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30,229,977 | Bold Orion | 1,154,360,686 | 1950s American air-launched ballistic missile prototype | [
"Air-launched ballistic missiles",
"Air-to-surface missiles of the United States",
"Anti-satellite missiles",
"Ballistic missiles of the United States",
"Cold War air-to-surface missiles of the United States"
] | The Bold Orion missile, also known as Weapons System 199B (WS-199B), was a prototype air-launched ballistic missile (ALBM) developed by Martin Aircraft during the 1950s. Developed in both one- and two-stage designs, the missile was moderately successful in testing, and helped pave the way for development of the GAM-87 Skybolt ALBM. In addition, the Bold Orion was used in early anti-satellite weapons testing, performing the first interception of a satellite by a missile.
## Design and development
The Bold Orion missile was developed as part of Weapons System 199, initiated by the United States Air Force (USAF) in response to the U.S. Navy's Polaris program, with funding authorised by the United States Congress in 1957. The purpose of WS-199 was the development of technology that would be used in new strategic weapons for the USAF's Strategic Air Command, not to deliver operational weapons; a primary emphasis was on proving the feasibility of an air-launched ballistic missile.
The designation WS-199B was assigned to the project that, under a contract awarded in 1958 to Martin Aircraft, would become the Bold Orion missile. The design of Bold Orion was simple, using parts developed for other missile systems to reduce the cost and development time of the project. The initial Bold Orion configuration was a single-stage vehicle, using a Thiokol TX-20 Sergeant solid-fuel rocket. Following initial testing, the Bold Orion configuration was altered to become a two-stage vehicle, an Allegany Ballistics Laboratory Altair upper stage being added to the missile.
## Operational history
Having been given top priority by the Air Force, the first flight test of the Bold Orion missile was conducted on May 26, 1958, from a Boeing B-47 Stratojet carrier aircraft, which launched the Bold Orion vehicle at the apex of a high-speed, high-angle climb. The zoom climb tactic, combined with the thrust from the rocket motor of the missile itself, allowed the missile to achieve its maximum range, or, alternatively, to reach space.
A twelve-flight test series of the Bold Orion vehicle was conducted;. Despite suffering only one outright failure, the initial flight tests of the single-stage rocket proved less successful than hoped. Authorisation was received to modify the Bold Orion to become a two-stage vehicle. In addition to the modifications improving the missile's reliability, they increased the range of Bold Orion to over 1,000 miles (1,600 km). Four of the final six test firings were of the two-stage vehicle. These were considered successful, and established that the ALBM was a viable weapon.
### ASAT test
The final test launch of Bold Orion, conducted on October 13, 1959, was a test of the vehicle's capabilities in the anti-satellite role. Piloted by Carl E Brust Jr, the missile was launched from an altitude of 35,000 feet (11,000 m) from its B-47 mothership, the missile successfully intercepted the Explorer 6 satellite, passing its target at a range of less than 4 miles (6.4 km) at an altitude of 156 miles (251 km). If the missile had a nuclear warhead, the satellite would have been destroyed.
The Bold Orion ASAT test was the first interception of a satellite by any method, proving that anti-satellite missiles were feasible. This test, along with an earlier, unsuccessful test of the High Virgo missile in the anti-satellite role, had political repercussions. The Eisenhower administration sought to establish space as a neutral ground for everyone's use, and the "indication of hostile intent" given by the tests was frowned upon, with anti-satellite weapons development being soon curtailed.
### Legacy
The results of the Bold Orion project, along with those from the testing of the High Virgo missile, also developed under WS-199, provided data and knowledge that assisted the Air Force in forming the requirements for the follow-on WS-138A, which would produce the GAM-87 Skybolt missile.
## Launch history
AMR DZ means Atlantic Missile Range Drop Zone.
## See also |
359,510 | MetLife Building | 1,173,362,998 | Office skyscraper in Manhattan, New York | [
"1963 establishments in New York City",
"Aviation in New York City",
"Emery Roth buildings",
"Grand Central Terminal",
"Heliports in New York (state)",
"Insurance company headquarters in the United States",
"International style architecture in New York City",
"MetLife",
"Modernist architecture in New York City",
"Office buildings completed in 1963",
"Pan Am",
"Park Avenue",
"Pietro Belluschi buildings",
"Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan",
"Terminating vistas in the United States",
"Walter Gropius buildings"
] | The MetLife Building (also 200 Park Avenue and formerly the Pan Am Building) is a skyscraper at Park Avenue and 45th Street, north of Grand Central Terminal, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Designed in the International style by Richard Roth, Walter Gropius, and Pietro Belluschi and completed in 1962, the MetLife Building is 808 feet (246 m) tall with 59 stories. It was advertised as the world's largest commercial office space by square footage at its opening, with 2.4 million square feet (220,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of usable office space. As of November 2022, the MetLife Building remains one of the 100 tallest buildings in the United States.
The MetLife Building contains an elongated octagonal massing with the longer axis perpendicular to Park Avenue. The building sits atop two levels of railroad tracks leading into Grand Central Terminal. The facade is one of the first precast concrete exterior walls in a building in New York City. In the lobby is a pedestrian passage to Grand Central's Main Concourse, a lobby with artwork, and a parking garage at the building's base. The roof also contained a heliport that operated briefly during the 1960s and 1970s. The MetLife Building's design has been widely criticized since it was proposed, largely due to its location next to Grand Central Terminal.
Proposals for a skyscraper to replace Grand Central Terminal were announced in 1954 to raise money for the New York Central Railroad and New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, the financially struggling railroads that operated the terminal. Subsequently, plans were announced for what later became the MetLife Building, to be built behind the terminal rather than in place of it. Work on the project, initially known as Grand Central City, started in 1959 and the building was formally opened on March 7, 1963. At its opening, the building was named for Pan American World Airways, for which it served as headquarters. The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (MetLife) bought the Pan Am Building in 1981 and used it as their headquarters before selling the building in 2005. The MetLife Building has been renovated several times, including in the mid-1980s, early 2000s, and late 2010s.
## Site
The MetLife Building is at 200 Park Avenue, between the two roadways of the Park Avenue Viaduct to the west and east, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The building faces the Helmsley Building across 45th Street to the north and Grand Central Terminal to the south. Other nearby buildings include One Vanderbilt and 335 Madison Avenue to the southwest; the Yale Club of New York City clubhouse to the west; The Roosevelt Hotel to the northwest; 450 Lexington Avenue to the east; and the Graybar Building to the southeast. The building is assigned its own ZIP Code—10166—and is one of 41 such buildings in Manhattan, as of 2019.
In 1871, the New York Central Railroad built the Grand Central Depot, a ground-level depot at the intersection of Park Avenue and 42nd Street; it was succeeded in 1900 by Grand Central Station, also at ground level. The completion of Grand Central Terminal in 1913 resulted in the rapid development of the areas around Grand Central, which became known as Terminal City. The Grand Central Terminal complex included a six-story building for baggage handling just north of the main station building, on what is now the site of the MetLife Building. The baggage handling building was converted to an office building late in its history. The surrounding stretch of Park Avenue was developed with International Style skyscrapers during the 1950s and 1960s.
## Architecture
Designed in the International style by Richard Roth, Walter Gropius, and Pietro Belluschi, the MetLife Building was developed by Erwin S. Wolfson and completed in 1963 as the Pan Am Building. It is 808 feet (246 m) tall with 59 stories, containing both commercial and office space. As of November 2022, the MetLife Building is the 35th-tallest building in New York City and 79th-tallest in the United States.
The Diesel Construction Company was the general contractor for the building; at the time of construction, Wolfson had owned that company. Numerous other engineers and contractors were involved in the building's construction, including Hideo Sasaki as site planning consultant and landscape architect; Jaros, Baum & Bolles as MEP engineers; and James Ruderman as structural engineer. From the beginning, the building was intended for large firms, with 2.4 million square feet (220,000 m<sup>2</sup>) in office floor area. In total, it has 2,841,511 square feet (263,985.0 m<sup>2</sup>) of gross floor area, according to The Skyscraper Center.
### Form
The massing consists of a base and an octagonal tower. Contemporary sources describe the base as measuring nine stories tall, atop which rises 50 tower stories. However, the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat gives a conflicting measurement of 10 base stories and 49 tower stories. Exterior planted areas were planned for the sidewalks and above the roof of the base.
The tower stories' floor plates are designed in an elongated octagonal lozenge, with the longer axis running parallel to 45th Street. The north and south facades are divided into three broad segments, while the west and east facades are one segment each. The building's form may have been influenced by the 1961 Zoning Resolution, a major change to New York City zoning code that was proposed just before construction started. The massing is similar to Le Corbusier's unbuilt tower in Algiers, proposed between 1938 and 1942, as well as the nearly contemporary Pirelli Tower in Milan. The architects intended for the octagonal shape and exterior curtain wall to reduce the building's perceived sense of scale.
### Facade
The facade of the first two stories and mezzanines is clad with granite, aluminum, marble, and stainless steel with glass windows. On Depew Place, an alley running below the eastern leg of the Park Avenue Viaduct, fifteen loading docks were constructed for trucks to conduct deliveries and loading. On the Vanderbilt Avenue side, a marquee was installed over the entrance in the 1980s. The third through seventh stories are exclusively sheathed in granite, with window inserts. The eighth and ninth floors, which are slightly set back, are clad in aluminum.
The 10th through 59th stories of the MetLife Building contain one of the first precast concrete exterior walls in a building in New York City. The building includes about nine thousand light-tan precast concrete Mo-Sai panels, each of which surrounds a window measuring 4 feet (1.2 m) wide by 8 feet (2.4 m) high. The panels themselves measure 6 feet (1.8 m) wide by 13.67 feet (4 m) high and weigh 3,500 pounds (1,600 kg). Each panel is coated with a quartz aggregate to give texture to the facade. Vertical concrete mullions project about 13 inches (330 mm) from the facade, separating the panels on every story. Flat concrete spandrels separate the windows between stories. Though Walter Gropius had considered a precast concrete facade to be more solid than a glass curtain wall, this only made the building appear bulkier. Furthermore, the appearance of concrete degraded over time; this effect could be seen in structures such as the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum but was more pronounced on 200 Park Avenue's facade. During the building's construction, the manufacturer of the Mo-Sai panels declared bankruptcy, forcing Diesel Construction to buy out that company to prevent delays in construction.
The facade is recessed at the 21st and 46th stories, where there is mechanical space. These recesses create the impression of deep shadows. Both mechanical stories are surrounded by a colonnade of columns, which are spaced 16 feet (4.9 m) apart on centers. The precast concrete curtain wall is recessed behind the columns.
200 Park Avenue originally bore 15-foot-tall (4.6 m) "Pan Am" displays on its north and south facades and 25-foot-tall (7.6 m) globe logos on the east and west facades. This was swapped with neon "MetLife" displays to the north and south in 1992. These displays were changed again in 2017, being replaced with LED letters to conserve energy. The Pan Am Building was the last tall tower erected in New York City before laws were enacted preventing corporate logos and names on the tops of buildings. Modern New York City building code prohibits logos from being more than 25 feet (7.6 m) above the curb or occupying over 200 square feet (19 m<sup>2</sup>) on a blockfront. The sign replacements had been permitted because the city government considered the new signs to be an "uninterrupted continuation of a use" that was allowed before the zoning laws were changed.
### Structural features
200 Park Avenue was built atop two levels of railroad tracks underground, which feed directly into Grand Central Terminal. The substructure of the building uses foundational columns that extend into the track levels, descending some 55 feet (17 m) below street level into the underlying bedrock. The substructure includes more than 300 columns, each 18.5 inches (470 mm) across and clad with 2 inches (51 mm) of concrete. Ninety-nine columns were built specifically for the Pan Am Building; these columns were installed within several inches of existing steel members such as third rails, but had to be isolated from the other steel. The new columns weighed between 22 and 44 short tons (20 and 39 long tons; 20 and 40 t). Approximately two hundred existing columns, which supported the former baggage building on the site, were reinforced. The work involved abridging the tops of many existing columns and installing horizontal beams weighing up to 36 short tons (32 long tons; 33 t). A "triple decker sandwich" made of lead, asbestos, and sheet steel was installed under each level of tracks to provide insulation.
The superstructure was constructed similarly to bridge spans. To fabricate the floor slabs, builders used a process called composite action, in which concrete was bonded with structural steel panels to create a stronger structure. Steel panels were fabricated, rather than concrete floors, because steel panels were lighter and could be constructed regardless of unfavorable weather. Over 56 acres (230,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of steel panels are used in the floor plates, each of which contains wire and cable ducts. A standard floor slab could handle loads of 50 pounds per square foot (240 kg/m<sup>2</sup>). The building's steel frame weighs over 45,000 short tons (40,000 long tons; 41,000 t) in total. The roof of the building contains NOAA Weather Radio Station KWO35, a National Weather Service radio station.
#### Helipad
The initial plans for the Pan Am Building were altered in March 1961 to provide for a helipad on the east side of the roof. The helipad garnered controversy immediately after it was announced, and opponents of the plan cited noise and safety concerns. The heliport's opening required approval from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the city government, and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Lawyers for the building's owners applied for permission to operate the heliport in August 1963, and the New York City Planning Commission confirmed in early 1964 that the owners had sought a permit for the heliport. The New York City Board of Estimate gave final approval to the heliport in January 1965, and test flights began that March, amid continued opposition to the heliport.
Helicopter service started on December 22, 1965. The service was operated by New York Airways, which flew Vertol 107 helicopters from the rooftop helipad to Pan Am's terminal at John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK). There was a ticket office for the heliport at the base of the building. Passengers would check in at the ticket office, then take an express elevator to the 57th floor, an escalator to the heliport lounge, then another elevator to the roof. The flight to JFK lasted an average of six minutes and twenty seconds. The New York City government renewed the heliport's operating license in 1966, despite continued opposition to the heliport. For a short period starting in March 1967, the company also offered service to Teterboro Airport. All helicopter service stopped on February 18, 1968, because of insufficient ridership, as well as disagreements over funding.
Though discussions to restart helicopter service were held in 1969, approval was not given until early 1977. Service to JFK resumed that February using Sikorsky S-61s. On May 16, 1977, about one minute after an S-61L landed and its 20 passengers disembarked, the right front landing gear collapsed, causing the aircraft to topple onto its side with the rotors still turning. One of the blades detached, killing four men who were waiting to board and a fifth person at ground level; two other people were seriously injured. Helicopter service was suspended that day and never resumed. The already-controversial building received further negative attention as a result of the incident, and both New York Airways and Pan Am suffered financially in subsequent years. During its short periods of operation, the heliport was largely perceived as a nuisance and danger, but its presence was also seen as satisfying what David W. Dunlap described as "the consummate technological fantasy of airborne travel through skyscraping pinnacles".
### Interior
#### Utilities
A central telephone office was installed on the 20th and 21st stories, serving 30,000 telephones within the building. The system, costing \$11 million, was the first of its kind in an office building in the United States. The central office, operated by New York Telephone, eliminated the need for tenants to have individual telephone offices and equipment rooms. To avoid interfering with the subterranean railroad tracks, the telephone conduits were routed through the roof of the railroad tunnel. On the two floors where the telephone office was installed, the floor slabs were strengthened to handle loads of 150 to 300 pounds per square foot (730 to 1,460 kg/m<sup>2</sup>), and floor heights were increased to provide clearance of at least 13.5 feet (4.1 m).
A refrigeration plant, described at the time of construction as the world's largest such plant, was installed on the roof with three steam-powered units each weighing 3,333 short tons (2,976 long tons; 3,024 t). The plant was placed on the roof because the building has no usable basement, as all the subterranean space is part of Grand Central Terminal. The plant could melt up to 20 million pounds (9.1 kt) of ice each day and could use 200,000 pounds of steam every hour. Large fan rooms were placed on the mechanical stories at the 21st and 46th floors, dispersing air to the other floors, and two individual air supply systems were placed on each story. The ventilation systems could deliver 5,000,000 cubic feet (140,000 m<sup>3</sup>) every minute. The pipes and ducts had to serve all the building's floors, with an electrical system and water pressure system capable of serving all the building's stories. At ground level was a room where wastepaper could be "baled" on-site to make easier to dispose of paper.
Westinghouse Electric Corporation also manufactured 65 elevators and 21 escalators for 200 Park Avenue, which at the time of construction was the largest-ever order for elevators. One bank of six elevators was able to travel 1,600 feet per minute (490 m/min), the fastest elevators in the world at the time of their installation. Five elevators were reserved for freight. The elevators rise from the second-story lobby because the elevator pits could not descend below the first story due to the presence of the tracks. The upper stories were served by 59 elevators. According to the Skyscraper Center, as of 2021, the building has 85 elevators.
#### Lobby
The MetLife Building's base contains a lobby across its lowest two stories. At ground level is a 76-foot-wide (23 m) pedestrian passageway, enabling traffic flow between the Helmsley Building's pedestrian arcades and Grand Central Terminal. The 45th Street entrance to the passageway is set back 65 feet (20 m) from the sidewalk. A 103-foot-wide (31 m) entrance arcade is placed on Vanderbilt Avenue, with the doorways set about 81 feet (25 m) back from the sidewalk there. The building's main office lobby is placed at the second story, at the level of the viaduct. The lobby was also designed with plantings and a 40-foot-high (12 m) enclosed plaza. The lobby contains 18 escalators in total. Four escalators lead to the Main Concourse at the southern end of the passageway, while fourteen more lead from the passageway to the office lobby.
Gropius was responsible for the original design of the lobby, which was largely austere. The building's original anchor tenant, Pan Am, had a ticket office under a 25-foot-wide (7.6 m) niche off the main lobby, measuring 135 feet (41 m) long and 11 feet (3.4 m) high, with circular counters and a wall with a relief map of the world. It was the world's largest airline ticket office at the time of its opening, covering 10,000 square feet (930 m<sup>2</sup>).
##### Renovations
During a 1980s renovation by Warren Platner, some 15,000 square feet (1,400 m<sup>2</sup>) of retail space were constructed in the lobby. Also installed was a staircase at the center of the lobby on 45th Street, which consisted of alternating travertine and gray-granite risers. The staircase ranged from 10 feet (3.0 m) wide at the ground floor to 20 feet (6.1 m) at an intermediate landing, where it split into two flights and reached a width of 30 feet (9.1 m) at the mezzanine. There were four triangular planters at the bottom of the staircase, which complemented an orange carpet with flower motifs at the mezzanine. The lobby also contained unusual semicircular discs that were either mounted atop poles or suspended from the ceiling. In addition, a security desk was added and the storefronts were expanded.
In an early-2000s renovation by Kohn Pedersen Fox, the lobby received tile and black travertine floors, the storefronts were moved to the side, and the central staircase was removed. The storefronts were removed in the late 2010s and the lobby was re-clad in light-colored travertine. The renovated lobby has an oak-floored reception lounge overlooking the entrance.
##### Artwork
The Pan Am Building's lobby was planned with several works of art, which comprised most of the original lobby's decoration. One such artwork is Flight, a triple-story wire sculpture by Richard Lippold. The sculpture contains a sphere, representing the earth; a seven-pointed star, representing the seven continents and seas; and gold wires representing aircraft flight patterns. It measures 80 feet (24 m) wide, and 40 feet (12 m) deep. The composer John Cage, a friend of Lippold's, had initially proposed a musical program to complement Flight, consisting of ten loudspeakers, which would have played works by Muzak whenever people walked in and out of the lobby. Lippold canceled the idea and management instead agreed to play classical music in the lobby.
At the Pan Am Building's opening, the entrance from the Main Concourse was topped by Manhattan, a 28-by-55-foot (8.5 by 16.8 m) mosaic mural of red, white, and black panels by Josef Albers. That work was removed in a 2001 renovation, though Albers had left exact specifications for reproducing the work, and a replica was installed in 2019.
Suspended over the 45th Street entrance was a mural by György Kepes, consisting of two aluminum screens with concentric squares. Kepes's mural measured 40 feet (12 m) wide and was placed on the balcony; it was removed in the 1980s. At Vanderbilt Avenue, Robert Berks sculpted a bronze bust depicting the building's developer, Erwin S. Wolfson.
#### Other interior spaces
The MetLife Building was designed with a six-level parking garage with room for 400 cars. The garage contains entrances and exits from both roadways of the Park Avenue Viaduct. According to owner Tishman Speyer, as of 2021, the building's garage contains 248 spots across four levels.
A variety of commercial and office spaces were included in the Pan Am Building when it opened. Pan Am, the airline for which the building was originally named, contained a ticketing office at 45th Street and Vanderbilt Avenue, similar in design to Eero Saarinen's TWA Flight Center at JFK Airport. Office stories in the octagonal slab typically have between 32,000 to 36,000 square feet (3,000 to 3,300 m<sup>2</sup>) of usable space, with elevators and stairs at the center, as well as uneven column spacing. This arrangement allows a large amount of window-office space for tenants, as each story contains 780 feet (240 m) of outer perimeter walls. Different companies with full-floor leases designed their spaces in various manners. Some tenants placed private offices along the perimeter, with important executive offices at the far corners of the story. Other tenants placed open spaces at the west and east ends of the floor or in the center.
The Sky Club, a private luncheon club, had been on the 56th floor of the Pan Am Building. For several years the Sky Club had contained a private restaurant. Aircraft pioneer Juan Trippe, founder of Pan Am, was a member of this club. Trippe had commissioned a mural of clipper ships for the walls of the Sky Club; it was sent to Tucker's Point resort in Bermuda after the club shuttered. On the 57th and 58th stories was the Copter Club, which was used by passengers of the short-lived helicopter service.
## History
### Planning
By the 1950s, passenger volumes at Grand Central Terminal had declined dramatically from the early 20th century, and there were proposals to demolish and replace the station. The New York Central Railroad was losing money, partially on paying taxes on the building's air rights. New York Central wanted to sell the property or its air rights to allow the construction of a skyscraper above or on the terminal's site. At the same time, the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad retained a partial interest in the terminal's operation.
#### Early plans
Initially, New York Central's chairman Robert R. Young had been negotiating with developer Erwin S. Wolfson and their mutual friends Herbert and Stuart Scheftel to determine how the Grand Central site could be redeveloped. After these discussions broke down, two competing plans for the replacement of Grand Central Terminal were proposed in 1954. One design, by I. M. Pei, was suggested by Young along with developer William Zeckendorf. The proposal called for an 80-story, 5-million-square-foot (460,000 m<sup>2</sup>) tower that would have succeeded the Empire State Building as the world's tallest building. The other, by Fellheimer & Wagner, was put forth by New Haven's chairman Patrick B. McGinnis along with Wolfson. The plan envisioned a 55-story building, the largest office building in the world with 4 to 6 million square feet (370,000 to 560,000 m<sup>2</sup>). Both proposals were poorly received, with 235 architects cosigning a letter imploring Young and McGinnis to reject the plans. Neither plan was ultimately ever carried out.
Though the New Haven and New York Central continued to struggle financially, both railroads agreed to work with Wolfson, the New Haven's developer. In February 1955, Wolfson, the Scheftels, and Alfred G. Burger proposed a 65-story tower called Grand Central City, which would replace a six-story baggage structure north of the terminal. Richard Roth of Emery Roth and Sons, who created the design, had agreed to participate only if the office building would not result in the passenger concourse's demolition. The plans were widely circulated in the New York Herald Tribune, The New York Times, and The Wall Street Journal. The proposal garnered significant opposition after architect Giorgio Cavaglieri expressed concerns about the effects of the proposed building on traffic congestion in the area.
Roth and Wolfson's plan was effectively forgotten in March 1955 when Zeckendorf was named the partner for any new development in the vicinity of Grand Central. Zeckendorf and Pei modified the blueprints for their 80-story tower but never publicly announced the revised plans. Unpublished drawings indicate that Pei's second design was supposed to be a hyperboloid-shaped tower. For various reasons, the hyperboloid tower never progressed past the planning stage. The building had faced extensive criticism from both professionals and the general public; the railroads faced significant financial shortfalls; and the economy as a whole had started to decline, leaving Zeckendorf unable to finance the project. Meanwhile, traffic around Grand Central Terminal worsened in the late 1950s.
#### Revival of plans
In January 1958, representatives of an unnamed large company, who were unaware of Grand Central City's cancellation, notified Stuart Scheftel that they were interested in leasing space in the new building. Upon learning of the news, Young placed Scheftel in contact with his real estate agent. Although Young died by suicide shortly afterward, the remaining partners continued working on the project. A revised version of Roth's plan was announced in May 1958. The plan called for a 50-story aluminum and glass tower parallel to Park Avenue, with 3 million square feet (280,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of floor area; three theaters with a total capacity of 5,000; an open-air restaurant on the seventh floor; and a 2,000-spot parking garage. The New York Central and New Haven railroads were guaranteed at least \$1 million a year from the agreement. Despite the presence of tracks under the building site, Wolfson said a survey of the site had "no insurmountable problems". James Ruderman, the building's structural engineer, had drawn up preliminary plans for a steel framework spanning the tracks. Wolfson hired James D. Landauer Associates Inc. to handle leasing at the proposed building, negotiating directly with tenants' brokers.
Wolfson found Roth's revised plan to be unsatisfactorily modest for such a prominent site. He said in the New York Herald Tribune that he wanted to "avoid adding just another massive shape to an already developed midtown business community". In July 1958, architects Walter Gropius and Pietro Belluschi were announced as co-designers for Grand Central City. Wolfson expressed his hope that Gropius and Belluschi, both prominent architects in the Modern style, would be able to help devise an "esthetic and functional design". Initially, Gropius and Belluschi were to serve a relatively minor advisory role. A week after being hired, Gropius suggested that the slab be oriented east–west, with a large plaza or courtyard in front of the tower, similar to the design of Lever House. Gropius also recommended that the building include a textured facade, rather than the metal-and-glass curtain walls commonly used by the Roth firm in its previous buildings. Gropius modified the plans in mid-1958; the facade would use simulated stone, the large plaza was dropped from the plans, and the tower was moved northward to 45th Street. That October, Wolfson traveled to Europe to study buildings and gain inspiration for the building's design.
Gropius and the Roth firm continued to modify their design through early 1959. The revised final plans were announced in February 1959. While Wolfson had promised a "modest" redesign, the new plans were a radical change from Roth's 1958 plan, calling for a 55-story octagonal tower parallel to 45th Street, with 2.4 million square feet (220,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of space. The Roth firm said the octagonal massing could absorb "different planes of light as on a diamond", while Gropius said the new alignment was easier for air conditioning. The octagonal building was smaller than the original plans, but Gropius's team reasoned that a 3-million-square-foot (280,000 m<sup>2</sup>) edifice would have been too large to rent out. The Roth firm expressed its concerns over the east–west orientation of the tower, since it would raise the cost of the superstructure by 50 percent compared to a slab oriented north–south. A model of the redesigned tower was exhibited publicly in November 1959.
### Construction
#### Initial work
Five leases for a collective 600,000 square feet (56,000 m<sup>2</sup>) in Grand Central City were announced immediately after the final design was announced in February 1959. A contract for 40,000 short tons (36,000 long tons; 36,000 t) of structural steel was awarded to U.S. Steel's American Bridge division that May; at the time, the contract was reportedly the most expensive ever awarded for an office building. Ruderman finalized his plans for the framework in September 1959. The next month British firm City Centre Properties invested \$25 million and took a half interest in Grand Central City's development, covering part of the project's \$100 million cost. It was the first British–American joint venture for a real estate development in the United States. Gordon I. Kyle, an appraiser who had calculated the valuations of more than two-thirds of Manhattan's skyscrapers, concluded that the building would be worth twice as much as the Empire State Building. Wolfson and City Centre paid Kyle \$50,000, which at the time was the highest single appraiser's fee ever recorded.
The New York Central Railroad granted an 80-year lease for the air rights above the building, in exchange for a portion of the building's gross revenue. This agreement added about \$6 million to the construction cost. Final plans were filed with the New York City Department of Buildings on November 24, 1959. Construction on the structure officially started two days afterward on November 26, and Cushman & Wakefield were named as leasing agents for Grand Central City the following month. This was followed by contracts for the building's soundproofing and elevators in February 1960. James Ruderman had devised engineering plans for five other structures above the Park Avenue railroad tracks. As the Grand Central City site was impossible to excavate, the substructure had to be erected while the baggage building served as a staging area. Furthermore, as some materials would have to be delivered by railroad, material deliveries would be coordinated closely to avoid delays on the commuter rail lines entering Grand Central.
Construction of the substructure commenced in May 1960, during which the architects finalized plans for the entrances, lobbies, and facade lighting. Gropius was involved in all aspects of the building's design, from traffic flow to minor architectural details, which sometimes led to conflicts with the project's other architects and engineers. For example, he wanted the lobby's bronze details to contain a matte finish, and he requested that the elevator penthouse be no higher than 26 feet (7.9 m) above the roof so that it did not "look silly". Work on the tower itself was held up by a steel strike that lasted through much of 1960; the baggage handling building was ultimately demolished starting that June. Foundations for the building were sunk in August 1960.
#### Pan Am lease and completion
Pan Am founder Juan Trippe signed a 25-year, \$115.5 million lease for 613,000 square feet (56,900 m<sup>2</sup>) across 15 floors, plus a new main ticket office at 45th Street and Vanderbilt Avenue, in September 1960. In an indication of the widespread interest surrounding this lease, the mayor and the governor of New York both congratulated Grand Central City's builders after the lease was signed. Following this, Pan Am hired Ivan Chermayeff to design the building's signage. Grand Central City officially became known as the Pan Am Building in December 1960, after its major lessee. Signs bearing the company's name or logo were placed atop the four major facades. Originally, Trippe had wanted signs with the name "Pan Am" on all eight facades, but this was scaled down after Gropius objected that the large number of signs would decrease "the dignity of the building". The Pan Am Building's developers secured a \$70 million mortgage loan and a \$65 million construction loan during January 1961. At the time, the building was more than half rented.
The Pan Am Building's construction involved over 200 engineers and 7,500 workers from 75 trades. Three derricks were installed to erect the steel for the tower, while four derricks were used for the base. Five to seven steel columns were installed every day during two shifts, with materials deliveries taking place mostly at night. The Pan Am Building's structural steel topped out during May 1962. The facade cladding was installed in two ways. The facade of the base was bolted into place, down to the individual spandrels and mullions. The Mo-Sai panels for the tower were installed via an interior hoist. Wolfson, though recovering from surgery during mid-1962, continued to observe the building's progress using a helicopter. When Wolfson died that June, James D. Landauer was selected to oversee the building's completion. The lobby, the last part of the Pan Am Building to be completed, was built with cheap materials such as restroom tiles because the builders had run out of money toward the project's completion.
### Opening and Pan Am ownership
The as-yet-incomplete Pan Am Building was formally opened on March 7, 1963, with a ceremony attended by British and American officials, and tenants started moving into the structure the following month. The building had secured tenants for 91 percent of its office space upon opening, in large part to its central location. Within three months, the Pan Am Building was 92 percent rented and 70 percent occupied; by the first anniversary of its opening, the building was 97 percent leased with 241 tenants. This contrasted greatly with the smaller Empire State Building, which was only 25 percent rented when it opened and did not reach full occupancy for more than a decade afterward. At the time of its completion, the Pan Am Building was the largest commercial office development in the world by square footage, being surpassed nearly a decade later by 55 Water Street and the World Trade Center in lower Manhattan. In the 15 years prior to the Pan Am Building's opening, 147 office buildings had been completed in Manhattan, totaling 50.632 million square feet (4,703,900 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space.
Initially, the airline only had a 10 percent ownership stake in its namesake building. Besides Pan Am, other early tenants included the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Alcoa, the Hammermill Paper Company, National Steel Corporation, Kodak, Reader's Digest magazine, Mitsui, Chrysler, and the British Iron & Steel Corporation. The shops at the Pan Am Building's base were opened in August 1963. The tenant selection process was rigorous, as Cushman and Wakefield examining the services and goods sold by potential tenants: for example, the firm's vice president got haircuts from each of the six applicants for the lobby barbershop. Furthermore, average rents in the Pan Am Building were about \$6.75 per square foot (\$72.7/m<sup>2</sup>), slightly higher than the average of \$5.25 to \$6 per square foot (\$56.5 to \$64.6/m<sup>2</sup>) in other Midtown Manhattan buildings.
Although the Pan Am Building's completion averted the terminal's imminent destruction, New York Central had experienced further decline, merging with the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1968 to form the Penn Central Railroad. That year, Pan Am bought a 45 percent stake in the building from the estate of Jack Cotton, formerly chairman and co-owner of City Centre Properties. After Penn Central went bankrupt in 1970, it sought to sell its properties, including the land below the Pan Am Building. Among the building's tenants during this time was the United Brands Company (now Chiquita Brands International), whose CEO, Eli M. Black, jumped from the 44th story to his death on February 3, 1975.
Pan Am was considering moving its headquarters from the building by 1978. That year, the airline bought the remaining 45 percent stake in the building from Wolfson, obtaining full ownership of the property. A Pan Am subsidiary, Grand Central Building Inc., acquired the underlying land for about \$25 million the following year as part of a legal settlement with Penn Central. The airline sustained large financial losses during the early 1980s recession, leading it to announce in February 1980 that it was considering selling the building. About half the leases were scheduled to expire in three or four years. Many lessees were exempt from paying the building's operating costs, which made the Pan Am Building only marginally profitable for the airline. Amid high fuel costs and a lack of income from airfare, Pan Am decided in April 1980 that it would definitely sell the building.
### Sale to MetLife and renovations
When the Pan Am Building officially went on the market in May 1980, Business Week magazine predicted that it might be sold for as much as \$200 million. The sale was so complex that Landauer Associates published a 65-page brochure just to describe the terms of the sale. Nine bidders submitted offers, five of whom were selected for further consideration: the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (MetLife), the Equitable Life Assurance Society; Donald Trump; Paul Milstein; and Olympia and York. In July 1980, Pan Am sold the building to MetLife for \$400 million. At the time, it was the highest-priced sale of an office building in Manhattan. This was attributed not only to a rezoning of the surrounding area, allowing developers to erect higher buildings there, but also a strong office market. The sale price amounted to \$177 per square foot (\$1,910/m<sup>2</sup>), more than any other office building in Manhattan. MetLife did not plan to move any offices to the building, and Pan Am planned to keep its headquarters there. As a condition of the sale, the building would retain Pan Am's name until the airline ceased to be the building's anchor tenant.
The sale was finalized in 1981 when Pan Am transferred stock in the building to MetLife, a move that let the airline avoid paying most of the estate transfer tax. Pan Am normally would have paid a \$4 million tax, but it ultimately paid only \$125. Cross & Brown assumed the responsibility of leasing the building's space. At the time, leases for much of the interior space were set to expire all at once during the early 1980s. Starting in 1984, MetLife renovated about half of the space as the original tenants' leases expanded. The deteriorating lobby, used by 100,000 pedestrians a day, was extensively reconfigured by Warren Platner. In addition, some mechanical systems were upgraded to comply with building codes, and retail spaces were added. Asbestos fireproofing on the office stories was removed in advance of an anti-asbestos regulation passed by the city government in 1985. The lobby renovation had been completed by 1987 at a cost of \$15 million.
By 1991, Pan Am's presence had dwindled to four floors. MetLife preferred to refer to the building as 200 Park Avenue, its address. At the time, the Pan Am Building was 95 percent occupied, and the public variously referred to the building by the names of its large tenants, such as Mitsui, Dreyfus, and Rogers & Wells. Pan Am moved its headquarters to Miami that year and closed down shortly afterward. In September 1992, MetLife announced that it would remove Pan Am signage from 200 Park Avenue and add letters bearing its own name. According to a MetLife spokesperson, the sign change was taking place because the airline had become defunct. The signs were changed in January 1993. Though 200 Park Avenue subsequently became known as the MetLife Building, its namesake was then headquartered in the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower. As a result, the Park Avenue structure was known specifically as the "MetLife Building 200 Park Avenue".
### 21st century
Further renovations to 200 Park Avenue's exterior and lobby were undertaken during 2001 and 2002. Low-pressure compressed air was used to clean the facade, while Kohn Pedersen Fox renovated the lobby. In 2005, MetLife moved its board room from the Metropolitan Life Tower to 200 Park Avenue. The same year, the company considered selling 200 Park Avenue to pay for its acquisition of Travelers Life & Annuity. Ultimately, MetLife sold the building that April for \$1.72 billion, to a joint venture of Tishman Speyer Properties, the New York City Employees' Retirement System, and the New York City Teachers' Retirement System. At the time, the sale was the largest ever transaction involving an office building. The company still retained a boardroom and corporate suite at 200 Park Avenue.
MetLife announced in 2015 that it was consolidating its operations at 200 Park Avenue, with 500,000 square feet (46,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of space in the building. At the time, the media reported that Donald Bren, the billionaire owner of the real estate firm Irvine Company, held a 97.3 percent ownership stake in the building. While Tishman Speyer remained the managing partner of the property, the company's stake in the MetLife Building had been reduced to less than 3 percent. Plans to renovate the lobby were devised in 2016. The next year, the neon light sources for the signs atop the building were swapped with LED light sources to conserve energy. A renovation of 200 Park Avenue's lobby started in late 2018. The work was to simplify the lobby's layout by removing storefronts and restoring direct connections to some of Grand Central's platforms. In mid-2022, Tishman Speyer announced that it had leased space in 200 Park Avenue's lobby to three eateries, which would open in late 2022 and early 2023.
## Critical reception
### Response to original design
When the octagonal design for 200 Park Avenue was first announced in 1959, it was controversial. Architectural historian Sibyl Moholy-Nagy wrote in Progressive Architecture magazine that the original tower plans "provided human scale and architectural personality", which were "lost" in the revision. Walter McQuade, writing for The Nation, found even the drawings for the building to be dissatisfying. Grand Central City was lambasted internationally by Italian critic Gillo Dorfles and Romanian architect Martin Pinchis. Architect Victor Gruen questioned the parking garage's necessity given the site's proximity to a major railroad terminal, while Progressive Architecture editor Thomas H. Creighton suggested the space would be better left as an open plaza. Critics also expressed concerns that the building would burden existing transit infrastructure. The plan also had its defenders, such as Natalie Parry, who wrote in rebuttal to Moholy-Nagy that the plans preserved Grand Central's "star-studded" Main Concourse, "together with the precious air space above it". Historian Paul Zucker defended the building's urbanism, and urban planner Charles Abrams and Architectural Record editor Emerson Goble also defended the plan as an addition to the cityscape.
Upon its completion, the Pan Am Building received largely negative feedback, in large part because of its central location. Most critics deprecated the building's bulk, which was exacerbated by the design of the facade and its horizontal alignment. Gropius said the 1916 Zoning Resolution justified the building's large size, telling television presenter Dave Garroway that "every citizen has the right to use the law as far as he can"; this only prompted further negative reviews. James T. Burns Jr. wrote in Progressive Architecture that the placement of the base, tower, parking garage, and Grand Central Terminal were "occasionally inexcusably jarring" and considered the lobby to be a continuation of the exterior's "monolithism". Ada Louise Huxtable called the building "a colossal collection of minimums", with the lobby artwork being a "face-saving gimmick". Many observers viewed the monolithic design as obstructing vistas down Park Avenue. Art historian Vincent Scully, speaking in 1961, expressed his belief that the Pan Am Building was a "fatal blow" to Park Avenue's continuity, while Claes Oldenburg mocked the building's positioning on Park Avenue with his 1965 artwork Proposed Colossal Monument for Park Avenue, NYC: Good Humor Bar. The building's own engineers had not expected any praise for the building, which had been developed solely for the purpose of making money.
Goble, a close friend of Gropius and Belluschi, defended the building in a 1960 New York Times article in which he praised the pedestrian passageways in and around the building. Goble was one of the few people speaking in favor of the Pan Am Building in its early years, and he wrote another article praising the building in 1962. Gropius himself wrote a speech in which he praised the building but provided few specific details. This speech was published in the June 1960 version of Architectural Record with no modifications. Gropius had asked Paul Zucker of the New School to write an article that responded to criticism of the building on "an objective and professional level", although there is no evidence that Zucker ended up writing such an article.
### Later commentary
The Pan Am Building was also highly criticized after its 1980s lobby renovation. Carter Wiseman compared the new decorations as being gaudy in a similar manner to performer Liberace, except that "even Liberace would have blushed at the vulgarity". Paul Goldberger of The New York Times said that even though the previous design was "stark and unwelcoming", the new decorations created "a space that is so forced in its joy, so false and so disingenuous, that they make one yearn for some good old-fashioned coldness". In 1987, New York magazine conducted a poll of "more than 100 prominent New Yorkers", asking which buildings they preferred to see demolished, and the Pan Am Building ranked at the top of that list. Architect Robert A. M. Stern said in 1988 that the building, a "wrong-headed dream badly realized", warranted preservation from the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, although he rhetorically suggested tearing down the building when the Pan Am sign was replaced several years later.
By the beginning of the 21st century, some onetime critics expressed ambivalence toward the building's presence, while preservationists advocated the protection of mid-20th century buildings such as the MetLife Building. ArchDaily magazine described it in 2016 as "commendable for its robust form and excellent public spaces, as well as its excellent integration into the elevated arterial roads around it". Furthermore, the building's reputation and presence made it the setting of several films or TV shows during its history.
