than any of his three predecessors; unlike them, he had actually brought the war to an end by eliminating its instigator. Tacitus suggests that the reason was Sejanus' concern that his uncle's glory should not be diminished by comparison. Doubtless Tiberius' embarrassment that the war had flared up again after he had declared it won also played a part. ### Later life Tacitus mentions Dolabella twice more in the surviving portions of his Annales. In 28 Dolabella joined in the prosecution of his cousin Publius Quinctilius Varus. It is not known what Varus was charged with, but it may have been treason or maiestas. The outcome of the case is unknown, but the absence of his family from history makes it likely that Varus was either condemned or committed suicide. The date of Dollabella's death is not recorded.

Days of Wine and D'oh'ses

"Days of Wine and D'oh'ses" is the eighteenth episode of the eleventh season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 9, 2000. In the episode, Barney realizes how much of a pathetic drunk he is after watching his birthday party video and decides to give up alcohol forever, which upsets his friend Homer. Meanwhile, Bart and Lisa work together to take a memorable photo for a new phone book cover contest. It was the first episode of the show to be written by cast member Dan Castellaneta and his wife Deb Lacusta. They originally pitched the story during the production of the series' fourth season, but the concept was rejected on the basis of being too similar to the episode "Duffless"; it was later revived by showrunner Mike Scully. Several staff members opposed the idea of Barney becoming sober because they did not think his character change would be funny. Several critics, including Chris Turner, were also not fond of Barney's change. ## Plot Believing that no-one remembered his birthday, Barney is shown an embarrassing video of his birthday party, during which he is mocked by his friends with gag gifts including coupons from Moe for helicopter-flying lessons at the Springfield Flight School. Realizing that he is a hideous drunk, being so intoxicated that he forgot the events of that day, Barney vows to get sober. At first, he finds sustaining sobriety tough, but he finds his way to an AA meeting with Homer's help, and soon takes the helicopter lessons using the coupons. At Moe's Tavern, Homer is treated as the new Barney and is forced by Moe, Lenny, and Carl to perform drunken antics. Barney gives Homer a ride in the helicopter a few lessons later with the two arguing about Barney's new sobriety and Homer's unhappiness that they no longer have ridiculous adventures. Meanwhile, to get their picture on the cover of the new phone book and win the prize of a new bike, Bart and Lisa enter an amateur photo contest. They find an old camera with an old roll of film and start to take snapshots with it. One day, they are taking pictures atop Mt. Springfield when Bart inadvertently starts a forest fire by carelessly discarding a hot flashbulb, putting them in imminent danger. At Moe's, Barney arrives to make amends for his drunken behavior; when he and Homer see the news report of the fire, they band together to save Bart and Lisa. They hop in the helicopter, but land in the middle of a bridge when Barney panics over flying the helicopter, having not yet finished the lessons. When a Duff beer truck on the bridge spills its contents in front of Barney, Homer refuses to let him give up on sobriety and drinks an entire six-pack in his place, leaving Barney touched at his gesture. Together, Barney and a drunken Homer save the kids, and Bart commemorates the moment by taking a photo of the fire on Mt. Springfield, submitting it as his and Lisa's entry to the photo contest. The next day, at the Simpson house, Marge tells the children that the new phone books are here, and they have Bart and Lisa's picture on the front cover. Bart and Lisa realize that the picture on one of the phone books is not the one of the fire on Mt. Springfield; it is actually a photo of baby Bart and Lisa naked on the toilet, causing them to scream in horror. Marge says that the shot was in the film on the camera and that since she had taken it, she won the bike for them. Bart and Lisa, after accepting that they will be the laughingstock of the entire town, happily hug their mother, because they got the bike. Meanwhile, Barney's confidence and his friendship with Homer are restored, and he looks forward to an alcohol-free future, although he is now addicted to double-tall mocha lattes. It transpires that the coffees Barney drink are really supplied by Moe's coffee cart, who delights in the fact that Barney, having swapped his addiction from alcohol to coffee, is still a customer to him. ## Production "Days of Wine and D'oh'ses", the eighteenth episode of the eleventh season of The Simpsons (1999–2000), was the first episode to be written by Dan Castellaneta and his wife Deb Lacusta, and directed by Neil Affleck. In the early 1990s, Castellaneta, the voice of Homer, Barney, and many other characters on the show, conceived the idea to write an episode in which Barney sobers up. He told Lacusta of the idea, who wrote a draft that they then revised together. They presented their script to Al Jean when he and Mike Reiss were show runners on The Simpsons. Though Jean liked the story, he turned it down because the staff was already working on a similar episode where Homer gives up beer—"Duffless" (1993). Castellaneta and Lacusta waited several years and presented their script, which they had updated, to then-showrunner Mike Scully (1997–2001), who liked it but had them make some changes. Several members of the staff, including The Simpsons creator Matt Groening, have stated that they were against the episode as they felt Barney being sober was not funny. After a long discussion about how the episode should end, the writers decided that they did not want Barney to return to being drunk at the end of the episode. The character's new addiction to coffee was suggested by writer/producer David Mirkin, who had friends that had stopped drinking alcohol and became addicted to coffee. For the episode, the animators gave Barney back-slicked hair to indicate his sobriety, a look which Barney maintained in subsequent episodes until he relapsed in "I'm Spelling as Fast as I Can" (2003). Castellaneta altered his voice for the sober Barney by no longer slurring. ## Release and reception The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 9, 2000. The episode received a Nielsen rating of 8.3 and was the second highest-rated show on Fox network that week, following Malcolm in the Middle. On October 7, 2008, it was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season. Staff members Mike Scully, George Meyer, Ian Maxtone-Graham, Dan Castellaneta, Deb Lacusta and Neil Affleck participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode. Deleted scenes from the episode were also included on the box set. While reviewing the eleventh season of The Simpsons, DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson commented that the episode "manages some good bits but not enough to make it a quality program." He also wrote that "If you thought that 'Alone Again, Natura-Diddly' would be Season 11's sole episode that features a big change for a secondary character, you thought wrong. No, Barney's sobriety isn't as major an event as Maude's demise, but it actually has a bigger impact on the series. After all, Maude was a tertiary role; her disappearance affects secondary personality Ned, but she didn't appear all that much, so she didn't really go missed. Making Barney sober affects the series on a much more consistent basis – though probably not in a good way. After all, most of Barney's appeal came from his drunken idiocy, so he loses his natural kick when he goes on the wagon." Several other writers have commented on Barney becoming sober. IGN staff members stated in 2006 that Barney has "been a dependable source of humor through his many drunken asides, burps included...Occasionally he's sobered up...But let's face it, for comedy's sake, The Simpsons is better off with a drunken Barney mouthing off at Moe's." Author Chris Turner wrote in his book Planet Simpson that "Barney is a good example of what happens when [the staff members] tinker too much. Barney was great as just the town drunk. Making him sober falls into the trap of all the stuff The Simpsons satirizes, all those simple sitcom narratives where everything is wrapped up in half an hour and everyone learns a lesson in the end." In 2001, "Days of Wine and D'oh'ses" received a commendation from the Prism Awards, which honors accurate portrayals of substance abuse, addiction and mental health in entertainment programming.

Lady Dimitrescu

Resident Evil character

Alcina Dimitrescu (Japanese: オルチーナ・ドミトレスク, Oruchīna Domitoresuku), better known as Lady Dimitrescu, is a character introduced in the 2021 survival horror game Resident Evil Village, developed and published by Capcom. One of the major antagonistic figures of Village, she is presented as a gigantic noblewoman with vampire-like traits who resides with her three daughters in Castle Dimitrescu, her stronghold within the vicinity of the titular Eastern European village encountered by Ethan Winters. Dimitrescu governs the village alongside three mutant lords under the oversight of a supreme leader known as Mother Miranda. Lady Dimitrescu's physical design was based on Polish model Helena Mankowska, while her voice acting and motion capture were performed by American theatre actress Maggie Robertson. Following initial previews of Village, Lady Dimitrescu rose in popularity and has become subject to a significant amount of fan-driven labor, including fan art, cosplay, memes, and erotica. Journalists and commentators took note of the trend, which began before the release of Village in May 2021, attributing the rapid surge of fan interest in the character to various aspects of her appearance and sex appeal. Robertson's performance was positively received, and has won her several awards. ## Concept and creation Created by Capcom for the 2021 video game Resident Evil Village, Lady Dimitrescu was born from the desire to create a charismatic femme fatale character. She was designed as a vampire-like character. Her character design was inspired by the 16th century Hungarian noblewoman Elizabeth Báthory, the Japanese urban legend and internet ghost story of Hasshaku-sama (or Hachishaku-sama), and Anjelica Huston's portrayal of the character Morticia Addams from The Addams Family. Aspects of Dimitrescu's characterization also references Ramon Salazar from Resident Evil 4, a diminutive villain said to have resonated with many players as a memorable antagonist. Dimitrescu has been falsely pronounced as Dimitreesk in English, with the final "u" letter being silent. This approach has been criticized by Romanian speakers who have said that the correct pronunciation is "dimi-tres-ku", as her name is Romanian. According to Tomonori Takano, the art director for Resident Evil Village, the developmental team intended to move away from using simplistic elements like zombies to scare players and instead focused on creating unique situations and memorable characters that would create fear in new ways, continuing a trend which began in Resident Evil 7: Biohazard, the predecessor to Village. The boss character of the Castle Dimitrescu area, Lady Dimitrescu is presented as a nigh invulnerable enemy with long retractable sharp claws that extend from her finger tips. Dimitrescu is programmed to stalk the player-controlled Ethan Winters throughout her castle; she is meant to be constantly evaded by the player, much like Mr. X from the 2019 remake of Resident Evil 2 or members of the Baker family from Resident Evil 7. Dimitrescu commands her "daughters" Bela, Cassandra, and Daniela as her subordinates, products of her experiments with the Cadou parasite whose bodies are composed of imitation flies that aggregate into the forms of the corpses they devoured and can only thrive within the castle walls. They were heavily influenced by the Brides of Dracula. Castle Dimitrescu, inspired by Peleș Castle in Romania, was originally conceived as being inhabited by "dozens upon dozens" of Dimitrescu's daughters, but the family was ultimately shortlisted to Alcina Dimitrescu and her three daughters following trial and error and testing of the game's pacing. Dimitrescu and her daughters, who compete with each other for their mother's attention and approval, feed off human blood to sustain themselves, with the remains of their male victims discarded and left in a crucified state outside of Castle Dimitrescu. Dimitrescu is said to be highly protective of her daughters in a maternal fashion, which the developers approached by presenting her story as paralleling that of Ethan's own family whom he is also trying to protect. Dimitrescu stands at 2.9 m (9 ft 6 in), taking into consideration her hat and high heels. As Takano wanted to avoid typical gothic imagery associated with past Resident Evil games as well as the horror genre as a whole, the Dimitrescu women's visual design reference fashion trends from the 1930s era instead, while the sisters' clothing are finely embroidered with floral patterns of the Dimitrescu family crest. Her appearance first came about in an early prototype that used the model of Ethan's wife Mia Winters from Resident Evil 7 but with a hat and a dress, which gave her a ghost-like appearance, but not one that comes across as overly scary. The team scaled-up the model in game and discovered that the additional accessories provided that necessary element. Based on this prototype, one of the first pieces of concept art Takano drew of Lady Dimitrescu involved her imposing visage leaning down to step through a doorway and demonstrating her over nine-foot height, which he recognized needed to be a scene in the final game, as well as being present in the game's first trailer. Dimitrescu's character model was based on Polish model Helena Mankowska, but her voice and motion capture were performed by American theatrical actress Maggie Robertson. She had auditioned for the role on a whim having recently moved from eastern United States to Los Angeles, and was surprised by the role, her first in video games. She considered adopting animal techniques while preparing for the part and considered the character to be "catlike," thus she used feline movement as the inspiration for her own motions. When asked after the character went viral, Maggie said "I'm incredibly grateful for it. It's given me a platform to create a safe space for lots of different communities, like the LGBT+ community." ## Appearances Alcina was born into the noble Dimitrescu family sometime before World War I. Although her family traced their origins to Cesare, one of the four founders of an isolated mountain village in Europe, Alcina lived elsewhere, perhaps through a cadet branch. In the aftermath of World War II and the abolition of the nobility, Dimitrescu returned to her family's former lands, which had fallen under the control of a neopagan cult worshipping the Black God. Dimitrescu suffered a hereditary blood disease prior to meeting Miranda who infected her with the Cadou parasite to see if she was compatible for her plans to revive her daughter. Although bestowed with profound regenerative capabilities and eternal life, Alcina's preexisting blood disease required her to ingest large quantities of human blood and flesh on a regular basis to maintain her condition, increasing her size while siring her "daughters" Daniela, Bela and Cassandra. Upon inhabiting the estate, she took over her family's vineyard and wine-distribution business as a means of supporting herself. The Dimitrescu family was closely associated with the noble Beneviento, Moreau, and Heisenberg families, and maintained an alliance with them in controlling the region. This control allowed Dimitrescu's family to rule her castle with barbarous cruelty, regularly taking in new staff to replace those who were taken to the dungeon to be killed with their blood used to create an enriched red wine. Ethan Winters is constantly being chased by Dimitrescu and her daughters in the castle around with her sharp extendable claws. On one circumstance, he was captured by Dimitrescu's daughters and strung up on a wall to be drained of blood, but manages to free himself and kill the daughters one at a time. This infuriates her as she ignores Miranda's orders to personally kill Ethan, forced into mutating into her true dragon-like form while confronting Ethan within her estate's family crypt and ultimately dies at his hand. In the downloadable content expansion "The Mercenaries: Additional Orders" for Resident Evil Village released in October 2022, Lady Dimitrescu is one of the playable characters. To give players smoother gameplay, director Kento Kinoshita decided to lower her height. Her gameplay consists of using her talons towards the enemies, gaining speed and attack damage bonuses after each kill. ## Promotion and merchandise To promote Resident Evil Village, Capcom distributed life-size standees of Lady Dimitrescu in video game stores. In Hong Kong, promotional material featuring the character was displayed on public transportation in early 2021. Notable merchandise which feature the character include life-sized towels which were offered as prizes for Japanese participants in a competition held on Twitter. Professional cosplayer Yaya Han uploaded a video sponsored by Capcom on her YouTube channel, which documents the process behind her cosplay activities as the character in April 2021. On April 30, 2021, a puppet show miniseries featuring Dimitrescu alongside her peers was released on the official biohazard YouTube channel. A three foot tall statue of Lady Dimitrescu made by PureArts in collaboration with Capcom is scheduled to be released in second quarter 2023. Her likeness has been co-opted by third party brands such as Domino's Pizza Malaysia to promote their products. In 2023, Capcom released car signs and car sign stickers depicting her. A US\$1649, 26-inch deluxe Lady Dimitrescu Figure has also been made. ## Reception Lady Dimitrescu received a very positive reception from critics and players following her initial reveal in a promotional trailer for Resident Evil Village which debuted in 2020, and for her appearance in the PlayStation 5-exclusive demo Maiden released on January 21, 2021. By February 2021, Takano publicly acknowledged what he later described as an unexpectedly enthusiastic response to the character. Even though Village was scheduled for launch on May 7, 2021, Dimitrescu's surge in popularity in early 2021 led to a significant proliferation of fan exploration of the character's concepts through fan art; received a fan-made action-figure commercial, cosplay activities by notable individuals such as Han or Olympic bronze medalist Yekaterina Lisina; and internet memes, which sometimes involved participation by other video game developers on social media. Dimitrescu has been the subject of fan mods for video games; examples include a mod for Fallout 4 which recreates her long-sleeved ivory gown to be worn by the player character, or a mod for Village which replaces Dimitrescu's face with that of Thomas the Tank Engine, with Eurogamer describing it as the "headline act" of the game's "burgeoning mod scene". In March 2021, Epic Games included Lady Dimitrescu along with series Jill Valentine and Ethan Winters in a list of characters and brands as part of a 2021 survey it distributed to Fortnite players in order to gauge interest in future crossover promotions. She was also included in Teppen expansion. Several commentators discussed at length about the phenomenon behind the character's popularity, with many identifying her unusually tall height as a key element which drew fan interest. Leon Hurley of GamesRadar+ observed that Dimitrescu is not the main villain of Village or its most important character, but nevertheless has become more prominent, popular, discussed, and imitated than was originally intended or expected. In light of the character's positive reception, Jess Kinghorn also from GamesRadar suggested that the video game industry should be less fixated with youthfulness by featuring more older female characters who are nuanced in characterization. In December 2021, Ed Nightingale of Eurogamer described her as the "most memorable character of the year", claiming that "Lady Dimitrescu embodies all of this, straddling the line between horror, sex, and camp." Certain commentators have suggested that some of the fan interest in the character is erotic or sexual in nature, specifically feminine dominance. Dimistrescu's popularity has indeed inspired a substantial amount of fan-made pornography or expressions of desire to participate in sexual or erotic fetishism. The character is said to have generated some interest in trampling, the act of being stepped on by a partner playing a sexually dominant role, in particular. Professional erotica writer Gemma Glitter attributed interest in the character by some corners to macrophilia, in this case a fascination of giant-sized women. Lloyd Houston of Eurogamer said that Dimitrescu proves to the queer people that disidentification is necessary. Steven T. Wright from Input Mag reported that Lady Dimitrescu's sex appeal represents the fetishization of their body height for several real-life tall women, as she is considered to be "simultaneously a beacon of their own power and allure, and a painful reminder of the complex social stigmas society attaches to femme body shape". Some critics have also criticised her for overcoming the horror game and for having shorter screen time that many players may have anticipated. Maggie Robertson has earned multiple awards for her performance as Lady Dimitrescu. She won Best Performer at the 2021 Golden Joystick Awards, Best Performance at The Game Awards 2021, the Great White Way Award for Best Acting in a Game at the 11th Annual New York Game Awards, and the Outstanding Performance in a Drama, Supporting award at the 21st annual NAVGTR Awards. At the 25th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards, Robertson accepted the award for Outstanding Achievement in Character on behalf of the Village development team in recognition for their collective work with Lady Dimitrescu.

Sulu bleeding-heart

Species of bird

The Sulu bleeding-heart or Tawitawi bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba menagei) is a species of bird in the pigeon and dove family, Columbidae. It is endemic to the island of Tawi-Tawi and its surrounding islets in the Philippines' Sulu Archipelago. This species is known only from two specimens collected in 1891, and has not been recorded with certainty since. It lives in primary and secondary forests that have a closed canopy. The Sulu bleeding-heart is a medium-sized pigeon with a short tail. Bright metallic green feathers stretch from the forehead and crown down to the mantle and sides of the breast, where they surround a large, pale orange breast spot with diffuse edges that gives the species the name "bleeding-heart". The lower wings and back are varying shades of brown, and the throat and chest are largely white. The belly is an ashy-gray. Like other bleeding-hearts, the Sulu bleeding-heart is primarily a sedentary bird, feeding on the forest floor and flying only for short distances. Little is known about its behavior due to the paucity of sightings. Searches of Tawi-Tawi in 1971 and 1991 did not discover any evidence of the species' continued existence. Most of the bird's habitat was logged on Tawi-Tawi by 1994. However, an ethnobiological survey in 1995 revealed that the bleeding-heart was common until the 1970s and still survives on small islets near Tawi-Tawi. While another survey in 2009 failed to find the species, there is some hope that it may still persist. For this reason, it is currently listed as critically endangered by the IUCN. Any surviving population would be very small, likely numbering fewer than 50 individuals, and would be threatened by habitat destruction and uncontrolled hunting. ## Taxonomy The Sulu bleeding-heart was originally described in 1894 as Phlogoenas menagei by Frank Swift Bourns and Dean Conant Worcester. The holotype, a male, was collected by them from the small island of Tataan off the coast of Tawi-Tawi in October 1891. The specific name, menagei, honors Louis F. Menage, a Minnesota real estate tycoon who funded the expedition. It is a member of the bleeding-heart superspecies, which includes Luzon bleeding-heart, Mindanao bleeding-heart, Mindoro bleeding-heart, and Negros bleeding-heart; these birds are so similar that some authors have considered them to be a single species. Some authors place the Sulu bleeding-heart, the other bleeding-hearts, and the cinnamon ground dove in their own subgenus, Gallicolumba. The Sulu bleeding-heart has no known subspecies. It is also called the Tawitawi bleeding-heart and the Tawitawi Puñalada. ## Description The Sulu bleeding-heart is a medium-sized pigeon with a short tail. Bright metallic green feathers stretch from the forehead and crown down to the mantle and sides of the breast. The scapular feathers are a dark chestnut color and are fringed with iridescence that can appear violet, green, or lilac in different lights. The wing-coverts are also a dark brown, with some of the feathers being ashy-gray at the tip to form a slight wingbar. The primary and greater coverts as well as the secondaries are a fulvous-brown edged in rufous, while the primaries are a dark brown with the longest feathers being tipped in black. The bleeding-heart's underwings are chestnut. The back down to the upper portion of the tail is a ruddy-brown narrowly fringed with metallic green or violet. The center of the tail is dark brown while the edges are ashy-gray and tipped with a broad black band; the undertail-coverts are orange while the undertail is ashy-gray. The area around the bird's eyes is black with a faint hint of glossy green, and the chin, throat, and breast are pure white. The upper breast is framed by large patches of metallic green feathers of the same coloration as the mantle that form an incomplete breast band in the center of the chest. In between these patches is a large, pale orange breast spot with diffuse edges. The belly is ashy-gray. Males and females are similar in appearance, and the plumage of the juvenile is unknown. The iris is a light silver-gray. The bill is black with a gray tip, and the feet are red. The bleeding-heart is between 25 and 27 cm (9.8 and 10.6 in) long, and the weight is unknown. The Sulu bleeding-heart is easily distinguished from most terrestrial doves found on Tawi-Tawi. The emerald dove is most likely to be confused with the bleeding-heart, but the emerald dove is distinguished by a larger and whiter shoulder patch, a white supercilium, and dark chestnut underparts. Two bleeding-hearts are kept as pets and may escape on Tawi-Tawi; the Sulu bleeding-heart differs from the Luzon bleeding-heart by not having the Luzon bleeding-heart's purple nape and back, and from the Mindanao bleeding-heart by lacking prominent gray wing-bars and an orange belly. The Sulu bleeding-heart's vocalizations have never been described. ## Distribution and habitat The Sulu bleeding-heart is endemic to the island of Tawi-Tawi and its nearby islets in the southwestern part of the Philippines's Sulu Archipelago. The bleeding-heart is believed to be extirpated on the Tawi-Tawi mainland, but there are indigenous reports of the species on the nearby islets of Tandubatu, Dundangan, and Baliungan. There is also an unconfirmed nineteenth-century sight record of the species from the island of Jolo in the center of the Sulu Archipelago. The species lives in primary and secondary forests that have a closed canopy. On the smaller islets, it lives in beach forest. ## Ecology and behavior Like other bleeding-hearts, the Sulu bleeding-heart is primarily a sedentary bird, feeding on the forest floor and flying only for short distances. It only perches in trees in order to roost or mate. When alarmed, bleeding-hearts run quickly into nearby undergrowth. It is very elusive in its forested habitat, and nothing else is known about its behavior. ## Status The Sulu bleeding-heart is considered to be critically endangered by the IUCN. The Sulu bleeding-heart has always been considered a rare bird, and only two specimens, both males, have ever been taken of the species. The specimens, collected in October 1891 on the small islet of Tataan, are the last time anyone has definitely seen the Sulu bleeding-heart alive. The bleeding-heart was searched for 22 days in December 1971 and briefly in September 1991 without success. Most of Tawi-Tawi's forests were cleared by August 1994, and the Sulu bleeding-heart may well be extirpated on the mainland. However, an ethnobiological survey in 1995 generated reports that the bleeding-heart survives and is regularly seen on the nearby islets of Tandubatu, Dundangan, and Baliungan. It was also reported that the species was quite common until the 1970s. Despite this, an expedition in 2009 failed to find any signs of the species or discover a new report of the species' continued existence. The islets it reportedly survives on may also be too small to support a viable population. Any surviving population of Sulu bleeding-hearts is likely to be small, possibly numbering fewer than 50 birds, and would be threatened by continued habitat destruction and uncontrolled hunting. As the Mindanao and Luzon bleeding-hearts are popular cagebirds, any bleeding-heart found on Tawi-Tawi could also be an escaped bleeding-heart instead of the indigenous Sulu bleeding-heart. There are no protected areas in the Sulu Archipelago, and other than two environmental education initiatives in the 1990s nothing has been done to protect any surviving population. The Zoological Society of London has listed the bird as an EDGE species.

Daniel J. Callaghan

United States Navy Admiral

Daniel Judson Callaghan (July 26, 1890 – November 13, 1942) was a United States Navy officer who received the Medal of Honor posthumously for his actions during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. In a three-decades-long career, he served his country in two wars. Callaghan served on several ships during his first 20 years of service, including escort duties during World War I, and also filled some shore-based administrative roles. He later came to the attention of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who appointed Callaghan as his naval aide in 1938. A few years later, he returned to command duties during the early stages of World War II. An enemy shell killed Callaghan on the bridge of his flagship, USS San Francisco, during a surface action against a larger Japanese force off Savo Island. The battle ended in a strategic victory for the Allied side. ## Early life Callaghan was born on July 26, 1890, in San Francisco, California, the son of businessman Charles William Callaghan and Rose Wheeler Callaghan. The family was devoutly Roman Catholic. Callaghan was named Daniel after his grandfather, who emigrated from Cork, Ireland during the 1840s. One of his younger brothers, William Callaghan (1897–1991), would later go on to a career in the US Navy as well. Both brothers studied at Saint Ignatius College Preparatory in San Francisco, the elder graduating in the class of 1907. He then graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1911. His first assignment was on board the armored cruiser USS California, in command of a turret with twin 8-inch (203 mm) guns. He was promoted to the rank of ensign on May 21, 1912. His second assignment was on the destroyer USS Truxtun in mid-1913. He was promoted to lieutenant (junior grade) in May 1915. In his first few years of service, he developed a reputation as a conscientious sailor, noted for avoiding heavy alcohol consumption and regularly attending Mass. His dedication to naval gunnery also became apparent. Some years later, one of his captains, Joel Pringle, would write: "[Callaghan's] devotion to duty, sound judgment and ability to inspire loyalty in his subordinates have resulted in a constant and steady increase in the efficiency of the above mentioned batteries. At the recent battle practice of the Pacific Fleet in 5-inch guns, he made the largest percentage of hits of any ship of the Fleet." During his first few years of naval service, Callaghan had been courting Mary Tormey of Oakland, California; the two married on July 23, 1914. Their son, Daniel Judson Callaghan Jr., was born in Alameda, California, on October 16, 1915. In July 1915, Truxtun was on its way to Alaska when it broke down and could not continue its mission. Initially, the blame fell on Callaghan, who had apparently ordered incorrect condenser parts. He was suspended from duty and ordered to appear before a court-martial. Subsequent investigation, however, found that another man was responsible for the error, and Callaghan received a full acquittal and was reinstated. A few months later, he was appointed as commanding officer of Truxtun, but the stress of his trial appeared to have left its mark—at the age of 25 years, his hair had already turned gray. ## World War I Callaghan's next posting was to the cruiser USS New Orleans in November 1916. Following the entry of the United States into World War I, in April 1917, New Orleans escorted cargo ships crossing the Atlantic Ocean. At this time, he first met Ross McIntire, a surgeon, who would later have a significant impact on his career. According to biographer Francis Murphy, Callaghan played a pivotal role in the rescue of a disabled British ocean liner off the coast of Ireland: "Four times a hawser was hauled aboard the cruiser from the liner, that was about three times the cruiser's size, and four times the cable parted. The Captain was for abandoning the job. But not Dan. With superhuman strength and the full cooperation of his men, he finally secured the cable. For forty-eight hours the New Orleans stayed with the stricken vessel hauling it out of danger [and] finally handing it on to tugs from a North Ireland base." Following the war, he settled in Georgetown, Washington, D.C. for two years with his wife and young son. During this time, he worked on the reassignment of warrant and chief petty officers from the navy. Callaghan next served aboard the newly commissioned battleship USS Idaho, commencing in October 1920. While his family moved back to Oakland, he began serving as a fire control officer on Idaho. He left Idaho in June 1923, returning to shore duties for two years before taking up the position of first lieutenant on the battleship USS Colorado in May 1925. Colorado transported a shipment of gold to Australia before returning to the United States in 1926. His next assignment was the position of gunnery officer on board the battleship USS Mississippi. Captain Thomas Hart wrote of Callaghan: "I can scarcely report too favorably on this officer. He is excellent generally and particularly; and he looks and acts the part. As gunnery officer, he is being highly successful and I unhesitatingly recommend him for almost any detail." Callaghan left Mississippi in July 1928 and worked in naval inspections for the next two years. He served as Aide to the Commander in Chief, US Fleet, and was promoted to the rank of commander in June 1931. He then served as executive officer of the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps at the University of California, Berkeley, before working on the cruiser USS Portland. In 1938, US President Franklin Roosevelt asked his physician, Ross McIntire, to recommend someone for the position of Naval Aide. McIntire recommended Callaghan, who was appointed to the role in July 1938 and would fill it for the next three years. He was promoted to the rank of captain in October 1938. ## World War II In May 1941, during the early stages of World War II, Roosevelt released Callaghan to take command of the cruiser USS San Francisco. Roosevelt wrote: "It is with great regret that I am letting Captain Callaghan leave as my Naval Aide. He has given every satisfaction and has performed duties of many varieties with tact and real efficiency. He has shown a real understanding of the many problems of the service within itself and in relationship to the rest of Government." In April 1942, he was promoted to the rank of rear admiral and was appointed as chief of staff to the Commander, South Pacific Area and South Pacific Force Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley. He served in that billet until Vice Admiral Ghormley was relieved on 18 October 1942. As commander of Task Group 67.4, he commanded U.S. naval forces against Japanese warships during the First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 13 November 1942. He was on the bridge of the USS San Francisco when enemy fire killed him and most of his command staff. At that time, he became the third US Navy admiral killed in action during World War II. Following his death, Lieutenant Commander Bruce McCandless assumed operational command of San Francisco. Earlier in the battle, Rear Admiral Norman Scott had been killed, so two US commanders had now been lost, as well as several of their staff. Despite the deaths of so many senior officers, the battle ended in a strategic victory for the Allied side. In hindsight, Callaghan was criticized for not distributing his five ships that had the superior SG radar systems throughout his battle line, for not using one of them as his flagship, for directing the battle from his flagship's bridge instead of the radar plot, for not issuing his battle plans to his captains, and for giving confusing orders during the battle. Analysis of the battle led to a rapid improvement in USN techniques for fighting in poor visibility, particularly in adopting combat information centers. Callaghan was buried at sea. He was survived by his wife, Mary Tormey Callaghan, and son, Daniel Judson Callaghan Jr. (1915–2006). His brother William Callaghan would later become the first captain of the battleship USS Missouri, a vice admiral, and the first commander of the Military Sea Transportation Service. By order of President Roosevelt, both Rear Admirals Callaghan and Scott were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. ## Honors and awards His decorations include: Before receiving the Medal of Honor, Callaghan had been awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. Other awards to Admiral Callaghan include the World War I Victory Medal, the American Defense Service Medal and posthumous awards of the Purple Heart, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal and World War II Victory Medal. ### Medal of Honor Callaghan's Medal of Honor citation read: > For extraordinary heroism and conspicuous intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty during action against enemy Japanese forces off Savo Island on the night of 12–13 November 1942. Although out-balanced in strength and numbers by a desperate and determined enemy, Rear Admiral Callaghan, with ingenious tactical skill and superb coordination of the units under his command, led his forces into battle against tremendous odds, thereby contributing decisively to the rout of a powerful invasion fleet and to the consequent frustration of a formidable Japanese offensive. While faithfully directing close-range operations in the face of furious bombardment by superior enemy fire power, he was killed on the bridge of his Flagship. His courageous initiative, inspiring leadership, and judicious foresight in a crisis of grave responsibility were in keeping with the finest traditions of the United States Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life in the defense of his country. His son was a lieutenant (junior grade) at the time and accepted his father's Medal of Honor on his behalf. ## Legacy The US Navy has named two ships after Callaghan: USS Callaghan (DD-792) and USS Callaghan (DDG-994). The first ship was commissioned on November 27, 1943, and was sponsored by Callaghan's widow. It sank in late July 1945 in a kamikaze attack. The second ship was commissioned on August 29, 1981, one of a class named for the four American admirals killed in World War II, and sold to Taiwan just over 20 years later. Callaghan's name is listed on Tablets of the Missing at Manila American Cemetery in the Philippines. Callaghan Hall at Officer Training Command, Newport, Rhode Island, is named in his honor. The Callaghan Fitness Center at Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth Virginia is also named for him. A street, Admiral Callaghan Lane in Vallejo, California, is also named after him, and a monument in Lands End, San Francisco (including part of the bridge of USS San Francisco, where he died), honors him and his comrades. ## See also - List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II - New Orleans-class cruiser - Truxtun-class destroyer

Lonely runner conjecture

Unsolved problem in mathematics

In number theory, specifically the study of Diophantine approximation, the lonely runner conjecture is a conjecture about the long-term behavior of runners on a circular track. It states that $n$ runners on a track of unit length, with constant speeds all distinct from one another, will each be lonely at some time—at least $1/n$ units away from all others. The conjecture was first posed in 1967 by German mathematician Jörg M. Wills, in purely number-theoretic terms, and independently in 1974 by T. W. Cusick; its illustrative and now-popular formulation dates to 1998. The conjecture is known to be true for 7 runners or less, but the general case remains unsolved. Implications of the conjecture include solutions to view-obstruction problems and bounds on properties, related to chromatic numbers, of certain graphs. ## Formulation Consider $n$ runners on a circular track of unit length. At the initial time $t=0$, all runners are at the same position and start to run; the runners' speeds are constant, all distinct, and may be negative. A runner is said to be lonely at time $t$ if they are at a distance (measured along the circle) of at least $1/n$ from every other runner. The lonely runner conjecture states that each runner is lonely at some time, no matter the choice of speeds. This visual formulation of the conjecture was first published in 1998. In many formulations, including the original by Jörg M. Wills, some simplifications are made. The runner to be lonely is stationary at 0 (with zero speed), and therefore $n-1$ other runners, with nonzero speeds, are considered. The moving runners may be further restricted to positive speeds only: by symmetry, runners with speeds $x$ and $-x$ have the same distance from 0 at all times, and so are essentially equivalent. Proving the result for any stationary runner implies the general result for all runners, since they can be made stationary by subtracting their speed from all runners, leaving them with zero speed. The conjecture then states that, for any collection $v_1,v_2,...,v_{n-1}$ of positive, distinct speeds, there exists some time $t>0$ such that $\frac{1}{n}\leq \operatorname{frac}(v_it)\leq 1-\frac{1}{n}\qquad (i=1,...,n-1),$ where $\operatorname{frac}(x)$ denotes the fractional part of $x$. Interpreted visually, if the runners are running counterclockwise, the middle term of the inequality is the distance from the origin to the $i$th runner at time $t$, measured counterclockwise. This convention is used for the rest of this article. Wills' conjecture was part of his work in Diophantine approximation, the study of how closely fractions can approximate irrational numbers. ## Implications Suppose $C$ is a n-hypercube of side length $s$ in n-dimensional space ($n\geq2$). Place a centered copy of $C$ at every point with half-integer coordinates. A ray from the origin may either miss all of the copies of $C$, in which case there is a (infinitesimal) gap, or hit at least one copy. made an independent formulation of the lonely runner conjecture in this context; the conjecture implies that there are gaps if and only if $s<(n-1)/(n+1)$, ignoring rays lying in one of the coordinate hyperplanes. For example, placed in 2-dimensional space, squares any smaller than $1/3$ in side length will leave gaps, as shown, and squares with side length $1/3$ or greater will obstruct every ray that is not parallel to an axis. The conjecture generalizes this observation into any number of dimensions. In graph theory, a distance graph $G$ on the set of integers, and using some finite set $D$ of positive integer distances, has an edge between $x,y$ if and only if $|x-y|\in D$. For example, if $D=\{2\}$, every consecutive pair of even integers, and of odd integers, is adjacent, all together forming two connected components. A k-regular coloring of the integers with step $\lambda\in\mathbb{R}$ assigns to each integer $n$ one of $k$ colors based on the residue of $\lfloor \lambda n\rfloor$modulo $k$. For example, if $\lambda=0.5$, the coloring repeats every $2k$ integers and each pair of integers $2m, 2m+1$ are the same color. Taking $k=|D|+1$, the lonely runner conjecture implies $G$ admits a proper k-regular coloring (i.e., each node is colored differently than its adjacencies) for some step value. For example, $(k,\lambda)=(2,0.5)$ generates a proper coloring on the distance graph generated by $D=\{2\}$. ($k$ is known as the regular chromatic number of $D$.) Given a directed graph $G$, a nowhere-zero flow on $G$ associates a positive value $f(e)$ to each edge $e$, such that the flow outward from each node is equal to the flow inward. The lonely runner conjecture implies that, if $G$ has a nowhere-zero flow with at most $k$ distinct integer values, then $G$ has a nowhere-zero flow with values only in $\{1,2,\ldots,k\}$ (possibly after reversing the directions of some arcs of $G$). This result was proven for $k\geq 5$ with separate methods, and because the smaller cases of the lonely runner conjecture are settled, the full theorem is proven. ## Known results For a given setup of runners, let $\delta$ denote the smallest of the runners' maximum distances of loneliness, and the gap of loneliness $\delta_n$ denote the minimum $\delta$ across all setups with $n$ runners. In this notation, the conjecture asserts that $\delta_n\geq 1/n$, a bound which, if correct, cannot be improved. For example, if the runner to be lonely is stationary and speeds $v_i=i$ are chosen, then there is no time at which they are strictly more than $1/n$ units away from all others, showing that $\delta_n \leq 1/n$. Alternatively, this conclusion can be quickly derived from the Dirichlet approximation theorem. For $n\geq 2$ a simple lower bound $\delta_n\geq 1/(2n-2)$ may be obtained via a probability argument. The conjecture can be reduced to restricting the runners' speeds to positive integers: If the conjecture is true for $n$ runners with integer speeds, it is true for $n$ runners with real speeds. ### Tighter bounds Slight improvements on the lower bound $1/(2n-2)$ are known. showed for $n\geq 5$ that if $2n-5$ is prime, then $\delta_n\geq \tfrac{1}{2n-5}$, and if $4n-9$ is prime, then $\delta_n\geq \tfrac{2}{4n-9}$. showed unconditionally for sufficiently large $n$ that $\delta_n\geq \frac{1}{2n-4+o(1)}.$ `proved the current best known asymptotic result: for sufficiently large `$n$`,` $\delta_n\geq \frac{1}{2n-2}+\frac{c\log n}{n^2(\log\log n)^2}$ for some constant $c>0$. He also showed that the full conjecture is implied by proving the conjecture for integer speeds of size $n^{O(n^2)}$ (see big O notation). This implication theoretically allows proving the conjecture for a given $n$ by checking a finite set of cases, but the number of cases grows too quickly to be practical. The conjecture has been proven under specific assumptions on the runners' speeds. For sufficiently large $n$, it holds true if $\frac{v_{i+1}}{v_i}\geq 1 + \frac{22\log(n-1)}{n-1} \qquad (i=1,...,n-2).$ In other words, the conjecture holds true for large $n$ if the speeds grow quickly enough. If the constant 22 is replaced with 33, then the conjecture holds true for $n\geq 16343$. A similar result for sufficiently large $n$ only requires a similar assumption for $i =\lfloor n/22 \rfloor-1,...,n-2$. Unconditionally on $n$, the conjecture is true if $v_{i+1}/v_i\geq 2$ for all $i$. ### For specific n The conjecture is true for $n\leq 7$ runners. The proofs for $n\leq 3$ are elementary; the $n=4$ case was established in 1972. The $n=5$, $n=6$, and $n=7$ cases were settled in 1984, 2001 and 2008, respectively. The first proof for $n=5$ was computer-assisted, but all cases have since been proved with elementary methods. For some $n$, there exist sporadic examples with a maximum separation of $1/n$ besides the example of $v_i=i$ given above. For $n=5$, the only known example (up to shifts and scaling) is $\{0,1,3,4,7\}$; for $n=6$ the only known example is $\{0,1,3,4,5,9\}$; and for $n=8$ the known examples are $\{0,1,4,5,6,7,11,13\}$ and $\{0,1,2,3,4,5,7,12\}$. There exists an explicit infinite family of such sporadic cases. `formulated a sharper version of the conjecture that addresses near-equality cases. More specifically, he conjectures that for a given set of speeds `$v_i$`, either `$\delta = s/(s(n-1)+1)$` for some positive integer `$s$`, or `$\delta \geq 1/(n-1)$`, where `$\delta$` is that setup's gap of loneliness. He confirmed this conjecture for `$n\leq 4$` and a few special cases.` `addressed the question of the size of the time required for a runner to get lonely. He formulated a stronger conjecture stating that for every integer `$n \geq 3$` there is a positive integer `$N$` such that for any collection `$v_1,v_2,...,v_{n-1}$` of positive, distinct speeds, there exists some time `$t>0$` such that `$\operatorname{frac}(v_it)\in [1/n,1-1/n]$` for `$i=1, ...n-1$` with` $t \leq \frac{N}{\operatorname{min} (v_1,..., v_{n-1})}.$ Rifford confirmed this conjecture for $n=3,4,5,6$ and showed that the minimal $N$ in each case is given by $N=1$ for $n=3,4,5$ and $N=2$ for $n=6$. The latter result ($N=2$ for $n=6$) shows that if we consider six runners starting from $0$ at time $t=0$ with constant speeds $v_0,v_1,...,v_{5}$ with $v_0=0$ and $v_1,...,v_{5}$ distinct and positive then the static runner is separated by a distance at least $1/6$ from the others during the first two rounds of the slowest non-static runner (but not necessary during the first round). ### Other results A much stronger result exists for randomly chosen speeds: using the stationary-runner convention, if $n$ and $\varepsilon>0$ are fixed and $n-1$ runners with nonzero speeds are chosen uniformly at random from $\{1,2,\ldots,k\}$, then $P(\delta\geq 1/2 - \varepsilon)\to 1$ as $k\to\infty$. In other words, runners with random speeds are likely at some point to be "very lonely"—nearly $1/2$ units from the nearest other runner. The full conjecture is true if "loneliness" is replaced with "almost aloneness", meaning at most one other runner is within $1/n$ of a given runner. The conjecture has been generalized to an analog in algebraic function fields.

Neda Agha-Soltan Graduate Scholarship

Scholarship for post-graduate philosophy students at The Queen's College

The Neda Agha-Soltan Graduate Scholarship is a scholarship for post-graduate philosophy students at The Queen's College, Oxford, with preference given to students of Iranian citizenship or heritage. It was established in 2009 following the death of Neda Agha-Soltan, an Iranian philosophy student, in the street protests that followed the disputed Iranian presidential election in 2009. The college received offers from two anonymous donors to establish a scholarship, followed by many individual donations from former students of Queen's and others to reach its £70,000 target to establish the scholarship on a permanent basis. The first recipient of the scholarship was Arianne Shahvisi, a philosophy student of Iranian descent, who described the award as "a great honour". The establishment of the scholarship led to criticism from the Iranian government: the Iranian embassy in London told the college that the university was involved in a "politically motivated campaign ... in sharp contrast with its academic objectives". In response, The Times praised the scholarship in an editorial, saying that the establishment of the scholarship was indeed politically motivated, "and admirably so", given the government's reaction to her death and continuing problems in Iran. One British–Iranian student, Leyla Ferani, has said that the scholarship could be Agha-Soltan's "most important legacy". The college has denied that it took a political decision in establishing the scholarship, stating that it aims to attract and support the best students, and arguing that refusal of the donations would itself have been a political act. Anonymous British diplomatic sources were reported as saying that the creation of the scholarship had put "another nail into the coffin" of relations between Britain and Iran. ## Neda Agha-Soltan Neda Agha-Soltan, a 26-year-old philosophy student, was shot and killed on 20 June 2009 during street protests in Iran that followed the disputed presidential election. Video footage of her death was seen around the world. In the words of The Times, she "became an emblem of the Iranian people's struggle for freedom, and her death a symbol of the government's brutality". Another writer has called her a "defining symbol of the protest movement in Iran". ## Scholarship After Agha-Soltan's death, two anonymous British donors offered to donate £4,000 to establish a scholarship for post-graduate students of philosophy at The Queen's College, Oxford (one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford); the college's governing body accepted the offers. One of the initial donors has pledged a further £10,000 over five years. The college has said that the main donor was a British citizen and well known to Queen's. By November 2009, in the region of an additional £15,000 had been donated to the scholarship fund, some from former students of the college and some from members of the public without a connection to Queen's. A fundraising campaign targeting former philosophy students of the college led to further donations, which increased the fund to over £20,000 by Michaelmas Term of 2009. The appeal raised £70,000 to put the scholarship on a permanent financial footing; donors included people without connections to the college and some who the college said had taken "significant risks in order to donate". The decision to name the scholarship after Agha-Soltan was that of the donors rather than the college: Paul Madden, the Provost of the college, said that "within reason" donors decided the name of a scholarship. The scholarship pays college fees of about £4,000 over a two-year period. It is open to all students at Queen's studying for post-graduate degrees in philosophy, with preference given to Iranian nationals or those with Iranian heritage. The first holder of the scholarship was Arianne Shahvisi, studying philosophy of physics, who is of Iranian descent. She said that it was "a great honour" to be awarded the scholarship, adding that she hoped she could "do justice" to Agha-Soltan's name. She was succeeded by an unnamed male student, studying political philosophy and the history of political thought. ## Iranian government reaction The establishment of the scholarship drew a letter of protest to the college from the Iranian embassy in London. It was written in November 2009 and signed by the deputy ambassador, Safarali Eslamian. The letter disputed the circumstances of her death, and said that there was "supporting evidence indicating a pre-made scenario". Eslamain wrote, "It seems that the University of Oxford has stepped up involvement in a politically motivated campaign which is not only in sharp contract with its academic objectives, but also is linked with a chain of events in post-Iranian presidential elections blamed for British interference both at home and abroad". The letter also said that the "decision to abuse Neda's case to establish a graduate scholarship will highly politicise your academic institution, undermining your scientific credibility – along with British press which made exceptionally a lot of hue and cry on Neda's death – will make Oxford at odd [sic] with the rest of the world's academic institutions". Eslamain asked for the university's governing board to be informed of "the Iranian views", and finished by saying, "Surely, your steps to achieve your attractions through non-politically supported programmes can better heal the wounds of her family and her nation". There was also a report of a demonstration outside the British Embassy in Tehran against the scholarship. A group of female protesters were said by the Iranian news agency Fars to have chanted "Death to Britain". In response, Madden emphasised that the scholarship was to help Iranian students without adequate financial resources of their own to study at Oxford. He said that other universities were winning the competition to attract the best graduate students, adding that donations such as these were "absolutely vital" for the college to be able to "attract and retain the best young minds". A college spokesman said that the scholarship had not been set up as part of a political decision, and if the initial donations had been refused, this would have been interpreted as a political decision too. The university (which did not receive a letter of complaint from the embassy) made it clear that the decision to establish the scholarship was one for Queen's, not for the university, since the colleges are self-governing bodies. ## Other reaction Arash Hejazi, an Iranian writer who was present at Soltan's death, praised the college for the scholarship. An unnamed Iranian academic said to The Times that the letter from the Iranian embassy showed that the death had damaged the Iranian government. A British-Iranian student, Leyla Ferani, writing in The Daily Telegraph, said that the establishment of the scholarship was "more than commendable", and "could prove to be a galvanising tool for the protestors". She said that "Oxford's move is as striking as it is heartening", adding that it "honours the whole student body in Iran which has been repressed and tortured by the Islamic Republic". She commented that "In one of Britain’s top universities, it will foster crucial awareness of the government's tyrannical attitude towards education", and said that the scholarship could be Soltan's "most important legacy". A day after publishing the letter from the Iranian embassy, an editorial in The Times praised the college's actions. It described Soltan's death as a "brutal example" of a government's suppressing opposition, and said that the Iranian response to her death was giving the country the status of "international basket case". While the problems of Iran were no longer front-page news, it said, they still existed. In the circumstances, the editorial concluded, "A scholarship at The Queen’s College in memory of Neda Soltan is, indeed, politically motivated, and admirably so". UK diplomatic sources, speaking anonymously to The Times, said that if the government had been asked, it would have advised against the creation of the scholarship, because Iran would see it as an act of provocation, and because it would interfere with efforts to free Iranians working for the British Embassy in Tehran who had been detained for participating in the post-election protests. The sources said the scholarship had put "another nail into the coffin" of relations between Britain and Iran.

Fionna and Cake

"Fionna and Cake" is the ninth episode of the third season of the American animated television series Adventure Time. The episode was written and storyboarded by Adam Muto and Rebecca Sugar, from a story by Mark Banker, Kent Osborne, Patrick McHale, and series creator Pendleton Ward. It originally aired on Cartoon Network on September 5, 2011. The series follows the adventures of Finn (voiced by Jeremy Shada), a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake (voiced by John DiMaggio), a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will. In this episode, Finn and Jake are forced to listen to The Ice King's fan fiction about the gender-swapped Fionna (voiced by Madeleine Martin) and Cake the cat (voiced by Roz Ryan). In his story, Fionna goes on a date with Prince Gumball (voiced by Neil Patrick Harris) and fights the evil Ice Queen (voiced by Grey DeLisle). The concept of Fionna and Cake was based on sketches that series' character designer and storyboard revisionist Natasha Allegri made. Ward was pleased with her creations, and decided to canonize them. Originally, the episode did not feature the Ice Queen at all, and the middle part of the episode saw Fionna go on a date with Gumball to a restaurant; this subsequently changed. The episode was watched by 3.315 million people, making it—at the time—the most-watched episode of the series. "Fionna and Cake" received largely positive reviews from fans and critics alike. Two sequels to the episode—"Bad Little Boy" and "The Prince Who Wanted Everything"—were produced during the show's fifth and sixth season, respectively as well as a comic book miniseries titled Adventure Time with Fionna and Cake published by kaBOOM along with a spin-off series featuring the characters titled Adventure Time: Fionna and Cake. ## Plot Fionna and Cake are helping Prince Gumball decorate for the Biennial Gumball Ball when Gumball asks Fionna if she would like to go to it tonight with him. Their conversation is interrupted when the Ice Queen breaks into the castle and tries to kidnap Gumball. Fionna and Cake start to fight her before she mysteriously disappears. Gumball (who is apparently unharmed) arranges a date with Fionna. At the Tree Fort, Fionna and Cake argue over whether or not Gumball asked Fionna on a date. Cake decides to come along to help Fionna out. At the Castle Gardens, the two are met by Gumball and his steed Lord Monochromicorn. The group then flies through the air while Gumball serenades Fionna with the song "Oh, Fionna" and eventually asks her to be his girlfriend. When Fionna and Cake get to the ball, Prince Gumball takes Fionna to his room (decorated with candles and rose petals) and locks the door. She becomes flustered and backs away when he begins to take his shirt off. A drop of water lands on her shoulder, she looks up to see the real Prince Gumball trapped inside a giant icicle on the ceiling. The fake prince is revealed to be Ice Queen. Fionna is soon incapacitated; Cake senses trouble and rushes to her rescue. Enraged by the deception, Fionna takes out the crystal sword to fight. The sword turns out to be another one of Ice Queen's tricks and turns into a ball of ice around Fionna's hands. Cake hears noises from downstairs and senses Fionna is in trouble. Undaunted, Fionna uses the ice to beat Ice Queen over the head. Ice Queen pushes her off with a burst of snow which allows Fionna to get close to enough to break Prince Gumball free and knock out the Ice Queen with a broken icicle. Cake bursts in and sees Gumball standing next to Fionna in her torn dress; she jumps to the wrong conclusion and lunges at him but Fionna stops Cake and tells her it was the Ice Queen all along. Just then Ice Queen recovers and blasts Cake away from Fionna only to have Fionna knock her magic tiara off which negates her powers. The real Gumball asks Fionna on a date and is turned down; Fionna notes that she does not need a boyfriend at the moment—unless it were the Ice King. The episode quickly reveals itself to be a fanfiction story created by the Ice King, who is reading it to an imprisoned Finn and Jake. The Ice King asks how they enjoyed his story; Finn hesitates at first but hurriedly placates him when Ice King threatens them with his ice powers. ## Cast "Fionna and Cake", taking place in a gender-swapped universe, likewise features gender-swapped versions of the inhabitants of Ooo. A list of the major characters that feature in "Fionna and Cake" follows. - Fionna (voiced by Madeleine Martin) – Fionna is the gender-swapped version of Finn. Fionna is a brave and adventurous girl who struggles with issues pertaining to attraction and romance. - Cake (voiced by Roz Ryan) – Cake is the gender-swapped version of Jake, and is a cat instead of a dog. Cake is sarcastic and boisterous but is also Fionna's loyal friend. Much like Jake, she possesses the power to stretch her body into a myriad of convoluted shapes. - Prince Gumball (voiced by Neil Patrick Harris) – Gumball is the gender-swapped version of Princess Bubblegum. He is the frequent victim of the Ice Queen's kidnapping schemes and appears that he harbors some sort of feelings for Fionna. - The Ice Queen (voiced by Grey DeLisle) – The Ice Queen is the gender-swapped version of the Ice King. Much like her male counterpart, the Ice Queen is constantly scheming to kidnap a mate (her most frequent target being Prince Gumball). - Lord Monochromicorn – The gender-swapped version of Lady Rainicorn. While Lady speaks primarily in Korean, Lord Monochromicorn communicates exclusively via Morse code. Lord Monochromicorn and Cake are in a relationship together. ## Production "Fionna and Cake" was written and storyboarded by Rebecca Sugar and Adam Muto from a story developed by Mark Banker, Patrick McHale, Osborne, and series creator Pendleton Ward; it was directed by Larry Leichliter. The genesis for the episode were drawings that character designer and storyboard revisionist Natasha Allegri posted online. Her creations were eventually canonized by the show's producers. Allegri even re-rerecorded the show's theme—which had originally been sung by series creator Pendleton Ward—for the episode. Sugar intended "Fionna and Cake" to both be "a jab [and] a huge celebration of, [sic] the feeling of being fan" and "allowing something completely ridiculous to make your heart tighten". Sugar and Muto significantly changed the story from its original outline, as the very first version of the episode did not feature the Ice Queen, the ball, or the crystal sword. The second act of the story featured Gumball and Fionna going on a date in a restaurant, rather than on an adventure. Sugar also wrote several lines for Marshall Lee—Marceline's male counterpart—but they were cut for time. Sugar "begged" Ward to let her work the character back into the story somehow, but the character only appeared in a non-speaking cameo. Sugar originally wanted the character to be voiced by Dante Basco, although he would later be voiced by Donald Glover in subsequent Fionna and Cake episodes. Neil Patrick Harris was Sugar's first choice to play Prince Gumball; she explained that she "wanted to impress [her] brother Steven, who was obsessed with the Music Meister" (portrayed by Harris) "from Batman: The Brave and the Bold at the time." The scene which featured the song "Oh Fionna" was designed by Sugar to be a blend of the setting from the song "A Whole New World" from the 1992 film Aladdin, as well as scenes featuring the Romani Ranch aliens from the video game The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask (2000). ## Reception "Fionna and Cake" aired on Cartoon Network on September 5, 2011. The episode was viewed by 3.315 million viewers and saw a dramatic increase in the ratings for all boy demographics. It also marked a 42 percent increase in viewers when compared to a year earlier. At the time, this made "Fionna and Cake" the highest-rated entry of the series. The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2013 Fionna and Cake DVD, which included 16 episodes from the series' first three seasons. Tyler Foster of DVD Talk praised the episode for its creativity and complimented the entry's humor and its message to girls. Furthermore, he applauded the song "Oh Fionna", calling it "wonderful". Richard Whittaker of The Austin Chronicle noted that the episode was "an adventure in cross play". He felt that Fionna's characterization appealed to the show's universality and managed to also retain respect for the show's audience and that the "strong but emotionally vulnerable" Cake was written in a way that successfully provided a female analog for Jake. Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club called the "Fionna and Cake" one of "the most fascinating aspects of the Adventure Time craze" in a review of the fifth-season episode "Bad Little Boy". He wrote that "'Fionna and Cake' was reminiscent of the series' earlier episodes, in regards to its bright animation, well-paced plot, music, its successful blend of fantasy action and comedy, and its focus on character-based drama. As a result, he felt that the entry was composed of elements that make the series as a whole great. In a separate article, Sava named the entry one of the ten most representative episodes of the series and wrote that it is also "the most aggressively girl-friendly episode of the series". After it aired, "Fionna and Cake" was particularly successful with the fans of the series. Sava noted that although the characters had, at the time, appeared in only a single episode, they had rapidly become among the series' most popular characters. According to the Entertainment Examiner, fans of the series responded positively to the characters, and wanted them to appear in more episodes.

Sanzō Nosaka

Japanese politician (1892–1993)

Sanzō Nosaka (野坂 参三, Nosaka Sanzō, March 30, 1892 – November 14, 1993) was a Japanese writer, editor, labor organizer, communist agent, politician, and university professor and the founder of the Japanese Communist Party (JCP). He was the son of a wealthy Japanese merchant, and attended the prestigious Keio University. While in university, Nosaka became interested in social movements, and joined a moderate labor organization after graduation, working as a research staff member, and as a writer and editor of the organization's magazine. He traveled to Britain in 1919 to study political economy, where he deepened his studies of Marxism and became a confirmed communist. Nosaka was a founding member of the Communist Party of Great Britain, but his activity within British communist circles led to him being deported from Britain in 1921. After leaving Britain, Nosaka traveled through the Soviet Union (USSR). He returned to Japan in 1922, where he co-founded the Japanese Communist Party (JCP). Nosaka became a labor organizer, but was arrested twice by the Japanese government for his activities. After being released from prison a second time, Nosaka secretly returned to the USSR in 1931, where he became an agent of the Comintern. He traveled to the West Coast of the United States, where he worked as a spy from 1934 to 1938. After leaving the United States, Nosaka worked in China from 1940 to 1945, supporting the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) by encouraging and recruiting captured Japanese soldiers to support and fight for the Chinese communists against the Imperial Japanese Army, and coordinating a spy network that operated throughout Japanese-occupied China. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Nosaka returned to Japan with hundreds of other Japanese communists, where he led the Japanese Communist Party during the occupation of Japan. Nosaka attempted to brand the JCP as a "lovable" populist party supporting Japan's peaceful transition to socialism, but his strategy was criticized within the party and within the Soviet Union. During the Korean War the JCP temporarily endorsed violence, and Nosaka disappeared from public life and went underground. He re-emerged to lead the JCP again in 1955, after which he attempted to disrupt the US-Japan Security Treaty by organizing public demonstrations, but he generally supported the JCP's role as a peaceful party. In 1958 Nosaka became Chairman of the JCP, a position he held until retirement at the age of 90, after which he was declared Honorary Chairman. Nosaka joined the faculty of Keio University, and he was widely idolized among left-wing intellectuals until shortly before his death, when the fall of the Soviet Union exposed controversial aspects of his relationship with Stalin's Communist regime. ## Biography ### Early life Sanzō Nosaka was the son of a prosperous Japanese merchant and was raised in a bourgeois environment. As a young man Nosaka was known for his fashionable taste in clothing and for the large dog that often accompanied him in public. He was quiet, serious, studious, introverted, and more comfortable in libraries than at public demonstrations. After his secondary education, Nosaka attended Keio University, which was then considered a "rich boys school". At Keio, Nosaka became interested in the international labor movement, an interest that was largely supported by one of his professors, Kiichi Horie. Nosaka decided to write his senior thesis on the moderate labor organization founded by Bunji Suzuki, "Yuaikai" ("The Friendly Society"). To research his thesis, Nosaka contacted Yuaikai'''s head office, and acquainted himself with its senior leaders: Suzuki initially mistook Nosaka for a salesman the first time they met, but eventually grew fond of Nosaka. When Nosaka graduated from Keio, in 1915, he joined Yuaikai and worked for the organization as a research staff member and as an editor of the organization's journal, Rodo Oyobi Sangyo (Labour and Industry). Nosaka became interested in communism after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. As a greater volume of leftist literature entered Japan from the West, Nosaka's political orientation moved farther from the center. The first Western texts on revolutionary social theory available in Japan were mostly on anarchism, but Nosaka also enjoyed Edward Bellamy's utopian novel, Looking Backward. In 1918-1919 Nosaka read an English copy of The Communist Manifesto brought to Japan by his friend, Shinzo Koizumi. After reading The Communist Manifesto, Nosaka embraced the theories of Marxism. Nosaka announced his intentions to go abroad to study social theory in the November 1918 issue of Rodo Oyobi Sangyo. He sailed out of Kobe harbor on July 7, 1919, and arrived in London on August 27. After his arrival, Nosaka studied political economy at London University. Like many British intellectuals at the time, Nosaka deepened his studies of Marxism, and became a confirmed communist at the university. While in London Nosaka became active in communist circles. He affiliated himself with notable trade union leaders active in London, and attended the September 8–13, 1919 Glasgow Trade Union Congress as a correspondent for Rodo Oyobi Sangyo. Nosaka was a founding member of the Communist Party of Great Britain in 1920, and attended the Party's first session as a representative from London. Nosaka's activities within the Communist Party brought him to the attention of Scotland Yard, and Nosaka was deported from Britain in 1921. After he left Britain, Nosaka traveled through Europe to the newly formed Soviet Union. In Russia, with the help of friendly contacts in the communist hierarchy, Nosaka became influential within the Communist Party. Nosaka was suspected of being either a British or Japanese agent; but, because of his contacts among high-ranking Finnish and Russian leaders, Nosaka was never purged. Nosaka wrote A Brief Review of the Labour Movement in Japan. It was published by the International Council of Trade and Industrial Unions in 1921 After attending the Far Eastern People's Conference in the Soviet Union, Nosaka returned to Japan in 1922, and helped found the Japanese Communist Party (JCP) that same year. Nosaka was more secretive about his relationship with the Communist Party than he had been in Britain, and kept his membership a secret from Bunji Suzuki and other moderate labour leaders. After his return, Nosaka worked as a trade unionist and editor of the JCP's official newspaper, Musansha Shimbun. Because of his activities within the Communist Party (which was illegal in Japan), Nosaka, like many communists in Japan, was arrested (twice in his case), interrogated, and tortured by the Kenpeitai, but he was released after short periods both times. Nosaka was first arrested in 1923, and released within a year. After his release, Nosaka became more active within the Japanese labor movement. In March 1928, the Japanese police began a campaign to harass and destroy the JCP, beginning with the May 15 Incident. After his second arrest in 1929, Nosaka spent two years in jail. He was released in 1931 on the grounds of illness. The short lengths of Nosaka's arrests aroused suspicion among other Japanese communists that Nosaka had given important information to the Japanese secret police, but these suspicions were never acted upon. ### Comintern agent Upon his release, Nosaka secretly returned to the Soviet Union, arriving in Moscow in March 1931. While there, Nosaka served as a representative of the JCP, and worked as an executive member of the Comintern. While in Moscow Nosaka helped to draft the "1932 Thesis", which became the guiding document of the JCP until 1946. Most of his colleagues active in the JCP, who were not able to go abroad, were subsequently arrested by the kempeitai by the fall of 1932. One of Nosaka's friends was Kenzo Yamamoto, a legendary Japanese communist who had been in the Soviet Union with his common-law wife, Matsu, since 1928. Yamamoto had a reputation as a great womanizer; and, when rumors circulated that Yamamoto was engaged in an affair with Nosaka's wife, Ryu, Nosaka wrote a confidential letter to the NKVD (dated February 22, 1939) indicating that he believed Yamamoto and his wife were likely Japanese spies in the pay of the Kenpeitai. On Stalin's orders, both Yamamoto and Matsu were arrested as spies. A firing squad executed Yamamoto, and Matsu died in a gulag. Both Yamamoto and his wife were formally rehabilitated after their deaths by Nikita Khrushchev on May 23, 1956, recognizing the lack of any evidence that the two were actually spies. In his autobiography, Nosaka later wrote that he had tried to save Yamamoto's life. In 1934, Nosaka secretly traveled to the West Coast of the United States, where he became involved in intelligence work on behalf of the International Liaison Department of the Comintern against the Imperial Japanese government. Nosaka's activities included disseminating information to communists still active in Japan, infiltrating and making contact with the Japanese communities active in the United States, and establishing a number of communist front organizations in Seattle, Los Angeles, and other cities on the West Coast. Nosaka worked to gain funding from the Comintern for his activities, and attempted to have other Japanese Communists secretly relocated to America. He planned to recruit American and Japanese agents to send to Yokohama to establish a cell that would operate as a communist front organization. Because the records from this period are incomplete, historians cannot be certain to what extent Nosaka's efforts in America were successful. Nosaka worked as a Comintern agent in America until 1938, when he returned to Moscow. In 1940, the Comintern ordered Nosaka to aid communist forces in China. In May 1943, Nosaka was the representative of the JCP in the case of the dissolution of the Comintern. ## Activities in China From March 1940 to the end of 1945, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Nosaka resided at the Chinese Red Army base in Yan'an, in Shaanxi Province, where he headed the Japanese People's Emancipation League (JPEL). The JPEL engaged in the "re-education" of numerous Japanese prisoners of war (POWs) and created propaganda on behalf of the Chinese Communists. Japanese troops captured by the Communists were then used by the Communists in various civilian and military roles, and were especially valued because their level of technical expertise was generally greater than that of most Chinese soldiers. "Re-educated" Japanese troops were instrumental in a number of Communist victories after World War II, including the 1949 Pingjin Campaign, in which most of the artillery fielded by the Communists was manned by Japanese gunners. In general, the method of "re-education" devised and employed by Nosaka was highly effective. Initially, the Red Army was a purely guerrilla force without the facilities to imprison POWs. The policy of the Eighth Route Army, the main communist force active during World War II, was to interrogate prisoners and then release them. After reports surfaced that the Japanese were punishing Japanese prisoners after they returned, the Red Army's policy gradually changed to one of retraining POWs, and the communists began to implement this policy after Nosaka arrived in Yan'an. By the time of its war with China, the Japanese army was educating its officers and common soldiers to die rather than surrender. Injured soldiers were easily captured, and made up the bulk of Japanese POWs. Captured Japanese believed that they would be killed, but were instead fed and clothed, and began to develop a rapport with their captors. Besides Nosaka's regimen of psychological indoctrination, there were several reasons that Japanese POWs chose to join the Chinese communists. Communist guerrillas took care to develop an early rapport with their prisoners by treating them well. Captured Japanese soldiers were generally moved when they learned of the terrible conditions the war inflicted on the Chinese people, a perspective that they had not been exposed to before their capture. Closer to the end of the war, the growing possibility of defeat created anxiety among the Japanese army. Because of the Japanese military's policy to never surrender, Japanese soldiers never received any training about how to act as POWs: upon returning to Japanese ranks, many would face disgrace, punishment, and starvation. Many Japanese soldiers committed suicide after their capture, but those who chose to live generally came to sympathize with the Chinese. The Japanese army was aware of the existence of Nosaka's Communist Japanese soldiers, and feared the phenomena out of proportion to their actual threat. Koji Ariyoshi, an American who met Nosaka in Yan'an wrote that Nosaka was "the Japanese national who undoubtedly contributed the most in the war against Japanese militarism". The Japanese army attempted to use numerous spies and assassins in order to eliminate Nosaka (who used the name "Okano Susumu" for the duration of the war), but were unsuccessful. Nosaka maintained a network of agents throughout Japanese-occupied China, which he used to gather information about events within the Japanese Empire and about the war. From 1940 to 1943, Nosaka's presence in China was kept a secret. Under a Chinese name, Lin Zhe, he directed the work of the Research Office of the Japanese Problem. His work with the Research Office in Yan'an brought Yan'an's intelligence information about Japan up to date. Nosaka collected newspapers and other publications from Japan. To research the enemy, Nosaka and his crew took care to analyze current events in Japan and China, which they did by stocking Japanese newspapers, magazines, journals, and diaries that were purchased or seized on the battlefield. Nosaka's Japanese "prisoner converts" fought freely for the Chinese communists once their re-education was complete. In Yan'an, the Japanese lived normal lives without guards, owned a cooperative store, and printed their own news bulletins and propaganda. Visiting American officers used Nosaka's Japanese soldiers to critique and improve their own methods of anti-Japanese psychological warfare. Shortly after Japan's surrender in 1945, Nosaka began to march with approximately 200 other Japanese Communists across northern China. They arrived at the coast after picking up hundreds of other Japanese along the way. Demanding immediate repatriation from the first Americans they found, they declared their intention to return and work "for the democratization of Japan and the establishment of peace in the Far East". Although there are no records of the exact number of Japanese "re-educated" by Nosaka who elected to remain in Communist-occupied China after 1945, it is estimated that "the number must have been considerable". Nosaka's contributions to the eventual victory of the Red Army were not forgotten by the leaders he had worked with in China. In 1965, on the twentieth anniversary of Japan's defeat, Nosaka was publicly praised by name by the highest-ranking general in China at the time, Lin Biao. ## Postwar ### Japanese political career After the World War II, Nosaka's return to Japan was facilitated by E. Herbert Norman, the Canadian representative to the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, who may also have been a Soviet spy. Before returning to Japan, Nosaka gained Stalin's endorsement for the leadership of the Japanese Communist Party. Nosaka's re-entry to Japan was also aided by the American diplomat John S. Service, who had a history of being friendly to Chinese Communists. Before returning to Japan, Nosaka advised Joseph Stalin to retain the position of the Japanese Emperor, but to replace Emperor Hirohito with Crown Prince Akihito if the Communists ever gained control of Japan. Nosaka returned to Japan in January 1946, and received a hero's welcome by the JCP. He returned to China as a recognized protege of Mao Zedong, and enjoyed the informal recognition as a "roving ambassador" for Japanese communism. After his return to Japan, Nosaka worked to organize Japanese communists. Nosaka's strategy was to foster what he called a “lovable” image for the JCP, seeking to take advantage of the seemingly pro-labor American-led Occupation to bring about a peaceful socialist revolution in Japan. This strategy was highly successful at first, attracting for the party a large following within the student and labor movements and among intellectuals. In the general elections of 1946, Nosaka and four other members of the JCP were elected to the Diet, and the party received 4% of the popular vote. Thereafter, the JCP made further progress infiltrating Japanese labor associations and socialist parties, and in the general elections of 1949, the JCP gained 10% of the popular vote. However, with the fall of China in 1949 and increasing Cold War tensions around the world, the United States initiated the so-called "Reverse Course" in Occupation policy, shifting away from demilitarization and democratization to remilitarization, suppressing leftists, and strengthening Japan's conservative elements in support of U.S. Cold War objectives in Asia. At the Occupation's urging, the Japanese state and private corporations carried out a sweeping "Red Purge", firing tens of thousands of communists and suspected communists from their jobs in both government and the private sector. In January 1950, in response to the Occupation-backed Red Purge and at the behest of Stalin, the Soviet-led Cominform published a tract harshly criticizing the JCP’s peaceful line as “opportunism” and “glorifying American imperialism” and demanding that the JCP take steps to pursue immediate violent revolution in Japan. Competition between JCP factions to win Cominform approval in the wake of this devastating “Cominform Criticism” ultimately led by the summer of 1951 to a complete reversal in JCP tactics from the peaceful pursuit of revolution within democratic institutions to an embrace of immediate and violent revolution along Maoist lines. This resulted in a campaign of terror in which JCP activists threw Molotov cocktails at police boxes across Japan and cadres were sent into the countryside with instructions to organize oppressed farmers into “mountain village guerrilla units” (sanson kōsakutai). As punishment for his advocacy of the "lovable" image, Nosaka was temporarily driven out of the party and forced to go underground. After Nosaka went underground, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency reported that he temporarily returned to China. Meanwhile, the JCP's new militant line was a disaster. A full-blown communist revolution failed to emerge in Japan, the JCP activists were rapidly arrested and imprisoned, and in the 1952 general election, the JCP was wiped out in the polls, losing every one of the 35 seats it held in the Lower House of the Japanese Diet. The JCP spent the next three years gradually backing down from the militant line, finally renouncing it fully in 1955, which paved the way for Nosaka's return to power. Nosaka re-emerged in Japan in 1955 as the First Secretary of the JCP. Nosaka was briefly arrested after he resurfaced, but quickly released. In 1958, Nosaka became the chairman of the JCP's Central Committee. He played a part in organizing the Anpo protests in 1960 against the revised US-Japan Security Treaty. In May 1960, as the protests were reaching their height, Nosaka published a lengthy essay in the Communist journal Zen'ei titled "We Will Not Accept the New Security Treaty." These massive demonstrations forced the American president, Dwight Eisenhower, to cancel a visit to Japan, and forced the Japanese Premier, Nobusuke Kishi, to resign, but failed to achieve their main goal of preventing passage of the revised Security Treaty, which Kishi ruthlessly rammed through the Diet in spite of the popular opposition. In Japanese public opinion, the demonstrations were received as a national embarrassment, and the JCP received only 3% of the popular vote in the 1960 elections. The Anpo protests outraged and energized the Japanese right wing. On October 12, during a televised election debate, Inejirō Asanuma, the chairman of the Japanese Socialist Party, was assassinated by a 17-year-old right-wing youth, Otoya Yamaguchi, who rushed onto the stage and fatally stabbed him twice in the stomach with a wakizashi. After his arrest, Yamaguchi told police that he had hoped to assassinate Nosaka as well. On November 13, 1963, Nosaka survived an assassination attempt while making a speech in Osaka. The perpetrator was 22-year-old Masahiro Nakao, a member of the rightist group Dai Nippon Gokuku Dan. Nakao, armed with a dagger, leaped on a platform where Nosaka was giving his speech. Nakao was subdued by Party members who turned him over to the police. Nosaka attempted to keep the JCP neutral during the Sino-Soviet Split of the 1960s, though the CIA interpreted that Nosaka's party remained somewhat more friendly with the Chinese. On Nosaka's seventieth birthday party in 1962, Nosaka received extravagant praise from Beijing. Deng Xiaoping praised Nosaka as an "outstanding fighter of the Japanese people and comrade-in-arms of the Chinese people". The Soviets sent Nosaka a matter-of-fact confirmation of his status within the JCP, and within a month sent the JCP another letter scolding the Party for not adequately supporting Soviet positions. The Soviets' measured praise of Nosaka was consistent with earlier Cominform criticism of Nosaka's political theories, which advocated a peaceful transition into communism. After his re-entry into public life in 1955, Nosaka was elected to the House of Councillors, a post that he held until 1977. Nosaka joined the faculty of Keio University, and was one of many prominent communist intellectuals active in Japanese academic institutions in his time. Nosaka remained the JCP's chairman from 1958 to 1982, when he stepped down at the age of 90 and took the role of "Honorary Chairman". ### Scandal On September 27, 1992, two Journalists working for the magazine Shukan Bunshun, Akira Kato and Shun'ichi Kobayashi, publicly revealed evidence of Nosaka's involvement in the deaths of Kenzo Yamamoto and his wife. On a trip to Moscow, Kobayashi and Kato had managed to purchase a number of KGB documents, which had been kept secret since the Stalinist era. Among these documents was the letter that Nosaka had written in 1939 denouncing Yamamoto and his wife. The revelations of Nosaka's involvement in Yamamoto's death shocked the JCP, already reduced to six seats in the Diet after the 1991 elections. Akahata'' ("Red Flag"), a prominent communist newspaper, sent a team of journalists to Moscow to investigate the allegations, and they confirmed the authenticity of the documents. After the allegations against Nosaka became widely known, he checked himself into Yoyogi Hospital in Tokyo (a common tactic of Japanese politicians facing scandal). When a team of investigators sent by the JCP visited him, Nosaka confessed that the letter was his, but refused to discuss the matter further. The JCP ordered Nosaka to be present for a general Party meeting on December 27, 1992. After some deliberation, the party that Nosaka helped found expelled him by unanimous vote. The Party newspaper reported that Nosaka, when asked if he had any reply to the charges against him, would only state: "I have nothing to say". One year after being expelled from the Japanese Communist Party, Sanzō Nosaka died in his home of old age. Outside the JCP, Nosaka was remembered for his gentle demeanor, good manners, and conservative sense of style, "just like a British gentleman". He was 101 years old. ## Legacy The Chinese Documentary series "Today In The History Of Anti-Japanese War" dedicated an episode to Sanzō Nosaka. Sanzō Nosaka was featured in the "International Friends during the Anti-Japanese War". A show organized by the Beijing People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries. The show "features 160 pictures of 39 foreign friends who worked together with the Chinese people and made contributions to China's independence and freedom." ## Family Yonago Nosaka was the foster daughter of Sanzō Nosaka. She attended the 60th anniversary of the victory of the War against Fascism. She received a medal as a daughter of Sanzō Nosaka. ## Names Nosaka used the pen names of Okano and Lin Zhe. ## See also - Japanese dissidence during the Shōwa period - Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan - Wataru Kaji - Hideo Noda - Hotsumi Ozaki ## Works