## See also
- Architecture of New York City
- List of tallest buildings in New York City |
12,914,371 | Dangerously in Love Tour | 1,166,570,020 | 2003 concert tour by Beyoncé | [
"2003 concert tours",
"Beyoncé concert tours"
] | The Dangerously in Love Tour was the debut concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé. Although the tour was intended to showcase songs from her debut solo album, Dangerously in Love, (2003) the set list also contained a special segment dedicated to Beyoncé's girl group Destiny's Child and featured songs from her 2003 film The Fighting Temptations. The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers, as well as some images from her music videos and some prerecorded images. The tour was reviewed negatively by Dave Simpson of The Guardian who graded it with two stars out of five. The Dangerously in Love Tour only reached Europe and Beyoncé's performance, at the Wembley Arena in London, was filmed and later released on the CD/DVD Live at Wembley (2004).
## Background and development
The Dangerously In Love Tour was the debut solo concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé. The tour was intended to showcase songs from Beyoncé's debut solo album, Dangerously in Love released in 2003. However, the set list also contained a special segment of her show dedicated to her girl group Destiny's Child and songs from Beyoncé's 2003 film The Fighting Temptations ("Fever" and "Summertime"). The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that moved up and down throughout the entire show and displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers, as well as some images from her music videos and some prerecorded images with special effects. The show also featured a small staircase and platforms on both side of the stairs for her band. Beyoncé later toured alongside Missy Elliott and Alicia Keys as ensemble for the Verizon Ladies First Tour (2004) in North America.
## Synopsis and reception
Dave Simpson of The Guardian described the opening of the show during his review: "Some while after Beyoncé is due on stage, a voice announces that the support act won't be appearing and that Beyoncé will be with us 'in a moment'. Like everything else – hits, boots, hair and sponsorship deals – moments are very big in Beyoncé world. An age later, cheers erupt for the raising of a curtain which revealed, er, a roadie fiddling with a drum kit. An hour later, the piped music is getting gradually louder to drown boos and the cries of small children whose parents are moaning it's getting past their bedtime." The show opens with "Baby Boy" which Beyoncé sang while being lowered onto the stage upside down. A highlight for many fans was her performance of "Dangerously in Love 2". During the tour, a special 8-minutes rendition of the song was performed.
Simpson of The Guardian reviewed the opening show of the tour negatively, grading it with two out of five stars. He was negative about Beyoncé's clothing during the show, saying: "The delays may well be down to Beyoncé's wardrobe, which could trouble Imelda Marcos. There are skimpy skirts, tails (for a note perfect if pointless version of Peggy Lee's 'Fever') and a general theme of low material, high glitz. But often, the main sparkle is on Beyoncé's outfit." He also added that "The dancers' 'naked suits' make the former church girl a raunchy rival to Kylie [Minogue]. But there's an interminable section where they pretend to be homies, and when Beyoncé disappears for long periods it feels like an expensive night with Legs and Co." He concluded his review by saying,
> "Clearly, the armies of industry professionals that put Beyoncé together aren't sure of her core audience. A vague Saturday night TV, family entertainment feel gradually gives way to a more intriguing cross between Liza Minnelli showbiz and thumping R&B. However, a ticker tape festooned 'Crazy in Love' and a belting 'Work It Out' suggest Beyoncé is best sticking to her roots. Bizarrely, if implausibly, she puts the carnage down to her tour manager falling off stage, but at least she's grasped one showbiz adage: the show must go on."
## Broadcasts and recordings
On November 10, 2003, Beyoncé performed at the Wembley Arena in London; this was later put on a DVD, titled Live at Wembley, which was released in April 2004. It was accompanied by a CD comprising three previously-unreleased studio recorded songs and one remix each of "Crazy in Love", "Baby Boy" and "Naughty Girl". Behind-the-scenes footage can be also seen on the DVD. The album debuted at number seventeen on the Billboard 200, selling 45,000 copies in its first week. The DVD has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 200,000 copies. According to Nielsen SoundScan, it had sold 264,000 copies in the US by October 2007, while as at October 6, 2010, it had sold 197,000 digital downloads. In an interview with The New York Times in 2007, American singer Miranda Lambert revealed that Live at Wembley inspired her to "take little bits from that [Beyoncé performance]" for her live shows.
## Setlist
1. "Baby Boy"
2. "Naughty Girl"
3. "Fever"
4. "Hip Hop Star"
5. "Yes"
6. "Work It Out"
7. "Gift from Virgo"
8. "Be with You"
9. "Speechless"
10. "Bug a Boo" / "No, No, No Part 2" / "Bootylicious" / "Jumpin', Jumpin'" / "Say My Name" / "Independent Women Part I" / "'03 Bonnie & Clyde" / "Survivor"
11. "Me, Myself and I"
12. "Summertime"
13. "Dangerously in Love 2"
Encore
1. <li value="14">
"Crazy in Love"
## Tour dates |
26,086,469 | Tropical Storm Andres (1997) | 1,157,597,815 | Pacific tropical storm in 1997 | [
"1997 Pacific hurricane season",
"1997 in Mexico",
"Eastern Pacific tropical storms",
"Hurricanes in Chiapas",
"Hurricanes in El Salvador",
"Hurricanes in Guatemala",
"Hurricanes in Guerrero",
"Hurricanes in Nicaragua",
"Hurricanes in Oaxaca"
] | Tropical Storm Andres is one of only three tropical cyclones on record to strike El Salvador. The first named storm of the active 1997 Pacific hurricane season, Andres formed on June 1 off the coast of Mexico. It initially moved toward the coast, although a change in steering winds turned the storm toward Mexico and Guatemala. After passing just offshore, Andres again changed direction toward the southeast, gradually weakening in the process. On June 7, it turned toward and hit El Salvador before dissipating. The storm brought rainfall to coastlines along much of its path, destroying some houses and inflicted damage. Two fishermen were reported missing in Nicaragua due to high seas, and there were four deaths in El Salvador.
## Meteorological history
Tropical Storm Andres was the first of many storms of the season, with above-average activity due to one of the strongest El Niño events on record. In most of May 1997, strong westerlies extended across the eastern Pacific Ocean, which inhibited tropical cyclogenesis. Toward the end of the month, however, wind shear decreased in the easternmost portion of the basin, which allowed a low-level circulation to develop; it is possible the system originated from a tropical wave that traversed the Atlantic Ocean in the previous two weeks. Deep convection increased over the circulation on May 31, prompting classifications with the Dvorak technique. Based on satellite imagery, it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression One-E early on June 1, about 345 miles (555 km) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec.
The tropical cyclone was never well-organized, and after its formation, the convection became elongated. As the entire system moved northwestward, another circulation developed which eventually became the dominant center, causing the original circulation to dissipate. Midday on June 2, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Andres. The next day, steering winds forced the storm east-northeastward, and on June 4, Andres attained peak winds of 50 mph (85 km/h). A trough bypassed the storm to the north and changed the steering flow toward the southeast. This produced a track paralleling the Central America coastline; such a track was considered "unprecedented" by the National Hurricane Center in the database for all eastern Pacific storms. Initially, the storm was expected to continue moving toward Mexico and Guatemala.
Turning southeastward, Tropical Storm Andres passed about 35 miles (56 km) off the coast of Guatemala, before it began weakening due to interaction with the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The convection became amorphous and later shifted to the southeast of the circulation. On June 6 Andres weakened to tropical depression status. It turned northward and moved ashore near San Salvador, El Salvador on June 7, which was the first recorded landfall in the country. The low-level circulation quickly dissipated over land, although the mid-level circulation persisted across Central America. After the featured reached the western Caribbean Sea, a new surface circulation developed, and initially, tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated the development of a significant storm in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Instead, the system remained disorganized, bringing rainfall to Cuba, Florida, and the Bahamas before it was absorbed by a weak trough in the Gulf of Mexico.
## Impact and preparations
When Tropical Storm Andres first turned to the northeast, tropical storm warnings were issued from Punta Galera, Mexico to the Mexico/Guatemala border. A tropical storm warning was later issued from Champerico, Guatemala to the Mexican border. All of the warnings were dropped when Andres turned toward the southeast. Later, a tropical storm watch was issued for Guatemala and El Salvador, but it was quickly canceled. Due to the threat of the storm, officials closed ports along the southern Mexican coastline, and also advised for small boats to excise caution.
Throughout its life, Andres produced rainfall along the coast of Mexico, in Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas, as well as through the Yucatán Peninsula. The highest total in the country was 11.42 inches (29.0 cm) in Mazatán, Chiapas. Heavy rainfall and high seas spread across western Central America. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, the storm led to power outages, traffic accidents, and overflown rivers, as well as destroyed bridges and buildings in Nicaragua. Two fishermen were left missing in Nicaragua, and the storm damaged 91 houses and destroyed 82 more, leaving a total of 1,259 people homeless. There were 4 deaths in El Salvador where Andres made landfall. The remnants of Andres brought rainfall to Cuba, Florida, and the Bahamas. In Florida, the system produced a daily record precipitation of 5.89 inches (15.0 cm) at the Miami International Airport; the rainfall led to street flooding, accidents, and housing damage.
## See also
- Other storms of the same name
- Tropical Storm Selma (2017) - became the first tropical storm on record to strike El Salvador.
- Hurricane Barbara (2013)
- Tropical Storm Beatriz (1993) |
55,032,081 | 2015 San Sebastián del Oeste ambush | 1,165,087,785 | None | [
"2015 crimes in Mexico",
"Ambushes",
"April 2015 crimes in North America",
"Attacks in Mexico in 2015",
"Battles in 2015",
"Battles of the Mexican drug war",
"Jalisco New Generation Cartel",
"Organized crime events in Mexico"
] | On 6 April 2015, a convoy of the Jalisco State Police was ambushed by suspected members of the Jalisco New Generation Cartel (CJNG), a criminal group based in Jalisco. The attack occurred in a mountain road in San Sebastián del Oeste, Jalisco. Fifteen policemen were killed and five were wounded; no CJNG casualties were confirmed. According to police reports, as the police convoy reached a part of the road surrounded by mountains, the CJNG opened fire at the police units from the sides using high-caliber rifles, grenade launchers, and explosives with gasoline. The element of surprise prevented the police from repelling the aggression. The CJNG members burned several vehicles along the highway to halt reinforcements. The attack lasted roughly 30 minutes. When government reinforcements reached the scene, the CJNG gunmen had left.
The ambush was one of the deadliest single-attack incidents against Mexico's security forces in the ongoing Mexican Drug War. It was also a rare display of bold attacks against law enforcement. In the past, criminal groups in Mexico tended to avoid direct confrontation with security forces. The attack also showcased the manpower and sophistication of the CJNG. The complexity of the attack showed that the CJNG had expertise in military tactics, guerrilla warfare, ambush and counter-ambush training, and in use of explosives. According to investigators, the CJNG carried out the ambush to avenge the arrests and deaths of their fallen comrades from government crackdowns.
## Ambush and reactions
At around 2:50 p.m. on 6 April 2015, policemen from the Fuerza Única Jalisco, an elite unit of the Jalisco State Police, drove through a mountain road in Soyatán, a rural community in San Sebastián del Oeste, Jalisco. They were driving from Puerto Vallarta to Guadalajara, the state's capital. As they were crossing through the Mascota–Las Palmas highway, a road that was covered by mountains on both sides, they were ambushed by suspected members of the Jalisco New Generation Cartel (CJNG), a criminal group based in the Jalisco. The CJNG gunmen burned several vehicles along the highway to block the road and delay the arrival of potential government reinforcements. As the police units got to a curve, the CJNG gunmen opened fire at them with machine guns and grenade launchers from the side of the mountains. The attack worsened when the CJNG gunmen threw explosives along with jugs of gasoline from strategic locations.
Given the element of surprise, the policemen did not have the chance to defend themselves from the aggression. The policemen that got out of the vehicles were shot by the CJNG. Those who stayed inside them died of calcination. In total, 15 police officers were killed in the ambush. 5 more were wounded and transported by helicopter to a wounded-care zone in Puerto Vallarta before being transferred to several hospitals across the Guadalajara Metropolitan Area. Authorities reported them as being in stable condition. No casualties on the CJNG's side were confirmed because the gunmen were able to escape. The police called for reinforcements in Guadalajara. Several police units drove to the area, and a helicopter made it to the scene to provide air support. The Mexican Navy and the Mexican Federal Police (PF) then carried out a search of the surrounding areas to locate the CJNG gunmen. Investigators discovered that the assailants built an encampment in the mountains and waited for the police for as long as 48 hours.
Some of the police units were completely burnt and totaled. Firefighters from Puerto Vallarta were called to the scene put down the flames in the burning vehicles. At the scene, investigators found hundreds of high-caliber bullet casings and detonated grenade fragmentation. At least two vehicles from the CJNG were purposely burnt to block the roads, but investigators were not able to determine if the vehicles were owned by uninvolved civilians whose cars were hijacked by the CJNG to block the road. There were no reported injuries during the road blockades carried out by the CJNG. After the shootout took place, the area was cordoned by law enforcement; the road where the attack occurred was closed for security measures. Several drivers complained because they were trying to leave or go to Puerto Vallarta but were unable to do so. That same evening, Jalisco authorities issued a communiqué confirming that the attack had taken place, but did not specify the casualties until the following morning. The report stated that the attack against the police was a retaliation for the 23 March death of Heriberto Acevedo Cárdenas (alias "El Gringo"), a suspected regional leader of the CJNG. In addition, the report stated that the attack was provoked by the arrest of 15 suspected CJNG members following an assassination attempt against Francisco Alejandro Solorio Aréchiga, Jalisco's security commissioner, on 30 March.
A day after the attack, Jorge Aristóteles Sandoval Díaz, the Governor of Jalisco, called for a meeting with several high-ranking government officials at the Municipal Palace of Guadalajara (es). In the meeting, authorities confirmed the involvement of the CJNG in the attacks. Among the groups present were local security groups in Jalisco, the Mexican Army, the Attorney General of Mexico (PGR), the PF, the Center for Research and National Security, and the Attorney General of Jalisco. Solorio Aréchiga confirmed that the Government of Jalisco did not activate the "Red Code" alert, which is the highest level in the alert system and is used when the state is considered to be under the highest level of danger, despite rumors that it was activated. He went into detail about the ambush, and gave the press more background on the possible motives behind the attack, including the death of El Gringo and previous arrests of suspected CJNG members as part of the murder attempt against him. He also stated that Sandoval ordered the government to increase security measures and operatives across Jalisco, and that they were receiving support from institutions within the Secretariat of Public Security, a branch of the federal government. The government confirmed that the families of the deceased would receive help with funeral costs and with the policemen's life insurance benefits.
## Background and possible motives
This attack was unusual in the ongoing Mexican Drug War (2006–present) because large scale single-attacks against Mexico's security forces were uncommon. Attacks against security forces usually took place because organized crime members were being pursued and wanted to escape. The planned nature of this attack highlighted that organized crime military tactics were advanced and reaching new levels. In addition, though shootings between criminal groups and law enforcement were common, it was rare for criminal groups to come off victorious in gunfights. This attack was the largest death toll on law enforcement's side since 2009. Because of the one-sided death toll on the police's side, the ambush garnered international attention. Jalisco was one of the four states in Mexico that President Enrique Peña Nieto (2012–2018) considered a priority for his national security initiative. Between March 2013 and April 2015, at least 70 government officials were killed in Jalisco. According to official reports from the Mexican government, there were 1,025 homicides linked to organized crime in Jalisco in 2014. This was lower than the year before, which totaled 1,485. These numbers are considerably higher than 2009, when Jalisco reported 679 homicides.
The month before the ambush, on 19 March 2015, the CJNG attacked a convoy of the National Gendarmerie (es), a branch of the PF, in Ocotlán, Jalisco. 11 people were killed; 5 of them were police officers. The attacks were part of a larger campaign by the CJNG to avenge the capture or deaths of its leaders. Investigators believe that the attacks were masterminded by Nemesio Oseguera Cervantes (alias "El Mencho"), the top leader of the CJNG and one of Mexico's most-wanted drug lords. The intention of the attacks was to avenge their fallen comrades and show the government their manpower to strike back. On 23 March 2015, El Gringo and his suspected henchmen were driving through Zacoalco de Torres, Jalisco, when they encountered the Jalisco State Police. The CJNG members tried to escape, but their vehicle turned over as they sped away from the police units. Two gunmen opened fire at the police officers and threw a grenade at them.
However, the police was able to neutralize the aggression and kill 4 of them, including El Gringo. One policeman was wounded in the attack; he was shot in the leg and calf, but was reported in stable condition. At the time of his death, El Gringo was suspected by law enforcement to be the regional leader of the CJNG in Zocalco de Torres and other municipalities of the region. There were 10 pending investigations against him, and he was suspected to be involved in gas theft, kidnappings, and in at least nine homicides. They also believed that he was responsible for a number of attacks against law enforcement, including the gunfight that left 4 Mexican Army soldiers dead on 12 May 2014 in Guachinango, Jalisco, and the murder of two police investigators in Tlajomulco de Zúñiga, Jalisco on 29 July 2014. According to investigators, El Mencho reportedly ordered the CJNG to carry out attacks against the government security forces in Jalisco as retaliation for El Gringo's death.
On 30 March, suspected CJNG members carried out an attack against Jalisco's security commissioner Solorio Aréchiga while he was driving in Zapopan, Jalisco. Over 100 shots were fired from both sides, but Solorio Aréchiga's bodyguards were able to repel the CJNG's armed aggression and help him come out of the shooting unharmed. Investigators confirmed that this was a direct assassination attempt against Solorio Aréchiga, and that it stemmed from the government crackdowns on the CJNG's leadership structure. A few days after this incident, the CJNG carried out the ambush in San Sebastián del Oeste. Solorio Aréchiga insisted that the ambush was also a result of the extensive investigation and arrests carried out by the government after the assassination attempt. State officials stated that it was likely that the CJNG would carry out more attacks after the ambush against Mexican security forces based in Jalisco. In a year, dating from the day of the ambush and back, 24 law enforcement agents in Jalisco were killed in ambush attacks with similar military tactics as ones used in San Sebastián del Oeste.
## Analysis of attack and formations
Investigators believe that the CJNG outnumbered the Jalisco State Police during the ambush. According to Luis Carlos Nájera Gutiérrez de Velasco, the Attorney General of Jalisco, the CJNG had at least 80 gunmen on their side. The Jalisco State Police had around 40. In an interview with the press, he explained the formation of the police units prior to being attacked by the CJNG. The Jalisco State Police was traveling in 10 vehicles; each vehicle paired up with another one – a standard protocol to prevent attacks from organized crime – while crossing through the mountain road where they were ambushed. Of the 10 vehicles, only 4 were attacked. Each of those 4 vehicles had 4 officers in them, totaling 16 (out of those 16, only one survived, by faking his own death). The CJNG gunmen were hiding in the mountains' sides in a curve. The gunmen attacked from at least 12 different shooting spots from the top of the mountains. They used a number of high-calibre assault rifles and ammunition. Among them were AK-47s, AR-15s, 40 mm grenades, and M-60 machine guns, which are capable of firing over 500 shots per minute. Some of the bullets found in the crime scene were specifically for detailed perforation. Nájera Gutiérrez de Velasco explained that the turning point of the attack occurred when the CJNG threw explosives attached to 20 liters of gasoline from the top of the mountains. This burned 4 police vehicles.
Some of the policemen were not able to recognize where the shots were coming from. After roughly 30 minutes of gunfire, the CJNG gunmen left through the mountains' forest. Investigators were not able to confirm any casualties from the CJNG's side, but Nájera Gutiérrez de Velasco stated that it was not uncommon for organized crime members to retrieve the bodies of their fallen comrades from the battlefield to prevent authorities from investigating and identifying the corpses. He said that the suspects were probably hiding in the nearby mountains, which makes it difficult for law enforcement to conduct a thorough search of the area. Nájera Gutiérrez de Velasco admitted that one of the biggest obstacles of the investigation was understanding how the CJNG found out the exact day, time, and place the police convoy was going to pass through the area where they were ambushed. He believes that the CJNG had precise information on the police's journey, and does not discard the possibility that an outsider might have given the CJNG information on the police's arrangements, or that someone inside the police ranks was passing along information to them.
Jalisco authorities believe that the attack was planned by members of the CJNG who were experts in military tactics, ambush and counter-ambush training, and guerrilla warfare. Sophisticated attacks like the ones seen in San Sebastián del Oeste had not occurred before in Jalisco during the Mexican Drug War. The attack showcased the CJNG's manpower, discipline in combat, and ability to coordinate complex attacks without experiencing any casualties. In addition, they stated that those who planned the attack were experts in explosives, which made them think that the CJNG had members with former military or police training with experience in such combat. Nájera Gutiérrez de Velasco told the press that investigators had evidence that the CJNG was recruiting foreign paramilitary gunmen as foot soldiers in Jalisco. They also had evidence that the CJNG was innovating its arsenal and making its own versions of the AR-15 and M16 assault rifles.
Several police officers who were present during the ambush complained that the attack was a result of a series of mistakes made by Jalisco State Police. They asked to have their identities protected to avoid retaliation by organized crime or the police. In an interview with the press, they stated that there were logistical and strategic mistakes the day the attack occurred. According to them, the policemen involved in the ambush were only carrying one load of ammunition for their rifles and handguns. They also stated that the police commander was not with his troops when the ambush occurred, and that he ordered the first part of the convoy to drive further away from the convoy and separate from the rest. He stated that the travel time between the first part of the convoy and his when the police were ambushed was at least 40 minutes. According to the source, a white Suburban passed the convoy and then did zig-zag moves ahead of them, apparently signaling the CJNG that the police convoy was coming up. They explained that when the ambush occurred, their vehicle tires were flattened by the bullets. They were able to escape by driving in reverse at full speed and hiding in a drainage system nearby. Nájera Gutiérrez de Velasco denied the claims that the police commander was not in the ambush. He also stated that the police did not go out on duty with one load of ammunition, and that the police commander was in the back part of the convoy, where he was able to call for reinforcements to save a wounded officer.
## Immediate aftermath and memorials
Several hours after the ambush, suspected CJNG gunmen based in Zacoalco de Torres killed Miguel Ángel Caicedo Vargas, the police chief of that municipality. According to investigators, the police chief was kidnapped and tortured before being killed. The assassins stabbed cardboard onto the corpse with a written message warning law enforcement that he was killed for the death of El Gringo. His body was dumped in a car wash shop in Zacoalco de Torres. Witnesses stated that the assassins were driving a white Suburban with Sinaloa license plates. Jalisco authorities stated that this execution and the ambush were both doings of the CJNG. Municipal authorities from Zacoalco de Torres refused to provide details on the murder, and did not say if they were planning to host a memorial ceremony for Caicedo Vargas. Citizens from Zacoalco de Torres said they were worried about the situation in their town; in 15 days, the town hosted the shootout where El Gringo was killed and the murder of its local police chief. Locals stated that there was a strong presence of the Jalisco State Police following both incidents. A memorial service was carried out at the city's convention center on 8 April. The police department where Caicedo Vargas worked, which sat across the street from the convention center, placed a black ribbon in front of their main entrance. The PGR took over the ambush case, and stated that it would charge the suspects with organized crime, illegal possession of firearms, and homicide. This placed the investigation under federal jurisdiction.
On 6 April 2015, the Government of Jalisco hosted a memorial ceremony near the crime scene. The ceremony was headed by Jesús Eduardo Almaguer Ramírez, a federal prosecutor from Jalisco. He offered his condolences to the victims' families on behalf of Governor Sandoval Díaz. Members from all three levels of the Mexican federal government were present during the ceremony. Almaguer Ramírez stated that they were proud of their troops' strength and honor, and thanked them for their support. Fernando Andrade Vicencio, one of the heads of the Jalisco State Police squadrons, read the names of all the officers killed while the officers present yelled "present" for each of them. The survivors of the ambush received medals for their service. A plaque in honor of the fallen policemen was unveiled following the ceremony. The next day, on behalf of the Government of Jalisco, the state's secretary general Roberto López Lara lamented the incident through social media and stated that the government would remember and honor the deceased officers as "heroes". Solorio Aréchiga stated on social media that the "cowardly attack" would not go unpunished. On 8 April in Mexico City, the Senate of the Republic held a moment of silence for the 15 policemen killed.
A larger ceremony was held again on 8 April in Tlaquepaque, Jalisco, this time with Governor Sandoval Díaz and the victims' families. Over 1,000 people attended the ceremony. In his eight-minute speech, Sandoval Díaz stated that the attack would not go unpunished. "They will not be an extra number in our statistics," he said. He also stated that the assassins were going to "pay" for what they did, and clarified that it was not a cry for war, but rather a cry for peace and justice. He also asked all police corporations to continue fighting organized crime. Solorio Aréchiga read the names of all the officers killed, but had to stop momentarily to sob. For each of the names, the policemen repeated the same process as before, yelling "present" for each of them. After that, the police band did a taps call. Once it concluded, the audience clapped for one minute. The coffins were wrapped in the Flags of Jalisco. In front of each coffin was a flower arrangement, the banner of the Fuerza Única branch, and a framed photograph of the victim. Each of the victims' family members was given an official banner of the state of Jalisco. A year later, on 6 April 2016, the Government of Jalisco hosted another ceremony near the ambush site with the victims' families. Fuerza Única banners were placed across the mountainous road where the attack occurred.
## Government crackdowns
On 8 April 2015, two days after the ambush, the United States Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) sanctioned the CJNG under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ("Kingpin Act") for his involvement in international drug smuggling operations. The sanction was a joint investigation conducted by the Treasury and the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) office in Los Angeles as part of a larger effort with their Mexican counterparts to sanction drug trafficking groups in Mexico. The sanction extended to El Mencho, his brother-in-law Abigael González Valencia, and Los Cuinis. As part of the sanction, all the U.S.-based assets and/or assets in control of U.S. individuals on behalf of El Mencho, González Valencia, the CJNG, and Los Cuinis, were frozen in the U.S. In addition, the act prohibited U.S. citizens from engaging in business activities with them. According to the OFAC's announcement, the CJNG was one of Mexico's rapidly growing criminal groups. Through their "use of violence and corruption", they said, the CJNG was able to consolidate itself as one of Mexico's leading drug trafficking organizations.
On 11 April, Jalisco authorities told the press that investigators concluded that the prime suspect in the ambush was one of El Gringo's family members, who ordered the attack as a retaliation for his death. According to government reports, this suspect was arrested on 19 June 2012 by the Mexican Army for allegedly being involved in organized crime and drug trafficking in Michoacán. El Gringo's family member was then transferred to the PGR installations in Apatzingán, Michoacán. On 21 June, an armed commando stormed the installations, subdued an officer from the Federal Investigation Agency (AFI), ordered him to open the prison cells, and rescued El Gringo's relative and another man. The two men were Julio Acevedo Cárdenas and Joel Contreras Cárdenas. Before taking off, the gunmen killed the AFI officer. When the PGR found out about the incident, they issued a national alert at the country's border exit stations to prevent them from leaving Mexico.
On 22 September, the PF and the Army arrested Giovanni Castro Urbano (alias "El Duende"), a suspected high-ranking leader of the CJNG and close associate of El Mencho, in Ameca, Jalisco. The arrest came after a 15-minute shootout between the CJNG and the law enforcement officers. According to government sources, El Duende was acting as El Gringo's successor in the CJNG's leadership structure, and was suspected of being involved in multiple attacks against security forces, including the incident in San Sebastián del Oeste, Guachinango, and one in San Martín de Hidalgo, Jalisco in 2014, where the CJNG carried out an attack against the PF and the Army. Four military men were wounded and one was killed.
On 12 March 2016, state authorities in Lagos de Moreno, Jalisco arrested Miguel Pérez Contreras, a suspected CJNG member who was reportedly involved in the Guachinango and San Sebastián del Oeste attacks. Since he was arrested with a large arsenal of weapons, he was placed on PGR jurisdiction. Federal authorities interrogated him and discovered that he was part of a CJNG cell based in Región Valles, Jalisco. In addition, they discovered that he was in contact with a female based in the United States who helped recruit people from American private security companies to work for the CJNG.
## See also
- Timeline of the Mexican Drug War |
27,421,927 | 2010 Football League Two play-off final | 1,170,272,274 | null | [
"2009–10 Football League Two",
"2010 Football League play-offs",
"2010 sports events in London",
"Dagenham & Redbridge F.C. matches",
"EFL League Two play-off finals",
"May 2010 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"Rotherham United F.C. matches"
] | The 2010 Football League Two play-off Final was an association football match played on 30 May 2010 at Wembley Stadium, London, between Dagenham & Redbridge and Rotherham United. The match determined the fourth and final team to gain promotion from Football League Two, English football's fourth tier, to Football League One. The top three teams of the 2009–10 Football League Two season gained automatic promotion to League One, while the teams placed from fourth to seventh took part in play-off semi-finals; the winners competed for the final place for the 2010–11 season in League One. Rotherham United finished in fifth place while Dagenham & Redbridge ended the season in seventh position. They defeated Aldershot Town and Morecambe, respectively, in the semi-finals.
The final, refereed by James Linington, kicked off around 3 p.m. in front of 32,054 spectators. Both sides had early chances to score but in the 38th minute, a low cross from Damien McCrory found Paul Benson in space who scored with a curling shot into the bottom corner of the Rotherham goal. Within a minute Rotherham's Ryan Taylor ran between two defenders to head past Tony Roberts from a Kevin Ellison cross, making the score 1–1 at half time. Danny Green put Dagenham back into the lead eleven minutes after the restart with a low strike past Andy Warrington in the Rotherham goal. Taylor scored the equaliser in the 61st minute from inside the Dagenham penalty area. With 20 minutes remaining, Rotherham failed to clear a corner and the ball fell to Jon Nurse whose shot took a deflection off Ellison, past Warrington and into the net to make it 3–2. No further goals were scored and Dagenham were promoted to League One.
Dagenham & Redbridge ended their following season in 21st position in League One and were relegated back to League Two. Rotherham ended the next season in ninth place in League Two, two places below the 2011 play-offs.
## Route to the final
Rotherham United finished the regular 2009–10 season in fifth place in Football League Two, the fourth tier of the English football league system, two places ahead of Dagenham & Redbridge. Both therefore missed out on the three automatic places for promotion to Football League One and instead took part in the play-offs to determine the fourth promoted team. Rotherham United finished nine points behind Rochdale (who were promoted in third place), ten behind Bournemouth (who were promoted in second place), and twenty behind league winners Notts County. Dagenham & Redbridge ended the season one point behind Rotherham United.
Dagenham & Redbridge's opponents in their play-off semi-final were Morecambe with the first match of the two-legged tie taking place on 16 May 2010 at Victoria Road in Dagenham. Paul Benson scored the opening goal of the game after four minutes for Dagenham after Morecambe's goalkeeper Barry Roche pushed out Josh Scott's header. Scott then scored a 19-minute hat-trick to make it 4–0 with more than half an hour remaining. Benson scored his second and Dagenham's fifth midway through the second half; before Scott scored his fourth three minutes later. The match ended 6–0 and Dagenham became the first team to score more than five goals in the first leg of a league play-off semi-final. The second leg took place four days later at Christie Park in Morecambe. After a goalless first half, Mark Duffy's volley from close range made it 1–0 to Morecambe in the 81st minute before Benson headed in an equaliser four minutes later. One minute into stoppage time Dave Artell's header made the final score 2–1 to Morecambe, but Dagenham progressed to the final with a 7–2 aggregate win.
Rotherham United faced Aldershot Town in their semi-final and the first leg was played on 15 May 2010 at the Recreation Ground in Aldershot. The home side's Marvin Morgan had the best chance of the first half but his shot was saved by the Rotherham goalkeeper Andy Warrington. Midway through the first half, Aldershot's goalkeeper Jamie Young was stretchered off with an injury and replaced by Mikhael Jaimez-Ruiz. With two minutes of the match remaining, Adam Le Fondre intercepted a backpass from Aaron Brown and shot past Jaimez-Ruiz to secure a 1–0 win for the visitors. The second leg of the semi-final was held at the Don Valley Stadium in Sheffield four days later. Ian Sharps hit the Aldershot crossbar, but Le Fondre headed home the rebound from close range to give Rotherham the lead just before half time. Midway through the second half, Kevin Ellison's header from a Nicky Law cross beat Jaimez-Ruiz to make it 2–0 which was the final score. Rotherham won the tie 3–0 on aggregate and qualified for the final.
## Match
### Background
This was Rotherham United's third appearance in the play-offs. They had suffered relegation to the fourth tier of English football when they lost to Swansea City in the semi-finals of the 1988 Football League play-offs, and lost to Leyton Orient in a penalty shootout in the semi-finals of the 1999 play-off. Rotherham had been relegated from League One in the 2006–07 season and had been given a series of points deductions for entering administration on two separate occasions between 2006 and 2008. Dagenham were promoted from non-League football for the first time in their history when they finished top of the 2006–07 Football Conference, and had played in League Two since. They had not participated in the Football League play-offs before, although had played in the 2003 Football Conference play-off final at the Britannia Stadium in Stoke-on-Trent where they lost 3–2 to Doncaster Rovers. Rotherham had won both games between the sides during the regular season with a 2–0 victory at the Don Valley Stadium in February 2010 and a 1–0 win at Victoria Road the following month.
Rotherham's top scorer during the regular season was Le Fondre with 27 goals (25 in the league and 2 in the FA Cup) followed by Ellison with 10 (8 in the league, 1 in the FA Cup and 1 in the League Cup). Dagenham's leading marksmen were Benson with 18 goals (17 in the league, 1 in the FA Cup), Danny Green with 13 (all in the league) and Scott with 11 (10 in the league, 1 in the League Cup).
The final was refereed by James Linington. Rotherham were considered favourites to win by bookmakers. Both sides adopted a 4–4–2 formation, and both starting elevens were unchanged from their semi-final second legs. The match was broadcast live in the UK on Sky Sports.
### Summary
The match kicked off around 3 p.m. on 30 May 2010 at Wembley Stadium in London in front of 32,054 spectators. Dagenham dominated the early stages, with Rotherham's goalkeeper Andy Warrington saving a shot from Green. Rotherham then had chances to score with Pablo Mills missing a header before three separate efforts from Ryan Taylor all failed to produce a goal. In the 30th minute, Romain Vincelot's bicycle kick was saved by Warrington before Sharps received the first yellow card of the match for unsporting behaviour: Warrington kept the resulting free kick from Green out. Three minutes later, Le Fondre was also booked, also for unsporting behaviour. In the 38th minute, a low cross from Damien McCrory found Benson in space who scored with a curling shot into the bottom corner of the Rotherham goal. Rotherham levelled the game within a minute as Taylor ran between two defenders to head past Tony Roberts from an Ellison cross, making the score 1–1 at half time.
Neither side made any changes to their personnel during the interval. Green put Dagenham back into the lead eleven minutes after the restart with a low strike past Warrington and was booked a minute later for a foul on Danny Harrison. In the 60th minute, Harrison shot over the Dagenham crossbar before Taylor scored the equaliser a minute later from inside the Dagenham penalty area, before being booked in the 57th minute for a foul on Danny Harrison. With 20 minutes remaining, Rotherham failed to clear a corner and the ball fell to Jon Nurse whose shot took a deflection off Ellison, past Warrington and into the net to make it 3–2. Two minutes after scoring, Nurse was taken off and substituted for Graeme Montgomery in the first change of the afternoon. Five minutes later Marcus Marshall came on for Mills. On 83 minutes, Scott was replaced by Phil Walsh for Dagenham. Benson's shot from inside the penalty area went wide of the Rotherham goal before Abdulai Bell-Baggie was brought on for Ellison. Vincelot was then shown the yellow card for a foul on Gavin Gunning. The match ended 3–2 and Dagenham were promoted to League One.
### Details
## Post-match
Winning manager John Still said "We'll probably be the biggest-ever favourites to be relegated but this is a fairy story". His counterpart Ronnie Moore suggested disappointment in his defence, saying that "if you defend like we have you're not going to win ... We should've gone up but we're still here ... We have let ourselves down a bit at the final hour." Roberts, Dagenham's 40-year-old goalkeeper, said: "We are a pub team from Essex but look at us now ... Years ago we were playing Charlton trying to knock them out of the FA Cup as a non-league team, next year we are going to play Charlton in the league, I can't believe it". Dagenham goalscorer Green, who had been signed by Still from sixth-tier Bishop's Stortford of the National League South, described it as the "best day of my life". Despite his two goals, Rotherham's Taylor said he was disappointed: "Scoring twice at Wembley is a great achievement, but we haven't gone up so it doesn't mean anything."
Dagenham & Redbridge ended their following season in 21st position in League One and were relegated back to League Two. Rotherham end the next season in ninth place in League Two, two places below the 2011 play-offs. |
35,512,709 | Lesotho at the 2012 Summer Olympics | 1,069,203,410 | null | [
"2012 in Lesotho sport",
"Lesotho at the Summer Olympics by year",
"Nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics"
] | Lesotho competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, which was held from 27 July to 12 August 2012. The country's participation at London marked its tenth appearance in the Summer Olympics since its début at the 1972 Summer Olympics. The delegation included three track and field athletes; Tsepo Ramonene, Mosito Lehata and Mamorallo Tjoka, and one swimmer; Masempe Theko. Ramonene and Lehata qualified for the Games by meeting qualification standards, while Tjoka and Theko made the Olympics through wildcard places. Tjoka was selected as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony while Lehata held it at the closing ceremony. Ramonene finished last in the men's marathon and was revived by medical personnel during the event. Lehata did not progress to the semi-finals of the men's 200 metres and Tjoka finished in 90th in the women's marathon. Theko finished 73rd (and last) overall in the women's 50 metre freestyle and did not progress to the semi-finals of the event.
## Background
Lesotho participated in ten Summer Olympic Games between its début at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, West Germany and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, England, with the exception of the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, because of a boycott relating to the New Zealand national rugby union team touring South Africa. No Mosothoan athlete has ever won a medal at the Olympic Games and the nation has not entered the Winter Olympic Games. Lesotho participated in the London Summer Olympics from 27 July to 12 August 2012.
In April 2009 the Lesotho National Olympic Committee (NOC) began preparations for the London Olympic Games by inviting 23 of the country's member federations to a workshop to discuss the issue on sending a larger team. The delegation to London consisted of athletes Tsepo Ramonene, Mosito Lehata, Mamorallo Tjoka and swimmer Masempe Theko. Tjoka was the flag bearer for the opening ceremony and Lehata held it at the closing ceremony. The team trained in the North Wales town of Wrexham.
## Athletics
The 2012 Summer Olympics marked Tsepo Ramonene's début. He qualified for the Games because his fastest time, two hours, 16 minutes and 36 seconds set in the 2012 Steinmetz Gaborone Marathon, met the "B" standard qualifying time for the men's marathon. Ramonene said that he was happy to participate in the event because he wanted to win a medal for Lesotho. He competed in the men's marathon on 12 August, finishing 85th (and last) of all finishers, with a time of two hours, 55 minutes and 54 seconds. Ramonene stopped several times on his run, and reduced his pace when approaching The Mall and medical personnel were required to revive him. Ramonene was the slowest Olympic men's marathon runner since the 2000 Sydney Games. In an interview with NBC Sports in 2016, he said he was not tempted to use the bailout bus, but that cheers from the crowd encouraged him to complete the race.
Competing in his first Olympics, Mosito Lehata was notable for carrying the flag of Lesotho in the closing ceremony. He qualified for the Games because his fastest time, 20:63 seconds set in the 2012 African Championships in Athletics, met the "B" standard qualifying time for the men's 200 metres. The International Association of Athletics Federations applied a rule where any competitor observed jumping the start would be disqualified. A spokesperson for the Lesotho Amateur Athletics Association noted that Lehata had previously jump started races in his career but did not expect him to violate the rule at the Olympics because of the athlete's slow reaction time. Lehata competed in the fourth heat of the men's 200 metres on 7 August, finishing seventh (and last) of all competitors, with a time of 20.74 seconds. Overall he finished 33rd out of 53 runners, and was unable to progress to the semi-finals because his time was 0.24 seconds behind the slowest qualifier.
Mamorallo Tjoka was the oldest athlete representing Lesotho at the Olympic Games at the age of 27, and was the country's flag bearer at the opening ceremony. She had previously competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing in the women's marathon which she withdrew from because she injured her leg. Tjoka qualified for the Games via a wildcard because she had not set a competitive time for the women's marathon, between the last Olympic Games and the London Olympics. She stated that if she won the marathon, she believed that her country would be "really happy". Her training was aided by Lesotho's high altitudes. Tjoka took part in the women's marathon on 5 August, finishing 90th out of 107 athletes, with a time of 2 hours, 43 minutes, 15 seconds.
Key
Men
Women
## Swimming
Masempe Theko was participating in her first Olympic Games at the age of 25. She qualified after receiving a universality place awarded by FINA because her best time of 49.75 seconds in the women's 50 metre freestyle, was 23.99 seconds slower than the "B" standard qualifying time. Theko said that it was an "honour" that she was chosen to represent her country: "I don't know how to explain it, but in my head it really plays out big. I'm looking forward to the event, being in London and meeting new friends and acquaintances." She was drawn in the first heat of the women's 50 metre freestyle on 3 August, finishing third (and last), with a time of 42.35 seconds. Theko reacted over a second after the gun fired to signal the start of the heat, although she improved her personal best time by over seven seconds. She finished 73rd (and last) of all swimmers overall, and did not advance to the semi-finals because her time was 17.07 seconds slower than the slowest athlete who progressed to the later stages.
Women
## See also
- Lesotho at the 2012 Summer Paralympics |
57,779,005 | Moana (character) | 1,173,021,170 | Title character of Disney's 2016 animated film of the same name | [
"Animated characters introduced in 2016",
"Disney Princess characters",
"Fictional explorers",
"Fictional indigenous peoples of Polynesia",
"Fictional navigators",
"Fictional sailors",
"Fictional tribal chiefs",
"Film characters introduced in 2016",
"Moana (2016 film)",
"Walt Disney Animation Studios characters"
] | Moana Waialiki of Motunui is the title character of Walt Disney Animation Studios' 56th animated feature film Moana (2016). Created by directors Ron Clements and John Musker, Moana is voiced by Hawaiian actress and singer Auliʻi Cravalho. As a toddler, she is voiced by Louise Bush. Moana is set to appear in the Disney+ sequel series Moana: The Series, which will premiere in 2024.
Inspired by Polynesian mythology, Moana is depicted as the strong-willed daughter of a chief of a Polynesian village, who is chosen by the ocean itself to reunite a mystical relic with the goddess Te Fiti. When a blight strikes her island, Moana sets sail in search of Maui (Dwayne Johnson), a legendary demigod, in the hope of returning the relic to Te Fiti and saving her people.
Moana received widespread critical acclaim for her independence as well as Cravalho for her vocal performance. By 2019, Moana was officially inducted into the Disney Princess line-up, becoming the twelfth member.
## Development
### Conception and writing
After directing The Princess and the Frog (2009), Clements and Musker started working on an adaptation of Terry Pratchett's Mort, but problems with acquiring the necessary film rights prevented them from continuing with that project. To avoid a recurrence of that issue, they pitched three original ideas. The genesis of one of those ideas (the one that was ultimately green-lit) occurred in 2011, when Musker began reading up on Polynesian mythology and learned of the heroic exploits of the demigod Māui. Intrigued with the rich culture of Polynesia, he felt it would be a suitable subject for an animated film. Shortly thereafter, Musker and Clements wrote a treatment and pitched it to John Lasseter, who recommended that both of them should go on research trips. Accordingly, in 2012, Clements and Musker went on research trips to Fiji, Samoa, and Tahiti to meet the people of the South Pacific Ocean and learn about their culture. At first, they had planned to make the film entirely about Maui, but their initial research trips inspired Clements to pitch a new idea focused on the young daughter of a chief.
Clements and Musker were fascinated to learn during their research that the people of Polynesia abruptly stopped making long-distance voyages about three thousand years ago. Their navigational traditions predated those of European explorers, beginning around 300 CE. Native people of the Pacific possessed knowledge of the world and their place in it prior to the incursion of foreigners. For example, Kānaka Maoli (Native Hawaiians) were well aware of the existence of far away islands, had names for these places, and were interested in exploring them to benefit their societies. This voyaging heritage was made possible by a geographical knowledge system based on individual perspectives rather than the European cardinal direction system. The reasons for the halt of this voyaging tradition remain unknown, but scholars have offered climate change and resulting shifts in ocean currents and wind patterns as one possible explanation. Native peoples of the Pacific resumed voyaging again a thousand years later; Clements and Musker set the film at that point in time, about two thousand years ago. The setting on a fictional island in the central Pacific Ocean drew inspiration from elements of the real-life island nations of Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga.
Taika Waititi wrote the initial screenplay, but went home to New Zealand in 2012 to focus on his newborn first child and What We Do in the Shadows (2014). The first draft focused on Moana as the sole daughter in a family with "five or six brothers", in which gender played into the story. However, the brothers and gender-based themes were deleted from the story, as the directors thought Moana's journey should be about finding herself. A subsequent draft presented Moana's father as the one who wanted to resume voyage navigation, but it was rewritten to have him oppose navigation so he would not overshadow Moana. Instead, Pamela Ribon came up with the idea of a grandmother character for the film, who would serve as a mentor linking Moana to ancient traditions. Another version focused on Moana rescuing her father, who had been lost at sea. The film's story changed drastically during the development phase, and that idea ultimately survived only as a subtle element of the father's backstory.
### Voice
In late 2014, a global casting call for the role of Moana began. Cravalho did not consider auditioning for Moana as there had "already been so many great submissions over YouTube" and decided to focus on school instead as she was in her first year which was "confusing as it is". Cravalho was discovered at an audition to perform as entertainment at a non-profit event, without knowing that the agent who had attended those auditions was the same for Moana. Agent Rachel Sutton asked Cravalho if she wanted to audition for Moana; she was the last girl to be seen on the last day of casting. During her audition, Cravalho sang 30 seconds of her favorite Disney song—"I See the Light" from Tangled—as well as Hawaiian songs. Cravalho stated she was confused throughout the entire audition—especially the process of slating—but felt she "gave it [her] best in the audition and it worked really well." In October 2015, Cravalho was officially chosen as Moana's voice actress. Producer Osnat Shurer said: "We were looking for someone who could embody the character, with all the strength and commitment, humor, heart and compassion. When we met Auliʻi, she was just bringing Moana to life."
Cravalho described Moana as being brave, beautiful, kind and strong, explaining she could list adjectives "all day". She called her a model for everyone, not just for girls. Furthermore, she stated that Moana recognises her desires and is eager to obtain them. The actress enjoyed viewing her development and her assistance to grow her culture. Cravalho stated Moana is "different" from other Disney characters since she was "truly described as a Disney heroine", being both "empowered and empowering" and not having a love interest. She compared her to Mulan since they were both "kick butt". Cravalho "thoroughly enjoyed and will always feel deeply connected to Moana and voicing her as the strong, independent, beautiful heroine that she is."
Since Cravalho had never done professional film work before, she was surprised about many things in the process. She recorded a line up to "30 or 40 times". She explained a different stress or emphasis on a particular word could create different emotions. 40 engineers would listen to her and listen to every grunt, voice change and volume change Cravalho made, listening for the exact emotion that they wanted to give in the film. Usually, the directors decided which take they would put in the final film. She also felt it was hard to be comfortable in the recording booth; usually, there were cameras for the animators to be able to add realistic facial expressions to the character. She was not sure how she should act while cameras were filming her recording her lines. When she sang, Cravalho needed the lights to be turned down. She asked for this since she did not want to feel like anybody was watching her since there were directors, animators, and writers watching her, sometimes sketching her and sometimes watching how she pronounced words. Cravalho was not used to the cameras and the "lights, camera, action" process and never recorded with co-stars Dwayne Johnson, Temuera Morrison, or Rachel House. Cravalho reprised the role in 2017, dubbing the character again in the special Hawaiian-language dubbing of the movie.
### Personality and design
Musker explained he and Clements invited a story without romance and alternatively have a focus on female empowerment with True Grit-quality: "the determined girl who teams up with a washed-up guy. They have this adventure and she finds her true calling—and saves the world in the process." He also said he appreciated the idea of an "action-adventure princess that could dive off cliffs and battle monsters". Shurer said, to make a female protagonist, they needed to "make her whole in and of herself". Furthermore, she said they wanted Moana to be self-assertive and have both compassion and courage to set her apart from other characters.
The creative team decided to create for Moana a realistic model with which girls could identify themselves, strong enough to be credible in activities, such as swimming, climbing a tree and jumping off a cliff. Shurer stated it was an "absolutely" conscious decision, further explaining that since they were writing a "hero's journey", she needed to be identifiable to all. Musker said this was intentional and partially prompted by hopes for her to be distinctive. Additionally, they aimed to create an experienced "action hero". The visual development drawings of the people of the South Pacific also had realistic bodies. Musker said it "seemed right" for her to have this body as Moana performed many stunts that require a lot of physicality. There were also women who worked on Moana who greatly hoped for her to have a realistic body.
To make the hair more realistic and expressive, a new program, Quicksilver, was created. Disney Elastic Rods was created to support twist for Moana's curly hair and the Multicurve for new twist information. To make the hair look realistic when wet, animators had models with similar hair to Moana's dunk their head in water. There were "collision driven hair rigs" which opened up "the possibilities of what the character's hair was able to do". Artistic direction and continuity was influenced by the freedom of motion, with most of the performance made through simulation. A new grab node was developed to help the curls of Moana's hair interact and collide. Various levels of wind were required for the character's hair since the film was set outside; as a result, the majority of the hair shots were the first time the Disney animators had animated such shots.
The costume designers wanted to make Moana's dress as authentic to her culture as possible. For example, the red color of Moana's dress was used to signify royalty at the time and since buttons did not exist, visual development artist Neysa Bové added a boar's tusk to keep the dress together. Bové stated Moana's top is made of mulberry while her skirt is made of pandanas. Bové added a slit at the front of Moana's dress so she could do the different activities she did in the film. She stated that with Moana, a large amount of research occurred at the Pacific Islands, where the film takes place. The film, however, was intended to be set 2,000 years before, making photo references impossible. Instead, they acquired material references from their Oceanic Trust. Much exploration was done for Moana's necklace, which is seen throughout most of the film.
> We found this abalone shell. It's actually a mollusk, and you find this on all the Pacific Islands; it's something they use quite a bit. What's beautiful about it is that it sort of looks like a rock until you start scraping that away, and you reveal this beautiful abalone beneath it with all these ocean colors [...] I sort of added a curve to the shell and it's a nice juxtaposition between land and sea, and as a voyager she uses the stars to navigate, so I added some star carvings up on top of the shell.
## International versions
When the movie had its first theatrical release worldwide, it numbered 45 versions overall, including a special Tahitian-language dubbing created specifically for the movie. In June 2017, a Māori-language version of the movie, featuring four voice-actors from the original English cast, was announced. Three weeks later, New Zealander Jaedyn Randell was introduced as Moana's voice. The movie was released in September 2017. In the same year, Shruti Rane (Hindi) reprised her role in the Bengali-language version of the movie. In November 2017, a Hawaiian-language dubbing was announced to be underway, with Auliʻi Cravalho reprising her role as Moana. The movie premiered on June 10, 2018.
In many European countries, Moana's name was changed to "Vaiana" due to a trademark conflict. The film was released in those countries to bear the alternative name in the title.
## Appearances
### Films
#### Moana
Moana's grandmother, Tala, tells the story of Maui, the shape-shifting demigod of the wind and sea and master of sailing who stole goddess Te Fiti's heart. However, Te Fiti disintegrates, and Maui is attacked by Te Kā, a volcanic demon. His magical fishhook and Te Fiti's heart are lost in the ocean. The ocean then chooses Moana to return the heart to Te Fiti. Tui and Sina, Moana's mother, try to keep her away from the ocean to prepare her to become the island's chief. Sixteen years later, blight strikes her island and to attempt to prevent it, Moana suggests going beyond the reef which her father forbids her to. She tries with Pua the Pig but is overpowered by the waves and is shipwrecked back to shore. Tala shows Moana a secret cavern full of ships, revealing her ancestors were voyagers but stopped after Te Fiti's heart was stolen due to the ocean no longer being safe. She further explains Te Kā is causing the blight and she must seek Maui and the heart to stop it. On her deathbed, Tala convinces Moana to do so.
Setting sail on a camakau from the cavern, Moana is caught in a typhoon and shipwrecked on an island where she finds Maui, who boasts about his achievements. She demands that Maui return the heart, but he refuses and traps her in a cave. She escapes and confronts Maui who reluctantly lets her onto the camakau. They are then attacked by Kakamora—coconut pirates—who, like other creatures, seek the heart. Moana and Maui escape them and Moana convinces Maui to help her by saying Maui is no longer a hero and should redeem himself by returning the heart. First, Moana and Maui must retrieve Maui's fishhook in Lalotoi, the Realm of Monsters, from Tamatoa, a giant coconut crab. Maui takes his fishhook, only to find he does not have control over his shape-shifting anymore. Moana outwits Tamatoa and they escape. Maui reveals to Moana he became a demigod after his mortal parents abandoned him, the gods took pity on him and granted him powers. After Maui's confession, the two grow closer.
They are attacked by Te Kā after they arrive at Te Fiti's island. Moana refuses to turn back, resulting in Maui's hook being badly damaged. Unwilling to lose his hook in another confrontation, Maui abandons a tearful Moana who asks the ocean to find someone else to restore the heart and loses hope. The ocean obliges and takes the heart, but Tala's spirit appears, inspiring Moana to find her true calling. She retrieves the heart and sails back to confront Te Kā. Maui returns, having had a change of heart, and buys Moana time to reach Te Fiti by fighting Te Kā, destroying his hook in the process. Moana discovers Te Fiti is missing, and realizes Te Kā is Te Fiti, corrupted without her heart. Moana tells the ocean to clear a path, allowing her to return Te Fiti's heart, and the restored goddess heals the ocean and islands of the blight. Maui apologizes to Te Fiti, who restores his hook and gives Moana a new boat before falling into a deep sleep and becoming a mountain. Moana bids farewell to Te Fiti, returning home where she reunites with her parents. She takes up her role as chief and wayfinder, leading her people as they resume voyaging.
#### Ralph Breaks the Internet
A "meta" version of the character appears with other Disney princesses and Elsa and Anna from Frozen (2013) in the Wreck-It Ralph (2012) sequel, Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018). When some of the princesses describe to Vanellope von Schweetz how they stare at "important water" to gain inspiration for their songs, Moana says she stares at the ocean. Later, when Ralph is falling from a tower and needs saving by the princesses, Moana causes water from a fountain to spiral upwards so that Elsa can freeze it into a slide to slow Ralph's fall, saying "You're Welcome" after saving him.
### Television
#### Lego Disney Princess: The Castle Quest
Moana appears as one of the main characters in Lego's animated special Lego Disney Princess: The Castle Quest, released on Disney+ on August 18, 2023.
#### Moana: The Series
In December 2020, it was announced that Moana would have a self-titled spin-off TV series debuting on Disney+ in 2023. The release date was later pushed back to 2024.
### Merchandise
By 2019, Moana was inducted into the Disney Princess line-up, becoming the twelfth member of the media franchise, and toyline featuring female protagonists from various Disney animated films. In 2016, Disney released a Moana doll with sustainable packaging. On November 17, 2016, Disney released Moana: Rhythm Run, a premium mobile game as well as adding Moana content to Disney Stickers, Disney Crossy Road, Disney Emoji Blitz, Disney Story Central, and Disney Jigsaw Puzzles. On January 2, 2017, Disney released Moana: Island Life, a free-to-play mobile game.
#### Theme parks
On November 16, 2016, prior to her film's release, Moana made her debut at Walt Disney World, doing meet-and-greets at Disney's Polynesian Resort. On November 18, 2016, Moana appeared in a surprise pre-parade of the Happy Birthday Mickey cavalcade in Disneyland Paris. On November 20, 2016, in Disneyland Paris, Moana began doing meet-and-greets at the Animation Station interactive post-show area of Art of Disney Animation. Since its debut on May 12, 2017, Moana appeared in Happily Ever After in Magic Kingdom, singing "How Far I'll Go". After Tokyo Disneyland's refurbishment of "It's A Small World", Moana and Pua were featured in the Polynesian scene. Since the stage show's opening on May 25, 2018, Moana performed in Moana: A Homecoming Celebration in Hong Kong Disneyland. Moana has also appeared in Summer Blast in Shanghai Disneyland since 2019.
## Reception
### Critical reviews
The Verge stated that Moana is a fully-rounded character with a believable, while still idealized body. They also praised her resourcefulness and the fact she does not end up partnered at the end of the film. IGN conveyed that she is a wonderful role model for her perseverance and courage. Victoria McNally states that she is the most revolutionary Disney Princess by not having a love interest, being a good leader, and embracing her culture. A. O. Scott of The New York Times said Moana was "inspiring" due to her smartness, bravery and decency. The fact Moana did not aim to meet a prince was praised by Firstpost. Plugged In writer Bob Hoose lauded Moana's focus, determination, and the fact she was able to face death to fix the wrongs of the past. The Times of India wrote "she also conquers your heart. You won't regret setting sail and voyaging with her." The Guardian commended Moana since she cared about nature and was willing to face the challenges of the future. Variety described her as "one of Disney's most remarkable heroines yet" since she did not await a prince and took control of her own destiny. The Stanford Daily praised Moana's development and her "human traits" which were not present in previous Disney Princesses.
Cravalho was also praised for her voice acting and singing. Screen Rant called her performance "lively and charismatic". Common Sense Media stated Cravalho and Johnson shared a "refreshingly student-and-mentor-like chemistry". Firstpost said she was going to be a "huge star" in the future and felt her "insane" singing range was one of the most surprising things in the film. Rolling Stone described Cravalho's performance as sassy. The Guardian and Radio Times felt Cravalho's voice acting and singing were beautiful. RogerEbert.com said Cravalho showed skills beyond her age and praised her grace, timing and energy. Flixist wrote Cravalho was an "absolute delight". The New Zealand Herald compared her voice acting to that of Mickey Mouse Club. The Hollywood Reporter was impressed by Cravalho's voice acting and complimented her singing range. Entertainment Weekly wrote Cravalho "show[ed] off her pipes" during Moana's "I Want" song "How Far I'll Go".
The character has not been without criticism, however. ScreenCrush said it was "not impossible" to criticize Moana's "underwhelming qualities". Film Inquiry felt Moana lacked originality and unpredictability in her arc, calling her a "carbon copy of every other Disney Princess". Similarly, Den of Geek found it unfortunate that Moana was an "inversion" of Ariel from The Little Mermaid.
### Accolades
Moana received a nomination for Best Animated Female from the Alliance of Women Film Journalists, tying for the award with Judy Hopps from Zootopia. Additionally, Moana and Maui were nominated for Favourite Frenemies at the 2017 Kids' Choice Awards, losing the award to characters from Zootopia. Cravalho has also received and been nominated for several other awards including winning an Annie Award for Outstanding Voice Acting and being nominated for two Teen Choice Awards, winning one for Choice Breakout Movie Actress. |
21,078,271 | Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot, BWV 39 | 1,160,545,498 | 1726 church cantata by J. S. Bach | [
"1726 compositions",
"Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach"
] | Johann Sebastian Bach composed the church cantata Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot ("Break with hungry men thy bread" or "Give the hungry ones thy bread"), BWV 39, in Leipzig and first performed on 23 June 1726, the first Sunday after Trinity that year. Three years earlier, on the first Sunday after Trinity in 1723, Bach had taken office as Thomaskantor and started his first cycle of cantatas for Sundays and Feast Days in the liturgical year. On the first Sunday after Trinity in 1724, he began his second cycle, consisting of chorale cantatas. The cantata Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot is regarded as part of Bach's third cantata cycle which was written sporadically between 1725 and 1727.
The text of the cantata is taken from a 1704 collection of librettos from Meiningen, many of which had been set to music in the cantatas of Bach's distant cousin Johann Ludwig Bach, Kapellmeister at Meiningen. The librettos have been attributed to his employer Duke Ernst Ludwig von Sachsen-Meiningen. The symmetrical structure of seven movements is typical for this collection: the opening quotation from the Old Testament, followed by a recitative and an aria; then the central quotation from the New Testament, followed by an aria and a recitative, leading into the final chorale. The theme of BWV 39 is an invocation to be grateful for God's gifts and to share them with the needy.
Bach set the opening Old Testament passage as a large scale complex movement for four-part chorus and full orchestra in three sections, one for each sentence in the biblical quotation. By contrast he set the New Testament passage beginning the second part as a bass solo accompanied by a single obbligato violoncello, the bass voice representing the traditional voice of Jesus. The cantata is scored for three groups of instruments—alto recorders, oboes and strings—from which the four obbligato soloists are drawn that accompany the two arias, for alto and soprano.
## Composition history
Bach composed the cantata for the First Sunday after Trinity on 23 June 1726. The precise dating of the autograph manuscript was only determined fairly recently by authorities on Bach, particularly those like Alfred Dürr, Christoph Wolff and Klaus Hofmann who were involved in preparing Urtext editions for the Neue Bach-Ausgabe and establishing the Bach Archive in Leipzig. The circumstances surrounding the composition were clarified by other Bach scholars, notably William H. Scheide and Konrad Küster. Before the dating was known, several commentators had given 1732 as the date of composition, dubbing it the "Refugee Cantata", supposedly composed in response to the arrival in Germany of Protestants banished from Salzburg; it is unknown whether there was a repeat performance of the cantata to commemorate that event.
The first Sunday after Trinity marks the beginning of the second half of the liturgical year, "in which core issues of faith and doctrine are explored". It had particular significance for Bach since it was on that day in 1723 that he assumed office as Thomaskantor in Leipzig. His duties included the education of the Thomanerchor and performances in the regular services of the main churches in Leipzig, the Thomaskirche and the Nikolaikirche. The most skilled church musicians—including SATB soloists and others doubling as choristers and instrumentalists—were based at the Thomaskirche where cantatas were performed each Sunday and on feast days. The other instrumentalists were either professional string players (Kunstgeiger), members of the Leipzig Stadtpfeifer, an ancient band of brass and wind players, or travelling musicians. Remaining gaps in the orchestra were filled by pupils from the Thomasschule and university students. Bach's orchestra would have had 12-20 players in addition to himself and an organist. The soloists, choir and orchestra performed from two galleries above and around the principal organ loft in the centre of the Thomaskirche. Sometimes two cantatas would be performed during a service; and when a cantata was written in two parts, a sermon would be preached between the two parts or the second part would accompany communion. As Thomascantor, Bach instituted several changes in performance practise in Leipzig: he introduced more frequent and regular rehearsals for choristers, including individual lessons; he installed former students as organists and directors of music in the churches for which he was responsible; and—going beyond his church duties—he helped select and train municipal musicians.
On his appointment Bach embarked on the project of composing yearly cycles of cantatas with one for each Sunday and holiday of the liturgical year, a project which describes as "an artistic undertaking on the largest scale". The first cantata he wrote was Die Elenden sollen essen, BWV 75, beginning the first cycle on the first Sunday after Trinity in 1723; the cantata O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 20 from 1724 began the second cycle, again on the first Sunday after Trinity. With BWV 20, Bach entered on a new scheme for the second cycle: to compose chorale cantatas based exclusively on the main Lutheran hymns associated with the day in the liturgical calendar. After completing his second cycle, Bach's third cycle was composed sporadically between 1725 and 1727. Moreover, Bach does not seem to have marked the anniversary of his appointment in 1725. Somewhat exceptionally, from February to late September 1726, the cantatas performed in Leipzig were mainly those by Bach's distant cousin Johann Ludwig Bach, court composer at Meiningen, with gaps filled by Bach's own cantatas written in the previous year. During this period Bach not only had access to his cousin's compositions, but also to religious texts from the court at Meiningen. Of the relatively small number of nine cantatas newly composed by Bach during this period, seven were settings of Meiningen texts and all but one of these followed the formal compositional scheme of his cousin (BWV 39, BWV 88, BWV 187, BWV 45, BWV 102 and BWV 17). The first cantata based on a Meiningen text was Gott fähret auf mit Jauchzen, BWV 43 for the Feast of the Ascension on 30 May 1726. Following that, on 23 June 1726, the first Sunday after Trinity, Bach revived tradition by composing the cantata Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot for the beginning of his fourth year in office: it was the first "Meiningen" cantata written for an ordinary Sunday.
The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle of John, (the "God is Love" verses, ), and from the Gospel of Luke (the parable of the Rich man and Lazarus, ). Bach's first cantata for the occasion, Die Elenden sollen essen, BWV 75 (1723), had concentrated on the contrast between the rich and the poor; and the second, the chorale cantata O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 20 (1724), concerned repentance when faced with death and eternity. In contrast the libretto of Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot took as its theme gratitude for God's gifts and the duty to share them with the needy.
The libretto used by Bach for BWV 39 comes the 1704 collection for Meiningen, entitled Sonntags- und Fest-Andachten; these religious texts have been attributed to Ernst Ludwig I, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, Johann Ludwig Bach's employer. All the Meiningen cantatas of Johann Ludwig Bach, performed in Leipzig between February and September 1726, had librettos from this collection. They all have a uniform structure in seven verse sections: each cantata starts with a passage from the Old Testament; followed by a recitative on a long verse text; an aria; a central passage from the New Testament; a second aria; a second recitative, often with more than two sentences so that it can end with a chorus; and a final chorale, sometimes with two stanzas. The Old Testament and New Testament passages usually have a common theme, with the former often prefiguring the coming of Christ. Bach departed from his cousin's model in two ways. Firstly he divided the libretto into two parts that framed the church sermon: Bach usually started Part II with the central New Testament passage; only in the case of BWV 102 did he place it at the conclusion of Part I. Secondly Bach took the sixth verse section of each libretto, written in archaic alexandrines, wholly as a recitative leading into the final chorale.
In the libretto of BWV 39, the Old Testament passage is taken from the Book of Isaiah () and the New Testament passage from the Epistle to the Hebrews (). Both passages have as common themes the invocations to love thy neighbour and to share God's gifts. The final section of the libretto is the sixth verse of David Denicke's 1648 hymn "Kommt, laßt euch den Herren lehren", which involves the same themes. This hymn was sung to the same melody as the hymn "Freu dich sehr, o meine Seele". The melody was first published by Louis Bourgeois as Psalm 42 in his collection of Psaumes octante trios de David (Geneva, 1551). The psalm melody itself was probably derived from the secular song "Ne l'oseray je dire" in the Manuscrit de Bayeux published around 1510.
## Music
### Instrumentation and structure
Bach scored the cantata for three vocal soloists (soprano (S), alto (A) and bass (B)), a four-part choir SATB, and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two alto recorders (Fl), two oboes (Ob), first and second violins (Vl), violas (Va) and basso continuo (Bc). There are two sets of continuo parts from 1726: one is a score transposed for positive organ with figuration added by Bach in the first three movements; the other has annotations by the copyist for violoncello and double bass.
The Meiningen cantatas of Johann Ludwig Bach were scored for the four vocal parts and a small group of instrumentalists, consisting of two oboes, violins, violas and continuo: at Meiningen, as with many of the smaller courts in Germany, resources were limited; it appears that continuo instruments like bassoons were available only when these works were performed elsewhere. When Bach performed his cousin's cantatas in Leipzig in 1726, he used the same orchestral forces as Meiningen for all but two, adding trumpets with drums in one and piccolo trumpets in another.
The baroque alto recorder (blockflöte in German) enjoyed a period of popularity in Europe as an orchestral instrument in the seventeenth century, starting with Monteverdi in his opera L'Orfeo. By the middle of the eighteenth century it had been displaced by the transverse flute. In France the transition was more marked, since cultural life centred on Paris; it was more gradual in Germany, made up of many separate principalities, all with their own court or municipal musicians. The baroque recorder was used in orchestral music in association with death and the supernatural; to express tenderness; in pastoral scenes (as the shepherd's pipe); and to imitate bird song.
In his places of employment prior to his appointment in Leipzig in 1723, Bach used the recorder as an orchestral instrument many times in cantatas and concertos; at Leipzig his use of the recorder diminished and BWV 39 was the last cantata he composed that included the instrument. listed specific themes in movements of cantatas for which Bach had chosen the recorder: sleep, death, weeping, nature, sheep grazing, the singing of angels, and celestial light. wrote of "Bach's sensitivity to particular instruments ... to realize the spiritual intent which was inherent in their characteristic qualities"; even when Bach had only limited instruments at his disposal, he chose with care. Echoing , Riemenschneider wrote that Bach "used the recorder for certain effects, where the text was especially intimate in the effacement of self and in the giving over to a higher power. He also used it for expressing extremely tender moments, where thoughts of death and the life to come were in question." The themes of the movements scored for recorders in Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot conform to Riemenschneider's description.
The cantata BWV 39 is in two parts, conforming to the structure of the Meiningen series. The first part begins with a long choral movement for four-part chorus and full orchestra. It is followed by a recitative for bass and an aria for alto, with obbligato violin and oboe. The second part begins with the central movement based on the New Testament text, a solo for bass, as vox Christi, accompanied by an obbligato violoncello. It is followed by an aria for soprano with obbligato recorders in unison. The second recitative for alto and strings leads into the concluding four-part chorale in which the choir doubled by the full orchestra. The complex scoring of the monumental opening movement, employing full orchestra and chorus, contrasts with that of the succeeding non-choral movements, which are accompanied by smaller more intimate groups of instruments.
In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr, using the symbol for common time (4/4). The instruments are shown separately for woodwind and strings, while the continuo, playing throughout, is not shown.
### Movements
The cantata is written in seven movements, with a symmetrical form: the first and last movements are for chorus and orchestra; the second and sixth movements are recitatives; the third and fifth movements are arias in two parts with da capo repeats only for the instrumental ritornello; and the central fourth movement is an accompanied solo. The metrical English translations below of the texts of the first six movements are by Henry Sandwith Drinker; and that of the seventh movement (chorale) is from the 1722 Psalmodica Germanica of John Christian Jacobi and Isaac Watts.
#### First movement
> The crowning glory of the cantata is the opening chorus, varied, flexible, imaginative, every phrase is mirrored in music of superb quality. It is another miracle of the master's ...
The Old Testament text is the librettist's adaptation of , which Bach separated into three distinct statements.
The monumental first movement, a long and complex chorus initially superposed on an elaborate orchestral ritornello, exemplifies how Bach—"with perfect mastery"—combined the considerable range of compositional skills at his disposal in BWV 39. The broad structure of the movement is derived from that of the motet, with each separate portion of the Old Testament text (Isaiah 58:7–8) receiving a different musical treatment matching the text. In the 218 bars, there are three distinct sections corresponding to the three pronouncements of Isaiah. The first and last section are highly developed, with fugal episodes; whereas the intermediate section is a short bridge between the two. Although simpler in form than the first and third sections, it combines musical features from both. The complex form of the first movement reflects the Old Testament text, which describes as long and "multifaceted". The structure of the movement can be summarised as follows:
##### First section
The movement opens with an extensive orchestral sinfonia marked Concerto in the autograph score. Lasting 22 bars, this ritornello establishes the prevailing anguished mood of the first section. It is heard twice again, but only as the accompanying backdrop for the separate musical material of the chorus, a setting of the first phrase of the Old Testament text. The open motifs are also heard again in the fragmentary accompaniment of the central choral fugato episode between the two reprises of the ritornello. The different motifs in the ritornello thus also serve the purpose of accompanying specific parts of the text. The first predominant motif consist of detached repeated quaver chords, passed antiphonally between the three instrumental groups of recorders, oboes and strings. These are accompanied by similarly detached crotchets, scored as quavers with rests, in the walking bass of the continuo. After thirteen bars there follows a four bar passage of melifluous semiquaver passages in thirds for the recorders with imitative responses from the oboes; the upper strings take up the detached crotchets and the continuo the groups of detached repeated quavers. In the four succeeding bars the quaver figure in the continuo line is replaced by a new motif of rising semiquaver scales, with the detached quavers and crotchets passing into the upper strings and the woodwind playing sustained chords. In the concluding two bars of the sinfonia the semiquaver scale motif passes into the recorders in thirds and is taken up by the other instruments for the sustained final cadence.
Several commentators, most notably and more recently , have interpreted the repeated quaver figures passed between different groups of instruments as "unmistakably depict[ing] the gesture of breaking bread." Spitta also felt that the detached notes, which subsequently accompany quite different text, added "a tender, dreamy tinge" to the movement. For and subsequent commentators like , however, the motif represented the "uncertain, tottering steps ... of the wretched ones who are being supported and led into the house."
After the closing cadence of the sinfonia, there is a reprise of the ritornello in the orchestra in a slightly expanded form. Immediately the chorus enters in pairs with their own musical material, singing in homphonic form. The word "brich" (break) in their initial declamatory phrase "Brich dem hungrigen dein Brot" is echoed in the pauses in the musical setting, pauses already present in the fragmentary detached quavers of the accompaniment. Equally well the repetition of this phrase is broken for one bar during which the original texture of the sinfonia is briefly heard again. describes the musical material as representing "imploring gestures, emotionally choked, their pleas breaking and stuttering." In contrast the following phrase "und die, so in Elend sind" has sustained melismas in all the parts on the word "Elend" (misery), with chromaticism, suspensions and descending quaver figures.
There is a further contrast in the next phrase "führe ins Haus" where the soprano and alto are paired with a long lyrical melisma in semiquavers on the word "führe" (lead). This new musical material is matched by the semiquaver figures of the woodwind. Similarly the detached quaver accompaniment in the continuo is matched by parallel figures in the tenor and bass parts. In the next four bars of this second rendition of the sinfonia, there is a reprise of the rising semiquaver figures in the continuo and sustained chords in the woodwind. In the first two bars each voice in the chorus enters successively with a new rising fourth motif for the phrase "und die" before the music intensifies as the chorus joins the sustained chords of the woodwind for the word "Elend". The final two bars of the closing cadence of the ritornello are more complex. On the one hand the mounting tension in the previous bars is resolved with the phrase "führe ins Haus" in the soprano, alto and bass voices.
On the other hand, in the first of these two bars the tenor part embarks on the fugal subject of the following fugato section. The beginning of the subject is thus partially hidden or overlaid by the two bar cadence, from which it emerges. The condensed subject of the fugue incorporates the rising fourth motif for "und die" as well as the motif of rising semiquaver scales from the ritornello and the descending semiquaver scale from the soprano-alto melisma on "führe".
In the fugato section each voice in the chorus sings the fugal subject following the tenors: the altos come in next, emerging from the tenor part; then the sopranos, emerging from the alto part; and finally the fourth statement of the subject in the basses leads into a true repetition of the closing two bar cadence of the ritornello, with a reprise of the original accompaniment in the orchestra, thus concluding the fugato episode. As comments, the first tenor entry with its prominent A flats and D flats "has a pathos all of its own, especially when for eight bars it is joined in imitation by the altos." The musicologist André Pirro notes that the A flat–D flat motif in the fugal subject on the word Elend is typical of Bach's use of suspended figures to evoke the burden of suffering and misery.
After the fugato episode, the ritornello resumes for a third time, with the chorus singing a variant of their homophonic material with much of the counterpoint inverted; this time, however, there is no fugal episode inserted before the final two bar cadence.
##### Intermediate section
The short second section in common time is a 12 bar bridging interlude linking the first and third sections. The key modulates from D minor to C minor, so that the surrounding first and third sections can modulate from their starting key to its dominant and thus the whole movement can return to its original key at the close.
The bridging section is composed in the seventeenth century concertato style, adopted in many of Bach's earlier Weimar cantatas, with the chorus playing the role of the concertino soloists and the orchestra the ripieno. The movement starts off with the basses singing "so du einen nacket siehest" (when thou naked seest), without any accompaniment even from the continuo.
;
The full choir and orchestra respond with "so kleide ihn" (then clothe him), with alto recorders echoing the initial bass theme. In the next concertino passage the bass theme is sung by the altos, while the sopranos sing a florid counter-theme with semiquaver scales—a long melisma on "kleide".
The bass theme is finally sung by the tenors, with the florid accompaniment in the altos and sopranos. In the second set of six bars, the choir sing the text "und entzeuch dich nicht von deinem Fleisch" (and hide not thyself from thine own flesh) in chords, taking up the repeated detached notes of the initial bass theme. The bass line incorporates the semiquaver scales.
;
The beginning of the bass part provides a motif for the continuo accompaniment, which is imitated in counterpoint by the two alto recorders until the end of the section, producing a running line of semiquavers. The accompanying oboes and upper strings respond to each other with fragmented quaver motifs derived from the vocal material of this section as well as the quaver motifs in the first section.
`has pointed out that the musical device of silencing parts of an ensemble is frequently used by Bach as a form of musical iconography. In this case the unaccompanied basses are "the musical equivalent of nakedness", while in contrast the full orchestra and chorus "unfolds itself in broad drapings to urge the merciful charity signified by the words 'clothe him'." This section is more lively than the first with a greater feeling of urgency.`
##### Final section
In the last section in spirited 3/8 time, the predominant mood is of joyous exaltation reflecting the text from Isaiah. The structure of the choral material in this final section complements that of the first section; there a fugal passage was enclosed between two homophonic episodes; here a homophonic episode is preceded and followed by fugal passages. While the first section is preceded by the lengthy orchestral sinfonia, the final section ends with a short coda for full chorus and orchestra.
The fugue subject starts to the words "Alsdann wird dein Licht herfürbrechen wie die Morgenröte" in the tenor voice with an upbeat, continuing for seven bars as it begins a long melisma on the first syllable of "röte" (dawneth). In the seventh bar the alto voice enters with the same subject, at which point the tenors takes up the material of the counter-subject for the next seven bars to conclude the melisma. Beneath both parts the continuo plays its own independent material, built up from two motifs: the first motif is a sospirans figure made up of four semiquavers followed by a scale of four ascending quavers, heard in the first two bars; and the second, which starts in the fifth bar, is an angular three-note quaver motif that descends in a sequence.
The altos and tenors are joined after seven bars by the fugue subject in the soprano voice. After a further seven bars the basses sing the last statement of the subject, accompanied by the full orchestra playing colla parte except for the two alto recorders, bringing the first fugato section to a close. The alto recorders play fragmented quaver figures in unison some of which are derived from the angular three-note continuo motif, leading into the first seven bar homophonic choral passage.
With a colla parte accompaniment in the oboes and continuo, the chorus sing the text "und deine Besserung wird schnell Wachsen" in clipped motet-style with chords and dotted rhythms, until a florid melisma in semiquavers on "Wachsen" (prosper). They are accompanied in the upper strings by detached quavers on the second and third beats of each bar; while the two alto recorders play in unison their own florid line of running semiquavers derived from the semiquaver figures in the fugue counter-subject.
This homophonic choral passage is followed by the first of three short four-bar orchestral ritornellos, with a texture that has already been heard very briefly in the bar when the chorus pause between the fugato and homophonic passages. As in the opening sinfonia, the instruments play in four distinct groups—alto recorders, oboes, upper strings and continuo—but the sparseness there is now replaced by a jubilant canzona-style flourish.
The semiquaver motifs in the alto recorders were already heard in the second and third bars of the obbligato accompaniment to the homophonic episode, but here they play in thirds. The other orchestral groups play pairs of detached quaver chords, with upper strings on the beat and oboes off the beat. The choir then rejoin the orchestra for the second of the three homophonic passages to the text "und dein Gerichtigkeit wird vor dir hergehen". At fourteen bars in length, it is the longest and most complex of the three. The broad structure of the episode is a canon between the soprano and bass parts.
The canonic entries are separated by a bar until the stretto starting in the ninth bar when they are separated by a quaver. The vocal line is ingeniously composed from figures that have already been heard in the section: the start of the fugue subject; the initial sospirans continuo motif with its second part inverted and in dotted rhythm, like the opening "hungrigen" of the first section; the semiquaver scales in the fugue subject and their inversions; and the portion of the fugue counter-subject with suspensions. There are two melismas on "hergehen" (go onward), with the second one—during the stretto—rising to a climax before a concluding two bar cadence similar to the one in the first homophonic passage. The alto and tenor voices at first accompany the canon with imitative figures; but during the stretto the alto pairs with the soprano in thirds and the tenor pairs with the bass. The rest of the orchestra play colla parte with the singers except for the alto recorders. As in the first homophonic section they play an obbligato accompaniment in unison. Before the stretto it is formed of running semiquavers, made up of the ritornello motif and the scales of the vocal parts. During the stretto they play anapaests—motifs of joy—off the beat, increasing the level of excitement and adulation. in all the voices After the cadence, the movement is punctuated by a second rendition of the four-bar orchestral ritornello. This time the oboes play the semiquaver motif, the alto recorders play the pair of detached quavers on the beat and the upper strings those off the beat. This leads into the second fugato episode in the key of C minor.
The fugue subject, initially sung by the basses to the words "und die Herrlichkeit des Herrn wird dich zu sich nehmen", is a slight variant of the original one. This can be seen by comparing the tenor line in the first fugato episode with the alto entry in the second.
Like the first and second homophonic passages, however, the first and second fugato episodes differ in unexpected ways, resulting in a more elevated mood and richer orchestral texture. The fugato episode is lengthened by having a new fifth fugal voice provided by the alto recorders in unison, scored in flowing semiquavers. The chorus and alto recorders enter in the following order: basses, tenors, altos, alto recorders and finally sopranos. All the voices have long melismas on the word "nehmen" (reward). The continuo reprise the accompaniment of the first fugato episode during the first statement of the fugue subject and counter-subject in the basses. This time, however, there is an additional accompaniment from the two alto recorders consisting mainly of the quaver motifs from the ritornello. The alto recorders then briefly fall silent, while the basses unite with the continuo part, singing its independent musical material until the end of the episode. After the first entry of the basses, the other instrumental groups enter to play colla parte with each new voice: the violas enter with the tenors; the second oboe and second violins enter with the altos; the two alto flutes enter in unison; and finally the sopranos enter with the first oboe and first violins. The anticipated entry of the sopranos after the altos is further delayed by the extension of the fugue subject in the alto recorders by four bars, with repetitions of the figures in bars 1–2 and 5-6; all the material is played at unexpected pitches. Below the fugue subject in the two recorders, the altos and tenors sing imitative syncopated responses based on the counter-subject, leading up to the true entry of the sopranos. With the recorders taking up the counter-subject, the sopranos sing the fugue subject at its expected pitch, with the imitative polyphony continuing in the middle voices, bringing the fugato episode to its concluding cadence.