Scream (roller coaster)

Steel roller coaster

Scream (originally stylised as Scream!) is a steel roller coaster at Six Flags Magic Mountain. Manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard, the Floorless Coaster model was the park's sixteenth roller coaster and is located in the Screampunk District area of the park. The 150-foot-tall (46 m) ride consists of a series of roller coaster elements including seven inversions ranging from a zero-g roll to interlocking corkscrews. The ride is a mirror image of Medusa at Six Flags Great Adventure. ## History In 1999, Six Flags Great Adventure spent \$42 million on new attractions including a prototype Floorless Coaster, Medusa, developed and built by Bolliger & Mabillard. The immediate popularity of the ride led to several parks installing Floorless Coasters in the early 2000s. In November 2002, parts for Scream began arriving at Six Flags Magic Mountain. On November 14, 2002, the park officially announced that they would be adding Scream for the 2003 season, making it the park's sixteenth roller coaster. According to the park, the ride was added to fill the "missing link to our coaster collection". After five months construction, Scream officially opened to the public on April 12, 2003. On April 9, 2004, a park employee was killed when they were hit by one of Scream's trains during an after-hours test run. According to a statement issued by the park, the employee "deviated from safety training procedures and walked underneath the ride". The ride was closed immediately pending clearance by the California Occupational Safety and Health Administration. The administration cleared the ride for operation within two weeks. In 2015, the coaster received a brand new color scheme of blue track and orange supports for the opening of Twisted Colossus. ## Characteristics ### Statistics The 3,985-foot-long (1,215 m) Scream stands 150 feet (46 m) tall. With a top speed of 63 miles per hour (101 km/h), the ride features seven inversions including a 128-foot-tall (39 m) vertical loop, a 96-foot-tall (29 m) dive loop, a zero-g roll, a 78-foot-tall (24 m) cobra roll and two interlocking corkscrews. Although the ride is a mirrored clone of the first Floorless Coaster (Medusa at Six Flags Great Adventure), they feature a slight difference in height of about 8 feet (2.4 m) and a difference in speed of 2 miles per hour (3.2 km/h). ### Trains Scream operates with three floorless trains. Each train seats 32 riders in eight rows of four. This gives the ride a theoretical capacity of 1,440 riders per hour. The open-air trains feature seats which leave riders' legs dangling above the track. Riders are restrainted with over-the-shoulder restraints. As the trains are floorless, the station has a retractable floor for safe boarding. The third train of the ride is painted blue and orange. ## Ride experience Once the train is loaded and secured, the floor is retracted and the train departs the station. A U-turn to the right leads to the 150-foot-tall (46 m) chain lift hill. Once riders reach the top, they go through a small pre-drop before dropping 141 feet (43 m) to the right. The train then reaches a top speed of 63 miles per hour (101 km/h) and enters the 128-foot-tall (39 m) vertical loop followed by a turn to the left into the 96-foot-tall (29 m) dive loop. After the diving loop, the train passes the station and goes through a zero-g roll, where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness. The train then goes through the 78-foot-tall (24 m) cobra roll, a roller coaster element which inverts riders twice. Riders then enter the mid-course brake run which is located next to the lift hill. The train drops out of the brake run to the right and enters a 270-degree helix followed by the two interlocking corkscrews. Riders go through a small dip then enter the final brake run before returning to the station. ## Reception The reception of Scream has been mixed. Arthur Levine of About.com gives the ride 4 out of 5 stars. He states "it's remarkably smooth, loaded with airtime, and has plenty of surprises to warrant its name". Levine did criticise the lack of theming and landscaping around the ride noting the immediate area surrounding the ride "includes a bone yard of coaster seats and parts". Robert Niles of the Los Angeles Times shared a similar sentiment, stating "Scream creates an effective illusion that you are alone, flying above the track" but questions the ride's location on a former parking lot. He highlights "a good story can elicit extreme thoughts and emotions. [...] Why ignore those opportunities when building a thrill ride?". Niles concluded by stating "I feel a little neglected as I shuffle off the otherwise exciting ride", referring to the lack of theming or storyline. Lynn Arave of the Deseret News praised the ride, rating it alongside the Riddler's Revenge for the best rides in the park. Scream has never featured in Amusement Today's annual Golden Ticket Awards top 50 steel roller coasters. The mirrored clone at Six Flags Great Adventure peaked at position 16 in its debut year before ranking a further six times in the list.

Christian metal

Heavy metal music with a Christian message and band members

Christian metal, also known as white metal, Jesus metal or heavenly metal, is heavy metal music distinguished by its Christian themed song lyrics and the dedication of the band members to Christianity. Christian metal is typically performed by professed Christians, principally for Christians and is often produced and distributed through various Christian networks. Christian metal bands exist in most of the subgenres of heavy metal music, and the only common link among most Christian metal bands are the lyrics. The Christian themes are often melded with the subjects of the genre the band is rooted in, regularly providing a Christian take on the subject matter. It has been argued that the marginal yet transnational Christian metal subculture provides its core members with an alternative religious expression and Christian identity, and that the music serves the purpose of offering a positive message through lyrical content. This may not necessarily show a direct connection or reference to the Christian faith but often it does. Christian metal emerged in the late 1970s as a means of evangelization to the wider heavy metal music scene and was pioneered by the American Resurrection Band and Barnabas, the Swedish Jerusalem, and Canadian Daniel Band. In the mid to late 1980s, extreme metal genres were popularized by bands such as Vengeance Rising, Deliverance, Believer and Tourniquet. Another Christian metal band that was successful during the 80s was American band Stryper, whose album, To Hell with the Devil, sold over two million copies. In the early 1990s, the Australian death metal band Mortification rose to prominence within its country's underground metal scene. In 1993 the 1st german christian Death Metal band Sacrificium was founded. The band is still active At the turn of the 21st century, the nu metal band P.O.D, with two platinum-selling albums, achieved a mainstream commercial success rivaling that of Stryper. The metalcore groups Underoath (2002-2018), Demon Hunter, As I Lay Dying and Norma Jean (dubbed "The Holy Alliance" by Revolver Magazine) also brought some mainstream attention to the movement in the first decade of the 2000s, achieving ranks in the Billboard 200. Between the 2000s and 2020s, the Christian metal band Skillet had two albums receiving Grammy nominations, two albums certified platinum and double platinum, and various singles certified platinum and gold. ## Characteristics Christian metal is not a solitary style of music, but rather an ideological umbrella term that comprises almost every subgenre of heavy metal music. The musicians within Christian metal bands typically base their lyrics on Judeo-Christian traditions. The lyrical approach of Christian metal bands is somewhat varied, as some emphasize the positive aspects of faith matters while others iterate the teachings of Christ. Some bands keep their message hidden in metaphors. Only a minority take an aggressive attitude towards those who speak against Christianity, "preaching full-on fire and brimstone and Old Testament style God's wrath back at extreme Satanists". References to eschatology and apocalyptic themes, particularly the ongoing spiritual warfare between good and evil as well as the Last Judgment and fall from grace are typical. The lyrical style varies depending on culture, denomination, and country. For example, in Northern Europe the bands with Lutheran members usually prefer a personal lyrical approach, which is seldom meant to "convert" in an aggressive manner, since evangelism has been more typical among American bands. Christian bands never deny their conviction but typically avoid preaching, and sometimes the matter is left unexpressed, leaving religion as a private issue of the listener. Certain bands choose to deal with everyday life experiences from a Christian perspective in order to draw both Christian and non-Christian listeners. In such cases, identifying a "Christian band" can be difficult. Secular bands that occasionally deal with Christian topics are a different matter altogether. Defining a Christian band is a much debated issue on Christian metal forums. A Christian band is expected to have either professed Christian members or a Christian message, preferably both. ## History ### Background: Heavy metal music and Christianity The term 'heavy metal', as it was used by Lester Bangs and Dave Marsh at Creem, referred to a sound best exemplified by albums such as Led Zeppelin's Led Zeppelin II, Deep Purple's Deep Purple in Rock, and Black Sabbath's Paranoid. An examination of some of the lyrics from bands such as these show a lack of any explicitly negative themes. Led Zeppelin's "Whole Lotta Love" could just as well be a conversation between husband and wife, as not. Black Sabbath's "Electric Funeral" exactly parallels the blood red moon of the Book of Revelation by John of Patmos, while their "Hand of Doom" describes the ravages of drug abuse. Ozzy Osbourne could be heard preaching to his audience in the earlier song, "Children of the Grave": "Tell the world that love is still alive you must be brave; or the children of today are children of the grave." Later, in the song "In My Time of Dying", Robert Plant even pleaded to Jesus: "Meet me Jesus, meet me; Meet me in the middle of the air; if my wings should fail me Lord, please meet me with another pair." Perhaps not overtly Christian, but songs such as these exhibited similar themes. Early heavy metal fans were viewed by the populace as a counterculture, just as the fans of rock and roll, in general, were. Early heavy metal lyrics and themes were often accused of challenging Christian values, and as the genre grew, some bands actually did. Among the early bands who were accused of adding negative connotations to the term was Black Sabbath. Their and other early bands' profligate use and combination of black, occult, tattoo/piercings, and other features in stage- and album-styling; repeated musical features like distorted guitar-filters, open/power chords, riffs (including chords with roots a tritone apart); and moody explorations of diverse spiritual themes (including the social connections of metal-enthusiasts) led to a range of responses, from intense-fandom/identification, widespread patronage for at least the most well-known albums and bands, and polarizing criticism. Those uncomfortable with heavy-metal musical and fan/scene-features, especially on the religious right (sometimes including fans of other music, including progressive- and mainstream-rock) became more vocal through the 1970s and '80s, at worst casting the makers and fans of such music as "followers of Satan". Despite such accusations, more serious examinations of Black Sabbath lyrics find several songs actually advocate Christianity and specifically warn audiences about the Devil. Rolling Stone reviewer Lester Bangs noted the Christian theme of their song "After Forever" when it was released. Further, as Deena Weinstein and others have established, the vast majority of metal fans are male, white, and blue-collar-identified. Although there are now metal fans of more-advanced ages, from its origins through the 1980s their age centered on teen years. Bands such as Mötley Crüe, Ratt, and Twisted Sister took "themes of generalized rage, sexual abandon, drug abuse, violence, and despair into the homes of millions of young record buyers." In the 1980s, with the growing appeal of metal, the National Coalition on Television Violence "called attention to the destructive potential of music videos, many of which graphically depict violence and rebellion." A British cleric and metal fan analysed that because of distorted guitar sounds, "intense" beats and "muscular" vocals, heavy metal music songs are "unafraid to deal with death, violence and destruction" and that "much of metal's fascination with Satan or evil is play-acting, driven by a desire to shock." The Italian Capuchin friar and former metal vocalist Cesare Bonizzi ("Fratello Metallo") stated that there are "maybe" some Satanic metal bands "but I think it's an act so that they sell more," and went to add that "metal is the most energetic, vital, deep and true musical language that I know." Some metal songs criticize religion, such as "Death Church" by Machine Head, which "critici[zes] the hypocrisy of the Christian church." Metal groups "...seek out every...avenue to assault religion", including "religious hypocrisy", specifically Christianity. Metal songs use themes from the Book of Revelation which focus on apocalypse (e.g., Iron Maiden’s "Number of the Beast"). The metal subgenre with the most emphasis on apocalyptic themes is thrash metal. Anti-patriarchal themes are common in metal. Black metal song lyrics usually attack Christianity using apocalyptic language and Satanic elements. ### Origins Christian metal has its origins in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the Jesus movement, a hippie movement with Christian ideology consisting of hippies that converted to Christianity. The Christian hippies within this movement, known as "Jesus People", developed a musical movement called Jesus music, which primarily began in southern California, ex. Los Angeles when hippie street musicians converted to Christianity. These musicians continued playing the same styles of music they had played before converting, among them heavy metal music, though they infused their lyrics with a Christian message. Larry Norman was one of the earliest Christian rock musicians who released his first album titled Upon This Rock in 1969 which is arguably the first Christian rock album produced. Norman's song "Why Should the Devil Have All the Good Music?" summarised the ideas of these musicians. The first Christian hard rock group was possibly the California-based band Agape, formed in the late 1960s. Known for their psychedelic rock and blues influences, the band released an album titled Gospel Hard Rock in 1971, followed by Victims of Tradition in 1972. After Agape, the Resurrection Band was formed in 1972 in Milwaukee's Jesus People community and released the hard rock album Music to Raise the Dead in 1974. The Swedish group Jerusalem was formed in 1975 and is cited as another early Christian hard rock group. In 1978, Resurrection Band released its album Awaiting Your Reply and Jerusalem released Jerusalem (Volume 1). Both albums had a notable impact on Christian music culture. During that time, heavy metal was a new style of music for the Christian music industry, and many Christian labels did not expect it to sell well. However, Awaiting Your Reply hit big in the Christian market, and reached No. 6 on the Gospel album sales charts. Jerusalem also became an instant hit among listeners, and within the first six months the record sold 20,000 copies, unheard of within the genre of Christian rock in Europe. The Canadian Daniel Band is cited among the first bands, as is Barnabas. ### 1980s In the early 1980s, there were four notable Christian heavy metal groups: Messiah Prophet, Leviticus, Saint, and Stryper. Although it is debatable as to which band was formed first, the Orange County native glam metal group Stryper was the most popular one. Stryper was also the first band to identify as Christian metal. Stryper gained attention with their way of throwing Bibles to the audience at their concerts. In the beginning, mostly Christians went to Stryper's concerts but soon they reached non-Christian audience. In the 1980s, Christian metal bands closely followed the trends of mainstream heavy metal bands. During the mid-1980s, heavy metal music divided into autonomous subgenres. Weinstein described the thematic diversity that cross-cuts musical styles: "In the 1980s, white metal and black metal emerged. Their lyrical themes are at polar opposites to each other, one of them bringing the 'good news' and the other the 'bad news.' Both include bands whose sounds span the full spectrum of metal. White metal is commonly called Christian metal. In part a response to the popularity of the heavy metal genre, it transforms the code of heavy metal to serve purposes of Evangelical Christian sects and other denominations. In part, also, Christian metal is a well-crafted missionary effort to recruit members and save souls. [...] Black metal stands in the thematic opposition to Christianity, not looking upward to heaven but setting its sights on the underworld. Satanic symbols and imagery have been a staple of heavy metal since its beginnings with Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin. In the West, there is no better symbol for rebellion. But groups such as Mercyful Fate claimed that they were not playing. Their claims to be true believers, followers of the lord of the underworld, were seen by many to be a commercial ploy." Chicago doom metal group Trouble was known to be the first band that was publicly marketed as "white metal" since their early albums Psalm 9 and The Skull feature Biblical references. The origin of the "white metal" term remains unclear; it is merely known that the non-Christian label Metal Blade Records used "white metal" as a marketing term, in contrast to black metal. Soon the Christian metal bands became controversial for their beliefs and often evangelistic goals in the metal music scene, which typically holds individualism in particularly high esteem. Stryper, for instance, although a commercial success at that time, received a hostile reception when they played at a Dutch metal festival in 1985. Regardless of this, Stryper helped to popularize the genre. They were the first Christian band to reach platinum status on an album. The 1986 album To Hell with the Devil sold 2 million copies and achieved a Grammy nomination. The music videos for "Free", "Calling on You", and the power ballad "Honestly" all spent many weeks on MTV's Top 10, and "Free" was in the No. 1 position for 12 weeks (60 days), May 4 – July 24, 1987. Not only was Christian metal criticized by non-Christian metal fans, but soon the movement was also criticized by fundamentalists; Allmusic wrote that "when church leaders were accusing heavy metal of encouraging Satanism, Stryper set out to prove that metal and hard rock could be used to promote Christianity. The southern California band was viewed with suspicion by both ministers (who refused to believe that Christianity and metal were compatible) and fellow headbangers—and yet, Stryper managed to sell millions of albums to both Christian and secular audiences." For example, the televangelist Jimmy Swaggart wrote a book titled Religious Rock n' Roll – A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing in 1987 and criticized the scene, particularly Stryper, for using heavy metal music to preach the gospel of Christianity. In contrast, however, many Christian evangelists and church organizations took a more supportive role. For example, televangelist Jim Bakker expressed public support for the group Stryper, watching them perform and becoming personal friends with the band's members. Many new bands began to arise, eventually drawing the attention of record labels that specialized in Christian music. #### Emergence of fanzines, record labels, and Sanctuary International Christian metal soon developed into its own independent record labels and networks. The first Christian metal label was Pure Metal Records, a sublabel of Refuge Records. Soon there appeared other labels such as R.E.X. Records and Intense Records. Fanzines were published in several countries, with Heaven's Metal as the first one in the US in 1985. During that time almost every Christian record label became interested in Christian metal, and they advertised the newly signed metal bands on their roster on Heaven's Metal since it was the only publication exclusively covering the movement. Soon Heaven's Metal achieved more popularity and became an official, professional publication. Heaven's Metal achieved a dedicated flock of 15,000 readers. Bands' sales usually rose when the ensembles were covered on the magazine. During the 1980s and early 1990s, the more underground Christian metal releases were typically distributed in Christian bookstores, and those as well as the fanzines also traded Christian metal cassette copies with the music fans. Many rock and metal fans that became Christians through the ministry of Christian metal bands were rejected from churches in the 1980s. In 1984, California pastor Bob Beeman saw this problem and soon started the ministry called Sanctuary - The Rock and Roll Refuge. This fellowship brought many musicians together and formed groups such as Tourniquet, Deliverance, Vengeance and Mortal that would soon become ground breaking acts in Christian music culture. Sanctuary's first worship leader was Stryper's vocalist Michael Sweet and later Barren Cross' bass player Jim LaVerde. Sanctuary sponsored the first Christian metal festival, The Metal Mardi Gras, held in 1987 in Los Angeles. This proved influential and soon Christian metal festivals were organized elsewhere as well. Sanctuary's activities began spreading, and it had 36 parishes all over the United States at its peak by the 1990s. The Sanctuary parishes had a significant impact on the Christian metal movement: groups that would later become notable such as P.O.D. performed their first concerts in Sanctuary. By the late 1990s, the parish's workers felt that regular churches' attitudes towards metalheads, rockers and punks had become more permissive, and therefore did not feel the need to keep Sanctuary going on any longer, hence, most of the parishes of Sanctuary were closed. Sanctuary became Sanctuary International, and it currently gives international studies and lessons on Christianity. Sanctuary also runs an internet radio station called "Intense Radio" which, in 2003, reached approximately 150,000 listeners. ### Late 1980s and 1990s Doug Van Pelt of HM Magazine stated that Christian metal had its "heyday" in the late 1980s and early 1990s. By 1987, there were more than a hundred Christian metal bands, and their records were sold at both Christian bookstores and non-Christian retails. By 1988, the four largest Christian metal bands (excluding the mainstream success Stryper) were Bloodgood, Barren Cross, Whitecross, and Leviticus. The Kentucky-based band Bride initially played speed metal, particularly on Live to Die, and reached a wider audience when they released Snakes in the Playground (1992). Despite being criticized for their abrupt changes in style in favor of what's "hot", are still considered "a primeval force at the centre of Christian heavy metal." In 1989, the Orange County group X-Sinner released its debut album Get It, and was one of the most talked about bands within the white metal scene at the time. Noted for a classic metal sound similar to AC/DC, X-Sinner has managed to stay at the head of the Christian classic metal scene. Glam metal band Holy Soldier, another group hailing from California, released its self-titled debut on Word and A&M Records (Myrrh imprint) in 1990 to critical and commercial acclaim. Two years later, the band followed up their debut with Last Train, another critical success, leading to 60 city world tour. The band Guardian achieved some mainstream attention for its album Fire and Love, and one of the videos was included in the MTV's Headbangers Ball rotation. The heavy metal band Angelica introduced vocalist Rob Rock, who also achieved initial fame as the vocalist for guitar virtuoso Chris Impellitteri's band Impellitteri during the 1980s and 1990s and then went solo with his Rage of Creation album. In the early 1990s, the rising musical styles, especially grunge, began to take their places as the dominant styles in the mainstream, which resulted in heavy metal music losing popularity and going underground for a decade. Many Christian metal musicians began to play extreme metal, and soon death metal replaced thrash metal in popularity. Audiences in many underground metal scenes began favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular styles. As with other glam metal acts of the time, Stryper lost popularity and split up in 1993. Bruce Moore writes in the e-book Metal Missionaries that during mid-1990s Christian metal "ceased to play catch up (replicating secular bands) and began to assimilate into its rightful place in the Extreme music scene and the artists who played became influential in helping to define this relatively new, but growing genre." With risen musical quality and more street-credibility, Christian metal and hardcore bands were signed to record labels such as Tooth and Nail, Solid State, Facedown Records as well as secular labels Metal Blade and Victory Records. Christian metal was available through non-Christian outlets; "For the first time Extreme Christian music moved from the dusty back bin of the Christian book stores to the front racks at super retailers like Best Buy, Circuit City, FYE and even giant retailers like Wal-Mart, Target and Hot Topic." The German secular metal label Nuclear Blast Records also released Christian metal. Torodd Fuglesteg of Norway's Arctic Serenades Records has claimed: "The owner of Nuclear Blast was a committed Christian and he was pushing everything with that religious agenda through Nuclear Blast. Mortification and Horde were pushed like mad by Nuclear Blast when other labels were pushing pure satanic stuff." ### 2000s In the first decade of the 21st century some groups reached mainstream popularity. There are Christian metal bands that perform virtually every subgenre of metal. The Christian metal movement has spread worldwide since it emerged in the early 1980s, and there are now hundreds of active Christian metal bands. Inspired by the metal revival, many 1980s bands have made comebacks including Saint, Bloodgood and Stryper. In October 2004, Doug Van Pelt brought Heaven's Metal back as its own fanzine. The Internet has had a significant role on the revival of Christian metal as well. Many websites and online communities are dedicated to discussions about Christian metal's music, events, and bands. For the first time since Stryper's success in the 1980s, certain Christian metal artists found mainstream acceptance selling millions of albums to both Christian and non-Christian fans, including Underoath and P.O.D. The latter became the most successful Christian metal band when their 2001 album Satellite went multi-platinum, while the former's 2006 album, Define the Great Line, ranked No. 2 on the Billboard 200. Stryper would re-form in 2003 and eclipse over 10 million in total album sales. They had adopted more of a power metal sound than the "hair metal" style they were known for. Skillet, who is also often labeled as a metal band reached mainstream success while being open about their Christian faith. Their efforts have resulted in over 12 million units sold including 2 platinum albums. From their 2× platinum album Awake, the song "Monster" alone would sell over 3 million copies. From the same album, the song "Hero" would also reach multi-platinum status. ## Role in metal subgenres ### Metalcore Metalcore features many popular Christian bands, including such crossover bands such as Underoath, As I Lay Dying, August Burns Red, Blessthefall, Norma Jean, Haste the Day, The Devil Wears Prada, Silent Planet, Wolves at the Gate, For Today and Demon Hunter. Many of these bands have Grammy nominated or have made it high in the charts of the Billboard 200. Norma Jean was nominated for a Grammy Award for "Best Recording Package" for their album O God, the Aftermath. As I Lay Dying entered the Billboard 200 charts (No. 8) for its record sales and were nominated for the "Best Metal Performance" Grammy for the single "Nothing Left" from the 2007 album An Ocean Between Us. The album made its debut on Metal Blade Records, charting at No. 19 in Canada. In the United States, nearly 40,000 units were sold in its first week. The second week after it was released, it charted at No. 39 in both the United States and Canada. Other Top 200 debuts around the world include a No. 117 in the United Kingdom and No. 154 in Japan. In 2011, The Devil Wears Prada's album Dead Throne charted at No. 10 in the Billboard 200. In 2015, August Burns Red was nominated for "Best Metal Performance" at the Grammys for their song "Identity", off their Found in Far Away Places album. In its 2006 in Review issue (February 2007), Revolver magazine dubbed Christian metal the phenomenon of the year. Editor in Chief Tom Beaujour interviewed the lead vocalists of As I Lay Dying, Demon Hunter, Norma Jean, and Underoath (Tim Lambesis, Ryan Clark, Cory Brandan Putman, and Spencer Chamberlain, respectively) as the front-page article for the issue. Tooth and Nail Records, P.O.D., Zao, War of Ages, Still Remains, and He Is Legend were also mentioned. In 2018, Chamberlain stated that the band no longer identifies as Christian. ### Thrash metal Some notable American Christian thrash metal groups include Deliverance, Believer, Vengeance (frontman, vocalist and last remaining member Roger Martinez currently against Christianity) and Tourniquet. Allmusic states that Vengeance Rising's first two albums "were huge successes in the world of Christian music, making them one of the few bands in the genre to cross over into the secular music scene." Tourniquet was called "arguably the greatest Christian metal band in history" by Cross Rhythms in 1996. Tourniquet's Psycho Surgery was ranked as the second most influential Christian metal album of all time by HM Magazine. Deliverance's 1990 music video for the title track of Weapons of Our Warfare album received some airplay on MTV. Allmusic wrote about Believer's Sanity Obscure album: "Before 1990, the Christian heavy metal genre rarely strayed from generic riffing and poor lyrics. Bands like Petra and Sacred Warrior never broke through to the mainstream for this very reason. With low expectations, Believer released this massive slab of molten metal. Although it never really became popular, several mainstream magazines praised the album." The British bands Seventh Angel and Detritus introduced Christian thrash metal to Europe. Seventh Angel were considered to be thrash metal pioneers, and their albums achieved mainstream distribution through the Music for Nations label. Cross Rhythms states that for a long time Seventh Angel were considered to be the best metal act in the UK. Seventh Angel also has included aspects of doom metal on some recordings. In the 1990s, New Mexico based Ultimatum and Oklahoman group called Eternal Decision gained some attention, the latter with its thrash and groove metal style. The band's eponymous 1997 album hit the record stores in the U.S. and 16 other countries, achieving considerable acclaim and providing the band with even more notice. ### Death metal In 1990, the Australian group Mortification became the first widely recognized Christian death metal band. Their 1992 album Scrolls of the Megilloth garnered the band some attention from the heavy metal underground, according to Allmusic. At roughly the same time, the band Living Sacrifice was creating thrash and death metal, particularly on the albums Nonexistent (1992) and Inhabit (1994), with Allmusic commenting that "the term Christian death metal seems like one of music's most comical oxymorons." Later they "evolved from their early death metal-inspired rumblings into a crushing, staccato-driven, heavily percussive metallic behemoth that pummels listeners with intense riffage and a decidedly personal, though nevertheless, often evangelical lyrical viewpoint." The Minneapolis-based Crimson Thorn is described by Allmusic as "one of the world's most extreme-sounding Christian metal bands." Norwegian band Extol's 1998 album Burial was called "Revolutionary. This release may have single-handedly been responsible for the revival of the Christ-centered extreme metal." The band was popular among both Christian and general metal fans, mostly touring with well-known non-Christian bands. ### Unblack metal Horde is widely considered to be the first unblack metal (also called Christian black metal) band. As a one-man band with only one release (in 1994), Horde initiated controversy within the extreme metal community, opposing the more common lyrical themes of Satanism and evil. The title of Horde's only release – Hellig Usvart – means "Holy Unblack", which is now often used by Christians to refer to Christian black metal, in order to avoid the negative connotations of the term "black metal". Antestor (then called Crush Evil) existed prior to the release of Hellig Usvart but their music was a death/doom style, and was not yet musically considered black metal. During the early 1990s when the band was known as Crush Evil, Euronymous, guitarist for the seminal black metal band Mayhem, was planning to stop Crush Evil from continuing. However, this never took place. The release of Antestor's The Return of the Black Death on the British black metal label Cacophonous Records in 1998 "set the standard for Christian black metal". Swedish Crimson Moonlight's The Covenant Progress, HM Magazine stated, "rivals the best any other band (Christian or secular) in this subgenre can offer." While the unblack scene is not part of the traditional black metal scene, several musicians from both have co-operated: Stian Aarstad of Dimmu Borgir produced Vaakevandring's eponymous EP, and Jan Axel Blomberg of Mayhem played drums for Antestor's The Forsaken (2005) album. ### Power metal and progressive metal Sacred Warrior preceded Christian power metal in the United States. The German group Seventh Avenue, formed in 1989, was one of more notable Christian power metal bands in the 1990s. They released Rainbowland in 1995, and after that the band was signed to Treasure Hunt Records. Their first release on this label, Tales of Tales, topped at 18 on the Japanese Heavy Metal Charts. Later in the 1990s, the Swedish group Narnia made contributions to Christian power metal history, having signed with Nuclear Blast Records, Germany, and Pony Canyon Records, Japan. Later there appeared more notable European groups such as the German bands Chrystyne and Lightmare, and the Swedish groups XT, Divinefire, Harmony, and Heartcry. Among the progressive metal representatives were Balance of Power, whose album When the World Falls Down was picked by Japanese label Pony Canyon. Jacobs Dream was signed to Metal Blade Records. HM wrote of the Athens, Georgia based Theocracy's self-titled debut album that "Not only did this release gain [the then-sole member] Matt [Smith] a lot of notoriety in the small Christian power/prog scene but the much larger secular power/prog secene embraced this as well." Later turned to a full band, their sophomore 2008 album Mirror of Souls "defines excellence in current Christian metal." ### Other In 1987, the Swedish group Veni Domine started playing progressive and symphonic doom metal and released its first album Fall Babylon Fall in 1992, ranked as the 38th most influential Christian metal album of all time by HM. HM Magazine wrote that Paramaecium, with its 1993 album Exhumed of the Earth, "essentially delivered the most powerful and moving death/doom recording in the history of Christian metal." Saviour Machine's Saviour Machine I was called "amazing accomplishment" by HM and that "their gothic-tinged, progressive metal was quite unique to the scene when it was released in 1993." The alternative metal style's leading groups included the nu metal bands P.O.D., Thousand Foot Krutch, Disciple, and Pillar. Zao was a pioneer of metalcore, paving way for bands such as Underoath and Norma Jean. The California-based group Mortal is cited as one of the first Christian bands that represented the industrial metal style. Cross Rhythms wrote that when Mortal's second album Fathom hit the scene in 1993 "there was nothing else quite like it" and that it is "truly a musical milestone." Another 1990s reputive Christian industrial metal band was Circle of Dust. The band received MTV exposure with a music video for "Telltale Crime", and a part of the song "Deviate" was used as the intro-song for a long time in the now defunct MTV Sports show. Argyle Park, an underground supergroup of Christian industrial metal, received some success with the album Misguided (1995) as did, to some extent, LVL and Klank with Still Suffering in 1997. Klank's second album Numb was somewhat successful because the song "Blind" became a hit single. The Australian industrial metal band called Screams of Chaos was known for its bizarre style that combined several extreme metal influences with industrial. The late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century popular American shock rock group Rackets & Drapes was known to have elements of industrial metal, and received a following. While not as well known as Mortification, fellow Australian band, Vomitorial Corpulence was widely known as the first Christian grindcore band. The band had minor success but certainly helped the Extreme metal side of Christian metal. ## In mainstream metal There are notable mainstream acts that feature or have featured Christian members. While these bands may or may not have had lyrics using Christian themes or symbolism, some have caused controversy in their claims to Christianity, such as Tom Araya of Slayer. Others, such as Alice Cooper, Killswitch Engage, Iron Maiden, and Megadeth also have members who are Christian and often use spiritual themes. Metallica's Creeping Death is a Christian song as it lyrically describes the plagues of Egypt, mainly the 10th. ## Evangelistic subculture While not uncommon in predominantly Catholic cultures, Christian metal is rooted in evangelical Protestantism, beginning as a means of evangelism among the non-Christian metal scene. Over the years the focus changed because of the increased secularization of Christianity in the West during the 1990s. Moberg (2008) notes that the current scene seems to have very little interest in evangelism, especially in Northern Europe. Instead, it is argued that the current Christian metal music scene ultimately provides its core members with important resources for the shaping of an alternative and complementary form of religious expression and practice and an alternative Christian identity. Thus, Moberg states that Christian metal serves four main purposes: an alternative form of religious expression and identity; as a legitimate form of religious expression; as an effective means of evangelism and fighting and standing up for the Christian faith; as a positive alternative to non-Christian metal. In a 2006 interview with HM Magazine, Steve Rowe of Mortification, one of the best known figures in the scene, implies that evangelism is of secondary importance and that Christian metal should first and foremost bring "spiritual encouragement" for its Christian listeners. Moberg (2006) suspects that Christian metal music may suggest dissatisfaction with traditional forms of worship among today's young Christians: "They may not feel comfortable with just going to church and singing hymns, they need an alternative means to express the same faith." Apart from evangelism, Christian metal may also provide a means "to get away from the image of Christianity as something rigid and boring". Luhr (2009) states that Christian metal expresses feeling of isolation and rebellion just like non-Christian metal - but in a completely different way. Christian metal's rebellion is about "Christian opposition to the perceived sinfulness and immorality of a late modern society and culture in which traditional family values have been eroded through such things as the legalization and increasing acceptability of abortion and pornography and the rise of gay rights and feminist movements." Causes for the feeling of isolation can be explained with the fundamental Christian struggle of being in the world but not of it. Bloodgood and Barren Cross inverted the meaning of rebellion by declaring that in Western society and culture the Christian faith is true rebellion. As in non-Christian metal, fans are encouraged to stand up for their faith, think for themselves and not blindly follow authorities, including religious ones. According to Moberg (2008), Christian metal has developed scenes in countries with long-standing metal subcultures: United States, Brazil, Mexico, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Finland. Despite its seemingly marginal niche audience, as Christian metal fans are counted in the thousands and the non-Christian metal fans in the millions, the Christian metal scene is one of the few transnational Christian communities that do not have any leaders or creed - only music connects its attendees. Just like non-Christian metal, the Christian metal scene has developed its own infrastructure of record labels, promotion and distribution channels, specialized media, discussion forums, attitude, rhetorics, slogans such as "Turn or Burn!", "Faster for the Master!" and "Support the War against Satan!", webstores and festivals. Brazil and Mexico have tiny parishes of Christian metal fans. Finland in particular, with metal being more mainstream there than anywhere in the world, has held popular Metal Masses picked up by the Lutheran former state church since 2006. Most Christian metalheads also listen to non-Christian metal; Christian metal merely offers counterbalance for the dark message of non-Christian metal, and most Christian metalheads only avoid the most satanic bands, if even them, since some ignore the issue altogether. Some differences in concert gestures have been noticed: Los Angeles Times reported in 1985 that in Stryper shows the audience were seen "poking stubby 'one way' fingers heavenward—a refutation of the double-fingered devil horns salute of many metal groups". ## Controversy Certain Christian groups, most notably those in some King James Only denominations, consider all types of rock and metal music to be opposition to their faith, regardless of lyrical content or the lifestyles of the band members. However, fans and artists see metal as another genre of music, parallel to such genres as blues, classical, jazz, punk, and hip-hop. Bands such as Showbread and Antestor believe that the instrumentation of the music is simply a medium of art, while the person creating the music as well as the lyrics being presented provide the message. Therefore, Christian metal is created when Christians compose metal music in a way that reflects their faith in Christ. Keith Kahn-Harris, an English scholar of metal, states in the book Extreme Metal that sometimes fans of metal consider Christian faith and adherence in Church a membership of an established authority, and therefore Christian metal bands are seen as "posers" and the use of Christian lyrics to be opposed to the "true" purpose of metal, which values individualism and ignoring the opinions or rejection of religion. Christian metal groups such as Barnabas and Extol have criticized bands within the industry for a lack of innovation and for isolating bands within the industry. Pastor Bob Beeman of Sanctuary International stated that this is a compliment to secular music, as it lets people to listen to the music they enjoyed without feeling like they are giving up on the style they love and allows bands to crossover into mainstream success. Some groups within the Christian metal movement have criticized bands within the industry for isolating the genre from general industry too avidly. For example, Christer Espevoll of Extol stated in 2003: "I wish the scenes were more together. For a long time there has been a huge – and still growing – distance between Christian and secular music industries. This is the situation peculiarly in the US but also in Scandinavia. In my opinion this kind of polarization is not a good thing. Music is first and foremost about music so why should every band or artist that represents a religion or lack of it have its own industry? Music has no religious borders." However, most Christian bands today oppose to being isolated in the Christian music industry and have become mainstream successes, such as Virgin Black, and Norma Jean. ## Christian metal radio Since Christian metal is very much a counterculture of the Christian music scene, it has never had any major corporate radio outlets, as opposed to the more accepted CCM-associated Christian music formats. Nevertheless, it has remained culturally significant in the genre, primarily enduring the test of time through word of mouth and through the help of pioneering Christian rock and metal broadcasters. Despite the lack of commercial radio support, Christian metal broadcasters have managed to hit the airwaves on public radio, campus radio, Internet radio, and in recent years through podcasting via the Internet. As digital broadcasting technology becomes more accessible, the number of Christian metal broadcasters has steadily increased. Some of today's largest non-commercial Christian alternative radio stations such as RadioU, Call FM, and Effect Radio have some Christian metal programing late nights and on weekends. However, as a whole these larger stations generally maintain a format prescribed by the Gospel Music Association. Other stations such as Almighty Metal Radio, Savage Rock Radio, Reign Radio, Metal Blessing Radio, The Cross Stream, The Refinery Rock Radio, www.theBlast.fm, and FuelRadio.FM have been able to maintain twenty-four-hour Christian metal formats through Internet radio. In September 2011 The Refinery Rock Radio became Dead to Self Radio and in November 2016 FuelRadio.FM changed to FuelRadio.net. Dead to Self Radio and Fuel Radio are owned by Thomas Johns. Some notable Christian metal radio DJs, shows and podcasts include: "Jesus Solid Rock" Show ('74–'80) hosted by Pastor Bob Beeman, "Intense Radio" ('95–present) founded by Pastor Bob Beeman and Sanctuary International, "HM Podcast" with HM Magazine founder & publisher Doug Van Pelt, " The Full Armor of God Broadcast" ('97–present) hosted by Bro Scotland Kubinski (Kuba "The Demon Slayer"), "Radio U Hardcore" and ('02–present) hosted by Jaddeus Dempsey (A.K.A. "Jad"), and "The Nation of Rockwell". ## Record labels - Blood and Ink Records - Bombworks Records - Facedown Records - Flicker Records - Intense Records - Lament Records - Nightmare Records - Nosral Recordings - Pluto Records - R.E.X. Records - Retroactive Records - Rivel Records - Rottweiler Records - Rowe Productions - Solid State Records - Tooth & Nail Records - Vision of God Records ## Christian metal festivals - Cornerstone Festival 1984–2012 (U.S.) - Elements of Rock 2004–present (Switzerland) - Nordic Fest 2002–2011 (Norway) - Blast of Eternity 2008–present (Germany) - Bobfest - Dikaion Fest (Ecuador) - Call for Eternity / Call for Eternity Extreme 2009–present (Slovakia) - Admonishment (New Zealand) - Rock Alive (the Netherlands) - Audiofeed 2012-present (U.S.) ## See also - Christian rock - Heavy metal music - Jesus movement - List of Christian metal artists - Unblack metal - Hell's Bells: The Dangers of Rock 'N' Roll

Into the Groove

1985 single by Madonna

"Into the Groove" is a song recorded by American singer Madonna, and featured on the 1985 film Desperately Seeking Susan. Written and produced by both Madonna and Stephen Bray, the main inspiration behind the song was the dance floor; the singer wrote it while watching a Latin American man whom she was attracted to. Its instrumentation features synthesizers and drum machines, with Madonna's voice being double tracked on the chorus. Sexual innuendos and undertones are present throughout the lyrics, which are written as an invitation to dance with the singer. Originally written for her friend Mark Kamins, Madonna later decided to use it on the film, as one of the scenes needed a dance song. It was later added to the 1985 international re-issue of her second studio album, Like a Virgin (1984), and remixed for her compilations You Can Dance (1987) and The Immaculate Collection (1990). Not wanting to draw more attention away from the Like a Virgin album and the release of "Crazy for You", Warner Bros. Records did not give "Into the Groove" an official release in the United States, thus making it ineligible to enter the Billboard Hot 100. It was eventually released as the B-side to the 12" maxi-single of "Angel", the third official single from Like a Virgin, and reached the first spot of Billboard's Hot Dance Singles Sales chart. In the United Kingdom, "Into the Groove" became Madonna's first number one hit and remains her best-selling single. It was also successful throughout Europe, topping the charts in Austria, Ireland, Italy, and the Netherlands. Critically acclaimed since its release, "Into the Groove" was voted the best dance single from the 1980s decade in a Billboard poll, and has been cited by multiple publications as Madonna's best single. While no official music video was shot, a compilation made up of scenes from Desperately Seeking Susan was created to accompany the release, and received heavy rotation on MTV. Madonna has performed "Into the Groove" on six of her concert tours, the last being 2015–2016's Rebel Heart Tour. It has been covered and sampled by many artists, notably Australian singer Dannii Minogue, who released a mashup of "Into The Groove" and her 2003 single "Don't Wanna Lose This Feeling". ## Background and recording "Into the Groove" was written and produced by Madonna and her then-boyfriend Stephen Bray. In 1984, the singer was living in Avenue-B, and she revealed to having "rushed" the writing process because "there was this gorgeous Puerto Rican boy [living across her] that I wanted to go out on a date with, and I just wanted to get [the song] over with [...] [it] was finished just before my last date with him". One of the main inspirations was the dance floor, which she described as a "magical" place, adding that "I started off wanting to be a dancer, so that had a lot to do. The freedom that I always feel when I'm dancing, that feeling of inhabiting your body, letting yourself go, expressing yourself through music [...] that came to me as the primary inspiration for 'Into the Groove'". After finishing the track, Brey and Madonna recorded a demo, paid by her friend Mark Kamins, the idea was to modify the demo so Cheyne, Kamins fifteen-year old protégée, could sing and record it. Around the same time, director Susan Seidelman was looking for actresses to play the title role in her film Desperately Seeking Susan, having turned down Diane Keaton, Melanie Griffith, and Kelly McGillis, Seidelmen decided to cast Madonna, whom she had met in the "downtown music scene", and felt had an "interesting buzz". While shooting one scene at Danceteria nightclub, a dance song was needed and Madonna suggested "Into the Groove", so she and Bray modified some of the demo's lyrics and recorded the track. Kamins was furious when he found out, as the singer hadn’t even told him she had decided to use it herself; Madonna retorted: "I'm tough, I'm ambitious and I know exactly what I want. If that makes me a bitch, that's okay". Recording took place at Sigma Sound Studios of the process, Bray recalled that he would first work on the song's "rib cage and the skeleton [music]", and Madonna would take care of the "last things like the eyebrows and the haircut [lyrics]". The singer's friend Erika Belle, who was present during the recording sessions, remembered that, at one point, Bray was facing difficulties with the bridge of the song, as the melody he had come up with was not syncing with the rest of the composition. Madonna then stepped up to the microphone and sang the words Live out your fantasy here with me, seemingly solving the problem; Belle recalled being "awestruck" at the fact that "[the song] just seemed to come out of her". Due to contractual label reasons, "Into the Groove" was not included on the official Desperately Seeking Susan soundtrack, but was instead added to the 1985 international re-issue of Madonna's second studio album, Like a Virgin (1984). It was also included on the compilation albums You Can Dance (1987), The Immaculate Collection (1990), Celebration (2009), and Finally Enough Love: 50 Number Ones (2022). ## Composition and remixes Musically, "Into the Groove" is a dance-pop song that begins with a spoken introduction by Madonna, the sound of drums, and a synth bassline. This is followed by the chorus, where the singer's voice is double tracked and the treble is increased by a notch, the synth line counterpoints the main tune, adding a contrast effect. The bridge Live out your fantasy here with me has Madonna using her vocals in a lower register, alongside the main ones. According to the sheet music published in Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing Co. Inc., "Into the Groove" is set in the time signature of common time with a medium tempo of 116 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of C minor, with Madonna's voice spanning from the low-tone of C₄ to the high-tone of D₅. The song has a basic sequence of Cm7–B/C–Cm7–A as its chord progression. The "simple" lyrics, which invite the listener to dance with the singer, carry sexual innuendos and undertones, Rikky Rooksby, author of Madonna: the complete guide to her music, argued that, similar to "Like a Virgin", "Into the Groove" counts with a lyrical hook aimed at shy girls. He held that the line At night I lock the door so no-one else can see implied that Madonna was not as "brazen as her provocative image suggested". By his part, author Marc Andrews felt the lyrics' theme of "dance floor liberation" works as a call to all minorities, specifically the gay community. Similarly, Clive Barker, one of the authors of In New Theatre Quarterly 46, Part 2, said that the line Only when I'm dancing can I feel this free expresses the "freedom that a dance floor brings about", he also pointed out that a neume that "blurred the boundaries of reality and brings one closer to the world of fantasy", can be found on the bridge. "Into the Groove" was first remixed by Shep Pettibone for You Can Dance (1987), Madonna's first remix compilation. In this remix, overdubs are present alongside the continuous repetition of the phrase c'mon. Additionally, the first verse does not start until about ninety seconds into the song. After the first Now I know you're mine line is sung, there is a percussion break, and repetition of the phrases step to the beat and c'mon. The last verse incorporates echoing on the vocals, causing overlap of the phrases, it ends with instrumentation from congas, whistles and timbales. Pettibone collaborated with Goh Hotoda in another remix of the song, which was included on 1990's The Immaculate Collection. In 2003, "Into the Hollywood Groove", a mashup of "Into the Groove" and "Hollywood", was used for a Gap ad featuring Madonna and rapper Missy Elliott. it was then added to Madonna's second remix compilation, Remixed & Revisited. An edited "truncated take" of the You Can Dance remix was included on the singer's third remix compilation, Finally Enough Love: 50 Number Ones (2022), this time incorporating stuttering vocals. ## Critical reception "Into the Groove" has been acclaimed since its release. For Rikky Rooksby it's her "first great single" that "will make you feel like you're a winner [...] [And that's] one of the best things pop music can do for ya [sic]". While J. Randy Taraborrelli, author of Madonna: An Intimate Biography, said the song demonstrated Madonna's ability to create "infectious dance music", Clive Barker and Simon Trussler referred to it as the first disco-anthem of the 1980s. A similar opinion was shared by Matthew Rettenmund, author of Totally Awesome 80s: A Lexicon of the Music, Videos, Movies, TV Shows, Stars, and Trends of that Decadent Decade, who named "Into the Groove" the "ultimate" 1980s song, that also "cemented [Madonna's] place as the dancing queen of the era". In Goodbye 20th Century: A Biography of Sonic Youth, David Browne classified the single as an "ebullient, wonderfully pushy hit". Dawn Keetley and John Pettigrew, authors of Public Women, Public Words: A Documentary History of American Feminism, called it "mesmerizing". In 1001 Songs: The Great Songs of All Time and the Artists, Stories and Secrets, Toby Cresswell said of the song: "[A] sweet, limited white tune on the top, and there's Madonna – all the right-shop chic – dragging the straight world into this subterranean paradise. All the magic of the eighties is right here". From AllMusic, Stacia Proefrock opined it was an "infectious, fluffy dance-pop confection that drew legions of fans, as well as considerable backlash from those supposedly too sophisticated to be able to enjoy her music". Retrospective reviews have been largely positive. Slant Magazine’s reviewer named it the 29th greatest dance song, and the singer's third best single, on both occasions he wrote that: "she's unapologetically single-minded, it's love she's looking for, not just a dance partner [...] The song —and Madonna's performance—are that good". In 2009 the staff of Blender placed it at number 90 on the magazine's list of "The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born", "[Madonna] is not just asking you to dance. She is commanding you to [...] Sounding totally at home amid woodblock percussion and sunset synths, [her] voice bursts with the optimism of early evening", the review read. On Rolling Stone's 2021 list, it came in at number 121 and was named "the greatest dance-pop invitation of the Eighties". In 2012, The Guardian's Nosheen Iqbal asked, "had there ever been a hotter summons to the dancefloor than Into the Groove? It was the soundtrack to her first (and last) great cinema moment". The song was voted by the British public as the nation's 19th favorite 1980s number one in a 2015 poll for ITV. Matthew Jacobs from HuffPost placed the song at the tenth position in his ranking of Madonna's singles, calling it her "finest pre-Vogue dance-floor anthem", Jacobs added that "no one cites 'Angel' as one of Madonna’s more memorable singles. But 'Into the Groove' is [...] the ultimate mid-'80s call to action". In Gay Star News's 2014 ranking of Madonna’s songs, the single came in at number 8. Jude Rogers from The Guardian placed it at number 17 in her 2018 ranking of Madonna singles. The Tab's Harrison Brocklehurst referred to "Into the Groove" as "pure pop perfection [...] from start to finish", in 2022 he named it Madonna's 15th best. In 2018 it was named the singer's 9th greatest single by Entertainment Weekly's Chuck Arnold, who opined that "Madonna may have never truly conquered the acting world [...] but she definitely made some killer movie music", citing "Into the Groove" as an example. In 2012 it was deemed "magnetic, comely, cool, [and] compulsively danceable", and Madonna's 4th best, by Louis Virtel from The Backlot. According to the staff of Rolling Stone in 2016, it's the singer's second best single, "it still sounds like a low-budget demo – those breakbeats, the desperate edge in her voice when she drones, 'Now I know you're mine' – but that raw power is what makes it her definitive you-can-dance track". "Into the Groove" was named the best dance single from the 1980s on Billboard's "Music of the '80s" poll; it was also named Madonna's finest by both PinkNews's Nayer Missim, and Billboard's Andrew Unterberger, the former wrote that "[she] has probably sung more emotional, more danceable, more experimental and technically 'better' songs, but as a distillation of pure pop joy, 'Into the Groove' more than earns its place as her very best single", while according to the latter, "no other artist in pop history has understood as well that the lines that separate music, dancing, sex and love into discrete entities are tenuous at best, and in 'Into the Groove', all four elements are continuously smashing into each other, becoming virtually interchangeable". "Into the Groove" was included in 1001 Songs: You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery as well as Bruce Pollock's Rock Song Index: The 7500 Most Important Songs for the Rock & Roll Era. ## Chart performance In the United States, "Material Girl" and "Crazy for You" were released only a couple of months apart. Fearing “over-saturation”, executives at Warner Bros. Records decided not to release "Into the Groove" officially. Instead, it became the B-side of the 12" maxi-single of "Angel", the third official Like a Virgin single, making it ineligible to enter the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot Singles Sales charts. The "Angel"/"Into the Groove" release debuted at number 40 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart on June 1, 1985 and at number 10 of the Dance Singles Sales chart one week later. By the end of the month, “Into the Groove” had reached the first position on both charts, becoming Madonna's fourth number one on the former. The song also charted on Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, peaking at number 19 the week of July 27, 1985. Just three days later, "Angel"/"Into the Groove" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of one million copies across the US ― the requirement for a gold single prior to 1989. It became the fourth 12" single to be certified gold after Donna Summer and Barbra Streisand's "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)" (1979), Kurtis Blow's "The Breaks" (1980), and Frankie Smith's "Double Dutch Bus" (1981). By December, Billboard reported that the single had sold over 600,000 copies and was number 12 on the year-end Dance charts. In the United Kingdom, "Into the Groove" debuted at number 4 on the UK Singles Chart on July 27, 1985, becoming the highest debuting single for any female artist in the chart's history at the time. It peaked at number one the week of August 3 and remained there for four weeks, it spent 14 weeks on the chart overall. During its stay at number one, the re-release of "Holiday" reached the chart's second spot, thus Madonna became the first female artist in UK chart history to hold the top two positions simultaneously. "Into the Groove" was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipment of 500,000 copies. It was the year's third most successful single, behind Jennifer Rush's "The Power of Love", and Elaine Paige's and Barbara Dickson's "I Know Him So Well". With sales of over 957,000 copies, including physical, downloads and streaming, "Into the Groove" is Madonnna's best-selling single in the United Kingdom as of August 2018. In Australia, "Angel"/"Into the Groove" reached the top of the Kent Music Report chart and ended the year as the second best-selling single of 1985. The single found success across Europe as well, topping the charts in Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain, and peaking within the top three of France, Germany, and Switzerland. "Into the Groove" was less successful in Japan, where it barely cracked the top 40. ## Music video No official music video was shot for "Into the Groove" instead, a clip consisting of compiled scenes and footage from Desperately Seeking Susan ―the lyrics matching the images and scenes― was put together by Doug Dowdle from Parallax Productions, a company that specialized in movie-related music videos during the 1980s. It was added to MTV on the week of March 30, 1985. Despite naming it "basic" and "nowhere near as high-concept" as Madonna's previous music videos, author James King wrote in Fast Times and Excellent Adventures: The Surprising History of the '80s Teen Movie that the clip proved "just how striking Desperately Seeking Susan is visually", comparing it to "Purple Rain" (1984) by Prince and the Revolution. He concluded that "the prospect of the attitude-filled Madonna [...] on the big screen was impossible to resist", thus the video was successful on MTV. John Fiske, author of Television Culture, pointed out that, just like Desperately Seeking Susan, ['Into the Groove'] is almost exclusively about style" and "women seeking control over their social identity". On a similar note, Out's Julien Sauvalle named it one of Madonna's "most stylish" music videos. "Into the Groove" can be found on Madonna's 2009 compilation Celebration: The Video Collection. ## Live performances Madonnna has performed "Into the Groove" on six of her concert tours: Virgin (1985), Who's That Girl (1987), Blond Ambition (1990), Re-Invention (2004), Sticky & Sweet (2008―2009), and Rebel Heart (2015―2016). On the first one, she wore lace leggings, crucifixes on her neck and ears, and played tambourine backed by two male dancers. From the Observer–Reporter, Terry Hazlett said it was the concert's best number. The performance of the song at Detroit's Cobo Arena was included on the Madonna Live: The Virgin Tour video release. On July 13, 1985, Madonna sang "Into the Groove" at the Philadelphia Live Aid benefit concert, held at John F. Kennedy Stadium. her outfit consisted of flowery trousers, a cutoff shirt, and long white jacket. Halfway through the performance, the singer joked that she would not take her jacket off because "[the media] might hold it against me ten years from now". The song's performance on the Who's That Girl World Tour saw Madonna decked out in a fringed pink jacket decorated with colorful items, including a letter U, a tin of Campbell's soup, and the word DANCE ― a play-on-words of the phrase "You Can Dance". On his review of the Washington, D.C. concert, the Washington Post's Richard Harrington cited the song as one of the show's "tingling dance numbers", comparing it to a workout. Two different performances were included on the videos Who's That Girl: Live in Japan, filmed in Tokyo on June, and Ciao Italia: Live from Italy, filmed in Turin on September. On the Blond Ambition World Tour, following a speech about condoms and safe sex, Madonna sang "Into the Groove" while "bumping and grinding through some Lambada steps" with a male dancer; she wore a black mini-dress trimmed and stitched with a stuffed West African stork called the marabou. Harrington highlighted "Into the Groove" as one of the tour's "big production numbers". Two different performances can be found in Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90, taped in Yokohama, and Blond Ambition World Tour Live, taped in Nice. "Into the Groove" was given a Scottish theme and remixed with a "more complex beat" for the Re-Invention World Tour, the number had the singer and troupe dressed in kilts, a live bagpiper, drum corps, and a recorded appearance by Missy Elliott. Glenn Gamboa from Newsday pointed the song was re-imagined as a "powerful dance piece instead of simply a dance-pop trifle". A performance of "Into the Groove" from this tour can be found on the I'm Going to Tell You a Secret live album and documentary (2006). A "pumping club mix" of the song, that sampled Newcleus' "Jam on It" (1984), and The Sugarhill Gang's "Apache" (1981), was sung on the Sticky & Sweet Tour. Madonnna wore 1980s-styled gym shorts, played Double Dutch, and danced on a pole mounted on a mobile DJ booth, while the backdrop screens showed artwork by artist Keith Haring. The Denver Post's Ricardo Baca referred to the number as a "delightful explosion of color [...] pure pop goodness". The performance was included on the Sticky & Sweet Tour live album release (2010), recorded during the four concerts in Buenos Aires, Argentina. On 2012's The MDNA Tour, the song was sampled on an introduction video that led to "Turn Up the Radio". A slow, cumbia and salsa-fueled medley of "Dress You Up", "Into the Groove", and "Lucky Star" (1983) was included on the Rebel Heart Tour. The number featured Day of the Dead iconography and found Madonna, decked out in a long dress with a black shawl and a black hat, joined by a Mexican-themed dance crew. Billboard's Joe Lynch opined that "the maracas might have been a little much, but the crisp Spanish guitar successfully made the songs sound newly organic". The performance at the March 19–20, 2016 shows in Sydney's Allphones Arena was recorded and released in Madonna's fifth live album, Rebel Heart Tour (2017). During an interview with Rolling Stone, Madonna revealed that "Into the Groove" is a song she "feel[s] retarded singing". ## Cover versions and samples In 1989, the song was covered by American Alternative rock band Sonic Youth as "Into the Groove(y)" for their album The Whitey Album; AllMusic's Bradley Torreano felt the rendition "manage[s] to mold a fantastic dirge out of the original". The song was recorded by Dale Bozzio, former lead singer of American new wave band Missing Persons, for 2000's Virgin Voices: A Tribute To Madonna, Vol. 2. In 2002, French–Dutch group Mad'House did a Eurodance take on the single, that was included on their album Absolutely Mad. That same year, French band Superbus covered it for their album Aéromusical. In 2007, American singer Jeremy Jay sang "Into the Groove" for Through the Wilderness: A Tribute to Madonna and, one year later, it was covered by American band The Magic Droid in their album What's Your Medium? In "Puppet Master" (2013), the seventh episode of the fifth season of American television series Glee, the song was performed by Lea Michele, Naya Rivera, Demi Lovato, and Adam Lambert. In 2003, Australian singer Dannii Minogue sampled "Into the Groove" on her single "Don't Wanna Lose This Feeling"; it was the first time Madonna approved a sample of one of her songs. Minogue recalled that "I was the first [to use Madonna as a sample]. To this day I still can’t believe it! [...] 'Into the Groove' is just legendary". On December 27, 2021, Madonna accused American rapper Tory Lanez of sampling the track without her permission on his song "Pluto’s Last Comet"; "Read your messages for illegal usage of my song get into the groove!", the singer commented on one of Lanez' Instagram posts. It was never confirmed if she had pursued a copyright infringement suit against Lanez, or sought writing credits. ## Track listing and formats \*; UK 7" single / UK 7" Limited Edition Picture Disc 1. "Into the Groove" (Single Version) – 4:43 2. "Shoo-Bee-Doo" (LP Version) – 5:16 \*; Japanese 7" single 1. "Into the Groove" (Single Version) – 4:43 2. "Physical Attraction" (Single Edit) – 3:55 \*; German 3" CD single (1989) 1. "Into the Groove" (Single Version) – 4:43 2. "Who's That Girl" (Extended Version) – 6:29 3. "Causing a Commotion" (Silver Screen Mix) – 6:39 \*; You Can Dance promo 12" single (1987) 1. "Into the Groove" (Extended Remix) – 8:31 2. "Into the Groove" (Remix Dub) – 6:22 3. "Everybody" (Extended Remix) – 7:06 \*; UK 12" single 1. "Into the Groove" (Single Version) – 4:43 2. "Everybody" (LP Version) – 4:52 3. "Shoo-Bee-Doo" (LP Version) – 5:16 ## Credits and personnel - Madonna – writer, vocals, producer - Stephen Bray – writer, producer - Shep Pettibone – audio mixing, additional production, audio editing - Andy Wallace – remix engineering - The Latin Rascals – audio editing - Herb Ritts – photography These credits are adapted from the liner notes of You Can Dance and the 1985 re-issue of Like a Virgin. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## See also - List of Dutch Top 40 number-one singles of 1985 - List of European number-one hits of 1985 - List of top 25 singles for 1985 in Australia - List of number-one hits of 1985 (Flanders) - List of number-one singles of 1985 (Ireland) - List of number-one hits of 1985 (Italy) - List of number-one singles of 1985 (Spain) - List of number-one dance singles of 1985 (U.S.) - List of UK top-ten singles in 1985