The orchestral ritornello punctuates the movement for a third and last time, the upper strings playing the semiquaver figures, with the detached quavers on the beat in the oboes and off the beat in the alto recorders. It leads directly into the homophonic coda in the last seven bars of the movement. With the same orchestral pairings as the fugato episode, the sopranos joyously sing out the beginning of the second fugue theme below trilling recorders before joining the polyphony of the other voices—with a last emphatic sospirans figure in the basses—for the final exultant rendition of the text.
As states, this "short tutti outburst ... closes this superb chorus in a blaze of 'Herrlichkeit'." , commenting on the change of mood in the final section, writes, "The sense of relief after the stifling pathos of the opening sections is palpable ... After so much pathos, the final coda led by the sopranos releases the pent-up energy in an explosion of joy." comments, "The words, to the end of this section, are based on Isaiah 58:7-8 ... It brings Jesus' words to mind, 'Inasmuch as you do it unto them, you do it unto me' and his denunciation of the careless rich. Isaiah continues, 'Then shall thy light break forth as the morning and thy healing shall spring forth speedily; and thy righteousness shall go before thee.' Bach sets the paraphrase of these last words to a glorious fugue, with two expositions, and so brings to an end one of his finest choruses and one that is worthy indeed of the inspired words of Isaiah." also expresses his admiration for Bach's setting: "The chorus of the first movement, set to two beautiful verses of Isaiah, brings out the meaning of that text in the Sermon on the Mount, 'Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy', and the cantata is fitly concluded with the sixth verse of the paraphrase of the beatitudes. It is an affecting picture of Christian love, softening with tender hand and pitying sympathy the sorrow of the brethren, and obtaining the highest reward." describes the perfect balance in the proportions of the different sections, "marking a magnificent journey from darkness into light": the first fugato episode represents "the light emanating from the merciful walking in the paths of righteousness"; the second "the light of the glory of God".
#### Second and third movements
The four movements (2,3,5 and 6) placed symmetrically around the central New Testament passage in the fourth movement, are all settings of Madrigal-style verse. The second movement is a setting of a lengthy text beginning "Der reiche Gott wirft seinen Überfluss auf uns, die wir ohn ihn auch nicht den Odem haben" (The Lord provides: He pours his riches down on us; without this nothing here on earth would flourish). Bach set it as an unadorned secco recitative, without arioso episodes, accompanied by bare sustained notes in the continuo. The bass soloist proclaims that God's abundant gifts should be shared with the poor and lowly; and that consideration for the needy, not wealth used for tributes, will find favour with God.
This leads into an alto aria accompanied by obbligato violin and oboe:
The theme of the text is that, although man may follow God's example during his lifetime, it is only in heaven that he will reap the benefits of the seeds he has sown. The aria starts with a ritornello in trio sonata form for the concertante solo violin and oboe over a steady continuo bass line. The ritornello is made up of a continuous stream of distinctive semiquaver motifs played against sustained notes, which alternate between the two solo instruments as they respond to each other imitatively and in canon. The semiquaver motifs occasionally and briefly pass to the continuo part. The alto enters with its own separate themes (see above) singing the first half of the text; the obbligato instruments weave a contrapuntal accompaniment around the vocal line with motifs from the ritornello. The words are sung a second time in a different setting, with melismas derived from semiquaver motifs in the ritornello together with new quaver motifs:
An episode for the concertante instruments based on the ritornello is then followed by the alto singing the second half of the text; a further instrumental interlude is followed by a second alto rendition of the same words, after which the aria concludes with a da capo repetition of the opening ritornello. Each of these two alto sections begins with the same musical figures as its first entry. The material there is developed with motifs from the ritornello reflecting the intensifying mood: the word streuet ("sow") is set to long and enraptured semiquaver melismas;
and the "ein" in the contrasting phrase bringen ein ("reap")—a reference to eternity—is sustained on a single note for four bars.
#### Fourth movement
The text of the fourth movement is adapted from St Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews:
It is sung by the bass, the vox Christi (voice of Jesus), as if the words were spoken by Jesus himself. The style is typical of Bach's treatment of such declamatory texts, a compositional style between arioso and aria. The bass solo is accompanied by an obbligato violoncello, with an ever-varying melodious dialogue in canon and counterpoint; the thematic material in the bass solo
is introduced in the opening ritornello of the violoncello which also concludes the movement. The opening phrase is repeated seventeen times in the continuo part as a form of quasi-ostinato motif. As states, this lyrical movement, with its insistence, its repetitions of the text and its vigour, eloquently proclaims the spiritual themes of the second part.
#### Fifth and sixth movements
The fifth movement is the second aria of the cantata, scored for soprano with an obbligato accompaniment provided by the two recorders playing in unison.
The text, addressed to God, expresses faith, thankfulness and simple humility. The recorder ritornello is written in concertante style, with constantly flowing semiquaver figures, unhurried with no hint of virtuosity. It contrasts with the sustained quavers of the cantabile vocal part, which is imbued with the qualities of a "simple song". The aria follows the same scheme as the first alto aria, with the text divided into two halves, each sung twice, interspersed with instrumental interludes which conclude with a da capo reprise of the ritornello.
The sixth movement is an alto recitative. The lengthy text begins "Wie soll ich dir, o Herr, denn sattsamlich vergelten, was du an Leib und Seel mir hast zugutgetan?" (How might then I, O Lord, sufficiently repay thee for all that thou hast done, my flesh and soul to feed?). It is a further supplication to God, giving thanks for His gifts, recognizing the duty to help the needy and praying to be rewarded in the hereafter. Like the first recitative, it is declamatory without arioso sections; but in this case, instead of a bare bass line, it is accompanied by sustained chords in the string section, marked piano, which help create the prayer-like mood.
#### Seventh movement
The concluding chorale of the cantata is a plain four-part harmonisation of the sixth verse of David Denicke's hymn "Kommt, laßt euch den Herren lehren" (1648). with the orchestra doubling the vocal parts. It is sung to the melody of "Freu dich sehr, o meine Seele", first published as a hymn tune by Louis Bourgeois. Bach had previously produced similar harmonisations to different texts in BWV 25, BWV 196 and BWV 32; the chorale from BWV 39, transposed to G major, appears as number 67 in the collection of harmonised chorales prepared by Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach for Breitkopf and Härtel, reproduced with the same number in the collection of Albert Riemenschneider.
The translation of the text below is from the 1723 Psalmodica Germanica of John Christian Jacobi and Isaac Watts.
Denicke's hymn is a versification of the Sermon on the Mount, in which each beatitude is elaborated in a separate verse. The sixth verse corresponds to the fifth beatitude from Matthew 5:7: "Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy."
## Recordings
A list of recordings is provided on the Bach-Cantatas website. Ensembles playing period instruments in historically informed performance are shown by green background. |
23,909,004 | Ely, Cambridgeshire | 1,173,132,025 | Cathedral city in Cambridgeshire, England | [
"673 establishments",
"7th-century establishments in England",
"Cities in the East of England",
"Civil parishes in Cambridgeshire",
"East Cambridgeshire District",
"Ely, Cambridgeshire",
"Populated places on the River Great Ouse",
"Towns in Cambridgeshire"
] | Ely (/ˈiːli/ EE-lee) is a cathedral city in the East Cambridgeshire district of Cambridgeshire, England, about 14 miles (23 km) north-northeast of Cambridge and 80 miles (130 km) from London.
Ely is built on a 23-square-mile (60 km<sup>2</sup>) Kimmeridge Clay island which, at 85 feet (26 m), is the highest land in the Fens. It was due to this topography that Ely was not waterlogged like the surrounding Fenland, and was an island separated from the mainland. Major rivers including the Witham, Welland, Nene and Great Ouse feed into the Fens and, until draining commenced in the eighteenth century, formed freshwater marshes and meres within which peat was laid down. Once the Fens were drained, this peat created a rich and fertile soil ideal for farming.
The River Great Ouse was a significant means of transport until the Fens were drained and Ely ceased to be an island in the seventeenth century. The river is now a popular boating spot, and has a large marina. Although now surrounded by land, the city is still known as "The Isle of Ely".
There are two Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the city: a former Kimmeridge Clay quarry, and one of the United Kingdom's best remaining examples of medieval ridge and furrow agriculture.
The economy of the region is mainly agricultural. Before the Fens were drained, eel fishing was an important activity, from which the settlement's name may have been derived. Other important activities included wildfowling, peat extraction, and the harvesting of osier (willow) and sedge (rush). The city had been the centre of local pottery production for more than 700 years, including pottery known as Babylon ware. A Roman road, Akeman Street, passes through the city; the southern end is at Ermine Street near Wimpole and its northern end is at Brancaster. Little direct evidence of Roman occupation in Ely exists, although there are nearby Roman settlements such as those at Little Thetford and Stretham.
A coach route, known to have existed in 1753 between Ely and Cambridge, was improved in 1769 as a turnpike (toll road). The present-day A10 closely follows this route. Ely railway station, built in 1845, is on the Fen Line and is now a railway hub, with lines north to King's Lynn, northwest to Peterborough, east to Norwich, southeast to Ipswich and south to Cambridge and London.
Henry II granted the first annual fair, Saint Etheldreda's (or Saint Audrey's) seven-day event, to the abbot and convent on 10 October 1189. The word "tawdry" originates from cheap lace sold at this fair. A weekly market has taken place in Ely Market Square since at least the 13th century. Markets are now held on Thursdays, Saturdays and Sundays, with a farmers' market on the 2nd and 4th Saturdays of each month.
Present-day annual events include the Eel Festival in May, established in 2004, and a fireworks display in Ely Park, first staged in 1974. The city of Ely has been twinned with Denmark's oldest town, Ribe, since 1956. Ely City Football Club was formed in 1885.
## History
### Pre-history
Roswell Pits are a palaeontologically significant Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) one mile (1.6 km) northeast of the city. The Jurassic Kimmeridge Clays were quarried in the 19th and 20th centuries for the production of pottery and for maintenance of river embankments. Many specimens of ammonites, belemnites and bivalves were found during quarrying, in addition to an almost complete specimen of a pliosaur.
There is some scattered evidence of Late Mesolithic to Bronze Age activity in Ely such as Neolithic flint tools, a Bronze Age axe and spearhead. There is slightly denser Iron Age and Roman activity with some evidence of at least seasonal occupation. For example, a possible farmstead, of the late Iron Age to early Roman period, was discovered at West Fen Road and some Roman pottery was found close to the east end of the cathedral on The Paddock. There was a Roman settlement, including a tile kiln built over an earlier Iron Age settlement, in Little Thetford, three miles (5 km) to the south.
### Name
The origin and meaning of Ely's name have always been regarded as obscure by place-name scholars, and are still disputed. The earliest record of the name is in the Latin text of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, where he wrote Elge. This is apparently not a Latin name, and subsequent Latin texts nearly all used the forms Elia, Eli, or Heli with inorganic H-. In Old English charters, and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the spelling is usually Elig.
Skeat derived the name Ely from what he called "O[ld] Northumbrian" ēlġē, meaning "district of eels". This uses a hypothetical word \*ġē, which is not recorded in isolation but thought by some to be related to the modern German word Gau, meaning "district". The theory is that the name then developed a vowel to become ēliġē, and was afterwards re-interpreted to mean "Eel Island". This essentially is the explanation accepted by Reaney Ekwall, Mills and Watts.
But difficulties remain. Bailey, in his discussion of ġē names, has pointed out that Ely would be anomalous if really from ēlġē "eel district", being remote from the areas where possible examples of ġē names occur, and moreover, there is no parallel for the use of a fish-name in compounds with ġē. More seriously, the usual English spelling remains Elig, even in the dative case used after many prepositions, where Elige would be expected if the second element were īġ "island". This is in conflict with all the other island names which surround Ely.
Problems also remain, as pointed out by historian Mac Dowdy, as the word eel (or similar) did not exist at the time of the founding of Ely, and they were instead referred to as aguilla or anguilles until the 1300s. Mac proposes that instead the city gets its name from the word "Elysium", later shortened to Ely. This is believed as Etheldreda's chamberlain, Ovin, described it as "an ancient place of great spiritual importance to the people of the region, a paradise". This was later changed as Wilfrid's chronicler used the Latin term for Paradise "Elysium".
Another option, discussed by Miller in Fenland Notes and Queries, is that the name is an old Celtic name deriving either from the Brythonic helig (modern Welsh helyg) meaning willows or heli meaning salt water. Miller construes the name as meaning the singular and thinks it odd a place so abounding in the trees would be called 'a willow'.
### Medieval period
The city's origins lay in the foundation of an abbey in 673, one mile (1.6 km) to the north of the village of Cratendune on the Isle of Ely, under the protection of Saint Etheldreda, daughter of King Anna. St Etheldreda (also known as Æthelthryth) was a queen, founder and abbess of Ely. She built a monastery in 673 AD, on the site of what is now Ely Cathedral. This first abbey was destroyed in 870 by Danish invaders and rededicated to Etheldreda in 970 by Ethelwold, Bishop of Winchester. The abbots of Ely then accumulated such wealth in the region that in the Domesday survey (1086) it was the "second richest monastery in England". The first Norman bishop, Simeon, started building the cathedral in 1083. The octagon was rebuilt by sacrist Alan of Walsingham between 1322 and 1328 after the collapse of the original nave crossing on 22 February 1322. Ely's octagon is considered "one of the wonders of the medieval world". Architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner believes the octagon "is a delight from beginning to end for anyone who feels for space as strongly as for construction" and is the "greatest individual achievement of architectural genius at Ely Cathedral". This gave the cathedral its distinctive shape, earning it the moniker, "The Ship of the Fens". Building continued until the dissolution of the abbey in 1539 during the Reformation. The cathedral was sympathetically restored between 1845 and 1870 by the architect George Gilbert Scott. As the seat of a diocese, Ely has long been considered a city; in 1974, city status was granted by royal charter.
Cherry Hill is the site of Ely Castle which is of Norman construction and is a United Kingdom scheduled monument. Of similar construction to Cambridge Castle, the 250-foot (76 m) diameter, 40 feet (12 m) high citadel-type motte and bailey is thought to be a royal defence built by William the Conqueror following submission of the Isle from rebels such as the Earl Morcar and the folk-hero Hereward the Wake. This would date the first building of the castle to c. 1070.
Henry III of England granted a market to the Bishop of Ely using letters close on 9 April 1224 although Ely had been a trading centre prior to this. Present weekly market days are Thursday and Saturday and seasonal markets are held monthly on Sundays and Bank Holiday Mondays from Easter to November.
### Protestant martyrs
Following the accession of Mary I of England to the throne in 1553, the papacy made its first effective efforts to enforce the Pope Paul III-initiated Catholic reforms in England. During this time, which became known as the Marian Persecutions, two men from Wisbech, constable William Wolsey and painter Robert Pygot, "were accused of not ... believing that the body and blood of Christ were present in the bread and wine of the sacrament of mass". For this Christian heresy they were condemned by the bishop's chancellor, John Fuller, on 9 October 1555. On 16 October 1555 they were burnt at the stake "probably on the Palace Green in front of Ely Cathedral". In The Book of Ely published in 1990, Blakeman writes that "permission was not given" for a memorial to the martyrs to be placed on Palace Green. In 2011, a plaque recording this martyrdom event was erected on the northeast corner of Palace Green by the City of Ely Perspective. The plaque is located 2 inches from the pavement floor in an obscure, easily missed corner.
Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell lived in Ely from 1636 to 1646 after inheriting St Mary's vicarage, a sixteenth-century property—now known as Oliver Cromwell's House— from his mother's brother, Sir Thomas Steward. It is possible to visit this house today. During this time Cromwell was a tax collector, though was also one of the governors of Thomas Parsons' Charity, which dates back to 1445 and was granted a Royal Charter by Charles I of England. The Charity still provides grants and housing to deserving local applicants.
There was a form of early workhouse in 1687, perhaps at St Mary's, which may have been part of an arrangement made between the Ely people and a Nicholas Wythers of Norwich in 1675. He was paid £30 per annum to employ the poor to "spin jersey" and was to pay them in money not goods. A purpose-built workhouse was erected in 1725 for 35 inmates on what is now St Mary's Court. Four other workhouses existed, including Holy Trinity on Fore Hill for 80 inmates (1738–1956) and the Ely Union workhouse, built in 1837, which housed up to 300 inmates. The latter became Tower Hospital in 1948 and is now a residential building, Tower Court. Two other former workhouses were the Haven Quayside for unmarried mothers and another on the site of what is now the Hereward Hall in Silver Street.
Post-medieval decline
The diaries of writers and journalists such as William Camden, Celia Fiennes, Daniel Defoe, John Byng and William Cobbett illustrate the decline of Ely after the 14th century plague and the 16th century reformation which led to the dissolution of the monastery in 1539. In the 1607 edition of Britannia, chorographic surveyor William Camden records that "as for Ely it selfe, it is no small Citie, or greatly to be counted off either for beauty or frequency and resort, as having an unwholsome aire by reason of the fens round about". In 1698, Celia Fiennes was writing "the Bishop [Simon Patrick] does not Care to stay long in this place not being for his health ... they have lost their Charter ... and its a shame [the Bishop] does not see it better ordered and y<sup>e</sup> buildings and streetes put in a better Condition. They are a slothful people and for little but y<sup>e</sup> takeing Care of their Grounds and Cattle w<sup>ch</sup> is of vast advantage". Daniel Defoe, when writing in the Eastern Counties section of A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain (1722), went "to Ely, whose cathedral, standing in a level flat country, is seen far and wide ... that some of it is so antient, totters so much with every gust of wind, looks so like a decay, and seems so near it, that when ever it does fall, all that 'tis likely will be thought strange in it, will be, that it did not fall a hundred years sooner".
John Howard (prison reformer) visited Ely and described the conditions in The Gaol:- 'This gaol the property of the bishop, who is lord of the franchise of the Isle of Ely, was in part rebuilt by the late bishop about ten years ago; upon complaint of the cruel method\* which for want of a safe gaol, the Keeper took to secure his prisoners (\*This was by chaining them down upon their backs on a floor, across which were several iron bars and iron collar with spikes about their neck). The gaoler John Allday did not receive a salary'. He records that the number of debtors outnumbered the number of felons in the prison.
On his way to a Midlands tour, John Byng visited Ely on 5 July 1790 staying at the Lamb Inn. In his diary he writes that "the town [Ely] is mean, to the extreme ... those withdrawn, their dependancies must decay". Recording in his Rural Rides on 25 March 1830, William Cobbett reports that "Ely is what one may call a miserable little town: very prettily situated, but poor and mean. Everything seems to be on the decline, as, indeed, is the case everywhere, where the clergy are the masters".
The Ely and Littleport riots occurred between 22 and 24 May 1816. At the Special Commission assizes, held at Ely between 17 and 22 June 1816, twenty-four rioters were condemned. Nineteen had their sentences variously commuted from penal transportation for life to twelve-months imprisonment; the remaining five were executed on 28 June 1816. An outbreak of cholera isolated Ely in 1832.
### Victorian and twentieth-century regeneration
Ely Cathedral was "the first great cathedral to be thoroughly restored". Work commenced in 1845 and was completed nearly thirty years later; most of the work was "sympathetically" carried out by the architect George Gilbert Scott. The only pavement labyrinth to be found in an English cathedral was installed below the west tower in 1870.
For over 800 years the cathedral and its associated buildings—built on an elevation 68 feet (21 m) above the nearby fens—have visually influenced the city and its surrounding area. Geographer John Jones, writing in 1924, reports that "from the roof of King's Chapel in Cambridge, on a clear day, Ely [cathedral] can be seen on the horizon, 16 miles (26 km) distant, an expression of the flatness of the fens". In 1954, architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner wrote "as one approaches Ely on foot or on a bicycle, or perhaps in an open car, the cathedral dominates the picture for miles around ... and offers from everywhere an outline different from that of any other English cathedral". Local historian Pamela Blakeman reports a claim that "Grouped around [the cathedral] ... is the largest collection of medieval buildings still in daily use in this country".
### Liberty of Ely
The abbey at Ely was one of many which were refounded in the Benedictine reforms of King Edgar the Peaceful (943–975). The "special and peculiarly ancient" honour and freedoms given to Ely by charter at that time may have been intended to award only fiscal privilege, but have been interpreted to confer on subsequent bishops the authority and power of a ruler. These rights were reconfirmed in charters granted by Edward the Confessor and in William the Conqueror's confirmation of the old English liberty at Kenford. The Isle of Ely was mentioned in some statutes as a county palatine; this provided an explanation of the bishop's royal privileges and judicial authority, which would normally belong to the sovereign; but legal authorities such as Sir Edward Coke did not completely endorse the form of words. These bishop's rights were not fully extinguished until 1837.
## City status
As the seat of a diocese, Ely has long been considered a city, holding the status by ancient prescriptive right: the caption to John Speed's 1610 plan of Ely reads "Although this Citie of Ely", and Aikin refers to Ely as a city in 1800. When Ely was given a Local Board of Health by Queen Victoria in 1850, the order creating the board said it was to cover the "city of Ely". The local board which governed the city from 1850 to 1894 called itself "City of Ely Local Board", and the urban district council which replaced it and governed the city from 1894 to 1974 similarly called itself "City of Ely Urban District Council".
Ely's city status was not explicitly confirmed, however, until 1 April 1974 when Queen Elizabeth II granted letters patent, to its civil parish. Ely's population of 20,256 (as recorded in 2011) classifies it as one of the smallest cities in England; although the population has increased noticeably since 1991 when it was recorded at 11,291. Its urban area brings Ely into the top ten of smallest sized cities (1.84 sq mi—4.77 km<sup>2</sup>), but by city council area it is much larger in coverage (22.86 sq mi—59.21 km<sup>2</sup>) than many others.
## Governance
### Parliamentary
For elections to the UK Parliament, Ely is part of the South East Cambridgeshire constituency.
### Local government
There are three tiers of local government covering Ely, at parish (city), district, and county level: City of Ely Council, East Cambridgeshire District Council, and Cambridgeshire County Council.
Regular elections take place to the City of Ely Council, East Cambridgeshire District Council and Cambridgeshire County Council. The civil parish is divided into four wards called Ely North, Ely South, Ely East and Ely West. Fourteen councillors are elected to the parish council. The East Cambridgeshire District Council is also based in Ely. For elections to the East Cambridgeshire District Council the four wards of Ely South, Ely East and Ely West each return two district councillors; and Ely North returns three. For elections to the Cambridgeshire County Council the city returns two councillors.
### Administrative history
The city was governed by a local board from 1850 until 1894, when it became the City of Ely Urban District Council, which then operated from 1894 to 1974. The Isle of Ely County Council governed the Isle of Ely administrative county that surrounding and included the city from 1889 to 1965. In 1965 there was a reform of local government that merged the county council with that of Cambridgeshire to form the Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely County Council. In 1974 as part of a national reform of local government, the Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely County Council merged with the Huntingdon and Peterborough County Council to form the Cambridgeshire County Council. The City of Ely Urban District Council became the City of Ely Council, a parish council which covers the same area but with fewer powers, and the East Cambridgeshire District Council which covers a wider area.
## Geography
### Geology and topography
The west of Cambridgeshire is made up of limestones from the Jurassic period, whilst the east Cambridgeshire area consists of Cretaceous (upper Mesozoic) chalks known locally as clunch. In between these two major formations, the high ground forming the Isle of Ely is from a lower division Cretaceous system known as Lower Greensand which is capped by Boulder Clay; all local settlements, such as Stretham and Littleport, are on similar islands. These islands rise above the surrounding flat land which forms the largest plain of Britain from the Jurassic system of partly consolidated clays or muds. Kimmeridge Clay beds dipping gently west underlie the Lower Greensand of the area exposed, for example, about one mile (2 km) south of Ely in the Roswell Pits. The Lower Greensand is partly capped by glacial deposits forming the highest point in East Cambridgeshire, rising to 85 feet (26 m) above sea level in Ely.
The low-lying fens surrounding the island of Ely were formed, prior to the 17th century, by alternate fresh-water and sea-water incursions. Major rivers in the region, including the Witham, Welland, Nene and Great Ouse, drain an area of some 6,000 square miles (16,000 km<sup>2</sup>)—five times larger than the fens—into the basin that forms the fens. Defoe in 1774 described the Fens as "the sink of no less than thirteen Counties". On 23 November of that year, Church of England cleric and Christian theologician John Wesley, wrote of his approach to Ely after visiting Norwich: "about eight, Wednesday, 23, Mr. Dancer met me with a chaise [carriage] and carried me to Ely. Oh, what want of common sense! Water covered the high road for a mile and a half. I asked, 'How must foot-people come to the town?' 'Why, they must wade through!'" Peat formed in the fresh-water swamps and meres whilst silts were deposited by the slow-moving sea-water. Francis Russell, Earl of Bedford, supported by Parliament, financed the draining of the fens during the 17th century, led by the Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden; the fens continue to be drained to this day.
### Climate
With an average annual rainfall of 24 inches (600 mm), Cambridgeshire is one of the driest counties in the British Isles. Protected from the cool onshore coastal breezes east of the region, Cambridgeshire is warm in summer and cold and frosty in winter. Regional weather forecasting and historical summaries are available from the UK Met Office. The nearest Met Office weather station is Cambridge. Additional local weather stations report periodic figures to the internet such as Weather Underground, Inc.
## Demography
The Domesday survey of 1086 revealed 110 households which were mainly rural. In 1251, a survey showed an increase to 345 households with the start of urban living although still largely rural. By the 1416 survey there were 457 occupied premises in the city and many of the streets were arranged much as they are today. See also the cartographer John Speed's plan of Ely, 1610. In 1563 there were 800 households and by 1753 the population was recorded as 3,000.
## Economy
As an island surrounded by marshes and meres, the fishing of eels was important as both a food and an income for the abbot and his nearby tenants. For example, to the abbot of Ely in 1086, Stuntenei was worth 24,000 eels, Litelport 17,000 eels and even the small village of Liteltetford was worth 3,250 eels. Prior to the extensive and largely successful drainage of the fens during the seventeenth century, Ely was a trade centre for goods made out of willow, reeds and rushes and wild fowling was a major local activity. Peat in the form of "turf" was used as a fuel and in the form of "moor" as a building material. Ampthill Clay was dug from the local area for the maintenance of river banks and Kimmeridge Clay at Roswell Pits for the making of pottery wares. In general, from a geological perspective, "The district is almost entirely agricultural and has always been so. The only mineral worked at the present time is gravel for aggregate, although chalk, brick clay (Ampthill and Kimmeridge clays), phosphate (from Woburn Sands, Gault and Cambridge Greensand), sand and gravel, and peat have been worked on a small scale in the past".
Phosphate nodules, referred to locally as coprolites, were dug in the area surrounding Ely between 1850 and 1890 for use as an agricultural fertiliser. This industry provided significant employment for the local labour force. One of the largest sugar beet factories in England was opened in Queen Adelaide, two miles (3 km) from the centre of Ely, in 1925. The factory closed in 1981, although sugar beet is still farmed locally.
Pottery was made in Ely from the 12th century until 1860: records show around 80 people who classed their trade as potters. "Babylon ware" is the name given to pottery made in one area of Ely. This ware is thought to be so named because there were potters in an area cut off from the centre by the re-routing of the River Great Ouse around 1200; by the seventeenth century this area had become known as Babylon. Although the reason for the name is unclear, by 1850 it was in official use on maps. The building of the Ely to King's Lynn railway in 1847 cut the area off even further, and the inhabitants could only cross to Ely by boat.
## Culture
### Annual events
Annual fairs have been held in Ely since the twelfth century. Saint Audrey's (Etheldreda's) seven-day fair, held either side of 23 June, was first granted officially by Henry I to the abbot and convent on 10 October 1189. At this fair, cheap necklaces, made from brightly coloured silk, were sold—these were called "tawdry lace". "Tawdry", a corruption of "Saint Audrey", now means "pertaining to the nature of cheap and gaudy finery". Two other fairs, the 15‐day festival of St Lambert, first granted in 1312 and the 22‐day fair beginning on the Vigil of the Ascension, first granted in 1318. The festival of St Lambert had stopped by the eighteenth century. St Etheldreda's and the Vigil of the Ascension markets still continue, although the number of days have been considerably reduced and the dates have changed.
Present-day annual events in Ely include Aquafest, which has been staged at the riverside by the Rotary Club on the first Sunday of July since 1978. Other events include the Eel Day carnival procession and the annual fireworks display in Ely Park, first staged in 1974. The Ely Folk Festival has been held in the city since 1985. The Ely Horticultural Society have been staging their Great Autumn Show since 1927. In 2018 Ely hosted the 'Pride' festival, celebrating LGBT and diversity. At the inaugural festival 'For The Hornets' headlined and the cathedral flew the pride rainbow flag.
### Twin town
Since September 1956, Ely has been twinned with Ribe, Denmark's oldest town and part of the Municipality of Esbjerg; officials from Ribe first came to Ely in 1957. The golden anniversary of this twinning was celebrated in 2006. Exchange visits occur roughly every two years.
### Museums and attractions
The city of Ely has several visitor attractions, including The Stained Glass Museum, the only museum dedicated to stained glass in the UK. The Stained Glass Museum is located inside Ely Cathedral and has a collection of stained glass from the 13th century to the present day. Ely Museum, housed in the old city gaol, is a local history museum which tells the story of Ely and the surrounding Fens from pre-historic times to the present day. Oliver Cromwell's House is the former family home of Oliver Cromwell, and houses an exhibition about Cromwell and the English Civil War.
### Local media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC East and ITV Anglia. The city receives its television signals from the Sandy Heath TV transmitter.
Ely’s local radio stations are BBC Radio Cambridgeshire on 96.0 FM, Heart East on 103.0 FM and Star Radio on 107.1.
Local newspapers are the Ely Standard and Cambridge News.
## Landmarks
### War memorial
A cannon, captured during the Crimean War at the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) and given to Ely by Queen Victoria in 1860, is located on Palace Green, west of the cathedral. The inscription reads "Russian cannon captured during the Crimean War presented to the people of Ely by Queen Victoria in 1860 to mark the creation of the Ely Rifle Volunteers". The cannon was cast at the Alexandrovski factory in 1802, the factory's director being the Englishman, Charles Gascoigne. The serial number is 8726. The calibre is 30 pounds (14 kg) and the weight is 252 poods, or about 9,000 pounds (4,100 kg). The cannon is mounted on an iron carriage which would previously have been mounted on a "heavy iron traversing slide" known as 'Systeme Venglov 1853'. The Ely Rifle Volunteers, formed in 1860, became part of the Cambridgeshire Regiment during 1914–1918 then subsequently part of the Royal Anglian Regiment until disbanded in 1999.
### Notable buildings
There are twenty three Grade I, six Grade II\* and one hundred and fifty three Grade II listed buildings in the city of Ely.
Cherry Hill, to the south of Cathedral Park, is the remains of the Norman period, motte and bailey, Ely Castle. The earliest written record of this 40-foot-high (12 m) by 250-foot-diameter (76 m) castle is in the time of Henry I.
Two twelfth century hospitals, St Mary Magdalene founded 1172 and St John the Baptist founded c. 1200, were on the site of what is now a four-building farmstead in West End. Building dates are not known but the extant remains indicate c. 1175–85. Bishop Northwold merged the two hospitals in 1240. The farmstead Grade I listed building status was graded on 23 September 1950 between four properties: St John's farmhouse, a barn to the southwest (formerly chapel of St John), a barn to the north (formerly chapel of St Mary) and a dovecote. Above the north doorway of the southwestern barn of St John's farmhouse is a carved Barnack stone which is built into the thirteenth century wall. The stone is thought to have been robbed from the Anglo-Saxon monastery of St Etheldreda. This heavily weathered eighth-century stone shows a man blowing a horn whilst riding on an ox.
John Alcock, Bishop of Ely and founder of Jesus College, Cambridge, constructed the Bishop's Palace during his bishopric, between 1486 and 1500; of the original fabric, only the east tower and the lower part of the west tower remain. A "startlingly huge" London Plane tree, planted in 1680, still grows in the garden and is "said to be one of the largest in England". Benjamin Lany, Bishop of Ely from 1667 until 1675, demolished much of Alcock's work and thus became responsible for most of the present-day building. This Grade I listed building is southwest of and close to the west end of the cathedral, opposite the original village green, now named Palace Green.
St Mary's Vicarage, better known locally as Cromwell's House, is a Grade II\* listed building of mainly sixteenth-century plaster-frame construction although there exist some stone arches, c. 1380. A plaque on the front of the house records that this is "Cromwell House, the residence of Oliver Cromwell from 1636 to 1647 when collector of Ely Tithes". Between 1843 and 1847 the house was the Cromwell Arms public house and it was restored in 1905 when it was given its "timbered appearance". The house was opened as a re-creation of seventeenth-century living and a tourist information centre on 6 December 1990. The former Ely Gaol is a late seventeenth-century Grade II listed building which since has been the Ely museum. From the thirteenth century, buildings on this site have been; a private house, a tavern and—since 1836 when the Bishop transferred his thirteenth-century prison from Ely Porta—the Bishop's Gaol. It was a registry office prior to becoming a museum.
The Maltings is another of Ely's distinguishing buildings. Built in 1868 as part of Ebenezer William Harlock's brewery complex, the Maltings was used to process locally grown barley into Malt for brewing. The Maltings is located on Ely's Waterside and has since left its brewing days behind. It is now a venue that hosts live events and entertainment as well as private functions such as weddings and business conferences. The Maltings is also home to the Ely-Ribe Tapestry. The Ely-Ribe Tapestry was commissioned in 2004 to mark the 50th Anniversary of the twinning of the two towns; Ely in Cambridgeshire England and Ribe in Jutland, Denmark. The designer, Ullrich described the Tapestry as "a portrait of two different cities in two different countries".
The Lamb Hotel is a Grade II listed building which is prominently situated on the corner of Lynn Road and High Street 100 yards (91 m) north of the west end of the cathedral. The hotel was erected as a coaching house on the site of the previous Lamb Inn during 1828 and 1829. At that time it had stabling for 30 horses and a lock-up for two coaches. In 1906 it had five bedrooms for the landlord, 15 rooms for lodgers, room for 15 horses and 12 vehicles. In 2007 it had 31 rooms for guests. It is claimed that an inn has existed on the site since Bishop Fordham's survey between 1416 and 1417. It is also claimed that an inn existed on the site in 1690, but no earlier.
The city's courthouse was built in 1821, being known both as Shire Hall and Sessions House. It ceased operation in 2011 as part of central government measures to close 93 magistrates' courts across England and Wales. The building was subsequently acquired by City of Ely Council in 2013 to serve as their offices and meeting place.
### Notable sites
The former Kimmeridge Clay quarry Roswell Pits, one mile (1.6 km) southwest of Ely Cathedral, is now a nature reserve and Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). The trees in Abbey Park were planted on Mount Hill in 1779 by James Bentham, a minor canon of Ely. Ely Castle once stood on Mount Hill, which was renamed Cherry Hill following the tree plantings by Bentham. The Chettisham Meadow SSSI is a medieval ridge and furrow grassland about 0.6 miles (1 km) north of the city centre. This site, one of the UK's best remaining examples of ridge and furrow agriculture, also contains protected species such as the Green-winged Orchid.
## Transport
### Rail
Ely railway station, on the Fen Line, is a major railway hub with the Cambridge to Ely section opening in 1845. Five major railway lines—excluding the former Ely and St Ives Railway—emanate from this hub: north to King's Lynn, northwest to Peterborough, east to Norwich, southeast to Ipswich and south to Cambridge and London. At the opening of the 26+1⁄2-mile (42.6 km) Lynn and Ely railway "with great éclat" on 25 October 1847, the Ely station building, completed in 1847, was described by The Illustrated London News as "an extensive pile in pleasing mixed Grecian and Italian style". The former Ely and St Ives Railway, known locally as the Grunty Fen Express, opened in 1865 but was never popular. In 1866, the 7+1⁄2-mile (12.1 km) return journey from Ely to Sutton-in-the-Isle cost two shillings, which equates to a cost of almost £ in 2023. The line closed to passengers in February 1931 and completely closed in 1964. As of December 2016, train operating companies using Ely were: Great Northern, Greater Anglia, CrossCountry and East Midlands Railway with direct trains to Cambridge, London, most of East Anglia, the Midlands and the North. There are connecting services to many other parts of England and to Scotland.
### Road
A Roman road, named Akeman Street, has been documented from Ermine Street near Wimpole through Cambridge, Stretham and Ely to Brancaster through Denver. This is not the same road as the major Roman road named Akeman Street which started from Verulamium (southwest of St Albans) then via Tring and Aylesbury terminating near Alchester. In Bishop John Fordham's survey of Ely in 1416–1417, an east to west Akermanstrete or Agemanstrete is mentioned, which now forms part of the east–west Egremont Street. Akeman Street would have been oriented north-south passing through central Ely and therefore the east–west oriented Egremont Street cannot have a Roman origin. It is suggested that the Wimpole to Brancaster road name of "Akeman" was derived by antiquarians, without justification, from Acemanes-ceastre, an ancient name for Bath.
Medieval accountant, Clement of Thetford made, or had others make on his behalf, many journeys between 1291 and 1292, as evidenced by his sacrist's rolls—the earliest known roll of the Ely Monastery. For example, he travelled the 25 miles (40 km) to Bury (Bury St Edmunds) fair to obtain rice, sugar, etc., the 16 miles (26 km) to Barnwell for wheels, axles, etc. for carts, then the 51 miles (82 km) to St Botolph's (Boston) for wine, the 14 miles (23 km) to Reche (Reach) for steel and iron and the 78 miles (126 km) to London, principally for things needed in the vestry for the service of the Church, but also to pay taxes. Some or parts of these journeys will have been made by river.
The eighteenth-century historian Edmund Carter, in his 1753 History of the County of Cambridge &c., described a thrice-weekly coach journey "for the conveniency of sending and receiving letters and small parcels" from the Lamb Inn, Ely to the post-house, Cambridge. In the 1760s, the Reverend James Bentham, an antiquarian and minor canon of Ely, encouraged the ecclesiastical authorities and townspeople of Ely to subscribe to a turnpike road between Ely and Cambridge; improvements which started in 1769. The eighteenth century London to King's Lynn coach route, documented by the Postmaster General's surveyor, John Cary, passed through Ely with a stop at the Lamb Inn, a coaching inn in 1753 and extant as the Lamb Hotel. Cary measured the distance of the London (Shoreditch) to Ely section as being 67 miles (108 km). The A142 road from Newmarket to Chatteris passes east–west, south of the town.
Ely is on the north-south A10 road from London to King's Lynn; the southwestern bypass of the town was built in 1986. A proposal for an Ely southeast bypass of the A142 is included in the major schemes of the Cambridgeshire Local Transport Plan. The proposed route would include 1.2 miles (1.9 km) of new road between new roundabout junctions on Stuntney Causeway and Angel Drove. The bypass is intended to reduce congestion in Ely, and to avoid the low bridge on the Ely to King's Lynn railway line, which has the third highest vehicle strike rate in the country. Proposals for the bypass went to public consultation in October 2011 and the County Council and District Council have announced that they may fund some of the costs of construction (estimated to be up to £28 million) with contributions from developers who wish to build a retail park near the proposed route.
The bypass, completed at £13m over budget, opened on 31 October 2018.
### River
The local rivers were historically-important transport links, but are now mainly used for leisure. The Great Ouse provides a link to the sea at King's Lynn, and the River Cam flows from Cambridge to join the Great Ouse to the south of Ely. King Cnut arrived at Ely by boat for the Purification of St Mary; "When they were approaching land [at Ely], the king rose up in the middle of his men and directed the boatmen to make for the little port at full speed". Archaeological excavations in the year 2000, between Broad Street and the present river, revealed artificially cut channels "at right-angles to the present river front" thus "evidently part of the medieval port of Ely". In 1753, Carter reports that "for the conveniency of passengers, and heavy goods to and from Cambridge" a boat left Ely every Tuesday and Friday for Cambridge; the 20-mile (32 km) journey took six hours.
## Religious sites
### Ely Cathedral
The Anglican Cathedral Church of the Holy and Undivided Trinity is known as the Ship of the Fens, a name inspired by the distant views of its towers, which dominate the low-lying wetlands known as "The Fens". The diocese of Ely was created in 1108 out of the see of Lincoln, and a year later the bishopric of Ely was founded. Construction of the cathedral was begun by William the Conqueror in 1083, with it finally opening in 1189 after 116 years. On 22 February 1322 it suffered the collapse of the crossing, which was rebuilt as an octagon. The cathedral was completed in 1351. John Wesley wrote of his 22 November 1774 visit to Ely that "the cathedral, [is] one of the most beautiful I have seen. The western tower is exceedingly grand, and the nave of an amazing height".