Love It If We Made It

Song by the 1975

"Love It If We Made It" is a song by English band the 1975 from their third studio album, A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships (2018). The song was written by Matty Healy, George Daniel, Adam Hann and Ross MacDonald, while the production was handled by the former two. It was released on 19 July 2018 by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records as the second single from the album. Daniel created the song's production in 2015, while Healy collected daily tabloid headlines from 2016 to 2018 to use as lyrics. They became too humorous, so he rewrote the song to summarize the volatile social and political events in that period, using Prince's "Sign o' the Times" as an inspiration. A mid-tempo electro-rock ballad, "Love It If We Made It" contains sophisti-pop melodies, harp-like arpeggios, disco riffs and staccato chords. The song also incorporates elements of synth-pop, power pop, funk and pop music. Thematically, it deals with the vices of modern humanity, hypocrisy and disinformation, while the lyrics reference events such as the US national anthem protests, the death of Alan Kurdi and the Donald Trump Access Hollywood tape, among others. Healy delivers the track in a stream of consciousness style using a mixture of shouting, screaming and rapping. Upon release, "Love It If We Made It" received widespread acclaim from contemporary music critics, many of whom deemed it both an album highlight and the record's overall thesis statement. Praise was directed at the song's themes, lyrics, production and Healy's vocal delivery. The track was included on numerous critics year-end lists, and lauded as the best song of 2018 by several publications, including The New York Times and Pitchfork. It later won the 2019 Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song. It is generally considered among the best songs of the 2010s, a generational anthem and the millennial equivalent to Billy Joel's "We Didn't Start the Fire", with several contemporary critics referring to the track as the 1975's greatest song. Commercially, "Love It If We Made It" peaked at number ten on the US Billboard Hot Rock & Alternative Songs and number 33 on the UK Singles Chart, while also reaching the top 50 in Scotland, Ireland and Canada. The song was later certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Two music videos were released to accompany the track. The first, created in a vertical format, was released to Spotify on 12 August 2018. The second, directed by Adam Powell, was released on 15 October. The visual depicts the 1975 performing the song as neon-coloured silhouettes, interspersed with found footage-style clips of war and significant pop culture events from the 2010s. The video received positive reviews and was later nominated for Best Rock Video at the 2019 UK Music Video Awards and the 2019 MTV Video Music Awards. ## Writing and recording The instrumentation of "Love It If We Made It" was created by Daniel in 2015. Development of the lyrics began immediately after the 1975 concluded the recording of I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It. The band was inspired by the Blue Nile's Hats (1989), which they frequently listened to during their I Like It When You Sleep Tour. They sought to create something similar but "slightly different [...] like [the] Blue Nile on steroids”, and wanted the song to sound “really machine-like, in an industrial sense". Healy requested that Ed Blow, the Dirty Hit product manager, go to the local newsstand every day to grab the daily newspaper. The singer had an idea to collect a list of tabloid headlines and turn them into a song. He realised the headlines had become too slapstick and humorous during the writing process, so the idea was scrapped. The June 2017 Grenfell Tower fire, which occurred close to the Dirty Hit offices, had a significant impact on Healy. According to the singer, the event acted as the song's catalyst, saying, "that's when the song became this outward exorcism". The first concerted effort to write "Love It If We Made It" occurred in June 2017. While on a flight during the 1975's I Like It When You Sleep Tour, Daniel encouraged Healy to build the song's lyrics around his 2015 instrumental, which consisted of two chords at the time. The singer had the phrase "fucking in a car, shooting heroin" and a line about Eric Garner, but most of the verses did not form until very late into the recording process. He revisited the idea of tabloid headlines, choosing to document the events of 2016 to 2018 in a collection of notes, adding to it every time something angered him. Healy procrastinated work on the song, eventually rewriting it several times. Once the lyrics grew more substantially, he realised it had become a benchmark for A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships, changing the album's overall structure from a personal, introspective diary of the singer's life into an outward-facing record. Healy did not want to create a protest song, feeling "Love It If We Made It" needed to be an objective summary of events rather than a subjective opinion. To accomplish this, he looked to the narrative of Prince's "Sign o' the Times" (1987), seeking to create a "super modern" version that documents the most political and socially volatile period of the band's life. As the writing process continued, the singer amassed so much content that several lines needed to be removed. Such lyrics included a "Horse Burger Butchered by the British" and one about foreign nurses. Ultimately, Healy remarked that the most challenging part of the songwriting process was making it all rhyme. He composed the bridge as a "dump of ideas", writing down the words that came to his mind in the moment. Healy had previously written "Consultation, degradation, fossil-fueling masturbation / Immigration, liberal kitsch, kneeling on a pitch", followed by a missing gap of seven syllables and the line "excited to be indicted". Having referenced the Twitter interaction between Donald Trump and Kanye West, he sought to incorporate a second famous soundbite from the former president of the United States. While singing the melody to himself in a car, Healy realised that "I moved on her like a bitch" – a remark made by Trump captured on the Access Hollywood tape – fit perfectly. Although the other band members urged him not to include it over fears of further censorship, the singer refused, saying censorship was an acceptable consequence for verbatim quoting the president of the United States. As the I Like It When You Sleep Tour reached its conclusion, the 1975 returned to the studio to record "Love It If We Made It". Having heard the song in full for the first time, the band felt that it was "fucking crazy", with Healy describing a purity to their reactions. However, he felt uncomfortable recording it. While not being uncomfortable with the lyrics themselves, he was in disbelief over what he was saying, specifically his awareness of how bizarre the world had become. Speaking to Genius, the singer noted that radio stations would censor the line "I moved on her like a bitch", despite the band merely repeating a statement uttered by the president of the United States. Remarking on how unusual it seemed, Healy said, "that's a weird reality, that's weird, that's some Idiocracy kind of stuff". ## Inspiration While "Love It If We Made It" is inspired by the failures of modern life, the 1975 wanted the title to represent their optimism in the human spirit's resilience. One topic that influenced the lyrics was the growing acceptance of alternative facts and post-truth in society. Healy cited the rise of the Flat-Earther movement as an example of this, noting their beliefs contradict tangible physical evidence. On a larger scale, he was interested in global online interconnectedness and the weaponization of the internet, noting its use as a tool to sow distrust, promote lies and spread misinformation. Elsewhere, the singer was partially inspired by conservative pundits Milo Yiannopoulos and Candace Owens. Regarding their ability to be provocative, the singer sought to emulate this and attempted to write lyrics that captured listeners' attention in the "attention economy". Similarly, he borrowed a line from a Trump T-shirt that read: "Trump 2016, fuck your feelings." The 1975 were inspired by the world's reaction to the death of Alan Kurdi, a three-year-old boy who drowned attempting to cross the Aegean Sea during the European migrant crisis. Healy felt ashamed that it took a picture to garner the sympathy of the British public, while also criticizing the reaction of the conservative-leaning press in the country. Elsewhere, he wanted to pay tribute to Lil Peep, calling him a pioneer. While the singer was not "his biggest fan", he understood the gravity of the rapper's death, saying, "it was just really untimely and really sad, and I literally wanted to celebrate him, if I had an opportunity to do so". Healy's calls for Jesus in the "Love It If We Made It" stemmed from his changing outlook on religion, noting his once rigid and outspoken atheism had softened, which the singer credits to his growing empathy and understanding toward the overall culture of religion. Healy's use of "daddy" in "Love It If We Made It" stemmed from his fascination with internet meme culture, noting the term has evolved to denote a sexual connotation in the online world. His inspiration to include the "Poison me daddy" line came from the 2018 Salisbury poisoning, saying he was reading about the incident while simultaneously receiving comments from fans calling him "daddy". Elaborating further, the singer said: "[If] you told somebody 15 years ago, 'You're gonna have this computer where people are gonna be calling you daddy, and you're gonna be able to read BBC news at the same time,' it's [a] weird little reality." While recognizing his lack of knowledge regarding the history of anti-black racism in America, the singer wanted to draw attention to a paradox he observed. Healy viewed American culture as fetishizing black people while simultaneously thriving on a prison system that preys on young black men. He portrays this through a neutral observation in "Love It If We Made It", saying he "[does not] have any solutions, but [he is] an artist, it's not [his] job". Similarly, the song addresses the US national anthem protests. Healy was confused by the controversy, noting that American conservative media portrayed the issue as anti-American and anti-democratic, despite traditional American traditions of peaceful protest and standing up for one's beliefs. ## Music and lyrics Musically, "Love It If We Made It" is a mid-tempo electro-rock ballad with a length of four minutes and 13 seconds (4:13). The song's industrial and new wave-influenced electropop instrumentation makes extensive use of synth-pop, power pop, disco, funk and pop music. According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Music Publishing, "Love It If We Made It" is set in the time signature of common time with a tempo of 90 beats per minute. The track is composed in the key of E major, with Healy's vocals ranging between the notes of B₂ and B₄. The production of "Love It If We Made It", described by DIY's Will Richards as sharp and harsh, contains sophisti-pop melodies, a soaring choral section, squealing filtered disco riffs, a psychedelic, pulsating metric, gleaming, jittery electropop synths, "gigantic", insistent drums, harp-like arpeggios and hazy electronic production elements. Healy's delivers the song in a stream of consciousness style, sung with impassioned vocals variously described as a near-shout, scream, howl and shout-rap. "Love It If We Made It" opens with near-silence for the first 24 seconds, containing a simple set of staccato chords, swirls of sparkling synths, wind chimes, piano notes and a quietly pulsing keyboard–providing the backbone of the production. The instrumentation gradually rises in intensity until reaching the climax in its glissando, signifying the beginning of the first verse. Healy opens the verse with a 16-word couplet that captures the feelings of youth, disaffection and desperation with "extreme concision", as described by Pryor Stroud of Slant Magazine, singing: "We're fucking in a car, shooting heroin / Saying controversial things just for the hell of it." As it progresses, a twinkling synth is added to provide atmospherics. In the first chorus, Healy repeats the song's title several times with increasing fervour, characterised by Moreland as both a plea and an avowal to make a difference. The second chorus "explodes" into a funk-influenced refrain backed by soaring synths, bursts of funk guitars, electric guitars and a gospel choir of synthesised backing vocals. The song ends with staccato strings that Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork compared to a clock, "ruthlessly ticking down the seconds". Thematically, "Love It If We Made It" deals with the vices of modern humanity, hypocrisy and disinformation, and encourages a revolt against the turbulence and turmoil present in the modern political and cultural climate. In the first verse, Healy speaks on the opioid epidemic, anti-black racism, police brutality, the Black Lives Matter movement, cybersecurity breaches, the prison-industrial complex in the United States, fake news and the singer's heroin addiction. The second verse addresses internet culture, the death of Lil Peep, the Syrian refugee crisis, the drowning of Alan Kurdi and religion. The third and final verse contains two quotes from Trump—including a Twitter interaction with West—highlighting the former's overt bigotry, racism and prejudice, alongside references to the right-wing immigration debate and the US national anthem protests. Quinn Moreland of Pitchfork noted that while the verses depict a grim, exhausting reality, they are balanced by the hopeful and "technicolour" choruses. Jamieson echoed this opinion, saying the choruses provide the "silver lining to our world's black cloud, the first bright dawn after a storm". ### Analysis Chris Richards of The Washington Post considers "Love It If We Made It" to be a contemporary protest song, finding Healy's frustration with capitalism is misdirected at modernity. Mitch Mosk of Atwood Magazine also identified it as a protest song, capturing the feelings of overwhelmingness and hope while providing a wakeup call that demands a change be made in society. Similarly, Roisin O'Connor of The Independent called "Love It If We Made It" a generational protest song, on par with Billy Joel's "We Didn't Start the Fire" (1989) and Michael Jackson's "Man in the Mirror" (1988). In contrast, El Hunt of NME argued that rather than a protest song, it a "brash, absurdist polemic that captures the age in which we live". Healy has also denied the protest label, saying: "Hopefully it could be used on a montage for the times, but it's not going to change the times [...] It doesn't provide a solution." Jessica Sager of Parade called "Love It If We Made It" a furious attack on societal issues that plagued the second half of the 2010s, "from the opioid epidemic to fossil fuels to racism, for-profit prisons and xenophobia—to name a few". Jenny Li of Soundigest felt "Love It If We Made It" reflects the 2010s and the impact of the shifting political, social, and technological climate on humanity. She wrote that rather than condemn specific people or policies, Healy touches each topic in a raw, naked fashion that implores the listener to judge for themselves. Dan Stubbs of NME similarly commented that the singer presents no particular opinion but rather highlights real-world horrors which have become normalised, asking the listener to draw their own conclusions. His observations were echoed by Consequence of Sound writer David Sackllah, who said that while the song's lyrical juxtaposition mimics a social media feed—where horrendous tragedies "sit side by side with the mundane in a clinical detachment"—Healy offers a resilient glimpse of hope. Matt Miller of Esquire noted the chorus channels a sardonic optimism. Claire Biddles of The Line of Best Fit also observed a resilient tone, saying the song contains one of the few moments of hope in A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships. Joe Cascarelli of The New York Times felt "Love It If We Made It" serves as the thesis statement to A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships, noting that while it is nearly impossible to classify, it could be compared to "We Didn't Start the Fire". Jake Iverson of the Bozeman Daily Chronicle called "Love It If We Made It" a "thunderous rock song" and "an anthem of anthems that sounds at once incongruous and totally in sync with the rest of the decade". Biddles wrote that the composition was levelled, loud and persistent, saying: "The song itself is a monolith, maximalist to the extreme. Each electronic trill and whoosh is like digital overspill from the overpacked whole." Troy Smith of Cleveland Magazine deemed the song a "soaring romp that gets bigger and bigger as it goes on". Jisselle Fernandez of B-Sides called the song a "plea for modern society to change their destructive ways and find a possible solution over this course of madness while electro-pop synths pulsate". ## Release and promotion In early 2018, various billboards began emerging in major cities containing lyrics from "Love It If We Made It". One poster read "poison me daddy", which Tom Connick of NME called a "tongue-in-cheek reference to the all-or-nothing fan culture employed by modern audiences". A second poster also emerged in the same fashion, reading "Rest In Peace Lil Peep", referencing the rapper's death in 2017. The billboards acted as a pilgrimage for the 1975's fanbase, with fans travelling to the billboards to take selfies. On 6 July 2019, the band began mailing 1,500 care packages to random fans. The packages contained a typewritten letter that quotes the opening lyrics of "Love It If We Made It", along with a sentence that mixes a partial quote from the Donald Trump Access Hollywood tape with a headline from the Daily Mirror, reading: "When you're a star, they let you do it. You can do anything. 5 ways to save money as parents of three after the birth of the royal baby." On 11 July, a press packet was mailed to media organizations containing a single piece of paper. The paper announced that "on 19 July the 1975 release 'Love It If We Made It'". The packet also contained the song's lyrics and the confirmation that it would serve as the second single from A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships. The band later confirmed the song's release on Twitter. "Love It If We Made It" was officially released on 19 July 2018. ## Reception ### Critical response Upon release, "Love It If We Made It" received acclaim from contemporary music critics and is considered by numerous reviewers to be one of the best songs of the 2010s, the 1975's greatest song, a generational anthem and the millennial answer to "We Didn't Start the Fire". It later won the 2019 Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song, presented by the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers, and Authors (BASCA). Claire Shaffer of Rolling Stone attributes the song's widespread acclaim and "anthem" status to its ability to capture an earnest and online feeling of 2010s dread, mixing the feelings of panic and disdain familiar to social media users and Americans living under former president Trump. Harry Harris of The Skinny deemed "Love It If We Made It" one of the three standouts from A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships, describing the song as "an anxiety-riddled ['We Didn't Start the Fire'] set to Blue Nile-esque opulence". Similarly, Dorian Lynskey of Q declared it one of four highlights from the album. Dombal opined that "Love It If We Made It" is the album's apex and "the rare Anthem for Our Time that actually gets the job done", explicitly calling the line "Thank you Kanye, very cool!" one of 2018's best lyrics. Richards viewed the song as the album's cacophonous centrepiece, writing that Healy "claws some hope from the mire". Sackllah deemed it one of the album's three essential songs, calling it a career highlight for the 1975 that reveals their true potential. Ben Kaye of Consequence of Sound deemed "Love It If We Made It" the album's thesis, noting it sounds like a 2018 version of "We Didn't Start the Fire". Elaborating further, he said: "Writing about how completely twisted our world is right now can easily become pandering or trite, but Matty Healy sounds sincerely passionate here as he nails the cultural milieu." Biddles declared "Love It If We Made It" the 1975's masterpiece, writing the song is "a relentless and harrowing mirror of contemporary life". Elizabeth Dearden-Williams of Varsity called it the 1975's career-defining track. Connick declared it the best song of the band's career, noting that few songs successfully capture cultural moments in the same way, while describing it as "a snapshot of the present day, from Twitter meltdowns to incendiary tabloid headlines, drug habits to young, dead rappers, its lyrics span the whole of modern consciousness in just four minutes". Coscarelli wrote that "Love It If We Made It" is likely to become the band's defining song. David Hayter of 411Mania wrote: Love It If We Made' represents the exact moment when [t]he 1975 transitioned from the hottest indie band in the world to the voice of a generation." Jennifer Irving of Consequence of Sound felt the song serves as a culmination of the band's growth over the decade. Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic described "Love It If We Made It" as the "grab-bag political anthem of [the modern] era", including it in a list of historic pop tracks meant to represent the anxiety of the 2020 United States presidential election. Jake Indiana of Highsnobiety said the band "have truly captured lightning in a bottle", writing that "Love It If We Made It" represents "the first – and by measure, only – song that comes remotely close to being an anthem for our era". Conrad Duncan of Under the Radar called the opening line "jaw-dropping", commenting that "Love It If We Made It" is "an exhilarating '80s pop stomp". Ian Cohen of Spin called the song an "online-addled reboot" of "We Didn't Start the Fire", while Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times called it an updated version of "We Didn't Start the Fire" mixed with the programmed strings of Carly Rae Jepsen. Sputnikmusic's SowingSeason said "Love It If We Made It" was executed "extremely well", comparing it to an updated, better-written version of the band's "Somebody Else" (2016). Juan Rodriguez of No Ripcord called the song "positively brilliant" and multidimensional. He noted it blends protest music akin to the "spitfire imagery" of "We Didn't Start the Fire" with the sophisticated balladry and "stylish charm" of Prefab Sprout. Matt Collar of AllMusic called "Love It If We Made It" a "buoyantly earnest anthem" and internet-era version of "We Didn't Start the Fire", Van Halen's "Right Now" (1992) and Phil Collins' "Another Day in Paradise" (1989). Ben Beaumont-Thomas and Laura Snapes of The Guardian called it the millennial version of "We Didn't Start the Fire" and "Sign O' the Times", praising Healy's numbed, intense vocal delivery and the incorporation of faith and empathy. They also deemed the couplet "I'd love it if we made it" one of 2018's "simplest yet most affecting lyrics". Iverson praised Healy's vocal performance as the best of the 2010s, saying "Love It If We Made It" was essentially a miniaturized version of the decade expressed in a "danceable, four-minute package" serving as a testament to the singer's ability as a frontman. ### Accolades ## Commercial performance In the 1975's native United Kingdom, "Love It If We Made It" debuted and peaked at number 33 on the UK Singles Chart. In Scotland, the song reached number 47. It was later certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting sales of over 200,000 units. Elsewhere in Europe, the song peaked at number 35 in Ireland. In the United States, "Love It If We Made It" reached number 10 on the US Billboard Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart, later ranking at numbers 86 and 47 on the chart's year-end edition for 2018 and 2019, respectively. Additionally, it reached number 9 on the US Billboard Rock Airplay and number 36 on the chart's 2019 year-end edition. Elsewhere, "Love It If We Made It" peaked at number 46 on the Billboard Canada Rock Songs chart. ## Music video ### Background and release In July 2018, the 1975 invited fans to apply to be featured in an upcoming music video being filmed in London. On 22 July, Healy tweeted: "I just spent the whole day shooting a video with our fans and I just want to say that I couldn't be more proud. You are all so weird and beautiful. It was one of the best days of my life, thank you". Two music videos were released in support of "Love It If We Made It". The first, a vertical video, was released on 12 August 2018 on Spotify following a brief teaser posted on the 1975's Instagram. It depicts the band members performing the song as neon-coloured silhouettes and contains bright, multicoloured lighting, while lyrics from the song are shown at the top of the frame. A second, full-length video was released on 15 October 2018. It was directed by Adam Powell, with lighting and conceptual design by Tobias Rylander. The visual expands upon the vertical version and features the same silhouette footage against coloured backdrops, interspersed with found footage-style clips of war, selfies, news headlines, heroes, villains, affected youth, calamities and social woes. ### Synopsis The video, edited to appear glitchy, warped and poorly buffered, opens with a plastic bag silently floating through the sea. As the song begins, an image of Yiannopoulos flashes alongside lyrics, "Saying controversial things just for the hell of it". Clips of Americans fighting each other at a Black Friday sale are shown while Healy sings about white people's idolisation of melanin. This is immediately followed by footage captured on a cellphone showing Eric Gardner's death at the hands of the New York City Police Department. At the 43-second mark, lyrics referencing the increasing privatisation of the prison system are juxtaposed against footage of hooded individuals in orange jumpsuits. As the singer remarks on the veracity of truth, footage from the Westboro Baptist Church–a Christian extremist group–briefly flashes on the screen. Next, Harvey Weinstein's image is displayed as Healy ruminates on the failures of the modern era, which Connick interpreted to be a reference to the Me Too movement. As the second verse begins, Healy takes a selfie against a billboard reading "Poison me daddy", referencing the song's promotional campaign, before displaying a video from the 2011 London riots. Next, as the singer describes a scene of drowned children on a beach, images of Alan Kurdi are shown before shifting to a billboard reading "Rest in Peace Lil Peep". Elsewhere, footage of the Grenfell tower fire is interspersed. A dance breakdown is performed during the second chorus recreating the dance scene from Michael Jackson's "The Way You Make Me Feel" (1987) music video, which the Dork editorial staff described as post-apocalyptic. A multicultural montage of faces is shown after the breakdown, filmed during the band's video for "TooTimeTooTimeTooTime". In the bridge, lyrics referring to liberals and immigration are intercut with clips of Brett Kavanaugh. Then, a picture of Trump is shown alongside the lyrics "I moved on her like a bitch", followed by anti-Trump protesters calling for his impeachment. Next, the line "Thank you Kanye, very cool!" incorporates footage of West, while references to war are interspersed with clips from the September 11 attacks. As the video concludes, close up images of the 1975's fans are shown in rapid succession, with the last being a shot of Healy, ending with a "slide to power off" message from an iPhone screen. The end credits feature a list of movements and organizations including Me Too, Black Lives Matter, UNICEF, Save the Children and It Gets Better, alongside a quote reading: "If I don't get to see the beauty of the end of culture / Then at least I've seen the culture of the end of reality." ### Reception Connick deemed the video a "state of the union address for a fractured planet", calling it gripping and effortlessly stylish, noting it moves at an "incessant, scatter-brained pace". Brooke Bajgrowicz of Billboard wrote that the visual's commentary on social issues and images were juxtaposed by the uplifting sound of "Love It If We Made It", highlighting the use of diverse faces to serve as "a reminder that the people affected by the world's mess are simply human, regardless of race, gender or ethnicity". Bajgrowicz also observed a political undertone in the video toward the end, represented by the footage of Trump, Kavanaugh and West, commenting that it references the former president's "creation of literal and metaphorical war". Patrick Hosken of MTV News commended the "dazzling" and "staggeringly beautiful" video, specifically praising the synchronized dance sequence as "incredible" and writing that it serves to physicalize the song's angst. Similarly, Dylan Haas of Euphoria Magazine also highlighted the dance sequence and compared it to Jackson. "Love It If We Made It" later received a nomination for Best Rock Video at the 2019 UK Music Video Awards and Best Rock Video at the 2019 MTV Video Music Awards. ### Twitter controversy In May 2020, following the Murder of George Floyd, Healy tweeted in support of the Black Lives Matter movement condemning those tweeting All Lives Matter: "If you truly believe that ‘ALL LIVES MATTER’ you need to stop facilitating the end of black ones". In the same tweet he included a link to the 'Love It If We Made It' music video, on account of its relevant lyrical content towards racism and police brutality, which resulted to users accusing him of using the Black Lives Matter movement as an excuse to promote his music. Healy deleted the tweet and responded to the backlash in a subsequent tweet before deleting his account: “Sorry I did not link my song in that tweet to make it about me it’s just that the song is literally about this disgusting situation and speaks more eloquently than I can on Twitter". Reflecting on the backlash two years later in 2022, Healy stated: "By that point, my reaction in the room to all that Twitter shit was like, ‘Oh fuck off! You know that I’m not using this as an opportunity to monetise the half-a-pence I get paid for a fucking YouTube play’. What I’m saying is, ‘Here’s something I’ve really thought about’, and all you’ve been asking for four days is ‘Say something about it!’ So I said, ‘Here’s what I think’". Healy argued that a song is more considered than a tweet, self-proclaiming himself as “the best writer in music on consumption within the internet”. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships album liner notes. - Matthew Healy – composer, producer, keyboards, guitar, vocals - George Daniel – composer, producer, programming, drums, synthesizer - Adam Hann – composer, guitar - Ross MacDonald – composer, bass guitar - London Community Gospel Choir – choir vocals - Jonathan Gilmore – recording engineer - Robin Schmidt – mastering engineer - Mike Crossey – mixer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - The 1975 discography - List of songs by Matty Healy

2003 Football League Cup final

The 2003 Football League Cup Final was a football match played between Liverpool and Manchester United on 2 March 2003 at the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff. It was the final match of the 2002–03 Football League Cup, the 43rd season of the Football League Cup, a football competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and The Football League. Liverpool were appearing in their ninth final; they had previously won six and lost two, while Manchester United were appearing in the final for the fifth time. They had previously won once and lost three times. As both teams qualified for European football in 2002–03, they entered the competition in the third round. Liverpool's matches were generally close affairs, with only two victories secured by two goals or more. They beat Southampton 3–1 in the third round, while their match in the next round against Ipswich Town went to a penalty-shootout, which they won 5–4. Manchester United's matches were also close affairs, their biggest margin of victory of was by two goals. A 2–0 win over Burnley in the fourth round was followed by a 1–0 victory over Chelsea in the fifth round. Watched by a crowd of 74,500, the first half was goalless until Liverpool took the lead in the 39th minute when midfielder Steven Gerrard scored. The score remained the same until the 86th minute when striker Michael Owen scored to make the score 2–0 to Liverpool. No further goals were scored and Liverpool won to secure their seventh League Cup victory. Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek was awarded the Alan Hardaker Trophy as man of the match. Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier praised Dudek's performance and claimed that he had a premonition that Dudek would perform well in the match. Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson also praised Dudek's performance, stating, "Their goalkeeper has won them the game." ## Route to the final ### Liverpool As Liverpool were competing in the Premier League, they entered the competition in the third round and were drawn against fellow Premier League side Southampton. Despite resting a number of first-team players, Liverpool won 3–1 courtesy of goals from Patrik Berger, El-Hadji Diouf and Milan Baroš at their home ground Anfield. Their opposition in the fourth round were Ipswich Town. They took the lead in the 14th minute, in the match held at Anfield, when Tommy Miller scored. Diouf equalised in the 54th minute, but the score remained the same through full-time and extra-time to take the match to a penalty shootout. Liverpool won 5–4 to progress to the fifth round. Fellow Premier League side Aston Villa were the opposition in the match at their home ground, Villa Park. They took the lead in the 20th minute when striker Darius Vassell scored a penalty. Midfielder Danny Murphy levelled the score seven minutes later. Liverpool took the lead in the second half when Baros scored and extended it when Steven Gerrard scored in the 67th minute. Two goals for Villa courtesy of midfielder Thomas Hitzlsperger and an own goal by defender Stéphane Henchoz levelled the score at 3–3 late in the match. However, a Murphy goal in the 90th minute of the match meant Liverpool won 4–3 to progress to the semi-finals. Their opposition were Sheffield United of the First Division in the semi-final, which was held over two-legs. The first leg at United's home ground Bramall Lane saw Liverpool take the lead in the 36th minute when striker Neil Mellor scored. However, two goals in the second half from United midfielder Michael Tonge meant they won the match 2–1. The second leg was held at Liverpool's home ground, Anfield. Liverpool took the lead in the ninth minute when Diouf scored. This levelled the tie at 2–2 and as no further goals were scored upon reaching full-time, the match went into extra-time. Liverpool extended their lead in the 107th minute when striker Michael Owen scored. No further goals were scored in the remaining minutes of extra-time and Liverpool progressed to the final courtesy of a 3–2 aggregate victory. ### Manchester United First Division side Leicester City were the opposition as United entered the competition in the third round, due to being in the Premier League. The match, held at United's home ground Old Trafford, was goalless until the 80th minute when midfielder David Beckham scored from a penalty. They extended their lead in the 90th minute when Kieran Richardson scored to win the match 2–0. United were drawn against First Division side Burnley in the fourth round. The match held at Burnley's home ground, Turf Moor, saw United take the lead in the 35th minute when striker Diego Forlán scored. They extended their lead in the 65th minute when striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored to secure a 2–0 victory for United. Fellow Premier League side Chelsea were the opposition in the quarter-final. A goal in the 80th minute by striker Forlán was enough to secure a 1–0 victory and progression to the semi-final. United were drawn against fellow Premier League side Blackburn Rovers in the semi-final. The first leg at Old Trafford was goalless in the first half, but United took the lead in the 58th minute when midfielder Paul Scholes scored. However, three minutes later Blackburn equalised when David Thompson scored. The match finished at 1–1. The second leg held at Blackburn's home ground, Ewood Park, saw them take the lead when striker Andy Cole scored early in the match. However, United responded and two goals from Scholes in the remainder of the first half gave United the lead. They scored a third in the second half when striker Ruud van Nistelrooy converted a penalty. United won the match 3–1 and progressed to the final after winning the tie 4–2. ## Match ### Background Liverpool were appearing in their ninth final they had won six (1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1995, 2001) and lost two (1978, 1987). This was Manchester United's fifth appearance in the final. They had won once in 1992 and lost three times in 1983, 1991 and 1994. The teams had met once before in the 1983 final, a match which Liverpool won 2–1. The last match between the two sides before the final was on 1 December 2002, which United won 2–1 courtesy of goals from striker Diego Forlán. Both sides last match before the final was in European competition. Liverpool beat French team Auxerre 2–0 in the second leg of their 2002–03 UEFA Cup fourth round tie, while United beat Italian team Juventus 3–0 in the second group stage of the 2002–03 UEFA Champions League. Liverpool midfielder Vladimír Šmicer was looking forward to playing a part in the final: "Everyone wants to play in the final, I'm no different. I was just happy to be on the pitch against Auxerre because I didn't know even the day before whether I'd be fit enough after my injury problem. I'm still not 100% fit, I just wanted to train well this week and be fit for the final." Šmicer was hopeful that victory in the final would rescue Liverpool's season: "I hope that this re-ignites our season. Our season is not good, we know, but there is still plenty to play for. We have not said this is a bad season, let's forget about it and concentrate on the next one, we have been criticised and we are intent on responding on the pitch." Liverpool midfielder Danny Murphy was eager to win the match: "Winning in Cardiff would be a massive result for us, we have to be honest, we haven't been as good as Manchester United over the last 10 years. And winning would bring European football next year, which isn't guaranteed at the moment." Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson revealed that captain Roy Keane would return to his midfield role after playing in central defence in their win over Juventus: "It took Roy about 15 minutes to settle into Tuesday's game but once he started to make sure he could see his opponent, he grasped the role very quickly, in the end, he could have played with a bowler hat and white gloves on it was so easy for him. He is a marvellous player and choosing him in defence is certainly an option but Mikaël Silvestre and John O'Shea should be fit and I have a back four in my mind." The final was United's first since the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final and Ferguson was determined to win: That is too long for us, and we are delighted. We have always looked at the League Cup as an extra to blood young players, but the format now has encouraged teams to have a go. We've played Liverpool once in Cardiff – in the Charity Shield – and lost so I hope this time it will be a different result." Both sides had injury concerns heading into the final. Liverpool defender Stéphane Henchoz was a doubt after he suffered a thigh injury in Liverpool's win over Auxerre. However, Liverpool midfielder Šmicer had recovered from an ankle problem and would be available for selection. United had a number of injury concerns. Wes Brown, Scholes and Ryan Giggs were all doubts for the final, after they had picked up knocks in the week before the final. They would also be without striker Diego Forlán, who had injured his ankle against Juventus, however, defender Mikaël Silvestre was declared fit to start. ### First half Liverpool kicked off the match and they had first chance of the match in the fourth minute, but the free-kick by midfielder Murphy was caught by United goalkeeper Fabien Barthez. Defender Henchoz was shown a yellow card in the 12th minute and United midfielder Giggs had the first shot of the match, which was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek. Twice in the next few minutes, Liverpool had chances from moves down the right-hand side of the pitch. On both occasions, however, the pass into the penalty area was intercepted. United had a chance to score in the 20th minute. Keane passed to Scholes, who found Giggs on the left-hand side of the pitch. His cross into the penalty area found striker Ruud van Nistelrooy, but his shot went wide of the Liverpool goal. Liverpool began to get a foothold in the match after 30 minutes, their best chance came in the 36th minute when a shot by Murphy went over the crossbar. Three minutes later, their approach paid off as they scored. A long-range shot from Steven Gerrard deflected off United midfielder David Beckham and into the United goal to give Liverpool a 1–0 lead. Three minutes after the goal, United had a chance to equalise: A shot by midfielder Juan Sebastián Verón was saved by Dudek, but the ball rebounded to Scholes, but his subsequent shot was blocked by Henchoz. After a free-kick by Beckham just before half-time was saved by Dudek, Liverpool counter-attacked through midfielder El Hadji Diouf down the right-hand side of the pitch, though his subsequent cross into the penalty area was intercepted by Keane. ### Second half Almost immediately after the restart, Liverpool had the first attack. Striker Michael Owen went past United defender Brown, but he was unable to shoot when the ball got stuck in between his feet. A minute later, Liverpool had an appeal for a penalty after striker Emile Heskey went down in the United penalty area, but referee Paul Durkin did not award a penalty. They had another chance in the 52nd minute after an exchange of passes between Murphy and Heskey, but Murphy's shot went over the bar. United began to exert more pressure on Liverpool after this. A minute later a shot by Keane was blocked by Liverpool defender Sami Hyypiä. The ball went out for a United, which resulted in a throw-in, that was headed into the arms of Dudek. Five minutes later, Van Nistelrooy had a chance to score as he turned and shot at the Liverpool goal, but it was saved by Dudek. Heskey was replaced by striker Milan Baroš following an injury. United had another chance in the 66th minute when Verón crossed from the right-hand side of the pitch to Scholes, but his shot was saved by Dudek. A Liverpool attack in the 72nd minute ended after Baros put the ball out for a goal-kick. From the subsequent kick, Barthez found Giggs, who ran through the middle of the pitch, but his pass to Beckham was intercepted by Liverpool. United subsequently replaced Brown with striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær. United had an appeal for a penalty in the 77th minute when Scholes went down near Liverpool midfielder Dietmar Hamann, but Durkin turned down the appeal. Minutes later, Van Nistelrooy had another chance to score, but his shot from inside the Liverpool penalty area was saved by Dudek. Five minutes later, Liverpool scored through Owen. A pass by Silvestre was intercepted by Liverpool, Hamann passed to Owen, who beat Barthez to give Liverpool a 2–0 lead. Four minutes later, Liverpool had a chance to extend their lead, but Šmicer, who had replaced Baroš, missed the target. No further goals were scored and Liverpool won 2–0 to win the League Cup for the seventh time. ### Details ## Post-match Following the match, Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier claimed he had a premonition that goalkeeper Dudek would be the hero of the final: "I told Jerzy three days ago 'I can feel you will be the hero. You were too unlucky when we played them, today he was man of the match. But football can be like that. Sometimes you can be at the bottom and then be a hero again. I just had a feeling. I'm a great believer that when you have the right attitude everything else follows. He had a good run after the World Cup but then he made some mistakes and we had to support him. The squad get on very well. There was no finger-pointing after that game. He has saved us before in games and we had to keep faith in him." Houllier also praised Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson: "I wished him the best in the Champions League because he represents the best in English football, he congratulated every Liverpool player after the final whistle and that shows that he is not just a great manager but a great man." United manager Ferguson also praised Dudek's performance in the match: "Their goalkeeper has won them the game, sometimes you just have to put your hands up on these occasions. Dudek has won them the cup. He deserved to be man of the match. We didn't get a break. Dudek's performance encouraged them to stay near their penalty box. In tough games like that the first goal is very important. It's a test for us. We can either accept defeat or we can fight back." Captain Keane was disappointed with the defeat: "The players, managers, staff are all upset but I suppose nowhere near as bad as the fans, if you don't win a match in football you feel as though you have let the fans down." His focus turned to United's participation in the UEFA Champions League, as they looked to end the season with a trophy: "It would have been nice to get a piece of silverware in the cabinet, especially with the opposition being Liverpool, we've just got to lick our wounds. We've got a game against Leeds on Wednesday and we'll get on with training for Wednesday. The players know we'll have to get together, get ready and try to keep the pressure on Arsenal. But we are eight points behind them, which puts them in a very strong position and again we are pinning our hopes on the European Cup, which is a dangerous game to play as we saw last season."

Tamar Bridge

Suspension bridge in southwest England

The Tamar Bridge is a suspension bridge over the River Tamar between Saltash, Cornwall and Plymouth, Devon in southwest England. It is 335 metres (1,099 ft) long, running adjacent the Royal Albert Bridge, and part of the A38, a main road between the two counties. During the 20th century, there was increasing demand to replace or supplement the Saltash and Torpoint ferries, which could not cope with the rise in motor traffic. The Government refused to prioritise the project, so it was financed by Plymouth City Council and Cornwall County Council. Construction was undertaken by the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company and began in 1959. It was unofficially opened in October 1961, with a formal presentation by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in April 1962. A reconstruction of the bridge began in 1999 after it was found to be unable to support a European Union requirement for goods vehicle weights. The work involved building two new parallel decks while the original construction was completely rebuilt. The project was completed in late 2001 and formally opened by Princess Anne in April 2002. The extra decks have remained in use, increasing the bridge's capacity. The bridge is tolled for eastbound travel, with a discount available via an electronic payment scheme. It has become a significant landmark in Plymouth, Saltash and the surrounding area, and used on several occasions for protests or to highlight the work of charities and fundraisers. ## Location The bridge runs over the River Tamar from near Wearde, Saltash in the west to Riverside, Plymouth in the east. It has a central span of 335 metres (1,099 ft) and two side spans of 114 metres (374 ft). It is part of the A38, a major cross-country road that runs across Cornwall and Devon, and lies immediately north of the Royal Albert Bridge, a significant railway bridge designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel that opened in 1859. Both bridges are north of the Hamoaze, the estuary that the Tamar feeds into, and the Torpoint Ferry. The bridge is owned and maintained by the Tamar Bridge and Torpoint Ferry Joint Committee, a conglomerate between Plymouth City Council and Cornwall County Council. It has a main span of three lanes, which use a tidal flow arrangement to maximise traffic flow at rush hour, and two outer lanes. The north of these is used as a local access route from Saltash, while the south is used by cyclists and pedestrians but could be converted to meet future vehicle demand if alternatives for pedestrians and bicycles were provided, a dedicated ferry, shuttle bus, cable car or bridge have been considered. ### Tolls The current tolls are £2.60 for cars, and £6.30, £10.40 and £14.30 for 2, 3 and 4-axle goods vehicles over 3.5 tonnes respectively. An electronic device called the Tamar Tag can be affixed to a vehicle window, which allows the driver to travel at half-fare. Tolls are only payable when travelling eastbound from Saltash to Plymouth. There is no charge for pedestrians, cyclists and motorcycles. Disabled drivers can apply for concessions online or via an office next to the Torpoint Ferry. ## Construction ### Requirement For centuries, road users wishing to go from Saltash to Plymouth had two main options. Travel by coach involved a long detour north either to Gunnislake New Bridge (a one-lane bridge constructed in 1520), or other bridges further north along the Devon – Cornwall border. The alternative was to catch a ferry across the Tamar. The Torpoint Ferry had been running successfully since 1791 (and is still in active service) while the Saltash Ferry ran near to the bridge's present location. While popular, the ferries did not have sufficient capacity by the 20th century to cater for motor traffic. The idea for a fixed crossing across the Tamar had been floated around since the early 19th century, and proposals had been discussed in Parliament as early as 1930. In 1950, Cornwall County Council and Plymouth City Council discussed the feasibility of building a road bridge. The government was unenthusiastic about the idea, as they did not believe it was financially viable and there were more urgent projects in post-war Britain. After being rebuked, both councils agreed to self-fund the entire project, which would be paid for in tolls. The scheme received Royal Assent in July 1957. Invitations to tender were sent on 4 March 1959, and a proposal from the northeast England-based Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company was accepted on 9 June. ### Building Preparatory work on the bridge started in July 1959. The bridge was built using suspended construction, which involved building two 67 metres (220 ft) concrete towers with support cables over these. Hangers were attached to these cables and the road deck was transported by barge and lifted into place. Cleveland Bridge and Engineering later used the same technique to construct the first Severn Bridge. The central span of the bridge was 1,848 feet (563 m). The support cables were both 2,200 feet (670 m) long, with a combined weight of 850 tons. They were constructed for Cleveland Bridge and Engineering by British Ropes Ltd. The deck was made out of a concrete base covered with 20-millimetre (0.79 in) steel plates approx and 200-millimetre (7.9 in) of standard road tarmac. The roadway catered for three lanes of traffic and was designed to be 33 feet (10 m) wide, with an additional 6 feet (1.8 m) for pedestrians either side of the bridge. It could support an estimated capacity of 20,000 vehicles a day, with a maximum individual vehicle weight of 38 tons. Bridge materials had a similar colour to the Royal Albert Bridge, which it runs parallel to. The bridge was unofficially opened at 6am on 24 October 1961, when the construction barriers were removed. It was formally opened by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother on 26 April 1962. The total cost of the bridge was £1.8 million (now £ million). It was the first major suspension bridge to be constructed in the UK after World War II, and the longest suspension bridge in Britain. ### Operation The initial toll for cars was 3s (15p) for a single journey across the bridge, or 4/6 (221⁄2p) for a return, while for lorries it was 14s (70p) and £1 respectively. The Saltash Ferry closed, but the Torpoint Ferry remained in operation; management of the ferry and the bridge is shared so the two crossings are not in direct competition with each other. By 1979, the toll had risen to 30p for a single car journey. It had risen again to £1 by 1995, which remained in place until 2010, when they were increased to £1.50. On 19 November 2019 the new standard toll was set at £2.00. In 1961, approximately 4000 vehicles used the Tamar Bridge each day. This significantly increased in the following decades; in 1998 the hourly rate during the morning rush hour was 2500 vehicles. The average weekday saw 38,200 vehicles cross the bridge and the summer weekday flow was 42,900. Conversely, the Torpoint ferry link could transport a maximum of 300 vehicles per hour. ## Widening and strengthening Though the original bridge was designed for 38-ton vehicles, when it was inspected around 1995 it was found unable to comply with a European Union directive for supporting vehicles up to 40 tons, and would only be able to support 17-ton vehicles. A feasibility study was carried out for a new Tamar Crossing in 1991, but was rejected as the estimated cost would be around £300 million. The existing bridge could not be closed as it was being used by over 40,000 vehicles a day. The eventual solution was to add two additional orthotropic cantilever lanes either side of the bridge, which traffic could run on while the original road deck was replaced. The work was designed by Hyder Consulting and constructed by the descendent company of Cleveland Bridge that had worked on the original project. Reconstruction started in 1999, and was slightly delayed owing to an influx of tourists travelling to Cornwall to watch the Solar eclipse of 11 August 1999, whose line of totality passed through the county. The new deck contained 82 orthotropic panels, each one measuring 6 metres (20 ft) by 15 metres (49 ft) and weighing 20 tons. Work was completed in December 2001 at a total cost of £34 million; the two additional lanes were retained to increase the bridge's capacity. The completed construction weighed 25 tons less than the original bridge. The Tamar Bridge was officially reopened by Princess Anne on 26 April 2002, exactly forty years after the initial opening. Traffic was not expected to increase following the expansion of the bridge, as the Saltash Tunnel further west acts as a buffer for capacity. It was the world's first suspension bridge to be widened using cantilevers, and the world's first suspension bridge to be widened and strengthened while remaining open to traffic. The project won the British Construction Industry Civil Engineering Award for 2002, the Historic Structures category (30 years or older) of the Institution of Civil Engineers Awards 2002, and was one of eight finalists for the Prime Minister's Better Public Building Award 2002. Bill Moreau, chief engineer of the New York State Bridge Authority, was impressed by the project. He visited the bridge shortly after its reconstruction, and hoped that similar methods could be used on numerous ageing bridges in New York, such as the George Washington Bridge. The bridge capacity is around 1,800 vehicles per hour per lane over each main and added decks: - 3,600 per hour for the combined two peak direction main deck lanes - 1,800 per hour for the off peak direction main deck lane - 1,800 per hour for the eastbound local link from Saltash over the northern cantilever lane - southern cantilever lane used for pedestrians and cycles The toll booth capacity in the eastbound direction only as operated in 2013 was 4,200 vehicles per hour and not considered to be constraining the route flow even though it's less than the potential eastbound 5,400 vehicles per hour from two main lanes and Saltash local. The actual capacity of the link has other constraints: - 3,600 vehicles per hour of the A38 dual carriageway in Plymouth east of the bridge and toll booths - the Plymouth Pemros Road roundabout has an evening peak westbound capacity of 3,400 vehicles per hour, below the combined 3,600 of the two allocated main bridge lanes - the Plymouth Pemros Road roundabout has a morning peak westbound capacity determined by the two into one lane merge on exiting the roundabout and the need to give way to buses - 3,600 peak direction and 1,800 off peak to the west of the bridge in the Saltash Tunnel - the two into one lane merge on the eastbound approach during pm peaks when one bridge lane is allocated constrains that flow to below 1,800 vehicles per hour of the single bridge lane used ## Legacy The Tamar Bridge is a recognisable symbol of the local area, as well as a main road connection between Cornwall and the rest of England, and is seen by supporters of Cornish devolution as being a bridge between two distinct nations. In March 1998, after the closure of Europe's last tin mine at South Crofty in Cornwall (which later reopened for a period, and subsequently closed), the Cornish Solidarity Action Group (CSAG) encouraged commuters to pay the then-£1 toll in pennies. The group thought this would slow down collection of tolls and cause widespread congestion across the local area. The CSAG believed Cornwall should receive similar subsidies to South Wales and Merseyside, which were receiving regeneration grants from the government. On 23 January 2004 four protesters climbed onto the gantry over the Tamar Bridge to highlight the work of the group Fathers 4 Justice who promote the rights of fathers in child custody disputes. The protest caused rush-hour tailbacks on both sides of the bridge. Charges against the protesters were later dropped after it was felt there would not be a realistic chance of conviction. In 2012 local councillors complained when the Olympic organising committee declined to run the Olympic Torch across the Tamar Bridge in the lead-up to the Olympics in London. One councillor said the handover should have been "one of the iconic moments of the whole torch relay in Cornwall". The official organisers said it was not practical to do so as it would involve closing the bridge. In April 2022, a campaign pressure group known as the Tamar Toll Action Group was formed. Their stated goal is to seek an end to Tolls on both Tamar Crossings.

Jerry Estrada

Mexican professional wrestler (born 1958)

Jerry Estrada (full name, Gerardo Hernández Estrada; born January 10, 1958, Monclova, Coahuila) is a semi-retired Mexican luchador (professional wrestler). For most of his career, he has portrayed a rudo (heel, those that portray the "bad guys") character, nicknamed "El Puma". His rudo persona was pattered on various Glam Rock bands, complete with colorful spandex and what was described as a "rock and roll" attitude in the ring. He was originally active from 1978 until 2003 when he was forced to retire due to chronic injures caused by his signature bumps outside the ring. Estrada began working select matches again in 2018. Estrada was a major star for Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre (EMLL) during the 1980s but was one of the first wrestlers to leave EMLL to work for Antonio Peña's newly started Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (AAA) in 1992. He also had a brief run in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in 1997 and 1998 when AAA and WWF had a working agreement. From 1991 to 2008 Mini-Estrella Enrique del Rio worked under the ring name Jerrito Estrada, a mini version of Jerry Estrada. Over the years Estrada has held a number of championships for both AAA and CMLL, including the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship, the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship, the Mexican National Middleweight Championship as well as the Mexican National Trios Championship with Hombre Bala and Pirata Morgan, collectively known as Los Bucaneros. He was in the main event of AAA's Triplemanía II-A show, losing a Lucha de Apuestas, or bet match, to Heavy Metal and was forced to have all his hair shaved off as a result. ## Early life Gerardo Hernández Estrada was born on January 10, 1958, in Monclova, part of the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. As a teenager, two local transit agents, who also worked part-time as professional wrestlers, offered to train Estrada but ended up breaking Estrada's foot during their first session by accident. While recovering Estrada worked to support himself by selling chewing gum, polishing shoes, driving tracks and working as a line chef. During his various jobs, he met professional wrestler Herodes, who started to train him alongside notable wrestling trainer Alberto Moras. ## Professional wrestling career After his initial training under Alberto Moras and Herodes, he would receive further training, early in his career by Rafael Salamanca, Gran Cochisse, Gori Medina Enrique Llanes, Ringo Mendoza, and Alfonso Dantés. In an interview with Estrada from around his 2003 retirement, he revealed that he briefly wrestled under a masked identity, using either the name "Guardián Blanco" ("White Guardian") or "Halcón Blanco" ("White Falcon"). After unmasking, Estrada began working under the name Jerry Estrada, the only name he has used since 1978. He slowly developed a "rock and roll" style in-ring character, inspired by various early to mid-1980s bands. Where most wrestlers at the time wore more traditional wrestling tights and trunks Estrada opted to wear black or dark colored spandex with bright colored tassels and bandanas, similar to the onstage outfit worn by glam rockers such as Twisted Sister frontman Dee Snider. Ricardo Vega, a magazine publisher, coined the nickname "El Puma" for Estrada, a nickname Estrada had throughout his career. It led Estrada to sporadically walk to the ring with a living Puma. ### EMLL/CMLL (1978–1992) It was not long after making his in-ring debut that Jerry Estrada began working regularly for Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre (EMLL), the world's oldest and one of Mexico's largest wrestling promotions. The company decided to make Estrada the next Mexican National Middleweight Champion, which happened on March 4, 1984, when he defeated Ultraman. Over the subsequent 273 days, he successfully defended the championship against Águila Solitaria, Cachorro Mendoza, Atlantis, and Mogur. Estrada was slated to wrestle at the EMLL 52nd Anniversary Show on September 20, but it was canceled due to the Mexico City earthquake the day before. On November 30, 1984, Atlantis defeated Jerry Estrada to win the Mexican National Middleweight Championship. In 1986 EMLL decided to team Estrada up with Pirata Morgan and Hombre Bala to form a trio known as Los Bucaneros ("The Buccaneers") as part of its emerging Trios division. For his stint with Los Bucaneros, Estrada had his hair cut short and began wrestling wearing a faux eyepatch as part of the Pirate image. Los Bucaneros went on to defeat the trio of Kiss, Ringo Mendoza, and Rayo de Jalisco Jr. to win the Mexican National Trios Championship on August 30, 1987. Their reign ended when Los Destructores ("The Destroyers"; Tony Arce, Emilio Charles Jr., and Vulcano) were chosen by EMLL to become the next champions, taking the titles on January 31, 1988. Estrada departed Los Bucaneros not long after the title loss, being replaced on the team with El Verdungo. Estrada left the team because he wanted to shed the pirate image and return to the wrestling style of his "El Puma" character. In 1990, EMLL created a Mini-Estrella ("Mini Star") division and several of the small-sized wrestlers were given ring characters matching the regular-sized wrestlers; one such wrestler was Jerrito Estrada (Spanish for "Little Jerry Estrada") who heavily physically resembled Estrada and had a similar wrestling style. While he was a smaller version of Jerry Estrada, EMLL's conservative booking style kept the regular-sized wrestlers and the Mini-Estrellas from appearing or wrestling together. By late 1991, EMLL changed their name to Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) and created a number of "World" championships to help usher in the new name; one such title was the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship. CMLL held a tournament in late 1991 that saw Jerry Estrada defeat MS-1, Mascara Año 2000 and Black Magic on his way to the finals, where he defeated Pierroth Jr. to become the first champion. Estrada held the championship for 175 days until Pierroth Jr. won it from him. ### Asistencia Asesoría y Administración / AAA (1992–1997) In early 1992, then-CMLL booker Antonio Peña decided to leave the conservative CMLL to create his own wrestling promotion, Asistencia Asesoría y Administración, later known as "AAA". Estrada was one of the first CMLL wrestlers to leave to join AAA, causing an exodus of a large number of CMLL wrestlers to AAA at the time. In AAA Jerry and Jerrito Estrada teamed up on several occasions, including the first-ever Triplemanía show on April 30, 1993, where Jerry, Jerrito and Blue Panther lost to rivals Máscara Sagrada, Mascarita Sagrada and Love Machine. In 1994 Estrada became involved in a storyline feud with one of AAA's top tecnicos (good guys) Heavy Metal with the now veteran Estrada playing the role of the angry veteran wrestler who did not believe Heavy Metal was tough enough to be a top-level wrestler. The storyline between the two became the background for the main event of AAA's Triplemanía II-A, where Heavy Metal and Estrada faced off in a Lucha de Apuesta, or bet match. The original plan was for Heavy Metal to defeat Estrada at Triplemanía, but for unrevealed reasons Antonio Peña decided to change the finish of the match, booking Estrada to win instead. Estrada won the third fall of the match by disqualification as planned. Afterward, Heavy Metal got very emotional about the loss, the prospect of having his hair shaved off and his future in AAA, and started to cry and beg for the result to be nullified. At that point, Peña came to the ring to talk to Heavy Metal. At that point Peña had the match restarted and Heavy Metal won the final fall when Peña changed his mind on the outcome of the match. A visibly annoyed Estrada only had part of his hair cut off before he left the ring and went backstage. Later that year Estrada represented AAA on the When Worlds Collide show, a joint AAA/World Championship Wrestling (WCW) pay-per-view where he paired with La Parka and Blue Panther, losing to the team of The Pegasus Kid, 2 Cold Scorpio, and Tito Santana. In March 1995 Estrada defeated La Parka to win the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship, holding it for 131 days before losing it back to La Parka. During his time as the champion, he successfully defended the title against Rey Misterio, Latin Lover, and Lizmark. In 1995 he also worked at two of the three Triplemanía shows held that year, first at Triplemanía III-A the team of Konnan, Perro Aguayo, La Parka and Octagón defeated Cien Caras, Máscara Año 2000, Pentagón and Jerry Estrada. Later on at Triplemanía III-C Estrada got a small measure of revenge as he teamed up with Cien Caras, Máscara Año 2000, and Fishman to defeat the team of Konnan, Perro Aguayo, Latin Lover, and Máscara Sagrada. The following year he worked all three Triplemanía shows; first teaming up with Juventud Guerrera to defeat El Pantera and Super Caló at Triplemanía IV-A, then Estrada, El Sanguinario, and Arandu lost to Latin Lover, Sergio Romo Jr., and Antifaz at Triplemanía IV-B and finally Estrada, Fishman, Villano IV and May Flowers lost to La Parka, Winners, Super Caló and El Mexicano on the undercard of Triplemanía IV-C. In early 1997 AAA began a working relationship with the North American-based World Wrestling Federation (WWF), with AAA sending several of their wrestlers to the US to work WWF shows. Estrada made his only WWF appearance when he worked a match at the 1997 Royal Rumble where he teamed up with Fuerza Guerrera and former rival Heavy Metal, losing to Héctor Garza, Perro Aguayo, and El Canek. Estrada was also one of the first participants in AAA's Rey de Reyes ("King of Kings") which would become an annual tournament. In the first round, Latin Lover outlasted Estrada, Máscara Sagrada Jr., and The Killer. At Triplemanía V-A Estrada teamed up with El Picudo to be one of four teams competing in a Luchas de Apuestas match. Estrada and his teammate survived the match without losing their hair, which ended with Leon Negro pinning Halcón Dorado Jr. ### Promo Azteca / World Wrestling Council (1997–1998) Up until 1997 AAA and Promo Azteca had been working closely together but the two groups split in early 1997 with Estrada being one of the AAA wrestlers that chose to work exclusively for Promo Azteca at the time. While Promo Azteca had a working arrangement with WCW, Estrada never appeared on a WCW show. During this time he also worked several tours for the Puerto Rico-based World Wrestling Council (WWC) where he was part of a group called La Invasión Azteca ("The Aztec Invasion") that also included Pierroth, Rico Suave and Villano III. In WWC he defeated Steve Corino on November 16, 1997, to win the WWC Junior Heavyweight Championship. 27 days later he lost the title to local wrestler La Ley but regained it on January 6, 1998. After 221 days as the Junior Heavyweight Champion Estrada lost the title to El Rockero, ending his time with WWC shortly afterward. ### AAA (1998–2003) Estrada returned to AAA in 1998, working with them especially when they toured through Monterrey. On December 8, 2000, Estrada teamed up with The Headhunters to wrestle on AAA's 2000 Guerra de Titans show. The trio lost to the veteran trio of El Canek, Dos Caras and Máscara Sagráda. A year later, on September 16, 2001, Estrada, Pirata Morgan, El Texano, and El Engendro lost to La Parka Jr., Máscara Sagrada, Sangre Chicana, and Octagón on the undercard of the 2001 Verano de Escándalo show. On September 4, 2002, Estrada and Misterioso were teamed up for a storyline feud with Enfermero Jr. and Pimpinela Escarlata that led to Estrada and Misterioso having all their hair shaved off as a result of losing a Lucha de Apuestas match. A month later Estrada faced the masked Espectro Jr. in a Lucha de Apuestas match that Estrada won and, As a consequence, Espectro Jr. removed the wig instead of actually unmasking. His last match for AAA took place on March 23, 2003, and saw Estrada, Héctor Garza, and Pimpinela Escarlata lose to Dos Caras Jr., El Hijo del Solitario, and Perro Aguayo Jr. ### Retirement and return (2003–present) In mid-2003, Estrada announced that his physical condition would force him to retire. Over the years Estrada had become known for a move known as Salida de Bandera ("the Exit Sign") where he would be thrown over the top rope with great height and crash to the floor. While professional wrestling is a staged event and his opponents would do their best to protect Estrada the years of hitting the floor took a toll on his body and he was forced to retire. On May 25, 2003, Jerry Estrada teamed up with former rival Pierroth and Super Crazy, losing his retirement match to the team of Perro Aguayo Jr., Tinieblas and Villano III. In mid-2009 the Perros del Mal wrestling promotion held a benefit show for Jerry Estrada, with a portion of the proceeds going to Estrada. It was later revealed that Estrada was confined to a wheelchair for years after his retirement due to compounding back and knee injuries. Later that year a Monterrey wrestling promotion known as Poder y Honor held a second benefit show to honor Jerry Estrada. In subsequent years Estrada improved his health through both rehabilitation and treatment enough to the point where he was able to participate in a match. On December 12, 2012, Estrada teamed up with Jerrito Estrada and a wrestler known as "Ricky Estrada" to defeat the team of longtime rival Stuka, Octagoncito, and La Parkita in what was billed as his "retirement match". On August 8, 2013, Jerry Estrada came out of retirement for one more match, headlining a show billed as "Jerry Estrada's Retirement Show". Jerry Estrada, Gato Fantasma, and Silencio defeated Memo, Rey Demonio Jr., and Stuka. By 2018 Estrada's health and mobility had improved to the point that he competed in a total of five matches that year, including his first match in Arena Mexico for 26 years as he teamed up with veteran wrestlers Negro Casas and Fuerza Guerrera as the trio lost to El Felino, Mano Negra and El Solar on the Máscara Año 2000 40th Anniversary Show. ## Championships and accomplishments - Asistencia Asesoría y Administración / AAA - Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) - IWAS World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Juventud Guerrera - Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre / Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre - CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) - Mexican National Middleweight Championship (1 time) - Mexican National Trios Championship (1 time) – with Hombre Bala and Pirata Morgan - International Wrestling All-Stars - IWAS Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Juventud Guerrera - World Wrestling Council - WWC World Junior Heavyweight Championship (2 times) - Pro Wrestling Illustrated - PWI ranked him \# 75 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 1998. ## Luchas de Apuestas record

World of Darkness

Series of tabletop role-playing games

World of Darkness is a series of tabletop role-playing games, originally created by Mark Rein-Hagen for White Wolf Publishing. It began as an annual line of five games in 1991–1995, with Vampire: The Masquerade, Werewolf: The Apocalypse, Mage: The Ascension, Wraith: The Oblivion, and Changeling: The Dreaming, along with off-shoots based on these. The series ended in 2004, and the reboot Chronicles of Darkness was launched the same year with a new line of games. In 2011, the original series was brought back, and the two have since been published concurrently. The games in the series have a shared setting, also named the World of Darkness, which is a dark, gothic-punk interpretation of the real world, where supernatural beings such as vampires and werewolves exist in secrecy. The original series' setting has a large focus on lore and overarching narrative, whereas Chronicles of Darkness's setting has no such narrative and presents the details of its setting as optional. The series has been well received critically for its setting, writing, and art direction, and has won or been nominated for awards including the Origins Award. It has also been commercially successful, with millions of game books sold; by 2001, Vampire: The Masquerade was the second highest selling tabletop role-playing game after TSR, Inc.'s Dungeons & Dragons. The series has been adapted into other media, including the television series Kindred: The Embraced, actual play web series, novels and anthologies, comic books, card games, and a line of video games. ## Games The original World of Darkness series consists of seven core lines of role-playing games which were originally released from 1991 to 2002 – Vampire: The Masquerade, Werewolf: The Apocalypse, Mage: The Ascension, Wraith: The Oblivion, Changeling: The Dreaming, Hunter: The Reckoning, and Demon: The Fallen – as well as off-shoots based on these, such as the Asia-themed Kindred of the East and the historical Vampire: The Dark Ages. The 2004 reboot series, Chronicles of Darkness, consists of eleven game lines: Vampire: The Requiem, Werewolf: The Forsaken, Mage: The Awakening, Promethean: The Created, Changeling: The Lost, Hunter: The Vigil, Geist: The Sin-Eaters, Mummy: The Curse, Demon: The Descent, Beast: The Primordial, and Deviant: The Renegades. Most of these are based on concepts from the original series, directly as with Vampire: The Requiem and Vampire: The Masquerade, or indirectly as with Geist and Wraith, which both deal with spirits. Both series are supported with supplementary sourcebooks detailing backgrounds and character types, which can be used when creating adventures for one's players; pre-made adventure modules have also occasionally been published. The Chronicles of Darkness sourcebooks in particular present the information as optional and something one may choose whether to include in one's game. The supplements often take the form of a book describing a location as it is portrayed in the setting, such as Vampire: The Masquerade's series of By Night books and Werewolf: The Apocalypse's Rage Across series. Several splatbooks – sourcebooks detailing character classes or organizations – have also been published, such as the Clanbook series, describing vampire clans, and the Kithbook line, covering types of fae. ## Common elements The games in the original series are set in a shared universe, also named the World of Darkness, which is a dark, gothic-punk interpretation of the real world, rife with corruption. In it, supernatural beings such as vampires, mages, and werewolves exist in secrecy, influencing humanity and clashing against each other; players take the roles of these beings, who belong to various classes such as Vampire: The Masquerade's vampire clans, and Werewolf: The Apocalypse's werewolf tribes. The series as a whole is themed around personal horror, while individual games have their own themes, such as redemption and humanity in Vampire: The Masquerade, and hubris in Mage: The Ascension. The series is known for its focus on metaplot – an overarching story for the setting that advances as new game books are released. Whereas the original series has a large focus on lore and background information for its setting, the urban horror Chronicles of Darkness setting does not to the same extent; it does not have a metaplot, and it presents any setting information as strictly optional to include in campaigns. With its lesser focus on lore and less defined world, Chronicles of Darkness also streamlines the character types, stripping the many vampire clans and werewolf tribes from the original series down to five each. The person leading campaigns – a role called gamemaster or dungeon master in other games – is called a storyteller in World of Darkness, highlighting how the series is more focused on collaborative storytelling than on combat or on players overcoming the game leader's challenges; the rules exist to give players a framework for telling stories, and players are rewarded by being part of the setting rather than by escalating power levels. Chronicles of Darkness has a larger focus on making the gameplay systems work together, enabling easier cross-over play between the games. ## History ### 1990–2006: White Wolf Publishing The World of Darkness series began development in 1990 by game designer Mark Rein-Hagen at White Wolf Publishing, as his next major role-playing game project after 1987's Ars Magica. Designed as the first in a planned series of five annual games, Vampire: The Masquerade was released in 1991, and was followed by Werewolf: The Apocalypse (1992), Mage: The Ascension (1993), Wraith: The Oblivion (1994), and Changeling: The Dreaming (1995), all set in the same world and using the Storyteller rule system. This rapid expansion with new games, although successful and capturing players' and the industry's interest, led to often flawed first editions, prompting several revised, new editions of the core rulebooks between 1992–2000, resulting in Mage: The Ascension morphing a lot between its editions as its themes changed. Ars Magica was initially tied to World of Darkness and used as a historical backdrop: its House Tremere was reused as a vampire clan in Vampire: The Masquerade, and its Order of Hermes as a mage tradition in Mage: The Ascension. The rights to Ars Magica were sold to Wizards of the Coast in 1994, and the histories of the games were separated. Rein-Hagen constantly moved on to designing new games after finishing one, designing all the original five games except Mage: The Ascension, which was designed by White Wolf Publishing's founders, brothers Stewart and Steve Wieck, and Chris Earley; as such, new staff were brought in to manage the game lines, including Andrew Greenberg for Vampire and Bill Bridges for Werewolf, who came to define the look and feel of the series. An economic downturn for White Wolf Publishing in 1995–1996, caused in part by bookstore returns for World of Darkness novelizations, led to a falling out between Rein-Hagen and the Wieck brothers, after which Rein-Hagen left the company. As the original planned five annual games had already been published, White Wolf Publishing next devised a new model of role-playing games with a historical setting based on previous games, resulting in Vampire: The Dark Ages (1996), Werewolf: The Wild West (1997), and Mage: The Sorcerers Crusade (1998), of which only Vampire: The Dark Ages sold well. This led to the cancellation of the underperforming Wraith line, with the release of the historical-setting Wraith: The Great War and the 1999 supplement Ends of Empire, which functioned as a finale to the game's metaplot. In 1997, White Wolf Publishing developed another model, where they would release a game that required another World of Darkness rule book to play, which thereby would get the same attention as a new stand-alone core game without requiring them to further support it with supplements; this was used for 1997's Mummy Second Edition and its 2001 re-release Mummy: The Resurrection, and 1998's Kindred of the East. The two final major modern-day-setting World of Darkness role-playing games, Hunter: The Reckoning and Demon: The Fallen, followed in 1999 and 2002, after which White Wolf Publishing returned to historical-setting games with Victorian Age: Vampire and Dark Ages: Vampire, a new edition of Vampire: The Dark Ages, and a line of Dark Ages games based on other World of Darkness games that, like Kindred of the East and Mummy, required a main game's rule book to be played. A final game, Orpheus, was released in 2003 as a sequel to Wraith. In 2004, following dwindling sales, White Wolf Publishing ended the series with the major event Time of Judgment: a line of books that ended the overarching narratives of Vampire: The Masquerade, Werewolf: The Apocalypse, Mage: The Ascension, Changeling: The Dreaming, Demon: The Fallen, Hunter: The Reckoning, Kindred of the East, and Mummy: The Resurrection. Following this, White Wolf Publishing rebooted the series with the 2004 rulebook The World of Darkness, and released new games with updated Storytelling System gameplay rules and a new setting, beginning with Vampire: The Requiem in 2004 and Werewolf: The Forsaken and Mage: The Awakening in 2005. ### 2006–2015: CCP Games In 2006, the Icelandic video game developer CCP Games acquired White Wolf Publishing and their intellectual properties, with the intention of developing an online video game based on World of Darkness. Business continued as usual until 2009, when CCP Games started transferring White Wolf Publishing staff to video game development and slowed down tabletop game production. The CCP Games incarnation of White Wolf Publishing published its last print products for distribution in 2011, with Vampire: The Masquerade 20th Anniversary Edition, an update of the pre-reboot game. Amid mass layoffs at CCP Games the same year, leaving few resources to produce tabletop games, White Wolf Publishing's creative director Rich Thomas formed Onyx Path Publishing and licensed both of the World of Darkness series, continuing support for them and producing new material. This included further anniversary editions, and new games like Mummy: The Curse (2013) and Demon: The Descent (2014); these projects were frequently financed through crowdfunding. ### 2015–present: Paradox Interactive White Wolf Publishing and its intellectual properties were sold again in 2015, to the Swedish video game publisher Paradox Interactive. Following this, the rebooted World of Darkness series was renamed Chronicles of Darkness, while the original series remained as World of Darkness. This was done to prevent confusion among players over there being two series and settings with the same name: Prior to the renaming, the two had been distinguished from each other by being referred to as the Old or Classic World of Darkness and the New World of Darkness. Onyx Path Publishing's in-development Vampire: The Masquerade 4th Edition, which they had announced only a few months earlier, was cancelled following this, as Paradox Interactive planned to publish their own fifth edition. The Paradox Interactive incarnation of White Wolf Publishing released the fifth edition of Vampire: The Masquerade in 2018, which included references to neo-Nazis and a character interpreted as being a pedophile, leading to accusations that they were catering to neo-Nazi groups. White Wolf Publishing denied that this was their intention, and apologized. Following the use of the real-world anti-gay purges in Chechnya as the backdrop for fictional events in Vampire: The Masquerade sourcebooks, in what Paradox Interactive's vice president of business development described as a "crude and disrespectful" way, Paradox Interactive integrated White Wolf Publishing directly into the parent company, made changes to its leadership, suspended sales and printings of the books, and halted its development and publishing of World of Darkness games. The material was removed from the books, and Vampire: The Masquerade development was moved to the licensee Modiphius Entertainment and collaborators including Onyx Path Publishing. Starting with the 2020 book Vampire: The Masquerade Companion, Paradox Interactive introduced further changes to the handling of the series: headed by creative lead Justin Achilli, they would develop core game books internally, while collaborator Renegade Game Studios would develop other game material. Along with this reorganization, Paradox Interactive announced that World of Darkness development from then on would involve sensitivity reviewers to ensure respectful portrayal of themes and topics. In addition to tabletop game development, the World of Darkness team at Paradox Interactive plans the setting's overarching narrative, and coordinates with external developers, such as those of World of Darkness video game adaptations, to ensure cohesion. ## Related media In addition to the tabletop games, the series has expanded into other media, including video games, card and board games, the Mind's Eye Theatre series of live action role-playing games, novels, fiction anthologies, comics, the 1996 television series Kindred: The Embraced, the actual play web series L.A. by Night (2018), Seattle by Night (2019), Vein Pursuit (2020), and The Nightlife (2021), and an in-development film and television franchise. Although World of Darkness multimedia projects slowed down under CCP Games, production began anew after Paradox Interactive acquired the series. A collectible card game based on Vampire: The Masquerade was released by Wizards of the Coast in 1994 as Jyhad, before being re-launched a year later as Vampire: The Eternal Struggle; Wizards of the Coast continued publishing it until 1996, and then White Wolf took over, publishing it in 2000–2010. In 2018, Black Chantry Productions licensed The Eternal Struggle, reprinting old cards and continuing production of the game. Following The Eternal Struggle, White Wolf also published a collectible card game on their own, Rage, based on Werewolf: The Apocalypse, from 1995 to 1996, which was even more successful than The Eternal Struggle; Five Rings Publishing licensed it, and continued producing it in 1998–1999. Two other Vampire: The Masquerade card games, Vendetta and Rivals, were released in 2021 by Horrible Guild and Renegade Game Studios, respectively. A story-based board game, Vampire: The Masquerade – Chapters, is in development by Flyos Games. A large number of World of Darkness novels and anthologies have been published, starting with the Werewolf: The Apocalypse anthology Drums Around the Fire in 1993, and were described by What Do I Read Next? A Reader's Guide to Current Genre Fiction as "old-fashioned adventures" in the style of pulp fiction. The books were popular and helped White Wolf Publishing grow, and were described as leading among horror novelizations by The Mammoth Book of Best New Horror in 1996, but were in the end not financially successful, due to book chains closing mall stores in 1995–1996 and returning a large amount of unsold books to the publisher. By 1998, What Do I Read Next? considered the novelizations to have improved in quality, citing White Wolf's move to commissioning established horror and fantasy writers; in 2002, Black Gate considered Andrew Bates's Year of the Scarab Trilogy a standout compared to previous "lackluster" World of Darkness novels. New World of Darkness novelizations started to disappear around 2006, but have since resumed. The series has been adapted into comics, sometimes published in the World of Darkness tabletop game books, but also as comic books, including Vampire: The Masquerade and Werewolf: The Apocalypse lines published by Moonstone Books in the early 2000s, and a Vampire: The Masquerade series published by Vault Comics since 2020. There are several video game adaptations of the series, based on Vampire: The Masquerade, Hunter: The Reckoning, Mage: The Ascension, Werewolf: The Apocalypse, and Wraith: The Oblivion. Critical reception of the games has varied, ranging from average to positive, with 2004's Vampire: The Masquerade – Bloodlines standing out, being described by video game publications as a cult classic and a "flawed masterpiece"; when Paradox Interactive acquired the series, they had considered Bloodlines the "crown jewel" of World of Darkness, and something they knew from the start that they wanted to bring back with a sequel. ## Reception World of Darkness has been critically well received, with several of its games having won or been nominated for awards, and with Vampire: The Masquerade having been inducted into the Origins Award hall of fame. The series has also been highly successful financially, primarily in the United States, with over three million game books sold by the late 1990s; around 1995, new World of Darkness releases were frequently top sellers, making White Wolf the second biggest publisher of tabletop role-playing games at the time after TSR, Inc., and by 2001, Vampire: The Masquerade was the second best selling tabletop role-playing game after TSR, Inc.'s Dungeons & Dragons. Onyx Path Publishing's crowdfunding campaigns for World of Darkness games and material have also been successful, particularly those for the original series, such as the anniversary editions of Werewolf: The Apocalypse and Mage: The Ascension. The series' setting, plot, and art direction have been well received, with Rue Morgue describing the series' "fabulous artwork" as one of its major strengths, Fenix praising the series' mood and the quality of the writing, and Realms of Fantasy appreciating the broad scope and the familiarity to players due to being based on the real world. Shadis described the setting as "truly unique", bringing something never before seen to games. Some publications found the setting too crowded or defined, however; Diehard GameFan thought this took away from opportunities for horror, and Tor.com thought it left little room to tell new stories, often choosing to ignore the metaplot when running games. In his book series Designers & Dragons, Shannon Appelcline considered the series' focus on metaplot to likely be what had caused sales to dwindle prior to the reboot, as players would have stopped playing the games when feeling they could not keep up with the story. Reactions to the Chronicles of Darkness setting have been divided, with some preferring the original series' setting for being more fantastical and grand in scale, and some the reboot's more grounded setting. The original series' rules were criticized by Arcane as, although generally easy to understand, often having confusing and unclear combat rules, while Tor.com described them as having a recurring problem with statistical anomalies. The updated gameplay rules of Chronicles of Darkness were however generally seen as a big improvement, and seen by critics as fluid, elegant and open-ended, to the point where Tor.com and Backstab recommended using them even when running non-Chronicles of Darkness games. Fenix appreciated the speed of creating characters and of playing, comparing the system of dice pools and dots favorably to number-based role-playing game systems.

2000 Taiwanese presidential election

Presidential elections were held in Taiwan on 18 March 2000 to elect the president and vice president. With a voter turnout of 83%, Chen Shui-bian and Annette Lu of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) were elected president and vice president respectively with a slight plurality. This election ended more than half a century of Kuomintang (KMT) rule on the island, during which it had governed as a one-party state since the retreat of the government from the Chinese mainland during the closing stages of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. This was also the first time in Chinese history that a ruling political party peacefully transferred power to an opposition party under a democratic system. The nominees included the then-current vice president Lien Chan for the KMT, former provincial governor James Soong as an independent candidate (upon his loss of the KMT nomination), and former Taipei mayor Chen Shui-bian for the DPP. Controversy arose throughout the course of the election; in particular, the candidacy of James Soong was beset by accusations of splitting the Kuomintang vote and involvement in corruption during the presidency of Lee Teng-hui, culminating in protests and the expulsion of the latter from the Kuomintang, while Chen's campaign attracted criticism from neighboring China due to his party's traditionally pro-independence stance. The issues of corruption and cross-strait relations were dominant during this election. Chen's victory was initially seen as unlikely, but several compounded effects like the splitting of the Kuomintang vote and the aforementioned controversies are seen as having led to his victory. Chen performed most strongly in the southern part of Taiwan, while Soong tended to win in northern areas. ## Candidates and platforms ### Kuomintang The ruling Kuomintang (KMT) ran vice president Lien Chan for president and Premier Vincent Siew for vice president. Both were career civil servants and Lien, originating from the Taiwanese aristocracy, was seen as aloof and unable to empathize with the common people. Though more popular and consistently ranked higher in the polls, the outspoken former Taiwan governor James Soong failed to gain the Kuomintang's nomination. As a result, he announced his candidacy as an independent candidate. The Kuomintang responded by expelling Soong in November 1999. It is a very common belief among KMT supporters that president Lee Teng-hui was secretly supporting Chen Shui-bian, and purposely supported the less popular Lien in order to split the Kuomintang, and this belief was given a great deal of credibility after the 2000 election with Lee's defection to the Pan-Green coalition, though Lee's defection came only after his expulsion by the KMT. Soong, a mainlander, tried to appeal to the native Taiwanese by nominating surgeon Chang Chao-hsiung, who is a native Taiwanese, as his running-mate. This, combined with the fact that Chang had connections to both the Democratic Progressive Party and the KMT reinforced Soong's campaign message of bridging political and cultural divide. In December 1999, the KMT began to attack Soong's integrity. They sued Soong for theft, alleging that as party secretary-general, he stole millions of Taiwan dollars in cash intended for the family of the late president Chiang Ching-kuo and hid the money in the Chunghsing Bills Finance Co. Soong defended himself by saying he was acting under Lee's direction, though Lee denied this and many found the explanation unconvincing. Initially holding a commanding lead in the polls, Soong ended up losing by just over 300,000 votes. Both candidates had some obstacles presenting themselves as reform candidates with regard to corruption, given their high rank in the Kuomintang government. Soong's strategy was to openly admit his past wrongdoing and present his insider status as an advantage: i.e. that he could most easily tackle the corruption because of his experience with it; however, many saw his credibility as a reformer as broken by his financial scandal. Lien advocated for reform, but had some difficulty in direct criticism as such attacks may have offended the ruling government; this is thought to have contributed to his defeat. ### Democratic Progressive Party The DPP ran former Taipei mayor Chen Shui-bian and Taoyuan County magistrate Annette Lu for vice president. Having run for the 1996 election on a radical independence platform and lost by a landslide, the DPP in May 1999 moderated its stance by issuing the "Resolution on the Future of Taiwan". The resolution accepted the status quo and promoted the moderate view that Taiwan was already independent, so any formal declaration would not be urgently necessary, if at all, and Chen presented a more conciliatory stance regarding the mainland. Also included was the pledge that any change in Taiwan's international status will have to be done through a referendum, thus alleviating the fear that, if elected, a DPP government would unilaterally declare independence without popular approval. The Chen-Lu ticket also promised to be more aggressive in fighting black gold, a system of connections and corruption which had become intertwined with the KMT. The last minute public endorsement of Chen Shui-bian by President of the Academia Sinica and Nobel laureate Yuan T. Lee is also thought to have played a role in his election, with Yuan T. Lee offering to negotiate with the PRC on Taiwan's behalf. ### Other candidates All independent presidential tickets were required to turn in a petition of 224,000 names to the Central Election Commission to confirm their candidacy and appear on the ballot. Former DPP Chairman Hsu Hsin-liang, who had quit the party after failing to prevent Chen from running, ran as an independent with New Party (NP) legislator Josephine Chu as his running mate. As DPP Chairman, Hsu had moderated the platform of the party, promoting reconciliation with the People's Republic of China and the opening of direct links, a move not then supported by the KMT. During the 2000 campaign, the Hsu-Chu ticket promoted unification under something similar to, but not the same as, 'one country, two systems', claiming that that exact system would be "bound to bring immediate loss to Taiwan". The New Party nominated independent social commentator Li Ao—an acclaimed author, historian, and former political prisoner—for president and legislator Elmer Fung for vice president. Li, who supported "one country, two systems", said he took the election as an opportunity to educate the people in Taiwan on his ideas, and show them the nation's "dark side". Despite his nomination Li refused to join the NP. Both he and the NP publicly encouraged people to vote for James Soong to the point of stating during the televised presidential debates that he was not planning to vote for himself and that people should vote for Soong so that the pro-unification vote would not be split. A white paper issued by the People's Republic of China (PRC) prior to the election had mentioned that they would "not permit the 'Taiwan question' to drag on", which generated condemnation from American leaders, including John Kerry and Stanley Roth; along with a downturn in the stock market, but little in terms of a Taiwanese reaction. Then, shortly before the election, Zhu Rongji, the premier of the People's Republic of China attempted to influence the outcome, warning that voters should "not just act on impulse at this juncture, which will decide the future course that China and Taiwan will follow" and should "shun a pro-independence candidate", further stating that "[n]o matter who comes into power in Taiwan, Taiwan will never be allowed to be independent. This is our bottom line and the will of 1.25 billion Chinese people." According to Christopher R. Hughes, emeritus professor of International Relations at the London School of Economics, a conclusion was made that the statements of Chinese government had actually been counterproductive and helped Chen to win; consequently, China avoided making such an open attempt to influence the 2004 elections, adopting a "wait and see" attitude with Chen. ## Results Voting was held on 18 March 2000. The Soong-Chang ticket appeared first on the ballot, followed by the Kuomintang's Lien and Siew, then two independent tickets, Li-Fung and Hsu-Chu. The eventual winning DPP ticket of Chen and Lu were listed fifth. Chen's ticket won by a margin of about 2.46%, ahead of Soong in second place and Chan in third. Generally, the Soong ticket led in the northern half of Taiwan, while the Chen ticket led in the south; however, there were exceptions, including Yilan County in the north, whose vote Chen won, and Taitung County in the south, whose vote Soong won. ### By county and city ### Maps ## Aftermath Chen's victory was seen as unlikely before Soong's financial scandal broke out. Under the first-past-the-post voting system, the split of the KMT vote between James Soong and Lien Chan, who together polled nearly 60% of the vote (compared to Chen's 39%), played a large role in the Taiwan independence-leaning candidate Chen's victory. Soong Chu-yu's financial scandals, Nobel laureate Lee Yuan-tseh's endorsement, and arguably the last minute saber-rattling by the PRC tipped the balance to Chen's favor. Chen's victory marked the first time since the retreat from the mainland that a party other than the KMT won the presidency, ending 50 years of rule by the latter, which was partly under a one-party state. This also marked the first peaceful transition of power under a democratic regime in Chinese history. As the results were announced, several thousand protesters, mostly KMT loyalists who believed Lee Teng-hui had intentionally tried to sabotage the pro-unification vote, gathered outside the KMT headquarters in Taipei and demanded Lee resign as Chairman. Lee promised to resign at the party congress in September 2000. Though the protest was without permit, the government did not order an end to it, though Taipei mayor Ma Ying-jeou attempted to dispel the crowd on the first night. The protesters blocked the entrances to the building and kept Lee holed in his office for hours until riot police with water cannon were able to open a path for the motorcade. Protesters also dragged presidential advisor Hsu Li-teh out of his car and beat him. The protests ended in success on March 24 when Lee resigned as KMT Chairman and was replaced by Lien. Ma Ying-jeou also resigned from the Central Standing Committee of the KMT as a result of his dissatisfaction with the leadership at the time, calling for reform. On the day of the election, Soong announced the formation of the People First Party before a crowd of his supporters, though he urged calm and the avoidance of "bloodshed". In the following party congress, Lien Chan was able to achieve Lee's expulsion and began to move the party back towards a unificationist platform. Lee and his supporters later formed the radical pro-independence Taiwan Solidarity Union. Lee was expelled from KMT on 21 September 2001, the first party chairman thus far to have membership revoked. To avoid a repeat of the 2000 split, Lien and Soong agreed to run on a single ticket as president and vice president, respectively, in the 2004 election. They made the announcement on 14 February 2003, more than a year before the next presidential election. Nevertheless, they were still defeated by Chen Shui-bian in the next election. Some authors, including John Fuh-hsieng Hsieh and Shelley Rigger, surmised that Chen Shui-bian's ascent to the presidency was not as groundbreaking as might be thought: the presidency's supposed power was largely drawn from the power a KMT leader would have when both the legislature and the presidency were controlled by the party, but the government of Taiwan was largely dominated by the legislative branch, which remained under the control of the KMT. As such, Chen ascended into a relatively weak presidency. Consequently, Chen's first cabinet consisted of some KMT members along with DPP members. However, after the legislative elections in 2001, Chen was expected to be able to exert more influence, due to the KMT's loss of a majority. Chen's more pro-independence stance initially caused concerns on behalf of the United States to raise such that they sent senior officials to the PRC to ease tensions. Tensions later relaxed, though a somewhat rocky relationship remained.

Hatha yoga

Branch of yoga focusing on physical techniques

Hatha yoga (/ˈhʌtə, ˈhɑːtə/) is a branch of yoga that uses physical techniques to try to preserve and channel vital force or energy. The Sanskrit word हठ haṭha literally means "force", alluding to a system of physical techniques. Some hatha yoga style techniques can be traced back at least to the 1st-century CE, in texts such as the Hindu Sanskrit epics and Buddhism's Pali canon. The oldest dated text so far found to describe hatha yoga, the 11th-century Amṛtasiddhi, comes from a tantric Buddhist milieu. The oldest texts to use the terminology of hatha are also Vajrayana Buddhist. Hindu hatha yoga texts appear from the 11th century onward. Some of the early hatha yoga texts (11th-13th c.) describe methods to raise and conserve bindu (vital force, that is, semen, and in women rajas – menstrual fluid). This was seen as the physical essence of life that was constantly dripping down from the head and being lost. Two early hatha yoga techniques sought to either physically reverse this process of dripping by using gravity to trap the bindhu in inverted postures like viparītakaraṇī, or force bindu upwards through the central channel by directing the breath flow into the centre channel using mudras (yogic seals, not to be confused with hand mudras, which are gestures). Almost all hathayogic texts belong to the Nath siddhas, and the important early ones (11th-13th c.) are credited to Matsyendranatha and his disciple, Gorakhnath or Gorakshanath (11th c.). Early Nāth works teach a yoga based on raising kuṇḍalinī through energy channels and chakras, called Layayoga ("the yoga of dissolution"). However, other early Nāth texts like the Vivekamārtaṇḍa can be seen as co-opting the hatha yoga mudrās. Later Nāth as well as Śākta texts adopt the practices of hatha yoga mudras into a Saiva system, melding them with Layayoga methods, without mentioning bindu. These later texts promote a universalist yoga, available to all, "without the need for priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia or sectarian initiations." In the 20th century, a development of hatha yoga focusing particularly on asanas (the physical postures) became popular throughout the world as a form of physical exercise. This modern form of yoga is now widely known simply as "yoga". ## Origins ### Earliest textual references According to the Indologist James Mallinson, some haṭha yoga style techniques practised only by ascetics can be traced back at least to the 1st-century CE, in texts such as the Sanskrit epics (Hinduism) and the Pali canon (Buddhism). The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage. However, there is no mention of the tongue being inserted further back into the nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā. The Buddha also used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to modern postures used to stimulate Kundalini. In the Mahāsaccaka sutta (MN 36), the Buddha mentions how physical practices such as various meditations on holding one's breath did not help him "attain to greater excellence in noble knowledge and insight which transcends the human condition." After trying these, he then sought another path to enlightenment. The term haṭha yoga was first used in the c. 3rd century Bodhisattvabhūmi, the phrase na haṭhayogena seemingly meaning only that the bodhisattva would get his qualities "not by force". ### Transition from tantric Buddhism to Nāth hatha yoga #### Tantric Buddhism The earliest mentions of haṭha yoga as a specific set of techniques are from some seventeen Vajrayana Buddhist texts, mainly tantric works from the 8th century onwards. In Puṇḍarīka's c. 1030 Vimalaprabhā commentary on the Kālacakratantra, haṭha yoga is for the first time defined within the context of tantric sexual ritual: > when the undying moment does not arise because the breath is unrestrained [even] when the image is seen by means of withdrawal (pratyahara) and the other (auxiliaries of yoga, i.e. dhyana, pranayama, dharana, anusmrti and samadhi), then, having forcefully (hathena) made the breath flow in the central channel through the practice of nada, which is about to be explained, [the yogi] should attain the undying moment by restraining the bindu [i.e. semen] of the bodhicitta in the vajra [penis] when it is in the lotus of wisdom [vagina]. While the actual means of practice are not specified, the forcing of the breath into the central channel and the restraining of ejaculation are central features of later haṭha yoga practice texts. The c. 11th century Amṛtasiddhi is the earliest substantial text describing Haṭha yoga, though it does not use the term; it is a tantric Buddhist work, and makes use of metaphors from alchemy. A manuscript states its date as 1160. The text teaches mahābandha, mahāmudrā, and mahāvedha which involve bodily postures and breath control, as a means to preserve amrta or bindu (vital energy) in the head (the "moon") from dripping down the central channel and being burned by the fire (the "sun") at the perineum. The text also attacks Vajrayana deity yoga as ineffective. According to Mallinson, later manuscripts and editions of this text have obscured or omitted the Buddhist elements (such as the deity Chinnamasta which appears in the earliest manuscripts and was originally a Buddhist deity, only appearing in Hindu works after the 16th century). However, the earliest manuscript makes it clear that this text originated in a Vajrayana Buddhist milieu. The inscription at the end of one Amṛtasiddhi manuscript ascribes the text to Mādhavacandra or Avadhūtacandra and is "said to represent the teachings of Virūpākṣa". According to Mallison, this figure is most likely the Buddhist mahasiddha Virupa. #### Early Hindu texts The c. 10th century Kubjikāmatatantra anticipates haṭha yoga with its description of the raising of Kundalini, and a 6-chakra system. Around the 11th century, techniques associated with Haṭha yoga also begin to be outlined in a series of early Hindu texts. The aims of these practices were siddhis (supranormal powers such as levitation) and mukti (liberation). In India, haṭha yoga is associated in popular tradition with the Yogis of the Natha Sampradaya. Almost all hathayogic texts belong to the Nath siddhas, and the important ones are credited to Gorakhnath or Gorakshanath (c. early 11th century), the founder of the Nath Hindu monastic movement in India, though those texts post-date him. Goraknath is regarded by the contemporary Nath-tradition as the disciple of Matsyendranath (early 10th century), who is celebrated as a saint in both Hindu and Buddhist tantric and haṭha yoga schools, and regarded by tradition as the founder of the Natha Sampradaya. Early haṭha yoga works include: - The Amaraughaprabodha (12th century, attributed to Goraknath) describes three bandhas to lock the vital energy into the body, as in the Amṛtasiddhi, but also adds the raising of Kundalinī. - The Dattātreyayogaśāstra, a Vaisnava text probably composed in the 13th century CE, is the earliest text which provides a systematized form of Haṭha yoga, and the earliest to place its yoga techniques under the name Haṭha. It teaches an eightfold yoga identical with Patañjali's 8 limbs that it attributes to Yajnavalkya and others as well as eight mudras that it says were undertaken by the rishi Kapila and other ṛishis. The Dattātreyayogaśāstra teaches mahāmudrā, mahābandha, khecarīmudrā, jālandharabandha, uḍḍiyāṇabandha, mūlabandha, viparītakaraṇī, vajrolī, amarolī, and sahajolī. - The Vivekamārtaṇḍa, an early Nāth text (13th century) attributed to Goraknath, contemporaneous with the Dattātreyayogaśāstra, teaches nabhomudrā (i.e. khecarīmudrā), mahāmudrā, viparītakaraṇī and the three bandhas. It also teaches six chakras and the raising of Kundalinī by means of "fire yoga" (vahniyogena). - The Gorakṣaśataka, a Nāth text of the same period (13th century), teaches śakticālanīmudrā ("stimulating Sarasvatī") along with the three bandhas. "Stimulating Sarasvat" is done by wrapping the tongue in a cloth and pulling on it, stimulating the goddess Kundalinī who is said to dwell at the other end of the central channel. This text does not mention the preservation of bindu, but merely says that liberation is achieved by controlling the mind through controlling the breath. - The ̣Śārṅgadharapaddhati, an anthology of verses on a wide range of subjects compiled by Sharngadharain 1363, describes Haṭha yoga including ̣the Dattātreyayogaśāstra's teachings on five mudrās. - The Khecarīvidyā (14th century) teaches only the method of khecarīmudrā, which is meant to give one access to stores of amrta in the body and to raise Kundalinī via the six chakras. - The Yogabīja (c. 14th century) teaches the three bandhas and śakticālanīmudrā ("stimulating Sarasvatī") for the purpose of awakening Kundalinī. The earliest haṭha yoga methods of the Amṛtasiddhi, Dattātreyayogaśāstra and Vivekamārtaṇḍa are used to raise and conserve bindu (semen, and in women rajas – menstrual fluid) which was seen as the physical essence of life that was constantly dripping down from the head and being lost. This vital essence is also sometimes called amrta (the nectar of immortality). These techniques sought to either physically reverse this process (by inverted postures like viparītakaraṇī) or use the breath to force bindu upwards through the central channel. In contrast to these, early Nāth works like the Gorakṣaśataka and the Yogabīja teach a yoga based on raising Kundalinī (through śakticālanī mudrā). This is not called haṭha yoga in these early texts, but Layayoga ("the yoga of dissolution"). However, other early Nāth texts like the Vivekamārtaṇḍa can be seen as co-opting the mudrās of haṭha yoga meant to preserve bindu. Then, in later Nāth as well as Śākta texts, the adoption of haṭha yoga is more developed, and focused solely on the raising of Kundalinī without mentioning bindu. Mallinson sees these later texts as promoting a universalist yoga, available to all, without the need to study the metaphysics of Samkhya-yoga or the complex esotericism of Shaiva Tantra. Instead this "democratization of yoga" led to the teaching of these techniques to all people, "without the need for priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia or sectarian initiations." ### Classical haṭha yoga #### Haṭhayogapradīpikā The Haṭhayogapradīpikā is one of the most influential texts of Haṭha yoga. It was compiled by Svātmārāma in the 15th century CE from earlier Haṭha yoga texts. Earlier texts were of Vedanta or non-dual Shaiva orientation, and from both, the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpika borrowed the philosophy of non-duality (advaita). According to Mallinson, this reliance on non-duality helped Haṭha yoga thrive in the medieval period as non-duality became the "dominant soteriological method in scholarly religious discourse in India". The text lists 35 great yoga siddhas starting with Adi Natha (Hindu god Shiva) followed by Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath. It includes information about shatkarma (six acts of self purification), 15 asana (postures: seated, laying down, and non-seated), pranayama (breathing) and kumbhaka (breath retention), mudras (internalized energetic practices), meditation, chakras (centers of energy), kundalini, nadanusandhana (concentration on inner sound), and other topics. The text includes the contradictory goals of raising Bindu, inherited from the Amritasiddhi, and of raising Kundalini, inherited from the Kubjikamatatantra. #### Post-Hathayogapradipika texts Post-Hathayogapradipika texts on Haṭha yoga include: - Amaraughasasana: a Sharada script manuscript of this Haṭha yoga text was copied in 1525 CE. It is notable because fragments of this manuscript have also been found near Kuqa in Xinjiang (China). The text discusses khecarimudra, but calls it saranas. It links the squatting pose Utkatasana, rather than the use of mudras, with the raising of Kundalini. - Yogacintamani: an early 17th-century text on the eight auxiliaries of yoga; the asana section describes 34 asanas, and variant manuscripts add another 84, mentioning most of the non-standing asanas used in modern yoga. - The Śivasamhitā: a 17th-century text of Śaiva non-dualism and Śrīvidyā Śāktism. It teaches all ten mudrās taught in earlier works as well as Śākta practices such as repeating the Śrīvidyā mantrarāja and adopting the yonimudrā posture; its goal is the awakening of Kundalinī so that it pierces various lotuses and knots as it rises upwards through the central channel. - Hatha Ratnavali: a 17th-century text that states that Haṭha yoga consists of ten mudras, eight cleansing methods, nine kumbhakas and 84 asanas. The text is also notable for dropping the nadanusandhana (inner sound) technique. - Hathapradipika Siddhantamuktavali: an early 18th-century text that expands on the Hathayogapradipikạ by adding practical insights and citations to other Indian texts on yoga. - Gheranda Samhita: a 17th or 18th-century text that presents Haṭha yoga as "ghatastha yoga", according to Mallinson. It presents 6 cleansing methods, 32 asanas, 25 mudras and 10 pranayamas. It is one of the most encyclopedic texts on Haṭha yoga. - Jogapradipika: an 18th-century Braj-language text by Ramanandi Jayatarama that presents Haṭha yoga simply as "yoga". It presents 6 cleansing methods, 84 asanas, 24 mudras and 8 kumbhakas. ### Modern era According to Mallinson, Haṭha yoga has been a broad movement across the Indian traditions, openly available to anyone: > Haṭha yoga, like other methods of yoga, can be practiced by all, regardless of sex, caste, class, or creed. Many texts explicitly state that it is practice alone that leads to success. Sectarian affiliation and philosophical inclination are of no importance. The texts of Haṭha yoga, with some exceptions, do not include teachings on metaphysics or sect-specific practices. Haṭha yoga represented a trend towards the democratization of yoga insights and religion similar to the Bhakti movement. It eliminated the need for "either ascetic renunciation or priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia and sectarian initiations". This led to its broad historic popularity in India. Later in the 20th-century, states Mallinson, this disconnect of Haṭha yoga from religious aspects and the democratic access of Haṭha yoga enabled it to spread worldwide. Between the 17th and 19th-century, however, the various urban Hindu and Muslim elites and ruling classes viewed Yogis with derision. They were persecuted during the rule of Aurangzeb; this ended a long period of religious tolerance that had defined the rule of his predecessors beginning with Akbar, who famously studied with the yogis and other mystics. Haṭha yoga remained popular in rural India. Negative impression for the Hatha yogis continued during the British colonial rule era. According to Mark Singleton, this historical negativity and colonial antipathy likely motivated Swami Vivekananda to make an emphatic distinction between "merely physical exercises of Haṭha yoga" and the "higher spiritual path of Raja yoga". This common disdain by the officials and intellectuals slowed the study and adoption of Haṭha yoga. A well-known school of Haṭha yoga from the 20th-century is the Divine Life Society founded by Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh (1887–1963) and his many disciples including, among others, Swami Vishnu-devananda – founder of International Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres; Swami Satyananda – of the Bihar School of Yoga; and Swami Satchidananda of Integral Yoga. The Bihar School of Yoga has been one of the largest Haṭha yoga teacher training centers in India but is little known in Europe and the Americas. Theos Casimir Bernard's 1943 book Hatha Yoga: The Report of A Personal Experience provides an informative but fictionalised account of traditional Haṭha yoga as a spiritual path. ### Yoga as exercise Yoga as exercise, of the type seen in the West, has been greatly influenced by Swami Kuvalayananda and his student Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught from 1924 until his death in 1989. Both Kuvalayananda and Krishnamacharya combined asanas from Haṭha yoga with gymnastic exercises from the physical culture of the time, dropping most of its religious aspects, to develop a flowing style of physical yoga that placed little or no emphasis on Haṭha yoga's spiritual goals. Among Krishnamacharya's students prominent in popularizing yoga in the West were K. Pattabhi Jois famous for popularizing the vigorous Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga style, B. K. S. Iyengar who emphasized alignment and the use of props in Iyengar Yoga, and by Indra Devi and Krishnamacharya's son T. K. V. Desikachar. Krishnamacharya-linked schools have become widely known in the Western world. Examples of other branded forms of yoga, with some controversies, that make use of Haṭha yoga include Anusara Yoga, Bikram Yoga, Integral Yoga, Jivamukti Yoga, Kundalini Yoga, Kripalu Yoga, Kriya Yoga, Sivananda Yoga and Viniyoga. After about 1975, yoga has become increasingly popular globally, in both developed and developing countries. ## Practice Haṭha yoga practice is complex and requires certain characteristics of the yogi. Section 1.16 of the Haṭha yoga Pradipika, for example, states these to be utsaha (enthusiasm, fortitude), sahasa (courage), dhairya (patience), jnana tattva (essence for knowledge), nishcaya (resolve, determination) and tyaga (solitude, renunciation). In Western culture, Haṭha yoga is typically understood as exercise using asanas and it can be practiced as such. In the Indian and Tibetan traditions, Haṭha yoga integrates ideas of ethics, diet, cleansing, pranayama (breathing exercises), meditation and a system for spiritual development of the yogi. ### Goals The aims of Haṭha yoga in various Indian traditions have included physical siddhis (special powers, bodily benefits such as slowing age effects, magical powers) and spiritual liberation (moksha, mukti). According to Mikel Burley, some of the siddhis are symbolic references to the cherished soteriological goals of Indian religions. For example, the Vayu Siddhi or "conquest of the air" literally implies rising into the air as in levitation, but it likely has a symbolic meaning of "a state of consciousness into a vast ocean of space" or "voidness" ideas found respectively in Hinduism and Buddhism. Some traditions such as the Kaula tantric sect of Hinduism and Sahajiya tantric sect of Buddhism pursued more esoteric goals such as alchemy (Nagarjuna, Carpita), magic, kalavancana (cheating death) and parakayapravesa (entering another's body). Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation–driven means to liberation in Indian religions. The majority of historic Haṭha yoga texts do not give any importance to siddhis. The mainstream practice considered the pursuit of magical powers as a distraction or hindrance to Haṭha yoga's ultimate aim of spiritual liberation, self-knowledge or release from rebirth that the Indian traditions call mukti or moksha. The goals of Haṭha yoga, in its earliest texts, were linked to mumukshu (seeker of liberation, moksha). The later texts added and experimented with the goals of bubhukshu (seeker of enjoyment, bhoga). ### Diet Some Haṭha texts place major emphasis on mitahara, which means "measured diet" or "moderate eating". For example, sections 1.58 to 1.63 and 2.14 of the Haṭha Yoga Pradipika and sections 5.16 to 5.32 of the Gheranda Samhita discuss the importance of proper diet to the body. They link the food one eats and one's eating habits to balancing the body and gaining most benefits from the practice of Haṭha yoga. Eating, states the Gheranda Samhita, is a form of a devotional act to the temple of body, as if one is expressing affection for the gods. Similarly, sections 3.20 and 5.25 of the Shiva Samhita includes mitahara as an essential part of a holistic Haṭha yoga practice. Verses 1.57 through 1.63 of the critical edition of Haṭha Yoga Pradipika suggests that taste cravings should not drive one's eating habits, rather the best diet is one that is tasty, nutritious and likable as well as sufficient to meet the needs of one's body and for one's inner self. It recommends that one must "eat only when one feels hungry" and "neither overeat nor eat to completely fill one's stomach; rather leave a quarter portion empty and fill three quarters with quality food and fresh water". According to another text, the Goraksha Sataka, eating a controlled diet is one of the three important parts of a complete and successful practice. The text does not provide details or recipes. The text states, according to Mallinson, "food should be unctuous and sweet", one must not overeat and stop when still a bit hungry (leave a quarter of the stomach empty), and whatever one eats should please Shiva. ### Purifications Haṭha yoga teaches various steps of inner body cleansing with consultations of one's yoga teacher. Its texts vary in specifics and number of cleansing methods, ranging from simple hygiene practices to the peculiar exercises such as reversing seminal fluid flow. The most common list is called the shatkarmas, or six cleansing actions: dhauti (cleanse teeth and body), basti (cleanse rectum), neti (cleanse nasal passages), trataka (cleanse eyes), nauli (abdominal massage) and kapalabhati (cleanse phlegm). The actual procedure for cleansing varies by the Haṭha yoga text, some suggesting a water wash and others describing the use of cleansing aids such as cloth. ### Breath control Prāṇāyāma is made out of two Sanskrit words prāṇa (प्राण, breath, vital energy, life force) and āyāma (आयाम, restraining, extending, stretching). Some Haṭha yoga texts teach breath exercises but do not refer to it as Pranayama. For example, section 3.55 of the GherandaSamhita calls it Ghatavastha (state of being the pot). In others, the term Kumbhaka or Prana-samrodha replaces Pranayama. Regardless of the nomenclature, proper breathing and the use of breathing techniques during a posture is a mainstay of Haṭha yoga. Its texts state that proper breathing exercises cleanse and balance the body. Pranayama is one of the core practices of Haṭha yoga, found in its major texts as one of the limbs regardless of whether the total number of limbs taught are four or more. It is the practice of consciously regulating breath (inhalation and exhalation), a concept shared with all schools of yoga. This is done in several ways, inhaling and then suspending exhalation for a period, exhaling and then suspending inhalation for a period, slowing the inhalation and exhalation, consciously changing the time/length of breath (deep, short breathing), combining these with certain focussed muscle exercises. Pranayama or proper breathing is an integral part of asanas. According to section 1.38 of Haṭha yoga pradipika, Siddhasana is the most suitable and easiest posture to learn breathing exercises. The different Haṭha yoga texts discuss pranayama in various ways. For example, Haṭha yoga pradipka in section 2.71 explains it as a threefold practice: recaka (exhalation), puraka (inhalation) and kumbhaka (retention). During the exhalation and inhalation, the text states that three things move: air, prana and yogi's thoughts, and all three are intimately connected. It is kumbhaka where stillness and dissolution emerges. The text divides kumbhaka into two kinds: sahita (supported) and kevala (complete). Sahita kumbhaka is further sub-divided into two types: retention with inhalation, retention with exhalation. Each of these breath units are then combined in different permutations, time lengths, posture and targeted muscle exercises in the belief that these aerate and assist blood flow to targeted regions of the body. ### Posture Before starting yoga practice, state the Haṭha yoga texts, the yogi must establish a suitable place. This is to be away from all distractions, preferably a mathika (hermitage) distant from falling rocks, fire and a damp shifting surface. Once a peaceful stable location has been chosen, the yogi begins the posture exercises called asanas. These postures come in numerous forms. For a beginner, states the historian of religion Mircea Eliade, the asanas are uncomfortable, typically difficult, cause the body to shake, and are typically unbearable to hold for extended periods of time. However, with repetition and persistence, as the muscle tone improves, the effort reduces and posture improves. According to the Haṭha yoga texts, each posture becomes perfect when the "effort disappears", one no longer thinks about the posture and one's body position, breathes normally in pranayama, and is able to dwell in one's meditation (anantasamapattibhyam). The asanas vary significantly between Haṭha yoga texts, and some of the names are used for different poses. Most of the early asanas are inspired by nature, such as a form of union with symmetric, harmonious flowing shapes of animals, birds or plants. ### Mudras According to Mallinson, in the earliest formulations, Haṭha yoga was a means to raise and preserve the bindu, believed to be one of the vital energies. The two early Haṭha yoga techniques to achieve this were inverted poses to trap the bindu using gravity, or mudras (yogic seals) to make breath flow into the centre channel and force bindu up. However, in later Haṭha yoga, the Kaula visualization of Kuṇḍalini rising through a system of chakras was overlaid onto the earlier bindu-oriented system. The aim was to access amṛta (the nectar of immortality) situated in the head, which subsequently floods the body, in contradiction with the early Haṭha yoga goal of preserving bindu. The classical sources for the mudras are the Gheranda Samhita and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. The yoga mudras are diverse in the parts of the body involved and in the procedures required, as in Mula Bandha, Mahamudra, Viparita Karani, Khecarī mudrā, and Vajroli mudra. ### Meditation The Haṭha Yoga Pradipika text dedicates almost a third of its verses to meditation. Similarly, other major texts of Haṭha yoga such as the Shiva Samhita and the Gheranda Samhita discuss meditation. In all three texts, meditation is the ultimate goal of all the preparatory cleansing, asanas, pranayama and other steps. The aim of this meditation is to realize Nada-Brahman, or the complete absorption and union with the Brahman through inner mystic sound. According to Guy Beck – a professor of Religious Studies known for his studies on Yoga and music, a Hatha yogi in this stage of practice seeks "inner union of physical opposites", into an inner state of samadhi that is described by Haṭha yoga texts in terms of divine sounds, and as a union with Nada-Brahman in musical literature of ancient India. ## Differences from Patanjali yoga Haṭha yoga is a branch of yoga. It shares numerous ideas and doctrines with other forms of yoga, such as the more ancient system taught by Patanjali. The differences are in the addition of some aspects, and different emphasis on others. For example, pranayama is crucial in all yogas, but it is the mainstay of Haṭha yoga. Mudras and certain kundalini-related ideas are included in Haṭha yoga, but not mentioned in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali yoga considers asanas important but dwells less on various asanas than the Haṭha yoga texts. In contrast, the Haṭha yoga texts consider meditation as important but dwell less on meditation methodology than Patanjali yoga. The Haṭha yoga texts acknowledge and refer to Patanjali yoga, attesting to the latter's antiquity. However, this acknowledgment is essentially only in passing, as they offer no serious commentary or exposition of Patanjali's system. This suggests that Haṭha yoga developed as a branch of the more ancient yoga. According to P.V. Kane, Patanjali yoga concentrates more on the yoga of the mind, while Haṭha yoga focuses on body and health. Some Hindu texts do not recognize this distinction. For example, the Yogatattva Upanishad teaches a system that includes all aspects of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and all additional elements of Haṭha yoga practice. ## See also - Kriya Yoga - Kundalini yoga

2020 BX12

Binary near-Earth asteroid

'''''' is a sub-kilometer binary asteroid, classified as a near-Earth asteroid and potentially hazardous object of the Apollo group. It was discovered on 27 January 2020 by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System survey at the Mauna Loa Observatory during its approach to Earth of 0.02915 AU (4.361 million km; 11.34 LD). Radar observations of the asteroid were carried out by the Arecibo Observatory on 4 February 2020, revealing a natural satellite orbiting 360 m (1,180 ft) from the primary body. ## Discovery `was discovered on 27 January 2020 by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) survey at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii. The ATLAS survey was designed for detecting near-Earth asteroids on approach to Earth, particularly those that may be considered potentially hazardous under circumstances where they can approach Earth from close distances. was identified by a team of astronomers consisting of Larry Denneau, John Tonry, Aren Heinze, and Henry Weiland, who were chiefly involved in the ATLAS project. The asteroid was discovered during its approach to Earth and was at nominal distance of about 0.11 AU (16,000,000 km; 10,000,000 mi) from the planet. At the time of discovery, was located in the constellation of Puppis at an apparent magnitude of 17.6.` The discovery of was subsequently reported to the Minor Planet Center's Near-Earth Object Confirmation Page (NEOCP), where a preliminary orbit was calculated from additional observations conducted at multiple observatories. Follow-up observations of spanned three days since its discovery, and the asteroid was formally announced in a Minor Planet Electronic Circular issued by the Minor Planet Center on 30 January 2020. ## Nomenclature Upon discovery, the asteroid was given the temporary internal designation A10jUnf. After follow up observations confirming the object, it was then given the provisional designation by the Minor Planet Center on 30 January 2020. The provisional designation signifies the object's discovery date and year. Although has a sufficiently long observation arc for its orbit to be accurately determined, the asteroid has not yet been issued a permanent minor planet number by the Minor Planet Center. Once the Minor Planet Center assigns a minor planet number for , it will be eligible for naming. ## Orbit and classification `orbits the Sun at an average distance of approximately 1.60 astronomical units (0.239×10^`^`9`` km; 0.149×10^`^`9`` mi), taking 2.02 years to complete one full orbit. The orbit of is highly eccentric and inclined to the ecliptic plane: it has an orbital eccentricity of 0.757 and inclination of 40 degrees, with its orbit extending from 0.76 AU at perihelion to 2.44 AU at aphelion. As it approaches perihelion, moves above the ecliptic and comes closer to the Sun than Venus, whereas at aphelion, moves below the ecliptic and recedes from the Sun farther out than the orbit of Mars. The orbit of crosses that of Earth's, thus it can occasionally make close approaches to the planet, making it a near-Earth object. With a semi-major axis (average orbit distance) greater than 1 AU and a perihelion distance within that of Earth's, is formally classified under the Apollo group of near-Earth asteroids.` The asteroid's minimum orbital intersection distance (MOID) from Earth is approximately 0.002 AU (0.30 million km; 0.19 million mi), or about 0.78 lunar distances. Having such a small Earth MOID, is considered a potentially hazardous asteroid (PHA) by the Minor Planet Center, under the definition that PHAs have Earth MOIDs less than 0.05 AU and absolute magnitudes under 22. Despite this, will not make any close Earth encounters within 15 lunar distances or 0.04 AU (6.0 million km; 3.7 million mi) over the next 200 years, and the asteroid has not been listed by the JPL Sentry Risk Table . On 12 February 2020, a team of astronomers identified in several precovery images taken by the Pan-STARRS 1 survey, with the earliest images dating back to 5 January 2014. The observation arc of these precovery images spanned over six years, long enough for astronomers to refine and calculate 's orbit with accuracy. This greatly reduced uncertainties in the asteroid's orbit, reducing its uncertainty parameter from 8 to 1. the observation arc of spans 6.09 years or 2,224 days, with an orbit uncertainty parameter of 0 according to the JPL Small-Body Database. ### 2020 Earth approach On 3 February 2020 at 18:56 UTC, passed 0.02915 AU (4.36 million km; 2.71 million mi), or 11.35 lunar distances, from Earth. During its close approach to Earth, the asteroid approached Earth at a rate of 25.3 km/s (57,000 mph) and its apparent visual brightness peaked around magnitude 15.7, which is too faint to be seen with the naked eye. At closest approach the asteroid's apparent motion in the sky was 1.2 degrees per hour and was in the constellation of Cetus, at an apparent magnitude of 16 and an angular separation of 20 degrees from the Moon. The February 2020 encounter by provided an opportunity for radar observatories to study the asteroid's characteristics in detail. was the first radar target observed by the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico since the one-month shutdown of observatory operations due to a series of earthquakes that have occurred in the southern region of Puerto Rico during December 2019 and January 2020. Radar observations of were conducted on 4 February 2020 by a team of astronomers led by Luisa Zambrano-Marín. Over a two-day observation period, astronomers measured the asteroid's size, shape, and rotation, along with the discovery of a small orbiting satellite. After the February 2020 encounter, passed perihelion on 21 March 2020. During its egress from perihelion, the asteroid made its closest approach to Mars on 28 June 2020, from a distance of 0.042 AU (6.3 million km; 3.9 million mi). ### Future approaches Over the course of its orbit in the next 200 years, will continue to pass by Earth, though it will not make any approaches as close as the February 2020 encounter that would otherwise warrant attention. The last Earth encounter by from a closer distance was on 1 February 1931, when the asteroid approached Earth from a distance of 0.009 AU (1.3 million km; 0.84 million mi), or 3.5 lunar distances. The next two Earth encounters by will occur in February 2022 and 2024, with approach distances of 0.18 AU and 0.34 AU, respectively. ## Physical characteristics In Arecibo delay-Doppler radar observations from 4 January to 5 January 2020, was resolved at a resolution of 7.5 meters per pixel, allowing for direct measurements of the asteroid's physical properties. Radar images show that is at least 165 m (541 ft) in diameter, implying a geometric albedo or reflectivity of 0.30 given its absolute magnitude of 20.6. appears to have a nearly spheroidal shape, which is commonly observed in other near-Earth objects such as and 101955 Bennu. The rotation of has not been fully observed in detail due to radar projection effects, thus only constraints on its rotation period can be made. From radar observations spanning two days, the rotation period of is likely at most about 2.8 hours. ## Satellite The satellite of was discovered in Arecibo radar observations conducted by a team of astronomers consisting of Luisa Zambrano-Marín along with other members of the Planetary Radar Science Group. Under satellite naming conventions by the International Astronomical Union, the satellite would be provisionally designated . With the discovery of a satellite around , the mass and density of the primary body can be determined from the satellite's orbit. The satellite may have formed as a result of rotational fission or mass ejection of the primary body, since along with other binary near-Earth asteroids have been observed to have rapid rotation periods and spheroidal shapes. ### Physical characteristics With a diameter of at least 70 m (230 ft) across, the satellite is less than half the size of , the primary component of the binary system. The magnitude difference between the satellite and primary is about 1.9, implying an absolute magnitude of about 22.5 for the satellite, given an absolute magnitude of 20.6 for the primary. Excluding delay-Doppler effects on the satellite's brightness in radar images, the satellite's albedo may be slightly higher than that of the primary (\~0.3), likely around 0.36 based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion using an absolute magnitude of 22.5 and a diameter of 70 m. ### Orbit and rotation From radar images taken on 5 February 2020, the separation distance between the satellite and the primary body is estimated to be about 360 m (1,180 ft), or 4.4 times the radius of the primary. The orbital period of the satellite is thought to be around 45–50 hours (1.9–2.1 days), with the best-fit period being 47 hours (1.96 days). However, another possible orbital period of 15–16 hours (0.63–0.67 days) has not been yet been ruled out, due to projection effects of radar images. Radar observations by Arecibo suggest the satellite is likely tidally locked to the primary body, with its rotation period being synchronous with its orbital period. However, uncertainties remain in measurements of the satellite's rotation period, thus an upper limit to its period was placed at 49 hours.

They're Only Chasing Safety

They're Only Chasing Safety is the fourth studio album by American rock band Underoath. It was released on June 15, 2004, through Solid State Records. Following the release of their third studio effort The Changing of Times (2002), half of the band's members were replaced. After finalizing the line-up with vocalist Spencer Chamberlain, the band recorded their next release with producer James Paul Wisner at his home studio Wisner Productions in February 2004. The album has been tagged with various genres including screamo and melodic hardcore and features subtle references to Christianity. Drummer Aaron Gillespie had more of a vocal presence to contrast Chamberlain's screams. Before the album's release, Underoath undertook a tour with their labelmates and later with Eighteen Visions. Throughout 2004, the band went on the Warped Tour before going on their own headlining tour, and closed the year supporting Coheed and Cambria. "Reinventing Your Exit" was released as the lead single in February 2005. An appearance on the inaugural Taste of Chaos tour led to another headlining US tour, shows in Europe and a second spell on Warped Tour. A Canadian tour in late 2005 with the Used preceded a reissue of the album in October 2005. It received generally favorable reviews from music critics, some of whom highlighted the various musical styles and praised Underoath for its accessibility. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album gold in the US in 2011, and it was nominated for a Dove Award for best rock album. It has been re-pressed on vinyl and performed in its entirety. ## Background Christian metalcore band Underoath released their third studio album The Changing of Times in February 2002. It was the band's first release through Solid State Records; it marked a line-up change with the appearance of guitarist Timothy McTague and bassist William Nottke. Nottke was replaced with Grant Brandell and guitarist James Smith was brought in. Vocalist Dallas Taylor left the 2003 Warped Tour, and My Synopsis singer Matt Tarpey stood in for him for some shows. Taylor officially left the band in October 2003; Brandell said this was due to personal issues that hampered the band's frequent touring schedule. McTague said Taylor wanted a "more stable environment", explaining that they did not have much money and were touring constantly. Underoath played shows with This Runs Through, both of which lived in Tampa, Florida. This Runs Through vocalist Spencer Chamberlain was asked to join them but he rejected the offer because he was busy with This Runs Through. After he was told Underoath would otherwise have to cancel the shows, he temporarily joined the band for a few performances. Chamberlain was invited to practice with Underoath when This Runs Through were ending, and asked again to become a member of the band. ## Recording Chamberlain officially joined Underoath in January 2004, and a month later, they recorded their next album. Underoath had worked with producer James Paul Wisner on their past two albums and wanted to work with someone else. They had two other producers in mind but due to timing conflicts, they opted to work with him again. Wisner acted as engineer at recording sessions in his home studio Wisner Productions in Florida. Throughout the making of the album, the members paid rent to stay at Wisner's house. His neighbor repeatedly banged on the door because the room in which Underoath were recording guitars shared a wall with the neighbor. The band learned the neighbor was a nurse and worked nights; the band switched rooms and had to re-record half of the songs. Keyboardist Christopher Dudley said the guitars were subsequently redone four times and two-to-three times for the bass guitar. He mentioned that they wanted to distance themselves away from the "really clean, polished sounding" material of Wisner's past production work, "but [They're Only Chasing Safety] still has that polished feel to it". Matt Goldman recorded programming and Aaron Marsh's additional vocals. Chamberlain and Gillespie damaged their voices during the recording, and Gillespie was briefly hospitalized with blisters on his tonsils. J.R. McNeely mixed the recordings at Compound Studios in Seattle, Washington, and the album was mastered by Troy Glessner at Spectre Studios. Chamberlain would later remark that the album sounded so "dry and feels just so cut to the core". ## Composition and lyrics ### Overview The output of Underoath has been described as metalcore. According to Alex Henderson of AllMusic, "this screamo/post-hardcore/melodic hardcore approach is quite different from full-fledged metalcore; while metalcore units like Hatebreed, Brick Bath, and Finland's notoriously ferocious Rotten Sound go right for the jugular, Underoath and similar bands prefer to mix honey with vinegar". Andrew Segal of Cross Rhythms described the album as nu metal, and said it is on the heavier side of the rock scale, is well produced and "shows more signs of intelligence than the [nu-metal] genre is often credited with". Andrew Sacher, writing for Brooklyn Vegan, referred to They're Only Chasing Safelty as "one of melodic metalcore's biggest mainstream breakthroughs". Henderson said the references to Christianity are more subtle than anything from the band's contemporaries. Brian Flota in his book The Politics of Post-9/11 Music noted unlike other Christian acts, Underoath refer to Jesus by name, whereas others refer to the figure as "Him". The most pop-like tracks on the album, such as "Reinventing Your Exit", were written when Taylor was still a member. Gillespie was given more-vocal presence to contrast with Chamberlain's screams. In the past, Taylor had been the sole lyricist, but for They're Only Chasing Safety, Chamberlain and Gillespie contributed lyrics. Chamberlain said he had to adapt to Gillespie writing chorus sections as he did not listen to many bands with choruses. Chamberlain solely wrote the words to three of the tracks and Gillespie wrote one-to-two by himself, and the rest they wrote together. ### Tracks McTague used "Your New Aesthetic" (1999) by Jimmy Eat World as a template for "A Boy Brushed Red Living in Black and White". Underoath tried to improve upon the demo version's drum break but were unsuccessful and sampled the loops from the demo, which they had made with Goldman, and used it on the album version. "Reinventing Your Exit" evokes the material of Hawthorne Heights; it evolved from the Taylor-sung track "Heatherwood". The interlude track "The Blue Note" was made in an hour; it consists of two layered stock loops. "It's Dangerous Business Walking Out Your Front Door" is a murder ballad that features 1980s-esque electronic parts; it recalls the work of the Used and its bridge section includes a choir from a local church. McTague said the band misled the choir about the song's meaning to persuade them to sing on the album. With "Down, Set, Go", the band attempted to emulate the style of Brand New's Deja Entendu (2003), with which they were enamored. For the ending of "I'm Content with Losing", McTague performed his part in the style of the Casket Lottery. "Some Will Seek Forgiveness, Others Escape" is reminiscent of the work of Copeland, being anchored around an electronica beat, and was intended to show Underoath "wearing their hearts on their sleeves". McTague said the song deals with a person "realizing the error of [their] ways, asking for forgiveness and making a vow to start over and do what's right". Unlike the rest of the songs on the album, the track was composed within half an hour. Marsh's part in the song deals with him having "both feet out the door with Christianity". "I've Got Ten Friends and a Crowbar That Says You Ain't Gonna Do Jack" was written and recorded for the album's 2005 reissue. ## Release and promotion In March and April 2004, Underoath toured the US as part of the Solid State Tour with labelmates Norma Jean and Beloved, among others, which was followed by a few shows with From First to Last. On April 21, 2004, They're Only Chasing Safety was announced for release in two months' time; alongside this, "Reinventing Your Exit" was posted on the band's Purevolume profile. The album was released on June 15, 2004, through Solid State. The artwork depicts Julie McCaddon, the wife of designer Kris McCaddon, wearing an oxygen mask. McCaddon, who had little budget to design the cover, hired his wife rather than a professional model for a photography session. In June 2004, the band embarked on a US tour with Eighteen Visions, prior to appearance at that year's Hellfest and Warped Tour. During the Warped Tour, Underoath's audience grew and at one point matched the size of one of the tour's headliners, the Used. Underoath initially planned to support Senses Fail but had to pull out when Chamberlain married. Instead, they instigated their own Get Awesome Tour with Stretch Arm Strong and the Chariot. Following this, they supported Coheed and Cambria on their headlining US tour. "Reinventing Your Exit" was released to radio on February 22, 2005; the music video for the song was filmed in Brooklyn, New York City. Underoath wanted to release "A Boy Brushed Red Living in Black and White", which they felt was more representative of the album's sound, but Solid State Records opted for something closer to The Changing of Times track "When the Sun Sleeps". On the radio edit of "Reinventing Your Exit", Chamberlain's vocals are lower in the mix and cut the breakdown. In February and March 2005, Underoath performed on the East Coast dates of the first Taste of Chaos tour. They appeared at the South by Southwest music conference, prior to headlining the Total Badical Tour. The trek, which ran into May 2005, was supported by Fear Before the March of Flames, the Chariot, Hopesfall and These Arms Are Snakes. Towards the tour's conclusion, Underoath appeared at The Bamboozle and Cornerstone Festivals. Following this, Underoath went on a tour of Europe that included a performance at Download Festival, and then appeared on Warped Tour in June and July 2005. On August 23, 2005, the music video for "It's Dangerous Business Walking Out Your Front Door" was posted on MTV's website. It was filmed in Hollywood with director Josh Graham, and depicts the band performing in a forest after having been involved in a car crash. The band played some US shows with Silverstein prior to a Canadian tour in September 2005 with the Used and Alexisonfire. ### Reissues and full-album performances On October 4, 2005, They're Only Chasing Safety was re-released through Tooth and Nail Records as a special edition that included four bonus tracks, a bonus DVD, and new artwork and packaging designed by Converge's Jacob Bannon. The band were planning to issue the DVD on its own until the label suggested combining it with They're Only Chasing Safety and selling it at the same price had the DVD been released separately. In October and November 2005, the group supported Thrice on their headlining US tour. They're Only Chasing Safety was included in a three-CD set called Play Your Old Stuff: An Underoath Anthology (2011), alongside The Changing of Times and their fifth studio album Define the Great Line (2006). They're Only Chasing Safety was packaged with Define the Great Line as a two-LP set to promote the band's 2016 Rebirth Tour, during which they performed both albums in full. They're Only Chasing Safety was then included with Define the Great Line and their sixth studio album Lost in the Sound of Separation as part of the Underoath Observatory (2021) vinyl box set. To coincide with this, Underoath performed all three albums in their entireties as part of the Underoath: Observatory livestream series. "A Boy Brushed Red Living in Black and White", "Reinventing Your Exit", and "It's Dangerous Business Walking Out Your Front Door" were included on the band's second and third compilation albums Anthology: 1999–2013 (2012) and Icon (2014). ## Reception The album was met with generally favorable reviews from music critics. AllMusic's Alex Henderson said the band "do a decent job of integrating the honey and the vinegar" on the album, with Chamberlain having a "firm grasp of the sort of good cop/bad cop and heaven/hell contrasts that characterize a screamo disc" as this album. Andrew Segal of Cross Rhythms wrote that album had a "few good surprises which certainly make it merit more than just one listen", as its varied instrumental "largely set it melodically apart from a genre where people are often prone to detuning their instruments". Though he noticed some "moments that are a ittle 'samey'," it was overall a "well produced album that [...] shows more signs of intelligence than the genre is often credited with". The staff at HM Magazine saw it as a band evolving as they incorporate more melody, and "while it has ups and downs as a complete album, several songs approach greatness". Jesusfreakhideout staff writer Josh Taylor saw it as the band's most "accessible [release] to those not even interested in the genre", and while it was "not quite as heavy as previous ventures, [.. the album] is, hands down, one of the best releases of 2004". Len Nash of The Phantom Tollbooth noted that the band had change styles to emo, which would serve as a "better position to compete against many mainstream artists". He added that despite the album be "'emotic' in nature, Underoath still jams out". Lollipop Magazine's Adrian Bromley saw it as "[g]eneric mediocre metalcore, for the most part, save for the techno/keyboard bits used on certain songs". musicOMH reviewer Vik Bansal also pointed out the musical shift to emo, and said the album "does little to raise the heartbeat or send frissons down the spine". He added that Chamberlain's vocals "sit at odds with the music", and proposed that if Chamberlain sung more, he would have compared Underoath to labelmates Dead Poetic. Sputnikmusic staff member Damrod wrote that while the "musical work is solid, it can not convince me completely. This is mainly because the sound is so similar to many other bands popular in the genre". Punk Planet's Scott Morrow wrote that apart from a "few legitimately decent moments", he struggled to sit through the album, citing the "trite and whiny singsong sound and can't-you-hear-the-pain-in-my-voice? screams". Fred Pilarczyk of mxdwn considered it a "safe album in all aspects, from the vocals, instrumentation, and production" with every song "follow[ing] a similar formula". The album peaked at number 101 on the Billboard 200 and number seven on the Christian Albums charts. As of 2005, the album sold more than 218,000 copies, with the re-release selling an additional 279,000 copies, making a combined sales of more than 500,000 copies in the US alone. The reissue topped the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in December 2011. In 2005, the album was nominated for a Dove Award for Rock Album of the Year at the 36th GMA Dove Awards. Alternative Press ranked "Reinventing Your Exit" at number 40 on their list of the best 100 singles from the 2000s. ## Track listing All music by Underoath. All lyrics written by Aaron Gillespie and Spencer Chamberlain, except where noted. ## Personnel Personnel per booklet. Underoath - Timothy McTague – guitar - Christopher Dudley – keyboards - Aaron Gillespie – drums, clean vocals - Spencer Chamberlain – unclean vocals - Grant Brandell – bass guitar - James Smith – guitar Additional musicians - Aaron Marsh – additional vocals (track 10) Production and design - James Paul Wisner – producer, engineer - Matt Goldman – additional vocals recording, programming recording - J.R. McNeely – mixing - Troy Glessner – mastering - Kris McCaddon – A.D. photography, design - David Stuart – band photography ## Charts and certifications ### Weekly charts ### Certifications