Ely is the nearest cathedral city to Cambridge, which lies within the same diocese. The Diocese of Ely covers 1,507 square miles (3,903 km<sup>2</sup>), 641,000 people (2011) and 335 churches. It includes the county of Cambridgeshire, except for much of Peterborough, and three parishes in the south which are in the diocese of Chelmsford. The Diocese of Ely also includes the western part of Norfolk, a few parishes in Peterborough and Essex, and one in Bedfordshire.
### Other churches
St Mary's Church, dedicated by Bishop Eustace, is an early thirteenth-century building with a c. 1300 spire and tower with eight bells. The church was heavily restored starting in 1877. The Roman Catholic Church of St. Etheldreda, in Egremont Street, dates from 1891. The Methodist chapel, in Chapel Street, was built in 1818 and was restored in 1891. The Salem Baptist chapel was erected in 1840. The Church of St Peter-in-Ely on Broad Street was built in 1890; the architect was James Piers St Aubyn and it contains a fine Ninian Comper rood screen. The Countess Free Church is part of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion. From 1566 to 1938 the parish church for Holy Trinity was the Lady Chapel of Ely Cathedral.
## Sport
Ely City F.C. was established in 1885, joined the Eastern Counties Football League in 1960, and have been members of the league's Premier Division since 2007. In the 1997–1998 season, they reached the 3rd round of the FA Vase. Ely Tigers Rugby Club currently play in the London 3: Eastern Counties Division. A short lived greyhound racing track was opened in May 1933 at the Downham Road Stadium. The racing was independent of the National Greyhound Racing Club.
The University of Cambridge rowing club has a boathouse on the bank of the river, and trains there for the annual Boat Race against the University of Oxford. In 1944 and 2021, the Boat Race took place on a course on the Great Ouse on the outskirts of Ely, moved from the River Thames due to World War II and the COVID-19 pandemic, respectively. The Isle of Ely Rowing Club was formed to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the former event.
In 1973, Ely won the international Jeux Sans Frontières competition (known in Britain as It's a Knockout!), becoming the last British town to win the title outright.
## Education
King's Ely is a coeducational boarding school which was granted a royal charter in 1541 by Henry VIII. King's Ely claims to have beginnings in the re-foundation of St Etheldreda's monastery in 970 by the Benedictine order. The wealthy sent their sons to such places to learn how to read and translate Latin texts. Edward the Confessor may have been educated at Ely between c. 1005 and 1010. "The teaching of grammar continued in the cloisters [of Ely] and this tradition was the forerunner of the Cathedral Grammar School, today known as The King's School Ely".
Needham's Charity School was founded in 1740 in Back Hill by Mrs Catherine Needham 'for the education, clothing and apprenticement of poor children'. There were originally 24 free scholars aged 9 to 14 years of age.' After a period in St Mary's Street, Needham's School relocated to a new building in Downham Road adjacent to Ely High School in 1969. The original building on Back Hill is now part of King's Ely.
The National School for boys was located in Silver Street. There was a National School for Girls in Market Street. Both National Schools received bursaries from the Parson's Charity. The Broad Street School was erected in 1858. In later years the Silver Street and Broad Street schools operated as St Mary's Junior School with one year group (Y5) in Broad Street.
The Ely High School for Girls opened in 1905 in St. Mary's Street, moving to the Downham Road site in 1957 on a large site which also housed St Audrey's Infant School which opened on 15 May 1953. In 1972 Ely High School closed when state secondary education in the area changed to the comprehensive model, the site becoming the City of Ely VIth Form College, part of Ely Community College which is currently Ely College.
In 1940 the Bishop's Palace was acquired by the Red Cross as a hospital and after the second world war it became a school, known as The Palace School, for disabled children and young people.
Education in Ely, as of 2017, includes: King's Ely; Ely College; The Lantern Community Primary School; St Mary's CofE Junior School; Isle of Ely Primary School; St John's Community Primary School and Highfield Special Academy.
## Public services
Anglian Water supplies the city's water and sewerage services from their Ely Public Water Supply. The water quality was reported as excellent in 2011. In the same report, the hardness was reported as 292 mg/L. The nearest reservoir, Grafham Water, is 21 miles (34 km) west of the city.
The distribution network operator for electricity is EDF Energy. The largest straw-burning power station in the world is at nearby Sutton. This renewable energy resource power station rated at 36.85 MW from burning biomass, nearly 25 percent of the total renewable energy reported for Cambridgeshire in 2009.
East Cambridgeshire District Council is part of the Recycling in Cambridgeshire and Peterborough (RECAP) Partnership, which was granted Beacon status for waste and recycling in 2006–07.
The Princess of Wales Hospital in the north of Ely was built during the Second World War by the Royal Air Force, and until 1993 it served nearby RAF stations including Marham, Feltwell, Lakenheath, and Mildenhall. in 1987 Diana, Princess of Wales renamed the hospital, and it is now a community hospital operated by the Lifespan Healthcare NHS trust which treats 40,000 outpatients per year. Acute cases are handled by four other hospitals in the region, including Addenbrooke's Hospital and Papworth Hospital in Cambridge, 20 miles (32 km) south of Ely.
## Notable people
The former RAF hospital based in Ely meant that many children of serving RAF parents were born in the city, including rugby union player and Rugby World Cup 2003 winning manager with England national rugby team, Clive Woodward, Australian émigrée actor Guy Pearce, and actors Sam Callis, Simon MacCorkindale and David Westhead. Autogyro world record-holder Ken Wallis was also born in Ely. Other notable people from Ely include The Sisters of Mercy singer Andrew Eldritch, journalist Chris Hunt and Margaret Tebbit. Crime writer Jim Kelly and award-winning poet Wendy Cope.
## In popular culture
Children's book Tom's Midnight Garden by Philippa Pearce is partly set in Ely and includes a scene in Ely Cathedral and scenes inspired by the author's father's own childhood experiences of skating along the frozen river from Cambridge to Ely in the frost of 1894–95. The first series of Jim Kelly's crime novels, featuring journalist Philip Dryden, is largely set in the author's home town of Ely and in the Fens. Graham Swift's 1983 novel Waterland takes place, and recounts several historical events, in and around the town of Ely.
The Tales of the Unexpected episode "The Flypaper" was filmed in Ely.
The album cover for Pink Floyd's The Division Bell was created by Storm Thorgerson with Ely as the background between two massive sculptures that he had erected outside the city.
## Freedom of the City
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Ely.
### Individuals
- Malcolm Fletcher, saxophonist with the Ely Military Band: 18 December 2017.
### Military units
- RAF Hospital Ely, 1977
- RAF Strike Command: 26 September 1987.
- 6th Battalion The Royal Anglian Regiment: 1977.
- 1094 (City of Ely) Squadron Air Training Corps: 8 October 2019
- (City of Ely Detachment) 3 (Ironside) Company Cambridgeshire Army Cadet Force: 24 June 2023.
## See also
- List of places in Cambridgeshire |
4,713,926 | New York State Route 240 | 1,153,845,008 | State highway in western New York, US | [
"State highways in New York (state)",
"Transportation in Cattaraugus County, New York",
"Transportation in Erie County, New York"
] | New York State Route 240 (NY 240) is a 51.64-mile (83.11 km) state highway in western New York in the United States. The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 242 in the Ellicottville community of Ashford Junction in northern Cattaraugus County. Its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 324 and Interstate 290 (I-290) in Amherst in northern Erie County. The route passes through the villages of Springville and Orchard Park, where it meets NY 39 and U.S. Route 20A (US 20A), respectively. Much of NY 240 between Concord and Aurora follows the west branch of Cazenovia Creek. The northern part of NY 240 in Erie County, named Harlem Road, is a major north–south route through the suburbs east of the city of Buffalo.
From its southern terminus at NY 242 to the hamlet of Glenwood in the town of Colden, NY 240 is a state highway in name only as the roadway is maintained by the highway departments of Cattaraugus and Erie counties. Within Cattaraugus County, NY 242 is co-designated as County Route 32 (CR 32). CR 32 is the only route that has a marked concurrency with a state route in the county. At the county line, it becomes County Route 198 and, later, County Route 30 before becoming state-maintained in Glenwood. A section between CR 198 and CR 30 is also designated as part of CR 27.
NY 240 was first designated in the renumbering of state highways in New York in 1930 from NY 39 in Springville to NY 18 near downtown Buffalo. The portion between Springville and Ashford was a section of NY 62 and Harlem Road was unnumbered. The section south of CR 16 in West Valley was a portion of NY 242. NY 240 instead used Abbott Road and South Park Avenue to get to Buffalo, which got extended to NY 5 in the 1930s. NY 240 was realigned south to Ellicottville in the mid-1960s, after numerous bypasses and realignments had been done by the State of New York Department of Public Works. NY 240 was realigned onto Harlem Road c. 1962. The former alignment to Buffalo is now designated as NY 950M, a reference route.
## Route description
### Cattaraugus County
NY 240 begins at an intersection with NY 242 in the town of Ellicottville along the western leg of a railroad wye near Beaver Meadows Creek. NY 240 proceeds northward alongside Beaver Meadows Creek co-designated as County Route 32 (CR 32; West Valley Road). The routes proceed northward through Ellicottville as a two-lane roadway through dense forestry, bending northward along the creek and a nearby railroad track. The dense forestry remains for several miles, before bending northeast into an intersection with Fancy Tract Road. NY 240 and CR 32 continue northeast as the dense woods retreat for residences before bending northwest away from Beaver Meadows Creek. After bending northward once more, the routes cross through large fields and past several houses along West Valley Road.
Continuing north, NY 240 and CR 32 intersect with the eastern terminus of CR 75 (Beaver Meadows Road). The routes continue winding northward, crossing the town line into the town of Ashford at Town Line Road. At that junction, the routes bend northwest again, passing a stretch of residences before intersecting with the western terminus of CR 16 (Roszyk Hill Road). At CR 16, NY 240 and CR 32 bend north, becoming a residential street as it enters the hamlet of West Valley. In West Valley, the routes intersect with the terminus of CR 53 (Ashford Hill Road).
Through West Valley, the route remains residential, quickly leaving the hamlet. North of West Valley, NY 240 and CR 32 intersect with the eastern terminus of CR 86 (Thornwood Drive). Crossing through another long stretch of residences, the routes cross a railroad track at-grade, where they turn to the northwest, paralleling the tracks until turning north and away once again. NY 240 and CR 32 bend northwest at Fox Valley Road, intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR 86-2 (Buttermilk Road) and the eastern terminus of CR 55 (Gooseneck Road) in Ashford. After CR 55, the routes bend northwest once again, crossing as a two-lane road through wide fields.
At Twichell Road, NY 240 and CR 32 make a large bend to the west, crossing through Ashford before turning northeast and northwest. On the northwestern stretch, the route remains rural, crossing an intersection with Bond Road, where the route turns north along West Valley Road. NY 240 and CR 32 continue north through Ashford, intersecting with Beech Tree Road, where they cross Cattaraugus Creek just west of the Bigelow Bridge. After crossing the bridge, NY 240 enters Erie County and the town of Concord.
### Erie County
#### Concord to Glenwood
Upon crossing into Erie County and the town of Concord, NY 240 remains county-maintained, now co-designated as unsigned CR 198. Now known as South Vaughn Street, the route proceeds northwest, intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR 62 (Cattaraugus Road). After this junction, NY 240 and CR 198 wind northeast through Concord as a two-lane rural road. The route bends northward, entering the village of Springville, where it intersects with NY 39 (East Main Street / Creek Road). After Springville, NY 240 and CR 198 re-enter the town of Concord, returning the two-lane rural roadway it was prior to entering Springville. Intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR 412 (North Street), the routes continue north through Concord, intersecting with CR 410 (Middle Road).
NY 240 and CR 198 continue northward as a two-lane rural roadway in Concord, remaining with the moniker of Vaughn Street. More residences parallel the routes as they continue northward, entering a five-way intersection with CR 49, CR 490 (Genesee Road) and CR 432 (Sibley Road). This intersection serves as the northern terminus as CR 198, while NY 240 proceeds northeast as CR 27, now under the moniker of Allen Road. A short distance later, NY 240 intersects forks to the northwest on CR 30 as Glenwood–East Concord Road while CR 27 continues northeast on Allen Road. NY 240 and CR 30 proceed northward through Concord, soon bending northwest through dense fields before returning to railroad tracks nearby.
Crossing over the west branch of Cazenovia Creek, NY 240 and CR 30 continue north through Concord, bending northwest into an intersection with CR 563 (Foote Road). The routes bend northward through the hamlet of Footes, paralleling the creek and railroad track before entering the town of Colden. In Colden, NY 240 and CR 30 become a two-lane residential street surrounded by dense woods in the nearby hills. After another bend to the northwest, the routes enter the hamlet of Glenwood. In Glenwood, NY 240 intersects with the western terminus of CR 240 (Holland–Glenwood Road), which doubles as the northern terminus of CR 30, as NY 240 is state-maintained north of this junction.
#### Glenwood to Orchard Park
Paralleling the railroad tracks, NY 240 winds northwest through Colden as State Road, a two-lane road through dense woods. The woods changeover to wide fields as it winds northwest, passing west of Walter Kummer Town Park before entering the hamlet of Colden. In the hamlet, NY 240 intersects with the termini of CR 222 (Boston–Colden Road) and CR 562 (Heath Road). After this intersection, NY 240 darts several directions while winding northward as a two-lane residential street through the town of Colden. At the junction with CR 400 (Knapp Road), the route changes names to Davis Road before winding northeast into the hamlet of West Falls. Now in the town of Aurora, NY 240 runs along the creek as Davis Road, intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR 372 (Behm Road).
Continuing north through Aurora, NY 240 runs along the creek as a two-lane road, entering the hamlet of Jewettville. In Jewettville, the western terminus of CR 47 (Mill Road) intersects the residential NY 240. A short distance to the north, NY 240 turns west on Ellicott Road, remaining the two-lane residential road through the town of Aurora. After crossing the railroad tracks again, the route enters the hamlet of Loveland, within the town of Orchard Park. The route runs westward for several miles, intersecting with the northern terminus of CR 442 (Cole Road). Just west of CR 442, NY 240 enters a junction with CR 369 (South Freeman Road) and CR 371 (Scherff Road).
At this junction, NY 240 bends straight northwest, crossing through Orchard Park as a two-lane residential road. After Philson Street, the route makes a short bend to the west, intersecting with NY 277 (Chestnut Ridge Road). The right-of-way of NY 240 continues west as New Armor–Duells Road, reaching US 219 (the Southern Expressway) a short distance later. NY 240 turns north on a concurrency with NY 277, proceeding northeast through Orchard Park. After changing monikers to South Buffalo Street, NY 240 and NY 277 pass west of the Orchard Park Country Club and cross over a railroad line. After the railroad tracks, the routes enter downtown Orchard Park, becoming a two-lane commercial street before intersecting with US 20A (Quaker Street) in the center of the village.
#### Orchard Park to West Seneca
North of US 20A, NY 240 and NY 277 continue north along North Buffalo Road, intersecting with the eastern terminus of CR 177 (New Taylor Road). Crossing through the hamlet of Websters Corners, NY 240 and NY 277 bend northwest, intersecting with CR 369 once again. After another northward stint, the two routes intersect with CR 460 (Milestrip Road), which is the eastern continuation of NY 179. Now known as Orchard Park Road, NY 240 and NY 277 proceed north past residential homes as it intersects with US 20 (Southwestern Boulevard) and CR 200 (Lake Avenue).
Continuing north from US 20, NY 277 forks to the north along Union Road, while NY 240 proceeds northwest along Orchard Park Road. For a short distance, NY 240 serves as a two-lane commercial boulevard, switching over to a residential street at Dover Drive. Now in the town of West Seneca, NY 240 retains its Orchard Park Road moniker, passing several condominium complexes on both sides of the highway. Paralleling Cazenovia Creek once again, NY 240 enters another commercial section, intersecting with CR 137 (Ridge Road). Proceeding northwest again, NY 240 then crosses over a former railroad grade and a current railroad alignment near several industrial buildings.
At the intersection with Slade Avenue, NY 240 and Orchard Park Road turn north at Slade Road, which connects to the New York State Thruway's exit 55 at CR 137. NY 240 proceeds north through West Seneca, passing several residences and businesses before crossing over Cazenovia Creek into a large residential district. In this large residential district, NY 240 intersects with NY 16, which connects to NY 400 (Aurora Expressway) a short distance to the east. NY 240 proceeds north as Harlem Road, paralleling the New York State Thruway just past exit 54, which serves as the northern terminus of NY 400. Crossing under NY 400, NY 240 crosses over more railroad tracks and intersects with CR 109 (Indian Church Road).
#### West Seneca to Amherst
Proceeding north through West Seneca, NY 240 proceeds north, crossing an intersection with CR 534 (Mineral Springs Road). At this junction, the residential street turns over to commercial as NY 240 crosses over Buffalo Creek just west of the mouth of Cayuga Creek. After crossing over Buffalo Creek, NY 240 enters the town of Cheektowaga. In Cheektowaga, NY 240 immediately intersects with NY 354 (Clinton Street) before bending northeast around exit 53 of the Thruway. Just northeast of exit 53, NY 240 crosses under the Thruway mainline, intersecting with the western terminus of CR 315 (Dingens Street).
North of CR 315, NY 240 runs north through a large residential section of Cheektowaga, passing houses on both sides of the road for six blocks, including a junction with CR 207 (William Street). Passing just east of the village of Sloan, NY 240 proceeds northward along Harlem Road over a railroad yard owned by CSX Transportation. After crossing over the yard, NY 240 enters an interchange with NY 130 (Broadway) via two ramps. After crossing over NY 130, NY 240 crosses over another railroad yard, passing several large industries near an intersection with Walden Avenue. NY 240 continues north through Cheektowaga, remaining a two-lane residential boulevard, passing east of Cheektowaga Town Park.
After crossing an intersection with Genesee Street, NY 240 continues north through Cheektowaga, passing east of Buffalo Cemetery and west of Pine Lawn Cemetery. A short distance north, the route passes east of Ridge Lawn Cemetery, crossing under NY 33 (the Kensington Expressway). Near the underpass, NY 240 intersects with several ramps from the expressway. After NY 33, the route passes east of Mount Calvary Cemetery before entering a large residential neighborhood. Continuing north through Cheektowaga, NY 240 becomes a two-lane residential street, intersecting with CR 141 (Cleveland Drive) at a rotary. Continuing northward, NY 240 enters the town of Amherst, where it enters two more rotaries, with CR 290 (Wehrle Drive) and CR 208 (Kensington Avenue).
NY 240 continues north through Amherst as a two-lane residential boulevard with the Harlem Road moniker. The route remains residential for several blocks, intersecting with NY 5 (Main Street). Passing east of the hamlet of Snyder, NY 240 passes several commercial businesses before becoming residential again north of that junction. The route remains residential for a distance to the intersection with Campus Lane, where it enters exit 6 of I-290 (the Youngmann Expressway). A block to the north of I-290, NY 240 intersects with NY 324 (Sheridan Drive). This intersection serves as the northern terminus of NY 240.
## History
NY 240 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to an alignment extending from NY 39 east of Springville to NY 18 southeast of downtown Buffalo. Instead of turning north onto Harlem Road as it does today, NY 240 continued northwest on Potter and Abbott Roads to South Park Avenue (then NY 18). At the time, the portion of modern NY 240 south of Cattaraugus Street in Springville was designated as part of NY 62 while the portion south of CR 16 in West Valley was also part of NY 242. NY 242 was moved onto its modern routing between Ashford and Machias by the following year while NY 62 was mostly renumbered to NY 75 c. 1932.
US 219 was extended into New York c. 1935, overlapping NY 75 between Ashford and Springville. The overlap with NY 75 was eliminated by 1940 when NY 75 was truncated northward to US 62 in Hamburg. In the mid-1950s, US 219 was shifted westward onto a new highway between Ellicottville and Springville; however, NY 240 was not extended south to Ashford over its former routing until the mid-1960s. In the Buffalo area, NY 240 was extended northwestward along South Park Avenue to Main Street, which carried NY 5 at the time, in the late 1930s. It was altered c. 1962 to follow Harlem Road across Cazenovia Creek to Seneca Street, where it ended at NY 16. NY 240 was extended northward along Harlem Road to NY 324 in Amherst in the mid-1960s. The portion of NY 240's former routing on Potter Road between the Buffalo city line and Harlem Road is now NY 950M, an unsigned reference route.
On July 6, 2014, the New York State Department of Transportation announced the extension of the Western New York Southtowns Scenic Byway, a scenic byway through Erie County from Orchard Park to Springville, into Cattaraugus County. The new extension would involve US 219 from NY 39 in Springville to the Great Valley town line and NY 240 down to NY 39 and NY 242.
## Major intersections
## See also
- List of county routes in Cattaraugus County, New York
- List of county routes in Erie County, New York |
686,131 | Twilight (Star Trek: Enterprise) | 1,157,551,518 | null | [
"2003 American television episodes",
"Star Trek time travel episodes",
"Star Trek: Enterprise (season 3) episodes"
] | "Twilight" is the eighth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise, originally broadcast on November 5, 2003. It was the sixtieth episode of the series overall. It was written by co-producer Michael Sussman, and directed by former Star Trek: Voyager actor Robert Duncan McNeill.
Set in the 22nd century, the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise, registration NX-01. In this episode, following an accident, Captain Jonathan Archer's (Scott Bakula) long term memory is affected and he is relieved of duty. The crew of the Enterprise subsequently fail to stop the Xindi attack on Earth resulting in the remnants of the human race resettling another planet. Dr Phlox (John Billingsley) finds a way of curing Archer in the past, in the hope that it would undo everything since the Captain was originally injured.
The episode and script was praised by Bakula during the shoot, which required the actors and sets to be aged to appear older in later time frames. Production was suspended for a day following the death (at home) of first assistant director Jerry Fleck, who was in pre-production on the next planned episode, "North Star", which subsequently resulted in crew changes on "Twilight". References in the episode were made to locations previously mentioned in the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Space Seed" and the film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. On first broadcast, "Twilight" was watched by 3.88 million viewers, more than the following episode. The critical response was positive.
## Plot
While rescuing Sub-Commander T'Pol from a spatial anomaly, Captain Archer is infected by subspace parasites in his cerebral cortex, resulting in anterograde amnesia. His condition prevents him from forming new long-term memories. This allows him to remember everything prior to the accident, but any new memories fade within a few hours. It soon becomes clear that Archer is not fit for duty, and he is subsequently relieved of his command. T'Pol is granted a field commission to Captain, but the mission fails and Earth, alongside every other human colony, is destroyed by the Xindi weapon. The few surviving humans form a convoy, led by the Enterprise, which travels to the planet Ceti Alpha V.
Twelve years pass and Archer, still plagued by memory loss, lives with T'Pol in a house on the colony. She has given up her career to care for him. They are visited by Doctor Phlox, who has finally engineered a cure after years of research. He also discovers that when the subspace radiation treatments kill one of the parasite clusters in Archer's brain, it also vanishes from every other previous medical scan – as if the parasite had never existed. Therefore, since Archer will never have been infected, he would have remained Captain and possibly prevented the chain of events that led to Earth's destruction.
Unfortunately, the ship, now captained by Captain Tucker, is observed and attacked by Xindi vessels before the treatments can be completed. The Enterprise is outnumbered and heavily damaged and the entire bridge crew are killed. Phlox, T'Pol, and Archer race to create a subspace implosion to kill the parasites. As their procedure nears completion, Phlox, T'Pol and Archer himself are wounded by Xindi invaders but Archer manages to complete the procedure. The ship is destroyed in the subspace implosion, but their plan works and the subspace parasites are also destroyed by the implosion, and wiped out through time. The timeline is reset; Archer is in sickbay recovering from a physical injury but will never develop the amnesia he originally suffered.
## Production
"Twilight" was written by Enterprise co-producer Mike Sussman, who had previously pitched the story as an episode of Star Trek:Voyager during season seven of that series. Sussman said that his story was inspired by the notion "that someone with Alzheimer's disease, in some ways, could be thought of as a time-traveller..." The Voyager producers chose not to buy Sussman's earlier pitch, which would have featured a time-crossed romance between Captain Janeway and First Officer Chakotay. Sussman ultimately sold the story to the producers of Enterprise, who said they would have preferred filming and airing the episode closer to the end of the season and the conclusion of the Xindi story arc, but had to produce it earlier as there were no scripts available to replace it.
"Twilight" was directed by Robert Duncan McNeill, his third directing credit for the series following "Cold Front" and "The Breach". McNeill had previously starred in Star Trek: Voyager as Tom Paris. McNeill was interviewed for the magazine Star Trek Monthly shortly after reading the script for "Twilight" for the first time. He explained that after reading it, he said "Holy crap how are we going to do that?" He explained that the episode would see the Enterprise destroyed but wasn't yet sure how they were going to film certain sequences such as the roof being blown off the bridge and the crew being sucked out into space.
Filming on the episode began on September 10, 2003, the same day as the airing of the season three premiere episode, "The Xindi". Production ran through to September 17. Production was suspended for a day on 8 September following the death of first assistant director Jerry Fleck over the preceding weekend. Fleck had been in pre-production for the following episode "North Star". Following the death of Fleck, the first assistant director on "Twilight", Michael DeMeritt, moved on to working on "North Star" and Arlene Fukai took over on "Twilight".
Whilst filming the episode, Bakula described it as "potentially the best script we've had and the best show to date". He found it hard to describe, saying it involved "time travel into the future, parasites in my hippocampus, and Xindi and subspace implosions". In order to represent the changes in time frames throughout the episodes, several of the cast were required to have their make-up adjusted between scenes. This included adding grey make-up to the dog actor who portrayed Archer's dog, Porthos, but the scene was cut from the final broadcast. Costume changes were made to represent promotions granted to the characters over the changes in time periods. These included Bakula who wore a wig during the later time periods shown in the episode. The wig he wore had originally been created for Gary Graham in his role as Ambassador Soval. The sets on the Enterprise were dressed to represent ongoing wear and tear.
During the shoot of the previous episode, "The Shipment", director David Straiton wore a suit and tie on the final day of shooting, something that Bakula described as being out of character. After McNeill heard about Straiton, he sought to outdo his fellow director. So instead, he arrived on the final day of shooting for "Twilight" wearing the uniform he wore as Tom Paris in Star Trek: Voyager. He hoped this would cheer the cast and crew up after a week of working on such a somber episode.
Guest stars included Gary Graham in his sixth appearance as Ambassador Soval, he filmed for one day and appeared in two scenes. Brett Rickaby made a guest appearance as Yedrin Ross. Rickaby had previously appeared in the television series Carnivàle. Richard Anthony Crenna was also credited in this episode as a security guard on board the Enterprise. "Twilight" contained references to the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Space Seed" and the associated film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. These references included the survivors of humanity settling on Ceti Alpha V, the planet that Khan Noonien Singh and his followers were exiled to in "Space Seed" and escaped from in Wrath of Khan; Sussman chose this new homeworld as a "cruel joke", since the planet would become all but uninhabitable within a hundred years. Reference is also made to the Mutara Nebula, where the climactic battle occurred between Captain James T. Kirk and Khan.
## Ratings
"Twilight" first aired on November 5, 2003 on UPN. The episode received a Nielsen rating of 2.6/4%. This means the episode was seen by 2.6 percent of all television-equipped households, and four percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast. This was the same rating as the following episode, "North Star." These figures placed "Twilight" sixth in the time slot based on the Nielsen ratings, and fifth in the number of viewers.
## Reception
"Twilight" proved to be one of the most popular episodes of the series with reviewers and with fans. As Enterprise was nearing the end of its first-run airings on UPN, the episode was chosen as the "#1 Fan Favorite Episode" in a Viewer's Choice poll at UPN.com, and rebroadcast in that context on April 8, 2005. In November of that year, readers of Star Trek Magazine selected the episode as one of the Top Five episodes of the series. The guidebook Star Trek 101 named "Twilight" as one of the "Ten Essential Episodes" from Star Trek: Enterprise when it was published in 2008, while The Washington Post noted that "Twilight" was Enterprise's "highest rated episode" in their analysis of ratings from the Internet Movie Database in 2014.
Critic Stephanie V.W. Lucianovic at Television Without Pity, aka "Keckler," said that the episode will "get your Heart of Khan pumping with righteous Trekkie excitement," adding that the producers have "come up with something amazing that is completely, unabashedly, and unreservedly worthy of high praise." She gave the episode a grade of A+.
Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website Jammer's Reviews wrote, "if I were a cynic I might say that I've already seen elsewhere most of what 'Twilight' has to offer." He wrote that the episode's dark alternate future bore similarities to the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Yesterday's Enterprise", and that Archer's memory issues were analogous to those in the film Memento. Epsicokhan also suggested that the flashback sequences were similar to the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "The Visitor", but was a "substantially less poignant take on hypothetical material". Nevertheless, he said that the episode "repackages the material well, plausibly ties it into the current Enterprise story arc," and has "something for everyone," with an "apocalyptic" action storyline tied in to an "intimate character story that works in its own right." He gave the episode a score of three and a half out of four.
Reviewer James Michael Kozak on Ain't It Cool News, aka "Hercules Strong," said that the storyline "cribs shamelessly" from a number of episodes in the Star Trek franchise, including the Voyager installments "Year of Hell" and "Endgame", as well as The Next Generation's "Yesterday's Enterprise" and "All Good Things...", but added that "this [episode] remained just different enough for me to kind of love it." Kozak wrote that the episode presented the viewer "a very real sense of what is at stake in this bizarre conflict with the Xindi" for the first time, and that he was "moved" by the evolution of T'Pol's relationship with Archer. He gave the episode four out of five stars.
Writer Darren Mooney at The M0vie Blog.com says that "'Twilight' is a surprisingly affecting love story, one that uses a science-fiction premise to capture a very human situation." He added that, "Mike Sussman is a writer with a very clear fascination and engagement with continuity and consistency... ['Twilight'] is a beautiful and thoughtful piece of Star Trek, an absolute triumph."
Blogger J.P. Halt at his website Random Musings rated the episode 10/10, writing, "Mike Sussman, who is arguably the show's best writer, has crafted a very smart script." Halt added: "Overall, this is probably the best 'reset button' episode the Trek franchise ever crafted. It's one of a very small handful of outstanding Enterprise episodes, and a contender for the series' best."
"Mike Sussman's script for 'Twilight' is an intriguing piece of work," writes Matthew Kresal at WarpedFactor.com. He adds, "It's also a turning point for Enterprise as a whole and was the first sign of what the series might be capable of. On its own it stands out as one of Star Trek best alternate timeline episodes and rightfully so."
Critic "Ex Deus" at TrekWeb.com gave the episode 9.5 out of 10 stars, saying "Scott Bakula gives one of his best performances as Archer. In 2015, WhatCulture ranked it as one of the "30 Best Star Trek Episodes Of All Time," saying that, "like many great episodes of Trek in the past, 'Twilight' had something interesting to talk about and did it exceptionally well... doing it within the confines of a mesmerizing character piece between Archer and T'Pol."
In 2014, io9 ranked "Twilight" as the 33rd best episode of Star Trek, out of the more than 700 made by that time. In 2021, The Digital Fix said this was the best episode in season 3.
Executive producer Manny Coto called "Twilight" the best episode of Enterprise's season 3.
## Home media release
The first home media release of "Twilight" was as part of the season three DVD box set, released in the United States on September 27, 2005. It subsequently became one of three Enterprise episodes to be included in the Star Trek: Alternative Realities Collective DVD set which was released in 2009. The other episodes were "E2" and "In a Mirror, Darkly", and also featured were other mirror universe installments including "Mirror, Mirror" and three of those from Deep Space Nine. The Blu-ray release of the third season of Enterprise took place on January 7, 2014. The Blu-Ray has a surround sound 5.1 DTS-HD Master Audio track for English, as well as German, French, and Japanese audio tracks in Dolby audio.
## Music
Jay Chattaway's music for the episode was released as part of the four disc Star Trek: Enterprise Collection on December 2, 2014, including the orchestral pieces: |
21,901,349 | National symbols of the Philippines | 1,165,562,187 | Overview of the national symbols of the Philippines | [
"National symbols of the Philippines",
"Philippine culture"
] | The national symbols of the Philippines consist of symbols that represent Philippine traditions and ideals and convey the principles of sovereignty and national solidarity of the Filipino people. Some of these symbols namely the national flag, the Great Seal, the coat of arms and the national motto are stated in the Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines, which is also known as Republic Act 8491. In the Constitution of the Philippines, the Filipino language is stated as the national language of the Philippines. Aside from those stated symbols in the Constitution and in Republic Act 8491, there are only six official national symbols of the Philippines enacted through law, namely sampaguita as national flower, narra as national tree, the Philippine eagle as national bird, Philippine pearl as national gem, arnis as national martial art and sport and the Filipino Sign Language as the national sign language. Thus, there is a total of twelve official national symbols passed through Philippine laws.
There are symbols such as the carabao (national animal), mango (national fruit) and anahaw (national leaf) that are widely known as national symbols but have no laws recognizing them as official national symbols. Even Jose Rizal, who is widely considered a national hero, has not been declared officially as a national hero in any existing Philippine law according to historical experts. Although in 2003, Benigno Aquino Jr. was officially declared by the President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo as a national hero by an executive order. A National Artist of the Philippines is a rank or a title given to a Filipino citizen in recognition to the recipient's contributions to Philippine arts and letters and they are not considered a national symbol that represents traditions and ideals.
Through the years, there were attempts to make those traditional symbols official. One of them is House Bill 3926, a bill proposed on February 17, 2014, by Bohol First District Representative Rene Relampagos of the Philippine House of Representatives that sought to declare, re-declare or recognize a number of national symbols. House Bill 3926 ("Philippine National Symbols Act of 2014"), aimed to encourage nationalism and unity; to guarantee respect, preservation and promotion of national symbols; and to correct the "unofficial" status of the symbols. Among the national symbols listed in the measure are Jose Rizal as the only historical Filipino to be recognized as national hero, adobo as national food and jeepney as national vehicle. It also includes the previous official national symbols, which were eleven during the filing of the bill. As of February 2014, the bill is still pending with the Committee on Revision Laws of the House of Representatives and is not yet a law that would make the proposed symbols as official national symbols.
## Development of the symbols
The Republic Act (RA) 8491, also known as Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines, stipulates the code for national flag, anthem, motto, coat-of-arms and other heraldic items and devices of the Philippines. According to Article XIV Section 6 of the Constitution of the Philippines, the national language of the Philippines is Filipino. Apart from RA 8491 and the Constitution, the Philippines has only six official national symbols enacted either through a proclamation by the executive department or through a Republic Act by the legislative department, namely sampaguita, narra, the Philippine eagle, the Philippine pearl, arnis and the Filipino Sign Language.
In 1934, during the Commonwealth era, Governor-General Frank Murphy declared sampaguita and narra as national flower and national tree, respectively, through Proclamation No. 652. Philippine President Fidel Ramos proclaimed the Philippine eagle as the national bird in 1995 through Proclamation No. 615. Ramos also declared the South Sea Pearl or Philippine Pearl as the national gem in 1996 through Proclamation No. 905. In 2009, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo declared arnis as the national sport and martial art through Republic Act 9850. On October 30, 2018, President Rodrigo Duterte signed Republic Act No. 11106, a law declaring the Filipino Sign Language as the national sign language of the Filipino deaf and the official sign language of the Philippine government involving communications to the deaf.
### Making a national symbol official
A Philippine national symbol will be considered official once it is declared through a law or a proclamation. National symbols such as the cariñosa, carabao, bangus (milkfish), and anahaw (footstool palm) that are circulating through various sources have no official status and have not established by law. According to Nestor Castro, a Filipino cultural anthropologist, most of these unofficial symbols were passed on as tradition in schools every start of the school year when students were asked to buy posters containing the supposed national symbols. While official national symbols are declared through law, Castro and National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP) Section Chief Teodoro Atienza considered that the public must be consulted first before declaration of national symbol.
### Pending and vetoed laws
Throughout the history of legislation in the Philippines, attempts were made to expand the list of official national symbols. In February 2013, the Philippine Senate passed a bill declaring waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana) as the national flower alongside Sampaguita. A similar bill in the House of Representatives had already been passed in 2012. Normally, the bill would become law after being signed by the President. However, it was vetoed by President Benigno Aquino III. The veto did not grant the waling-waling as the second national flower due to the confusion that it would create.
A year later, on February 17, 2014, Representative Rene Relampagos, a congressman from the First District of Bohol, introduced a legislation in the Philippine House of Representatives that sought to declare, re-declare or recognize a number of national symbols. House Bill 3926 or the "Philippine National Symbols Act of 2014" aimed to encourage nationalism and unity; to guarantee respect, preservation and promotion of national symbols; and to correct the "unofficial" status of the symbols. It listed 26 symbols including the previous eleven official national symbols. The bill is not yet a law that would make those symbols official because it is still pending with the House of Representatives' Committee on Revision Laws as of February 2014.
In February 2016, the House of Representatives approved on final reading of House Bill 6366, which declared the ancient boat balangay as the national boat of the Philippines. In April 2018, the House Committee on Basic Education and Culture approved House Bill 1022, seeking to declare baybayin, a pre-Hispanic writing system used in the Philippines, as the country's national writing system. As of 2019, both legislation are still unresolved as Senate concurrence and a presidential signature is pending.
### Filipinos as national symbol
According to the NHCP Section Chief Teodoro Atienza, and Filipino historian Ambeth Ocampo, there is no Filipino historical figure officially declared national hero through law or executive order. Although, there were laws and proclamations honoring Filipino heroes. In the Rizal Law principally sponsored by Claro M. Recto and enacted in 1956, Jose Rizal is mentioned as a national hero in the "whereas" clause of the law. Although, "whereas" clauses function as a preamble or introduction and it is not part of the provisions. On November 15, 1995, the Technical Committee of the National Heroes Committee, created through Executive Order No. 5 by former President Fidel Ramos, recommended nine Filipino historical figures to be National Heroes: Jose Rizal, Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Aguinaldo, Apolinario Mabini, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Sultan Dipatuan Kudarat, Juan Luna, Melchora Aquino, and Gabriela Silang. No action has been taken for these recommended National Heroes until it was revisited in one of the proceedings of the 14th Congress in 2009.
On August 3, 2009, shortly after the death of former President Corazon Aquino, widow of Benigno Aquino Jr., legislative measures have been filed calling for her official recognition as a national hero. Congresswoman Liwayway Vinzons-Chato filed a house resolution declaring Corazon Aquino a national hero. Although, a week after she filed the resolution, she realized that there is no Filipino historical figure declared through law. On August 10, 2009, she cited on her privilege speech in Congress the nine Filipino heroes recommended by National Heroes Committee in 1995. She then urge Congress to sign the resolutions declaring the nine Filipinos recommended by the National Heroes Committee plus Benigno Aquino Jr. and Corazon Aquino as national heroes. Congressman Salvador Escudero interpellated Vinzons-Chato's speech and stated that heroes are made in the hearts and minds of people and not through legislation. After the interpellation, it was moved by House of Representatives to refer the privilege speech of Vinzons-Chato to the Committee of Basic Education and Culture.
In 2013, Bayan Muna Congressmen Neri Colmenares and Carlos Isagani Zarate filed House Bill 3431 aiming to declare Andres Bonifacio as National Hero due to his actual participation in the Philippine Revolution against Spain. Another measure filed by Congressman Rene Relampagos from Bohol in February 2014 sought to declare Jose Rizal as the sole Filipino national hero. According to the bill, he was a nationalist and well known for his Philippine reforms advocacy during the Spanish colonial era.
Filipinos awarded with the rank or title National Artist of the Philippines are not considered to be national symbols because the title is given in recognition to the recipient's contributions to Philippine arts and letters and not as a symbol that represents traditions and ideals and convey the principles of sovereignty and national solidarity.
Despite declaration from historical experts that there is no historical person declared as a national hero, in 2003, an executive order by then President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo officially declared Beningno Aquino Jr. as one of the national heroes according to a news report by The Philippine Star. The recognition of Rizal and Bonifactio as national heroes is considered implied due to laws declaring their heroism according to NHCP.
## List of national symbols
### Official
Here are the list of national symbols totaling to twelve and excluding national heroes that were enacted through Philippine law.
### Unofficial
Here are the lists of national symbols that have no official status.
#### From failed and proposed laws
- The following individuals were recommended by the Technical Committee of the National Heroes Committee as national heroes:
- Emilio Aguinaldo
- Melchora Aquino
- Andrés Bonifacio
- Marcelo H. del Pilar
- Sultan Dipatuan Kudarat
- Juan Luna
- Apolinario Mabini
- José Rizal
- Gabriela Silang
- The review by the Technical Committee of National Heroes was revisited during the 14th Congress at the House of Representatives. In a resolution, a congresswoman added the following two historical figures to the nine heroes declared by the National Heroes Committee, making the total to eleven national heroes. This was referred to a Congressional Committee and remains unresolved.
- Rizal and Bonifacio are considered implied national heroes according to NHCP.
- In August 2009, a bill called for official recognition of Corazon Aquino's as a national hero. In 2003, Benigno Aquino Jr., was already officially declared as one of the national heroes by then President Gloria Arroyo through an executive order according to the news report by The Philippine Star.
- Waling-waling as national flower; passed by Congress in 2013 but was vetoed by the President Benigno Aquino III.
- In 2013, House Bill 3431 was filed declaring Andres Bonifacio as national hero.
- The following were proposed as national symbols as per House Bill 3926 by Congressman Rene Relampagos. (The bill also includes the then eleven official symbols, which are not in the following list.)
- Adobo as national food
- Anahaw as national leaf
- Bakya as national slippers
- Bangus as national fish
- Barong and Baro't saya as national costume
- "Bayan Ko" as national song
- Carabao as national animal
- Cariñosa as national dance
- Jeepney as national vehicle
- Jose Rizal as national hero
- Malacañang Palace as national seat of government
- Mango as national fruit
- Manila as national capital
- Nipa hut (bahay kubo) as national house
- Philippine peso as national currency
- The House of Representatives has approved on third and final reading of House Bill 6366, declaring the balangay as the national boat.
- The House of Representatives has approved House Bill 1022, declaring the baybayin as the national writing system.
#### From various sources
- Juan de la Cruz – as national personification (symbolizing the Filipino people)
- Lechon and sinigang as national food
- Sipa as national sport
- Tinikling as national dance |
70,373,234 | Hanna Cavinder | 1,172,681,270 | American social media personality and former basketball player (born 2001) | [
"2001 births",
"American TikTokers",
"American podcasters",
"American women podcasters",
"American women's basketball players",
"Basketball players from Arizona",
"Basketball players from South Bend, Indiana",
"Fresno State Bulldogs women's basketball players",
"Guards (basketball)",
"Living people",
"Miami Hurricanes women's basketball players",
"Sportspeople from Gilbert, Arizona"
] | Hanna Cavinder (born January 13, 2001) is an American social media personality and former college basketball player who last played for the Miami Hurricanes of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC). She began her college career at Fresno State, where she was a two-time All-Mountain West Conference (MWC) selection and a MWC All-Freshman Team selection. Prior to collegiate basketball she was the Arizona 5A Offensive Player of the Year as a senior for Gilbert High School where she played with her fraternal twin, Haley, and elder sister Brandi.
Cavinder and her fraternal twin and teammate, Haley, have a large social media following and share social media accounts on platforms such as TikTok where they have millions of followers. They are leading figures in college sports endorsements, signing name, image and likeness (NIL) deals with several companies, including Boost Mobile and WWE, and co-founding the clothing company Baseline Team.
## Early life
Cavinder was born in South Bend, Indiana, on January 13, 2001, one minute after and one pound (454 g) lighter than her twin sister, Haley. The family moved to the Phoenix area by the twins' age 3. The twins often opted for basketball time in the driveway instead of Sesame Street time before going to preschool, even though they had no hoop assembly and just did YouTube drills. They tried many sports in their early years before focusing on basketball and emulating Skylar Diggins-Smith in junior high. The twins were adventurous athletes from a young age and competed against boys in basketball until sixth grade. When they joined a girls' team in middle school, they competed with and against girls a few years older. In club basketball, they participated in 15–17 age competition as sixth graders. They got their first scholarship offers before their freshman season from San Diego.
## High School
Gilbert High School had not had much recent success. From 2010–11 to 2013–14, Gilbert won single digit games. The 2014–15 team went 13–15 and won its first round playoff game (as a 21 seed). With the twins as the leading scorers each season, Gilbert had winning records and reached at least the state quarterfinals each of the first three seasons.
When the twins entered Gilbert as freshmen in 2015, elder sister Brandi transferred to join them as a junior after previously being basketball teammates with eldest sister Brooke at Campo Verde. While Hanna (14.5 ppg) and Haley (13 ppg) were the mid-season scoring leaders on the team, Brandi was a role player who played every game, but only averaged 1.7 ppg. The pregame Gilbert starting lineup announcement was presented in numerical order as follows: "At guard, No. 0, a 5-6 freshman, Hanna Cavinder...At guard, No. 1, a 5-6 freshman, Haley Cavinder...At forward, No. 2, a 5-5 junior, Brandi Cavinder..." A December 8, 2015, 56–53 loss to Millennium High School dropped Gilbert to a 4–5 record. Then, a players-only 2-hour meeting sparked a 12–5 stretch and a 16–10 record by mid February. Hamilton High School eliminated Gilbert in the 2016 Division I quarterfinals. Gilbert was eliminated by Millennium in the 2017 state semifinals.
Gilbert lost the 2018 class 6A state semifinal to Valley Vista High School. They finished with a 26–4 record. As a junior, she received an honorable mention when the 2018 American Family Insurance All-USA Arizona High School Girls Basketball Player of the Year finalists (including her sister) were named. Hanna was considering attending Boston University, San Diego, Loyola Marymount, and Santa Clara before signing with Fresno State. The twins sacrificed their junior and senior proms for club basketball activities.
Although she entered her 2018–19 senior season as an American Family Insurance All-USA Arizona preseason girls basketball team selection along with her sister, Haley, her role was to drive and score so as to keep teams from double teaming her sister. Hanna played point guard and shooting guard interchangeably with twin Haley. As a senior, Cavinder contributed to an explosive Gilbert offense and defense that had a half dozen 50+-point margins of victory before mid-January, including a 96–2 victory over Betty H. Fairfax High School. In a December 14, 2018, 50–44 loss to number-one-ranked (among Class 5A in AZ) Millennium High School, Hanna was held to a season-low 4 points. In the February 18, 2019, class 5A girls 68–52 semifinal victory against Horizon High School, Hanna contributed 17 points, 8 rebounds and 6 assists. In the 2019 class 5A girls state-championship game rematch loss to Millennium, Hanna led Gilbert in 13 points, 5 rebounds and 5 assists. According to the East Valley Tribune, following the game, Cavinder's career point total of 2,179 was within 100 of her sister's. Gilbert finished the season 25–6.
## College
Cavinder's 23-point, 5-assist, 5-steal, 4-rebound debut performance against set a Fresno State record for most points in a freshman debut. As a freshman for Fresno State, she twice earned Mountain West Conference Player of the Week (December 16, 2019, and February 17, 2020). She started her college career with a 12-game double-digit scoring streak, but the streak came to an end when she posted 9 points, 9 assists, 6 steals, and 4 rebounds on December 28, 2019, against . On February 12, 2020, against , Cavinder contributed 20 points and 5 assists to help Fresno State (21-4, 14-0) clinch a share of the 2019–20 Mountain West Conference regular season championship. On February 15, 2020, against , Cavinder contributed a team-high 20 points as well as 4 steals, and 3 assists to help Fresno State (22-4, 15-0) clinch the outright 2019–20 Mountain West Conference regular season championship. On February 19 against , both twins surpassed the school freshman-season scoring record set by Jalessa Ross (421). 15 points for Hanna brought her total to 427, 9 behind her twin sister. She went on to earn Mountain West Conference All-Freshman Team and All-Conference Team recognition. Despite 17 points from each twin, Fresno State lost to Boise State in overtime in the championship game of the 2020 Mountain West Conference women's basketball tournament, earning an automatic bid to the 2020 Women's National Invitation Tournament (NIT) after being passed over for the 2020 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament. However, on March 12, the NCAA announced that the NIT was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
As a sophomore for Fresno State, Cavinder earned Mountain West Conference Player of the Week on February 15, 2021. On February 27, 2021, Cavinder posted her career-high 32 points against in a 75–74 Senior night loss. She again earned Mountain West Conference All-Conference Team recognition. In the 2021 Mountain West Conference women's basketball tournament semifinal upset victory against top-seeded , Cavinder had 13 points, 7 assists, 5 rebounds, and 4 steals. Despite being the higher seed and 12 points from Cavinder, Fresno State again lost in the Mountain West Tournament championship game, this time to . The team earned an at-large bid to the 2021 Women's National Invitation Tournament. Cavinder led the Mountain West Conference in field goal percentage (191/412=46.4%).
Although she was a Preseason All-Conference Team selection as a junior, she was not an All-Conference team honoree following the season. She finished 10th in the Mountain West in scoring (14.6) and 15th in the NCAA in minutes played (37.1). After two seasons ending at Women's National Invitation Tournaments, Cavinder's third year concluded on March with an 11–18 record. On Monday March 14, 2022, the twins entered the NCAA transfer portal. Eventually, they visited Arizona State, Miami and USC. Part of their motivation for entering the portal was to find a basketball program that would increase their chances of being able to experience the NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament version of March Madness.
On April 21, 2022, the twins announced their intent to transfer from Fresno State to University of Miami. Upon their arrival at the University of Miami, they became the most followed athletes to have played basketball for the school with over 5 million social media followers. The transfer to the Coral Gables, Florida, school brought the twins to within an hour of Nova Southeastern University in Davie, Florida, where their father played basketball from 1992 to 1994. The transfer also put them closer to paternal grandparents in Naples, Florida, and a sister in St. Petersburg, Florida.
After transferring, the NCAA sanctioned the University of Miami for "impermissible contact", "inducement", and "head-coach responsibility" violations due to social media publicity surrounding a recruiting dinner with a booster earlier that April when its governing body issued its first NIL infractions ruling, prompting a social media retort by the twins. Although neither twin was directly punished, Miami head coach Katie Meier received a three-game suspension and the University was subject to numerous penalties.
During her senior season in Miami, Cavinder's top output was 15 points on senior night on 5–7 three point shooting in an 85–74 victory over Virginia in the 2022–23 ACC regular season finale. Cavinder earned All-ACC academic recognition and was projected to be on the Dean's list as an anthropology major. In the 2023 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament, Cavinder got to enjoy a run to the elite eight. Miami had a 17-point rally against Oklahoma State, followed by victories over \#1-seeded Indiana, and Villanova, before falling to the Angel Reese–led, eventual champion, number-3 seeded LSU Tigers team.
Cavinder had another year of athletic eligibility because the NCAA did not count the 2020–21 season, that had been extensively disrupted by COVID-19, against the eligibility of any basketball player. Nonetheless on April 11, she decided to forgo her final year of athletic eligibility to pursue other business ventures with her twin sister. When they were interviewed on The Today Show in the subsequent days, they emphasized that outside opportunities such as the WWE were a better decision for them.
## Professional career
Prior to July 1, 2021, the Cavender twins had to guard their athletic eligibility by declining merchandise, endorsements and collaborations with monetary value and ensuring that they were never compensated for YouTube videos. Meanwhile, their classmates and student peers across the nation who were not NCAA competitors, such as models and musicians, were allowed to profit freely off of their NIL in the modern social media landscape. The twins became the face of the NIL movement. The brand value that they were forgoing to remain eligible for NCAA competition was in excess of \$500,000. On the eve of the NIL, the Cavender twins still had no clarity on where social media would take them. In 2021, the twins hired their eldest sister Brooke to manage their business and hired a lawyer to assist in their business ventures. July 1, 2021 was the first day college athletes were finally able to profit from their name, image, and likeness (NIL) rights by signing third-party sponsorship agreements, causing that date to be viewed as an "Emancipation Day" for the college athlete. On that day, the Cavender Twins signed an NIL deal with Boost Mobile which was advertised in Times Square. In addition to Boost, the Twins signed with Six Star Pro Nutrition just after midnight. According to The Guardian, they are regarded as "the first college athletes to legally sign a major endorsement deal under the NCAA's new name, image and likeness (NIL) regulations".
By the end of the first week in the new NIL landscape, they had a third endorsement for Gopuff. In December, Cavinder was one of 15 athletes to sign with the WWE in the inaugural class of athletes to benefit from the NIL changes. The deal was reported as a six-figure deal that requires both social media engagement and physical appearance. In January 2022, as part of their ninth NIL business partnership, the Cavinders announced they had acquired ownership and board rights in a sportswear company founded by other Fresno State athletes. By the anniversary of the rule changes the twins had grossed over \$1 million in endorsements and partnerships according to their agent and approximately \$1.7 million before taxes and fees according to a Forbes estimate.
As women's basketball players the twins are considered proof that NIL benefits go beyond the "biggest names in the biggest sports". They show the NIL business possibilities for both female and non-revenue sport athletes. Cavinder noted that "We don't go to the Power Five school. We're not the quarterback."
## Social media
Cavinder enrolled at Fresno State in 2019 and the end of her freshman year coincided with the COVID-19 lockdowns that sent her home to finish the school year and quarantine with her family. On March 23, Hanna got Haley to do dribble beats with some audio input. The resulting videos surpassed 2 million views. During the 2020 summer of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, Hanna initiated a social media dance video post with Haley. As they began to post, they soon had their first viral video, a TikTok synchronous video of them dribbling to "The Chicken Wing Beat", which got tens of millions of views. Although social media activity was originally just a hobby, their joint videos grew their number of followers into the millions and Cavinder credits Opendorse with educating her as to the value of the brand that she created. At the time of the July 1, 2023, NIL changes, the Cavinder twins had 3.3 million TikTok and 515,000 Instagram followers. Despite the fact that they are skilled athletes, their NIL value stems from their social media influence, which is in part due to their ability to deliver what both brands and their social media audience demand. Cavinder believes that twins are particularly marketable stating "I just think people really like twins".
## Personal life
Hanna has four sisters: eldest sister Brooke, next oldest Brandi, older twin Haley and younger sister Natalie. Brandi was two classes ahead of the twins in high school and Natalie was one behind. Her height is 5 ft 6 in. |
64,067,415 | 6th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Confederate) | 1,060,712,422 | Infantry regiment in the Confederate States Army | [
"1862 establishments in Mississippi",
"1863 disestablishments in Alabama",
"Military units and formations disestablished in 1863",
"Military units and formations established in 1862",
"Units and formations of the Confederate States Army from Missouri"
] | The 6th Missouri Infantry was an infantry regiment of the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. The regiment was formed on August 26, 1862, when two existing units were combined. Later that year, the regiment was then lightly engaged at the Battle of Iuka and saw heavy action at the Second Battle of Corinth. In 1863, the regiment was engaged at the Battle of Port Gibson, and was part of a major charge at the Battle of Champion Hill. After a defeat at the Battle of Big Black River Bridge, the regiment took part in the siege of Vicksburg, where it saw heavy fighting. The siege of Vicksburg ended on July 4 with a Confederate surrender; after being exchanged, the regiment combined with the 2nd Missouri Infantry to form the 2nd and 6th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated). The 6th Missouri Infantry ceased to exist as a separate unit.
## Organization
The 6th Missouri Infantry was mustered on August 26, 1862, at Guntown, Mississippi, as the result of consolidation of several existing units. The bulk of the regiment came from Erwin's Battalion, although Hedgpeth's Battalion also contributed. Two artillery batteries who had not been issued cannons were reclassified to infantry; the men of these two batteries were merged into the 6th Missouri Infantry. The regiment's first colonel was Andrew Eugene Erwin, former commander of Erwin's Battalion. Isaac Newton Hedgpeth, former commander of Hedgpeth's Battalion, was appointed lieutenant colonel; Joseph P. Vaughn was the regiment's original major. On the date of muster, the regiment's original organization was:
- Company "A": Cass County, Missouri and Jackson County, Missouri. Commanded by Francis M. McKinney.
- Company "B": Jackson County, Missouri and Lafayette County, Missouri. Commanded by Samuel F. Taylor.
- Company "C": Boone County, Missouri and Howard County, Missouri. Commanded by Stephen Cooper.
- Company "D": Cape Girardeau County, Missouri and Stoddard County, Missouri. Commanded by Albert A. Woodard.
- Company "E": Jackson County, Missouri and Johnson County, Missouri. Commanded by Jeptha Duncan.
- Company "F": Cass County, Missouri and St. Clair County, Missouri. Commanded by John M. Wiedemeyer.
- Company "G": Clay County, Missouri and Platte County, Missouri. Commanded by John B. Clark.
- Company "H": Howard County, Missouri. Commanded by John M. Hickey.
- Company "I": Cape Girardeau County, Missouri and Scott County, Missouri. Commanded by John D. Parsons.
- Company "K": Cape Girardeau County, Missouri, Ripley County, Missouri, Wayne County, Missouri, and Arkansas. Commanded by Alvah G. Kelsey.
Companies "A", "B", "C", "E", "F", "G", and "H" contained men from Erwin's Battalion. Companies "I" and "K" were from Hedgpeth's Battalion, and Company "D" was composed of the men from the two artillery units.
### Component units
`Hedgpeth's Battalion had been formed in April 1862 when several elements of the Missouri State Guard, commanded by militia officer M. Jeff Thompson, were transferred to Fort Pillow and Fort Pickering near Memphis, Tennessee. The battalion served on Confederate States Navy ships during the Battle of Plum Point Bend on May 10, and later became part of the First Confederate Infantry Regiment on July 10. On August 25, the battalion was detached from the 1st Confederate Infantry, and became part of the 6th Missouri Infantry on August 26.`
`Erwin's Battalion had been organized on May 16, 1862 by consolidating Clark's Missouri Battalion and Rosser's Missouri Battalion. The battalion performed garrison duty at Corinth, Mississippi until the Confederates evacuated the town at the end of the month. Afterwards, the battalion performed guard duty in northern Mississippi until the unit became part of the 6th Missouri Infantry on August 26.`
`Harris's Missouri Battery had entered Confederate service on January 1, 1862. After participating in a skirmish near Sikeston, Missouri on February 28, the battery transferred to Fort Pillow. Since the battery did not have cannons, it served as infantry; seeing action at the Battle of Plum Point Bend on May 10. On July 2, the battery was merged into Hedgpeth's Battalion, although about 60 men were detached to man the cannons of the ironclad CSS Arkansas on July 15. On August 26, the battery became part of the 6th Missouri Infantry.`
`McDonald's Missouri Battery had officially joined the Confederate States Army on March 13, 1862, although many of the men of the battery had seen prior service in the Missouri State Guard. On April 28, the battery's cannons were transferred to the Arkansas Appeal Battery, and McDonald's Battery was sent to Fort Pillow. After seeing action at the Battle of Plum Point Bend on May 10, the battery served as infantry and became part of the 6th Missouri on August 26.`
## Service history
### 1862
On September 19, 1862, the regiment was exposed to artillery fire at the Battle of Iuka, but was otherwise unengaged. At the Second Battle of Corinth on October 3 and 4, the regiment was part of the brigade of Brigadier General Martin E. Green as part of Brigadier General Louis Hébert's division of Major General Sterling Price's corps of Major General Earl Van Dorn's Army of West Tennessee. Also in Green's brigade were the 7th Mississippi Battalion, 43rd Mississippi Infantry, 4th Missouri Infantry, 3rd Missouri Cavalry, Guibor's Battery, and Landis's Battery.
On the first day at Corinth (October 3), the 6th Missouri, as well as the rest of Green's brigade (less the artillery), began a charge against the Union line defended by Brigadier General Thomas A. Davies' division. The Confederates met with heavy Union fire, and a cabin in the path of the 6th Missouri threw the regiment's ranks into confusion. After about 15 minutes, Green's brigade was forced to withdraw. Another attempt at a Confederate charge was broken by a counterattack by the 2nd Iowa Infantry, the Iowans' attack hit the 6th Missouri the hardest. Green's brigade was forced to withdraw again. Reinforced by elements of Colonel Elijah Gates' brigade and supported by the brigade of Brigadier General Charles W. Phifer, Green's brigade, including the 6th Missouri, made another charge, eventually driving the Union forces from their line. Despite having a clear path to attack the Union interior line, the Confederate advance was halted by Price due to fatigue and disorganization in the Confederate ranks.
On October 4, Green was promoted to division command due to Hébert falling ill. Command of Green's brigade then fell to Colonel William H. Moore. Moore's brigade made a charge against the Union interior line. After driving in Union skirmishers, the Confederates came under heavy fire from a fortification known as Battery Powell. A sergeant of the 6th Missouri described the charge by stating that "great gaps were thrown in their ranks [...] every instant death smote." Moore's brigade broke through the Union lines and began driving into the town of Corinth itself. Moore's brigade would be reinforced by elements of Phifer's and Brigadier General John C. Moore's brigades, but a Union counterattack drove the Confederates out of Corinth, ending the threat. The 6th Missouri suffered 223 casualties at Corinth, including Lieutenant Colonel Hedgpeth, who was severely wounded, and Major Vaughn, who was killed. After escaping a Union trap at the Battle of Davis Bridge on October 5, the 6th Missouri was assigned to the First Missouri Brigade on October 22.
### 1863
In early 1863, the 6th Missouri was transferred to Grand Gulf, Mississippi, where the regiment help construct fortifications. The regiment was present at the Battle of Grand Gulf on April 29. Along with many of the other men of the First Missouri Brigade, the 6th Missouri was shifted to Port Gibson, Mississippi on May 1 to counter a Union landing. At the Battle of Port Gibson, which took place on May 1, the 6th Missouri was used to support the right wing of the Confederate line. When Union troops threatened to cut off the Confederate route of retreat, the 6th Missouri counterattacked. The charge drove deep into the Union line, but was forced to retreat some distance when it encountered Union reinforcements. The 6th Missouri became isolated from the rest of the Confederate force, began to run out of ammunition, and was forced to make a fighting retreat to rejoin the main Confederate force as it retreated.
At the Battle of Champion Hill on May 16, Company "E" of the 6th Missouri was detached with four companies from other regiments of the First Missouri Brigade to serve as a skirmishing unit. Later in the battle, the First Missouri Brigade was used to fill a breach in the Confederate line; the 6th Missouri was posted on the left of the brigade's line. The First Missouri Brigade eventually began a counterattack to stabilize the Confederate line. The Confederates drove the Union line back over a mile, although at the cost of heavy casualties. One soldier participating in the charge wrote that "the blood ran in a stream, as water would have done." The charge of the Missourians broke through the Union line, capturing a crossroads and Champion Hill itself, both of which were strategic points on the field. However, Union reinforcements commanded by Brigadier General Marcellus M. Crocker arrived, and the Missourians withdrew after more fighting.
On May 17, the 6th Missouri was part of a Confederate force tasked with holding the crossing of the Big Black River. In the ensuing Battle of Big Black River Bridge, the Confederate line was broken, and a rout for the river crossing ensued. The 6th Missouri did not receive clear withdrawal orders, and did not withdraw from the line until the regiment was almost surrounded. After the retreat across the Big Black River, the 6th Missouri entered the defenses of Vicksburg, and took part in the siege of Vicksburg. On May 19, the 6th Missouri Infantry, along with the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) and the 5th Missouri Infantry, were used to plug weak points in the Vicksburg defensive perimeter. On May 22, the 6th Missouri strengthened the Confederate line near a point known as the Stockade Redan, helping to repulse Union attacks.
On June 25, a mine was detonated under a point of the Confederate line named the Third Louisiana Redan. The 6th Missouri was used to plug the gap created by the explosion. Sharp fighting followed as Union infantry attempted to exploit the new gap. However, the Confederate line, which contained the 6th Missouri, the 5th Missouri, and the survivors of the 3rd Louisiana Infantry held after much hand-to-hand fighting. Both sides used makeshift hand grenades in the fighting. Colonel Erwin was killed early in the action. On July 1, another mine was detonated under the position of Companies "B" and "H" of the 6th Missouri. Many of the men of the 6th Missouri were killed in the explosion. While Union artillery shelled the gap created by the explosion, a large-scale infantry assault did not occur. The 6th Missouri lost 56 men on July 1. On July 4, the Confederate defenders of Vicksburg surrendered, and the 216 survivors of the 6th Missouri were paroled. The men reported to Demopolis, Alabama, and were eventually exchanged. On October 6, the 6th Missouri Infantry was combined with the 2nd Missouri Infantry to form the 2nd and 6th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated); the 6th Missouri ceased to exist as a separate unit.
## Legacy
The men of the 6th Missouri formed Companies "B", "C", "D", and "H" of the 2nd and 6th Missouri (Consolidated); Companies "A", "E", "F", "G", "I", and "K" were composed of men from the 2nd Missouri. Colonel Peter C. Flournoy of the 2nd Missouri commanded the new regiment. The consolidated regiment saw extensive action in the Atlanta campaign in 1864, including fighting at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain on June 27. On October 5, the regiment fought at the Battle of Allatoona. The consolidated regiment suffered heavy casualties at the Battle of Franklin on November 30; it missed the Battle of Nashville in mid-December. On April 9, 1865, the regiment surrendered at the Battle of Fort Blakely. |
12,307,565 | Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits | 1,166,155,779 | null | [
"1970 greatest hits albums",
"Albums arranged by Don Costa",
"Albums arranged by Michel Legrand",
"Albums arranged by Peter Matz",
"Albums conducted by Don Costa",
"Albums conducted by Michel Legrand",
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"Albums produced by Mike Berniker",
"Barbra Streisand compilation albums",
"Columbia Records compilation albums"
] | Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits is the first greatest hits album recorded by American vocalist Barbra Streisand. It was released on January 1, 1970, by Columbia Records. The record is a compilation consisting of 11 commercially successful singles from the singer's releases in the 1960s, with a majority of them being cover songs. The songs on Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits originally appeared on one of the singer's eight previous albums and span in release from 1963 to 1968. It contains her most commercially successful tracks, including her first Billboard Hot 100 top ten single "People" and top 40 entry "Second Hand Rose". The album was distributed on compact disc in 1986 and rereleased under the title The Hits in 2006.
Well received by music critics, Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits received a five star rating from Rolling Stone. It was also praised by AllMusic's William Ruhlmann, who found the album crucial to reinventing Streisand's career. The album charted in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, peaking at numbers 17, 44, and 32, respectively. It was later certified double Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of two million copies. The album also received a Gold certification in Australia. A second compilation consisting of Streisand's hits from the 1970s, was released in 1978 and titled Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits Volume 2.
## Background and release
Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits was released on January 1, 1970, through Barbra Streisand's record label, Columbia Records. A retrospective collection, it contains 11 singles from the singer's first decade in the recording industry, ranging from "My Coloring Book" (1963) to "Happy Days Are Here Again" (1968). The material was recorded between 1963 and 1968 and originally included on five of her studio albums, the two Funny Girl recordings (original cast album and film soundtrack), and her first live album – A Happening in Central Park (1968). Featuring her most commercially successful songs, the album features one Billboard Hot 100 top ten single ("People"), one top 40 single ("Second Hand Rose"), and seven of Streisand's lower-charting releases: "Free Again", "Gotta Move", "He Touched Me", "My Man", "Sam, You Made the Pants Too Long", and "Why Did I Choose You". The compilation also included three non-charting songs – "Don't Rain on My Parade", "Happy Days Are Here Again", and "My Coloring Book". The version of "Happy Days Are Here Again" that appears on Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits was recorded live during her A Happening in Central Park concert in 1968. The album's 11 tracks were produced by a variety of musicians, including Mike Berniker, Jack Gold, Robert Mersey, Ettore Stratta, and Warren Vincent.
The compilation was also printed on 8-track cartridges where it was distributed with the same track listing in a revised order. On January 26, 1986, Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits was released for the first time on CD. Since its first appearance on CDs, it has been reissued on several occasions. In 2006, Sony Music Entertainment and BMG Rights Management repackaged the album under the name The Hits, featuring the same track listing and similar front artwork. A second compilation consisting of Streisand's hits from the 1970s, was released in 1978 and aptly titled Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits Volume 2.
## Critical reception
Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits received praise from music critics. William Ruhlmann from AllMusic appreciated Streisand's decision to release a greatest hits album as he felt the singer's "career was in decline" and in need of improvement; he also favored the album's live rendition inclusion of "Happy Days Are Here Again", which he considered to be one of the best songs on her debut album, The Barbra Streisand Album (1963). Concluding, Ruhlmann wrote: "For casual fans, [the album] made for a good sampling of Streisand's most prominent '60s work." As part of Rolling Stone's The New Rolling Stone Record Guide, released in 1983, they rated the collection a five out of five stars rating. Streisand's second volume from 1978 and Guilty from 1980 also achieved the same status.
## Commercial performance
Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits reached the record charts in three countries. In the United States, the compilation debuted at number 77 on the Billboard 200 chart for the week ending February 28, 1970, while also serving as the week's highest new entry. During its fifth week on the chart, it peaked at number 32. Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits spent a total of 30 weeks on the Billboard 200. It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 500,000 copies on May 4, 1971, and by November 21, 1986, the record had been certified double Platinum for shipments of two million albums. On the UK Albums Chart, the compilation peaked at number 44, where it became Streisand's second entry altogether, immediately following her sixth studio album, My Name Is Barbra, Two... (1965), which peaked at number six. Elsewhere, the album achieved its highest position in Canada, where it peaked at number 17 on the official Top Albums chart compiled by RPM. Although the compilation did not chart in Australia, the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) certified Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits Gold in 2000, signifying shipments of at least 35,000 copies.
## Track listing
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Barbra Streisand's Greatest Hits.
- Barbra Streisand – vocals
- Mike Berniker – production (tracks 1, 7, 10)
- Don Costa – arranger, conductor
- Jack Gold – production (tracks 6, 11)
- Frank Laico – recording engineer
- Michel Legrand – arranger, conductor
- Peter Matz – arranger, conductor
- Robert Mersey – production (tracks 2, 3, 4, 9)
- Lawrence Schiller – cover photo
- Ettore Stratta – production (track 5)
- Warren Vincent – production (track 8), sound supervisor
- Stan Weiss – recording engineer
## Charts
## Certifications |
73,682 | Geoffrey A. Landis | 1,169,645,393 | American aerospace engineer (born 1955) | [
"1955 births",
"21st-century American male writers",
"21st-century American novelists",
"American aerospace engineers",
"American male novelists",
"American science fiction writers",
"Asimov's Science Fiction people",
"Brown University alumni",
"Hugo Award-winning writers",
"Living people",
"MIT School of Engineering alumni",
"NASA people",
"Nebula Award winners",
"New Trier High School alumni",
"Novelists from Ohio",
"People from Winnetka, Illinois",
"Rhysling Award for Best Long Poem winners",
"Space advocates"
] | Geoffrey Alan Landis (/ˈlændɪs/; born May 28, 1955) is an American aerospace engineer and author, working for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on planetary exploration, interstellar propulsion, solar power and photovoltaics. He holds nine patents, primarily in the field of improvements to solar cells and photovoltaic devices and has given presentations and commentary on the possibilities for interstellar travel and construction of bases on the Moon, Mars, and Venus.
Supported by his scientific background Landis also writes hard science fiction. For these writings he has won a Nebula Award, two Hugo Awards, and a Locus Award, as well as two Rhysling Awards for his poetry. He contributes science articles to various academic publications.
## Biography
Landis was born in Detroit, Michigan, and lived in Virginia, Maryland, Philadelphia, and Illinois during his childhood. His senior education was at New Trier High School, Winnetka, Illinois. He holds undergraduate degrees in physics and electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and a PhD in solid-state physics from Brown University. He is married to science fiction writer Mary A. Turzillo and lives in Berea, Ohio.
## Career
After receiving his doctorate at Brown University, Landis worked at the NASA Lewis Research Center (now NASA Glenn) and the Ohio Aerospace Institute before accepting a permanent position at the NASA John Glenn Research Center, where he does research on Mars missions, solar energy, and technology development for future space missions. He holds nine patents, and has authored or co-authored more than 300 published scientific papers in the fields of astronautics and photovoltaics.
Landis has commented on the practicalities of generating oxygen and creating building materials for a future Moon base in New Scientist, and on the possibilities of using readily available metallic iron to manufacture steel on Mars.
He is the recipient of numerous professional honors, including the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Aerospace Power Systems Award, the NASA Space Flight Awareness award and the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement Stellar Award in 2016.
### Photovoltaic power systems
Much of Landis' technical work has been in the field of developing solar cells and arrays, both for terrestrial use and for spacecraft.
### Mars
Landis has worked on a number of projects related to developing technology of human and robotic exploration of Mars and scientific analysis of the Martian surface, including studies of the performance of photovoltaic cells in the Mars environment, the effect of Martian dust on performance, and technologies for dust removal from the arrays. He was a member of the Rover team on the Mars Pathfinder mission, and named the Mars rock, "Yogi". He is a member of the science team on the 2003 Mars Exploration Rovers mission, where his work includes observations of Martian dust devils, atmospheric science measurements, and observation of frost on the equator of Mars. He was also a member of the Mars ISPP Propellant Precursor experiment team for the Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander mission, an experiment package to demonstrate manufacture of oxygen from the Martian atmosphere (which was cancelled after the failure of the Mars Polar Lander).
He has also done work on analyzing concepts for future robotic and human mission to Mars. These include the Mars Geyser Hopper spacecraft, a Discovery-class mission concept that would investigate the springtime carbon dioxide Martian geysers found in regions around the south pole of Mars, the Human Exploration using Real-time Robotic Operations ("HERRO") concept for telerobotic Mars exploration, and concepts for use of In-situ resource utilization for a Mars sample-return mission. In a 1993 paper, he suggested the use of a phased program of Mars exploration, with a series of incremental achievements leading up to human landings on Mars.
### NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts
Landis was a fellow of the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts ("NIAC"), where he worked on a project investigating the use of laser- and particle-beam pushed sails for propulsion for interstellar flight. In 2002 Landis addressed the annual convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Science on the possibilities and challenges of interstellar travel in what was described as the "first serious discussion of how mankind will one day set sail to the nearest star". Dr. Landis said, "This is the first meeting to really consider interstellar travel by humans. It is historic. We're going to the stars. There really isn't a choice in the long term." He went on to describe a star ship with a diamond sail, a few nanometres thick, powered by solar energy, which could achieve "10 per cent of the speed of light".
He was selected again as a NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts fellow in 2012, with feasibility concept of a landsailing rover for Venus exploration, called Venus Landsailing Rover, and in 2015 was the science lead on a NIAC study to design a mission to Neptune's moon Triton.
In 2017, Landis's work was the subject of the book Land-Sailing Venus Rover With NASA Inventor Geoffrey Landis, published by World Book as part of their "Out of This World" book series for ages 10–14+.
### Academic positions
In 2005–2006, he was named the Ronald E. McNair Visiting Professor of Astronautics at MIT, and won the AIAA Abe M. Zarem Educator Award in 2007. Landis has also been a faculty member of the International Space University; in 1998 he was on the faculty of the Department of Mining, Manufacturing, and Robotics in the Space Studies Program, and in 1999 he was on the faculty of the 12th Space Studies Program at the Suranaree University of Technology in Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand. and co-chair of the student project "Out of the Cradle". He was also a guest lecturer at the ISU 13th Space Studies Program in Valparaíso, Chile, and the 2015 Space Studies Program in Athens, Ohio.
As a writer, he was an instructor at the Clarion Writers Workshop at Michigan State University in 2001. He was a guest instructor at the Launch Pad workshop for 2012.
## Writing
### Science fiction
Landis' first science fiction story, Elemental, appeared in Analog in December 1984, and was nominated for the 1985 Hugo Award for Best Novella. as well as earning him a nomination for the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer. In the field of science fiction, Landis has published over 70 works of short fiction, and two books. He won the 1989 Nebula Award for best short story for "Ripples in the Dirac Sea" (Asimov's Science Fiction, October 1988), the 1992 Hugo Award for "A Walk in the Sun" (Asimov's Science Fiction, October 1991), and the 2003 Hugo for his short story "Falling Onto Mars" (Analog Science Fiction and Fact, July/Aug 2002).
His first novel, Mars Crossing, was published by Tor Books in 2000, winning a Locus Award. A short story collection, Impact Parameter (and Other Quantum Realities), was published by Golden Gryphon Press in 2001 and named as noteworthy by trade magazine Publishers Weekly. He has also won the Analog Analytical Laboratory Award for the novelette The Man in the Mirror (2009). His 2010 novella The Sultan of the Clouds won the Sturgeon award for best short science fiction story, and was nominated for both the Nebula and Hugo awards.
He attended the Clarion Workshop in 1985, with other emerging SF writers such as Kristine Kathryn Rusch, Martha Soukup, William Shunn, Resa Nelson, Mary Turzillo and Robert J. Howe.
### Poetry
Landis has also published a number of poems, much of it involving science fiction or science themes. He won the Rhysling Award twice, for his poems "Christmas, after we all get time machines" in 2000 (which also won the 2000 Asimov's Reader's Award for best poem), and for "Search" in 2009, and the Dwarf Stars Award in 2010, for the poem "Fireflies". He has won the Asimov's Reader's award for best poem three times, most recently in 2014, for his poem "Rivers". In 2009, he won second place in the Hessler Street Fair poetry contest for his poem "Five Pounds of Sunlight", and first place in 2010 for "Human Potential".
His poetry collection Iron Angels was published in 2009.
### Other writing
Landis has also written non-fiction and popular science articles, encyclopedia articles and columns for a large range of publications, including Analog Science Fiction and Fact, Space Sciences, Asimov's Science Fiction, Spaceflight, and Science Fiction Age. His article "The Demon Under Hawaii" won the Analog Analytical Laboratory Award for best science article in 1993.
Writing influences include Arthur C. Clarke, Isaac Asimov, Robert Heinlein, Ursula K. Le Guin, Kurt Vonnegut, Larry Niven, and John Varley.
## Major awards
- 1989 Nebula Award for Best Short Story for "Ripples in the Dirac Sea"
- 1992 Hugo Award for Best Short Story "A Walk in the Sun"
- 2001 Locus Award for best first novel for Mars Crossing
- 2003 Hugo Award for best short story "Falling Onto Mars"
- 2011 Theodore Sturgeon Award for best short science fiction for "The Sultan of the Clouds"
- 2014 Robert A. Heinlein Award "bestowed for outstanding published works in science fiction and technical writings that inspire the human exploration of space". |
4,798,463 | 2005 World Snooker Championship | 1,153,369,179 | Snooker tournament, held April–May 2005 | [
"2005 in English sport",
"2005 in snooker",
"April 2005 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"May 2005 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"Sports competitions in Sheffield",
"World Snooker Championships"
] | The 2005 World Snooker Championship (also referred to as the 2005 Embassy World Snooker Championship for the purposes of sponsorship) was a professional snooker tournament that took place at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. The tournament started on 16 April, and ended on 2 May 2005. The event was the eighth and final world ranking event of the 2004–05 snooker season, following the 2005 China Open. The event was organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association. Due to laws banning advertising cigarettes in Great Britain, this was the last time the event was sponsored by the cigarette company Embassy. The event had a prize fund of £1,121,800, with the winner receiving £250,000.
Ronnie O'Sullivan was the defending champion, having defeated Graeme Dott in the 2004 World Snooker Championship final. O'Sullivan lost in the quarter-finals 11–13 against Peter Ebdon. Qualifier Shaun Murphy won his first ranking title by defeating Matthew Stevens 18–16 in the final. This was the first time that a qualifier won the championship since Terry Griffiths did so in 1979. Murphy aged 22 years and 265 days is the second youngest winner of the event after Stephen Hendry in 1990. There was a total of 63 century breaks made during the tournament, the highest being a maximum made by Mark Williams in the first round.
## Overview
The World Snooker Championship is an annual cue sport tournament and the official world championship of the game of snooker. Founded in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India, the sport was popular in Great Britain. In modern times it has been played worldwide, especially in East and Southeast Asian nations such as China, Hong Kong and Thailand. The event was sponsored by the cigarette company Embassy. This was the last event to be sponsored by Embassy, after cigarette advertising was banned within the United Kingdom. The following season was sponsored by 888.com.
In the 2005 tournament, 32 professional players competed in one-on-one snooker matches played over several , using a single elimination format. The 32 players were selected for the event using the snooker world rankings and a pre-tournament qualification competition. In 1927, the first world championship was won by Joe Davis. The event's final took place in Camkin's Hall, Birmingham, England. Since 1977, the event has been held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. Ronnie O'Sullivan had won the 2004 championship by defeating Scotland's Graeme Dott in the final 18–8. This was the second time O'Sullivan had won the world championship, the first being in 2001. The event was organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association. The event was broadcast in the United Kingdom on the BBC.
### Format
The 2005 World Snooker Championship took place from 16 April to 2 May 2005 in Sheffield, England. The tournament was the last of eight ranking events in the 2004–05 snooker season on the World Snooker Tour. It featured a 32-player main draw that was held at the Crucible Theatre, as well as a 70-player qualifying draw that was played at the Pontin's, Prestatyn Sands, from 6 February to 24 March. This was the 29th consecutive year that the tournament had been staged at the Crucible. The draw for the championships was held after qualifying on 28 March.
The top 16 players in the latest world rankings automatically qualified for the main draw as seeded players. Ronnie O'Sullivan was seeded first overall as the defending champion, and the remaining 15 seeds were allocated based on the latest world rankings. The number of frames required to win a match increased throughout the tournament. The first round consisted of best-of-19-frames matches, with the final match being played over a maximum of 35 frames. All 16 non-seeded spots in the main draw were filled with players from the qualifying rounds. The draw for the qualifying competition consisted of 70 players from the World Snooker Tour. Players were seeded by their world ranking, with 16 players added in rounds 2–5. Players who won round five qualified for the main draw.