2015 Critérium du Dauphiné

Cycling race in deutsch

The 2015 Critérium du Dauphiné was the 67th edition of the Critérium du Dauphiné cycling stage race. The eight-stage race in France began in Ugine on 7 June and concluded in Modane Valfréjus on 14 June, and was the sixteenth of the twenty-eight races in the 2015 UCI World Tour season. The Dauphiné was viewed as a preview for July's Tour de France and a number of the contenders for the general classification of the Tour participated in the race. The first leader of the general classification was 's Peter Kennaugh, who won the opening stage. He lost the race lead to rider Rohan Dennis, whose team won stage three's team time trial. His teammate Tejay van Garderen then took over after the race's first mountain stage, stage five. Vincenzo Nibali of the team took the lead after stage six, before van Garderen regained it following stage. Chris Froome (), who was second to van Garderen after the penultimate stage, claimed the race victory with his win on the final stage. Van Garderen finished second overall, ten seconds in arrears, with 's Rui Costa third, a further one minute and six seconds down. In the race's other classifications, Nacer Bouhanni () won the sprinter's points classification. The mountains classification was won by 's Daniel Teklehaimanot, who achieved it by getting in the early breakaways and placing highly over categorised climbs. Simon Yates of won the young rider classification as the best rider born after 1 January 1990. The team classification was won by . ## Teams As the Critérium du Dauphiné was a UCI World Tour event, all seventeen UCI WorldTeams were invited automatically and obligated to send a squad. Four second-tier UCI Professional Continental teams were given wildcard invitations, forming the race's 21-team peloton. The number of riders allowed per squad was eight, therefore the start list contained a total of 168 riders. The teams entering the race were: ## Pre-race favourites Former winners of the general classification named in the start list were 2008 and 2009 winner Alejandro Valverde (), 2013 winner Chris Froome () and 2014 winner Andrew Talansky (). The leading contenders for general classification were two of the four Tour de France favourites, Froome and Vincenzo Nibali (). Both winners of the previous two Tours, they were thought to have planned to use the Dauphiné's likeness to Tour's mountainous route as preparation. The riders considered outsiders included Talansky, Valverde, Joaquim Rodríguez (), Tejay van Garderen (), Rui Costa (), Romain Bardet (), Bauke Mollema () and the winner of the young rider classification in 2014, Wilco Kelderman (). ## Route On 2 April 2015, the organiser of the race, Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), announced the route of the 2015 Critérium du Dauphiné at a presentation in Lyon, France. The eight-stage race in the Dauphiné region of France was held from 7–14 June, and was seen as a preview for the Alpine stages in the Tour de France, which took place the following month. The race opened with a 132-kilometre (82.0-mile) hilly circuit stage around Albertville. Stage two crossed the flat Dombes area west from Le Bourget-du-Lac to Villars-les-Dombes and covered a distance of 173 kilometres (107.5 miles). The third stage was a team time trial, the first since the 1980 edition. The 24.5-kilometre (15.2-mile) route from Roanne to Montagny was described by Stephen Farrand of Cyclingnews.com as rolling and could "seriously influence" the general classification. Stage four, the longest at 228 kilometres (141.7 miles), moved the race south to Sisteron and to the Alps. The fifth stage covered the same distance and course as stage seventeen in the Tour de France. It featured the Col d'Allos mountain pass and ended with a summit finish at the Pra-Loup ski resort. Stage six took the race north, with the 183-kilometre (113.7-mile) route from Saint-Bonnet-en-Champsaur to Villard-de-Lans including six climbs. The penultimate stage was another mountainous stage that featured the Col de la Croix Fry and Col des Aravis climbs before a final accent to Saint-Gervais-les-Bains. The final stage took in the Lacets de Montvernier before moving through the Maurienne valley to the finish at Modane Valfréjus. ## Stages ### Stage 1 7 June 2015 — Ugine to Albertville, 132 km (82.0 mi) The race opened with its shortest race stage, at 132 kilometres (82.0 miles). The route left Ugine and passed the finishing city of Albertville, before a loop that featured the category 4 Côte d'Esserts-Blay, 17 kilometres (10.6 miles) in. On the return to Albertville the riders crossed the finish line for the first time for a 19.5-kilometre (12.1-mile) lap. In this lap were two climbs, the third-category Côte du Villard (442 metres (1,450 feet)) and the fourth-category Côte du Cruet, the highest of the stage at 551 metres (1,808 feet). As the race crossed the finish line for the second time, a shorter 15.5-kilometre (9.6-mile) circuit was undertaken five times, with the primary difference being the exclusion of the Côte du Cruet. In the opening 5 kilometres (3.1 miles), Gert Dockx of was involved in a crash and was forced to abandon the race due to his injuries. After 11 kilometres (6.8 miles), a breakaway was formed by Romain Guillemois (), Björn Thurau (), Daniel Teklehaimanot () and Maarten Wynants (). Their advantage over the peloton increased to over four minutes at the 33-kilometre (20.5-mile) mark, which moved up to a maximum of around seven minutes twenty seconds. Teklehaimanot accrued enough mountains classification points to secure the polka dot jersey with two climbs of the Côte du Villard to go. Wijnants and Guillemois were dropped from the quartet on the penultimate ascent of the Villard, with 28 kilometres (17.4 miles) to go. Thurau attacked Teklehaimanot on the last passing of the Villard, which led to an attack by Daniel Oss () from the chasing peloton. With 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) remaining, four more riders joined Oss and the group caught Thurau in the final 5 kilometres (3.1 miles), with the six-rider group holding a margin of twelve seconds. Peter Kennaugh of attacked from the group with 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) remaining and took the stage victory two seconds ahead of the bunch sprint. Kennaugh's first place gave him a ten-second time bonus in the general classification; he also took the lead of the points classification and Sky topped the team classification. Tiesj Benoot of became the first leader of the young rider classification. ### Stage 2 8 June 2015 — Le Bourget-du-Lac to Villars-les-Dombes, 173 km (107.5 mi) Stage two's 173-kilometre (107.5-mile) course was the flattest of the race. The stage left the start at Le Bourget-du-Lac and within 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) crossed the second-category Col du Chat [fr]. After five smaller climbs, 74 kilometres (46.0 miles) in, the riders then came to the day's highest climb at 1,156 metres (3,793 feet), the first-category Col de Cuvery [fr]. The route then followed a 52-kilometre (32.3-mile) descent that included three uncategorised climbs. The final 44 kilometres (27.3 miles) to the finish in Villars-les-Dombes were flat. The early breakaway was formed by three riders, Perrig Quéméneur (), Arnaud Courteille () and, for the second day running, Daniel Teklehaimanot. Teklehaimanot took the maximum points over the Col du Chat. The trio were under seven minutes ahead of the peloton at the foot of the Col de Cuvery. Teklehaimanot again took the points at the top, where the lead had dropped to over a minute. A crash in the peloton with 21 kilometres (13.0 miles) remaining left a group of riders chasing to the back of the main group, including pre-race favourite Joaquim Rodríguez. The breakaway was caught with 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) remaining. In the final kilometre, the team controlled the front before leading out their sprinter, Edvald Boasson Hagen. His move was made too early and he was overtaken by three other riders, with Nacer Bouhanni () crossing the finish line first. Third-placed Sacha Modolo () took the lead of the points classification, with Bouhanni becoming the best young rider. ### Stage 3 9 June 2015 — Roanne to Montagny, 24.5 km (15.2 mi), team time trial (TTT) The route for the team time trial of stage three from Roanne to Montagny was 24.5 kilometres (15.2 miles) in length. At the 8-kilometre (5.0-mile) mark, a small climb preceded a descent to the intermediate time check at 14 kilometres (8.7 miles). A gradual incline took the stage to its finish. `were the first team to set a time, with 31' 31". They were soon displaced by the third team to start , the team time trial world champions, who set a time of 29' 58". then came in with a four-second deficit to BMC and placed second. were next recording a time of 30' 16", which put them third. 's time of 30' 21" placed them fourth, with fifth taken by , a further five seconds in arrears.` , who placed sixth, lost their lead of the team classification to stage winners BMC. Although BMC's highest placed rider in the general classification was Manuel Quinziato, he was not one of the five riders required to finish; the highest of the five was Rohan Dennis, who became the new leader in both the general and young rider classifications. Second placed overall Tejay van Garderen, who was BMC's general classification leader and a pre-race favourite praised his team's effort and was confident about his chances in the race, saying "I feel good. This was the first big test of the Dauphiné, and going into the mountains I feel ready to put up a good challenge." Nacer Bouhanni moved into the lead of the points classification as Sacha Modolo failed to start. ### Stage 4 10 June 2015 — Anneyron to Sisteron, 228 km (141.7 mi) The fourth stage was the longest of the race at 228 kilometres (141.7 miles). Starting in Anneyron, the route covered rolling terrain until the passing of the third-category Col de Lescou at 93.5 kilometres (58.1 miles). A short descent led to the foot of the fourth-category Col de Pre-Guittard, the stage's highest point. A similarly sized uncategorised climb followed. The long descent featured a number of small rises before the Côte de la Marquise with 12.5 kilometres (7.8 miles) to go. A series of small climbs then took the stage to the flat finish at Sisteron. A breakaway duo consisting of Martijn Keizer () and Tosh Van der Sande () escaped 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) into the stage. Their lead was six minutes and thirty seconds after they had passed the Lescou and Pre-Guittard climbs. At the foot of the Côte de la Marquise, the pair had a one-minute advantage. Van der Sande was dropped on the climb and Keizer led over the summit with margin of twenty seconds. Attacks from the peloton on the descent saw the formation of a group consisting of Cyril Gautier (), Tim Wellens (), Lawson Craddock () and Wilco Kelderman. Wellens attacked and then passed Keizer. Wellens was caught by the peloton in the final 2 kilometres (1.2 miles), before a failed move by a trio consisting of Daniel Oss, Tony Martin () and Bram Tankink (). Tony Gallopin () launched a late attack, but was caught during the bunch sprint that was won by Nacer Bouhanni, his second stage victory of the race. There were no changes to the classifications. ### Stage 5 11 June 2015 — Digne-les-Bains to Pra-Loup, 161 km (100.0 mi) Stage five from Digne-les-Bains to Pra-Loup was the first classified as mountainous and was 161 kilometres (100.0 miles) in length. The first section of the stage was flat, until the passing of the third-category Col des Léques at 40 kilometres (24.9 miles). After a descent and small rise a came another third-category climb, the Col de Toutes Aures. The route then dropped down before a further rising up to the second-category Col de la Colle-Saint-Michel [fr] which topped at 96 kilometres (59.7 miles) in. The descent was followed by the first-category Col d'Allos at 139 kilometres (86.4 miles). The resulting descent, which began with 22 kilometres (13.7 miles) to go, was long and technical. The final climb to the finish at Pra-Loup was 6.2 kilometres (3.9 miles) long and had an average gradient of 6.5%. Mountains classification leader Daniel Teklehaimanot was the first to initiate the early seven-rider breakaway; the other riders were Christophe Riblon (), Tim Wellens, Pieter Serry (), Romain Sicard (), Arnaud Courteille, and Albert Timmer (both ). Courteille claimed the points at the Col des Lèques, with Teklehaimanot second, with the aforementioned first over the Col de Toutes Aures and Col de la Colle-Saint-Michel. set a high pace at the head of the peloton throughout the Col d'Allos, leading to a large number of riders being dropped, including the race leader Rohan Dennis. In the breakaway, an attack by Serry dropped Riblon, Teklehaimanot, and Courteille. Before the summit of the climb, with 24 kilometres (14.9 miles) remaining, the break was caught. As the race reached the summit, Romain Bardet attacked, and the bottom had gained a twenty-second advantage over the front group of around thirty riders, increasing it to one minute at the foot of the Pra-Loup climb. Sky again controlled the head of the chase, with Vincenzo Nibali, Alejandro Valverde and Wilco Kelderman the notable riders distanced. Chris Froome launched an attack in the final 2 kilometres (1.2 miles), with Tejay van Garderen and Beñat Intxausti following. Van Garderen dropped Intxausti and passed Froome to take second place, thirty-six seconds behind stage winner Bardet. The new leaders in the classifications were van Garderen in the general, Bardet in the young riders' and Sky in the team standings. ### Stage 6 12 June 2015 — Saint-Bonnet-en-Champsaur to Villard-de-Lans, 183 km (113.7 mi) The sixth stage from Saint-Bonnet-en-Champsaur to Villard-de-Lans moved the race into the high mountains with six categorised climbs. It was the second longest stage at 183 kilometres (113.7 miles). The opening third of the route crossed hilly terrain that featured two third-category climbs, the Rampe du Motty and the Côte du Barrage de Sautet. The riders traversed the second-category Col de la Croix Haute at the 67.5-kilometre (41.9-mile) mark, before a short descent and a further rise to the third-category Col de Grimone. After a long descent and short rise, the race came to the foot of the first-category Col du Rousset [fr]. At the summit with 51 kilometres (31.7 miles) remaining, the day's highest point (1,254 metres (4,114 feet)), the riders dropped down to the final hills before the summit finish at the third-category climb to Villard-de-Lans. Early in the wet stage, a group of nine riders broke away, only to be pulled back the peloton, with a second group of nineteen also failing. An unsuccessful move from Tony Martin was followed by an attack by Vincenzo Nibali over the Col de Grimone and the formation of an elite five-strong group on descent with Rui Costa, Alejandro Valverde, and Tony Gallopin. This attack reduced the main group of chasers and caused the abandonment of several riders. The advantage of the break was over three minutes as they climbed the Col de Rousset, with Nibali briefly escaping on the subsequent descent. Martin was dropped with 22 kilometres (13.7 miles) remaining, with the advantage at over two minutes. In the chasing main group, Simon Yates () and Dan Martin () moved clear. Gallopin launched an attack from the breakaway with 4.5 kilometres (2.8 miles) to go, with Nibali following at 1.5 kilometres (0.9 miles). Costa was able to pull both back ahead and passed them to take the stage win. Nibali took over the lead of the general classification, with a margin of twenty-nine seconds over Costa. moved into the lead of the team classification. ### Stage 7 13 June 2015 — Montmélian to Saint-Gervais-les-Bains, 155 km (96.3 mi) Stage seven was the queen stage of the race, with five first-category climbs and the third-category Col des Aravis. It was the shortest in length of the three mountain stages. The initial 27.5 kilometres (17.1 miles) were flat apart from one small climb. The riders then began the climb of the Col de Tamié, which was followed by the ascent of Col de la Forclaz. After a descent and a number of small hills, the Col de la Croix Fry was climbed. At the top a small drop and climb over the Col des Aravis took the riders to a descent and a long gradual incline. A further descent and flat section placed the race at the foot of the Côte des Amerand. After a small drop the stage concluded with the climb to Saint-Gervais-les-Bains. Another wet stage saw a breakaway of thirty-five riders move away 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) in, which decreased to twenty-five on the Col de la Croix Fry. On the aforemetenioed climb, reduced the size of the peloton and the advantage of the breakaway. Daniel Teklehaimanot took maximum points over the opening four climbs to secure the mountains classification. The Col des Aravis split the breakaway, and on the descent, an attack out of the eighteen-strong leading group by Daniel Navarro () and Riccardo Zoidl () gained a lead of three minutes. The peloton fractured on the Côte des Amerands, with race leader Vincenzo Nibali being dropped. At the start of the final climb, the leading duo were joined by Jonathan Castroviejo () and Bartosz Huzarski (). Sky set a high pace in pursuit of the leading group, and with 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) to go, Chris Froome attacked, followed by Tejay van Garderen, and they soon passed the leaders. With 1.5 kilometres (0.9 miles) remaining, Froome attacked to win the stage by a margin of seventeen seconds. Van Garderen moved into the lead of the general classification, and although placing second in the stage, he was content, saying "My tactic was just to mark Froome and when he went there was no way I could follow him, but I'm very happy with the yellow jersey." ### Stage 8 14 June 2015 — Saint-Gervais-les-Bains to Modane Valfréjus, 156.5 km (97.2 mi) The final stage of the race left from the location of the previous stage's finish, Saint-Gervais-les-Bains, for a 156.5-kilometre (97.2-mile) route. After the riders climbed a 7.5-kilometre (4.7-mile) rise from the start, they went down a long descent with the second-category Côte d'Héry-sur-Ugine in the middle. The terrain remained flat until the fourth-category Côte d'Aiton, 65.5 kilometres (40.7 miles) in. This was followed by the third-category Côte de Saint-Georges-d'Hurtières. A further flat section placed the riders at the foot of the first-category Lacets de Montvernier. After the subsequent descent began a long gradual incline to the climb of the third-category Côte de Saint-André. A small descent took the race to Modane and the ascent to the summit finish at the Valfréjus ski resort; the length of the climb was 8.4 kilometres (5.2 miles) with an average gradient of 5.7%. Wilco Kelderman's move in the opening 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) initiated a breakaway of thirteen riders. Tony Martin attacked from the break on the Côte de Saint-Georges-d'Hurtières and at the foot of the Lacets de Montvernier he had an advantage of one-and-a-half minutes over them and around four over the peloton. The last of the riders from the break caught Martin on the Côte de Saint-André, where Steve Cummings of attacked this front group. Cummings' lead over the peloton at the foot of the final climb was one minute and twenty seconds. With 5.5 kilometres (3.4 miles) remaining, Vincenzo Nibali moved to the front in support of teammate Michele Scarponi, whose failed attack led to the formation of an elite group of chasers including the general classification leaders. Chris Froome was the only rider to have the support of a teammate, Wout Poels, who rode on the front until Froome attacked as they caught Cummings. At first Tejay van Garderen could follow this move, but he was eventually unable to keep up with Froome and was caught by Simon Yates and Rui Costa. Froome took the stage victory, eighteen seconds ahead of the three behind, and finished the race as the winner of the general classification. ## Classification leadership In the Critérium du Dauphiné, four different jerseys were awarded. The most important was the general classification, which was calculated by adding each rider's finishing times on each stage. The rider with the least accumulated time is the race leader, identified by a yellow jersey with a blue bar; the winner of this classification was considered the winner of the race. Additionally, there was a points classification, which awarded a green jersey. In the classification, cyclists received points for finishing in the top 10 in a stage. For stages, 1, 2 and 4 the win earned 25 points, second place 22, third 20, fourth 18, fifth 16, sixth 14, seventh 12, eighth 10, ninth 8 and tenth 6. For stages 5, 6, 7 and 8 the win earned 15 points, second place 12, third 10, fourth 8, fifth 6, and 1 point fewer per place down to a single point for 10th. Points towards the classification could also be achieved at each of the intermediate sprints; these points were given to the top three riders through the line with 5 points for first, 3 for second, and 1 point for third. There was also a mountains classification, the leadership of which was marked by a red jersey with white polka dots. In the mountains classification, points towards the classification were won by reaching the top of a climb before other cyclists. Each climb was categorised as either first, second, third, or fourth-category, with more points available for the higher-categorised climbs. First-category climbs awarded the most points; the first six riders were able to accrue points, compared with the first four on second-category climbs, the first two on third-category and only the first for fourth-category. The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification, marked by a white jersey. This was decided the same way as the general classification, but only riders born on or after 1 January 1990 were eligible to be ranked in the classification. There was also a team classification, in which the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added together; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest total time. ## Final standings ### General classification ### Points classification ### Mountains classification ### Young rider classification ### Team classification

Siege of Shaizar

Siege of Shaizar, took place from April 28 to May 21, 1138

The siege of Shaizar took place from April 28 to May 21, 1138. The allied forces of the Byzantine Empire, Principality of Antioch and County of Edessa invaded Muslim Syria. Having been repulsed from their main objective, the city of Aleppo, the combined Christian armies took a number of fortified settlements by assault and finally besieged Shaizar, the capital of the Munqidhite Emirate. The siege captured the city, but failed to take the citadel; it resulted in the Emir of Shaizar paying an indemnity and becoming the vassal of the Byzantine emperor. The forces of Zengi, the greatest Muslim prince of the region, skirmished with the allied army but it was too strong for them to risk battle. The campaign underlined the limited nature of Byzantine suzerainty over the northern Crusader states and the lack of common purpose between the Latin princes and the Byzantine emperor. ## Background Freed from immediate external threats in the Balkans or in Anatolia, having defeated the Hungarians in 1129, and having forced the Anatolian Turks on the defensive by a series of campaigns from 1130 to 1135, the Byzantine emperor John II Komnenos (r. 1118–1143) could direct his attention to the Levant, where he sought to reinforce Byzantium's claims to suzerainty over the Crusader States and to assert his rights and authority over Antioch. These rights dated back to the Treaty of Devol of 1108, though Byzantium had not been in a position to enforce them. The necessary preparation for a descent on Antioch was the recovery of Byzantine control over Cilicia. In 1137, the emperor conquered Tarsus, Adana, and Mopsuestia from the Principality of Armenian Cilicia, and in 1138 Prince Levon I of Armenia and most of his family were brought as captives to Constantinople. Control of Cilicia opened the route to the Principality of Antioch for the Byzantines. Faced with the approach of the formidable Byzantine army, Raymond of Poitiers, prince of Antioch, and Joscelin II, count of Edessa, hastened to acknowledge the Emperor's overlordship. John demanded the unconditional surrender of Antioch and, after asking the permission of Fulk, King of Jerusalem, Raymond of Poitiers agreed to surrender the city to John. The agreement, by which Raymond swore homage to John, was explicitly based on the Treaty of Devol, but went beyond it. Raymond, who was recognized as an imperial vassal for Antioch, promised the Emperor free entry to Antioch, and undertook to hand over the city in return for the cities of Aleppo, Shaizar, Homs, and Hama as soon as these were conquered from the Muslims. Raymond would then rule the new conquests and Antioch would revert to direct imperial control. ## Campaign In February, all merchants and travellers from Aleppo and other Muslim towns were arrested to prevent them from reporting on the developing military preparations. In March, the imperial army, accompanied by a substantial siege train, crossed from Cilicia to Antioch and the contingents from Antioch and Edessa, plus a company of Templars, joined up with it. They crossed into enemy territory and occupied Balat. On April 3 they arrived at Biza'a which held out for five days. A large amount of booty was plundered from the town, which was sent back to Antioch, though the convoy was attacked by a Muslim force and plundered in its turn. It had been hoped that Aleppo could be surprised. However, the most powerful Muslim leader in Syria, Zengi, was besieging nearby Hama, which was held by a Damascene garrison. He had enough warning of the Emperor's operations to quickly reinforce Aleppo. On April 20, the Christian army launched an attack on the city but found it too strongly defended. Kinnamos reports that a lack of water the vicinity of Aleppo was the reason for it not being besieged in earnest. The Emperor then moved the army southward taking the fortresses of Athareb, Maarat al-Numan, and Kafartab by assault, with the ultimate goal of capturing the city of Shaizar. It is probable that Shaizar was chosen because it was an independent Arab emirate, held by the Munqidhite dynasty, and therefore it might not be regarded by Zengi as important enough for him to come to its aid; also possession of Shaizar would have opened the city of Hama to attack. ## Siege The Crusader princes were suspicious of each other and of John, and none wanted the others to gain from participating in the campaign. Raymond also wanted to hold on to Antioch, which was a Christian city; the attraction of lordship over a city like Shaizar or Aleppo, with a largely Muslim population and more exposed to Zengid attack, must have been slight. With the lukewarm interest his allies had in the prosecution of the siege, the Emperor was soon left with little active help from them. Following some initial skirmishes, John II organised his army into three divisions based on the nationalities of his soldiery: Macedonians (native Byzantines); 'Kelts' (meaning Normans and other Franks); and Pechenegs (Turkic steppe nomads). Each division was equipped with its characteristic arms and equipment, and was paraded before the city in order to overawe the defenders. Although John fought hard for the Christian cause during the campaign in Syria, his allies Raymond of Poitiers and Joscelin of Edessa remained in their camp playing dice and feasting instead of helping to press the siege. Due to their example, the morale of their troops was undermined. The Emperor's reproaches could only goad the two princes into perfunctory and fitful action. Latin and Muslim sources describe John's energy and personal courage in prosecuting the siege. Conspicuous in his golden helmet, John was active in encouraging his troops, supervising the siege engines and consoling the wounded. The walls of Shaizar were battered by the trebuchets of the impressive Byzantine siege train. The Emir's nephew, the poet, writer and diplomat Usama ibn Munqidh, recorded the devastation wreaked by the Byzantine artillery, which could smash a whole house with a single missile. The city was taken, but the citadel, protected by its cliffs and the courage of its defenders, defied assault. Tardily, Zengi had assembled a relief army and it moved towards Shaizar. The relief army was smaller than the Christian army but John was reluctant to leave his siege engines in order to march out to meet it, and he did not trust his allies. At this point, Sultan ibn Munqidh, the Emir of Shaizar, offered to become John's vassal, pay a large indemnity and pay yearly tribute. Also offered was a table studded with jewels and an impressive carved cross said to have been made for Constantine the Great, which had been captured from Romanos IV Diogenes by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert. John, disgusted by the behaviour of his allies, reluctantly accepted the offer. On 21 May, the siege was raised. ## Aftermath Zengi's troops skirmished with the retreating Christians, but did not dare to actively impede the army's march. Returning to Antioch, John made a ceremonial entry into the city. However, Raymond and Joscelin conspired to delay the promised handover of Antioch's citadel to the Emperor, and stirred up popular unrest in the city directed at John and the local Greek community. Having heard of a raid by the Anatolian Seljuks on Cilicia, and having been besieged in the palace by the Antiochene mob, John abandoned his demand for control of the citadel. He insisted, however, on a renewal of Raymond and Jocelyn's oaths of fealty. John told them that he would return with his army to implement his treaties with them. He then left Antioch intending to punish the Seljuk sultan Mas'ud (r. 1116–1156) and subsequently to return to Constantinople. John had little choice but to leave Syria with his ambitions only partially realised. The events of the campaign underlined that the suzerainty the Byzantine emperor claimed over the Crusader states, for all the prestige it offered, had limited practical advantages. The Latins enjoyed the security that a distant imperial connection gave them when they were threatened by the Muslim powers of Syria. However, when Byzantine military might was directly manifested in the region, their own self-interest and continued political independence was of greater importance to them than any possible advantage that might be gained for the Christian cause in the Levant by co-operation with the Emperor. According to Niketas Choniates's early 13th-century history, John II returned to Syria in 1142 intending to forcibly take Antioch and impose direct Byzantine rule, expecting the local Syrian and Armenian Christian population to defect in support of this campaign. His death in spring of 1143, the result of a hunting accident, intervened before he could achieve this goal. His son and successor, Manuel I (r. 1143–1180), took his father's army back to Constantinople to secure his authority, and the opportunity for the Byzantines to conquer Antioch outright was lost. In the opinion of Michael Angold, the sudden death of John was most opportune for the Latin princes, as they would have had great difficulty in continuing to resist him. ## See also - Komnenian Byzantine army

Aaron Eckhart

American actor

Aaron Edward Eckhart (born March 12, 1968) is an American actor. Born in Cupertino, California, Eckhart moved to the United Kingdom at an early age. He began his acting career by performing in school plays, before moving to Australia for his high school senior year. He left high school without graduating, but earned a diploma through a professional education course, and then graduated from Brigham Young University (BYU) in Utah, U.S., in 1994 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in film. As an undergraduate at BYU, Eckhart met director and writer Neil LaBute, who cast Eckhart in several of LaBute's original plays. Five years later Eckhart made a debut as an unctuous, sociopathic womanizer in LaBute's black comedy film In the Company of Men (1997), followed by appearances in three more of the director's films. Eckhart gained wide recognition as George in Erin Brockovich (2000), and, in 2006, he received a Golden Globe nomination for his portrayal of Nick Naylor in Thank You for Smoking. In 2008 he played a major role in Christopher Nolan's blockbuster Batman film The Dark Knight as District Attorney Harvey Dent / Two-Face. He went on to appear in Love Happens, Battle: Los Angeles, The Rum Diary, Olympus Has Fallen and its sequel, and Midway. ## Early life Eckhart was born on March 12, 1968 in Cupertino, California, the son of Mary Martha Lawrence, a writer, artist, and poet, and James Conrad Eckhart, a computer executive. He is the youngest of three brothers. His father is of German-Russian descent, while his mother has English, German, Scots-Irish, and Scottish ancestry. He was raised as a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and served a two-year mission in France and Switzerland. Eckhart's family relocated to the United Kingdom in 1981, following his father's job in information technology. During their time in the United Kingdom, the family moved around Surrey, England, living in towns such as Cobham, Ripley, and Walton-on-Thames. Eckhart attended American Community School, where he was first introduced to acting, starring in a school production as Charlie Brown. In 1985, Eckhart moved to Australia and settled in Sydney, where he attended American International School of Sydney for his high school senior year; he further developed his acting skills in productions like Waiting for Godot, where he admits that he gave a "terrible" performance. In the autumn of his senior year, Eckhart left school to take a job at the Warringah Mall movie theater. He eventually earned his diploma through a professional education course. This also allowed Eckhart time to enjoy a year of surfing in Hawaii and France, as well as skiing in the Alps. In 1988, Eckhart returned to the United States and enrolled as a film major at Brigham Young University–Hawaii, but later transferred to Brigham Young University (BYU) in Provo, Utah. He graduated in 1994 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. He also studied acting at the William Esper Studio. ## Career ### Early work While at Brigham Young University, Eckhart appeared in the Mormon-themed film Godly Sorrow, and the role marked his professional debut. At this time he met director/writer Neil LaBute, who cast Eckhart in several of LaBute's original plays. After graduating from BYU, Eckhart moved to New York City, acquired an agent, and took various occasional jobs, including bartending, bus driving, and construction work. His first television roles were in commercials. In 1994, he appeared as an extra on the television drama series Beverly Hills, 90210. Eckhart followed this small part with roles in documentary re-enactments (Ancient Secrets of the Bible: Samson), made-for-television movies, and short-lived programs like Aliens in the Family. In 1997, Eckhart was approached by Neil LaBute to star in a film adaptation of LaBute's stage play In the Company of Men. He played a frustrated white-collar worker who planned to woo a deaf office worker, gain her affections, then suddenly dump her. The film, his first feature to reach theaters, was critically well received, with Desson Howe of The Washington Post reporting that Eckhart is the "movie's most malignant presence" and that he "is in chilling command as a sort of satanic prince in shirtsleeves". In the Company of Men was a critical success, winning Best First Film for LaBute at the 63rd annual New York Film Critics Circle Awards. His performance won him the Independent Spirit Award in the category of Best Debut Performance. The film was ranked as one of "The 25 Most Dangerous Movies" by Premiere magazine. The following year Eckhart starred in another LaBute feature, Your Friends & Neighbors (1998), as Barry, a sexually frustrated husband in a dysfunctional marriage. For the role Eckhart was required to gain weight. In 1999, he starred opposite Elisabeth Shue in Molly, a romantic comedy-drama in which he played the self-absorbed brother of an autistic woman who was cured by surgery. Eckhart also starred that year as a football coach, an offensive coordinator in Oliver Stone's Any Given Sunday. ### Critical success Eckhart first gained wide exposure in 2000 as George, a ponytailed, goateed biker, in Steven Soderbergh's drama Erin Brockovich. The film was met with reasonable reviews, and was a box office success, earning \$256 million worldwide. His performance was well received by critics; Entertainment Weekly's Owen Gleiberman wrote that Eckhart "may be playing a bit of an ideal [...] but he makes goodness as palpable as he did yuppie evil in 'In the Company of Men'." In an August 2004 interview, Eckhart claimed that he had not worked for nearly a year before he was cast in the movie. "I felt like I sort of was getting away from what I wanted to do as an actor. [...] I had nine months off, but it wasn't a vacation. Sure, I didn't earn any money for nine months, but every day I was reading scripts, I was producing my own material, I was taking meetings, I was working on my craft." Following the release of Erin Brockovich, Eckhart co-starred with Renée Zellweger in LaBute's Nurse Betty (2000). He next appeared in Sean Penn's mystery feature The Pledge (2001), in which he played a young detective partnered with a veteran detective, played by Jack Nicholson. The movie received generally favorable reviews, but it did not fare particularly well at the box office. The following year, he collaborated with LaBute in a film adaptation of the Man Booker Prize-winning novel Possession (2002). In 2003, Eckhart co-starred with Hilary Swank in The Core, a film about a geophysicist who tries to detonate a nuclear device in order to save the world from destruction. The film was critically and financially unsuccessful. Also in 2003, he appeared in The Missing, in which he played Cate Blanchett's lover, and in the action-thriller Paycheck opposite Ben Affleck. Paycheck, based on a short story by science fiction writer Philip K. Dick, garnered generally negative reception. Film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two stars (out of four), saying that he "enjoyed the movie" but felt that it "exploits [Dick's story] for its action and plot potential, but never really develops it." The following year, away from film, Eckhart guest starred in two episodes of NBC's comedy sitcom Frasier, where he played a boyfriend of Charlotte, Dr. Frasier Crane's love interest. His next film role was in E. Elias Merhige's thriller Suspect Zero, a movie about an FBI agent who tracks down a killer who murders serial killers. Upon release, the movie received broadly negative reviews. Despite the reception, Eckhart's performance was favored by critics; Newsday wrote that Eckhart was a "classically handsome leading man ... but Merhige demands of him complexity and anguish." Suspect Zero was a box office disappointment, earning \$11 million worldwide. Also in 2004, Eckhart starred on the London stage, opposite Julia Stiles, in David Mamet's Oleanna at the Garrick Theatre. The drama ran until mid-2004. For this performance, Eckhart received favorable critical reviews. In 2005, returning to film, Eckhart appeared in Neverwas as a therapist who takes a job at a rundown mental hospital that once treated his father (Nick Nolte). The feature was never given a full theatrical release, eventually being released straight to DVD in 2007. ### Worldwide recognition Eckhart's next project was Thank You for Smoking, in which he played Nick Naylor, a tobacco lobbyist whose firm researched the link between smoking cigarettes and lung cancer. Eckhart said that he felt challenged playing the role: "You have to say these words that are crazy, and yet do it with a smile on your face and have the audience like you. At one point, I'm doing a talk show with a kid who's dying of cancer, and he's going through chemotherapy and the whole thing, and I spin it so the anti-smoking people are the bad guys and I'm the good guy, and I'm this guy's best friend. I mean, it's whacked out." The film was screened at a special presentation at the 30th annual Toronto International Film Festival in 2005. It had a limited release in March 2006 and was released worldwide the following month. For his performance, Eckhart received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. A contributor of USA Today wrote that he gave a "standout, whip-smart performance" citing that as Nick Naylor he kept him "likable even in his cynicism." In the Seattle Post-Intelligencer review of the film, it was reported that "Under his chummy but compassionless smile" Eckhart radiated charm and "Naylor's true joys: manipulating arguments, steering debate, cooking words." In this same year, he starred with Helena Bonham Carter in Conversations with Other Women (2006). While promoting this film, Eckhart revealed that he wishes not to be typecast or repeat himself, saying he does not want to play any more villains. He appeared in the 2006 film noir The Black Dahlia—based on a real 1947 crime—as Sergeant Leland "Lee" Blanchard, a detective investigating the murder of Elizabeth Short, later dubbed the "Black Dahlia". The film premiered at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival. Reception for the movie was mixed, but many critics enjoyed Eckhart's performance; Time Out magazine praised Eckhart and co-star Hilary Swank for their performances, writing "...both [are] great in their secondary roles." Internationally viewed as a sex symbol, he was named one of People magazine's 100 Most Beautiful People in 2006. The following year, Eckhart was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. He starred in No Reservations (2007), a remake of the 2001 German romantic comedy Mostly Martha. He starred opposite Catherine Zeta-Jones as an up-and-coming hotshot chef. The film was met with mixed reviews and was unfavorably compared to the original film. Eckhart starred in the 2008 comedy Meet Bill, in which he played the eponymous character, a sad executive working at his father-in-law's bank. He gained 30 pounds and donned a fat suit for the role. Also in 2008, Eckhart portrayed the comic book character Harvey Dent in Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight, the sequel to the 2005 film Batman Begins. Nolan's decision to cast Eckhart was based on his portrayal of corrupt characters in the films In the Company of Men, The Black Dahlia, and Thank You For Smoking. He noted in his depiction of the character that "[he] is still true to himself. He's a crime fighter, he's not killing good people. He's not a bad guy, not purely", while admitting "I'm interested in good guys gone wrong." The Dark Knight was a big financial and critical success, setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America. With revenue of \$1 billion worldwide, it became the fourth highest-grossing film of all time, and the highest-grossing film of Eckhart's career. Roger Ebert opined that Eckhart did an "especially good job" as his character in the feature, while Premiere magazine also enjoyed his performance, noting that he "makes you believe in his ill-fated ambition ... of morphing into the conniving Two-Face." Following the success of The Dark Knight, Eckhart next appeared in Alan Ball's Towelhead (2008), an adaption of the Alicia Erian novel of the same name, in which he played a Gulf War Army reservist who sexually abuses his 13-year-old Arab-American neighbor. The film was screened under the name Nothing is Private at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival. When he was first approached for the role, Eckhart revealed that he did not want to play a "pedophile". When asked about the sex scenes, Eckhart said: "Those were difficult times .... The way I did it was to really trust Alan. It was in the words. I really trusted Summer [Bishil], and I tried to get her to trust me, to build a relationship when we were doing physical scenes. We'd really rehearse them mechanically, and I'd say, 'OK, I'm going to put my hand here, I'm going to do this.' ... I think I found it more difficult." Towelhead was critically and financially unsuccessful. He next co-starred with Jennifer Aniston in the romantic drama Love Happens, released in September 2009, as a motivational speaker coming to terms with his own grief. The movie received ambivalent reviews, with a contributor of the Orlando Sentinel reporting that Eckhart plays "broken" for the whole movie. The following year he starred alongside Nicole Kidman in Rabbit Hole (2010), an adaption of David Lindsay-Abaire's 2005 drama of the same name. The feature premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival. In 2011, Eckhart starred in Jonathan Liebesman's science fiction film Battle: Los Angeles, in which he portrayed a combat veteran Marine platoon sergeant. The film was set in modern-day Los Angeles during a global alien invasion, and followed a platoon of U.S. Marines who are joined by an Air Force special operations sergeant and some Army infantry soldiers in combat operations against the alien enemy. He appeared alongside Johnny Depp, Richard Jenkins, and Amber Heard in Hunter S. Thompson's novel adaptation The Rum Diary, directed by Bruce Robinson. In the film, Eckhart played Sanderson, a wealthy landowner, who believes everything has a price and introduces Paul Kemp (Depp) to a different standard of living. He starred as a U.S. President who is taken hostage, in the 2013 action thriller Olympus Has Fallen, opposite Gerard Butler, and reprised the role in its 2016 sequel London Has Fallen. In 2019 he starred in Roland Emmerich’s blockbuster movie Midway, which also starred Ed Skrein, Patrick Wilson, Dennis Quaid and Woody Harrelson. ## Personal life Eckhart met actress Emily Cline during the filming of In the Company of Men and they became engaged, but they separated in 1998. He has always been reluctant to speak about his relationships in interviews. Eckhart dated songwriter and member of SHeDAISY Kristyn Osborn from 2006 to 2007. He appeared in the group's video for their song "I'm Taking the Wheel". Eckhart has noted that hypnosis helped him to quit drinking, smoking, and partying, and that he undertakes amateur photography in his spare time. ## Filmography ### Film ### Television

Territorial era of Minnesota

Period in Minnesota history, 1803–1858

The territorial era of Minnesota lasted from the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 to Minnesota's achieving statehood in 1858. The Minnesota Territory itself was formed only in 1849 but the area had a rich history well before this. Though there was a long history of European presence in the area before 19th century, it was during the 19th century that the United States began to establish a firm presence in what would become Minnesota. Many of the facets of Minnesota culture that are perceived as the area's early history in fact originated after this period. Notably, the heavy Scandinavian immigration for which the state is known, and the pioneering days chronicled by author Laura Ingalls Wilder occurred after statehood in the later 19th century. Unlike these later years, the first half of the 19th century was characterized by sparsely populated communities, harsh living conditions, and to some degree, lawlessness. This era was a period of economic transition. The dominant enterprise in the area since the 17th century had been the fur trade. The Dakota Sioux, and later the Ojibwe, tribes hunted and gathered pelts trading with French, British, and later American traders at Grand Portage, Mendota, and other sites. This trade gradually declined during the early 19th century as demand for furs in Europe diminished. The lumber industry grew rapidly, replacing furs as the key economic resource. Grain production began to develop late during this time as an emerging economic basis as well. Saw mills, and later grain mills, around Fort Snelling and Saint Anthony Falls in east-central Minnesota became magnets for development. By the end of the era east-central Minnesota had replaced northern Minnesota as the economic center of the area. This era was also as a period of cultural transition. At the time the U.S. took possession of the region, Native Americans were by far the largest ethnic groups. Their role in the fur trade gave them a steady stream of income and significant political influence even as the French, British, and Americans asserted territorial claims on the area. French and British traders had mixed with native society in the area for many decades peacefully contributing to the society and creating new ethnic groups consisting of mixed-race peoples. As the Americans established outposts in the area and the fur trade declined, the dynamics changed dramatically. The economic influence of the Native Americans diminished and American territorial ideology increasingly sought to limit their influence. Large waves of immigration in the 1850s very suddenly changed the demographics so that within a few years the population shifted from predominantly native to predominantly people of European descent. The native and mixed-race populations continued to influence the territory's culture and politics, even at the end of the territorial era, though by the time statehood was achieved that influence was in steep decline. Heavy immigration from New England and New York led to Minnesota's being labeled the "New England of the West". ## Background During the 17th century a Native American tribe known as the Ojibwe, or Chippewa, reached Minnesota as part of a westward migration. Having come from a region around Maine, they were experienced at dealing with European traders. Tensions rose between the Ojibwe and the Santee, or Eastern Dakota, Sioux, who were dominant in the area, during the ensuing years. French exploration in Minnesota is known to have begun in the 17th century with explorers like Radisson, Groseilliers, and Le Sueur. After France signed a treaty with a number of tribes to allow trade in the area, French settlements began to appear. Trader Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut explored the western area of Lake Superior helping to advance trade and leading to the establishment of Fond du Lac (part of modern Duluth, which was named after du Lhut). Roman Catholic priest Louis Hennepin, captured by the Sioux in 1680 while exploring North America with famed explorer La Salle, discovered and named Saint Anthony Falls. The next account of an expedition into Minnesota's interior was that of Captain Jonathan Carver of Connecticut who reached Saint Anthony Falls in 1766. In the later 18th century trader Peter Pond explored the Minnesota River valley noting significant European settlement in the region in addition to the natives. Explorers searching for the fabled Northwest Passage and large inland seas in North America continued to pass through this region. Fort Beauharnois was built by the French in 1721 on Lake Pepin to facilitate exploration. In the 17th century a lucrative trade developed between Native Americans who trapped animals near the Great Lakes and traders who shipped the animal furs to Europe. For two centuries this trade network was the prime economic driver in the area. A notable result of this trade network was the Métis people, a mixed-race community descended from Native Americans and French traders, as well as other mixed-race peoples. In particular during the latter 18th century numerous French and English traders in the Minnesota region purchased Sioux wives in order to establish kinship relationships with the Sioux so as to secure their supply of furs from the tribes. The British Hudson's Bay Company was formed in 1670 to capitalize on the Native American fur trade near Hudson Bay. The company came to dominate the North American trade in the 18th century. The North West Company of Montreal was formed in 1779 to compete with Hudson's Bay Company establishing their western headquarters and key exchange point at Grand Portage in what is now Minnesota. Grand Portage, with its two wharves and numerous warehouses, became one of Britain's four main fur trading posts, along with Niagara, Detroit, and Michilimackinac. British ships crossed Lake Superior regularly transporting supplies to the region and bringing back valuable furs. Even after Grand Portage became property of the U.S. in 1783 the British operations, such as North West Company and the XY Company, continued to operate in the area for some time. Though the various parts of what is now Minnesota were claimed at different times by Spain, France, and Britain, none of these nations made significant efforts to establish major settlements in the area. Instead the French and the British established mostly trading posts and utilized the natives in the area as suppliers. All of the land east of the Mississippi River was granted to the United States by the Second Treaty of Paris at the end of the American Revolution in 1783. This included what would become modern day Saint Paul but only part of Minneapolis, including the northeast, north-central and east-central portions of the state. The wording of the treaty in the Minnesota area depended on landmarks reported by fur traders, who erroneously reported an "Isle Phelipeaux" in Lake Superior, a "Long Lake" west of the island, and the belief that the Mississippi River ran well into modern Canada. Much of this region was claimed by other states who subsequently ceded these to the federal government. Most of the remaining areas of what is now the state were purchased in 1803 from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase (the area west of the Mississippi having been recently acquired by France from Spain). Parts of northern Minnesota were considered to be in Rupert's Land, a large territory owned by Hudson's Bay Company. The exact definition of the boundary between Minnesota and British North America was not addressed until the Anglo-American Convention of 1818. Until 1818 the entire Red River Valley in what is today southeastern Manitoba and northwestern Minnesota was considered British and was subject to several colonization schemes by the Hudson's Bay Company, particularly the Red River Colony (also known as the Selkirk Settlement) established in 1811. The valley had, in fact, been occupied by Métis since the middle of the 17th century. The Red River Colony, established to supply the British fur trade, was fraught with problems from the beginning but became important in the Minnesota area's early fur trade as well as supplying many early settlers to the region. ## Pioneers and exploration At the beginning of the 19th century many parts of the Minnesota area were already well traveled by British and French explorers. Though the region's population was mostly Native American, there were important British trading posts in the area with many European and mixed-race settlers, particularly in the north. Grand Portage, in particular, had long been established as the major trading center for the North West Company of Montreal. David Thompson, a British fur trader for the North West Company, completed numerous surveys and maps of the North American frontier. In 1797 he completed the first known map of the Minnesota area, in what was then the Northwest Territory. The Jay Treaty, however, obliged most of the British settlers to withdraw their settlements in 1796, though mixed-race peoples remained. In 1805 U.S. Lieutenant Zebulon Pike was sent by General Wilkinson, governor of the Louisiana Territory, to enforce U.S. sovereignty against British traders in the area and establish diplomatic and trading relationships with the native tribes. He met with the Sioux leadership in central Minnesota to secure rights for the U.S. to an area near Saint Anthony Falls, which would later become the city of Saint Paul. Though a treaty was signed by some leaders from the Sioux tribes, its legitimacy (including whether the Sioux understood it) was dubious and ultimately his efforts did little to establish the authority of the U.S. in the area. In 1817 Major Stephen H. Long of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers led a waterborne expedition from Prairie du Chien to reach Saint Anthony Falls. He documented much of the terrain today occupied by Minneapolis and Saint Paul as well as the Native American villages that existed there at the time. In 1818 the 49th parallel was established as the boundary between the United States and British North America. However, the point where the Red River crossed this line was not marked until 1823, when Stephen Long conducted a survey expedition. The expedition determined, among other things, that the fur trading post of Pembina lay just inside the U.S. border. Several efforts were made to determine the source of the Mississippi River. In 1823 Italian explorer Giacomo Constantino Beltrami who had split from the Long expedition in Pembina, found Lake Julia which he believed was the source of the Mississippi River. The actual source was found in 1832, when Henry Schoolcraft was guided by a group of Ojibwe headed by Ozaawindib ("Yellow Head") to a lake in northern Minnesota. Schoolcraft named it Lake Itasca, combining the Latin words veritas ("truth") and caput ("head"). In 1835 George William Featherstonhaugh conducted a geological survey of the Minnesota River valley and wrote an account entitled A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor. Joseph Nicollet scouted the area in the late 1830s accompanied by John C. Frémont, exploring and mapping the Upper Mississippi River basin, the Saint Croix River, and the land between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. ## Forts An important facet of the British and American frontier was a system of forts built by the military. The forts provided safe shelter for soldiers and explorers on the frontier and a base of operations for expeditions, both military and commercial. The first forts in the area had been French, particularly Fort Beauharnois, built during the 18th century and later abandoned because of the French and Indian War with the British. British Fort Charlotte at Grand Portage became essential to the fur trade protecting and supplying British traders as well as the area natives. This British fort operated in the area (illegally) until 1803, even after the area's becoming recognized as part of the United States. Other French and British fortifications, such as Fort St. Charles, had existed in the region but had been abandoned much earlier. In 1814 the U.S. government built Fort Shelby, later rebuilt as Fort Crawford, near modern Minnesota in what is now Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. Fort Crawford would play a significant role in U.S. involvement in Minnesota, particularly as the site of the First Treaty of Prairie du Chien. The first major U.S. military presence inside the boundaries of modern Minnesota was Fort Saint Anthony, later renamed Fort Snelling (after the fort's commander Josiah Snelling). The land for the fort, at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, had been acquired in 1805 by legendary explorer Zebulon Pike. When concerns mounted about the fur trade in the area, construction of the fort began in 1819 and was completed in 1825. One of the missions of the fort was to mediate disputes between the Ojibwe and the Dakota tribes. Lawrence Taliaferro, an agent of the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs who became an important figure in these mediations, spent 20 years at the fort, finally resigning in 1839. Fort Ripley was built in 1848–1849 in central Minnesota near modern Little Falls. It was built to provide a military presence on the frontier near the new Winnebago reservation created as the tribe was moved from Iowa. In addition it helped to serve as a buffer between the Dakota Sioux and the Ojibwe. Fort Ridgely was built in 1853–1854 near the Dakota reservation in southwestern Minnesota, near modern New Ulm. It was named by U.S. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis in honor of three army officers named Ridgely who had died in the Mexican–American War. The fort was created to watch over the Minnesota River Valley, in addition to the larger frontier. It replaced Fort Dodge in Iowa, which was decommissioned during the same period. The fort operated as a military post until 1867. Fort Abercrombie was built in 1858 on the Red River at what is now the border between Minnesota and North Dakota near modern McCauleyville. The fort had to be moved soon afterward because of flooding problems. It was created to spur settlement of the Red River Valley, protect steamboat traffic on the river, and protect wagon trains travelling to Montana. In addition to these military bases, private companies operated numerous trading posts in the region that were often referred to as "forts", though they typically had little in the way of defensive fortifications. ## Native Americans {\| class="wikitable" style="float:right;font-size:80%; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;" border="1" \|+ Native American populations (1849–1853) ! Group !! Sub-group !! Population (year) \|- \| colspan=3 \| Ojibwe \|- \| \|\| Lake Superior \|\| align=right \| 500 (1850) \|- \| \|\| Saint Croix \|\| align=right \| 800 (1850) \|- \| \|\| Mississippi \|\| align=right \| 1,100 (1850) \|- \| \|\| Pillagers \|\| align=right \| 1,050 (1850) \|- \| \|\| Northern/Red Lake \|\| align=right \| 1,200 (1850) \|- \| \|\| Bois Forts \|\| align=right \| 800 (1850) \|- \| colspan=3 \| Dakota Sioux \|- \| \|\| Mdewakanton \|\| align=right \| 2,200 (1849) \|- \| \|\| Wahpekute \|\| align=right \| 800 (1849) \|- \| \|\| Wahpetonwan \|\| align=right \| 1,500 (1849) \|- \| \|\| Sisseton \|\| align=right \| 3,800 (1849) \|- \| \|\| Yankton \|\| align=right \| 3,200 (1849) \|- \| \|\| Yanktonai \|\| align=right \| 4,000 (1849) \|- \| \|\| Teton \|\| align=right \| 6,000 (1849) \|- \| colspan=3 \| Others \|- \| \|\| Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) \|\| align=right \| 2,500 (1849) \|- \| \|\| Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara \|\| align=right \| 2,253 (1853) The two main Native American tribal groups that dominated Minnesota at the time the lands were acquired by the United States were the more established Dakota Sioux, and the Ojibwe who had migrated into the area more recently. The two groups fought bitter territorial wars during the 18th century. In the mid-18th century the Battle of Kathio, in which the Ojibwe defeated the Sioux, permanently established northeastern Minnesota, particularly Mille Lacs Lake, as Ojibwe territory relegating the Sioux to southern and western Minnesota. Skirmishes between the groups continued in the 19th century including a battle near Lac Traverse in 1818, a battle near Stillwater in 1839 (the site became known as "Battle Hollow"), and another on the Yellow Medicine River in 1854. During the War of 1812 most of the Dakota and Ojibwe sided with the British though at various times some aided the Americans or took the opportunity to attack enemy tribes (a notable American loyalist was the Dakota chief Tamaha, or "Rising Moose," an admirer of Pike, who joined the U.S. army at Saint Louis). Though Grand Portage was the only part of Minnesota that saw significant conflict during the war, natives throughout the region were recruited to fight further east in areas such as Green Bay. In particular the half-Dakota British captain Joseph Renville heavily recruited among the Mdewakanton branch of the Dakota Sioux including chiefs Little Crow and Wapasha. From 1815 to 1821 employees of the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company engaged in various territorial conflicts known as the "fur trade wars," including the famous Battle of Seven Oaks at what is now Winnipeg, Manitoba. As a result of these conflicts numerous Métis migrated from the Red River area to central and eastern Minnesota, particularly in the vicinity of Saint Paul. This "Red River Exodus" became a major source of francophone immigration into Minnesota during the territorial era. The Métis and other mixed-race groups were often regarded as French Canadian "whites" rather than "Indians". By the 1820s, animal resources were in decline in the area leading to increased competition among the tribes for game and for furs to sell. Collusion among the fur trading companies led to a dramatic drop in fur prices during the late 1820s causing impoverishment for many Sioux hunters. The U.S. government strongly encouraged the tribes to turn from hunting to farming, trading the woodlands for the plains. Increasing territorial conflict between the Sioux and the Ojibwe on the western frontier, particularly along the Mississippi river, led the U.S. government to attempt to mediate the conflicts. President Andrew Jackson's policy toward the tribes ultimately was to either pacify them sufficiently to allow westward expansion of American settlers, or else remove the tribes from the areas in which they prevented settlement. The First Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1825), among its provisions established southern Minnesota as well as much of modern North and South Dakota as the homeland of the Dakota Sioux. The Ojibwe were given northern Minnesota and much of Wisconsin. The U.S. government, though, failed to enforce the treaty agreements leading to Little Crow's pronouncement to Indian agent Taliaferro in 1829: "We made peace to please you, but if we are badly off we must blame you for causing us to give up so much of our lands to our enemies." Following an 1846 treaty, the Winnebago tribes of Iowa were relocated to the Long Prairie reservation in central Minnesota in the late 1840s establishing an important presence in the territory. Because of the poor land in the new reservation the tribe subsequently negotiated a treaty in 1856 allowing them to relocate further south to Blue Earth but ceding substantial land in the process. All of the native tribes experienced gradual disillusionment with the U.S. government because of its inability or unwillingness to honor its treaty commitments. The major leaders among the tribes were Wabasha and Little Crow among the Dakota Sioux, Flat Mouth and Hole-in-the-Day among the Ojibwe, and Winneshiek among the Winnebago. The success of treaty negotiations between the U.S. and the tribes was in great part facilitated by the mixed race families such as the Faribaults and the Renvilles. The Treaty of Traverse des Sioux in 1851 gave all of the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux (upper Sioux) lands west of the Mississippi River to the U.S. government. The Treaty of Mendota that same year ceded the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute Sioux (lower Sioux) lands in southern Minnesota, requiring relocation to an area near modern Morton. Both treaties, however, were amended to during the ratification process to eliminate the explicit guarantees of lands retained by the tribes. Additionally much of the promised payments was never delivered, in part because of alleged debts owed by the Sioux to the fur traders. {\| class="wikitable" style="float:right;font-size:80%; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;" border="1" \|+ Native American Population by Year ! Year !! Dakota Sioux !! Ojibwe \|- \| 1805 \|\| align=right \| 10,165 \|\| \|- \| 1834 \|\| align=right \| 8080 \|\| \|- \| 1836 \|\| align=right \| 5639 \|\| \|- \| 1839 \|\| align=right \| 5389 \|\| \|- \| 1843 \|\| \|\| align=right \| 4812 \|- \| 1866 \|\| \|\| align=right \| 7566 Despite American hunger for land, the leadership in the Minnesota Territory did not actually want to remove the Sioux from the territory. Federal subsidies to the tribes were heavily siphoned by the U.S. settlements and removal of the tribes from the territory would have meant loss of this income. Increasing impoverishment among the Sioux and continued treaty violations on the part of the United States would soon lead to bloodshed. In 1857 a renegade band of Sioux led by war chief Inkpaduta attacked the community of Spirit Lake, Iowa near the Minnesota border killing between 35 and 40 "white" settlers (the event would be referred to as the Spirit Lake Massacre). They went on to attack Springfield, Minnesota (modern Jackson) killing seven before being turned back. In 1862, bands of Sioux launched the Dakota War in which they were defeated. Apart from those killed in the war, 38 Dakota Sioux were killed in a mass execution in Mankato, the largest mass execution in the U.S. history. Hundreds more Sioux and settlers were killed in the State of Minnesota's subsequent eradication of the Sioux nation in Minnesota and the new Dakota Territory. ## Commercial enterprises The most important commercial enterprise in the early part of the territorial era was the lucrative fur trade. At the beginning of the 19th century two British companies competed for dominance in the North American trade: Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company. The North West company had used Grand Portage as its western headquarters along with other smaller companies that operated in the area. Grand Portage was one of the four principal British trading and shipping points furs in North America. Following the Treaty of Paris, in 1783, British operations at Grand Portage were technically illegal though the trade continued. However, beginning in 1801 the North West Company began re-establishing its headquarters north of the border at the newly constructed Fort William in what is now Ontario. After 1804 Grand Portage had been reduced to a minor trading center and most traders eventually abandoned the area. In 1842, the Hudson Bay Company, which had by then absorbed the North West Company, shipped out a final band of Ojibwe who were employed by the company. Before 1816 the majority of the fur trading posts in the Minnesota area were owned by the North West Company, but by 1821 the American Fur Company, founded in 1808 by John Jacob Astor in New York, had taken over most of these. As well as Grand Portage, another significant fur shipping point in Minnesota was Fort Frances in the Rainy Lake region, near modern International Falls in the far north of the state. This location became significant as it was key to multiple waterways for shipping furs to the Atlantic. Both the North West Company and the American Fur Company had posts at this location. Pembina, originally part of the Red River Colony, was a significant trading post for the Hudson's Bay Company, and once it was claimed by the U.S., became for a time key to U.S. interests in the fur trade. By 1830 American Fur dominated the trade within the United States because of the exclusion of British companies by the U.S. government. Beginning in the 1820s, a fur trading route developed between the Red River Colony (in modern Manitoba) and the trading posts in Minnesota, first primarily at Mendota and later at Saint Paul. The system of ox cart trails came to be known as the Red River Trails and was used principally by the Métis as a way to avoid the fur trade monopoly of the Hudson's Bay Company (which had absorbed the North West Company). Though this cross-border trade was entirely illegal and violated the policies of the Hudson's Bay Company, enforcement against the trade by American and British authorities was virtually non-existent. The trail system would reach its peak usage in the mid-19th century. The Hudson's Bay Company continued to expand its presence north of the U.S. border establishing new posts such as Fort Alexander and Rat Portage. The fur trade was in decline by the late 1830s. The American Fur Company went bankrupt in 1842, though the Missouri Fur Company and other operations kept the trade from collapsing entirely. As this trade declined the lumber industry began to grow substantially in areas such as the Saint Croix Valley where valuable white pine was plentiful. New saw mills appeared in Marine and Stillwater. Lumber was typically cut during winter and sent downstream in the spring. In 1848, businessman Franklin Steele built the first private sawmill on the Saint Anthony Falls (which would later become the town of Saint Anthony) opening commercial lumbering on the Mississippi River. More sawmills quickly followed. Soon the Saint Croix and Mississippi Rivers in Minnesota had become major conduits for lumber headed for Saint Louis and other destinations. The first flour mill in Minnesota was built in 1823 at Fort Snelling as a retrofitting of a lumber mill. The first private grain mill was built in Washington County by Lemuel Bolles. Minneapolis gained its first grain mill in 1847. During the 1850s grain production began to develop rapidly but Minnesota did not become a significant grain exporter until 1858. In 1823 the first steamboat, known as the Virginia, arrived at Fort Snelling carrying Indian agent Lawrence Taliaferro. By the 1830s a steady, if not yet large, stream of steamboat traffic plied the river including some ships listed as ferrying "pleasure parties". The first railroad to reach the Mississippi (in Illinois), the Rock Island Railroad, was completed in the 1854. The event was celebrated with sightseeing excursions from Rock Island up the Mississippi into Minnesota. Those excursions touched off such a wave of interest in Minnesota that 56,000 tourists visited Saint Paul by steamboat in 1856. In 1849 James Goodhue began publication of the Minnesota Pioneer newspaper in Saint Paul (the paper would later be renamed the St. Paul Pioneer Press). By the time the area achieved statehood 89 newspapers had been established. Information about Minnesota published in these periodicals spread throughout the United States and Europe. Advertising campaigns were launched in the northeastern U.S. and Europe to lure European settlers. These efforts met with limited success though they would become much more successful after statehood. Saint Anthony, with its scenic waterfalls, rapidly developed as a destination for tourists traveling the Mississippi on steamboats. The Winslow House, a luxury hotel overlooking the falls, was constructed in 1857. By the late 1860s Saint Anthony had become a popular summer resort for wealthy southerners. One of the major sources of income in the territory during the 1850s was U.S. government annuity payments to the Ojibwe and other tribes required by earlier treaties. These payments amounted to more than \$380,000 per year on average (\$ in present-day terms) compared to approximately \$120,000 per year (\$ in present-day terms) given to the territory itself for development. Because of corruption, and mishandling of the payments to the tribes, a great deal of the money was used directly by U.S. settlers for commercial and community development with questionable benefit to the tribes. At the beginning of the Minnesota Territory, in fact, these payments were the territory's most important source of income since the fur trade was no longer as lucrative as it had once been and other exports were still negligible. ## Settlements {\| class="wikitable" style="float:right;font-size:80%; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;" border="1" \|+ Population by Year ! Year !! U.S. citizens !! Natives \|- \| 1848 \|\| align=right \| 4,500 \|- \| 1849 \|\| align=right \| 4,535 \|\| align=right \| 25,000 \|- \| 1850 \|\| align=right \| 6,077 \|\| \|- \| 1851 \|\| align=right \| 7,600 \|\| align=right \| 30,400 \|- \| 1853 \|\| align=right \| 40,000 \|\| align=right \| 31,700 \|- \| 1857 \|\| align=right \| 150,000 \|- \| 1860 \|\| align=right \| 172,023 During most of this era Native Americans outnumbered European/U.S. settlers in what is now Minnesota. Significant Dakota Sioux settlements in the Minnesota area included Kaposia, located in what is now Saint Paul before being moved by the 1837 treaty. Significant Ojibwe settlements included Misizaaga'igan (Mille Lacs) and Nagaajiwanaang (Fond du Lac), as well as the community that had developed around the Grand Portage commerce. When the Minnesota Territory was established in 1848 the Native American settlements in the territory still rivaled the American settlements in size. According to some scholars, the Mandan/Hidatsa village of Like-a-Fishhook in what is now North Dakota, with a population of 700, was the largest settlement in the Minnesota Territory. The numerous other settlements in the territory gave a total Native American population of over 25,000 in 1849 which easily outnumbered the 4535 "white" settlers. At the outset of the 19th century most of the European settlements were related to the fur trade. The largest of these settlements were trading posts established by the North West Company, particularly those at Sandy Lake, Leech Lake, and Fond du Lac. Historian Grace Lee Nute has documented over 100 fur trading posts of varying sizes in the Minnesota area before statehood. Most of these posts were eventually taken over by the American Fur Company. When several hundred settlers abandoned the Red River Colony in the 1820s, they entered the United States by way of the Red River Valley, instead of moving to eastern Canada or returning to Europe, adding to the Minnesota region's population. Construction on Fort Snelling began in 1820 and was finished in 1825. The Fort became a magnet for settlement in east-central Minnesota. Nearby Mendota was established during the same period and, as the regional headquarters for the American Fur Company, also drew settlement in the area soon becoming Minnesota's commercial center. Many of the first stone buildings in the territory were constructed in Mendota by employees of the American Fur Company, which bought animal pelts at that location from 1825 to 1853. The logging industry spurred further development of settlements. Before railroads, lumbermen relied mostly on river transportation to bring logs to market, which made Minnesota's timber resources attractive. Towns like Marine on Saint Croix, founded as Marine Mills, and Stillwater became significant lumber centers fed by the Saint Croix River, while Winona was supplied lumber by areas in southern Minnesota and along the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers. In the 1830s a group of squatters, mostly Métis from the ill-fated Red River Colony, established a camp near the fort. Because of complaints from some residents at the fort, new restrictions were placed on the squatters forcing them to move down the Mississippi River, first to a site known as Fountain Cave, and then even further downriver. Pierre "Pig's Eye" Parrant, a popular moonshiner among the group, established a saloon at the new site, and the squatters named their settlement "Pig's Eye" after Parrant (later changing the name to Lambert's Landing, and finally Saint Paul after the local chapel). The location was a convenient site for a steamboat landing and by 1847 a steamboat line had established the town as a regular stop. This attractive advantage for commerce caused the settlement to develop significantly, soon eroding Mendota's prominence. The sutler (general store operator) at Fort Snelling, Franklin Steele, who had established lumbering interests in the area, staked a claim to lands adjacent to Saint Anthony Falls following the land cessions of the 1837 Ojibwe treaty. In 1848 he built a sawmill at the falls establishing the basis of the town of Saint Anthony which grew there. John H. Stevens, an employee of Franklin Steele, pointed out that land on the west side of the falls would make a good site for future mills. Since the land on the west side was still part of the military reservation, Stevens made a deal with Fort Snelling's commander. Stevens would provide free ferry service across the river in exchange for a tract of 160 acres (0.65 km²) at the head of the falls. Stevens received the claim and built a house, the first house in Minneapolis, in 1850. Later in 1854, Stevens platted the city of Minneapolis on the west bank. In 1855 the first bridge across the main channel of the Mississippi (anywhere in the nation) was built between Minneapolis and Saint Anthony. By 1851, treaties between Native American tribes and the U.S. government had opened much of Minnesota to U.S. settlement. Fort Snelling was no longer a frontier outpost. Efforts to establish Minnesota as a prominent future state in the Union were swift. In 1851 territorial legislature petitioned the U.S. Congress for land to build a railroad between Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Saint Paul. That same year the legislature incorporated the University of Minnesota and established its endowment (though the University would not admit students until many years later). In 1848 when the Minnesota Territory was formed there were four major "white" settlements: Saint Paul, Saint Anthony (part of modern Minneapolis), Stillwater, and Pembina (now part of North Dakota). New settlements began to appear more rapidly. Mankato was established in 1852 by entrepreneurs Jackson, Johnson, and Williams. Saint Peter was established in 1853 by Captain William Bigelow Dodd. New Ulm was established in 1854 by German immigrants. Rochester was established by George Head in 1854. Not all of the new settlements were established by immigrants from the eastern U.S. and Europe, though. The town of Faribault, for example, was established in 1852 by Alexander Faribault, a Minnesota native of mixed French-Canadian/Dakota ancestry. The influx of settlers in the 1850s transformed Minnesota from a sparsely populated territory of less than 10,000 "white" settlers and a significantly larger native population, to a substantial population center of over 150,000 predominantly European settlers. The city of Saint Paul expanded from less than 400 people in 1848 to over 2500 in 1852 and over 10,000 in 1860. As a result of heavy immigration from New England and New York—regions where most major towns had originated as trading centers rather than political or manufacturing centers—many new settlements in Minnesota were laid out so as to heavily favor the business districts rather than the city halls or courthouses. This plan and the philosophy behind it spurred the growth of economic links between the communities and with other parts of the U.S. In 1856 the Minnesota Territory established its first Commissioner of Emigration, Eugene Burnand. Through advertisements and speeches to new immigrants to the U.S. in New York, Burnand expanded the immigration trend which later created a large German community after statehood. ## Society Until the 1850s the Native American population vastly outnumbered the population of European ancestry in the area. Nevertheless, the division between "Indian" and "white" during this era was always somewhat vague. In general persons of mixed descent were considered "white" if they dressed in European clothing and adopted European customs. "Indians" were those who lived in traditional native lifestyles. (Such ethnic ambiguity mostly disappeared in North America in the latter 19th century but still exists today in Latin America). Even as the U.S. began to establish its authority over the region and some settlers from the U.S. began to arrive, the Native American population continued to hold significant political and social influence as a result of the fur trade. As experienced hunters they were important to one of North America's major business enterprises. The decline of this trade during the later part of the era marked the decline of Native American influence. Following the 1837 treaty the Saint Croix Triangle, between the Saint Croix and Mississippi Rivers, had been opened to U.S. settlement. Still until the later establishment of the Minnesota Territory this triangle remained an island of "white" culture and settlement. The vast majority of the Minnesota area, though, was "Indian country". Contemporary accounts of larger towns such as Mendota, Saint Anthony, and Saint Paul in the 1840s indicate that the majority of the population was predominantly of French and Métis ancestry. Even in these communities European culture, was not strictly dominant. Commenting on Minnesota's culture of the 1840s, Governor Alexander Ramsey described the streets of Saint Paul saying that it was common to see "the blankets and painted faces of Indians, and the red sashes and mocassins of French voyageurs and half-breeds, greatly predominating over the less picturesque costume of the Anglo-American race." It is in fact likely that a very large percentage of the "white" population reported in the 1850 census was of partially Native American ancestry. Many men of mixed racial ancestry became respected members of "white" society. William W. Warren, for example, was the son of an American entrepreneur (who hailed from New York before he began working in John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company) and a mixed-blood Ojibwe mother (whose father had been in the old French and British fur trade). He was educated in the East and in the early 1850s lived on the Upper Mississippi, in part working as an independent translator and Indian Agency contractor. Warren was a good writer—his newspaper articles were eventually published as the only 19th century compendium of Ojibwe history and was elected to the territorial legislature before his death from consumption. With the establishment of the Minnesota Territory in 1848 and the treaty of 1851 waves of immigrants from the U.S. and Europe came to the territory rapidly changing the demographics. Even as these changes occurred in many areas the vagueness of the racial divisions between "Indians" and "whites" persisted. As late as 1857 it was common practice in some jurisdictions for men to be allowed to vote based on whether or not they were wearing European clothing. According to some observers natives at a given polling location would share a single pair of trousers each wearing them only long enough to cast a ballot. Logging and trading communities in the territory, such as International Falls, were often known as centers of lawlessness and vice. Saloons were commonly the social centers of the towns with brothels and "bath houses" adding to the character of the society. These gathering places attracted trappers, traders, smugglers, and numerous others traveling through the countryside. The late 1840s and 1850s witnessed large-scale immigration from the Eastern U.S. and Europe. By 1860 approximately 80% percent of Minnesota's U.S.-born population came from New York and New England. The state was in fact for a time known as the "New England of the West". Maine, in particular, contributed a large number of immigrants, probably because of the large number of lumbermen in Maine and the growing lumber industry in Minnesota. By the 1850s racist ideology in Minnesota began to match the rest of the U.S. gradually erasing some earlier social norms. The ruling class was composed of primarily Anglo-American Protestants. Settlers from the U.S. increasingly discussed "white" inhabitants as the key to Minnesota's future with an eye toward marginalizing the role that other "inferior" races would have in the future. Author James Wesley Bond in 1853 described Minnesota before the 1850s as "a waste of woodland and prairie, uninhabited save by the different hordes of savage tribes from time immemorial." Prejudices in the territory, however, were complicated. As late as 1840 mulattos in Saint Paul were commonly treated as equals to others in the community with children of all races attending the same schools. By the late 1840s, however, all blacks had been completely disenfranchised. In addition they were prevented from running for office and their children were segregated in schools. By contrast Irish Catholics and Native Americans who adopted European lifestyles were allowed to vote and their children were not segregated in the classrooms. Paradoxically whereas Anglo-Americans generally accepted business development by African Americans, they largely opposed business development by Irish immigrants. Minnesota was a multi-lingual area throughout the era. During the earlier parts of the era French and English were widely used but Ojibwe, Sioux, and Michif (the language of the Métis) were more widespread. By the late 1850s English had grown to be the most spoken language. New immigrants, though, brought additional languages to the territory. Newspapers were published in German (Die Minnesota Deutsche Zeitung), Swedish (Minnesota Posten), and Norwegian (Folkets Rost). Irish Gaelic, Czech and other languages were used in various communities as well. Most of the population of the region in earlier decades followed traditional tribal religious practices. However, Roman Catholicism had been known in the area long before its acquisition by the U.S. because of the many French traders who lived and intermarried there. Catholic missionary activity among the Métis expanded greatly in the early 19th century with the Catholic Church becoming particularly established in Saint Paul. Protestantism was rather a much newer phenomenon though some Protestant missionaries had entered the region in the early 19th century as well. The first Protestant church appeared in 1848 (Market Street Church, Saint Paul). The waves of immigration in the 1850s, however, would rapidly make Protestants the largest religious group. Indeed, as in much of the rest of the U.S., community leaders made a deliberate effort to recruit immigrants from Protestant areas of Northern Europe in order to ensure Protestant control of the region. ## African Americans and slavery The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 in theory outlawed slavery in the Northwest Territory including the Minnesota area. The ordinance specifically stated > There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted. The ordinance was nevertheless seen as ambiguous in that it did not specifically address the slaves already in the territories, and it discussed the "free" population of the territories seemingly implying that a slave population would exist. French traders in the territories, and later even American army officers (including Josiah Snelling who commanded his namesake fort), continued to hold slaves with the blessings of many in Congress. The number of African Americans in the territory during this period was quite small but not insignificant. Newcomers continued to bring slaves with them, but there were many free blacks as well, some working as servants and some as completely independent pioneers. Information about the black immigrants during the earlier periods is sparse, but records do show that most of those at Fort Snelling were slaves. Records from 1850 indicate a population of 39 free blacks out of a total population of 6,077 citizens in the territory (which excluded Native American tribes). Before the 1840s these free persons could often expect to be treated equal to other racial groups. By the time Minnesota had achieved statehood, however, blacks had been disenfranchised and schools were segregated. Despite this, from the start of the Minnesota Territory in 1848 the leadership was predominantly antislavery thus ending the practice in this era. One of the most famous of the early African Americans in the territory was George Bonga. He was born in Minnesota in 1802, his father Pierre Bonga the son of a freed slave and his mother a member of the Ojibwe tribe. Bonga was schooled in Montreal and eventually became a fur trader in the Northwest territories. He went on to serve as an interpreter in negotiations with the Ojibwe (particularly as a representative of Michigan Governor Lewis Cass). His brother Stephen served as the Ojibwe interpreter at Fort Snelling for the 1837 treaty. In the 1850s, Fort Snelling played a key role in the infamous Dred Scott court case. Slaves Dred Scott and his wife were taken to the fort by their master, John Emerson. They lived at the fort and elsewhere in territories where slavery was prohibited. After Emerson's death, the Scotts argued that since they had lived in free territory, they were no longer slaves. Ultimately in 1857 the U.S. Supreme Court sided against the Scotts. This decision helped to fuel rancor over slavery leading to the Bleeding Kansas conflicts, the Panic of 1857, and eventually the American Civil War. ## Government and politics {\| class="wikitable" style="float:right;font-size:80%; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;" border="1" \|+ Territorial Governors ! Leader !! Territory !! Took office !! Left office !! Party \|- \| Arthur St. Clair \| Northwest Territory \| 1787 \| 1802 \| \|- \| William Henry Harrison \| Indiana Territory \| 1801 \| 1812 \| Whig \|- \| Charles Willing Byrd \| Northwest Territory \| 1802 \| 1803 \| \|- \| Meriwether Lewis \| Territory of Louisiana \| 1807 \| 1809 \| \|- \| Ninian Edwards \| Illinois Territory \| 1809 \| 1818 \| Democratic-Republican \|- \| William Clark \| Territory of Louisiana \| 1813 \| 1820 \| \|- \| Lewis Cass \| Michigan Territory \| 1818 \| 1831 \| Democratic \|- \| John S. Horner \| Michigan Territory \| 1835 \| 1837 \| \|- \| Henry Dodge \| Wisconsin Territory \| 1836 \| 1841 \| Democratic \|- \| Robert Lucas \| Iowa Territory \| 1838 \| 1841 \| Democratic \|- \| James Duane Doty \| Wisconsin Territory \| 1841 \| 1844 \| Whig \|- \| John Chambers \| Iowa Territory \| 1841 \| 1845 \| Whig \|- \| Nathaniel P. Tallmadge \| Wisconsin Territory \| 1844 \| 1845 \| Whig \|- \| James Clarke \| Iowa Territory \| 1845 \| 1849 \| Democratic \|- \| Henry Dodge \| Wisconsin Territory \| 1845 \| 1848 \| Democratic \|- \| John Catlin \| Wisconsin Territory \| 1848 \| 1849 \| Democratic \|- \| Alexander Ramsey \| Minnesota Territory \| 1849 \| 1853 \| Whig \|- \| Willis Arnold Gorman \| Minnesota Territory \| 1853 \| 1857 \| Democratic \|- \| Samuel Medary \| Minnesota Territory \| 1857 \| 1858 \| Democratic In the earlier part of the 19th century the area which is today Minnesota was not recognized as a single entity. The Mississippi River had divided the eastern British/French lands of North America from the western Spanish lands and even after the Louisiana Purchase this was for a time seen as a separation between territories. The division between the U.S. territories in the region and the British territories remained ambiguous until the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, which set the border with British North America at the 49th parallel west of the Lake of the Woods (except for a small chunk of land now dubbed the Northwest Angle). Border disputes east of the Lake of the Woods continued until the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. Throughout the first half of the 19th century, the northeastern portion of the state was a part of the Northwest Territory, formed in 1787. After Ohio's statehood the area became part of the new Illinois Territory in 1809. After Illinois' statehood the area was incorporated into the Michigan Territory in 1818 and later became part of the Wisconsin Territory in 1836. The western and southern areas of the state were not formally organized until 1838, when they became part of the Iowa Territory. Following the admission of Wisconsin as a state in 1848, the Minnesota area was temporarily without a government, though John Catlin, the former secretary of the Wisconsin Territory, claimed governorship of what remained of the territory as a short-term measure. By this time Minnesota's residents were largely Democrats and, as the U.S. Congress was at that time controlled by Democrats, they hoped Congress might be sympathetic to their concerns. In that same year a meeting was held in Stillwater, nominally led by Caitlin and later known as the "Stillwater Convention", to discuss establishing a new territory. The participants elected Henry Sibley as a representative to Congress. Stephen A. Douglas (D), the chair of the United States Senate Committee on Territories, drafted the bill authorizing the Minnesota Territory in 1848. He had envisioned a future for the upper Mississippi valley, so he was motivated to keep the area from being carved up by neighboring territories. In 1846, he had prevented Iowa from including Fort Snelling and Saint Anthony Falls within its northern border. In 1847, he kept the organizers of Wisconsin from including Saint Paul and Saint Anthony Falls. The Minnesota Territory was established from the lands remaining from Iowa Territory and Wisconsin Territory on March 3, 1849. The Minnesota Territory extended far into what is now North Dakota and South Dakota, to the Missouri River. There was a dispute over the shape of the state to be carved out of Minnesota Territory. An alternate proposal that was only narrowly defeated would have made the 46th parallel the state's northern border and the Missouri River its western border, thus giving up the whole northern half of the state in exchange for the eastern half of what later became South Dakota. Alexander Ramsey (W) became the first governor of Minnesota Territory and Henry Hastings Sibley (D) became the territorial delegate to the United States Congress. Henry M. Rice (D), who replaced Sibley as the territorial delegate in 1853, worked in Congress to promote Minnesota interests. He lobbied for the construction of a railroad connecting Saint Paul and Lake Superior, with a link from Saint Paul to the Illinois Central Railroad. ## Organization and statehood Before 1856 there was minimal discussion of statehood within Minnesota. However, as discussion of a potential transcontinental railroad in the U.S. became serious, leaders in Minnesota recognized that a territory was in a weak position to lobby for this economic opportunity. In December 1856, Rice brought forward two bills in Congress: an enabling act that would allow Minnesota to form a state constitution, and a railroad land grant bill. The enabling act defined a state containing both prairie and forest lands with the boundaries drawn as they are today. The bid for statehood came at a time when North–South tensions in the U.S. were rising, tensions that would later lead to the American Civil War. Debate over admitting Minnesota as a free state was heated, but the enabling act was finally passed on February 26, 1857. A constitutional convention was assembled in the territory in July 1857. Divisions between Republicans and Democrats led to the drafting of two separate constitutions. The larger cities of Saint Paul, Saint Anthony, and Stillwater were the domain of the Democrats whereas agrarian southern Minnesota was the domain of the Republicans. A single constitution was finally worked out between the two factions though the more powerful Democrats ultimately prevailed on most issues. The resentment between the two parties remained so acrimonious that two separate copies of the constitution had to be used so that members of each party did not have to sign a copy signed by members of the other party. The copies were signed on August 29, 1857 and an election was called on October 13, 1857 to approve the document. 30,055 voters approved the constitution, while 571 rejected it. The state constitution was sent to the United States Congress for ratification in December 1857. The approval process was drawn out for several months while Congress debated over issues that had stemmed from the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Once questions surrounding Kansas were settled the bill for Minnesota's admittance was passed. The eastern half of the Minnesota Territory, under the boundaries defined by Henry Mower Rice, became the country's 32nd state on May 11, 1858. The western part remained unorganized until its incorporation into the Dakota Territory on March 2, 1861. ## In popular culture In 1855 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who had never explored Minnesota himself, published The Song of Hiawatha containing many references to regions in Minnesota. The story was based on Ojibwe legends carried back east by other explorers and traders (particularly those collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft). Joseph Rolette (also known as "Jolly Joe") was a fur trader and territorial legislator of partially Métis (mixed French/Native American) ancestry who became an iconic figure known in Minnesota history for his irreverence. His most famous escapade was one in which, following the passage of a bill in 1857 which would have moved the territorial capital from Saint Paul to Saint Peter, Rolette absconded with the bill preventing it from becoming law. This and other stories were passed down for generations making Rolette as much a legend as a historical figure. The "Gopher State" moniker, by which the state today is widely known, was selected in the mid-19th century as a means to create an identity for the state. Though some believed that "Beaver State" should be selected instead as more dignified, a political cartoon featuring a gopher soon solidified "Gopher State" as the more well-known identity. ## See also - American Fur Company - History of Manitoba - History of Winnipeg - Hudson's Bay Company - North West Company - Red River Colony - Rupert's Land