### Prize fund
There was a total prize fund of £1,121,800, with the winner receiving £250,000. In making a maximum break, Mark Williams earned a bonus of £147,000. The breakdown of prize money for the event is shown below:
- Winner: £250,000
- Runner-up: £125,000
- Semi-finalists: £51,000
- Quarter-finalists: £26,000
- Last 16: £15,850
- Last 32: £12,000
- Last 48: £8,000
- Last 64: £5,000
- Televised stage highest break: £14,000
- Televised stage maximum break: £147,000
- Total: £1,121,800
## Summary
### First round
The first round was played 16–21 April as best-of-19-frames matches played over two . Defending champion Ronnie O'Sullivan played Stephen Maguire. O'Sullivan lead the match after the first session, 5–4, but in the second session Maguire won five straight frames to go one frame from victory. Trailing 7–9, O'Sullivan won the next three frames with a break of 68 in the 19th frame to win 10–9. Mark Williams made his first career maximum break of 147 in a ranking tournament during his 10–1 first round win over Robert Milkins. Williams made the break in frame 11 to win the match. It was the sixth maximum break in all at the world championships.
Three players made their debut at the world championship through the qualifiers. The first debutant, Michael Holt, played eighth seed Paul Hunter. Hunter had recently been diagnosed with stomach cancer; the match against Holt being his first since the diagnosis. Hunter led the match at 5–4 after the first session but lost the first three frames of the second session. Later, trailing at 6–9 behind, he made a break of 120 in frame 16 and also won the next to trail 8–9. Holt, however, won frame 18 to win the match. The second debutant, Neil Robertson, lost to Stephen Hendry. Hendry held a 7–2 lead after the first session, but Robertson won four frames in a row, including a break of 110. Hendry, however, won the match 10–7 but commented his "attitude wasn't great" going into the second session, as he had a five frame lead. The final debutant, Mark Selby, lost to John Higgins. Higgins edged the first session of the match 5–4, but won five of the next six frames to win 10–5, including breaks of 138 and 136.
Sixteenth seed Marco Fu played Ali Carter in the first round, but was defeated 4–10. Stephen Lee defeated Maltese player Tony Drago 10–5 by capitalising on a 6–3 lead after the first session. Quinten Hann won only one frame in the opening session against Peter Ebdon. On the resumption of play, Ebdon won the second frame of the second session to win the match. Hann turned up to the event with a hangover and using a friend's . Chris Small had been struggling with the spinal condition ankylosing spondylitis all season. He played against qualifier Shaun Murphy. Murphy took a 5–4 lead after the first session and won five of the next six to win the match 10–5. After the match, Small commented that he "may not be back" due to the spinal condition. Small retired from professional snooker shortly after the match.
World number six Matthew Stevens held a three frame lead over Andy Hicks after the first session. He increased his lead to 8–3 with a break of 105. Stevens won two additional frames to win the match 10–5. Alan McManus was ahead of Drew Henry 5–4 after the first session, but a 128 by Henry levelled the scores at 5–5. The pair were even for the remainder of the match, going to a at 9–9. McManus won frame 19 with a break of 63 to win the match 10–9. The previous year's runner up Graeme Dott played world number 17 Ian McCulloch. McCulloch lead 6–3 after the first session before a 111 break put him four frames ahead. McCulloch lead at 8–5, but Dott then won four frames to take the lead. McCulloch managed won the next two frames to win the match. He celebrated his victory wildly, even dancing a jig. Also in the first round, six-time winner Steve Davis defeated Gerard Greene, David Gray defeated by Anthony Hamilton, Jimmy White defeated Fergal O'Brien, and Ken Doherty defeated Barry Pinches.
### Second round
The second round was played 21–25 April as best-of-25-frames matches held over three sessions. O'Sullivan led Carter 9–7 after the first two sessions, before winning all four frames of the final session to win 13–7. Despite the win, he stated he was "frustrated with [his] own game". Peter Ebdon trailed by four frames after the first session and lost two of the next three to trail 3–8. However, Ebdon won 10 of the next 11 frames to win the match 13–9. Shaun Murphy led 1998 champion John Higgins 9–7 after two sessions, then won the match 13–8 after a break of 108.
Steve Davis trailed debutant Michael Holt 2–6 and 8–10, but won five frames in a row to win 13–10. Seven-time winner Stephen Hendry took only two of the three available sessions to defeat world number 25 Anthony Hamilton 13–3. Hendry led 6–2 after the first session, then won seven of the eight frames in the second. Matthew Stevens held a 12–4 lead after two sessions against Jimmy White. Stevens won frame 17 in a 30-minute session to win 13–4. Alan McManus and Ken Doherty were tied 8-8 after two sessions. Doherty won the next two frames in session three, before McManus leveled the score at 10–10. Doherty lead again after winning frame 21, but McManus won the next two frames to lead 12–11. In frame 24, Doherty missed a , allowing McManus to win the match with a break of 81. Two-time champion Mark Williams led Ian McCulloch 5–3 after the first session. McCulloch won six frames in the next session, including two century breaks, to lead 9–7. At the start of the final session, Williams won four straight frames, then McCulloch equalled the scores at 11–11. McCulloch won frame 23, then Williams made a break of 84 to tie the match at 12–12. McCulloch won the .
### Quarter-finals
The quarter-finals were played on 26 and 27 April as best-of-25-frames matches over three sessions. Defending champion Ronnie O'Sullivan played Peter Ebdon in the first quarter-final. O'Sullivan made two century breaks in the opening session to lead 6–2, then won the first two frames of the second session to lead 8–2. Ebdon won four of the next six frames to trail 6–10 going into the final session. Ebdon's slow, deliberate play in the final session made O'Sullivan lose concentration, leaving Ebdon to win 13–11. At one point during the match, Ebdon took five and a half minutes to make a break of 12, significantly longer than O'Sullivan's maximum break in 1997. During the match, Ebdon took over three minutes on one shot, with O'Sullivan asking an audience member what time it was.
Steve Davis reached his first quarter-final since 1996. He played qualifier Shaun Murphy. Murphy won seven of the first eight frames of the match, then led 12–4 after two sessions. He won the opening frame of the final session to win 13–4. Stephen Hendry lost 11–13 to Matthew Stevens. After two sessions, the match was tied at 9–9, then Hendry won the next two frames before Stevens won four in a row to progress to the semi-finals.
### Semi-finals
The semi-finals were played 28–30 April as best-of-33-frames matches over four sessions. The first semi-final was played between Peter Ebdon and Shaun Murphy. Ebdon made two century breaks in the first session to take a 6–2 lead in just 80 minutes, but Murphy levelled the match at 12–12 after three sessions. In the final session, Murphy won all five frames with breaks of 62, 47, 72, 60, and 123 to win the match 17–12. By winning, Murphy was only the fourth qualifier to reach the final.
Ian McCulloch and Matthew Stevens played the second semi-final. Stevens trailed 2–6 after the first session, but he leveled the match at 8–8 after the second session. The match was still tied at the end of the third session. In the final session, Stevens won frame 25 with a break of 50, but McCulloch won the next to tie the match at 13–13. Stevens won the next three frames, making a maximum break attempt in frame 27. McCulloch won the next frame, but Stevens won frame 31 to complete a 17–14 victory.
### Final
The final between Shaun Murphy and Matthew Stevens was held 1–2 May 2005. It was played as a best-of-35-frames match over four sessions. Stevens had previously reached the final of the 2000 World Snooker Championship (losing 16–18 to Mark Williams) and won the 2003 UK Championship. Before this event, Murphy had not reached a ranking event final. His best was reaching the semi-finals at the 2004 British Open, before losing 6–0 to John Higgins. Stevens led 10–6 after the second session and 12–11 at the end of the third session. However, Murphy defeated Stevens 18–16.
Murphy had 150–1 odds to win at the start of the tournament and became the first qualifier to win the tournament since Terry Griffiths in 1979. In winning the event he was the second youngest world champion after Stephen Hendry in 1990. Murphy made three century breaks during the final to Stevens' one the highest of which was a 137.
## Main draw
Shown below are the results for each round. The numbers in parentheses beside some of the players are their seeding ranks, while players in bold denote match winners.
## Qualifying
The qualifying tournament featured 70 participants and was played from 23 February to 24 March 2005. The qualifiers consisted of five rounds, which were played at Pontin's, Prestatyn Sands, Wales. The first four qualifying rounds were played from 23 February to 1 March 2005, while the final round was played 23–24 March 2005. Of the 70 participants, 16 players qualified for the main draw, with players seeded by their world rankings. The 1991 champion John Parrott failed to qualify for the first time in his career, losing to Fergal O'Brien 8–10 in the final qualifying round.
Round 1
Stuart Mann (ENG) 10–8 Liu Song (CHN)
Justin Astley (ENG) 10–9 Steve James (ENG)
Hugh Abernethy (SCO) 10–6 Matthew Selt (ENG)
Ben Woollaston (ENG) 10–6 Mark Joyce (ENG)
Lee Spick (ENG) 10–5 David Gilbert (ENG)
Craig Steadman (ENG) 10–9 Kurt Maflin (NOR)
Rounds 2–5
## Century breaks
There were 63 centuries in the 2005 World Snooker Championship. The highest was a maximum break made by Williams in the 11th frame in his first round win over Robert Milkins.
- 147, 133, 102 – Mark Williams
- 138, 114, 108, 103 – Stephen Hendry
- 138, 136, 106 – John Higgins
- 138, 137, 132, 129, 125, 123, 121, 111, 108, 107, 100 – Shaun Murphy
- 137, 125, 115, 101 – Ronnie O'Sullivan
- 135 – Mark Selby
- 129, 124, 121, 106, 105 – Matthew Stevens
- 128 – Drew Henry
- 127, 124, 122, 111, 108, 108, 100 – Ian McCulloch
- 126, 108, 103 – Stephen Lee
- 124 – Chris Small
- 120 – Graeme Dott
- 120, 115 – Paul Hunter
- 118, 114, 110 – Steve Davis
- 115, 105 – Peter Ebdon
- 114, 103 – Michael Holt
- 110 – Neil Robertson
- 109, 101 – Ken Doherty
- 107, 104, 103 – Alan McManus
- 105 – Andy Hicks
- 102 – Stephen Maguire
- 102 – Barry Pinches
- 101 – Anthony Hamilton |
23,097,287 | 2nd Kansas Infantry Regiment | 1,171,644,574 | null | [
"1861 establishments in Kansas",
"Military units and formations disestablished in 1861",
"Military units and formations established in 1861",
"Units and formations of the Union Army from Kansas"
] | The 2nd Kansas Infantry Regiment was an infantry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Recruited in May 1861, it formally organized on June 20. Sent into Missouri, it participated in several small actions in the Springfield area before fighting in the Battle of Wilson's Creek on August 10, where it suffered 70 casualties out of about 600 men present excluded a detached cavalry company. Ordered back to Kansas after the battle, it fought in several small actions in Missouri and later mobilized in Kansas after enemy forces captured Lexington, Missouri, as Kansas was believed to be threatened by the Lexington movement. The unit was disbanded on October 31, with some of its men, including its commander, joining the 2nd Kansas Cavalry Regiment. Colonel Robert B. Mitchell commanded the regiment until he was wounded at Wilson's Creek and Lieutenant Colonel Charles W. Blair took command.
## Service
### Formation
The 2nd Kansas Infantry Regiment was primarily recruited in May 1861, for service in the Union Army during the American Civil War; the regiment's men were drawn from across the state. It was organized for a service period of 90 days. After gathering at Lawrence, Kansas, the unit entered Union service on June 20. It was commanded by Colonel Robert B. Mitchell, a politician and veteran of the Mexican–American War. Charles W. Blair was lieutenant colonel, and William F. Cloud was the regiment's major. The men of the regiment were provided blue fatigue blouses as uniforms and were armed with a mixture of rifles and outdated smoothbore muskets.
After entering service, the regiment moved from Kansas City, Missouri, to Clinton, Missouri, as part of a force led by Major Samuel Sturgis. Most of Sturgis's column reached Clinton on July 4 and went into camp. Discipline issues in the 2nd Kansas Infantry and the 1st Kansas Infantry Regiment resulted in Sturgis having some of the Kansans whipped, which culminated on July 8 in a confrontation between him and some of the men which Mitchell was forced to break up before it became violent. Joining the forces of Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon, the regiment marched to the Springfield, Missouri area, via Stockton and Melville. The men trained at a camp in the Springfield area, and the 1st and 2nd Kansas Infantry were brigaded together under the command of Colonel George Washington Deitzler.
### Wilson's Creek campaign
The regiment was part of a strike towards Forsyth, Missouri, beginning on July 20 and led by Captain Thomas W. Sweeny, along with troops from the 1st Iowa Infantry Regiment and elements of an artillery battery and a cavalry regiment. By then, one company of the regiment had been mounted on captured horses. Reaching Forsyth on July 22, the mounted company routed a Missouri State Guard post outside of town, and Sweeny's column engaged more Missouri State Guardsmen outside of town. The Union forces were victorious, and captured supplies in the town before looting Forsyth. Losses were minimal for both sides, with the Union cavalry losing two wounded and the Missouri State Guard one man wounded and two captured. The skirmish at Forsyth was the first combat the regiment had seen. Sweeny's force returned to Springfield on July 25. On August 3, Lyon's force encountered a small Confederate patrol near the Curran Post Office, which was on the county line of Barry County and Stone County and was over 20 miles (32 km) from Springfield, while continuing a movement towards Cassville. Union troops drove them off and the 2nd Kansas Infantry scouted 2 miles (3.2 km) ahead to a location known as either McCulla's Springs or McCullah's store. Lyon later learned that the Missouri State Guard and the Confederates had joined forces and ordered a retreat to Springfield. On August 9, the regiment's mounted company was part of a Union cavalry force that defeated a group of Missouri State Guard cavalry 5 miles (8.0 km) west of Springfield.
That evening, Lyon moved out most of his command from Springfield to attack a Confederate and Missouri State Guard camp along Wilson's Creek. Lyon divided his force into two columns for the August 10 Battle of Wilson's Creek, with the second column under Colonel Franz Sigel to attack from the opposite direction of Lyon's men. The 2nd Kansas Infantry was part of Lyon's column and was initially kept in a reserve role while Union troops occupied a terrain feature known as Bloody Hill at around 6:30 a.m. When a force of Missouri State Guard infantrymen advanced against the hill, Lyon brought the 2nd Kansas forward to the main line, where it deployed next to the 1st Missouri Infantry Regiment. The Confederate attack failed at about 8:00 a.m. and was followed by a lull in the fighting.
With another enemy attack ongoing, Lyon led the 2nd Kansas Infantry to another part of the line on Bloody Hill. As the fighting continued, Confederate fire killed Lyon and wounded Mitchell. Command of the regiment fell to Blair. The attackers eventually withdrew. When a Confederate cavalry force attempted to strike the Union flank, a company detached from the 2nd Kansas as skirmishers and the mounted company helped repulse it. Sturgis took command of Lyon's column, but Sigel's attack had already been defeated. Another Confederate/Missouri State Guard attack, the third against Bloody Hill, was made but was repulsed. During the fighting, the 2nd Kansas exchanged fire with the 3rd Regiment, Arkansas State Troops. Around the time the attackers withdrew, Sturgis ordered a withdrawal from the field. The 2nd Kansas, low on ammunition, fell back in good order at about 11:30 a.m. Excluding the mounted company, the 2nd Kansas had taken about 600 men into the fight and had lost 5 men killed, 59 wounded, and 6 missing.
### End of service
After the battle, the Union troops fell back to Springfield, and then moved to Rolla and St. Louis. Ordered back to Kansas for its exit from Union service, the regiment halted at Hannibal, Missouri, on August 31, where half of the regiment joined part of the 3rd Iowa Infantry Regiment on an expedition to Paris, Missouri, where a skirmish was fought on September 2, driving the enemy out of the area. During the return march, on September 4, the men of the Paris expedition fought a small action at Shelbina, Missouri, with the officers of the 2nd Kansas deciding to withdraw to Macon. At Macon, Brigadier General Stephen A. Hurlbut ordered the regiment to return to Shelbina, but Blair cited his earlier orders to go to Kansas and continued moving. After a brief halt at Bloomfield to guard stores, the regiment continued on and fought minor actions at St. Joseph, Missouri, and Iatan, Missouri. The unit arrived at Leavenworth, Kansas, but was deployed to Wyandotte County, Kansas, after enemy forces captured Lexington, Missouri, since Kansas was believed to be threatened. It then returned to Leavenworth, where it completed its time of service. The regiment's service formally ended on October 31. During their time with the regiment, 17 men had died of various causes. Some of the unit's soldiers, including Mitchell, Blair, and Cloud, then served in the 2nd Kansas Cavalry Regiment.
## See also
- List of Kansas Civil War units
- Kansas in the American Civil War |
1,862,337 | Jermain Taylor | 1,163,070,258 | American boxer | [
"1978 births",
"20th-century African-American sportspeople",
"21st-century African-American sportspeople",
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"Boxers at the 2000 Summer Olympics",
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"World middleweight boxing champions"
] | Jermain Taylor (born August 11, 1978) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 2001 to 2014. He remains the most recent undisputed middleweight champion, having won the WBA (Undisputed), WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring middleweight titles in 2005 by beating Bernard Hopkins, and in doing so ending Hopkins' twelve-year reign as middleweight champion. This made Taylor the first, and to date, only male boxer in history to claim each title from all four major boxing sanctioning organizations in a single fight. He once again defeated Hopkins six months later, making him the only fighter to have defeated Hopkins twice. He retired as a world champion in the months that followed his capture of the IBF middleweight title for a second time, after making a substantial recovery from a brain injury sustained earlier in his career.
Taylor made his professional debut in 2001 and won his first 25 bouts, which included victories over former champions Raúl Márquez and William Joppy. Taylor, who began boxing officially at age 13, earned numerous accolades throughout his amateur career, starting with his achievement of the 1996 Under-19 Championship. He went on to win a pair of Police Athletic League (PAL) Championships and National Golden Gloves titles and he finished second and third at the 1997 and 1998 United States Championships, respectively. In 1998, Taylor won a bronze medal at the Goodwill Games. Then, in 2000, he earned a spot on the U.S. Olympic boxing team, becoming the first ever boxer from Arkansas to compete in the Olympic Games. At the 2000 Olympics, Taylor won a bronze medal in the light middleweight division.
During his reign as unified middleweight champion, Taylor won an immediate rematch against Hopkins and defeated Kassim Ouma and Cory Spinks, as well as fighting Winky Wright to a draw. Having vacated the WBC and IBF titles, he lost the remainder of the unified and lineal middleweight championship to Kelly Pavlik in 2007, in what was his first professional defeat. A move up to super middleweight for a rematch against Pavlik the following year was also unsuccessful. In 2009, Taylor challenged Carl Froch for the WBC super middleweight title, but was stopped with seconds remaining in the final round. At the end of the year he participated in the Super Six World Boxing Classic tournament, but was again knocked out in the closing seconds of the final round by Arthur Abraham.
Subsequent neurological issues would force Taylor out of the ring for the next two years. He returned in 2011, winning five consecutive fights and defeating Sam Soliman in 2014 to claim his second IBF middleweight title. Later that year, Taylor was arrested and detained on gun charges but would avoid a prison sentence in 2016.
## Professional career
### Early fights
In December 2000, Taylor signed with boxing promoter Lou DiBella. Pat Burns became Taylor's trainer as a professional and Ozell Nelson became an assistant. He made his professional boxing debut on January 27, 2001, at Madison Square Garden in New York City against Chris Walsh. Taylor managed to knock Walsh down twice with his right hand and won his debut after forcing a stoppage with 16 seconds left in the fourth and final round. He went on to fight six more times in 2001, resulting in six more victories. Taylor continued his winning streak through 2002 and 2003, before defeating Alex Bunema on March 27, 2004. Taylor's next bout occurred on June 19, 2004 against former IBF Light Middleweight Champion Raúl Márquez. Taylor controlled the fight by using his jab and right hand throughout the one-sided contest. Near the end of the ninth round, Taylor landed a right uppercut that staggered Márquez. A follow-up right hand put Márquez down just before the bell rung to end the round. Soon after Márquez arrived to his corner, his trainer told the referee to stop the fight, resulting in a technical knockout victory for Taylor. On December 4, 2004, Taylor fought former WBA Middleweight Champion William Joppy in his hometown of Little Rock. For the majority of the fight, Joppy made the more aggressive Taylor chase him, while landing few punches and seeming more content to frustrate Taylor. Taylor landed several punches early in the fight and knocked Joppy down in the fifth round en route to a unanimous decision victory with scores of 120–107 from all three judges. In his next bout, Taylor fought Daniel Edouard on February 19, 2005. In the third round, Taylor landed a 10-punch combination that hurt Edouard to the point that the referee decided to stop the fight.
### Undisputed middleweight champion
Taylor fought Bernard Hopkins for the Undisputed Middleweight Championship on July 16, 2005 at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas, Nevada. At age 40, Hopkins entered the bout with a record 20 consecutive successful title defenses and had not lost a fight in 12 years. Hopkins entered the boxing match as a 3–2 favorite to win. Taylor was able to successfully use his jab to control the first two rounds of the fight, though neither fighter was taking any major risks. He tended to move forward, while Hopkins was patient and waited for openings in Taylor's defense. In round five, a clash of heads opened a cut on the top of Taylor's head. In the tenth round, Hopkins hurt Taylor with two right hands that made his legs wobble and forced him to clinch. Taylor won the bout by split decision with two judges scoring the fight 115–113 for Taylor and the other judge scoring it 116–112 for Hopkins. With the victory, Taylor became the new Undisputed Middleweight Champion, winning the WBC, WBO, IBF, WBA (Super), The Ring and Lineal Middleweight Championships. Hopkins appealed the decision, but was denied by the Nevada State Athletic Commission.
On December 3, 2005, Taylor defeated Hopkins by unanimous decision in a rematch at the Mandalay Bay Resort & Casino in Las Vegas. In order for the rematch to occur, Taylor vacated his IBF Middleweight title on October 11, 2005. Days before the fight, tensions rose after Hopkins mocked Taylor's speech impediment and called him a "phony champion." Taylor responded by bringing a doll with Hopkins' name on it to the final prefight press conference to suggest that he was a "crybaby." In a similar situation to the first fight, Hopkins started slowly and began pressuring Taylor in the later rounds. Hopkins ended the fight with a 101–60 advantage in power punches, while Taylor had success with his jab, outlanding Hopkins 64–29. All three judges scored the bout 115–113 for Taylor. After the fight, Taylor said that he would welcome a challenge against the winner of a fight between former Undisputed Light Middleweight Champion Winky Wright and Sam Soliman. On December 10, 2005, Wright defeated Soliman by unanimous decision to retain his number one position in the WBC and WBA Middleweight rankings and take over the number one spot in the IBF Middleweight rankings.
### Unified middleweight champion
#### Taylor vs. Wright
On June 17, 2006, Taylor fought Winky Wright at the FedEx Forum in Memphis, Tennessee. The WBC had ordered Taylor and Wright to begin negotiating on the fight on December 12, 2005 and if the two sides could not agree, a purse bid would be ordered. An agreement was made 10 minutes before a purse bid was to take place. Ozell Nelson, unsatisfied with Taylor's progression between the first and second Hopkins fights, helped convince Taylor to replace Pat Burns with hall of fame trainer Emanuel Steward. Taylor received \$3.75 million for the fight and Wright made \$3.5 million. Wright only paid sanctioning fees for the WBC belt, while Taylor paid fees to the WBC and WBO. Taylor did not pay the fees to the WBA amid controversy of the organization removing him from their rankings after questions of whether Taylor followed all procedures for the WBA before his rematch with Hopkins. He was reinstated at the top the organizations' middleweight rankings, but his title remained under review. The bout was evenly competitive through the first 10 rounds, with Wright winning most of the early rounds before Taylor became more active in the latter part of the fight. By the ninth round, Wright had swelling above both his eyes. Wright was winning the bout going into the final round on two of the judges' scorecards, but he was generally passive in the round. Two of the three judges gave the round to Taylor, which resulted in a draw. The scores for the fight were 115–113 for Taylor, 115–113 for Wright and 114–114.
#### Taylor vs. Ouma, Spinks
On December 9, 2006, Taylor fought Kassim Ouma at the Alltel Arena in North Little Rock, Arkansas. Taylor hurt Ouma early in the first round and continued to control the fight through the middle part of the fight with jabs and hooks. During the second half of the fight, Taylor gradually began to tire and suffered a cut over the left eye. He allowed Ouma to back him into the ropes often as the fight came to an end. However, Ouma was unable to be effective with his punches. Taylor won the bout by unanimous decision with scores of 117–111, 115–113 and 118–110. Afterwards, the WBA announced that Taylor was no longer the holder of its Middleweight Super Championship. On May 19, 2007, Taylor went up against former Undisputed Welterweight Champion Cory Spinks at the FedEx Forum in Memphis. Taylor dictated the fight by staying away from Spinks and landing one punch at a time. He hurt Spinks with a right hand in the seventh round. Spinks, with a much shorter reach, had difficulty getting within a closer range against his opponent. Taylor landed 101 of 319 punches, while Spinks landed just 85 of 542. Taylor won the fight by split decision, with two judges scoring 117–111 and 115–113 in favor of him and the other scoring 117–111 for Spinks.
#### Taylor vs. Pavlik
In his next bout, Taylor fought Kelly Pavlik on September 29, 2007 at Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Pavlik began rising in popularity after an upset victory over Edison Miranda in a Middleweight Title Eliminator to determine the number one contender to fight Taylor. During their amateur careers, Taylor had defeated Pavlik on February 9, 2000 in the opening round of the United States Olympic trials. In the second round of the bout, Taylor landed a right hand and followed-up with several more punches which resulted in the first knockdown of the fight. Pavlik got up and managed to make it to the end of the round. Entering the seventh round, Taylor had a commanding lead on all three judges' scorecards. With less than a minute remaining in the round, Pavlik landed a right cross that sent Taylor into a corner. Pavlik closed in and threw a left uppercut followed by a left and right hook and right uppercut. Two more left hooks dropped Taylor to the canvas as the referee stepped in to halt the fight. It was the first time Taylor had lost in his professional career and the first time he had ever been knocked down. One month later, Taylor exercised a rematch clause in his contract with Pavlik. The rematch took place at a weight of 166 pounds (75 kg), six pounds higher than the middleweight limit. Due to disappointing performances, Emanuel Steward was fired as Taylor's trainer and replaced with Ozell Nelson. Fighting at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas on February 16, 2008, Taylor lost the rematch to Pavlik by unanimous decision.
### Super middleweight
After the two losses to Pavlik, Taylor moved up officially to the super middleweight division. On November 15, 2008, Taylor defeated Jeff Lacy by a dominant unanimous decision to earn a mandatory fight against the winner of a bout between Carl Froch and Jean Pascal for the vacant WBC Super Middleweight title, a fight that was won by Froch. On April 25, 2009, at the Foxwoods Resort Casino in Ledyard, Connecticut, Taylor fought Carl Froch for the WBC Super Middleweight title. Taylor was able to control the first two rounds of the fight. In the third round, Taylor knocked Froch down for the first time in his career with a right hand. Entering the final round, Taylor was ahead 106–102 on two of the judges' scorecards, while Froch was ahead 106–102 on the other. During the round, Froch landed two right hands that sent Taylor to the canvas. He got up, but Froch quickly went after him, trapping him against the ropes and landing a barrage of hard and fast punches. Taylor could not recoup or defend himself, desperately curling up against the ropes. Around 10 clean hard shots from Froch landed before the referee stepped in to stop the bout with only a matter of seconds left in the final round, earning Froch the technical knockout victory.
### Super Six tournament and first retirement
Taylor competed in the preliminary round of the Super Six World Boxing Classic, a tournament by Showtime, to find out who is the best boxer in the super middleweight division.
On October 17, 2009, in his first fight in the Super Six tournament at the O2 World Arena in Berlin, Germany, undefeated Armenian-German former champion, Arthur Abraham, defeated Jermain Taylor by KO in the 12th round with less than 10 seconds left in the fight. Taylor was hospitalized with a severe concussion, suffering short term memory loss, unable to remember details of this bout. After being released from the hospital, Taylor released a statement saying that he's doing just fine and wanted to congratulate Abraham on his victory and wish him well in the tournament. At the time of the stoppage, the judges scorecards read: 104-102, 107-102 and 106-102, all in favour of Abraham.
In January 2010, Taylor, one of the original members of the Super Six World Boxing Classic, officially withdrew from the tournament. The former Undisputed Middleweight Champion issued a statement in early 2010 saying, "I'm going to take some time off from the sport of boxing and take myself out of the SHOWTIME Sports World Boxing Classic tournament. It's important that I give my body and mind some much needed rest, because I have been boxing for nearly 20 years," said Taylor. "I plan on keeping myself in shape and making a return to the sport sometime in the future. This was not an easy decision for me, having discussed it with my family, trainer, friends and my adviser Al Haymon, because I'm a very competitive person-but I know this is the smart road for me to take." Taylor was later replaced by Allan Green.
### Middleweight comeback
On December 30, 2011, after 26 months away from the ring, Taylor finally returned and faced Jessie Nicklow. In a fight scheduled for ten rounds, Taylor won via technical knockout in the eighth round. He then took on then-undefeated Caleb Truax (18-0-1) on April 25, 2012 in another fight scheduled for ten rounds. Taylor controlled most of the action and survived a knock-down in round nine in order to win a unanimous decision victory.
Taylor then faced boxing veteran Raul Munoz on October 12, 2012. He made short work of Muñoz, winning via second-round KO.
Taylor's next bout was against Juan Carlos Candelo on December 14, 2013. Jermaine won with a seventh-round TKO.
On October 4, 2014, Taylor fought Sam Soliman, in Biloxi, Mississippi for Soliman's IBF Middleweight World Championship belt. After twelve grueling rounds, (Soliman injured his knee badly midway through the fight) and knocking Soliman down four times (Soliman actually went down on his own from the knee injury, not primarily from punches from Taylor), Taylor won with a resounding unanimous decision. By regaining the belt he had lost to Pavlik in 2007, Taylor became a two-time middleweight world champion.
### Troubles outside the ring and second retirement
On February 6, 2015 Taylor was scheduled to defend his title against Sergio Mora on ESPN2's Friday Night Fights in Biloxi, Mississippi. However, the fight was cancelled after Taylor suffered an injury and was also later arrested and charged with multiple felonies following an incident on January 19 (see Personal life below). The IBF subsequently stripped him of his title on February 6, due to his inability to defend during his ongoing legal and mental health issues.
## Personal life
Taylor was married to former Louisiana Tech University basketball player Erica Taylor, who was selected in the second round of the 2005 WNBA draft by the Washington Mystics. Jermain and Erica Taylor have three daughters. Jermaine has a son also Jermain Taylor JR. Taylor gained popularity in the state for frequently mentioning how proud he was to be from Arkansas. He is known to be an enthusiastic fan of the University of Arkansas Razorbacks and has visited the Arkansas campus to talk to the football team. Taylor often sports a large Razorback on the back of his boxing robe and trunks for his fights. He was named "Arkansan of the Year" for 2005 by the Arkansas Times. In 2007, Taylor was inducted into the Arkansas Sports Hall of Fame along with former NFL players Rod Smith and Willie Roaf. Taylor has modeled for Everlast, GQ and Vogue.
Lou Dibella resigned as Taylor's promoter because he was concerned with Taylor's health following the knockout from Arthur Abraham in the Super Six tournament. Taylor had been knocked out two times prior to the Abraham bout.
On August 26, 2014, Taylor was taken into police custody and charged with two felonies after officers said he shot his cousin during an altercation in his Little Rock, Arkansas, home. Taylor was out on bond for his October 4, 2014, bout versus Sam Soliman. On January 19, 2015, Taylor was arrested without incident and a gun was recovered. He was jailed on five felony counts of aggravated assault, three felony counts of endangering the welfare of a minor, and a misdemeanor count of drug possession after he was found to have a small bag of marijuana. Taylor was remanded to the custody of the Pulaski County Regional Detention Facility in Little Rock in lieu of a \$27,000 bond.
On May 20, 2016, Taylor was given a suspended sentence of 19 years to be served concurrently, amounting to a six-year suspended sentence for three cases. He was also sentenced to probation and will have to serve 120 hours of community service, pay a \$2,000 fine plus court costs, and will have to submit to regular drug screens.
## Professional boxing record
## See also
- List of middleweight boxing champions
- List of WBA world champions
- List of WBC world champions
- List of IBF world champions
- List of WBO world champions
- List of The Ring world champions
- List of undisputed boxing champions |
23,870,864 | Tom Denning, Baron Denning | 1,173,275,649 | English lawyer and judge (1899–1999) | [
"1899 births",
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] | Alfred Thompson "Tom" Denning, Baron Denning, OM, PC, DL (23 January 1899 – 5 March 1999), was an English barrister and judge. He was called to the bar of England and Wales in 1923 and became a King's Counsel in 1938. Denning became a judge in 1944 when he was appointed to the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice, and transferred to the King's Bench Division in 1945. He was made a Lord Justice of Appeal in 1948 after less than five years in the High Court. He became a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary in 1957 and after five years in the House of Lords returned to the Court of Appeal as Master of the Rolls in 1962, a position he held for twenty years. In retirement he wrote several books and continued to offer opinions on the state of the common law through his writing and his position in the House of Lords.
Margaret Thatcher said that Denning was "probably the greatest English judge of modern times". One of Lord Denning's successors as Master of the Rolls, Lord Bingham, called him "the best known and best loved judge in our history". Denning's appellate work in the Court of Appeal did not concern criminal law. Mark Garnett and Richard Weight argue that Denning was a conservative Christian who "remained popular with morally conservative Britons who were dismayed at the postwar rise in crime and who, like him, believed that the duties of the individual were being forgotten in the clamour for rights. He had a more punitive than redemptive view of criminal justice, as a result of which he was a vocal supporter of corporal and capital punishment." However, he changed his stance on capital punishment in later life.
Denning became one of the highest profile judges in England in part because of his report on the Profumo affair. He was known for his bold judgments running counter to the law at the time. During his 38-year career as a judge, he made large changes to the common law, particularly while in the Court of Appeal, and although some of his decisions were overturned by the House of Lords several of them were confirmed by Parliament, which passed statutes in line with his judgments. Appreciated for his role as "the people's judge" and his support for the individual, Denning attracted attention for his occasionally flexible attitude to the common law principle of precedent. He commented controversially about the Birmingham Six and Guildford Four.
## Early life and studies
Denning was born on 23 January 1899 in Whitchurch, Hampshire, to Charles Denning, a draper, and his wife Clara Denning (née Thompson). He was one of six children; his older brother Reginald Denning later became a staff officer with the British Army, and his younger brother Norman Denning became Director of Naval Intelligence and Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff (Intelligence). Denning was born two months earlier than expected and almost died at birth; he was so small and weak that he was nicknamed 'Tom Thumb' and could fit in a pint pot. He was named after Alfred the Great by his sister Marjorie, and was baptised on 23 April 1899 at All Hallows Church, Whitchurch.
Denning, along with his older brother Gordon, began his schooling at the National School of Whitchurch, one of many set up by the National Society for the Education of the Poor. Both boys won scholarships to Andover Grammar School, where Denning excelled academically, winning four prizes for English essays on the subjects of "The Great Authors", "Macaulay", "Carlyle" and "Milton". The outbreak of the First World War saw most of the schoolmasters leave to join the British armed forces, being replaced by female teachers. At the time Denning wanted to become a mathematician, but none of the new teachers knew enough mathematics to teach him; instead, he taught himself. He qualified to study at University College, Southampton, but was advised to stay at school and apply to Oxford or Cambridge in a few years. He sat the Oxbridge examination when he was sixteen and was awarded a £30 a year exhibition to study mathematics at Magdalen College, Oxford; the money was not enough to live on, but he accepted nevertheless. Although he had been accepted by a college he still needed to gain entry to the university as a whole, which meant passing exams including Greek – which had not been taught at Andover Grammar School. Denning managed to teach himself enough of the subject to pass, and matriculated to Oxford in 1916.
In addition to his Magdalen Scholarship he gained a scholarship from Hampshire County Council worth £50 a year. After arriving he made a favourable impression on Sir Herbert Warren, the president of Magdalen College, who upgraded the exhibition to a Demyship of £80 a year and arranged for the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths to give Denning a £30 a year scholarship. Despite military training in the early morning and evening, Denning worked hard at his studies, and obtained a First in Mathematical Moderations, the first half of his mathematics degree, in June 1917.
## War service
Denning was told he would be ineligible to serve in the Armed Forces because of a systolic heart murmur, which he believed the doctor diagnosed because he was tired of sending young men off to die. He successfully appealed against the decision, and enlisted on 14 August 1917 as a cadet in the Hampshire Regiment before being sent to the Royal Engineers Oxford University Officer Training Corps. He trained at Newark and was temporarily commissioned as a second lieutenant on 17 November 1917. Although he was old enough to serve in the armed forces, regulations meant that he was not allowed to serve in France until he was nineteen.
In March 1918, the German Army advanced closer to Amiens and Paris and Denning's unit was sent to France to help stop the advance. Under continuous shell fire for three months, the company and the 38th (Welsh) Infantry Division held their section of the line, with a unit under Denning's command building a bridge to allow infantry to advance over the River Ancre. Denning went two days without sleep while building these bridges; shortly after one was completed, a German aeroplane dropped a bomb on it, forcing them to start again. The unit advanced over the River Ancre and the Canal du Nord, but Denning fell ill with influenza and was in hospital for the last few days of the war. When writing of his experiences in World War I in The Family Story, Denning summed up his war service with characteristic pithiness in just four words: "I did my bit".
Denning's oldest brother, Captain John Edward Newdigate Denning, was killed near Gueudecourt on 26 September 1916 whilst serving with the Lincolnshire Regiment. His brother, Sub-Lieutenant Charles Gordon Denning, who saw action in the Battle of Jutland, died of tuberculosis on 24 May 1918 after serving with the Royal Navy on HMS Morris. Denning would describe his dead brothers as the best of him and his siblings.
## Return to Oxford
Denning was demobilised on 6 February 1919, and returned to Magdalen College four days later. He initially thought about turning to applied mathematics, but decided on pure mathematics. He studied hard, not participating in any of the university's numerous societies or clubs so that he could better focus on his work, and graduated in 1920, placing in the first class of the Mathematical Greats (the final undergraduate examinations for the subject). He was offered a job teaching mathematics at Winchester College for £350 a year, which he accepted. As well as mathematics, he taught geology, despite not having studied it; instead, he "read up on [it] the night before". He found the job boring, and after viewing the Assize Court at Winchester Castle decided he would like to be a barrister.
On the advice of Herbert Warren, he returned to Magdalen to study Jurisprudence in October 1921. Thanks to Warren, Denning was elected to the Eldon Law Scholarship, worth £100 a year, to finance his studies; when the news of Denning's election was brought, Warren wrote "you are a marked man. Perhaps you will be a Lord of Appeal some day". Denning took his final examinations in June 1922 and impressed the examiner, Geoffrey Cheshire, by correctly answering questions on the Law of Property Act which had been given Royal Assent only a few days before.
Denning gained a high grade in all his subjects except jurisprudence, which he described as "too abstract a subject for my liking". He did not return to read for a Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) but instead attempted to gain a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford; he failed to be accepted, something he put down to his poor pronunciation of Latin.
## The Bar
Denning was admitted to Lincoln's Inn on 4 November 1921, choosing it because the Under Treasurer was a graduate of Magdalen College. On the advice of his brother's friend Frank Merriman he applied to 4 Brick Court, Middle Temple, a small set of chambers run by Henry O'Hagan. He was accepted and began work there in September 1922, before he had taken his final bar exam. He finished his final exam in May 1923 and came top in the bar examination, with the Inn awarding him a 100 guineas a year studentship of three years. He was called to the Bar on 13 June 1923, and was offered a tenancy by O'Hagan. His first few years were spent receiving small briefs from clients, including work prosecuting those who failed to pay rail tickets and fines. During this time, he also wrote a manual for the railway police giving guidance on incidents such as taxi drivers who refused to take a customer to a destination within the area specified by the Public Carriage Office (which they were legally obliged to do). He wrote his first article in 1924 titled "Quantum meruit and the Statute of Frauds" on the decision in Scott v Pattison [1923] 2 KB 723; it was accepted by the Law Quarterly Review and published in January 1925.
His work steadily increased in amount and quality throughout the 1920s and 1930s. By the 1930s, he was making most of his court appearances in the senior courts such as the High Court of Justice; in 1932 he was advised by his clerk that he should not be seen in the county courts, and that he should leave this work for lesser members of the chambers. In 1929, he helped edit several chapters of Smith's Leading Cases (13th ed.) and in 1932 acted as a supervising editor for the 9th edition of Bullen & Leake's Precedents for Pleadings in the King's Bench Division. In 1932, he moved to his own set of chambers in Brick Court, and by 1936 he was earning over £3,000 a year (roughly £200,000 a year in 2020). A significant case was L'Estrange v F Graucob Ltd [1934] 2 KB 394, where he successfully argued an exemption clause was incorporated because a contract was signed. He said that 'If you are an advocate you want your client to win. If you are a judge you don't care who wins exactly. All you are concerned about is justice'.