Transient lunar phenomenon

Short-lived light, color, or change in appearance on the surface of the Moon

A transient lunar phenomenon (TLP) or lunar transient phenomenon (LTP) is a short-lived light, color or change in appearance on the surface of the Moon. The term was created by Patrick Moore in his co-authorship of NASA Technical Report R-277 Chronological Catalog of Reported Lunar Events, published in 1968. Claims of short-lived lunar phenomena go back at least 1,000 years, with some having been observed independently by multiple witnesses or reputable scientists. Nevertheless, the majority of transient lunar phenomenon reports are irreproducible and do not possess adequate control experiments that could be used to distinguish among alternative hypotheses to explain their origins. Most lunar scientists will acknowledge transient events such as outgassing and impact cratering do occur over geologic time. The controversy lies in the frequency of such events. ## Description of events Reports of transient lunar phenomena range from foggy patches to permanent changes of the lunar landscape. Cameron classifies these as (1) gaseous, involving mists and other forms of obscuration, (2) reddish colorations, (3) green, blue or violet colorations, (4) brightenings, and (5) darkening. Two extensive catalogs of transient lunar phenomena exist, with the most recent tallying 2,254 events going back to the 6th century. Of the most reliable of these events, at least one-third come from the vicinity of the Aristarchus plateau. An overview of the more famous historical accounts of transient phenomena include the following: ### Pre 1700 - On June 18, 1178, five or more monks from Canterbury reported an upheaval on the Moon shortly after sunset: > There was a bright new moon, and as usual in that phase its horns were tilted toward the east; and suddenly the upper horn split in two. From the midpoint of this division a flaming torch sprang up, spewing out, over a considerable distance, fire, hot coals, and sparks. Meanwhile the body of the moon which was below writhed, as it were, in anxiety, and, to put it in the words of those who reported it to me and saw it with their own eyes, the moon throbbed like a wounded snake. Afterwards it resumed its proper state. This phenomenon was repeated a dozen times or more, the flame assuming various twisting shapes at random and then returning to normal. Then after these transformations the moon from horn to horn, that is along its whole length, took on a blackish appearance. This description appears outlandish, perhaps due to the writer's and viewers' lack of understanding of astronomical phenomena. In 1976, Jack Hartung proposed that this described the formation of the Giordano Bruno crater. However, more recent studies suggest that it appears very unlikely the 1178 event was related to the formation of Crater Giordano Bruno, or was even a true transient lunar phenomenon at all. The millions of tons of lunar debris ejected from an impact large enough to leave a 22-km-wide crater would have resulted in an unprecedentedly intense, week-long meteor storm on Earth. No accounts of such a memorable storm have been found in any known historical records, including several astronomical archives from around the world. In light of this, it is suspected that the group of monks (the event's only known witnesses) saw the atmospheric explosion of a directly oncoming meteor in chance alignment, from their specific vantage point, with the far more distant Moon. - On November 26, 1540, a transient phenomenon appeared between Mare Serenitatis and Mare Imbrium. This event is depicted on a contemporary woodcut. ### 1701–1800 - On the evening of August 16, 1725, the Italian astronomer Francesco Bianchini saw a reddish light streak across the floor of crater Plato, "like a bar stretching straight from one end to the other" along the major axis of the foreshortened elliptical shape of the crater. - During the night of April 19, 1787, the British astronomer Sir William Herschel noticed three red glowing spots on the dark part of the Moon. He informed King George III and other astronomers of his observations. Herschel attributed the phenomena to erupting volcanoes and perceived the luminosity of the brightest of the three as greater than the brightness of a comet that had been discovered on April 10. His observations were made while an aurora borealis (northern lights) rippled above Padua, Italy. Aurora activity that far south from the Arctic Circle was very rare. Padua's display and Herschel's observations had happened a few days before the number of sunspots had peaked in May 1787. - In December 1787, a luminous point was seen by a Maltese observer named d'Angos. - On September 26, 1789, the German astronomer Johann Hieronymus Schröter noticed a speck of light close to the eastern foot of the Montes Alpes. It was seen on the night side of the Moon and appeared like a star of Magnitude 5 to the naked eye. - On October 15, 1789, J.H.Schröter observed two bright bursts of light, each one of them composed of many single, separate small sparks, appearing on the night side of the Moon near crater Plato and Mare Imbrium. - In 1790, Sir William Herschel saw one or more star-like appearances on the eclipsed Moon. - On November 1–2, 1791, J.H.Schröter noticed the bowl-shaped crater Posidonius A on the floor of crater Posidonius without internal shadow. - In 1794, a report circulated that it was possible to see a volcano on the Moon with the naked eye. ### 1801–1900 - Between 1830 and 1840, the German astronomer Johann Heinrich von Mädler observed a strong reddish tint closely east of crater Lichtenberg in Oceanus Procellarum. See also Barcroft in 1940, Haas at a later date, Baum in 1951, and Hill in 1988. - On November 24, 1865, Williams and two others observed for one hour and a half a distinct bright speck like an 8 magnitude star on the dark side near crater Carlini in Mare Imbrium. - In 1866, the experienced lunar observer and mapmaker J. F. Julius Schmidt claimed that the Linné crater had changed its appearance. Based on drawings made earlier by J. H. Schröter, as well as personal observations and drawings made between 1841 and 1843, he stated that the crater "at the time of oblique illumination cannot at all be seen" (his emphasis), whereas at high illumination, it was visible as a bright spot. Based on repeat observations, he further stated that "Linné can never be seen under any illumination as a crater of the normal type" and that "a local change has taken place". Today, Linné is visible as a normal young impact crater with a diameter of about 1.5 miles (2.4 km). - On January 4, 1873, French astronomer Étienne Léopold Trouvelot observed crater Kant which was 'filled with mist'. - On August 31, 1877, English amateur astronomer Arthur Stanley Williams noticed some sort of phosphorescent glow on the shadowed southern part of the walled plain Plato. - On August 6–7, 1881, German astronomer Hermann Joseph Klein observed the region of craters Aristarchus and Herodotus, and noticed a strong violet glare with some sort of nebulosity. - On March 27, 1882, A.S.Williams saw the floor of Plato at sunrise 'glowing with a curious milky kind of light'. - On July 3, 1882, several residents of Lebanon, Conn., observed two pyramidal luminous protuberances on the Moon's upper limb. They were not large, but gave the Moon a look strikingly like that of a horned owl or the head of an English bull terrier. - On February 19, 1885, Gray saw a small crater near the larger crater Hercules glow dull red 'with vivid contrast'. - On February 21, 1885, Knopp observed red patches in crater Cassini. - In 1887, French amateur astronomer and selenographer Casimir Marie Gaudibert noticed a temporary white spot in the central part of crater Herodotus. - One night in 1892, American astronomer Edward Emerson Barnard found the bowl of crater Thales filled with luminous haze. - 1891-1897, American astronomer William Henry Pickering gives drawings of a probable eruption of steam from crater Schröter. - A photograph made on August 26, 1898, through the équatorial coudé, shows bowl-shaped craterlet Posidonius C on the floor of crater Posidonius as a bright spot without shadow, although the terminator (day-night boundary) was nearby. ### 1901–1950 - A photograph made on September 30, 1901, through the équatorial coudé, shows bowl-shaped craterlet Posidonius C as an elongated bright spot without shadow, although the photograph was made shortly before sunset at crater Posidonius. - In 1902, French astronomer Albert Charbonneaux, using the Meudon 33-inch refractor telescope at the Paris Observatory, noticed a small white cloud west of crater Theaetetus. - In 1905, German astronomer Friedrich Simon Archenhold observed a bright spot at the location of the bowl-shaped craterlet Posidonius C on the floor of crater Posidonius. - On May 19, 1912, Austrian astronomer and rocketry pioneer Max Valier noticed a small red glowing area on the Moon's night side. - In January 1913, William Henry Pickering observed the last one of a series of eruptions of some sort of white material at crater Eimmart. - On June 15, 1913, the British civil engineer and astronomer William Maw observed a 'small reddish spot' in crater South. - On February 22, 1931, Joulia observed a reddish glow in crater Aristarchus. In the same year (1931) and at the same location, British businessman and amateur astronomer Walter Goodacre and (?) Molesworth (1931?) observed a bluish 'glare'. Percy B. Molesworth ? (1867–1908). - On June 17, 1931, N.J.Giddings and his wife observed unusual flashes of light (lightning-like phenomena) on the night side of the Moon. - On August 2, 1939, British moon observer Patrick Moore noticed that the internal detail of the walled plain Schickard was obliterated by an extensive mist. - In 1940, American amateur astronomer David P. Barcroft (1897–1974) observed a pronounced reddish-brown color near crater Lichtenberg in Oceanus Procellarum. See also J.H.Mädler between 1830 and 1840, Baum in 1951, and Hill in 1988. - On July 10, 1941, American amateur astronomer Walter H. Haas noticed a moving dot of white light near crater Hansteen in the southern section of Oceanus Procellarum. - On August 31, 1944, the floor of the walled plain Schickard looked misty to the Welsh-born engineer and amateur astronomer Hugh Percy Wilkins. Some minor craters in it, which are normally well shadowed, stood out as white spots under a low sun. - On January 30, 1947, Harold Hill observed an abnormal absence of the main peak's shadow at the central mountain group of crater Eratosthenes. - On April 15, 1948, F.H.Thornton, using a 9-inch reflector, observed crater Plato and noticed a minute but brilliant flash of light which he described as looking very much like the flash of an AA shell exploding in the air at a distance of about ten miles. In color it was on the orange side of yellow. - On May 20, 1948, British amateur astronomer Richard M. Baum noted a reddish glow to the northeast of crater Philolaus, which he watched for fifteen minutes before it faded from sight. Three years later he observed another red glow west of crater Lichtenberg. - On February 10, 1949, F.H.Thornton, using an 18-inch reflector, observed the Cobra-Head of Vallis Schroteri and recorded a 'puff of whitish vapour obscuring details for some miles in the area'. - in November 1949, and also in June and July 1950, Bartlett noticed a white spot at the central part of crater Herodotus. ### 1951–1960 - In 1951, Richard Myer Baum (1930–2017) observed the regions near crater Lichtenberg in Oceanus Procellarum and reported a rose-pink coloration which persisted for a time and then faded. See also J.H.Mädler between 1830 and 1840, Barcroft in 1940, and Hill in 1988. - On November 15, 1953, Dr. Leon Stuart photographed a lunar flare at approximately 10 miles southeast of crater Pallas. The duration of the flare was 8 to 10 seconds. According to Bonnie Buratti, the coordinates of the impacted object are 3.88° Latitude / 357.71° Longitude. - On May 11, 1954, Peter Cattermole observed the disappearance of the central mountains of crater Eratosthenes, although the surrounding detail remained clearly visible. - In 1954, Patrick Moore detected curious ray-like features crossing crater Helmholtz. - On June 25, 1955, mountaineer and amateur astronomer Valdemar Axel Firsoff observed a faint mist in crater Theophilus. - On July 15, 1955, V.A.Firsoff observed crater Herodotus which had a 'pseudo central peak' casting a shadow. - On January 16–17, 1956, Robert Miles of Woodland, Calif., noticed a flash of white or bright blue light east of Mare Crisium. - On November 2, 1958, the Russian astronomer Nikolai A. Kozyrev observed an apparent half-hour "eruption" that took place on the central peak of Alphonsus crater using a 48-inch (122-cm) reflector telescope equipped with a spectrometer. During this time, the obtained spectra showed evidence for bright gaseous emission bands due to the molecules C₂ and C₃. While exposing his second spectrogram, he noticed "a marked increase in the brightness of the central region and an unusual white colour." Then, "all of a sudden the brightness started to decrease" and the resulting spectrum was normal. - On November 19, 1958, Raymond J. Stein of Newark observed a change in the shadow of crater Alpetragius. - On December 23, 1958, Greek observers of the moon noticed a greenish coloration at crater Schickard. ### 1961–1970 - On October 29, 1963, two Aeronautical Chart and Information Center cartographers, James Clarke Greenacre and Edward M. Barr, at the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona, manually recorded very bright red, orange, and pink colour phenomena on the southwest side of Cobra Head; a hill southeast of the lunar valley Vallis Schröteri; and the southwest interior rim of the Aristarchus crater. This event sparked a major change in attitude towards TLP reports. According to Willy Ley: "The first reaction in professional circles was, naturally, surprise, and hard on the heels of the surprise there followed an apologetic attitude, the apologies being directed at a long-dead great astronomer, Sir William Herschel." A notation by Winifred Sawtell Cameron states (1978, Event Serial No. 778): "This and their November observations started the modern interest and observing the Moon." The credibility of their findings stemmed from Greenacre's exemplary reputation as an impeccable cartographer, rather than from any photographic evidence. - On the night of November 1–2, 1963, a few days after Greenacre's event, at the Observatoire du Pic-du-Midi in the French Pyrenees, Zdeněk Kopal and Thomas Rackham made the first photographs of a "wide area lunar luminescence". His article in Scientific American transformed it into one of the most widely publicized TLP events. Kopal, like others, had argued that Solar Energetic Particles could be the cause of such a phenomenon. - On July 16, 1964, AAVSO member Thomas A. Cragg (1927–2011) observed a 3 km diameter 'temporary hill casting a shadow' southeast of crater Ross D in Mare Tranquillitatis. - On November 15, 1965, personnel of the Trident Engineering Associates, Inc., Annapolis, Md. observed via Moon-Blink device a color phenomenon which lasted at least four hours. - On April 30 and May 1, 1966, Peter Sartory, Patrick Moore, P.Ringsdore, T.J.C.A.Moseley, and P.G.Corvan observed a wedge-shaped reddish colored appearance on the eastern part of crater Gassendi's floor. - In 1967, T.J.C.A.Moseley of the Armagh Observatory recorded a flash in the area of crater Parrot. - In 1968, J.C.McConnell reported that the north-east wall of crater Posidonius seemed hazy and obscured; the rest of the crater was clearly visible. - On April 13, 1968, during the eclipse of the Moon, Winifred Cameron of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center noticed a great many star-like points on the Moon. They were seen by a group of observers who accompanied her. - K.E.Chilton: "At times, light is polarized in areas on the moon. On the night of September 18, 1968, I was observing the crater Gauss through a polaroid filter to cut down the glare. The eastern wall of the crater was not visible; when the filter was rotated the wall appeared, indicating that the area was reflecting polarized light. Although the same area has been examined since, this phenomenon has not been noticed again". - On October 31, 1968, K.E.Chilton observed a red-colored glow in crater Eratosthenes. The glow lasted 5 or 6 minutes and then faded to obscurity. - During the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969, Houston radioed to Apollo 11: "We've got an observation you can make if you have some time up there. There's been some lunar transient events reported in the vicinity of Aristarchus." Astronomers in Bochum, West Germany, had observed a bright glow on the lunar surface—the same sort of eerie luminescence that has intrigued Moon watchers for centuries. The report was passed on to Houston and thence to the astronauts. Almost immediately, Michael Collins reported back: "Hey, Houston, I'm looking north up toward Aristarchus now, and there's an area that is considerably more illuminated than the surrounding area. It seems to have a slight amount of fluorescence." ### 1971–1980 - During the Apollo 17 mission in December 1972, Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt observed a bright flash-like phenomenon north of crater Grimaldi while in orbit around the Moon (First Revolution, 21:11:09 GMT, December 10, 1972). - While in orbit, Command Module Pilot Ronald Evans of Apollo 17 noticed a light flash eastward of Mare Orientale (14th Revolution, 22:28:27 GMT, December 11, 1972). - In September 1973, the Dutch author of books on mysterious phenomena Hans van Kampen and a friend (Van Cleef) observed near crater Linné a bright point of light which was visible for almost two minutes. ### 1981–1990 - On December 27, 1982, British Moon observer Harold Hill noticed the absence of the principal craterlet (Nasmyth A) on the floor of the crater Nasmyth. A similar phenomenon was noticed by P.Wade on December 8, 1981. - On January 1, 1983, Harold Hill noticed an unusual bright appearance of craterlet Furnerius A near the pronounced crater Furnerius at the evening terminator. - On January 29, 1983, several members of the British Astronomical Association (BAA) observed abnormal brightness and purplish coloration at the bowl shaped crater Torricelli B north-northeast of the pear shaped crater Torricelli in Sinus Asperitatis. - On October 29, 1983, Harold Hill observed abnormal brightness at the hillock just north of crater Kirch. - On December 28, 1985, Harold Hill observed an extraordinary brilliance at the mid-section of the east inner wall of crater Peirescius. - On April 1, 1988, Harold Hill noticed rosy-tinged areas fringing the northern edge of the lava sheet near crater Lichtenberg in Oceanus Procellarum. See also J.H.Mädler between 1830 and 1840, Barcroft in 1940, and Baum in 1951. ### 1991–2000 - In 1992, Audouin Dollfus of the Observatoire de Paris reported anomalous features on the floor of Langrenus crater using a one-meter (3.2-foot) telescope. While observations on the night of December 29, 1992, were normal, unusually high albedo and polarization features were recorded the following night that did not change in appearance over the six minutes of data collection. Observations three days later showed a similar, but smaller, anomaly in the same vicinity. While the viewing conditions for this region were close to specular, it was argued that the amplitude of the observations were not consistent with a specular reflection of sunlight. The favored hypothesis was that this was the consequence of light scattering from clouds of airborne particles resulting from a release of gas. The fractured floor of this crater was cited as a possible source of the gas. ### No date given - Johann Hieronymus Schröter once saw for a short time on the dark side, near craters Agrippa and Godin, a minute point of light. - J.Adams (English Mechanic N°2374) noted on two occasions near sunrise, when the interior of the walled plain Plato was filled with shadow, that two beams of light traversed two-thirds of the floor from the western wall resembling searchlights; they were parallel and well-defined, and had the appearance of passing through a slight vapour resting on the surface. - Harold Hill: "A number of observers have claimed in the past that the inner slopes of the formation Young have a greenish, almost translucent cast or sheen when seen at the evening terminator." - Patrick Moore: "There is a darkish streak across the floor of crater Fracastorius which is of a slightly reddish hue, and is detectable with a moonblink device." - American amateur astronomer David Barcroft (1897–1974) had seen the crater Timocharis 'filled with vapor and very indistinct near full moon'. - Spanish astronomer Josep Comas i Solà once saw crater Reiner 'as a white patch when it should have been sharply defined'. - T. W. Webb recommended crater Cichus (in the eastern part of Palus Epidemiarum) for further detailed study. In Cichus, a small crater seemed to have grown larger as compared to the earlier representations by Schröter and Mädler. ## Explanations Explanations for the transient lunar phenomena fall in four classes: outgassing, impact events, electrostatic phenomena, and unfavorable observation conditions. ### Outgassing Some TLPs may be caused by gas escaping from underground cavities. These gaseous events are purported to display a distinctive reddish hue, while others have appeared as white clouds or an indistinct haze. The majority of TLPs appear to be associated with floor-fractured craters, the edges of lunar maria, or in other locations linked by geologists with volcanic activity. However, these are some of the most common targets when viewing the Moon, and this correlation could be an observational bias. In support of the outgassing hypothesis, data from the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer indicate the recent outgassing of radon to the surface. In particular, results show that radon gas was emanating from the vicinity of the craters Aristarchus and Kepler during the time of this two-year mission. These observations could be explained by the slow and visually imperceptible diffusion of gas to the surface, or by discrete explosive events. In support of explosive outgassing, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km (1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar surface was "recently" modified by a gas release event. The age of this feature is believed to be about 1 million years old, suggesting that such large phenomena occur only infrequently. ### Impact events Impact events are continually occurring on the lunar surface. The most common events are those associated with micrometeorites, as might be encountered during meteor showers. Impact flashes from such events have been detected from multiple and simultaneous Earth-based observations. Tables of impacts recorded by video cameras exist for years since 2005 many of which are associated with meteor showers. Furthermore, impact clouds were detected following the crash of ESA's SMART-1 spacecraft, India's Moon Impact Probe and NASA's LCROSS. Impact events leave a visible scar on the surface, and these could be detected by analyzing before and after photos of sufficiently high resolution. No impact craters formed between the Clementine (global resolution 100 metre, selected areas 7–20 metre) and SMART-1 (resolution 50 metre) missions have been identified. ### Electrostatic phenomena It has been suggested that effects related to either electrostatic charging or discharging might be able to account for some of the transient lunar phenomena. One possibility is that electrodynamic effects related to the fracturing of near-surface materials could charge any gases that might be present, such as implanted solar wind or radiogenic daughter products. If this were to occur at the surface, the subsequent discharge from this gas might be able to give rise to phenomena visible from Earth. Alternatively, it has been proposed that the triboelectric charging of particles within a gas-borne dust cloud could give rise to electrostatic discharges visible from Earth. Finally, electrostatic levitation of dust near the terminator could potentially give rise to some form of phenomenon visible from Earth. ### Unfavourable observation conditions It is possible that many transient phenomena might not be associated with the Moon itself but could be a result of unfavourable observing conditions or phenomena associated with the Earth. For instance, some reported transient phenomena are for objects near the resolution of the employed telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere can give rise to significant temporal distortions that could be confused with actual lunar phenomena (an effect known as astronomical seeing). Other non-lunar explanations include the viewing of Earth-orbiting satellites and meteors or observational error. ## Debated status of TLPs The most significant problem that faces reports of transient lunar phenomena is that the vast majority of these were made either by a single observer or at a single location on Earth (or both). The multitude of reports for transient phenomena occurring at the same place on the Moon could be used as evidence supporting their existence. However, in the absence of eyewitness reports from multiple observers at multiple locations on Earth for the same event, these must be regarded with caution. As discussed above, an equally plausible hypothesis for some of these events is that they are caused by the terrestrial atmosphere. If an event were to be observed at two different places on Earth at the same time, this could be used as evidence against an atmospheric origin. One attempt to overcome the above problems with transient phenomena reports was made during the Clementine mission by a network of amateur astronomers. Several events were reported, of which four of these were photographed both beforehand and afterward by the spacecraft. However, careful analysis of these images shows no discernible differences at these sites. This does not necessarily imply that these reports were a result of observational error, as it is possible that outgassing events on the lunar surface might not leave a visible marker, but neither is it encouraging for the hypothesis that these were authentic lunar phenomena. Observations are currently being coordinated by the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers and the British Astronomical Association to re-observe sites where transient lunar phenomena were reported in the past. By documenting the appearance of these features under the same illumination and libration conditions, it is possible to judge whether some reports were simply due to a misinterpretation of what the observer regarded as an abnormality. Furthermore, with digital images, it is possible to simulate atmospheric spectral dispersion, astronomical seeing blur and light scattering by our atmosphere to determine if these phenomena could explain some of the original TLP reports. ## Literature - William R. Corliss: Mysterious Universe, A Handbook of Astronomical Anomalies (The Sourcebook Project, 1979). - William R. Corliss: The Moon and the Planets, A Catalog of Astronomical Anomalies (The Sourcebook Project, 1985). - Thomas William Webb: Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes, Volume 1: The Solar System (Dover Publications, 1962). - Valdemar Axel Firsoff: The Old Moon and the New (Sidgwick & Jackson – London, 1969). - A.J.M.Wanders: Op Ontdekking in het Maanland (Het Spectrum, 1949). - Harry de Meyer: Maanmonografieën (Vereniging Voor Sterrenkunde, VVS, 1969). - Patrick Moore: New Guide to the Moon (W.W.Norton & Company, 1976). - Harold Hill: A Portfolio of Lunar Drawings (Cambridge University Press, 1991). - Don E. Wilhelms: To a Rocky Moon, a Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration (The University of Arizona Press, 1993). - William P. Sheehan & Thomas A. Dobbins: Epic Moon, A History of Lunar Exploration in the Age of the Telescope (Willmann Bell, 2001). ## See also - Geology of the Moon - Lunar lava tube - Lunar soil (see: Moon dust fountains and electrostatic levitation) - Lunar swirls - Observing the Moon - Project A119 - Project Moon-Blink, a 1960s NASA investigation into transient lunar phenomena - Selenography - Splitting of the Moon

2010 Brazilian Grand Prix

Formula One motor race held in 2010

The 2010 Brazilian Grand Prix (officially the Formula 1 Grande Prêmio Petrobras do Brasil 2010) was a Formula One motor race held at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace in the city of São Paulo on 7 November 2010. It was the 18th round of the 2010 Formula One World Championship and the 38th Brazilian Grand Prix to be held as part of the series. Red Bull driver Sebastian Vettel won the 71-lap race starting from second. His teammate Mark Webber finished second and Ferrari's Fernando Alonso third. Entering the event, there were five drivers in contention to win the World Drivers' Championship while Red Bull led McLaren by 27 points in the World Constructors' Championship. Nico Hülkenberg for the Williams team took the first pole position of his career by recording the fastest lap time in the qualifying session. Vettel and Webber overtook Hülkenberg for the first two positions at the start of the race. Vettel was able to maintain the lead until his first pit stop to switch tyres and Webber led for two laps until he made his own pit stop. Vettel thereafter was able to maintain first position through negotiation of slower traffic for the rest of the race to take his fourth victory of the season and the ninth of his career. Webber was 4.2 seconds behind in second as Alonso drew closer to him in the final ten laps, albeit not close enough to pass and finished third. The race result reduced Alonso's lead in the World Drivers' Championship to eight points over Webber. Vettel's victory moved him from fourth to third, past Lewis Hamilton of McLaren. Jenson Button, the 2009 World Champion, was mathematically eliminated from retaining the championship after finishing fifth. This left Vettel, Alonso, Webber and Hamilton in contention of winning the World Drivers' Championship at the season-ending . With their drivers finishing first and second, Red Bull won its first World Constructors' Championship since it purchased Jaguar before 2005 since McLaren could not overtake its points total with one race remaining in the season. ## Background The round was the 18th of the 19 races in the 2010 Formula One World Championship, and the 38th Brazilian Grand Prix held as part of the series. It was held at the 15-turn 4.309 km (2.677 mi) anti-clockwise Autódromo José Carlos Pace in São Paulo on 7 November. Tyre supplier Bridgestone provided the super soft green-banded and medium dry compounds and the intermediate and full-wet green-line central groove banded wet-weather compounds tyres to the race. For the 2010 race, the organisers installed a 225 m (738 ft) long moveable steel and foam barrier to the outside of the Subida dos Boxes corner to absorb car impacts and drag it along as opposed to deflecting it back onto the track. 2 m (6.6 ft)-wide of artificial turf replaced the grass at Descida do Lago corner, at the exit to the Curva do Laranjinha corner and turn eight. New kerbs on the exit to Curva do Laranjinha, the Mergulho and Junção corners were fitted. The white lines denoting the boundaries of the track were coated with an anti-skid paint to improve adhesion in wet-weather. Before the race, Ferrari driver Fernando Alonso led the World Drivers' Championship with 231 points, ahead of Red Bull's Mark Webber in second with 220 points and Lewis Hamilton of McLaren in third with 210 points. Webber's teammate Sebastian Vettel was fourth with 206 points and McLaren's Jenson Button was fifth with 189 points. A total of 50 points were available for the final two races, which meant Alonso could claim the title in Brazil if he won the race and Webber finished fifth or lower. Red Bull led the World Constructors' Championship with 426 points; McLaren and Ferrari were second and third with a respective 399 and 374 points. Mercedes on 188 points and Renault with 143 points battled for fourth place. Red Bull had to score 16 points more than McLaren to win the Constructors' Championship in Brazil. At the previous race in Korea Alonso won ahead of Hamilton and Alonso's team-mate Massa. Of his championship rivals, Webber retired after he spun and hit Rosberg, Vettel's engine failed with ten laps to go and Button scored no points in 12th place. Ferrari team principal Stefano Domenicali said the team would be circumspect for the season's final two events due to what happened that year. Alonso, the pre-race favourite, for his part said he would not alter his approach in Brazil and anticipated Red Bull would be strong there. His teammate Felipe Massa said he expected to win the race and confirmed he would help Alonso's World Drivers' Championship chances. Hamilton said he would be satisfied if his teammate Button assisted his title ambitions, an act which McLaren team principal Martin Whitmarsh affirmed would not occur. Both drivers acknowledged the championship duel would be a difficult one. Some Formula One pundits suggested the Red Bull team would adopt a strategy in which Vettel would help Webber's title bid. Webber courted controversy when he suggested Red Bull would support his teammate Vettel over him: "It's obvious isn't it? Of course when young, new chargers come onto the block, that's where the emotion is. That's the way it is." His team principal Christian Horner believed Webber's words were taken out of context and that the driver was supported by the team and its owner Dietrich Mateschitz in the championship battle. Vettel remarked: "If Mark needs help then he should take the medical car", and said he received no preferential treatment at Red Bull due to a car that was capable of winning races. The Grand Prix was entered by 12 teams (each represented by a constructor) and 24 drivers participated, with one pre-race driver change. The day before the first practice session, Hispania Racing for unexplained reasons announced Christian Klien would drive in lieu of Sakon Yamamoto whom Klien had also deputised for at the two months prior. Force India cancelled a first practice session outing for third driver Paul di Resta because the team wanted to provide Adrian Sutil and Vitantonio Liuzzi with additional track acclimatisation in the battle for sixth place in the World Constructors' Championship with Williams. Some teams made changes to their cars for the race. Ferrari and Williams modified their brake ducts as teams aimed to optimise aerodynamic efficiency in the season's final races. Ferrari's alterations added a small fin to the front brake ducts to extract additional downforce. Williams' design was designed to recover as much downforce as possible with the installation of fins on the rear brake ducts and to receive air extracted from the FW32's exhausts. The team also installed a new engine in Rubens Barrichello's car. ## Practice Per the regulations for the 2010 season, three practice sessions were held, two 90-minute sessions on Friday morning and afternoon and another 60-minute session on Saturday morning. In the first practice session, Vettel was fastest with a lap of 1 minute, 12.328 seconds, followed by his teammate Webber, the McLaren pair of Hamilton and Button, who tested aerodynamic adjustments to their MP4-25 cars, Renault's Robert Kubica, Mercedes' Nico Rosberg, Barrichello, Michael Schumacher for Mercedes, Sutil and Nick Heidfeld of Sauber. During the session Vitaly Petrov lost control of his Renault cresting a hill to the Ferradura turn and damaged its front-right corner in a collision with the outside tyre wall. Not long after Kamui Kobayashi spun at the same corner and loosened his Sauber's right-rear tyre from its rim against a barrier. Alonso's high-mileage engine failed two laps earlier than anticipated and Ferrari changed engines. Vettel duplicated his first practice result in the second session with the day's fastest lap, a 1-minute, 11.938 seconds. His teammate Webber was 0.104 seconds slower in second. The Ferrari duo of Alonso and Massa were third and fifth; Hamilton separated the two. Kubica, Button, Heidfeld and the Mercedes pair of Rosberg and Schumacher followed in the top ten. Massa's session ended after one hour with a disengaged clutch caused by an electrical fault from running wide and mounting a kerb at the Senna S chicane. He stopped at the side of the circuit on the Reta Oposta straight between the Senna S chicane and the Descica do Lago corner. Schumacher attempted to pass Jaime Alguersuari's Toro Rosso car on the inside into the Senna S chicane and the two made contact at its apex. Schumacher appeared to suddenly brake test Alguersuari. Soon after Kobayashi avoided contact with the pit lane wall after veering out of the slipstream of Heikki Kovalainen's slower Lotus braking for the Senna S chicane. Rain briefly fell in São Paulo on the night of 5 November and returned the next morning. Weather forecasts suggested more rain would fall, albeit not to the same intensity than in qualifying in Japan and Korea. This created a damp track, prompting drivers to use wet-weather tyres. Several drivers tested their cars to see how they would behave in qualifying with five minutes to go. Kubica used the intermediate tyres to lap fastest at 1 minute, 19.191 seconds, three-tenths of a second faster than Vettel in second. Hamilton, Massa, Alonso, Petrov, Toro Rosso driver Sébastien Buemi, Rosberg, Button and Barrichello made up positions three to ten. During the session Button lacked front-end grip and his teammate Hamilton made two errors. ## Qualifying Saturday afternoon's qualifying session was split into three parts. The first session ran for 20 minutes, eliminating cars that finished 18th or lower. The second session lasted 15 minutes, eliminating cars that finished 11th to 17th. The final session ran for ten minutes and determined pole position to tenth. Cars in the final session were not allowed to change tyres, using the tyres with which they set their quickest lap times. The first two sessions and the first minutes of the final session were run on a damp circuit, and as such, drivers used intermediate compound tyres. After lap times were 108 per cent slower than in dry weather, every driver changed to dry weather tyres with five minutes to go when a dry line emerged and increased grip. Williams driver Nico Hülkenberg ran more front wing angle than Barrichello, and used super soft tyres earlier than the fastest teams. His final lap of 1 minute, 14.470 seconds earned him the first pole position of his career and the Williams team's first since the . He was joined on the grid's front row by Vettel and Webber took third after traffic slowed both drivers. Hamilton qualified fourth because he could not extract temperature in his tyres and another vehicle slightly delayed him at Arquibancas corner. Alonso was fastest in the first session; he fell to fifth in the final session from losing time going onto a damp area and losing tyre temperature. Barrichello, sixth, lost 17 seconds on his first lap out of the pit lane with Hamilton ahead of him and going wide. Going wide at Junçao corner on dry tyres, and a car with a low downforce setup put Kubica seventh. Schumacher in eighth ran onto a damp patch towards the end of the third session to allow the Red Bull cars past and lost tyre temperature. A lack of grip left Massa ninth. Petrov, tenth, made the final session for the first time since the three months prior and was the highest-placed rookie driver. Button was the fastest driver not to progress to the final session after Massa demoted him to 11h in the closing seconds of the second session; a lack of grip on a set of damaged intermediate tyres and brake and tyre temperature slowed him. Tyre wear left Kobayashi 12th. Rosberg set the 13th-fastest lap and was slower than his teammate Schumacher for the fourth time in 2010, attributing the result to Buemi slowing his fastest lap. Alguersuari was the faster Toro Rosso driver in 14th, qualifying ahead of his teammate Buemi in 15th for the fourth race in a row. Heidfeld was 16th-quickest, feeling he changed tyres too early. Liuzzi in 17th lost control of his car and spun into the path of Sutil and Kobayashi. Sutil failed to advance beyond the first session with a lack of grip on his final timed lap that left him in 18th. Timo Glock of the Virgin team in 19th found switching to a second set of intermediate tyres slowed him. Kovalainen and his Lotus teammate Jarno Trulli were 20th and 21st after traffic prevented the duo from improving their laps. Lucas di Grassi for Virgin in 22nd was seven-tenths of a second slower than Glock. The Hispania cars of Klien and Bruno Senna occupied the grid's final row: Klien lost time on his final timed lap due to rain, and Senna was seven-tenths of a second slower since he completed a single lap on the damp track and spun towards the end of the first session. ### Post-qualifying After the session, Buemi and Sutil each took a five-place grid penalty because the stewards deemed them to have caused separate collisions with Glock and Kobayashi at the preceding Korean Grand Prix. Both drivers were required to start from 20th and 22nd, respectively. This moved Heidfeld to 15th, Liuzzi 16th, Glock 17th, Trulli 18th, Kovalainen 20th and di Grassi 21st. Rosberg reported Buemi impeding him in the second session to the stewards, who rejected the complaint after scrutiny. ### Qualifying classification The fastest lap in each of the three sessions is denoted in bold. Notes: - – Sébastien Buemi and Adrian Sutil were each handed a five-place grid penalty for causing separate "avoidable accidents" with Timo Glock and Kamui Kobayashi respectively at the . - – Christian Klien started from pit-lane after he stopped with fluctuating fuel pressure on the way to the grid. - – Bruno Senna handed a five-place grid penalty for changing his gearbox. ## Race The 71-lap race took place in the afternoon over a distance of 305.909 km (190.083 mi) from 14:00 Brasilia Time (UTC−02:00). The weather at the start was dry and clear, with the air temperature between 24 to 25 °C (75 to 77 °F) and the track temperature from 47 to 51 °C (117 to 124 °F); conditions were expected to remain consistent throughout the race, and no rain was forecast. Klien stopped his car at the exit to the pit lane and failed to start due to fluctuating fuel pressure. Trackside equipment moved his car to the pit lane, where the Hispania Racing mechanics repaired it. When the race commenced, Hülkenberg spun his tyres, allowing Vettel to pass him on the inside for the lead into the Senna S chicane. Webber held off Hamilton on the outside for third place. At the exit to the Descica do Lago corner Webber lined up a pass on Hülkenberg on the Reta Oposta straight. An oversteer stopped Hülkenberg from accelerating early and his braking early let Webber into second place on the outside. Hamilton, in an unbalanced car, was able to fend off Alonso on the inside at the exit of Descica do Lago turn for fifth and continued to do so for the rest of the lap. Behind the first four drivers, Schumacher fell to tenth due to a driver error putting him onto the grass. Kubica moved from seventh to sixth and Button advanced from eleventh to ninth. Petrov made a slow start, mounting a kerb at the exit of the Senna S Chicane to avoid colliding with Alguersuari and fell to 22nd. Towards the end of lap one, Hamilton was slow out of Junção turn, allowing Alonso to challenge him on the main straight, but Hamilton retained fourth place at the Senna S chicane. Alonso tried again and took fourth from Hamilton after Descica do Lago turn. Alonso immediately began to gain on Hülkenberg. On lap three, Schumacher passed Button before the Senna S chicane for ninth place. Alonso closed up to Hülkenberg and began to pressure him for third position. At the start of lap four, Alonso steered right to attempt to overtake Hülkenberg; the latter blocked Alonso into the Senna S chicane; Hülkenberg ran with his rear wing at a high angle, making him vulnerable to a pass and it required him to steer left and brake later than Alonso. On lap five, Alonso again failed to pass Hülkenberg on the outside into the Senna S chicane. This allowed Hamilton to close up to Alonso, albeit not close enough to pass him. On the seventh lap, Alonso slipstreamed Hülkenberg, who ran wide at the entry to the Descica do Lago turn and Alonso drew alongside Hülkenberg before passing him on the inside cresting a hill towards Ferradura corner for third position. The time Alonso lost behind Hülkenberg was ten seconds, dropping him 11 seconds behind Vettel. On lap eight, Hamilton made an unsuccessful overtake on the outside of Hülkenberg for fourth into the Senna S chicane. This was due to a lack of tyre grip, and he sought to conserve his tyres since he did not want to overheat them in the aerodynamic turbulence created by the airflow over the rear of Hülkenberg's car. In his first lap out of aerodynamic turbulence, Alonso was unable to close up to the Red Bull cars; Vettel opted to avoid tyre strain and losing grip in case of a safety car deployment. Hülkenberg blocked Hamilton from passing him on the inside at the start of the 11th lap, notwithstanding Hamilton's more powerful engine. They drew alongside going into Descica do Lago turn as Hülkenberg maintained fourth. At the conclusion of the same lap, Button, separated by slower cars, made the race's first pit stop to switch onto the medium compound tyres, emerging in 18th position. Button's faster pace meant he was followed in due course by: Massa, Barrichello, Hülkenberg, Kubica, Heidfeld, Alguersuari, Liuzzi and Buemi over the next seven laps. Massa and Barrichello each had wheel nut installation problems, requiring them to make a second pit stop. Both drivers rejoined behind Button. Hamilton made his first stop for the medium compound tyres on lap 21. He emerged in sixth position, narrowly ahead of his teammate Button. At the front of the field, Alonso entered the pit lane to switch to the medium compound tyres on the 25th lap, continuing in third position. Vettel followed suit on the end of the lap, and relinquished the lead to his teammate Webber on laps 25 and 26 until the latter's own stop on lap 26. After the pit stops, the gap to Vettel and his teammate Webber was less than three seconds. Alonso was a further 10 seconds behind in third place, and 10 in front of Hamilton in fourth. On lap 30, Button overtook the yet-to-pit Kobayashi on the inside into the Senna S chicane for fifth position. Barrichello attempted to pass Alguersuari for 13th on the outside at the same corner five laps later and the two made contact. Barrichello sustained a front-left puncture and slowed en route to the pit lane for super soft tyres. He rejoined the race one lap behind Vettel. Four laps later, Rosberg overtook Kobayashi on the inside into the Senna S chicane for sixth place. At the front, the Red Bull duo of Vettel and Webber appeared they would remain in first and second. Red Bull radioed Webber to lower the performance of his overheating engine from having less water temperature. Nevertheless, slower traffic allowed him to close up to Vettel to 1.5 seconds. In the meantime, di Grassi entered the Virgin team's garage on the 44th lap to rectify a worsening rear suspension fault. He rejoined the race four laps later. Lap 51 saw the sole safety car deployment. Liuzzi lost control of his car on a kerb to the outside of the second Senna S chicane due to a suspected front suspension failure. He crashed into a barrier to the track's inside at the bottom of a hill before the exit of the turn. Liuzzi was unhurt; a suspension rocker penetrated his car's left-front monocoque and touched his foot. His car was deemed to be in a dangerous position and a recovery tractor moved it. Under the safety car, several drivers made pit stops to replace worn tyres. McLaren called Hamilton and Button into the pit lane for a second pit stop to switch to a new set of tyres in an attempt to move up the field. Both drivers lost no positions. Mercedes asked Rosberg to make a pit stop to challenge Button at the rolling restart; a miscommunication between Rosberg's race engineer Jock Clear and the Mercedes mechanics over which type of tyre to use meant they readied the mediums instead of the super softs Clear had requested. Ultimately, Rosberg's mechanics fitted an old set of tyres; he completed an additional lap before they installed the super soft tyre compound on his car. Racing resumed at the conclusion of the 55th lap when the safety car was withdrawn when Liuzzi's car was removed from the track. Vettel led as lapped drivers separated him, Webber and Alonso in second and third. The first three lapped faster than they had done before the safety car and prevented Hamilton and Button from gaining further positions. Alonso managed the wear on his tyres to allow for a challenge to Webber, who was distanced by his teammate Vettel with a sequence of faster lap times. On lap 65, Kobayashi passed Alguerusari for tenth place. Not long after the stewards informed the Sauber team that Heidfeld was deemed to have ignored blue flags instructing him to allow faster cars past and imposed a drive-through penalty. He took the penalty on the 66th lap and lost 14 seconds. Alonso closed to within six seconds of race leader Vettel, as Red Bull did not invoke team orders to instruct Vettel to hand the victory to Webber and improve his teammate's position in the World Drivers' Championship. Vettel finished first in a time of 1 hour, 33 minutes, 11.803 seconds for his fourth victory of the season and the ninth of his career. The win, along with Webber's second-place finish won Red Bull the 2010 World Constructors' Championship since no other team could pass its points total with one race of the season left for the team's first since its Formula One debut in 2005. Alonso took third with the McLaren pair of Hamilton and Button fourth and fifth, almost one second separating the two drivers. Schumacher allowed Rosberg past after the safety car was withdrawn as his teammate had a new set of tyres and was better able to challenge Button; the two ended the race in sixth and seventh. Hülkenberg, Kubica who could not extract more speed from his car on the straight due to rev limiter problems keeping him behind Hülkenberg and Kobayashi rounded out the top ten. Alguersuari, Sutil, Buemi, Barrichello, Massa, Petrov, Heidfeld, Kovalainen and Trulli made up positions 11 to 19. Glock finished 20th, one second ahead of Senna in 21st, with Klien registering his first finish since the and was the final classified finisher. ## Post-race The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Vettel said it was important for him to pull away from Hülkenberg after he passed him: "The car felt fantastic. All throughout the race I was able to hold the gaps as I planned, so I could control the race from there. With the safety car in the end it was the right choice not to try to pull away too much, to have some tyres left." Webber agreed the start was the most important aspect of the race and said of the importance: "Most of the races are decided as we know pretty much on the Saturday or the first lap. You can follow each other around but eventually... in the old days you could play with the strategy a little bit, change the fuel loads and have a look at going long or a bit shorter." Alonso believed he attempted to perform to the best of his ability and a higher starting position would have allowed him to pass a Red Bull car at the start: "We are very close in race pace, maybe one or two-tenths quicker some laps, one or two-tenths slower some of the laps, so when you lose 12 seconds probably it is over." Afterwards, the Red Bull team celebrated their first World Constructors' Championship. Christian Horner commented on how Red Bull was regarded as "a party team" after they purchased Jaguar in 2005: "In six years, this team has come from a team that no-one took seriously – that everyone thought was a party team – to the 2010 F1 constructors' champions. We have finished ahead of teams with far more experience and heritage than ourselves – we took them on and we won, thanks to the tremendous dedication of every single team member, the incredible support from Red Bull and the vision and unfaltering commitment from Mr. Mateschitz." Adrian Newey, the team's technical director, thanked aerodynamicist Peter Prodromou and designer Rob Marshall for their work to the RB6 in Milton Keynes. Vettel stated Red Bull's Constructors' Championship win was special to him because he had visited the team's factory in Milton Keynes in 2005 and was intrigued by the experience: "Looking up to Formula One and now to be part of the team and part of the driver line-up to give them their first championship is incredible". Hülkenberg said he was happy to finish the race in eighth position and promoted Williams to sixth in the Constructors' Championship. After he finished fifth, Button was mathematically prevented from retaining the World Drivers' Championship. He said he would enter the final race of the season in Abu Dhabi with no concerns and that he would use his experience from the season to improve for 2011. His teammate Hamilton commented on his prospects of title success in the season-finale: "In Abu Dhabi I'll be doing everything I can to pull off the win I need, and hoping the other guys hit problems. As always, we won't give up and we'll keep on pushing." The race result meant Webber lowered Alonso's lead in the World Drivers' Championship to eight points. Vettel's victory elevated him ahead of Hamilton to third place as Button maintained fifth place. In the World Constructors' Championship, Red Bull finished first with 469 points. McLaren were second with 421 points and Ferrari were another 32 points behind in third position. Mercedes secured fourth place from Renault with one race left in the season. ### Race classification Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold. ## Championship standings after the race - Bold text and an asterisk indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion. Drivers' Championship standings Constructors' Championship standings - Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.

María Teresa Ferrari

Argentinian physician and university professor

María Teresa Ferrari (11 October 1887 – 30 October 1956) was an Argentine educator, physician, and women's rights activist. She was the first female university professor in Latin America and one of the first women allowed to teach medicine. She was a pioneering researcher in women's health, studying the use of radiation therapy rather than surgery for uterine tumors and developing a vaginoscope that revolutionized women's health care in Brazil. She established the first maternity ward and gynecological services at the Hospital Militar Central of Buenos Aires in 1925, which provided the first incubation services in the country. Born into a wealthy family whose forebears had been involved in ensuring Argentina's independence from Spain, she was not expected to work outside the home. Yet Ferrari not only chose to have a career but also insisted on participating in the male-dominated medical profession. She first earned a teaching diploma and became a school teacher; then, she earned her medical degree in 1911. After completing her residency, she applied to teach at the university level but instead was offered a teaching post at the School of Midwifery. Outraged, she fought for 13 years against the prejudices that prevented her from advancing in her career. In 1927, Ferrari won her fight and was granted a professorship as an alternate. Finally, in 1939, she was awarded a full professorship. Ferrari undertook an advanced medical study in Europe and the United States, learning pioneering techniques that she brought back to Argentina. She studied urinary tract monitoring at the Medical Faculty of Paris, earning the first diploma ever given to a woman. She designed a vaginoscope, studied radiation therapy at the Curie Institute, and performed a Caesarean section at Columbia University. She was responsible for bringing these innovations back with her to Argentina and implementing them at the maternity and gynecological unit she established at the Military Hospital. An ardent feminist, she established the Argentina Federation of University Women in 1936 and pushed for recognition of both civil and political rights for women. When the government of Argentina took a conservative turn in the late 1930s, she was pushed out of the hospital and later, in the early 1950s, out of teaching. She died in 1956. ## Early life and education María Teresa Ferrari Alvarado was born on 11 October 1887 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, to Catalina Alvarado and David Ferrari White. Her family was among the founding citizens of Argentina: her paternal great-grandfather, Guillermo Pío White had provided money to assist the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in defeating the Spanish and her maternal great-grandfather Rudesindo Alvarado had served in the Army of the Andes. Ferrari enrolled at the Normal School No 1 of Buenos Aires, receiving her teaching certificate in 1903. For a woman of Ferrari's social class, paid work was unusual at the time. It was understood that in cases of financial necessity poor women might nurse or teach, because both were considered charitable, but upper-class women were expected to be no more than wives and mothers, managing their households. Ignoring convention, she embarked on a career in medicine, but also began teaching. Ferrari taught at the Colegio William Morris and the Escuela No 3 Bernardino Rivadavia. She had studied psychology in a cutting-edge field known as "experimental psychology" and applied it to her classes, which caused the authorities to launch an investigation into her teaching methods. She was allowed to continue teaching, as her techniques of motivating students and encouraging them to learn proved effective. In 1904, Ferrari enrolled in medical school at the National University of Buenos Aires while continuing to teach. There had been five other women in the history of Argentina who had earned medical degrees, and although her enrollment was not desired, there was no legal precedent to bar her admittance. In her first year, she was assigned to work as an assistant to in his pathology research, which inspired her continued participation in medical research. Ferrari was awarded her medical degree in 1911. That same year, she married another graduating physician, Nicolás M. Gaudino. After that, sometimes Ferrari was known as María Teresa Ferrari de Gaudino or simply María Teresa de Gaudino. In 1918 the couple had their only child, Maurio Nicholás Gaudino. ## Career ### Struggle for a university professorship In 1914, Ferrari started work at the obstetrics clinic of the Hospital Ramos Mejía of Buenos Aires. She applied to teach obstetrics at the university, but was turned down. In the proceedings of the Honorable Consejo Directivo (HCD) on 23 June 1915, it was stated: "Despite their qualifications, for physiological and psychological reasons people of the feminine sex do not meet the required conditions to be engaged as professors in the Faculty [of Medicine]". The following year, she was permitted to teach at the School of Midwifery, but this lacked the standing and credentials of a professorship at the university. When an opening for an alternate professorship appeared in 1919, Ferrari reapplied to the university but was met with resistance. The members of the HCD delayed calling together the jurors to fill the vacancy until 1925, altering evidence, ignoring recommendations, and evading a decision. In 1926, she sent a detailed outline of her accomplishments to the committee, stating that she had taught in secondary schools for 20 years and had dedicated 15 years to her field of medicine, and had enrolled in university courses for nine years. One adviser, Dr. Speroni, having read her qualifications, sent a message to the dean imploring that they admit her because she was qualified, had shown dedication, and the school was understaffed. It was not until 1927 that the jurors met, and a thirteen to two vote approved her application for an alternate professorship. The news of the first female university professor in Latin America made headlines throughout Spanish-speaking countries. Newspapers in Argentina, including La Prensa, La Nación, La Razón, and others of the capital, El Censor in Gualeguaychú, Los Andes in Mendoza, Buenos Aires Sud in Florencio Varela, and the Italian La Patria degli Italiani and Spanish El Diario Español carried stories of her triumph. In the interim, Ferrari continued her studies rather than await a decision. Between 1921 and 1923, she visited many European clinics, including facilities in Austria, Belgium, England, France, Germany, and Italy. She was an assisting physician in the clinic of Marie Curie in Paris, as well as, in the Columbia Hospital for Women and Lying-In Asylum in Washington, D.C. The Faculty of Medicine of Paris awarded her the first diploma ever given to a woman for studies in urinary tract monitoring. In 1924, she designed a vaginoscope, which was much easier to sterilize and was more adaptable to multiple specula than previous models. The device significantly improved services available to women in Brazil, and the invention was featured in the articles of the Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics of Rio de Janeiro. The innovation won the Grand Prize at the 1924 Congreso Hispano Lusitano Americano de Ciencias Médicas held in Seville, Spain. Ferrari was particularly interested in investigating alternatives to surgery, and her studies on radiation therapy at the Curie Institute became the basis for a 1928 thesis on "Treating Uterine tumors with radiation". In 1925, she was appointed as the Argentine governmental delegate to the First Child Welfare Congress in Geneva. One of the major topics of the conference was the training of midwives in labor and hygiene practices. When her professorship was finally approved, and she returned to Argentina, a celebration was held on 11 August 1927 at the Jockey Club of Buenos Aires, attended by the Minister of the Interior, ; the director of the Hospital Militar, Alberto Levenne; her research mentor, Joaquín Llambías; and many colleagues, peers, family members, and friends. Ferrari was appointed head of gynecology and maternity at Hospital Militar in Buenos Aires, a post which she held until 1939. ### Mid-career development Ferrari traveled to Mexico, the United States, and Canada in 1929, studying for eight months and attending conferences. In the United States, she participated in a Caesarean section at Columbia University, becoming the first Argentine to have performed surgery in Washington, D.C. The baby born as a result of the surgery was named "Argentina". In 1930, she served as the Argentine delegate for the VII Medical Congress of Latin America held in Mexico and presided over the first general session. She presented three papers; one addressed uterine tumors, and the other two were about syphilis. She was also the delegate for the 2nd Congress of the Pan-American Medical Association in Panama. Between 1930 and 1932 she returned to the United States for additional studies, which focused on colibacillosis, sepsis, puerperal infections, and investigating whether vaccines could be developed to prevent the development of conditions resulting from childbirth or miscarriage. In 1936, Ferrari founded the Argentina Federation of University Women (FAMU) to improve the social and legal standing of women and, specifically, open educational doors. She recruited professional women, including physicians, dentists, and attorneys and she organized scientific and cultural discussions and seminars. FAMU had regular French, German, physical education, and mathematics courses, which it offered to its nearly 100 members. The political and civic limitations that threatened the careers of these women was a concern, and the organization's official statement supported enfranchisement as "not a mere political aspiration for women, but a real right acquired by suffering, work, and deprivation experienced by women..." In 1938, the Argentine organization joined the International Federation of University Women, which had served as Ferrari's inspiration. ### Military hospital and later career In 1925, Ferrari was called to assist a military wife during childbirth at the Hospital Militar Central of Buenos Aires, which had no gynecological unit. After she proposed that one be developed, Ferrari started the facility with one bed and donated equipment and supplies. In June of that year, the military gazette began advertising that gynecological services were available from Mondays to Fridays at the hospital. As military wives became aware of the services, the growth was exponential. Within five years, Ferrari had expanded the service to two floors that housed a maternity unit with two delivery rooms, their own sterilization facility, a recovery unit, and forty beds in private rooms. She also developed a small sealed room with purified air and an incubator, the first of its kind in Argentina. Ferrari brought the techniques she had learned abroad to Argentina. Although radiology had been performed in other parts of the world for decades, there was resistance to implementing it by professionals with no experience. Ferrari insisted it should be introduced and fought against the previous practice of surgical solutions for all cases, advocating that surgery only be used when absolutely necessary. A commemoration for the tenth anniversary of the maternity unit was attended by the Minister of War, the Director General of Health, the Hospital Director, and other senior officials, as well as by children born during the previous ten years, together with their families. A commission of the Marine wives who had received service from Ferrari's unit made a substantial donation. Despite her success, the atmosphere at the hospital remained hostile. ### Political shift to conservatism disrupts career Following the 1930 coup d'état of José Félix Uriburu with the country's shift to a more conservative stance during the Infamous Decade, Ferrari ultimately was forced to leave the hospital in 1939. Ferrari's disappointment at having to leave the hospital was offset in 1939, when she was finally made a full professor, receiving the title "Profesor Extraordinario" of the Obstetrics Faculty. Throughout the 1940s she continued her education, traveling to Cuba, New York, Pennsylvania, Peru, and Puerto Rico, publishing her research in a variety of journals. In 1946 she resigned as president of the Argentina Federation of University Women, but continued to represent the organization at conferences, such as the Primer Congreso Interamericano de Mujeres, which she attended in Guatemala City in 1947. After 43 years of teaching at Normal School No 3, Ferrari was forced into retirement by the Ministry of Education because she refused to participate in a political contribution fund. She also was asked to resign from her position as professor of psychology at Colegio William Morris. In 1952, rather than join the Peronista supporters and betray her ideals, she took full retirement. When elected, Perón had instituted a massive overhaul of the health system of Argentina. He appointed Ramón Carrillo as his health minister. In the beginning, hospital beds were added, vaccination programs were instituted, a campaign against malaria was launched, and other improvements were made. However, by the early 1950s, it was clear that policies were unevenly applied, implementation was erratic, and political cronyism was working against providing health services for those most in need. Two years after Ferrari resigned, Carrillo resigned, disillusioned with the Perón administration. ## National professional affiliations Ferrari was a full member of the Argentine Association of Surgery, the Argentine Medical Association, and the Argentine Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology of Buenos Aires. She also was a correspondent member of the Society of Medicine and Surgery of Rio de Janeiro. Ferrari died on 30 October 1956 in Buenos Aires. ## Selected works Ferrari's works were all in French or Spanish and outlined her research on various scientific and gynecological topics. They included the following: ## See also - Timeline of women in science

Little blue heron

Species of bird

The little blue heron (Egretta caerulea) is a small heron of the genus Egretta. It is a small, darkly colored heron with a two-toned bill. Juveniles are entirely white, bearing resemblance to the snowy egret. During the breeding season, adults develop different coloration on the head, legs, and feet. They have a range that encompasses much of the Americas, from the United States to northern South America. Some populations are migratory. Climate change will probably cause their distribution to spread north. They can be found in both saltwater and freshwater ecosystems. Their preference for either one depends on where they live. Nesting behaviors are documented by numerous sources. The adults build nests in trees, in colonies with other bird species. The number of eggs laid varies from place to place. The young mature quickly, requiring little attention from adults after about nineteen days of age. Both young and adults are sometimes preyed on by other species. Adults hunt fish, crabs, and other small animals. As with clutch sizes, diet can vary regionally. The population of E. caerulea is declining. Many possible reasons for this have been proposed. Exposure to heavy metals has been found to have detrimental effects on young birds. ## Taxonomy The little blue heron is part of the family Ardeidae, a group whose members can be found throughout much of the world, including the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. It was first described as Ardea caerulea by Carl Linnaeus in his 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It is now a member of the genus Egretta. It may be closely related to the snowy egret, another member of its genus, which it greatly resembles when young. Variations of the name include Ardea coerulea, Florida caerulea, and Hydranassa caerulea. Young birds found in a little blue heron nest in North Dakota, at a site heavily populated by cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis), which displayed traits of both the former and latter, are believed to be an example of hybridization between the two species. Other species they are known to hybridize with include the tricolored heron, little egret, snowy egret, and black-crowned night heron. Of these four, only the black-crowned night heron is not a member of Egretta. ## Description Males and females have the same coloration. The adults are darkly colored, with purple-maroon heads and blue bodies. During the breeding season, their heads turn dark red. They have two-toned bills, which are a light blue at the base, with black tips. Their eyes are yellow and their legs are greenish. Juveniles are almost completely white, although the upper primaries are somewhat dark in color. Like adults, their bills are two-toned. Immature birds transitioning from the juvenile to adult phase have a combination of light and dark feathers. Both sexes are about 56–74 centimetres (22–29 in), with a wingspan of 100–105 centimetres (39–41 in). They weigh about 397 grams (14.0 oz). The lores, which are normally a dull green become a shade of turquoise. They also develop long plumes on the crest and back, which can stretch 20–30 centimetres (7.9–11.8 in) past the tail. The legs and feet become black. The eggs are typically smooth, light blue, and unmarked. In size, they are about 31.7–43.2 millimetres (1.25–1.70 in), with a weight of around 23.1 grams (0.81 oz). ## Distribution and habitat Egretta caerulea can be found regularly in the United States, Mexico, Central America, northern South America (including Venezuela, Colombia, and Peru), and numerous Caribbean islands (including Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola). They have been recorded as a vagrant (a species that appears far outside its natural range) in Greenland, Portugal, and South Africa. Whether or not their range is declining is unknown. In the United States, they can be found from Missouri to Virginia to Florida. They are more common in peninsular Florida than the Florida Panhandle. They can occasionally roam as far north as Canada. Individuals in central Alabama tend to migrate towards South America and the Caribbean, while those from the Mississippi River west travel to Mexico and Central America. One study found that of seven migratory wading bird species, the little blue heron had the greatest mean dispersal distance, of 1,148 kilometres (713 mi). Future climate change is projected to increase its overall range. If global warming continues at its current rate, by the year 2080, its summer range will have increased by 87%. Of its current range, it is expected to lose only 1%. These gains would spread its summer distribution well into more northern parts of the US, such as Michigan and Minnesota, and even into southern Canada. The little blue heron can be found in freshwater and marine environments. These include mangrove forests, bogs, swamps, salt marshes, tidal flats, estuaries, streams, and flooded fields. They are usually found at low elevations, but can be seen at heights of 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) in the Andes. In North America, they tend to favor freshwater habitats, while in the Caribbean, they are more often found in saltwater. Towards the southern extent of their range, in Brazil, they are found almost exclusively along the coast, rarely venturing inland at all. ### Regional variations Juveniles in San Blas, in the Mexican state of Nayarit have an atypical color-scheme. In these birds, the top of the head is chestnut colored and the wings tips are much darker. Initially, it was suggested that they may be hybrids, however further study concluded they were most likely a natural variation. No other geographic varieties have been observed. ## Behavior and ecology Little blue herons prefer to stand still and wait when hunting, rather than chase after prey. They walk slowly and search for fish and other prey items, flying to different spots if needed. They tend to move slower than other related species, which can help distinguish them. They are not usually found in large numbers at any body of water. Occasionally, however, they will gather with other herons, especially if they have found a school of fish trapped in shallow water. They sometimes also feeds in grassy fields. ### Reproduction and life cycle During courtship, both males and females practice bill-nibling. Males also use a neck-stretch to attract mates. #### Nesting Little blue herons typically nest in trees alongside other roosting birds. They are colonial nesters (nesting in groups). Examples of species they may nest alongside include the scarlet ibis, yellow-crowned night heron, great egret, black-crowned night heron, and snowy egret. During nest construction, males bring twigs to females, who use them to build the nest. Both males and females help incubate their clutch. They begin incubation after two eggs have been laid, which will cause any later eggs to hatch out of sync. The chicks that hatch later tend to not receive as much food as early-hatching ones, which limits their growth. Clutch sizes vary significantly throughout their range. In Trinidad, there are usually 2–5 eggs, while in Costa Rica, only 2–4 are laid on average. In North America, the mean is 2.67–4.4. The very lowest values are seen in southeastern Brazil and the US states Florida and Georgia, where no more than three are generally laid. Young herons are able to start climbing around the branches by their nests at 15 days old. Due to the young age at which they develop motor skills in their legs, the young do not rely on their parents for anything besides feeding after 19 days, at which point the adults begin foraging away from the nest. By 20–25 days, they can climb to the very top of the tree their nest is built on, or even into other trees. They can fly short distances at around 30 days of age (some take 35–38), but will still be dependent on adults for about two weeks after that. It is in their second year of life that juveniles begin to lose their white feathers. ### Predation There is circumstantial evidence that young black-crowned night herons and crab-eating raccoons prey on nestling little blue herons. Adults have been observed driving a yellow-headed caracara away from their nests. In the presence of a Harris' hawk, however, the little blue herons fled. ### Parasites Twenty-four different species of parasitic worms were found on 33 of 35 little blue herons examined in South Florida. These included trematodes, nematodes, acanthocephalans, and one cestode. The most common trematode was Posthodiplostomum macrocotyle, and the most common nematodes were Contracaecum multipapillatum and Contracaecum microcephalum. The acanthocephalan and cestode species could not be identified (in the latter, neither could the genus). ### Prey On the eastern coast of North America, little blue herons primarily feed on fish, however their diet varies significantly throughout their range. In a study of individuals in mangrove forests in southeastern Brazil, 80% of their diet during the breeding season was found to consist of crabs. Compared to the scarlet ibis, the herons preferred arboreal or semi-arboreal species, such as Aratus pisonii and Metasesarma rubripes, while the former preferred to take burrowing species. This demonstrates their different feeding strategies—scarlet ibises being foragers who hunt using their sense of touch and little blue herons being visual hunters. In another mangrove forest in southwestern Puerto Rico, the entire diet was found to consist of fiddler crabs. ## Conservation The little blue heron is listed as a least-concern species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, although its numbers are decreasing. Historically, they were not hunted for their feathers as much as other heron species due to their lack of visually attractive plumes. The dangers faced by Egretta caerulea are not well researched. They could include development along coastlines, habitat disturbance, predators, pesticide exposure, and parasites. The metals cadmium and lead have been found to lead to slower growth rates and higher death rates, respectively, of young birds. In Sepetiba Bay, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, little blue herons were found to have relatively high levels of metal contamination in the liver and kidneys. In areas with cattle egrets, little blue herons have been found to nest for shorter amounts of time, and produce fewer young that survive to adulthood. Cattle egrets only begin pairing when most little blue herons already have eggs or live young in their nests. The former species has been observed stealing twigs from nests of the latter. This behavior sometimes leads to the young falling out of the nest or the cattle egrets removing them.

Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford

13th-century English nobleman

Humphrey (VI) de Bohun (c. 1249 – 31 December 1298), 3rd Earl of Hereford and 2nd Earl of Essex, was an English nobleman known primarily for his opposition to King Edward I over the Confirmatio Cartarum. He was also an active participant in the Welsh Wars and maintained for several years a private feud with the earl of Gloucester. His father, Humphrey (V) de Bohun, fought on the side of the rebellious barons in the Barons' War. When Humphrey (V) predeceased his father, Humphrey (VI) became heir to his grandfather, Humphrey (IV). At Humphrey (IV)'s death in 1275, Humphrey (VI) inherited the earldoms of Hereford and Essex. He also inherited major possessions in the Welsh Marches from his mother, Eleanor de Braose. Bohun spent most of his early career reconquering marcher lands captured by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd during the Welsh war in England. This was finally accomplished through Edward I's war in Wales in 1277. Hereford also fought in Wales in 1282–83 and 1294–95. At the same time he also had private feuds with other marcher lords, and his conflict with Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, eventually ended with the personal intervention of King Edward himself. Hereford's final years were marked by the opposition he and Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, mounted against the military and fiscal policy of Edward I. The conflict escalated to a point where civil war threatened, but was resolved when the war effort turned towards Scotland. The king signed the Confirmatio Cartarum—a confirmation of Magna Carta—and Bohun and Bigod agreed to serve on the Falkirk Campaign. Bohun died in 1298, and was succeeded by his son, Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford. ## Family background and inheritance Humphrey (VI) de Bohun was part of a line of Anglo-Norman aristocrats going back to the Norman Conquest, most of whom carried the same name. His grandfather was Humphrey (IV) de Bohun, who had been part of the baronial opposition of Simon de Montfort, but later gone over to the royal side. He was taken prisoner at the Battle of Lewes in May 1264, but was restored to favour after the royalist victory at the Battle of Evesham the next year. Humphrey (IV)'s son, Humphrey (V) de Bohun, remained loyal to the baronial side throughout the Barons' War, and was captured at Evesham on 4 August 1265. In October of that year, Humphrey (V) died in captivity at Beeston Castle in Cheshire from injuries he had sustained in the battle. Humphrey (V) had been excluded from succession as a result of his rebellion, but when Humphrey (IV) died in 1275, Humphrey (VI) inherited the earldoms of Hereford and Essex. Humphrey (VI) had already served as deputy Constable of England under Humphrey (IV). Humphrey (IV) had reserved the honour of Pleshey for his younger son Henry, but the remainder of his lands went to Humphrey (VI). The inheritance Humphrey (VI) received—in addition to land in Essex and Wiltshire from Humphrey (IV)—also consisted of significant holdings in the Welsh Marches from his mother. His mother Eleanor was a daughter and coheir of William de Braose and his wife Eva Marshal, who in turn was the daughter and co-heir of William Marshal, regent to Henry III. Since Humphrey (VI) was only sixteen years old at the time of his father's death, the Braose lands were taken into the king's custody until 1270. Part of this inheritance, the marcher lordship of Brecon, was in the meanwhile given to the custody of Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Hertford. Humphrey technically regained his lordship from Clare in 1270, but by this time these lands had effectively been taken over by the Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, who had taken advantage of the previous decade's political chaos in England to extend his territory into the Marches. He granted his brother Sir Gilbert de Bohun all of their mother's lands in Ireland and some land in England and Wales. ## Welsh Wars Over the next years, much of Hereford's focus was on reconquering his lost lands in the Marches, primarily through private warfare against Llywelyn. Henry III died in 1272, while his son—now Edward I—was crusading; Edward did not return until 1274. Llywelyn refused to pay homage to the new king, partly because of the military actions of Bohun and other marcher lords, which Llywelyn saw as violations of the Treaty of Montgomery. On 12 November 1276, Hereford was present at a royal assembly where judgment was passed on Llewelyn, and in 1277, Edward I declared war on the Welsh prince. Rebellion in his own Brecon lands delayed Hereford's participation in the early days of the Welsh war. He managed, however, to both suppress the rebellion and conquer lands further west. He then joined up with the royal army and served for a while in Anglesey, before returning to Brecon, where he received the surrender of certain Welsh lords. After the campaign was over, on 2 January 1278, he received protection from King Edward to go on pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in Spain. In 1282, war with Wales broke out again; this time it would not be simply a punitive campaign, but a full-scale war of conquest. Initially, the king wanted to fight the war with paid forces, but the nobility insisted on the use of the feudal summons. To men like Hereford, this was preferable, because as part of a feudal army the participants would have both a stake in the war and a justifiable claim on conquered land. In the end, although the earls won, none of them were paid for the war effort. Hereford jealously guarded his authority as hereditary Constable of England, and protested vigorously when the Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester was appointed commander of the forces in South Wales. In the post-war settlement, however, neither Hereford nor Gloucester received any significant rewards of land, the way several other magnates did. Hereford fought again in Wales, in the suppression of the rebellion of 1294–95, when he again had to pacify the territory of Brecon before joining the king in the north. ## Private war in the Marches Parallel with the Welsh Wars, Hereford was also struggling to assert his claims to lands in the Marches against other marcher lords. In 1284 Edward I granted the hundred of Iscennen in Carmarthenshire to John Giffard. Hereford believed the land belonged to him by right of conquest, and started a campaign to win the lands back, but the king took Giffard's side. Problems also arose with the earl of Gloucester. As Gloucester's former ward, Hereford had to buy back his own right of marriage, but Gloucester claimed he had not received the full sum. There was also remaining resentment on Hereford's part for his subordination to Gloucester in the 1282–83 campaign. The conflict came to a head when Gloucester's started construction of a castle at Morlais, which Hereford claimed was his land. In 1286, the Crown ordered Gloucester to cease, but to no avail. It had long been established Marches custom to solve conflicts through private warfare. Hereford's problem, however, was his relative weakness in the Marches, and now he was facing open conflict with two different enemies. He, therefore, decided to take the issue to the king instead, in a break with tradition. King Edward again ordered Gloucester to stop, but the earl ignored the order and initiated raids on Hereford's lands. Hostilities continued and Hereford responded, until both earls were arrested and brought before the king. The real offence was not the private warfare in itself, but the fact that the earls had not respected the king's injunction to cease. In the parliament of January 1292, Gloucester was fined 10,000 marks and Hereford 1,000. Gloucester's liberty of Glamorgan was declared forfeit, and confiscated by the crown, as was Hereford's of Brecon. In the end, the fines were never paid, and the lands were soon restored. Edward had nevertheless demonstrated an important point. After the conquest of Wales, the strategic position of the Marches lordships was less vital to the English crown, and the liberty awarded to the marcher lords could be curtailed. For Edward this was, therefore, a good opportunity to assert the royal prerogative, and to demonstrate that it extended also into the Marches of Wales. ## Opposition to Edward I In 1294 the French king declared the English duchy of Aquitaine forfeit, and war broke out between the two countries. Edward I embarked on a wide-scale and costly project of building alliances with other princes on the Continent, and preparing an invasion. When the king, at the parliament of March 1297 in Salisbury, demanded military service from his earls, Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, refused in his capacity of marshal of England. The argument was that the king's subjects were not obliged to serve abroad if not in the company of the king, but Edward insisted on taking his army to Flanders while sending his earls to Gascony. At the time of the Salisbury parliament, Hereford was accompanying two of the king's daughters to Brabant, and could not be present. On his return, however, as Constable of England, he joined Bigod in July in refusing to perform feudal service. The two earls were joined in their opposition by the earls of Arundel and Warwick. The main reason for the magnates' defiance was the heavy burden of taxation caused by Edward's continuous warfare in Wales, France and Scotland. In this they were also joined by Robert Winchelsey, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who was in the midst of an ongoing dispute with the king over clerical taxation. At one point Bohun and Bigod turned up in person at the Exchequer to protest a tax they claimed did not have the consent of the community of the realm. For Hereford there was also a personal element in the opposition to the king, after the humiliation and the affront to his liberties he had suffered over the dispute in the Marches. At a meeting just outside London, Bohun gave an impassioned speech objecting to the king's abuse of power and demanding the restoration of ancient liberties. The grievances were summarised in a document known as the Remonstrances. Neither party showed any inclination to back down, and the nation seemed on the brink of another civil war. Just as the conflict was coming to a head, however, external events intervened to settle it. In September 1297, the English suffered a heavy defeat to the Scots at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. The Scottish victory exposed the north of England to Scottish raids led by William Wallace. The war with Scotland received wider support from the English magnates, now that their own homeland was threatened, than did the war in France to protect the king's continental possessions. Edward abandoned his campaign in France and negotiated a truce with the French king. He agreed to confirm Magna Carta in the so-called Confirmatio Cartarum (Confirmation of the Charters). The earls consequently consented to serve with the king in Scotland, and Hereford was in the army that won a decisive victory over the Scots in the Battle of Falkirk in 1298. Hereford, not satisfied that the king had upheld the charter, withdrew after the battle, forcing Edward to abandon the campaign. ## Death and family In 1275 Bohun married Maud de Fiennes, daughter of Enguerrand de Fiennes, chevalier, seigneur of Fiennes, by his 2nd wife, Isabel (kinswoman of Queen Eleanor of Provence). She predeceased him, and was buried at Walden Priory in Essex. Hereford himself died at Pleshey Castle on 31 December 1298, and was buried at Walden alongside his wife. They had one son Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, born around 1276. The son was given possession of his father's lands and titles on 16 February 1299. The young Humphrey also inherited his father's title of Constable of England. A common theme in Humphrey de Bohun's actions was his fierce protection of what he regarded as his feudal privileges. His career was marked by turbulence and political strife, particularly in the Marches of Wales, but eventually he left a legacy of consolidated possessions there. In 1297, at the height of the conflict between Edward I and rebellious barons, the king had actively tried to undermine Hereford's authority in the Marches, but failed due to the good relations the earl enjoyed with the local men.

2016 Russian Grand Prix

The 2016 Russian Grand Prix (formally known as the 2016 Formula 1 Russian Grand Prix; Russian: Гран-при России 2016 года, romanized: Gran-pri Rossii 2016 goda) was a Formula One motor race that took place on 1 May 2016. The race, contested over fifty-three laps, was held at the Sochi Autodrom. It was the fourth round of the 2016 FIA Formula One World Championship and marked the fifth running of the Russian Grand Prix, the third time as a round of the Formula One World Championship since the series inception in 1950. Nico Rosberg of Mercedes came into the race leading the championship ahead of his teammate Lewis Hamilton, who was the defending race winner. Nico Rosberg won the race from pole position, ahead of his teammate Lewis Hamilton, with Kimi Räikkönen completing the podium for Ferrari. While Rosberg extended his winning streak to seven consecutive Grands Prix, Sebastian Vettel retired from the race on the first lap, after contact with Red Bull's Daniil Kvyat. With the maximum number of 100 points from the first four races of the season, Rosberg left Russia with a 43-point lead to Hamilton. By securing pole position, winning the race, setting the fastest lap and leading every lap, Nico Rosberg achieved the first grand slam of his career. ## Report ### Background Going into the fourth Grand Prix weekend of the season, Nico Rosberg and his team Mercedes were leading the Drivers' and Constructors' championships respectively. Rosberg was 36 points ahead of his teammate Lewis Hamilton, having taken 75 out of 75 available points from the first three races of the season. Daniel Ricciardo followed in third place, three points behind Hamilton. In the Constructors' standings, Mercedes headed the field with 114 points, 53 points ahead of Ferrari and 57 points clear of Red Bull. This was the third time since the Russian Grand Prix debuted in Formula One in 2014 that the race was held as part of the World Championship. Two early editions of the race were held in 1913 and 1914. Red Bull Racing used the first practice session to test the "aeroscreen", a form of cockpit protection developed in response to fatal accidents of the drivers such as Ayrton Senna, Jules Bianchi, Justin Wilson and Henry Surtees, who were struck on the head by flying debris. The aeroscreen was developed as an alternative to the "halo" device trialled by Ferrari during pre-season testing. The device was fitted to Daniel Ricciardo's car and he completed a single installation lap to assess it before it was removed for the remainder of the session. Ricciardo was satisfied with the device, saying: "Where we have the structure in place is pretty much where the mirrors are so I wouldn't say it hindered any more than we are now in terms of visibility. Peripheral vision was fine as well." Sole tyre supplier Pirelli brought the medium, soft and supersoft tyres to the event, continuing the trend established in the Australian, Bahrain and Chinese Grands Prix. Per the regulations of the 2016 season, every driver needs to set aside one set each of the two hardest compounds for the race and one set of the supersoft tyres for Q3 (should they advance). The drivers have freedom of what other compounds they choose for the remaining ten out of thirteen sets. It was the 100th race for Pirelli tyres since their return to the sport in 2011. ### Free practice Per the regulations for the 2016 season, two ninety-minute practice sessions were held on Friday and another one-hour session was held before qualifying on Saturday. In the first session on Friday morning, Nico Rosberg was fastest for Mercedes with a time of 1:38.127, more than seven-tenths of a second ahead of his teammate Lewis Hamilton. Both set their fastest times on the super-soft tyre compound, while Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen at Ferrari opted for the harder soft compound, slotting in third and fourth fastest respectively. Several drivers had problems with spinning or running wide, either in turn two or between turns 15 and 16. Among the drivers caught out were Hamilton, Vettel, Jolyon Palmer and Jenson Button. Two reserve drivers made an appearance during the first free practice session. Sergey Sirotkin drove for Renault, taking the place of Kevin Magnussen, making his second appearance in a Formula One car, after driving for Sauber during free practice at the 2014 Russian Grand Prix. Alfonso Celis Jr. replaced Nico Hülkenberg at Force India during the first practice session. Sirotkin ended the session ahead of his teammate Palmer, while Celis finished last, more than three seconds behind teammate Sergio Pérez. Lewis Hamilton topped the timesheets in second practice on Friday afternoon with a time of 1:37.583, using the super-soft compound. Earlier in the session, he had suffered a spin in turn four that flat-spotted his tyres and sent him back to the pitlane. Rosberg managed only third fastest as the Mercedes drivers were split by Sebastian Vettel, even though the latter suffered from electrical problems that lost him track time. Rosberg in turn was unable to improve on his time set on the soft-compound tyre due to his super-soft run being compromised by yellow flags shown after a spin by Romain Grosjean. Behind the top three, Kimi Räikkönen was again fourth, ahead of Daniel Ricciardo and Valtteri Bottas. Slowest of the session was Sauber's Marcus Ericsson, with the two Manor drivers Rio Haryanto and Pascal Wehrlein slotting in ahead of him. Wehrlein reported a loss of power after crossing the chequered flag at the end of the session. In third practice on Saturday morning, Hamilton narrowly beat Rosberg to the fastest time, lapping just 0.068 seconds faster than his teammate. All drivers used the super-soft tyre compound to set their fastest lap times, with the two Ferrari cars of Vettel and Räikkönen third and fourth ahead of the Williams pair of Felipe Massa and Valtteri Bottas. Vettel had spent most of the session testing his car with a heavier fuel load in preparation for the race that would see him start with a five-place grid penalty for a change of the gearbox. He completed the highest number of laps with 28, ahead of Daniel Ricciardo, who was 11th fastest. At the back end, the Sauber drivers of Ericsson and Nasr were slowest, behind both Manor cars. ### Qualifying Qualifying consisted of three parts, 18, 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively, with six drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions. During the first part of qualifying (Q1), Lewis Hamilton set the fastest time, a new fastest lap of the track ever at 1:36.006. However, he also came under investigation of the stewards as he failed to obliged the rules set for turn 2, rejoining the track earlier than allowed after running wide. After being summoned to the stewards at the end of qualifying, he walked away with a reprimand, but was not penalised. Behind Rosberg in second place, the two Ferrari cars of Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen were third and fourth respectively. At the tail end of the field, three pairs of cars were eliminated: both Sauber, Manor and Renault drivers missed Q2. In the second part, Nico Rosberg was fastest, half a second faster than teammate Hamilton, and 1.7 seconds clear of the pole position lap time from the year before. Both McLarens had shown promising pace, but nevertheless dropped out of contention in 12th and 14th, while Daniil Kvyat was the last driver to secure a place in Q3, demoting Carlos Sainz Jr. to 11th. Kvyat's Red Bull teammate Daniel Ricciardo also progressed, albeit suffering a failure of his wing mirror, which hung off the side of his vehicle during his last timed lap. Eliminated at the back were both Haas drivers, along Nico Hülkenberg, who was unable to follow his teammate Pérez into Q3 and qualified 13th. As Q3 started, it became apparent that Lewis Hamilton would be unable to take part, suffering from a hybrid system failure in the turbo charger, the same problem that had plagued him in China two weeks earlier. Nico Rosberg went on to secure pole position, even though his last timed lap was compromised by a tyre lockup into turn 13. Sebastian Vettel was closest to Rosberg, but a five-place grid penalty meant that he would start the race from seventh on the grid, moving Valtteri Bottas into the first row. Kimi Räikkönen was fourth fastest, ahead of Massa, Ricciardo, Pérez, Kvyat and Verstappen. After qualifying, Mercedes decided to switch Hamilton's car back to his spare power unit, which had been rebuilt following its failure at the Chinese Grand Prix, thereby avoiding a grid penalty, which they would have incurred if a new power unit would have been installed. Williams were satisfied with their pace in qualifying, praising the advances they made in slow-corner speed. ### Race At the start, several drivers made contact with one another into turn two. Sebastian Vettel was hit in the rear by Daniil Kvyat there and during turn three, the latter of which caused him to crash into the barrier and retire from the competition. Further back, Nico Hülkenberg was hit by Esteban Gutiérrez and collected Rio Haryanto, forcing both Hülkenberg and Haryanto into retirement as well. As the safety car came out to allow for the cars and debris to be cleared from the track, several cars headed to the pit lane to repair damage, among them Daniel Ricciardo, Daniil Kvyat and Sergio Pérez. The order at the restart on lap four was: Rosberg, Räikkönen, Bottas, Massa and Hamilton, who had stayed clear of the incidents to move up to fifth. On the restart, Bottas moved ahead of Räikkönen, while Hamilton made a successful move on Massa into fourth. Kvyat's early pit stop left him in 15th at that point, and he soon served a ten-second stop-and-go penalty for his contacts with Vettel, dropping him to last. Meanwhile, Hamilton overtook Räikkönen to move into third on lap seven. Felipe Nasr came into the pit lane on lap 12 to replace a slow puncture on his tyres. The order at the front remained the same until Bottas became the first front runner to pit for fresh tyres on lap 17. Hamilton followed suit one lap later, but still emerged behind Bottas, overtaking him into turn two another lap later. On lap 20, Räikkönen made a pit stop as well, coming back out behind Hamilton, but ahead of Bottas. All the while, Rosberg led comfortably ahead of Max Verstappen, who made his first stop on lap 23 and dropped back. While racing for position on lap 23, Sainz forced Jolyon Palmer off the track in turn two and was later handed a ten-second time penalty for the incident. Four laps later, Pascal Wehrlein tried to overtake Felipe Nasr for 16th, but was unsuccessful and in turn lost a position to Kvyat. His teammate Ricciardo overtook Kevin Magnussen for eighth on lap 29, but lost the position again and was in turn passed by Romain Grosjean. As Nico Rosberg started to lap backmarkers on lap 31, the gap to second-placed Hamilton started to come down, with his advantage dropping from more than eleven seconds to a little more than seven seconds by lap 36. Meanwhile, Verstappen was forced to retire due to power unit failure on lap 34, while running in sixth place. As Hamilton was told by his pit crew that he suffered from a water pressure problem, his gap to Rosberg started to increase again, staying at 13 seconds by lap 41. Wehrlein made a pit stop for new tyres on the same lap, but problems with his stop forced him stationary for almost a minute, resulting in him moving into last place on the road. On lap 47, Massa made a pit stop for new tyres from fifth place, retaining his position ahead of Fernando Alonso. All the while, Räikkönen was able to close the gap to Hamilton ahead of him to eight seconds on lap 49. On the next lap, Button passed Sainz for tenth and Ricciardo moved ahead of Palmer for 12th another lap later. Rosberg crossed the line to take his seventh consecutive victory, a feat to that point only achieved by Alberto Ascari, Michael Schumacher and Sebastian Vettel. Lewis Hamilton and Kimi Räikkönen rounded up the podium ahead of the two Williams drivers, Valtteri Bottas and Felipe Massa. Rosberg recorded the first Grand Slam of his career, meaning he won the race, recorded the fastest lap, achieved pole position and led every lap. He was the 24th driver in history to achieve the feat. ### Post-race The first lap collision between Kvyat and Vettel that put the latter out of the race was a major talking point afterwards. The two had already been embroiled in an argument after the previous Grand Prix in China, when Vettel felt that Kvyat had caused a collision between the two Ferrari drivers. This time around, Vettel reacted to his retirement with what The Telegraph described as "one of the most explosive outbursts heard over team radio for years". He later demanded an apology from Kvyat, as did Red Bull teammate Ricciardo, who felt that Kvyat, who pushed Vettel into him, had ruined his race as well. Red Bull announced that they would summon Kvyat to talks about the incident, calling their race a "disaster", with Helmut Marko, the team's young driver coordinator, calling him "over-motivated". Kvyat received three penalty points on his licence as a result of the incident. He himself said after the race: "I apologise to everyone who is involved and I will learn from it. I think we have to speak. It is easy now to attack me and I guess everyone will, but I am OK with that." On 5 May, Red Bull announced that they had relegated Kvyat back to their junior squad, Toro Rosso, the team for which he made his début in 2014, for the remainder of the season, switching him with 18-year-old Max Verstappen. Red Bull's team principal Christian Horner explained the driver swap with Verstappen's talent, also stressing that the move to Red Bull would tie him to the team for the foreseeable future. Following multiple collisions shortly after the start, Jenson Button pressed for changes to be made to turn two of the Sochi Autodrom, saying: "The bollard at turn two is the problem at the start because people are trying to fight through turns two and three. I think that needs some looking at." Apart from Kvyat, two more drivers received penalty points to their licences. Two points each were given to Carlos Sainz Jr., who was deemed to have forced Jolyon Palmer off the track and Esteban Gutiérrez, who collided with Nico Hülkenberg at the start. As a result of the race, Nico Rosberg cemented his position at the top of the Drivers' Championship, having taken the maximum number of 100 points available from the first four rounds. Lewis Hamilton followed in second with 57 points, while Kimi Räikkönen moved up to third with 43 points. Vettel's retirement dropped him to fifth in the standings, behind Daniel Ricciardo. In the Constructors' standings, Mercedes increased their points tally to 157, now 81 points clear of second-placed Ferrari. Red Bull's poor performance saw their advantage over fourth placed Williams reduced to just six points. ## Classification ### Qualifying Notes - – Sebastian Vettel received a five place grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change. ### Race ## Championship standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Constructors' Championship standings - Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.

Lysgårdsbakken

Ski jumping hill in Lillehammer, Norway

Lysgårdsbakken, officially known as Lysgårdsbakkene Ski Jumping Arena (Norwegian: Lysgårdsbakkene hoppanlegg), is a ski jumping hill in Lillehammer, Norway. It consists of a large hill, with a K-point of 123 and a hill size of 138, and a small hill with a K-point of 90 and a hill size of 100. It opened in 1993 for the 1994 Winter Olympics, where it hosted the ski jumping and Nordic combined events, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. After the Olympics, ownership was transferred to the municipal Lillehammer Olympiapark and it has since been used for several FIS Ski Jumping World Cup and FIS Nordic Combined World Cup tournaments, including hosting the Nordic Tournament. It has a capacity for 35,000 spectators and is one of three national ski jumping hills in Norway. In 2007, the large hill was rebuilt to a larger profile, and received a new plastic lining. The venue sees 80,000 annual jumps in the winter and 20,000 in the summer season. ## Construction The plans which were approved when Lillehammer were awarded the 1994 Winter Olympics, involved using the existing Balbergbakken in Fåberg, north of Lillehammer. However, the venue was rejected by the broadcasting planners, and instead it was decided that an all-new venue would be built at Lysgård. Financing of the venue was given through a grant issued by the Parliament of Norway on 1 August 1990. Architects were Økaw Arkitekter, with Martin M. Bakken as the main contractor. Construction had already stated earlier in 1990, and it was completed by December 1992. The seating area was made with pre-fabricated concrete elements with metal bars. Temporary buildings and facilities for the opening ceremonies were installed in December 1993, and removed after the Olympics. This included 70 commentator boxes, a media center, and offices for technical personnel. The original construction included plastic on the outrun and porcelain tracks on the small hill, allowing jumping during summer. The venue was placed deep in the terrain to shield the jumpers from the wind while minimizing the venue's impact in the surroundings. The National Association of Norwegian Architects awarded the hill the 1993 Betongtavlen. In 2007, the large hill was renovated. The profile was expanded, increasing the K-point from 120 to 123. In addition, plastic way was laid, allowing both hills to be used during summer. ## Facilities The hill has a capacity for 35,000 spectators, of which 7,500 can be seated. In addition, up to 25,000 people can follow events from free areas around the venue. Auxiliary structures include a start house, a judges tower—which includes office space for organizers and judges—a media building, and a technical room below the stands, as well as a first aid room and restrooms. It also features a high-pressure snow production facility with outtakes all along the approach and outrun. Transport to the tower of the large hill is accessible via a chair lift. During the Olympics, transport to the venues was mostly by railway. Spectators discharged at Lillehammer Station on the Dovre Line and would then walk to the stadium. The small hill has a K-point of 90 and a hill size of 100. It has a 36-degree slope for the outrun and an 11-degree slope for the approach. The height difference is 112 meters (367 ft) and the approach is 82 meters (269 ft) long. Prior to 2007, the large hill had a K-point of 123, a 27.5-degree slope for the outrun and an 11.5-degree slope for the approach. The height difference was 137 meters (449 ft), while the approach is 96.6 meters (317 ft) long. After 2007, the hill size was increased to 138 and the K-point to 123. ## Events During the 1994 Winter Olympics, the venue hosted three ski jumping and two Nordic combined events, in addition to the opening and closing ceremonies. Competition events consisted of individual normal hill, individual large hill, and team large hill in ski jumping, and individual and team small hill for Nordic combined. Lysgårdsbakken is a regular site for FIS Ski Jumping World Cup and FIS Nordic Combined World Cup tournaments. FIS Ski Jumping World Cup has been hosted nearly every year since 1993. Since 2004, with the exception of 2007 and 2010, Lysgårdsbakken is a co-host of the Nordic Tournament. The FIS Nordic Combined World Cup has been hosted nine times, in 1993, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2009, and 2010. All tournaments have been held in December; nine of the ten have had the cross-country skiing part held at nearby Birkebeineren Ski Stadium, while in 2001 the cross-country skiing was held at Beitostølen. Lillehammer is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics, where Lysgårdsbakken would be used for ski jumping and Nordic combined. The hill record for the large hill is 146 meters (479 ft), set by Simon Amman in 2009. The summer record for the large hill is 140.5 meters (461 ft), set by Thomas Lobben in 2007. The winter record for the small hill is 104 meters (341 ft), set by Espen Bredesen during the 1994 Olympics. The summer small hill record is 106.5 meters (349 ft), set by Daniela Iraschko in 2010. The hill is one of three national ski jumping hills in Norway, with the other two being Holmenkollbakken in Oslo and Granåsen in Trondheim. Lysgårdsbakken is regularly used as a training venue, and sees 80,000 winter jumps and 20,000 summer jumps per year. In 2005, the hills were the eleventh-most visited tourist attraction in Norway. The hill has a souvenir shop and visitors are permitted to take the elevator to the top of the hill. Alternatively, tourists can walk the 954 steps to the top. In 2006, a Winter Olympics-themed special of the BBC television show Top Gear was filmed at the Olympic venues around Lillehammer, which included a successful attempt at a ski jump using an unoccupied rocket-powered British Leyland Mk V Mini. KT Tunstall shot the majority of the video for her 2008 single "If Only" at Lysgårdsbakken.

Stepanakert

Capital of Nagorno-Karabakh

Stepanakert (Armenian: Ստեփանակերտ, romanized: Step'anakert, Eastern pronunciation: ) or Khankendi (Azerbaijani: Xankəndi, ) is the de facto capital and the largest city of the breakaway Republic of Artsakh, de jure part of Azerbaijan, located within the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh. The city is located in a valley on the eastern slopes of the Karabakh mountain range, on the left bank of the Qarqarçay (Karkar) river. The area that would become Stepanakert was originally an Armenian settlement named Vararakn. During the Soviet period, the city was made the capital of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, becoming a hub for economic and industrial activity. In addition, the city became a hotbed for political activity, serving as the center for Armenian demonstrations calling for the unification of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia. Stepanakert suffered extensive damage following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the outbreak of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War and passed into the hands of local Armenians with the establishment of the Republic of Artsakh. The city is a regional center of education and culture, being home to Artsakh University, musical schools, and a palace of culture. The economy is based on the service industry and has varied enterprises, food processing, wine making, and silk weaving being the most important. As of 2021, the population of Stepanakert is 75,000. ## Etymology Medieval Armenian sources attest to a settlement in the locale called Vararakn (Armenian: Վարարակն, lit. 'rapid spring'). Vararakn remained the local Armenian name for the town until 1923. Most Azerbaijani sources claim that the settlement was built in late 18th century, as a place of rest for the heads of the Karabakh Khanate. In the first years, it was known as "Khan's village" (Azerbaijani: Xanın kəndi) because only the khan's family and his relatives lived there. By the 19th century, the settlement was renamed Khankendi ("village of the khan" in Azerbaijani). The town was renamed Stepanakert ("city of Stepan") in 1923, after Armenian Bolshevik revolutionary Stepan Shahumian. The name is formed from the words Stepan (Armenian: Ստեփան) and kert (Armenian: կերտ, lit. 'created'). ## History ### Founding and Soviet era According to medieval Armenian sources, the settlement was originally an Armenian village named Vararakn (Armenian: Վարարակն). From the 10th–16th centuries, the settlement was a part of the Armenian Principality of Khachen. Over the centuries, it would successively pass into the hands of the meliks of Karabakh and the Karabakh khans before coming under the control of the Russian Empire in 1822. In the Russian Empire, the town was a part of the Shusha uezd of the Elizavetpol Governorate. According to the 19th-century author Raffi, in 1826, the local Armenian meliks met with the Persian crown prince Abbas Mirza, who had invaded Karabakh with his army, in the village to reconcile with the Persians and ensure the safety of the Karabakh Armenian population. In 1847, Vararakn was a village of about 132 houses, consisting of 80 Armenian households, 52 Russian households, an Armenian church, and a cemetery. That same year, the village was renamed from Vararakn to Khankendi. By 1886, there were 52 houses in the settlement. The population of Khankendi consisted of retired soldiers and their descendants, who belonged to the Russian Orthodox Church. The population was engaged in agriculture, as well as various crafts, carriage, the renting of apartments (mainly to military personnel), and so on. After 1898, the tsarist government turned Khankendi into a Russian military garrison. The garrison consisted of barracks, hospitals, and a church, as well as, several houses where officers' families and a small local population, who supplied the military units with food, lived. The local population consisted of Armenians and Azerbaijanis. In February 1920, after a body thought to be of an Azerbaijani soldier was found, an anti-Armenian riot took place in the village that claimed several hundred lives. Following the massacre of the Armenian population of Shusha in March 1920, the city received an influx of Armenians; as a result, Armenians formed the majority of the population from that time onwards. In the summer of 1920, the city was occupied by part of the Red Army. In 1923, Khankendi was renamed Stepanakert by the Soviet government in honor of Stepan Shahumian, a fallen Bolshevik party member and leader of the 26 Baku Commissars. The former regional capital was Shusha. However, following the depopulation of Armenians in Shusha, the capital of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) was sited in Stepanakert. At the time of the formation of the NKAO, Stepanakert was a dilapidated settlement, where the number of surviving buildings barely reached 10 to 15. Some of the buildings were completely destroyed, others lacked doors and windows, while only walls remained from a number of buildings. During the first years of the oblast, some of the buildings were restored and many were rebuilt, roads were improved, and electricity and telephone communications were installed in the city. In time, Stepanakert grew to become the region's most important city (a status it received in 1940). Its population rose from 10,459 in 1939 to 33,000 in 1978. In 1926, municipal authorities adopted a new city layout designed by Aleksandr Tamanian; two additional designs for expansion were approved in the 1930s and 1960s, both of which retained Tamanian's initial plan. Several schools and two polyclinics were established, and an Armenian drama theater was founded in 1932 and named after Maxim Gorky. In 1960, the ensemble of the central square of Stepanakert was built with the building of the regional committee (now the NKR government). This square, then named after Lenin, became the arena of many rallies demanding the transfer of the NKAO to the Armenian SSR. By 1968, the first outbreak of ethnic violence occurred in Stepanakert. In the city, a trial was held over an Azerbaijani director of the city school who was accused of murdering an Armenian girl. The Armenians, who considered the verdict of the Azerbaijani judge too lenient, gathered outside the court building and burned the car in which the criminal and judge were in. Stepanakert served as Nagorno-Karabakh's main economic hub, and by the mid-1980s there were nineteen factories in operation in the city, including an electrical and asphalt plant. By the end of the Soviet era, Stepanakert had an agricultural technical school, a pedagogical institute, a medical and music school, a local history museum, and a drama theater. ### First Nagorno-Karabakh War and independence The political and economic reforms that General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev undertook in 1985 saw a marked decentralization of Soviet authority. Armenians, in both the Armenian SSR and Nagorno-Karabakh, viewed Gorbachev's reform program as an opportunity to unite the two together. On 20 February 1988, tens of thousands of Armenians gathered to demonstrate in Stepanakert's Lenin Square (now Renaissance Square) to demand that the region be joined to Armenia. On the same day, the Supreme Soviet of Nagorno-Karabakh voted to join the Armenian SSR, a move strongly opposed by the Soviet Azerbaijani authorities. Relations between Stepanakert's Armenians and Azerbaijanis, who supported the Azerbaijani government's position, deteriorated in the following years. Inter-ethnic strife in the city in September 1988, encompassing physical attacks and burning of property, forced nearly all Azerbaijanis to flee the city. The Soviet Army took up positions in the city and announced a curfew three days later. In 1990 the army dispatched special forces units and various other elements to Stepanakert in order to prevent its takeover by Azerbaijani forces. After Azerbaijan declared its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, Stepanakert was renamed Khankendi by the Azerbaijani government. Fighting broke out over control of Nagorno-Karabakh, which, after three years of war, resulted in Armenian control of the region and a connecting corridor to Armenia to the west. Prior to the conflict, Stepanakert was the largest city of the NKAO, with a population of 70,000 out of a total 189,000 (Armenians at the time comprised 75% of the region's total population). By early 1992, that figure had dropped to 50,000. During the war, the city suffered immense damage from Azerbaijani bombardment, especially in early 1992 when the Azerbaijanis positioned BM-21 Grad rocket artillery in Shusha and rained down missiles over Stepanakert. A journalist for Time noted in an April 1992 article that "scarcely a single building [had] escaped damage in Stepanakert." It was not until 9 May 1992, with the capture of Shusha, that the ground bombardment ceased. The city, nevertheless, continued to suffer aerial bombardment until the end of the war. As a result, the majority of the city was in a severely damaged state. As of 2016, the city had not been completely restored from the war. The city came under intense bombardment once again during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war. Residential areas were continuously hit by the Azerbaijani Army with cluster munitions throughout the war, starting on the first day of fighting, and residents were urged to use the city's bomb shelters. As Azerbaijani forces advanced on the city of Shusha, the Lachin corridor was shut down by Artsakh authorities. With Azerbaijani forces 15 km (9.3 mi) from the capital, a ceasefire agreement was signed on 10 November. As part of the agreement, Russian peacekeepers were deployed to the region. Following the war, the population of Stepanakert swelled to 75,000 residents as a result of some 10,000 to 15,000 displaced people who lost their homes elsewhere in the Republic of Artsakh during the war. ## Geography and climate Stepanakert is located on the Karabakh plateau, at an average altitude of 813 m (2,667 ft) above sea level. The city has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) according to the Köppen climate classification system and a semi-arid climate (BS) according to the Trewartha climate classification system. In the month of January, the average temperature drops to 0.5 °C (33 °F). In August, it averages around 22.6 °C (73 °F). Extreme temperatures ranged from −15.0 °C (5 °F) on January 8, 1974 to 37.0 °C (99 °F) on July 11, 1978. ## Politics and government During the period of the USSR, Stepanakert served as the capital of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast within the Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic, between 1923 and 1991. With the self-declared independence of Artsakh in 1991, Stepanakert continued with its status as the political and cultural centre of the newly established republic, being home to all the national institutions: the Government House, the National Assembly, the Presidential Palace, the Constitutional Court, all ministries, judicial bodies and other government organizations. Artsakh has been a presidential republic since the 2017 constitutional referendum. The post of prime minister was abolished and executive power now resides with the president, who is both the head of state and head of government. The president is directly elected for a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. The current president is Arayik Harutyunyan, who was elected in 2020. The National Assembly is a unicameral legislature. It has 33 members who are elected for five-year terms. The city of Stepanakert is governed by the Stepanakert City Council and the mayor of Stepanakert. The last local elections took place in September 2019. The current mayor is Davit Sargsyan. ### Gallery ## Demographics According to the data of the Transcaucasian Statistical Committee, extracted from the family lists of 1886, there were 71 houses and 279 residents registered in Khankendi (recorded as Ханкенды, Khankendy in Russian), of which 276 were Russians, 2 Armenians and 1 Tatar (later known as Azerbaijani), who were respectively Orthodox, Armenian Gregorian and Sunni Muslim by religion. According to the Russian Empire Census of 1897, the village, labelled as Khan-kendy (Russian: Ханъ-кенды), had a population of 1,495 consisting of 801 men and 694 women; there were 628 Armenian Apostolics, 442 Muslims, and 394 Orthodox. According to the 1910 publication of the Caucasian Calendar—a statistical almanac published by the office of the viceroy—there were 362 residents in the village of Khankendy of the Shusha uezd of the Elizavetpol Governorate in 1908, predominantly Russians. The 1912 publication of the Caucasian Calendar registered 1,076 residents, also predominantly Russians. According to the 1915 publication of the Caucasian Calendar, there were 1,550 predominantly Tatar residents in Khankendi. According to the Azerbaijani agricultural census of 1921, Khankendi had a population of 1,208 residents, mostly Armenians. In 1973, Stepanakert had a population of 32,000. ## Religion The late-19th-century church of Vararakn was destroyed in the 1930s to build the Stepanakert Drama Theatre. Throughout the rest of the Soviet era, there were no traditional churches in Stepanakert, although most of the population of the city were members of the Armenian Apostolic Church. The church of Surp Hakob (or Saint James) was opened in 2007; it remained the only open church in the city until 2019. The church was financed by Nerses Yepremian from Los Angeles. The church was consecrated on 9 May 2007, in honor of the 15th anniversary of the capture of Shusha by Armenian forces. The construction of the Holy Mother of God Cathedral was launched on 19 July 2006. The cost of the project was expected to be around US\$2 million and the architect of the church is Gagik Yeranosyan. However, the construction process was slow due to a lack of financial resources. The inauguration of the church was expected to take place in September 2016. Construction finished and the church was opened in 2019. There is a small community of Armenian Evangelicals with around 500 members. The only Armenian evangelical church in Artsakh is located in Stepanakert. The Evangelical community supports many schools, hospitals and other institutions through the help of the Armenian Diaspora. ## Transportation ### Bus Stepanakert is served by a number of regular minibus lines. Old Soviet-era buses have been replaced with new modern buses. Regular trips to other provinces of Nagorno-Karabakh are also operated from the city. ### Air Stepanakert is served by the nearby Stepanakert Airport, north of the city near the village of Ivanyan. In 2009, facilities reconstruction and repair work began. Though originally scheduled to launch the first commercial flights on 9 May 2011, Karabakh officials postponed a new reopening date throughout the whole of 2011. In May 2012, the director of the NKR's Civil Aviation Administration, Tigran Gabrielyan, announced that the airport will begin operations in summer 2012. However, the airport still remains closed due to political reasons. The OSCE Minsk Group, which mediates the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, stated that "operation of [Stepanakert Airport] cannot be used to support any claim of a change in the status of Nagorno-Karabakh" and "urged the sides to act in accordance with international law and consistent with current practice for flights over their territory." ### Railway Stepanakert used to be connected through a railway line with the Yevlakh station on the Baku-Tbilisi railway. However, trips have been discontinued since the start of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. ## Economy Stepanakert is the center of the economy of Artsakh. Prior to the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, the economy of Stepanakert was mainly based on food-processing industries, silk weaving and winemaking. Inhabitants also engaged in producing furniture and footwear. The economy was severely damaged due to the 1988 earthquake in Armenia and the First Nagorno Karabakh war. In the years following, the economy was developed further, mainly due to investments from the Armenian diaspora. However, following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war the economy once again experienced severe damage, particularly in the tourism sector. As of 2021, Stepanakert is slowly recovering from the negative effects of the previous wars on its economy. The most developed sectors of Stepanakert and the rest of the Republic of Artsakh are tourism and services. Several hotels have been opened by diasporan Armenians from Russia, the United States and Australia. Artsakhbank is the largest banking services provider in Artsakh, while Karabakh Telecom is the leading provider of mobile telecommunications and other communication services. Stepanakert is also home to many large industrial firms, including Stepanakert Brandy Factory, Artsakh Berry food products and Artsakh Footwear Factory. Construction is also one of the leading sectors in the city. Artsakh Hek is the leading construction firm, while Base Metals is the leader in mining and production of building materials. ## Culture The Vahram Papazyan Drama Theater of Stepanakert was founded in 1932. In 1967, the monumental complex of Stepanakert known as We Are Our Mountains was erected to the north of Stepanakert, It is widely regarded as a symbol of the Armenian heritage of the historic Artsakh. After the independence of Armenia, many cultural and youth centres were reopened. The cultural palace of the city is named after Charles Aznavour. Stepanakert is home to the Mesrop Mashtots Republican Library opened in 1924, Artsakh History Museum opened in 1939, Hovhannes Tumanyan Children's Library opened in 1947, Stepanakert National Gallery opened in 1982, and the Memorial Museum of the Martyred Liberators opened in 2002. A new cultural complex of the Armenian heritage of Artsakh is under construction. The Artsakh State Museum based in Stepanakert, has an important collection of ancient artifacts and Christian manuscripts. ### Education Stepanakert is the center of higher education in Artsakh. Five higher educational institutions operate in the city: - Artsakh State University, founded in 1969 as a branch of the Baku Pedagogical Institute. In 1973, it was renamed Stepanakert Pedagogical Institute and following the independence of Nagorno-Karabakh, in 1992, it received its current status. The university offers courses spread across seven departments and has 4,500 students. - Stepanakert campus of the Armenian National Agrarian University. - Grigor Narekatsi University (private). - Mesrop Mashtots University (private). - Gyurjyan Institute for Applied Arts (private). Many new schools in Stepanakert were opened from the late 1990s to 2010 with the help of the Armenian diaspora. Existing schools were also renovated with donations from the diaspora. The Stepanakert branch of Tumo Center for Creative Technologies was opened in September 2015, as a result of continued cooperation between the Tumo Centre and the Armenian General Benevolent Union, with the support of mobile operator Karabakh Telecom. ### Sport Football is a popular sport in Nagorno-Karabakh and the city has a renovated football stadium. Since the mid-1990s, football teams from Karabakh started taking part in some domestic competitions in Armenia. Lernayin Artsakh is the football club that represents the city of Stepanakert. The Artsakh national football league was launched in 2009. The non-FIFA affiliated Artsakh national football team was formed in 2012 and played their first competitive match against the unrecognized Abkhazia national football team in Sukhumi on 17 September 2012. The match ended with a 1–1 draw. The following month, on 21 October 2012, Artsakh played the return match at the Stepanakert Republican Stadium against Abkhazia, winning it with a result of 3–0. There is also interest in other sports, including basketball and volleyball. Artsakh athletes also take part with the representing teams and athletes in the Pan-Armenian Games, organized in Armenia. As an unrecognized entity, the athletes of Artsakh compete in international sports competitions under the flag of Armenia. ### Twin towns – sister cities Stepanakert is twinned with: - Montebello, United States: On 25 September 2005, Montebello, California and Stepanakert became sister cities. This prompted a complaint by the ambassador of Azerbaijan to the United States, Hafiz Pashayev, who sent a letter to California leaders, stating that the decision jeopardized peace talks between his country and Armenia. The letter was sent to then-California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, who deferred the letter to Montebello mayor Bill Molinari since it concerned a local, not a state, issue. Molinari responded to Pashayev that the city would go ahead with its plans to inaugurate Stepanakert under the sister city program. Stepanakert's relationship with Montebello is aimed at revitalizing the capital's economic infrastructure and building cultural and educational ties, as well as developing trade and health care between the two cities. Azerbaijan has described this as a contradictory foreign policy of the United States that supports the NKR government and Armenian aggression against Azerbaijan. - Mairiporã, Brazil: Since June 18, 2018, Law 3767/18 has made Eternal Armenia the name that declares Sister Cities the Municipalities of Mairiporã, State of São Paulo, and Stepanakert, capital of the self-declared Nagorno-Karabakh Republic which triggered an alert from Itamaraty, Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, on the attitude of the Municipality as Brazil does not recognize the independence of Nagorno-Karabakh. ### Friendship declarations - On 22 May 1998, Stepanakert and the commune of Villeurbanne in France signed a Friendship Declaration. - On 28 September 2012, Stepanakert and Yerevan, Armenia, the capitals of the two Armenian republics, became friends after signing a partnership agreement. - On 15 September 2014, San Sebastián, Spain, and Stepanakert signed a cooperation agreement. - On 17 May 2015, Stepanakert and the commune of Valence in France signed a Friendship Declaration. - On 3 February 2016, Stepanakert signed a Friendship Declaration with the municipality of Franco da Rocha, Brazil. - On 23 July 2019, Stepanakert signed a Friendship Declaration with the City of Ryde, Australia. ## Notable people - Armen Abaghian – Armenian academic - André – Armenian singer - Don Askarian – Armenian filmmaker - Vladimir Arzumanyan – Armenian singer, winner of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2010 - Samvel Babayan – Armenian military general - Zori Balayan – Armenian writer - Karen Karapetyan – 14th Prime Minister of Armenia - Robert Kocharyan – second President of Armenia - Fakhraddin Manafov – Azerbaijani actor - Bakhshi Galandarli – Azerbaijani theatrical figure, actor and director. - Serzh Sargsyan – third President of Armenia - Roza Sarkisian – theatre director in Ukraine - Nikolay Yenikolopyan – Soviet Armenian chemist, academician - Gor Manvelyan – professional footballer

History of Wat Phra Dhammakaya

History of a Thai Buddhist temple

Wat Phra Dhammakaya (Thai: วัดพระธรรมกาย) is a Buddhist temple in Thailand. It was founded in 1970 by the maechi (nun) Chandra Khonnokyoong and Luang Por Dhammajayo. The temple's founding has roots in the Dhammakaya tradition founded by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen in the early 20th century. Wat Phra Dhammakaya is known for its modern dissemination methods and use of technology. The temple was initially founded as a meditation center, after Maechi Chandra and the just ordained monk Luang Por Dhammajayo could no longer accommodate the rising number of participants in their activities at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen, becoming an official temple in 1977. The temple experienced rapid growth during the 1980s, when the temple's programs became widely known among the urban middle class. Wat Phra Dhammakaya expanded its area quickly during this period and started building its iconic stupa (pagoda). During the period of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, however, the temple was subject to widespread criticism for its fundraising methods and teachings, Luang Por Dhammajayo was eventually charged with embezzlement and removed from his office as abbot. In 2006, the charges were withdrawn and he was restored as abbot. The temple grew further in the following years and became known for its many projects in education, promotion of ethics, and scholarship in Thai society. The temple's tradition developed an international scope, as of 2007, the temple's following was estimated at one million practitioners worldwide and thirty to fifty international centers outside of Thailand. Under the 2014 military junta, the abbot and the temple were put under scrutiny again and Luang Por Dhammajayo was accused of receiving stolen money of a supporter and money-laundering. This incident led to several standoffs between the temple and the junta, eventually leading to 23 day lock down of the temple in 2017 by the junta that made headlines worldwide. In the aftermath of the lock down the junta stated they will look for Luang Por Dhammajayo elsewhere but continued its scrutiny of the temple, giving the vice abbot, Luang Por Dattajivo several charges as well. ## Founding years (1963–1978) ### First encounters Wat Phra Dhammakaya started with the maechi (nun) Chandra Khonnokyoong. She was a notable student of Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro, when he was still alive. Although illiterate, she was widely respected for her experience in meditation, which is rare for a maechi. She managed to attract many well-educated students, despite her rural background and illiteracy. After Luang Pu Sodh died in 1959, Maechi Chandra transmitted the Dhammakaya tradition to a new generation at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen. She taught meditation; one of her pupils was a university student called Chaiyabun Sutthiphon. His parents were Lao Song and Thai-Chinese, and separated when he was young. Chaiyabun was raised by his father, who was an engineer working for a government agency. Chaiyabun developed a strong interest in reading, especially in books on Buddhist practice and biographies of leading people in the world, both religious and political, and read about Maechi Chandra in a magazine. In 1963, while enrolled in Kasetsart University, he started visiting Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen. It was here that he first met Maechi Chandra and started to learn meditation with her. Chaiyabun encouraged his fellow university students to join the activities at Wat Paknam, and the community grew. One of these students was Phadet Phongsawat. In Wat Phra Dhammakaya's biographies, it is told that Phadet often held public demonstrations of black magic (คาถา, ไสยศาสตร์) to his fellow students in his years at Kasetsart University. However, every time Chaiyabun joined to watch one of Phadet's demonstrations, the magic would not work. Phadet therefore became curious, and learnt about Dhammakaya meditation from Chaiyabun. He felt inspired by Chaiyabun's sincerity in meditation and his adherence to the Buddhist five precepts. ### From Wat Paknam to Wat Phra Dhammakaya In the beginning, the meditations and teachings were carried out in a small house called "Ban Dhammaprasit" in the compound of Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen. Chaiyabun had set up a group called "Dhammaprasit" and this group had financed the house together in which to organize meditations. Once Chaiyabun was ordained as a monk in 1969 and received the name Phra Dhammajayo, he started teaching Dhammakaya meditation together with Maechi Chandra. Because of the popularity of both teachers, the house soon became overcrowded with interested students and they considered it more appropriate to start a new meditation center by themselves. Although initially they intended to buy a plot of land in Pathum Thani, the landowner Khunying Prayat Suntharawet gave a plot four times the requested size to practice generosity at the occasion of her birthday. On 20 February 1970, Maechi Chandra, Phra Dhammajayo, Phra Dattajivo and their students moved to the 196-rai (313,600 m² or 77.5-acre) plot of land to found a meditation center. Phra Dhammajayo later became abbot of the temple and was called Luang Por Dhammajayo from then on, and Pongsawat was ordained with the name Luang Por Dattajivo and became deputy abbot. The site, sixteen kilometres (9.9 mi) north of Don Mueang International Airport, was originally called "Sun Phutthachak-patipattham" (ศูนย์พุทธจักรปฏิบัติธรรม). At the time Pathum Thani was well outside Bangkok's northern suburbs. From acidic paddy fields, a woodland was created to be a park for meditation practitioners. The initial budget for construction was very low (3,200 Baht), but despite these economical constraints, the construction of the buildings on the land was able to continue. A book about the initiative was compiled, to inspire people to join in and help. In the accounts of the temple, it is told that the construction happened with great attention for detail. For example, the outside of the wall of the Ubosot was made of gravel that was selected manually. Because the land at first was very acidic, only wattle could be planted. Later on, the soil improved. Though originally the intention was simply to build a center—as a satellite meditation center of Wat Paknam—eventually, this was changed to building a full-fledged temple, under pressure from the authorities who wanted the place to be properly registered. The foundation stone for the Ubosot was laid by Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn on behalf of King Bhumibol Adulyadej in December 1977. The following year it was officially recognized as a temple by the Thai government, as "Wat Voranee Dhammakayaram", named after the daughter of Khunying Prayat, Voranee. However, there was disagreement as to who should become the abbot of the temple, and how the temple should develop further: Voranee then stopped supporting the temple. In 1982, the temple therefore left out the daughter's name and renamed itself "Wat Phra Dhammakaya". The main concept of the temple from the start was to be "a school for teaching ethics to society at large", which the founders believed a temple should be. ### Start of Dhammadayada program In 1972, Wat Phra Dhammakaya started a program called Dhammadayada ('heirs of the Dhamma'), a meditation training program focused on university students. Wat Phra Dhammakaya emphasized youth and young adults in its orientation from its outset. The Buddhist societies of many of Thai universities and colleges were led by supporters of the temple, many coming from the Dhammadayada program, though in the mid-1990s this influence grew weaker. In 1981, the temple also started organizing a contest called 'Path of Progress' (ทางก้าวหน้า). In this program, schools all over Thailand competed in their knowledge of Buddhist ethics, which was designed to complement the national education system, which the temple believed had become too secularized. Due to the large number of students joining the temple's activities, who in the 1970s tended to be leftist, for a brief period Wat Phra Dhammakaya was accused of supporting the Communist insurgency in Thailand and the student uprisings in the 1970s. Spokespeople of the temple describe the role of Maechi Chandra in the early period of the temple as a 'chief commander' (Thai: jomthap), whereas Luang Por Dhammajayo is depicted as a 'chief of staff' (Thai: senathikan) developing proper plans, whereas Luang Por Dattajīvo is described as the practical manager. During the years to follow, Maechi Chandra's role would gradually become less, as she grow older and withdrew more to the background of the temple's organization. ## Exponential growth (1979–1996) ### Further development of the Dhammadayada program After 1979, the Dhammadayada program began to include a temporary ordination. In Thailand, it had been a tradition for men to ordain for the monastic rains retreat (vassa) as a rite of passage before becoming adult. These ordinations were becoming shorter, and the temple was trying to reverse this trend. During such a training program at the temple, participants typically started off with rigorous physical training to prepare themselves for the program. When the training started, they kept the eight precepts, slept under mosquito nets in the open air, and meditated for four to eight hours per day. After this preparatory training, they ordained for the remaining period of at least one month. Ordination ceremonies were held at Wat Benchamabophit. The program initially focused on university students, starting with the network of friends of Luang Por Dhammajayo and Luang Por Dattajivo. During the period of the temple's construction, the Dhammadayada ordination plan gave training to hundreds of students, who swelled the number of residents in the temple community. For monks who stayed on for longer, ordaining for life was emphasized more than in other temples, though considerable screening took place before someone could do so. For women, a parallel training program was held from 1986 onward, in which the eight precepts were kept, but the women did not receive full ordination in the manner of bhikkhunis. ### Appeal The temple gained great popularity during the 1980s (during the Asian economic boom), especially among the growing well-educated and entrepreneurial middle class, mostly small-business owners and technocrats of Sino-Thai origin. Royalty and high-standing civil servants also started to visit the temple, including the generals Arthit Kamlang-ek and Chaovalit Yongchaiyuth. During this period the temple experienced tremendous growth in terms of monks, lay workers and temple visitors. The temple therefore established a screening procedure for newcomer employees. Maechi Chandra set rules and regulations for the community, including a prohibition on political lobbying and selling things in the temple. Wat Phra Dhammakaya emphasized values of prosperity, modernity and personal development, which made it attractive for the middle class, especially during times of quick cultural and social changes. By the mid-1980s, the temple was attracting up to fifty thousand people for major ceremonies. The Dhammadaya ordination program started out with sixty participants in 1979; by 1986, over a thousand participants joined. In 1990, the temple had 260 monks, 214 samaneras (novices that are minors) and 441 full-time employees. In 1995, Wat Phra Dhammakaya caught the nation's attention when a Magha Puja celebration was broadcast live on television, with the then Crown Prince Vajiralongkorn as chairman of the ceremony. ### Other activities Wat Phra Dhammakaya became known for its emphasis on meditation, especially samatha meditation (meditation aiming at tranquility of mind). Every Sunday morning, meditation was taught to the public. Every weekend a meditation retreat was held at the temple at no cost. For these weekends, the temple started using the word dhutanga ('ascetic practice') for accommodation in the open air, a word normally used for monastic practice. Seven-day retreats were held regularly at several locations, during which participants were required to keep the eight precepts. Also, special retreats were led by Luang Por Dhammajayo himself in Doi Suthep. With regard to the three Trainings (Pali: tisikkha) in Buddhist teaching, the temple was described as the temple that represents the meditation aspect (Pali: samadhi), whereas the Santi Asoke movement represents the discipline aspect (Pali: sila) and Luang Por Buddhadasa and his followers the wisdom aspect (Pali: pañña). One of the core activities of the temple, since its inception, has been the ceremony of 'honoring the Buddhas by food' (บูชาข้าวพระ), held every first Sunday of the month. This ceremony was so important to the temple's adherents that people from all over the country traveled by bus to join it, from urban and rural areas. It was usually led by the abbot himself, and, up until her death, by Maechi Chandra Khonnokyoong too. According to the temple's practitioners, in this ceremony food is offered to the Buddhas in meditation. The ceremony has been an important aspect of the temple's attractiveness to the public. The temple also started to develop a social dimension in its activities. For example, it started promoting blood donations. The temple organized training programs for both the private and public sector, emphasizing peace and stability in society by training government officers to be more reliable. The temple also became active in promoting Buddhist scholarship and educational reform in the Sangha (monastic community), producing a CD with searchable texts of the Pali Canon in 1984, in cooperation with the Pali Text Society, Mahidol University and the University of California in Berkeley. In 1990, the temple also organized its first academic seminar Buddhism into the Year 2000, with over a hundred international scholars joining. On a more local level, the temple started to organize a yearly congratulation ceremony for Pali graduates at the highest level, and offered funds to temples that excelled at teaching Pali. The temple was known to have wide support from the Thai Sangha and was tolerated by the government, though at times the government asked the temple to limit its mass assemblies. In 1985, the Department of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Education, prohibited the building of a meditation center in a rural area, citing as a reason that it was not accessible enough for people to visit. Fuengfusakul concludes that during this period the government was afraid of the temple's ability to gather a large number of people. In 1986, the Dhammakaya Foundation became a United Nations-accredited non-governmental organization, and started sending delegations to join workshops on youth and peace education. As of 2015, the foundation was in consultative status with the Economic and Social Council. In the 1980s, the foundation also became a member of the World Fellowship of Buddhist Youth and the World Fellowship of Buddhists networks, and later the chairman of the World Fellowship of Buddhist Youth. The foundation started to build up many relations with Buddhist organizations outside of Thailand, including Fo Guang Shan in Taiwan and the Ten Thousand Buddhas Monastery in Hong Kong, with Wat Phra Dhammakaya and Fo Guang Shan officially declaring each other sister temples in 1994. From 1992 onwards, the temple started to found its first branch centers, in the United States, Japan and Taiwan. ### Construction The Ubosot was completed in 1982, and the ceremony for allocating of the Ubosot's boundary was held three years later. In 1984, Wat Phra Dhammakaya started expanding the temple's ground with two thousand rai (3.2 km²). Surrounding land was bought from a land owner, on the condition that the temple would deal with the sixty-one farmers who rented the land. The temple offered the renting farmers the option to end the contract early and obtain a compensation, or to stay until the contract ended and then leave. Seven farmers disagreed with both proposals, however, and the temple raised its offer, but to no avail. The resisting farmers then organized a protest, which was joined by a hundred land tenants from other places who felt unfairly treated by real estate firms. The protest, which was featured in all major Thai newspapers, ended with the tenants handing over a letter at a government office, asking for justice. The government investigated the temple's case, but concluded that the temple had acted lawfully. Outraged by the outcome, a number of protesters destroyed some parts of Wat Phra Dhammakaya's temple grounds, and the mob leader was arrested and imprisoned. The local municipality had to mediate and was able to persuade some of the farmers to accept the temple's proposal. Wat Phra Dhammakaya stated that they believed the protests were stirred up by investors who wanted the land for themselves. In 1994, the temple began designing for the building of a huge stupa (a mound-like structure) which was later to become known as the Maha Dhammakaya Cetiya. The monument would be built to last for a thousand years, and would consist of a million Buddha images. An experienced architect and experienced engineers were employed, and the latest technology was used in the construction, to meet the demands of the project and to follow the traditions of cetiyas and stupas. Though traditionally stupas were often financed by kings, the Dhammakaya Cetiya was to be financed by people of all parts of society, all contributing their part. Attempts were made to involve the devotees of the temple through different stages of construction, through organizing meditations around the Cetiya, and holding ceremonies, in which people were given hammers to symbolically hit a foundation pile into the ground. The first pile was put in place on September 8, 1995. ## First clash with government (1997–2000) ### The miracle controversy In the late 1990s, Wat Phra Dhammakaya became known for its modern management and iconography, and became active in using modern media and public relations, to a scale which was until then unknown in Thailand. The temple even received a prize for best marketing strategies from the Marketing Association of Thailand, despite its earlier prohibition on commercial practices in the temple. In 1998, the temple first started to hold large-scale training programs, for laymen (13,824 participants) laywomen (140,000 participants) and samaneras (13,842 participants). The temple received much financial support, including donations from real-estate firms. In November 1998, after a ceremony held at the Cetiya of the temple, the temple reported in brochures and national newspapers that a miracle (อัศจรรย์ตะวันแก้ว) had occurred at the Cetiya, which was witnessed by thousands of people. The miracle involved seeing an image of a Buddha or of Luang Pu Sodh imposed on the sun. Shortly afterwards, the Thai media responded very critically, leading to a nationwide, very intense debate about the state of Thai Buddhism in general, and Wat Phra Dhammakaya in particular, that lasted for an unusually long ten months. Critics believed that Wat Phra Dhammakaya, and Thai Buddhism in general, had become too much of a commercial enterprise (พุทธพาณิชย์) and had grown corrupt; practitioners and temple devotees argued tradition was being followed. The main criticism was that the temple was using fundraising methods that did not fit in with Buddhism. Examples that were pointed out were the fact that fundraising resembled direct sales, the distribution of amulets to donors as complementary gifts and the use of modern technology. Scholars in Buddhism, such as Luang Por Payutto, social critic Sulak Sivaraksa, as well as two monks who formerly lived at the temple, all argued against the temple's fundraising methods. Moreover, some teachings of the temple were criticized: the idea that large donations yield greater fruits or merit, and the idea that Nibbana was the true self. (See § Principles, practices and beliefs) Although many of these methods and teachings were not unique to Wat Phra Dhammakaya, the criticism came at a moment when the temple had become very noticeable due to its size, its high-profile supporters, and due to the project of building the Cetiya, which required a lot of funds. All of this was against the backdrop of the financial crisis that Thailand was going through. Wat Phra Dhammakaya replied to the critics of the Cetiya building project that the building had begun before the crisis, when the economy was still booming; therefore, the timing was not wrong. The temple also raised examples of other important Thai building projects that had been realized during crises. Finally, the temple posed the question: if, despite the crisis, people were still buying alcohol and cigarettes and still going to the movies, then what was wrong with donating for a religious building? The temple also responded to its critics about the accusations of wealth, stating that the temple's wealth was used for the laypeople and Buddhist education, not for other purposes. Building large buildings benefited Buddhism as a whole, not just the temple, because it helped strengthen the religion. Apart from donating to hospitals or schools, financially supporting Buddhism should also be done, because it would help foster ethics in society. ### Investigations and lawsuits Under pressure of public outcry and critics, January 1999 the Sangha Supreme Council started an investigation in the accusations, led by Luang Por Ñanavaro [th], Chief of the Greater Bangkok Region. The Sangha Council declared that Wat Phra Dhammakaya had not broken any serious offenses against monastic discipline (Vinaya) that were cause for defrocking (removal from monkhood), but four directives were given for the temple to improve itself: setting up an Abhidhamma school, more focus on vipassana meditation, and strict adherence to the rules of the Vinaya and regulations of the Sangha Council. One of the accusations Luang Por Ñanavaro investigated was that Luang Por Dhammajayo had moved land donated to the temple to his own name. Wat Phra Dhammakaya denied this, stating that it was the intention of the donors to give the land to the abbot, and not the temple. Nevertheless, Luang Por Ñanavaro asked the Religious Affairs Department [th] to assist Luang Por Dhammajayo in returning the land to the temple. The abbot stated he was willing to transfer the land, but this required some time, because it required negotiation with the original donors. When by May the temple had not moved all the land yet, a number of things happened. First, a letter was leaked to the press which was signed by the Supreme Patriarch (head of the Thai monastic community). This implied that Luang Por Dhammajayo had to disrobe because he had not transferred donated land back to the temple. A warning had preceded this letter, which government officials said had not yet been forwarded to the Sangha Council and Wat Phra Dhammakaya. The statement had a great impact. In response, the Religious Affairs Department pressed criminal charges of embezzlement against the abbot and a close aide. The temple stated that, being subject to a criminal lawsuit (as opposed to a religious trial [th]), the abbot would no longer transfer the land, because this might be interpreted as acceptance of guilt. Wat Phra Dhammakaya and the Sangha Council requested the department to wait until the monastic trials were finished first, but it continued the lawsuit. Moreover, the department set up a public help-desk and post office box to receive complaints about the temple, security officials of other departments stated they "were closely monitoring Dhammachayo", and Prince Vajiralongkorn personally showed an interest in the investigations. With the resulting witness accounts, more charges were laid against Luang Por Dhammajayo. In the process of these investigations, the main politicians responsible, that is the Minister and Deputy Minister of Education, were both replaced, with the new Minister Somsak Prissanananthakul assuming a key role in the judicial processes against the abbot. In June, the prosecutors started summoning Luang Por Dhammajayo, but he did not go to acknowledge the charges, citing bad health. The temple cited the legal rights of monks under the constitution, pointing out that possessing personal property is common and legal in the Thai Sangha. Spokespeople also questioned the authenticity of the letter of the Patriarch.. Luang Por Dhammajayo then declared publicly that he would not disrobe under any circumstances, but "would die in the [monk's] saffron robes". When the Prime Minister himself pressured the abbot to acknowledge the charges, the temple asked for a guarantee that the abbot would not be imprisoned and consequently defrocked. No such guarantee was given, an arrest warrant followed, and a standoff began between a police force of hundreds, and thousands of the temple's practitioners, in which the latter barricaded the temple's entrances. After two days, Luang Por Dhammajayo agreed to let the police take him when the requested guarantee was given, and a Sangha Council member threatened to defrock the abbot if he did not go with the police. The abbot was interrogated for three hours, but not defrocked. Then he was released on a bail of two million baht, still on the same day. The news made headlines worldwide. From November onward, Luang Por Dhammajayo started visiting the court for the first time. The Ministry of Education also accused Luang Por Dhammajayo of having stated that the Tipitaka (Buddhist scriptures) was incomplete. This accusation was religious in nature, however, and would normally only be made by other monks in a monastic trial. Luang Por Ñanavaro and Wat Phra Dhammakaya therefore questioned the jurisdiction of laypeople in this matter. Indeed, despite certain powers that the ministry had about religious matters, in the 1990s, there was no law against "heresy" in Thailand. Nevertheless, religious and state officials continued to assert that the temple's teachings constituted criminal offenses. Eventually it was decided that the charges could be pressed, as long as the accuser in the final trial was a monk. A period of investigation passed by, after which Luang Por Ñanavaro insisted that the Sangha Council's four-point advice had been sufficient. Discussions arose in the media, questioning the authority of the Thai Sangha and government to deal with problems within the Thai Sangha, and Luang Por Ñanavaro was removed from the Sangha Council and replaced. Meanwhile, Luang Por Dhammajayo was suspended as abbot, as the trials continued and Luang Por Dhammajayo's deputies continued to manage the temple. The chief monk overseeing the local temples in the area had to be removed from office in the process, because he refused to suspend Luang Por Dhammajayo. Luang Por Dhammajayo had fallen ill and was hospitalized with throat and lung infections. In the 2000s, the controversies gradually lost the interest of the public, as the news focused on other topics, although in 2002 a fifth charge against the abbot was added to the list. The trials proceeded slowly, as the hearings were postponed because of evidence that was not ready, and because of the abbot's illness. ### The temple's response During the Supreme Sangha's investigations, the temple responded little to the accusations. But when the Ministry of Education decided to no longer wait on the Sangha Council's investigations, and pressed charges on Wat Phra Dhammakaya, the temple responded by suing for malicious prosecution. The temple accused several leading people in the Ministry of abusing their position, and petitioned the Constitutional Court, calling the religious charges a violation of freedom of religion. Spokespeople and proponents of the temple described the response of the ministry and the media as "stirring up controversy", and politically motivated. During this period, many news reporters used pejorative language in describing the Sangha Council, the Supreme Patriarch, or Wat Phra Dhammakaya. In May 1999, monastic chiefs of regions [th] nationwide sent a letter to the Prime Minister to help protect Buddhism and pressure media to use more polite language and show more respect for judicial processes. News reporters would often use abusive or pejorative language describing the temple or Luang Por Dhammajayo, such as 'idiot with glasses' (ไอ้แว่น) or simply calling Luang Por Dhammajayo by his first name used as a layman, "Chaiyabun", as though he had already been defrocked. December 1999, Wat Phra Dhammakaya sued the newspapers Matichon, Siam Rath, Khao Sod, Daily News and the television station ITV. The temple laid civil and criminal charges for slander, accusing the media outlets for depicting the temple in a distorted way. In 2001 and 2003, ITV, Siam Rath, and Matichon were found guilty of slander and forced by verdict to issue a public apology in their newspapers, admitting to publishing distorted information about Luang Por Dhammajayo trading in stock, transferring money to mistresses, and other accusations. Siam Rath was also found guilty of violating the authority of the court, by publishing incorrect information on a verdict. The charges laid against Daily News were dismissed, however, because of being laid too late. Although the period of intense media attention of 1999–2000 had disastrous effects on the temple, the temple still continued to organize projects, ceremonies and other events. The temple persuaded supporters nationwide to open their homes or workplaces as kalyanamitta homes ('houses of good Dhamma friends'), for establishing a culture of shared meditation practice and wisdom. In 2000, during a celebration of the new millennium at the newly built Dhammakaya Cetiya, 300,000 people joined. Many monks from different temples of Thailand joined as well, and temples and NGOs from outside of Thailand. This period also brought Boonchai Bencharongkul to the temple, then CEO of the telecommunications company DTAC. In 1999, the temple had thirteen centers outside of Thailand. When in 2000 the Thai Maharat Party was founded, it was suspected the temple had a hand in it. Founder Kanin Boonsuwan denied the temple's influence in the founding, although he admitted some of its members were Dhammakaya practitioners. In 2000, Maechi Chandra Konnokyoong died. The temple announced it would give people the time to pay their respects for several months, after which Maechi Chandra's remains would be cremated. ## Nationwide activities (2001–2006) The period of 2001 to 2006 was the period that Thaksin Shinawatra came into power. It was a period of increased democratization and diversification of civil society in Thailand, as the Thai parliament withdrew itself from religious affairs. The temple thrived on this, though the temple did work on similar objectives as the government in terms of education, health care and even national security. The temple was no longer at the margins of the religious landscape in Thailand, but started to integrate itself within the Maha Nikaya fraternity. It was the period the temple cremated their teacher Maechi Chandra, and it was a period that the temple started to expand its activities to a national scale. ### Cremation of Maechi Chandra Khonnokyoong On 3 February 2002, Maechi Chandra's remains were cremated, and abbots of 30,000 temples were invited to join the cremation, to give the lay people the chance to make merit in gratitude to Maechi Chandra. During the cremation, there was merit-making and meditation. 100,000 monks and another 100,000 laypeople joined the cremation. Many high-standing guests joined, including the Supreme Patriarch of Cambodia. Maechi Chandra's remains were burnt in a grand ceremony, using glass to ignite the fire by sun light. Her ashes were kept in a small stupa. Critics said the cremation was too grand for a nun, but the Religious Affairs Department said it was the temple's right to organize the event at this scale. Scott cites Maechi Chandra's cremation as evidence that some female religious leaders have had a great impact on Thai society. ### Campaigns against drinking and smoking In the 2000s, the temple began to focus more on promoting an ethical lifestyle, using the five and eight precepts as a foundation. Nationwide people were encouraged to quit drinking and smoking through a campaign called The Lao Phao Buri (เทเหล้าเผาบุหรี่, literally: 'throw away alcohol and burn cigarettes'), cooperating with other religious traditions. This project led the World Health Organization (WHO) to present a World No Tobacco Day Award to Luang Por Dhammajayo on 31 May 2004. Over two hundred The Lao Phao Buri ceremonies were held, involving literally the pouring away of alcoholic beverages and the burning of cigarettes. The ceremonies were later to become a regular practice in schools and government institutions. The temple's campaign became more widely known when in 2005 the beverage company Thai Beverage announced its intention to list in the Stock Exchange of Thailand, which would be the biggest listing in Thai history. Despite attempts by the National Office of Buddhism (a government agency) to prohibit monks from protesting, two thousand monks of the temple organized a chanting of Buddhist texts in front of the Stock Exchange to pressure them to decline Thai Beverage's initial public offering. In an unprecedented cooperative effort, the temple was soon followed suit by former Black May revolt leader Chamlong Srimuang and the Santi Asoke movement. Subsequently, another 122 religious and social organizations joined, belonging to several religions and reaching numbers of 10,000 protesters. The organizations asked Prime Minister Thaksin to stop the company, in what some of the protest leaders described as "a grave threat to the health and culture" of Thai society. While the Stock Exchange pointed out the economical benefits of this first local listing, opponents referred to rising alcohol abuse in Thai society, ranking fifth in alcohol consumption according to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Ultimately, the protests led to an indefinite postponement of the listing by the Stock Exchange. Thai Beverage chose to list in Singapore instead, as the Stock Exchange chief resigned as a result. ### International meditation and the tsunami memorials The temple broadened its activities to a more national scope. The temple started its own satellite channel called Dhammakaya Media Channel (DMC), and a university that supports distance learning. The temple started to use this satellite channel to broadcast live events to branch centers, such as guided meditations. Wat Phra Dhammakaya started to develop a more international approach to its teachings, teaching meditation in not-Buddhist countries as a religiously neutral technique suitable for those of all faiths, or none. An international Dhammadayada program was also started, held in Chinese and English, and the temple started to organize retreats in English language in Thailand and abroad. Later on, guided meditations were also held online, in different languages. The temple was the first new religious organization in Thailand to effectively use Internet technology in disseminating their teachings. In 2004, Wat Phra Dhammakaya made headlines when it offered aid to victims of the 2004 tsunami disaster in Thailand, through charity and by organizing inter-faith memorial services for the victims in Phang Nga and Phuket. The temple acted as an intermediary in the coordination between the government and NGOs. The Path of Progress contest started to expand (as of 2006, 19,839 schools, according to the temple) and a number of schools in other countries started to compete in their knowledge of Buddhist ethics as well. ### Charges withdrawn In 2006, the running lawsuits ended when the Attorney-General of Thailand [th] withdrew the charges against Luang Por Dhammajayo. He stated that Luang Por Dhammajayo had moved all the land to the name of the temple, that he had corrected his teachings according to the Tipitaka, and that continuing the case might create division in society, and would not be conducive to public benefit. Furthermore, Luang Por Dhammajayo had assisted the Sangha, the government and the private sector significantly in organizing religious activities. Luang Por Dhammajayo's position as an abbot was subsequently restored. Critics questioned whether the charges were withdrawn because of the political influence of Prime Minister Thaksin. When PM Thaksin was in power, the temple was often accused of having close ties to him, influencing his policies. The temple has denied this, saying that all political parties are welcome in the temple. In 2006, before the charges were withdrawn, Wat Phra Dhammakaya hosted a meeting of 78,540 local administrators, led by PM Thaksin, themed Every religion working together for local development. The meeting was held as a form of inter-faith dialogue between Buddhists, Christians and Muslims, in which speakers of each religion explained their views on local economical and social development. Critics argued this was a political rally, but the government and the temple stated that the temple simply offered a venue which was hard to find elsewhere, and the temple did not take part in the actual event. Although the temple did have similar methods as Thaksin to build a mass support base, and raise funds, the political connection with the Red Shirts was not so self-evident. Some major supporters of the temple were publicly known as members of the Yellow Shirts political pressure group, which was strongly opposed to PM Thaksin. At least one Red Shirt leader has later come out to state that there is no link between Wat Phra Dhammakaya and the Red Shirt pressure group. Anthropologist Jim Taylor believes the temple's involvement in political agendas was most intensive in the early period, but after that had become less, and in 2017 described the temple as "stoically politically neutral, aloof". A Prachatai columnist argued that there may be some relation between Dhammakaya, Thaksin and his party, but to equate Thaksin with Dhammakaya and Somdet Chuang, or to equate devotees of Dhammakaya with Red Shirts, would be going too far. As for the temple's spokespeople, in a widely cited survey of political opinion among Thai monastics, the temple stated they did not choose any political side. They did disagree with the coup d'état as a political solution as opposed to a peaceful solution. As of 2006, the community living at Wat Phra Dhammakaya numbered over a thousand monks and samaneras, and hundreds of laypeople. The temple also had two thousand volunteers for help in ceremonies. Although, like most Thai temples, the temple had no formal sense of membership, congregations on Sundays and major religious holidays, such as Kathina or Magha Puja, were estimated at over a hundred thousand people. Worldwide, the temple's following was estimated at one million practitioners. ## Wider public engagement (2007–2013) ### Educational and scholarly programs In April 2007, while a government-appointed council was working on drafting a new constitution, a march of two thousand monks and lay people was held to press the council to include in the new constitution that Buddhism become the state religion of Thailand. Wat Phra Dhammakaya supported the march. Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont stated, however, that such a clause was not feasible, as it would lead to rejection of the draft. From 2008 onward, the temple extended its youth activities to include a training course in Buddhist practice known as , and a yearly national day of Buddhist activities. In the V-Star course, children were encouraged to observe ten daily practices, among which paying respect to their parents, and chanting Buddhist texts before sleeping. Students were also encouraged to lead Kathina ceremonies in local temples. The point of these practices was to create good habits, fostered through a cooperation between parents, teachers and monks (บ้าน วัด โรงเรียน, shortened as บวร). On a yearly V-Star day the children normally meditated and chanted, but also listened to Buddhist teachings, watched an exhibition and solved problems about those teachings. They confirmed their Buddhist faith through a refuge ceremony. The day closed by watching a 3D movie with a Buddhist theme. As of 2014, five thousand schools joined the program. Together these programs were called the 'World Morality Revival' (ฟื้นฟูศีลธรรมโลก) project, using the slogan "knowledge combined with virtue". The project became noticeable quite soon, when former PM Thaksin Shinawatra and Deputy PM Somchai Wongsawat were guest speakers on the 2008 V-Star Day. To promote these programs further, Wat Phra Dhammakaya started cooperating extensively with the Ministry of Education, the temple's education department signing an MoU (Memorandum Of Understanding) with the Office of the Basic Education Commission (OBEC) in 2010. Shortly after signing the MoU, however, the Minister of Education asked a commission to review the programs mentioned in it. The ministry was criticized by a network of scholars, led by Sulak Sivaraksa, for being too personally involved with the temple. The contents of the proposed programs were also questioned. The minister issued a press release, stating the involvement was merely professional, but he would be careful as the project would become more concrete. As the plans evolved, it became clear the temple wanted to offer training programs to millions of youth through the entire country. Essential to the project was the idea that teachers would work more together to promote good morals in education. Criticism did not stop, however, and the program was brought to a halt, only to be revived by Yingluck Shinawatra's government. Three nationwide training programs were held in the period of 2010 to 2013. Programs involved meditation, Buddhist teaching and keeping eight precepts. The OBEC often defended the project, saying that nationwide many temples were involved in the project, not just Wat Phra Dhammakaya, as well as many organizations promoting Buddhist education. Also, in this period, Wat Phra Dhammakaya started to invest more resources in its own education and scholarship. In 2009, Wat Phra Dhammakaya had the highest number of Pali (language of the Theravada Buddhist canon) graduates in the central area of Thailand. The temple was continuously ranked as one of the five highest in the country in Pali studies. In 2010, Wat Phra Dhammakaya started the Dhammachai Tipitaka Project, providing facilities for scholars worldwide to work together collecting ancient manuscripts, mostly from Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand, to make a critical edition of the Pali Canon, the Theravada Buddhist scriptures. This edition was to provide the technology and comparative data for scholars to come to a reconstruction of the Tipitaka texts as they were known in the fifth century CE, when they were first written down. There were over a hundred staff members working on the project worldwide, divided in manuscript reading teams. The work was reviewed by an international advisory board of scholars, including Rupert Gethin, Richard Gombrich and Oskar von Hinüber. A digital version of the Tipitaka was expected to be completed by 2028, but the first part was published in 2015. The project backfired, however, when Matichon and other Thai newspapers interpreted the project as an actual correcting or 'purification of the Tipitaka' (ชําระพระไตรปิฎก), as this was done in the historical Buddhist Councils. Wat Phra Dhammakaya denied this in a press statement, however. They said it was not their intention to rewrite the Pali Canon, and considered it unlikely that in the present day anyone could do so. Wat Phra Dhammakaya set up another research institute, located in Australia, called DIRI (Dhammachai International Research Institute). This institute promoted research on manuscripts of early Buddhism, and offered fellowships to that end. ### Teaching in the city The temple also started to organize huge alms giving events around the country, including at important sites in Bangkok, some of which were joined by thousands of monks. The alms giving events were held to help bring monks and lay people together, to revive the custom of alms giving, and as a dedication of merit to the victims of the insurgency in the Southern provinces. The profits from the alms giving events were used to support the temples and teachers in the South with aid and supplies. The events were the first mass gatherings which the junta had allowed since the 2006 coup d'état. In 2012, the alms events became more prominent when then Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra joined an event in person, as well as comedian Udom Taepanich. In 2011, in Thailand's worst flooding for more than half-a-century, a great deal of Bangkok and its outskirts were inundated, including Patumthani, the area where Wat Phra Dhammakaya is located. Working together with the government, the temple deployed monastic and lay volunteers to bring a halt to the floods in the area, who had to work day and night to build walls using sandbags and pump out the water. At the same time, the temple offered shelter to evacuated workers from local factories, food, drinking water, transport and sandbags to local villagers, other affected temples and temples that also offered shelter. From 2009 onwards, Wat Phra Dhammakaya expanded its temporary ordination program by making it nationwide. In this program, the participants were trained in thousands of temples spread over Thailand, but ordained simultaneously at Wat Phra Dhammakaya. Held in cooperation with the House of Representatives, the concept of the program was to reverse the trend of the number of monks in Thailand decreasing. The program was held twice a year, and the participants who decided to stay in the monkhood were encouraged to revive abandoned temples. In 2010, 10,685 monks joined the program. As part of the ordination programs, Wat Phra Dhammakaya started to organize pilgrimages passing important places in the life of Luang Pu Sodh. This was done through a procession by over a thousand monks through the areas of Central Thailand that were flooded before, while life-size images of Luang Pu Sodh were ceremonially brought to install in pilgrimage places. During the breaks between the walks, the monks spent their time meditating, chanting and making good wishes to those affected by the floods.The pilgrimages were held with analogy to the traditional story of the Buddha ridding Vesali of illness and drought. On the way to Vesali, the Buddha's entire route had been decorated with flowers by King Bimbisara. As a re-enactment of this story, throughout the walks, laypeople spread self-picked flowers to pave a path for the monk-pilgrims. Controversially, the temple used the word dhutanga for the walks, as it did before with its retreats. Responses were varied. On the one hand, the pilgrimage caused many people to participate with enthusiasm in the activities organized. For example, managers of some companies let the entire workforce take leave to join the flower-spreading. Critics, however, said the dhutanga walks were causing traffic jams, and were not in accordance with traditional interpretations of dhutanga practice. The temple then defended the walks by stating that the monks joining actually took dhutanga vows, and by pointing out the spiritual benefits for the laypeople joining. A senator asked the National Office of Buddhism to investigate the matter further. Initially, the National Office of Buddhism approved of the city pilgrimage, saying that it agreed with Buddhist ideas and helped the economy. Meanwhile, some news analysts speculated that the pilgrimages were meant to express loyalty to Somdet Chuang, the Supreme Patriarch to be. The appointment of the Supreme Patriarch was subject to rising disagreement, which fed the protesters' resentment. Later, in 2015, the walk over spread flowers was approved as a Guinness world record in the category "Longest journey walking on flower petals". Still in 2015 the National Office of Buddhism told Wat Phra Dhammakaya to stop organizing the pilgrimage walks in Bangkok, and only organize them outside of Bangkok, citing the problem of the traffic jams. At the end of the year, when the criticism did not tone down, Wat Phra Dhammakaya announced they would postpone organizing the pilgrimages indefinitely. Religious Studies scholar Surapot Thaweesak argues that the debate about the pilgrimages is really a discussion about whether a religious organization can use public space and to what extent. In 2010, during the Red Shirt protests, in an attempt to keep control of any initiatives opposing the junta, a number of monastic and academic organizations and people, including Luang Por Dhammajayo, were put on a surveillance list by the Thai military. Duncan McCargo speculates that this information may have been deliberately leaked to the press as a form of threat to these organizations and people. Wat Phra Dhammakaya did not openly join any Red Shirt activities, but some leading members of pro-Thaksin parties were connected to the temple. In 2012, the temple broadcast a talk of Luang Por Dhammajayo about what happened to Steve Jobs after his death. The talk came as a response to a software engineer of Apple who had sent a letter with questions to the abbot. Luang Por Dhammajayo described what Steve Jobs looked like in heaven. He said that Jobs had been reborn as a deva living close to his former offices, as a result of the karma of having given knowledge to people. The talk was much criticized, and the abbot was accused of pretending to have attained an advanced meditative state and of attempting to outshine other temples. The temple stated that the talk was meant to illustrate the law of karma, not to defame Jobs, nor to fake an advanced state. As of 2010, Wat Phra Dhammakaya was the fastest growing temple of Thailand. As of 2015, the temple had twenty-eight centers in Thailand, and eighty centers outside of Thailand, in all continents, except for South-America. The ceremonies of the temple were often led by monks from the Supreme Sangha Council or other leading monks, and joined by high-ranking people from Thailand and other Buddhist countries. For major festivals, the number of practitioners reached 300,000 people. ## Standoff with junta (2014–present) ### Junta's reform council versus Sangha Council After the 2014 coup d'état, several initiatives were started to bring change to Thai society, which the junta stated was necessary before elections could be held. Among these measures, a National Reform Council was founded and the religious committee of this council was led by Paiboon Nititawan [th], a former senator who had played a crucial role in the coup. Backed by the bureaucracy, military and Royal Palace, Paiboon sought to deal with any shortcomings in the leading Thai Sangha through judicial means. He was joined by then monk Phra Suwit Dhiradhammo [th] (known under the activist name Phra Buddha Issara), a former infantryman who had assumed a main role in the coup as well. Finally, Mano Laohavanich, a former monk of Wat Phra Dhammakaya, also a member of the reform council, joined the investigations. To start with, Phra Suwit requested the Department of Special Investigation (DSI), a department modeled on the FBI, to start an investigation in the assets of the Sangha Council's members. This included Somdet Chuang Varapuñño, who was Luang Por Dhammajayo's preceptor (the person who ordained him), who had been nominated by the council to become the next Supreme Patriarch per 5 January 2016. Phra Suwit objected to this nomination, and successfully held a petition to stop it. In the meantime, in February 2015, Paiboon Nititawan tried to reopen the 1999 case of Luang Por Dhammajayo's alleged embezzlement of land. Somdet Chuang and the rest of the Sangha Council were also involved in this, as they were accused of being negligent in not defrocking Luang Por Dhammajayo. First, the Sangha Council reconsidered the embezzlement and fraud charges, but concluded that Luang Por Dhammajayo had not intended to commit fraud or embezzlement, and had already returned the land concerned; after that, Phra Suwit enlisted the help of the Ombudsman, who asked the General-Attorney and the National Office of Buddhism to reconsider the criminal law case of embezzlement. These investigations did not go without response. In February 2016, on Magha Puja, a protest was held by over a thousand Thai monks in the Phutthamonthon Park, as a response to this involvement by the junta. The protest was organized by the Buddhist Protection Center of Thailand, a Red Shirt-oriented network. The protesters demanded that the Thai junta not interfere with the Sangha's affairs, in particular the appointment of the next Supreme Patriarch. After the junta responded by sending soldiers to control the site, the protest ended, but the monks announced they would repeat their protests if their demands were not met. Wat Phra Dhammakays's involvement was implied by the media. The temple denied organizing the protests, but did not disagree with them. At this point, the charges laid by Paiboon and Phra Suwit against the temple were by many interpreted as a way to discredit Somdet Chuang. Somdet Chuang had been abbot of Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen and preceptor (Pali: upajjhaya; person who ordained him) of Luang Por Dhammajayo during the latter's first years at Wat Paknam. Moreover, several Thai intellectuals and news analysts stated that Paiboon, Phra Suwit and Mano were abusing the Vinaya (monastic discipline) for political ends, and did not really aim to "purify" Buddhism. The investigations were widely reported in the press, but eventually junta leader Prayut Chan-o-cha intervened: the embezzlement case had already been closed in 2006 by the then Attorney-General and that was the end of it. Prayut was afraid of the rising conflicts. He then dissolved the religious committee of the reform council. However, Paiboon, Phra Suwit and Mano continued to address shortcomings of leading members of the Sangha Council through judicial means. In the meantime, the DSI investigated further, and it was discovered that a used vintage car in Wat Paknam's museum had not been properly registered, allegedly to evade taxes. Somdet Chuang was charged with tax evasion by the DSI, and the accusations were reason enough for the government to further postpone the appointment. Fear of Phra Suwit Dhiradhammo and his ties to the army may have played a role in this stalling. In December 2016, the National Legislative Assembly amended the 2005 Monastic Act [th] to allow other monks than Somdet Chuang to be appointed Supreme Patriarch. Finally in February 2017, Somdet Amborn [th] was appointed by King Vajiralongkorn to serve as the next Supreme Patriarch. ### Klongchan controversy On 29 October 2015, the DSI stated that Supachai Srisuppa-aksorn, then chairman of the Klongchan Credit Union Cooperative (KCUC), had fraudulently authorized 878 cheques worth 11.37 billion baht, in which a portion totaling more than a billion baht was traced to Wat Phra Dhammakaya via donations. The problem had begun in April 2013, when it turned out that Supachai had borrowed too much money from the credit union for it to manage, and it had to freeze fifty thousand accounts, as well as postpone the payments to seventy-four creditors. The angered members held many protests and the credit union sued Supachai. The temple was implicated as well. In defense, spokespeople of Wat Phra Dhammakaya said that Luang Por Dhammajayo was not aware that the donations were illegally obtained because the temple lacked the means to check for illegally obtained money. In 2015, in a written agreement with the credit union, supporters of the temple had raised 684 million baht linked to Wat Phra Dhammakaya to donate to the KCUC to compensate their members. The money was donated under the condition that the credit union would withdraw the charges, and the money would be returned to the temple if Supachai's donations to the temple were later proven legal. In the meantime, Supachai was convicted and jailed, but more charges of embezzlement and fraud were still under investigation. Another 370 million baht linked to the temple was discovered as the Anti-Money Laundering Office and DSI investigated further. Donors of the temple donated the remaining 370 million baht to the credit union as well, but apart from the problem of compensation to the credit union, the DSI suspected Luang Por Dhammajayo of having conspired in the embezzlement of Supachai. The department then investigated two charges: conspiring to launder money and receiving stolen goods. The charges were laid by an affected client of the credit union, who felt the money the temple returned had too many strings attached. The temple denied the charges of the department, stating that donations were received in the open in public, and that Supachai had only donated cheques, no cash. They further explained that the temple had a department for financial matters, in which Supachai had no part, and accused the DSI of violating double jeopardy principles. The DSI stated that Supachai was likely to have been a financial assistant of the abbot, because he had admitted in court that the abbot was on friendly, informal terms with him. Luang Por Dhammajayo was summoned to acknowledge the charges of ill-gotten gains and conspiring to money-laundering at the offices of the DSI. Spokespeople of the temple asked for postponement three times: the first time citing a busy schedule due to training programs, and after that the abbot's deep vein thrombosis. According to spokespeople, to travel to the DSI could mean a risk to Luang Por Dhammajayo's life. The temple requested the DSI to let him acknowledge his charges at the temple, a request the DSI refused. The DSI was skeptical of the temple's cited reasons and asked for a certificate from a physician, which the temple gave, but just as in 1999, discussions arose regarding the way the certification should be properly done. Moreover, the DSI concluded that Luang Por Dhammajayo was a flight risk and asked for an arrest warrant to take the abbot into custody. In the period the DSI issued an arrest warrant for the abbot, the temple was organizing a training program for women with thousands participants. Accused of organizing a human shield to prevent the DSI from entering, a spokesperson of the temple said that the only thing the temple would do to resist is "chanting and meditation".In the meantime, news analysts, lawyers, current and former government officials of the Thai justice system, such as Seripisut Temiyavet, came out to state that the DSI was not handling the investigation of the temple with proper legal procedure. It was questioned why the DSI would not let the abbot acknowledge the charges at the temple, which many considered legitimate under criminal law. The DSI replied that they did not want to visit the abbot at the temple at this stage, because the temple was crowded with people, which could lead to conflict. A spokesperson of the temple also questioned why the DSI did not pursue lawsuits that were still running against Paiboon and Phra Suwit. Was the DSI biased because they received orders from someone not disclosed? The DSI had seen its independence questioned before, even by leading people within the department itself. In short, the temple's practitioners and spokespeople felt the charges were politically motivated, and had no confidence in the justice system under the junta. Moreover, they felt that if the former abbot would turn himself in, this would set a precedent for more baseless persecutions of other monks. In June 2016, the DSI entered the temple to take Luang Por Dhammajayo in custody. However, a number of laypeople sitting silently in rows barred the DSI from continuing their search. The DSI, avoiding a confrontation, withdrew. A temple official was seen giving a press statement that the abbot would surrender himself "as soon as the state has become a democracy", enabling a fair judicial process. Even though the statement was later downplayed by temple's spokespeople as not representing the temple's official opinion, former senator Paiboon pointed out it reflected the temple's autonomy from the state. In reflection, news analysts concluded that the DSI did not really have the intention to arrest Luang Por Dhammajayo, but was simply surveying the temple grounds, or "playing political theatre" (Otago Daily Times). After the standoff had taken place, tensions in social media rose, and the attorney-general stated that DSI should complete its investigations first, before further action could be taken. In the meantime, Luang Por Dhammajayo was ordered by a senior monk to step down as abbot temporarily, after Phra Suwit Dhiradhammo filed a request for suspension, citing Luang Por Dhammajayo's illness. It turned out, however, that Luang Por Dhammajayo had stepped down since 2011, but this was not widely known. It was then announced in the media that Luang Por Dattajivo was the acting abbot. In December, however, Phravitetbhavanacharn was appointed instead. ### Junta's lockdown When it turned out that the prosecutors were slow to continue the Klongchan lawsuit with regard to Luang Por Dhammajayo, the DSI and several other police departments started to press charges against other people related to the temple. To further pressurize Luang Por Dhammajayo, the DSI also expanded its focus to branch centers of Wat Phra Dhammakaya. Branch centers in Nakhon Ratchasima, Chiang Mai, Kanchanaburi, Loei, and Tak were investigated and charged with encroaching on nature reserves. On 21 November, this finally led to another two arrest warrants, totaling three, and plans were made by the Thai police and the DSI to take Luang Por Dhammajayo into custody, through force if required.A deal was proposed that if Luang Por Dhammajayo surrendered he would not be incarcerated and subsequently defrocked. Although the DSI agreed with such a guarantee at first, they later stated they could not give it because it was the jurisdiction of the court to decide on this. News analysts speculated that Thai law enforcement had not been able to arrest the abbot successfully, because of the complexity of the temple's terrain, the large number of practitioners, who continually adjusted their methods, and the imminent danger of a violent clash. Another reason brought up by news analysts was the Thai junta's concern for potential international backlash that could be generated from Wat Phra Dhammakaya's numerous international centers. In fact, international followers had already petitioned the White House and met with US Congressmen regarding the case. During the standoff, temple officials still affirmed that they were willing to cooperate with law enforcement, their only request being that the DSI give Luang Por Dhammajayo his charges at the temple due to his health. However, the police applied the method of "trimming the tree" by issuing hundreds of fines about gates, bridges, and other parts of the temple, to gradually get more control over the temple. As of March 2017, the Thai junta had laid 340 different charges against the temple and the foundation, including alleged forest encroachment and allegedly building the Ubosot illegally in the 1970s. While law enforcement was under growing pressure to get the job done, criticism against the operation grew as well, news reporters comparing the temple with Falun Gong in China or the Gulen Movement from Turkey. Meanwhile, the temple started a project to encourage people to chant the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, traditionally regarded as the first teaching of the Buddha. The activities at the temple were interpreted as methods to block law-enforcing officers from entering the terrain. On 9 December 2016, the television channel of the temple was therefore closed down to prevent the temple from further mobilizing supporters. In February 2017, four days after the appointment of the new Supreme Patriarch with no connections to the temple, junta leader Prayuth announced a special decree following the controversial Section 44 of the interim constitution. The section gave a carte blanche to law-enforcing authorities to get Luang Por Dhammajayo into custody through a wide range of means. The decree included heavy penalties against any person obstructing the arrest, and declaring the temple a restricted zone, which no-one could access or leave without the authorities' permission. A 4200-man combined task force of the DSI, police and army surrounded the temple and started to search every corner of the terrains. The temple showed little resistance. After two days, the task force reached the residence where the former abbot stayed, only to find it empty. Despite having searched every room and building in the temple, the authorities did not withdraw and ordered all non-residents of the temple to leave. Tensions increased, and though the temple staff was unarmed, they managed to use large crowds to push through the task force and a deal was brokered to allow lay people to come in the temple. On 22 February, an official negotiation followed, the DSI still pushing to remove all non-residents from the temple. The temple stated they had been sufficiently cooperative and pointed out that the task force had completed their search, resulting in a standoff and a siege of the temple by thousands of military personnel. In the meantime, the junta government stated they were not only looking for Luang Por Dhammajayo, but were also intending to reform the temple. This raised questions, and a lively national debate started as to what a "real temple" and "real Buddhism" should look like. The junta further increased its control on the temple by having the mobile signal in the temple area shut off, by barring reporters from entering the temple and by censoring and blocking a broadcast about the lockdown from Al Jazeera in Thailand. Criticism of the operation further increased when one man committed suicide and one asthma patient died during the operation. On 10 March 2017, a deal was made allowing authorities to search the temple once again on the condition that representatives of the Thai Human Rights Commission and news reporters were allowed to witness the search. Once again, authorities were not able to find the abbot, resulting in the junta ending the three-week occupation of the temple. However, section 44 still remained in effect, allowing the authorities to resume action against the temple at any time. The lockdown resulted in a heated debate about section 44. The section was raised as an example of the junta's illegitimacy and unjust means, by the temple and many other critics. While proponents pointed out that all would be finished if Luang Por Dhammajayo only gave himself over to acknowledge the charges, critics pointed out that Luang Por Dhammajayo would be imprisoned and defrocked if brought into custody. News reporters compared the temple's resistance with the Burmese Saffron Revolution in 2007, some reporters expecting defeat soon, others a new opposition movement. Many reporters also questioned the practicality of using section 44 and so much resources to arrest one person for acknowledging a charge of a non-violent crime. It has been pointed out that it is more viable to try Luang Por Dhammajayo in absentia to determine guilt first. A few days before the lockdown was brought to a halt, it was announced in the Royal Thai Government Gazette that Luang Por Dhammajayo had his honorific title Phrathepyanmahamuni removed, because of the accusations he was charged with. The junta stated that after this announcement, they could and would immediately defrock Luang Por Dhammajayo if they were to find him. In the middle of the lockdown of the temple, news reporting and social media activity about the event was very intensive. Writing for the liberal outlet Lok Wannee, a regular columnist argued that the response of government was similar to the aggressive anti-communist sentiment preceding the Thammasat University massacre on 6 October 1976. Kornkritch Somjittranukit from Prachatai expressed concern with the extent conservative news outlets such as Tnews and Manager Daily demonized the temple. He argued that this had a detrimental effect on society, raising as an example how the suicide of a devotee during the lockdown led many people on social media to express satisfaction. ### Aftermath and revival Following the end of the lockdown of the temple, the junta stated authorities will look for Luang Por Dhammajayo elsewhere. However, investigations against the temple continued. Just days after the end of the lockdown, additional charges were filed against people of Wat Phra Dhammakaya, this time also against the deputy abbot, Luang Por Dattajivo, for allegedly using the Klongchan Credit Union money to buy stocks and illegal land, something the temple dubbed "fake news". A Khao Sod columnist became critical of the new charges, stating that weeks after the accusations were made neither the justice system nor DSI had produced any form of evidence supporting the allegations, describing the accusations as "a new invention" and improbable, because the temple would have no need for such money. As of March 2017, the junta had summoned 317 people involved with the temple to report or acknowledge charges. With both Wat Phra Dhammakaya's honorary and deputy abbot under investigation, the junta has pushed for a replacement abbot for the temple, with the junta-appointed director of the National Office of Buddhism calling for an outsider to be appointed the temple's abbot. This attempt was unsuccessful however, because the Thai Sangha considered this the responsibility of the temple. In December 2017, news outlets described a "revival" of the temple, as the temple unexpectedly assigned a new person as abbot. This was an assistant-abbot who until thus far had been unknown to the press: Phrakhru Sangharak Rangsarit. At the same time, the temple announced it would organize a new city pilgrimage in March 2018, though it would be less publicly visible than the previous ones. While the temple was planning a comeback, on 20 December the DSI did an unannounced search at night to find the former abbot still missing. Three buildings were searched, but no traces were found. Regardless, the Klongchan lawsuits continued, and on 2 February 2018, the attorney requested the court to seize four bank accounts of the temple's two foundations. The KCUC objected to this, however, and finally the court ordered that the money on the accounts, 58 million baht, be given to the credit union instead. In June 2018, the junta seized a 1.46 billion baht building at Wat Phra Dhammakaya, alleging that it was built using Klongchan Credit Union money. In November 2018, the DSI filed additional charges once again of alleged money laundering, this time against a lay supporter who is the chair of the Dhammakaya Foundation. They proposed seizing most of the temple's properties and assets. In response, hundreds of thousands of the temple's followers returned over 3 million donation receipts to the temple to submit as evidence that the temple's properties were obtained through legal donations. ## See also - Dhammakaya tradition - Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen - Wat Phra Dhammakaya - Suppression of monasteries

City of Champaign v. Madigan

Illinois court case concerning freedom of information

City of Champaign v. Madigan, 2013 IL App (4th) 120662, 992 N.E.2d 629 (2013), is a case decided by the Illinois Appellate Court in 2013 concerning the state's Freedom of Information Act (FOIA). The court ruled that messages sent and received by elected officials during a city council meeting are subject to public disclosure, even when those communications are stored on personal electronic devices. The case addressed a public records request from a reporter for The News-Gazette in Champaign, Illinois, who observed Champaign city council members and the mayor using their personal electronic devices to send messages, outside the public's view, during a city council meeting. After city officials denied the reporter's request for the private messages, the reporter requested administrative review by the Public Access Counselor, part of the office of the Attorney General. The Attorney General's office, led by Lisa Madigan, issued a binding opinion, finding that records pertaining to the transaction of public business are subject to disclosure under FOIA, even if they are stored on an official's personal electronic device or account. On appeal, the Appellate Court upheld the Attorney General's opinion, but on more limited grounds, finding that officials would have to disclose their records only when acting as a "public body". The court found that members of a city council do not constitute a public body when acting individually. However, because the city council members in question had convened a public meeting, they were acting collectively as a public body, and their messages were therefore subject to disclosure under FOIA. The court's decision left room for interpretation regarding the disclosure requirements for employees, rather than elected members, of a public body. This matter was clarified in subsequent litigation, including Public Access Opinion 16-006, which found that emails of employees are subject to disclosure if they pertain to public business, regardless of whether they are stored on personal devices. The General Assembly has considered legislation to clarify the disclosure requirements under FOIA concerning private devices, but the bills have expired. ## Background Patrick Wade, a reporter for The News-Gazette in Champaign, Illinois, observed members of the Champaign city council and the mayor using their personal electronic devices to send messages during a public meeting. Curious about the contents of their private discussions, Wade filed a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request to the city on July 15, 2011, for the following records: > All electronic communications, including cellphone text messages, sent and received by members of the city council and the mayor during city council meetings and study sessions since (and including) May 3. Please note that this request applies to both city-issued and personal cellphones, city-issued or personal email addresses and Twitter accounts. City officials provided Wade with records held by the city or its subsidiary public bodies. However, it denied his request for records from personal devices, responding that "private citizen's communications to the Council member's or the Mayor's privately owned electronic devices is not within the scope of the Freedom of Information Act." An attorney for the city also advised that the Appellate Court had previously held, in Quinn v. Stone, that only a public body is subject to FOIA, not individual public officials such as the mayor or city council members. On August 1, 2011, Wade requested administrative review with the Public Access Counselor, an attorney in the office of the Illinois Attorney General who is responsible for enforcing FOIA. Wade maintained that the requested records, even when privately held, are subject to disclosure because the officials were each communicating "in their role as a member of that public body during an ongoing public meeting". ## Attorney General opinion The Attorney General's office, led by Lisa Madigan, issued a binding opinion titled "Public Access Opinion 11-006" on November 15, 2011. The Attorney General ruled that electronic communications, whether on publicly or privately owned devices, may be subject to disclosure under FOIA. The opinion referred to FOIA's definition of "public records", which includes documents "pertaining to the transaction of public business, regardless of physical form or characteristics, having been prepared by or for, or having been or being used by, received by, in the possession of, or under the control of any public body". The Attorney General concluded that the city was narrowly focused on the phrase "in the possession of" when determining whether the requested communications were subject to disclosure. When construing FOIA as a whole, the opinion concluded that records "in the possession of" the city are only one type of public record. The opinion further added: "Whether information is a 'public record' is not determined by where, how, or on what device that record was created; rather the question is whether that record was prepared by or used by one or more members of a public body in conducting the affairs of government." The key factor in determining what constitutes a "public record" is whether the record relates to "public business". The Attorney General also rejected the city's reliance on Quinn. In Quinn, the Appellate Court determined that a FOIA request cannot be directed at an individual official, but rather must be submitted to a public body. Here, the opinion concluded that it is consistent with the court's ruling in Quinn, by finding that the communications of city officials are not records of the officials themselves, but rather the city. Lastly, the city raised concerns that disclosure of private information could potentially implicate First Amendment rights. However, the opinion stated that records needed to be produced only when they relate to public business, and there was no evidence that such disclosure would violate the First Amendment. Family matters, political business, and other personal issues would not be subject to disclosure. ## Court opinion The city appealed the Attorney General's opinion to the circuit court of Sangamon County, which affirmed the decision in June 2012. The city then appealed to the Fourth District of the Appellate Court later that summer. On July 16, 2013, the Appellate Court upheld the opinion that the messages were public records, but on more limited grounds. The court's opinion was written by Justice Carol Pope. Justices Thomas R. Appleton and Lisa Holder White, the other members of the appellate panel for this matter, agreed to Pope's opinion. First, the court clarified that messages concerning personal matters were not subject to disclosure, since FOIA addresses only records "pertaining to the transaction of public business". Communications relating to community interests, rather than private affairs, constitute "public records" under FOIA. The city admitted that some of the communications related to this case were related to public business. The court found that members of a city council do not constitute a "public body" when acting individually. Rather, they act as a collective body, after convening a meeting with the other members of the city council. By this interpretation, if a constituent sends a message to a city council member at home on their personal device, that message would not be subject to FOIA even if it pertains to public business. On the other hand, if the message was created during a council meeting, then it would also be subject to FOIA because the members were acting collectively as a public body. Additionally, the court noted that a quorum of individual members constitutes a public body, since a quorum can make binding decisions. Therefore, a communication would become a record of the public body if it were forwarded or sent to enough members to establish a quorum. Lastly, the record may also become subject to disclosure when forwarded or sent to a government-owned account. Because Wade's FOIA request was narrowly tailored to records created during city council meetings, the court did not have to consider other tangential issues. The court's decision was the first in Illinois to find that private messages were subject to disclosure under FOIA, reflecting a growing consensus interpreting freedom of information laws elsewhere in the United States. The city announced that it intended to comply with the court's ruling, noting that there were "very few documents" to release. It did not plan to appeal the case any further. ## Reactions and subsequent developments Illinois Policy praised the ruling as "a victory for increased transparency in government", noting that the Open Meetings Act also requires transparency on what takes place during public meetings. Frank LoMonte, of the Student Press Law Center, regarded the court's decision as "a positive step for accountability", but noted that its effects are meaningful only if public officials follow retention guidelines for any government-related messages on their personal devices. Because of the ambiguity in FOIA, the court recommended that the General Assembly expressly amend FOIA if it intended messages stored on personal devices to be subject to disclosure. It also urged local governments to enact their own rules prohibiting city council members from using their personal devices during public meetings. Legal experts noted that the ruling's implications on local governments remain uncertain. John M. O'Driscoll, a local government attorney, advised public bodies throughout Illinois to review their practices and ordinances to minimize their risk of having to disclose communications intended to remain private. He also urged public officials to refrain from using their phones during public meetings, but this advice may prove difficult to enforce as officials heavily rely on their personal devices. O'Driscoll said that responding to FOIA requests for electronic communications remains difficult, and subsequent scenarios may be addressed by future litigation on a case-by-case basis. The court's decision left room for interpretation in other contexts. The disclosure requirements for aldermen was limited because a city council technically is not acting as a public body until it has convened a meeting to conduct its business. Regarding employees (rather than elected members) of the public body, the applicability of City of Champaign was unclear, as a legal expert noted that "executive branch employees" act on the public body's behalf. In May 2016, the Circuit Court of Cook County clarified the matter when it ruled that personal emails of Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel may be subject to disclosure, even when stored on private devices. Later that year, the Attorney General's office revisited this issue by issuing Public Access Opinion 16-006, deciding that officers of the Chicago Police Department were required to release their private emails about the police-involved murder of Laquan McDonald. Journalists also pointed towards similar public access issues during the administration of Illinois Governor Bruce Rauner and the Hillary Clinton email controversy. In 2020, the First District of the Appellate Court ordered the release of correspondence held on private devices of several Chicago officials, including the mayor, his staff, and the public health commissioner. In that ruling, the court noted that City of Champaign held "that personal communications are at least sometimes public records". In 2017, the General Assembly considered two bills, which appeared to be in response to City of Champaign and Public Access Opinion 16-006. One bill would have made it more difficult to obtain records not already in the control of a public body. Another bill would have amended the Local Records Act to explicitly state that all emails sent or received by government officials and employees are public records "regardless of whether the email is sent or received on a personal or agency-provided email address". The bill also would have required public officials and employees to use government-issued email addresses, and forward any emails related to public business on personal accounts to their governmental accounts. Both bills expired in January 2019.

Tim McGraw (song)

2006 single by Taylor Swift

"Tim McGraw" is the debut single by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift, who wrote it with Liz Rose for her self-titled debut studio album. It was released to US country radio on June 19, 2006, by Big Machine Records. Produced by Nathan Chapman, "Tim McGraw" is a country song that incorporates the '50s progression. Music critics commented that the composition incorporates elements of non-country genres such as alternative rock. First written by Swift when she was in her freshman year of high school, the lyrics narrate a summer romance that comes to a sudden end, after which the narrator asks an ex-boyfriend to reminisce about her every time he hears her favorite song by country musician Tim McGraw, the song's namesake. Music critics acclaimed Swift's songwriting on "Tim McGraw" for creating strong and nostalgia-inducing music and lyrics. Rolling Stone featured it at number 13 on their 2020 list of the 100 Greatest Debut Singles of All Time. The single was Swift's first chart entry in the United States: it peaked at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number six on Hot Country Songs. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the track double platinum for surpassing two million units. The accompanying music video, directed by Trey Fanjoy, comprises flashbacks by Swift's love interest, among cut scenes that feature Swift lying on a lake bed. Swift promoted "Tim McGraw" and her debut album with a six-month radio tour and included the song on the set list of her first headlining tour, the Fearless Tour (2009–2010). She performed the song on select dates of her later tours: the Red Tour (2013), the Reputation Stadium Tour (2018), and the Eras Tour (2023). ## Background In 2004, Pennsylvania-born Taylor Swift moved to Nashville, Tennessee at fourteen to pursue a career in country music. She signed with Sony/ATV in 2004 to become a professional songwriter, and with Big Machine Records in 2005 to become a country-music singer. Near the end of 2005, Swift recorded songs for her self-titled debut album with producer Nathan Chapman. By the time production wrapped, Swift had completed her first year of high school in Hendersonville, Tennessee. Swift and Liz Rose wrote "Tim McGraw" during Swift's freshman year at Hendersonville High School. She conceived the idea in the midst of her mathematics class: "I was just sitting there, and I started humming this melody." She then related the melody to a predicament she was encountering at the moment. Swift knew that she and her senior boyfriend would break up at the end of the year when he left for college. In order to cope with the complicated emotions she was experiencing, Swift wrote the song. Rose said Swift showed up at her after school job, writing songs for Sony/ATV Music, "with the idea and the melody, knowing exactly what she wanted." She desired for the song to capture the sweetness and sadness of loving and losing someone. It was written about all the different things that would remind the subject of Swift and their time spent together, once he departed. "To her surprise, the first thing that came to mind was [her] love of Tim McGraw's music." Several personal details were listed for the song. McGraw's mentioning was a reference to Swift's favorite song, "Can't Tell Me Nothin" from his 2004 album Live Like You Were Dying, rather than McGraw as a person. The writing process, as with "Our Song", took place in approximately twenty minutes, and was executed with the use of a piano. Soon after, Scott Borchetta, CEO of Big Machine Records, signed Swift to his newly formed label. Early into the album production, in a meeting where Borchetta and Swift discussed potential songs for Swift's debut album, she performed "Tim McGraw" for Borchetta on fluke ukulele. According to Swift, as soon as Borchetta finished listening to the song, he faced Swift and said, "That's your first single." She responded, "Well. That's how that works then." Prior to that event, Swift did not believe that the song was single material. However, she followed what label executives told her and accepted that they were correct. Swift placed "Tim McGraw" as the first track on Taylor Swift because of its importance to her. In retrospect, Swift has said that the song "is reminiscent, and it is thinking about a relationship you had and then lost. I think one of the most powerful human emotions is what should have been and wasn't... That was a really good song to start out on, because a lot of people can relate to wanting something you can't have." When the song's subject discovered it, he thought it was "cool" and kept friendship with Swift despite their breakup. ## Composition "Tim McGraw" is a country song with a length of three minutes and 52 seconds. Driven by an acoustic guitar, it is categorized as a ballad with a mid-paced tempo. Written in the key of C major, the song makes heavy use of the I-vi-IV-V chord progression (C major—A minor—F major—G major). As the I-vi-IV-V chord progression is associated with late-1950s and early-1960s doo-wop and rock and roll songs, "Tim McGraw" has a nostalgic and timeless feel to it. The production of "Tim McGraw" is understated and lightweight. The refrain, as described by musicologist James E. Perone, is "motivically based"—each one of the melodic motif is built within a small pitch range. According to Perone, this, as well as that the refrain is built on repetitions of the initial short motif, gives the song a catchy tune that makes the audience want to sing along to. Additionally, the refrain—and to a certain extent, the verses—makes heavy use of syncopation at the sixteenth-note level, which lends the song a production reminiscent to non-country genres, such as alternative rock and hip hop. These melodic techniques laid the groundwork to Swift's subsequent songs, known for catchy melodies and radio-friendly verses that defined her catalog for the following decade. The lyrics of "Tim McGraw" narrate a past summer romance. Perone thinks that the relationship in the song "had ended perhaps a couple of years" before the time frame of the narrative. In the opening line, Swift sings, "He says the way my blue eyes shine put those Georgia stars to shame at night/ I say, 'That's a lie' ", which Riane Konc found to be "genuine romanticism underscored by real cynicism". The reference to country musician Tim McGraw, in both the title and the refrain ("When you think Tim McGraw/ I hope you think my favorite song/ The one we danced to all night long"), is more about the nostalgia for the disappeared romance rather than McGraw himself. McGraw is one of the many items that the narrator associates her past relationship with; others include her little black dress, her faded blue jeans, and the moment she laid her head on the ex-boyfriend's chest. ## Critical reception The song was acclaimed by critics. Rob Sheffield of Blender magazine described the track as a gem that hit hard. Sean Dooley of About.com complimented Swift's vocal delivery, describing it as "tender and emotive." `Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine believe "Tim McGraw" followed "time-tested narrative conventions and [...] massive pop hooks." Jeff Tamarkin of AllMusic said that the song demonstrated Swift was "a talent to be reckoned with", because of her vocal delivery that, according to him, equated that of a seasoned professional. He selected "Tim McGraw" as Taylor Swift's main highlight for its homage to Tim McGraw, commenting, "It's a device that's been used countless times in as many ways [...], yet it works as a hook here and manages to come off as an original idea." Roger Holland of PopMatters praised the song, commenting it was "good enough to recall some of the best country singles of recent years", such as Rachel Proctor's "Me and Emily" and Julie Roberts's "Break Down Here." He complimented Swift's vocal abilities on the song, saying it was executed "quite perfectly", something she was unable to carry throughout the album Taylor Swift. However, Holland was repugnant of the song's title. In 2007, "Tim McGraw" was listed as a "Winning Song" by Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI).` In 2020, Rolling Stone ranked "Tim McGraw" at number 13 on its "The 100 Greatest Debut Singles of All Time" list, placing second among female artists; the magazine stated: "With her first song, Swift immediately showed her Nashville peers she could beat any of them at their own game, acing the classic genre trope of nostalgic country song about how country music is nostalgic". ## Chart performance On the week ending September 23, 2006, "Tim McGraw" debuted at number 86 on the Billboard Hot 100. After 17 weeks of ascending and descending the chart, on the week ending January 13, 2007, the song reached its peak at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100, where it stayed for two consecutive weeks. On the week ending February 3, 2007, the song spent its last week on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 43, after a total of 20 weeks on the chart. As of November 2017, "Tim McGraw" has sold 1.6 million copies in the United States. The single was certified double Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in March 2020, for surpassing two million units based on sales and streaming. Prior to charting on the United States' main chart, "Tim McGraw" charted on Billboard Hot Country Songs. On the week ending July 1, 2006, "Tim McGraw" debuted at number 60 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs. After spending 25 weeks upon Billboard Hot Country Songs, the song reached the top 10 with its new peak of number 10 on the week ending December 16, 2006. In the proceeding six weeks, the song managed to remain in the top 10 until finding its peak at number six on the week ending January 27, 2007. "Tim McGraw" spent a total of 35 weeks upon the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. ## Music video The accompanying music video for "Tim McGraw" was directed by Trey Fanjoy. It was filmed at the former home of Johnny & June Carter-Cash, which burned down the next year. The letter which the boyfriend receives is addressed to "Johnny" for this purpose. In regards to the video's concept, Swift stated, "It deals with the haunting power of music and how hearing a song years after it was first popular can have such an emotional appeal." Clayton Collins portrayed Swift's love interest in the music video. He was cast because of his physical resemblance to the real subject of the song, in that they were both tall with dark hair. The video begins with Swift, dressed in a white sundress, as she lies on the grass of a lake-bed and holds a transistor radio. Suddenly, the setting is switched to Collins as he drives a white and orange 1970 Chevrolet CST-10. He then turns his radio on and ceases driving, coming to a complete stop on a road. As Collins facial expressions become more serious, he flashbacks to memories with Swift. Swift and Collins are seen frolicking in a field, lying beside another on the back of Collins' CST-10, staring at the stars together, holding hands as they walk, and slow dancing. When the song is in its final chorus, Collins arrives at a wooden cabin in his pick-up truck. He runs up the staircase to discover an enveloped letter next to the door. He then sits on the staircase, opens the envelope, and reads the letter. The video transcends towards Swift playing an acoustic guitar as she leans against the wooden cabin. Cut-scenes feature Swift lying on the lake-bed and performing with a guitar next to the wooden cabin. The video concludes with Swift, once again, lying on the initial setting. The video premiered on July 22, 2006, on Great American Country. The video received a nomination for "Number One Streamed Video From a New Artist (Rookie of the Year Award)" at the web-hosted 2006 CMT Online Awards, but lost to Lindsey Haun's video for "Broken". At the 2007 CMT Music Awards, the video won the CMT Music Award for "Breakthrough Video of the Year". ## Live performances Swift spent six months of 2006 promoting "Tim McGraw" and Taylor Swift on a radio tour. She performed the song as she opened for Rascal Flatts on several dates, from October 19 to November 3, 2006, included on the Me and My Gang Tour (2006–07). Swift performed "Tim McGraw" as the concert's penultimate performance. She dressed in a black, knee-length dress and red cowboy boots with a design of a skull and cross bones across it, playing an acoustic guitar. Swift requested for the audience to raise their cell phones in order to simulate a sky filled with stars, when the song reached the lyrics "He said the way my blue eyes shined / Put those Georgia stars to shame that night / I said that's a lie." She also performed the song when she served as opening act on twenty dates for George Strait's 2007 United States tour, and selected dates for Brad Paisley's Bonfires & Amplifiers Tour in 2007. During mid-2007, Swift engaged as the opening act on several dates for Tim McGraw's and Faith Hill's joint tour, Soul2Soul II Tour (2006–07), where she again performed "Tim McGraw". Swift performed the song while she was again opening for Rascal Flatts for their Still Feels Good Tour in 2008. Swift's first broadcast performance of "Tim McGraw" was on October 24, 2006, on Good Morning America. She continued promotion for the track at Billboard headquarters, the 2007 Academy of Country Music Awards, The Engine Room, and a concert at the Apple Store in SoHo, New York, which was recorded and released as a live extended play (EP), iTunes Live from SoHo, exclusively sold through the iTunes Store. Since completing promotion for Taylor Swift and its corresponding singles, Swift has performed "Tim McGraw" at the 2009 CMA Music Festival, the 2009 V Festival, and the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief. Swift performed "Tim McGraw" on all venues of her first headlining concert tour, the Fearless Tour, which extended from April 2009 to June 2010. The performances of "Tim McGraw" set on a small platform located at the opposite end, parallel to the stage in the arena. Swift, dressed in a pastel sundress, sat on a wooden stool while performing with wooden acoustic guitar strapped to her shoulder. Swift then completed the performance standing and walking back to the main stage. As she worked her way back to the stage, she again hugged fans, squeezed their outstretched hands and scrawled quick autographs. Nicole Frehsee of Rolling Stone favored Swift's performance of "Tim McGraw" at the August 27, 2009, concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City. Frehsee described the entire concert as an "elaborate spectacle that doesn't slow down, even when the singer hauls her acoustic guitar into the audience to play a sweet, stripped down set of tunes including [..] 'Tim McGraw'." Brandy McDonnel of The Oklahoman reported a massive sing-along by the audience at the March 31, 2010, concert at the Ford Center in Oklahoma City. Molly Trust of Billboard attended the performance at the tour's final concert on June 5, 2010, at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts and conjectured that the performance's setting was formed in order to "afford a better view to fans farther back." Swift performed "Tim McGraw" during the first show in Toronto and the performance in Charlotte during The Red Tour, in place of "I Almost Do". Additionally, she performed a piano version of the song in Nashville, during the Reputation Stadium Tour, with special guests Faith Hill and Tim McGraw. Swift again sang "Tim McGraw" as a "surprise song" on the March 17, 2023, concert at Glendale, Arizona, as part of her sixth headlining tour, the Eras Tour. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end chart ## Certification ## Release history