From 1937 until 1944, he was Chancellor of the Diocese of Southwark, and from 1942 to 1944 was Chancellor of the Diocese of London. He applied to become a King's Counsel on 15 January 1938. The appointments were announced on 7 April; he "took silk" on 9 April and received letters of congratulation from, among others, Rayner Goddard. After the start of the Second World War, Denning volunteered; he was too old for active service, and was instead appointed legal advisor to the North East Region. In 1942, he took the case of Gold v Essex County Council [1942] 2 KB 293, which changed the law to make hospitals liable for the professional negligence of their staff.
In December 1943, a judge was taken ill, and Denning was asked to take his place as a Commissioner of Assize. This was regarded as a 'trial' for membership of the judiciary, and Denning was appointed Recorder of Plymouth on 17 February 1944. On 6 March 1944, while arguing a case in the House of Lords, Denning was taken aside by the Lord Chancellor and told that he wanted Denning to become a judge at the High Court of Justice in the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division. Denning accepted, and the announcement was made before the conclusion of the appeal.
## High Court
Denning was officially appointed on 7 March 1944 with a salary of £5,000, and received the customary knighthood on 15 March 1944. After becoming a judge Denning was also elected a Bencher of Lincoln's Inn, and became its treasurer in 1964. Denning had little experience with divorce law and disliked it; it was seen as an inferior type of law. There were few good barristers specialising in divorce law; two other barristers were sworn into the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division along with Denning, and of the three only one had ever practised divorce law. His work as a divorce judge was relatively sound; his decisions were overturned only once, in Churchman v Churchman [1945] 2 All ER 190.
With the appointment of Lord Jowitt as Lord Chancellor in 1945, Denning was transferred to the King's Bench Division, where Jowitt thought his talents would be better put to use (with Hildreth Glyn-Jones QC, later a High Court judge, greeting him with the words "welcome home").
In 1946, he travelled the Western Circuit but was recalled by the Lord Chancellor to chair a committee looking at the reform of procedure in divorce cases. He continued working as a judge while chairing the daily committee. The committee was appointed on 26 June 1946 and published its first report in July, which reduced the time between decree nisi and decree absolute from 6 months to 6 weeks. The second report was published in November, recommending that County Court judges should be appointed to try cases, and the final report was published in February 1947 recommending the establishment of a Marriage Welfare Service. The reports were well received by the public and led to Denning being invited in 1949 to become President of the National Marriage Guidance Council.
His appointment to the King's Bench Division allowed him to hear pension appeals, and he attempted to reform the principles applied by the government minister and the Pensions Tribunals. In Starr v Ministry of Pensions [1946] 1 KB 345 he ruled that it was up to the tribunals to prove that an injury was not due to war service, reversing the previous state of affairs where a claimant would have to prove their injuries were due to war service before they would be granted a pension. In James v Minister of Pensions [1947] KB 867 he also allowed for judges to approve time extensions for the claimant to gather more evidence when such extensions had been rejected by the Tribunal. These two cases made a large difference to applicants, and he received praise from both the British Legion and the public.
The government refused to do anything about those servicemen who had been rejected by the courts prior to Denning's judgment, which provoked public outcry under the slogan "Fit for Service, Fit for Pension". The British Legion chose 73 cases and asked Denning to let the Legion present them while the courts were not sitting; Denning heard all 73 cases on 11 July 1946.
In 1947, he decided in Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House Ltd [1947] KB 130 (known as the High Trees case), which was a milestone in English contract law. It resurrected the principle of promissory estoppel established in Hughes v Metropolitan Railway Co (1876–77) LR 2 App Cas 439 and has been both praised and criticised by lawyers and legal theorists.
As a High Court judge Denning sentenced people to death, which he said at the time "didn't worry [him] in the least". Denning maintained that for murder, death was the most appropriate penalty, and that in cases where mistakes had been made there was always an appeals system. In the 1950s there was growing opposition to the use of the death penalty, and a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate abolishing it. Denning told the Commission in 1953 that "the punishment inflicted for grave crimes should adequately reflect the revulsion felt by the great majority of citizens for them".
He later changed his mind about capital punishment, regarding it as unethical. In 1984, he wrote "Is it right for us, as a society, to do a thing – hang a man – which none of us individually would be prepared to do or even witness? The answer is 'no, not in a civilised society'".
## Court of Appeal
After less than five years as a judge, Denning was appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal on 14 October 1948. He was sworn in as a Privy Counsellor on 25 October 1948. As a Lord Justice of Appeal, he continued to make reforming judgments in a variety of areas, particularly in family law and the rights of deserted wives. In Bendall v McWhirter [1952] 2 QB 466 he ruled that a deserted wife occupying the marital home had a personal licence to stay there. The decision provoked disapproval among the judiciary and from the public; a correspondent wrote:
> Dear Sir: You are a disgrace to all mankind to let these women break up homes and expect us chaps to keep them while they rob us of what we have worked for and put us out on the street. I only hope you have the same trouble as us. So do us all a favour and take a Rolls and run off Beachy Head and don't come back.
This was effectively nullified with the case National Provincial Bank Ltd v Ainsworth [1965] AC 1175 in 1965, which ruled that the deserted wife had no licence to stay. The decision was very unpopular and led to the passing of the Matrimonial Homes Act 1967. Much of his work in favour of the deserted wife was based around his interpretation of the Married Women's Property Act 1882, which the House of Lords unanimously overruled in Pettitt v Pettitt [1970] AC 777 in 1970. Further notable decisions by Denning in this area were Heseltine v Heseltine [1971] 1 WLR 342 in 1971 and Wachtel v Wachtel [1973] Fam 72 in 1973, which created basic rules for dividing family assets in a divorce case, something which had not previously been established in the law.
In 1951, he gave a significant dissenting judgment in the case Candler v Crane, Christmas & Co, regarded as a "brilliant advancement to the law of negligent misstatements" and which was later approved of by the House of Lords in Hedley Byrne & Co Ltd v Heller & Partners Ltd [1963] 2 All ER 575. In Combe v Combe in 1952 he elaborated on his resurrected doctrine of promissory estoppel, saying that it could be a "shield" not a "sword"; it could be used to defend a claim, but not to create a cause of action where none existed. In 1954, his decision in Roe v Minister of Health [1954] 2 AER 131 altered the grounds on which hospital staff could be found negligent, a legal precedent he himself had set in Gold v Essex County Council in 1942. In 1955, his leading judgment in Entores Ltd v Miles Far East Corporation [1955] 2 QB 327 implemented a way to judge the moment of acceptance in an instantaneous or near-instantaneous method of communication; like the High Trees case it is still valid.
## House of Lords
After the resignation of Lord Oaksey in 1956, Denning was offered a job as a Law Lord. After a period of contemplation (he worried that such an appointment would reduce his chances of becoming Master of the Rolls or Lord Chief Justice) he accepted, and was formally offered the job on 5 April 1957. He was appointed on 24 April 1957, as Baron Denning, of Whitchurch in the County of Southampton; for the supporters of his coat of arms he chose Lord Mansfield and Sir Edward Coke. Many members of the judiciary and the Bar approved of his appointment, but he was warned that he should move slowly to reform the court. During his time in the House of Lords, he also served as Chairman of the Quarter Sessions of East Sussex.
Denning did not enjoy his time in the House of Lords and clashed frequently with Gavin, Viscount Simonds, who was known as a conservative and orthodox judge. Despite his reputation as a fiercely individual judge, Denning dissented in only 16% of cases he heard in the House of Lords; fewer than Lord Keith, who dissented 22% of the time. On 9 May 1960, Denning was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Sussex.
## Master of the Rolls
In 1962, Lord Evershed resigned as Master of the Rolls, and Denning was appointed to replace him on 19 April 1962 with a salary of £9,000. Although Denning himself described it as "a step down" he was pleased with his appointment, as he had much preferred his time with the Court of Appeal than the House of Lords. Court of Appeal judges sit in threes, and the Lords in fives (or more), so it was suggested that to get his way in the Court of Appeal Denning only had to persuade one other judge whereas in the House of Lords it was at least two. The other "benefit" of the Court of Appeal is that it hears more cases than the House of Lords, and so has a greater effect on the law. During his twenty years as Master of the Rolls, Denning could choose both which cases he heard, and the judges with whom he sat. Therefore, on most issues, he effectively had the last word; comparatively few cases went on to the House of Lords, which was at that time Britain's highest court of law.
As Master of the Rolls he selected cases he felt to be particularly important to hear and, rather than having an American system (where judges had a rota for taking cases), assigned cases to those judges who had expertise in that particular area of law. In 1963, he chaired a committee investigating ways to reduce the archive of legal documents kept by the Public Record Office; by that point the files for civil cases of the High Court alone occupied four miles of shelving. The final report was presented to the Lord Chancellor on 16 May 1966, with the conclusion being that "if our proposals are implemented the Public Record Office alone will be relieved of two hundred tons of records (occupying 15,000 feet of shelving)". The Lord Chancellor took Denning's report to heart, and had the changes he recommended implemented immediately.
### Contract law
Denning gave the leading judgment in D & C Builders Ltd v Rees [1965] 2 QB 617 in 1965. D & C Builders Ltd (the respondent) had been hired by Rees (the appellant) to do some construction work at his shop, where he sold building materials. The respondent finished the work and repeatedly phoned the appellant to request the money they were owed. After three phone calls spread out over several months the appellant's wife spoke to the respondents; she said there were several problems with the work that they had done, and she would only pay £300 of the £482 owed. The respondents replied that £300 would barely cover the costs of the materials, but that they would accept it anyway. If the respondents had not received the money they would have gone bankrupt, something the appellant's wife was well aware of. In his judgment, Denning modified English case law on part payment and accord and satisfaction, saying that the rules on part payment can be set aside in situations where one of the parties is under duress. The fact that D & C Builders were effectively forced into accepting the lesser amount meant that the payment was not valid.
In Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd [1971] 2 QB 163 in 1971 the Court of Appeal under Denning ruled that when dealing with offer and acceptance between a person and an automated machine the offer was made by the machine. In Butler Machine Tool Co Ltd v Ex-Cell-O Corp Ltd [1979] 1 WLR 401 in 1979 Denning reformed case law in relation to the so-called "battle of the forms".
### Tort law
Denning gave the leading judgment in Letang v Cooper [1964] 2 All ER 929 in 1964. Mrs Letang, on holiday in Cornwall, decided to lie down and rest in grass outside a hotel. Cooper drove into the hotel car park and, not seeing Letang, ran over her legs. More than three years after the events, Letang brought a tort case against Cooper, claiming damages for her injuries. The standard tort for personal injuries is that of negligence, which has a three-year statute of limitations, and Letang instead claimed damages under the tort of trespass to the person. In his judgment, Denning stated that the tort of trespass could only be used if the injury was inflicted intentionally; if it was unintentionally, only negligence could be used.
In Spartan Steel and Alloys Ltd v. Martin & Co. Ltd [1973] 1 QB 27 in 1973 he delivered a leading judgment on the subject of the recovery of pure economic loss in negligence. Spartan Steel were a company that manufactured stainless steel in Birmingham, and their factory was powered by electricity. Less than a mile away from the factory, Martin & Co were doing maintenance work on a road when they accidentally unearthed and damaged the power cable providing the factory with electricity. Due to the power being off, the factory lost a large amount of money; £368 on damaged goods, £400 on the profits they would have made from those goods and £1,767 for the steel they could not make due to the power outage. The question was what Spartan Steel could claim money for. Martin & Co agreed they were negligent, and offered to pay for the damaged goods and the profit that Spartan Steel would have made on those goods, but refused to pay damages for the steel Spartan Steel could not make due to the power outage. In his judgment, Denning agreed that they would only have to pay for losses associated with the damaged goods, not the money lost on the steel that could not be made due to the power outage because it counted as pure economic loss. For public policy reasons, Denning would not allow the recovery of pure economic loss, stating in his judgment that:
1. Statutory utility providers are never liable for damages caused by their negligence.
2. A blackout is a common hazard and a risk which everyone can be expected to tolerate from time to time.
3. If claims for pure economic loss in such cases were allowed, it might lead to countless claims, some of which may be spurious.
4. It would be unfair to place the entire weight of many comparatively small losses upon the shoulders of one person in such cases.
5. The law does not leave the claimant without remedy by allowing him to recover the economic losses that are directly consequential upon physical damage.
The Court of Appeal's decision in Spartan Steel has been criticised, firstly for being based on public policy rather than any legal principle, and secondly because the main public policy ground for their decision (that allowing claims of pure economic loss would lead to countless claims) has never been backed up by evidence. The House of Lords eventually ruled in Junior Books v Veitchi [1982] 3 All ER 201 that pure economic loss was recoverable.
### The Profumo affair
Denning delivered a report into the Profumo affair. John Profumo was the Secretary of State for War with the British government. At a party in 1961, Profumo was introduced to Christine Keeler, a showgirl, and began having an affair with her. At the same time, she was in a relationship with Yevgeni Ivanov, a naval attaché at the embassy of the Soviet Union. On 26 January 1963, Keeler was contacted by police on an unrelated matter and voluntarily gave them information about her relationship with Profumo.
The police did not initially investigate; no crime had been committed, and the morals of ministers were not their concern. Although the relationship lasted only a few weeks it became public knowledge in 1962. Keeler attempted to publish her memoirs in the Sunday Pictorial in January 1963 but Profumo, still insisting that he had done nothing wrong, forced them to back down with threats of legal action should the story be published.
Profumo made a statement in the House of Commons on 22 March, saying that "there was no impropriety whatsoever in my acquaintanceship with Miss Keeler". On 4 June 1963, he contacted the Chief Whip and the Prime Minister's private secretary and informed them that he had indeed been having an affair with Keeler; therefore, he sent a letter of resignation to the Prime Minister, which was accepted.
On 21 June 1963, Harold Macmillan, the Prime Minister at the time, asked Denning to lead an enquiry into the "circumstances leading to the resignation of the former Secretary of State for War, Mr J. D. Profumo". He started work on 24 June and began speaking to witnesses a day later. This period of the inquiry took 49 days and involved his speaking to 160 people. He concluded that the primary responsibility for the scandal was with Profumo, for associating with Keeler and for lying to his colleagues, with the greatest error being his false statement in the House of Commons.
He also said that the situation had been looked at in the wrong way by police, members of parliament and the security services; rather than asking if Profumo had committed adultery they should have asked if his conduct had led ordinary people to believe he committed adultery. His analogy was with divorce law; a man does not need to have committed adultery for his wife to have grounds to divorce him, but rather she simply has to believe that he has committed adultery. This is because such a belief would destroy the trust and confidence within the relationship. This brought criticism from several government ministers including Sir John Hobson, the Attorney-General for England and Wales, saying that it would mean condemning a man on the basis of suspicion rather than evidence.
Denning's final report was 70,000 words long and was completed in the summer of 1963. He signed it on 16 September and it was published ten days later. It was a best-seller; 105,000 copies were sold, 4,000 in the first hour, with people queuing outside Her Majesty's Stationery Office to buy copies. The full report was published in The Daily Telegraph as a supplement and was described as "the raciest and most readable Blue Book ever published".
The report was criticised as a "whitewash", a claim Denning rejected; he said that "while the public interest demands that the facts should be ascertained as completely as possible there is a higher interest to be considered, namely the interest of justice to the individual which overrides all others".
### National security
In 1977, Denning upheld the deportation of Mark Hosenball, a journalist who had worked on a story which referred to the existence of GCHQ, which was considered to be a state secret. In the ruling, he argued that the government's decisions in these cases were beyond legal review, writing:
> "There is a conflict here between the interests of national security on the one hand and the freedom of the individual on the other. The balance between these two is not for a court of law. It is for the Home Secretary. He is the person entrusted by Parliament with the task. In some parts of the world national security has on occasions been used as an excuse for all sorts of infringements of individual liberty. But not in England."
### Illness and controversy
In 1979, he began to experience hip and leg problems; one of his legs had shortened an inch and a half and he had to learn to walk again. Although he remained otherwise in good health this was a sign of his increasing age, and the disabilities that came with it began to affect his judgments as well.
In the Union of Post Office Workers's anti-apartheid boycott of postal services to and from South Africa, The Freedom Association sought an injunction to prevent the boycott. Denning granted a temporary injunction, and years later wrote of "bad workers" (who joined the boycott) and "good workers" (who worked normally).
In 1980, during an appeal by the Birmingham Six (who were later acquitted), Denning judged that the men should be stopped from challenging legal decisions. He listed several reasons for not allowing their appeal:
> Just consider the course of events if their action were to proceed to trial ... If the six men failed it would mean that much time and money and worry would have been expended by many people to no good purpose. If they won, it would mean that the police were guilty of perjury; that they were guilty of violence and threats; that the confessions were involuntary and improperly admitted in evidence; and that the convictions were erroneous. ... That was such an appalling vista that every sensible person would say, "It cannot be right that these actions should go any further."
In 1982, he published What Next in the Law; in it, he seemed to suggest that "British citizens were no longer all qualified to serve on juries", that some members of the black community were unsuitable to serve on juries and that immigrant groups may have had different moral standards to native Englishmen.
> The English are no longer a homogeneous race. They are white and black, coloured and brown. They no longer share the same standards of conduct. Some of them come from countries where bribery and graft are accepted as an integral part of life and where stealing is a virtue so long as you are not found out... They will never accept the word of a policeman against one of their own.
His remarks followed a trial over the St Pauls riot in Bristol; two jurors on the case threatened to sue him and the Society of Black Lawyers wrote to the Lord Chancellor to request that Denning "politely and firmly" be made to retire. Denning apologised for his remarks on 21 May and handed a letter to the Lord Chancellor detailing his resignation, effective as of 29 September.
On 5 July, George Thomas held a dinner in Denning's honour at the Speaker's House. Attending were Margaret Thatcher, Robert Runcie, Lord Hailsham of St Marylebone, Geoffrey Howe, Lord Lane, Willie Whitelaw, Michael Havers, and Christopher Leaver. On 30 July 1982, his last day in court, Denning prepared four judgments and, dressed in his official robes and in the company of the Lord Chief Justice, delivered his farewell speech to over 300 lawyers crowded into the court. He delivered his last judgment on 29 September in George Mitchell (Chesterhall) Ltd v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd [1983] 2 AC 803 and, characteristically, dissented, though the House of Lords would later unanimously uphold his dissent.
## Retirement and death
In retirement, Denning removed to Whitchurch and continued the work he had done outside court hours, lecturing and presenting awards. He also on occasion dispensed legal advice; in February 1983, he advised Patrick Evershed on the statutory duties of water suppliers. Further hip troubles were resolved with a full replacement in March 1983, although a fall later that year forced him to stay at home for six weeks. With free time on his hands Denning spoke in the House of Lords on matters that interested him, supporting an amendment to the Abortion Act 1967 and bills designed to allow the administration of companies in financial difficulties. During debates on the Local Government Act 1986 about the Section 28, Denning boasted of having sentenced men to prison for “the abominable offence of buggery”, warning that “we must not allow this cult of homosexuality, making it equal with heterosexuality, to develop in our land.” Four years later he opposed homosexuality among judges, claiming it would result in blackmail and improper relations with barristers.
In 1983, he published the final volume of his autobiography The Closing Chapter and a year later published Landmarks in the Law. His final book titled Leaves from my Library was published in 1986; it was a collection of his favourite pieces of prose, and was subtitled "An English Anthology". He appeared in an episode of the children's television programme Jim'll Fix It, helping to grant a thirteen-year-old girl's wish to be a barrister for a day. By 1989, his health was failing; he was suffering from dizzy spells, and after falling from a train at Waterloo station he was advised he should not visit London again unless he was driven.
In the summer of 1990, he agreed to a taped interview with A. N. Wilson, to be published in The Spectator. They discussed the Guildford Four; Denning remarked that if the Guildford Four had been hanged "They'd probably have hanged the right men. Just not proved against them, that's all". His remarks were controversial and came at a time when the issue of miscarriage of justice was a sensitive topic. He had expressed a similar controversial opinion regarding the Birmingham Six in 1988, saying: "Hanging ought to be retained for murder most foul. We shouldn't have all these campaigns to get the Birmingham Six released if they'd been hanged. They'd have been forgotten, and the whole community would be satisfied ... It is better that some innocent men remain in jail than that the integrity of the English judicial system be impugned."
In the same article, according to Wilson, "Denning the Europhobe told me that it was 'entirely wrong' for this country to have put its interests in Europe into the hands of 'a German Jew, if you please' called Leon Brittan. When I questioned the accuracy of this description of Sir Leon, Denning reaffirmed it: 'Look him up – you'll see he was a German Jew.'" Leon Brittan was, in fact, born in England, the child of Lithuanian immigrants. Denning appeared on a radio programme aimed at the Jewish community to apologise, saying that Jewish refugees from Hitler's Germany had contributed a great deal in the fields of science, culture, art, law and music, and that "I'd like to express my gratitude to those of that origin who came and have done so much for England."
On 25 November 1997, he was appointed to the Order of Merit; by this point he was too weak to travel to London to receive it, so instead a representative of the Queen travelled to Whitchurch to present it to him.
He celebrated his 100th birthday in Whitchurch on 23 January 1999, receiving telegrams from both the Queen and Queen Mother. A male choir sang "Happy Birthday to You" and the local church had a new bell named "Great Tom" cast in his honour specifically for the occasion. By this point his health had deteriorated even further; he was legally blind and required a hearing aid. On 5 March 1999 he fell ill and was rushed to Royal Hampshire County Hospital, where he died of an internal haemorrhage. He was the last veteran of World War I to sit in the House of Lords.
Denning was buried in his home town of Whitchurch, in the local churchyard. A memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey on 17 June 1999; among the tributes received, one was from the Lord Chief Justice Lord Bingham, who described Denning as "the best-known and best loved judge in our history".
## Other work
As well as his work as a barrister and judge, Denning was involved in supporting student law societies and other groups; at various times he was Vice-President of Queen's University Belfast Law Society and a patron of the Legal Research Foundation, the United Law Clerks' Society and the Commonwealth Legal Education Association. He also spent time as the Vice-President of the Society of Genealogists, Honorary President of the Council for the Protection of Rural England and Honorary President of the Glasgow University Dialectic Society. From 1950 he acted as an administrator and fund-raiser for Cumberland Lodge. After being made aware of the Le Court charity for invalid ex-servicemen by Geoffrey Cheshire, Denning became the chairman of the organisation in 1952. In 1953, he was elected President of Birkbeck College, University of London and on 18 March presented the 1952 Haldane Memorial Lecture on the subject of the rule of law and the welfare state. In 1964, he was made President of the English Association in recognition of his contributions to English prose. He became Chairman of the Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1962, resigning in December 1982.
In 1949, he gave the inaugural Hamlyn Lectures at the Senate House, University of London under the title Freedom under the Law. The success of these lectures led to his being invited to speak at many more events; in early 1950 he spoke at University College, Dublin and in June spoke at the Holdsworth Club meeting at Birmingham University. In February 1953 he gave a speech on 'the need for a new equity' to the Bentham Club at University College London, and in May gave the thirty-third Earl Grey Memorial Lecture at King's College, University of Durham (now, part of Newcastle University), on the influence of religion on law. Towards the end of his judicial career he gave the 1980 Richard Dimbleby Lecture on the subject of "Misuse of Power".
In addition to being a Bencher of Lincoln's Inn in 1944 he was made an Honorary Bencher of Middle Temple in 1972, Gray's Inn in 1979 and Inner Temple in 1982, making him the only person to be elected a Bencher or Honorary Bencher of all four Inns of Court. In 1963, he was made a Doctor of Civil Law by the University of Oxford. In 1977, he was awarded with an honorary doctorate in the Netherlands, by Tilburg Law School, part of Tilburg University. He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Hampshire on 2 June 1978.
## Overseas travels
Throughout his career Denning travelled abroad to lecture and learn more about other legal systems. In 1954, he was sponsored by the Nuffield Foundation to travel to South Africa and visit the universities there in the court vacation. He visited all six universities, accompanied by his son Robert and wife Joan, lecturing on the role of the judiciary and the press in safeguarding freedom. In 1955, he travelled to the United States at the behest of the American Bar Association and was elected an honorary member, followed by a trip to Canada a year later as a guest of the Canadian Bar Association, where he was awarded an honorary law doctorate by the University of Ottawa and made a life member of the Canadian Bar Association. In 1958, he visited Israel and from there travelled to Poland, where he was surprised by both the number of female judges and how badly they were paid. In 1961, he travelled again to Israel to give the Lionel Cohen Lecture at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
In January 1964, Denning and his wife Joan travelled to India and Pakistan, visiting cities such as Madras (now Chennai) and Jaipur, meeting eminent jurists and speaking with Jawaharlal Nehru. He again visited Canada and the United States in the long vacation of 1964 and addressed a full conference hall in New York. On 14 August 1965, he and his wife flew to South America for a month-long tour of the continent sponsored by the British Council. The couple visited Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Peru before flying north to visit Mexico City. On 6 January 1966, the couple flew to Malta, where Denning spoke at legal conferences and lectures. In the same year, they flew to San Francisco, Fiji and finally to New Zealand to take part in the law conference at Dunedin, New Zealand. His lecture at the conference so impressed an Australian visitor that he was invited in 1967 to speak at the Australian Law Society annual conference. On the return home, the couple briefly stayed in Delhi, where they gave a dinner for members of the Indian Bar who had welcomed them during their visit in 1964. In 1968, they again visited Canada, and Denning was given an honorary degree by McGill University. In 1969, he again travelled to India, this time on an official visit with Elwyn Jones and Sir John Widgery.
In August 1969, he travelled to Fiji to arbitrate in a dispute between a majority of Fijian sugarcane growers and the Australian owners of the refining mills, which he was permitted to do on the condition he did not take a fee. Denning refused to have any contact with the government as a way to emphasise his neutrality in the situation. The agreements between growers and millers had been based on a contract written in 1961 due to end in March 1970. The growers were convinced that they were getting a bad deal; in response to their demand for better terms the mill-owners threatened to leave Fiji. Despite criticism from both sides at the beginning of the arbitration process, Denning came up with a solution which redressed matters in favour of growers, creating a new formula for working out prices and requiring that the mill owners have an accountant inspect their accounts and report back to the growers. Denning's decision impressed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, who invited him to report on the banana growing industry in Jamaica in the vacation of 1971. His foreign travels to lecture on English law led to him being described as the "Ambassador-at-Large for the common law".
## Judicial style
Denning was known for his excellent memory, repeating notes almost verbatim in his exams at Oxford and on one occasion identifying the exact book, page and paragraph of text in a judgment that covered a particular situation. As a judge he attempted to make his decisions and the law publicly understandable, believing that the public would not want to follow the law unless they believed and understood that it was just. In his cases, he referred to the parties by name in his judgments rather than as "plaintiff" and "defendant" and used short sentences and a "storytelling" style of speech shown in the case Beswick v Beswick where his judgment started:
> Old Peter Beswick was a coal merchant in Eccles, Lancashire. He had no business premises. All he had was a lorry, scales, and weights. He used to take the lorry to the yard of the National Coal Board, where he bagged coal and took it round to his customers in the neighbourhood. His nephew, John Joseph Beswick, helped him in his business. In March 1962, old Peter Beswick and his wife were both over 70. He had had his leg amputated and was not in good health. The nephew was anxious to get hold of the business before the old man died. So they went to a solicitor, Mr. Ashcroft, who drew up an agreement for them.
In court, Denning preferred to let counsel talk on for as long as they wanted to so that he could get a grasp of the situation without wading through irrelevant court papers; to prevent them going on too long he sat quietly and allowed them to wind down at their own pace.
Denning was also known for his long working schedule; when he served as Master of the Rolls he sat for five full days a week, and required reserved judgments (about one case in ten) to be written during the weekend. He expected the other justices to keep to the same schedule as himself, and was repeatedly warned about overwork. Fellow judge Stephen Henn-Collins wrote him a poem:
> > My brother pray be warned by me And always rise in time for tea And when you feel you must sit late Remember my untoward fate Don't go on sitting until seven But sit next morning at eleven
Unlike most of the judiciary, Denning firmly believed that the press should have access to the courts and freedom to criticise magistrates and judges. He believed all legal proceedings should be held in public, quoting Jeremy Bentham when he said that "in the darkness of secrecy all sorts of things can go wrong. If things are really done in public you can see that the judge does behave himself, the newspapers can comment on it if he misbehaves – it keeps everyone in order".
For many years, Denning was the president of the Lawyers' Christian Fellowship, and he once wrote that "Without religion there is no morality, and without morality there is no law." His Christian beliefs sometimes affected his judgments, particularly on the subject of the sanctity of marriage. In Re L (infants) he reversed a decision to give the children of a couple to the wife in a divorce case, believing that should the wife get custody of the children there would be no chance of saving the marriage.
Denning's style was consistently unique and regularly discussed by appellate judges. In the appeal of Denning's final case, Lord Diplock commented "I cannot refrain from noting with regret, which is, I am sure, shared by all members of the Appellate Committee of this House, that Lord Denning M.R.'s judgment in the instant case, which was delivered on September 29, 1982 is probably the last in which your Lordships will have the opportunity of enjoying his eminently readable style of exposition and his stimulating and percipient approach to the continuing development of the common law to which he has himself in his judicial lifetime made so outstanding a contribution."
## Legacy
Denning has been described as the most influential judge of the 20th century, in part because of his changes to the common law and also due to his personalisation of the legal profession. Former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher referred to Denning as "probably the greatest English judge of modern times" and former Prime Minister Tony Blair lauded him as "one of the great men of his age". The Lord Chief Justice, Lord Bingham, said "Lord Denning was the best-known and best-loved judge of this or perhaps any generation" and "a legend in his own lifetime".
With his judgments on war pensions and his role in the enquiry into the Profumo affair, Denning became possibly the best-known judge ever to belong to the English judiciary, with the public treating Denning and the Court of Appeal as synonymous. He was equally well-loved and controversial, appreciated for his role as 'the people's judge' and his support for the common man and disliked by elements of the bar and judiciary for 'uncertainty in the law' created by his broad judgments.
Denning made sweeping changes to the Common Law, with the resurrection of equitable estoppel and his reform of divorce law. A common misconception is that most of his judgments were overturned in the House of Lords; many were, including the expansion to the doctrine of fundamental breach he set out in Photo Production Ltd v Securicor Transport Ltd, but they let many judgments stand and on occasion agreed with his judgment in situations where he dissented, such as in his final case George Mitchell (Chesterhall) Ltd v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd in 1983.
Several law-related things have been named after Denning due to his reputation as a judge, in particular the Lord Denning Scholarship of Lincoln's Inn, the Denning Law Journal of the University of Buckingham, and the Denning Law Library at Magdalen College, Oxford.
Denning was also mentioned in Flanders and Swann's revue At the Drop of Another Hat, in the song "Sounding Brass", in which Flanders says:
> > I've been asked to screen Lord Denning For security, you know.
## Personal life
Denning met his future wife Mary Harvey on 25 October 1914 aged fifteen at his confirmation; she was the daughter of the Vicar of Whitchurch. Denning attempted to court her for many years, but for a long time his love was unrequited, with Mary wanting them to be only friends. After a dance at Beaulieu on 18 January 1930 she told him of her love for him, and he returned to Hampshire with her to pick out an engagement ring. Barely six months away from the set date for their wedding Mary was diagnosed with tuberculosis, but she recovered and the couple were married on 28 December 1932, with the wedding officiated by Cecil Henry Boutflower, Bishop of Southampton.
The couple moved to London in 1933 but the city at the time was sooty and foggy. This affected Mary's health, and after treatment at Guy's Hospital she was transferred to Brompton Hospital, where she had a lung removed. After recovering, she moved to Southampton to stay with her parents for two years, with Denning visiting every weekend. By 1935, she had fully recovered, and the couple bought a house in Tylers Green, Cuckfield, called Fair Close. Their son, Robert, was born on 3 August 1938; he later became Dean of Magdalen College, Oxford, teaching inorganic chemistry. Mary developed gallstones in 1941, and after an initial recovery had a haemorrhage on 21 November, dying the next morning.
In 1945, Denning met Joan Stuart, a widow with three children: Pauline, Hazel and John. They married on 27 December 1945, and were by all accounts happy together. On 19 October 1992, she suffered a massive heart attack; although she survived the initial attack she died a few days later on 23 October.
## Publications
## See also
- List of cases involving Lord Denning |
26,685,803 | Denisovan | 1,173,233,255 | Asian archaic human | [
"Altai Krai",
"Homo fossils",
"Human populations",
"Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS",
"Paleolithic",
"Prehistoric Asia"
] | The Denisovans or Denisova hominins ( /dɪˈniːsəvə/ di-NEE-sə-və) are an extinct species or subspecies of archaic human that ranged across Asia during the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. Denisovans are known from few physical remains; consequently, most of what is known about them comes from DNA evidence. No formal species name has been established pending more complete fossil material.
The first identification of a Denisovan individual occurred in 2010, based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) extracted from a juvenile female finger bone excavated from the Siberian Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains in 2008. Nuclear DNA indicates close affinities with Neanderthals. The cave was also periodically inhabited by Neanderthals, but it is unclear whether Neanderthals and Denisovans ever cohabited in the cave. Additional specimens from Denisova Cave were subsequently identified, as was a single specimen from the Baishiya Karst Cave on the Tibetan Plateau, and Cobra Cave in the Annamite Mountains of Laos. DNA evidence suggests they had dark skin, eyes, and hair, and had a Neanderthal-like build and facial features. However, they had larger molars which are reminiscent of Middle to Late Pleistocene archaic humans and australopithecines.
Denisovans apparently interbred with modern humans, with a high percentage (roughly 5%) occurring in Melanesians, Aboriginal Australians, and Filipino Negritos. This distribution suggests that there were Denisovan populations across Asia, the Philippines, and New Guinea and/or Australia. Introgression into modern humans may have occurred as recently as 30,000 years ago in New Guinea, which, if correct, might indicate this population persisted as late as 14,500 years ago. There is also evidence of interbreeding with the Altai Neanderthal population, with about 17% of the Denisovan genome from Denisova Cave deriving from them. A first-generation hybrid nicknamed "Denny" was discovered with a Denisovan father and a Neanderthal mother. Additionally, 4% of the Denisovan genome comes from an unknown archaic human species which diverged from modern humans over one million years ago.
## Taxonomy
Denisovans may represent a new species of Homo or an archaic subspecies of Homo sapiens (modern humans), but there are too few fossils to erect a proper taxon. Proactively proposed species names for Denisovans are H. denisova or H. altaiensis.
### Discovery
Denisova Cave is in south-central Siberia, Russia, in the Altai Mountains near the border with Kazakhstan, China and Mongolia. It is named after Denis (Dyonisiy), a Russian hermit who lived there in the 18th century. The cave was first inspected for fossils in the 1970s by Russian paleontologist Nikolai Ovodov, who was looking for remains of canids.
In 2008, Michael Shunkov from the Russian Academy of Sciences and other Russian archaeologists from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Novosibirsk Akademgorodok investigated the cave and found the finger bone of a juvenile female hominin originally dated to 50–30,000 years ago. The estimate has changed to 76,200–51,600 years ago. The specimen was originally named X-woman because matrilineal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) extracted from the bone demonstrated it to belong to a novel ancient hominin, genetically distinct both from contemporary modern humans and from Neanderthals.
In 2019, Greek archaeologist Katerina Douka and colleagues radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova Cave, and estimated that Denisova 2 (the oldest specimen) lived 195,000–122,700 years ago. Older Denisovan DNA collected from sediments in the East Chamber dates to 217,000 years ago. Based on artifacts also discovered in the cave, hominin occupation (most likely by Denisovans) began 287±41 or 203±14 ka. Neanderthals were also present 193±12 ka and 97±11 ka, possibly concurrently with Denisovans.
### Specimens
The fossils of five distinct Denisovan individuals from Denisova Cave have been identified through their ancient DNA (aDNA): Denisova 2, 3, 4, 8, and 11. An mtDNA-based phylogenetic analysis of these individuals suggests that Denisova 2 is the oldest, followed by Denisova 8, while Denisova 3 and Denisova 4 were roughly contemporaneous. During DNA sequencing, a low proportion of the Denisova 2, Denisova 4 and Denisova 8 genomes were found to have survived, but a high proportion of the Denisova 3 genome was intact. The Denisova 3 sample was cut into two, and the initial DNA sequencing of one fragment was later independently confirmed by sequencing the mtDNA from the second.
These specimens remained the only known examples of Denisovans until 2019, when a research group led by Fahu Chen, Dongju Zhang and Jean-Jacques Hublin described a partial mandible discovered in 1980 by a Buddhist monk in the Baishiya Karst Cave on the Tibetan Plateau in China. Known as the Xiahe mandible, the fossil became part of the collection of Lanzhou University, where it remained unstudied until 2010. It was determined by ancient protein analysis to contain collagen that by sequence was found to have close affiliation to that of the Denisovans from Denisova Cave, while uranium decay dating of the carbonate crust enshrouding the specimen indicated it was more than 160,000 years old. The identity of this population was later confirmed through study of environmental DNA, which found Denisovan mtDNA in sediment layers ranging in date from 100,000 to 60,000 years before present, and perhaps more recent.
In 2018, a team of Laotian, French, and American anthropologists, who had been excavating caves in the Laotian jungle of the Annamite Mountains since 2008, was directed by local children to the site Tam Ngu Hao 2 ("Cobra Cave") where they recovered a human tooth. The tooth (catalogue number TNH2-1) developmentally matches a 3.5 to 8.5 year old, and a lack of amelogenin (a protein on the Y chromosome) suggests it belonged to a girl barring extreme degradation of the protein over a long period of time. Dental proteome analysis was inconclusive for this specimen, but the team found it anatomically comparable with the Xiahe mandible, and so tentatively categorized it as a Denisovan, although they could not rule out it being Neanderthal. The tooth probably dates to 164,000 to 131,000 years ago.
Some older findings may or may not belong to the Denisovan line, but Asia is not well mapped in regards to human evolution. Such findings include the Dali skull, the Xujiayao hominin, Maba Man, the Jinniushan hominin, and the Narmada hominin. The Xiahe mandible shows morphological similarities to some later East Asian fossils such as Penghu 1, but also to Chinese H. erectus. In 2021, Chinese palaeoanthropologist Qiang Ji suggested his newly erected species, H. longi, may represent the Denisovans based on the similarity between the type specimen's molar and that of the Xiahe mandible.
### Evolution
Sequenced mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), preserved by the cool climate of the cave (average temperature is at freezing point), was extracted from Denisova 3 by a team of scientists led by Johannes Krause and Svante Pääbo from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. Denisova 3's mtDNA differs from that of modern humans by 385 bases (nucleotides) out of approximately 16,500, whereas the difference between modern humans and Neanderthals is around 202 bases. In comparison, the difference between chimpanzees and modern humans is approximately 1,462 mtDNA base pairs. This suggested that Denisovan mtDNA diverged from that of modern humans and Neanderthals about 1,313,500–779,300 years ago; whereas modern human and Neanderthal mtDNA diverged 618,000–321,200 years ago. Krause and colleagues then concluded that Denisovans were the descendants of an earlier migration of H. erectus out of Africa, completely distinct from modern humans and Neanderthals.
However, according to the nuclear DNA (nDNA) of Denisova 3—which had an unusual degree of DNA preservation with only low-level contamination—Denisovans and Neanderthals were more closely related to each other than they were to modern humans. Using the percent distance from human–chimpanzee last common ancestor, Denisovans/Neanderthals split from modern humans about 804,000 years ago, and from each other 640,000 years ago. Using a mutation rate of 1×10<sup>−9</sup> or 0.5×10<sup>−9</sup> per base pair (bp) per year, the Neanderthal/Denisovan split occurred around either 236–190,000 or 473–381,000 years ago respectively. Using 1.1×10<sup>−8</sup> per generation with a new generation every 29 years, the time is 744,000 years ago. Using 5×10<sup>−10</sup> nucleotide site per year, it is 616,000 years ago. Using the latter dates, the split had likely already occurred by the time hominins spread out across Europe. H. heidelbergensis is typically considered to have been the direct ancestor of Denisovans and Neanderthals, and sometimes also modern humans. Due to the strong divergence in dental anatomy, they may have split before characteristic Neanderthal dentition evolved about 300,000 years ago.
The more divergent Denisovan mtDNA has been interpreted as evidence of admixture between Denisovans and an unknown archaic human population, possibly a relict H. erectus or H. erectus-like population about 53,000 years ago. Alternatively, divergent mtDNA could have also resulted from the persistence of an ancient mtDNA lineage which only went extinct in modern humans and Neanderthals through genetic drift. Modern humans contributed mtDNA to the Neanderthal lineage, but not to the Denisovan mitochondrial genomes yet sequenced. The mtDNA sequence from the femur of a 400,000-year-old H. heidelbergensis from the Sima de los Huesos Cave in Spain was found to be related to those of Neanderthals and Denisovans, but closer to Denisovans, and the authors posited that this mtDNA represents an archaic sequence which was subsequently lost in Neanderthals due to replacement by a modern-human-related sequence.
## Demographics
Denisovans are known to have lived in Siberia, Tibet, and Laos. The Xiahe mandible is the earliest recorded human presence on the Tibetan Plateau. Though their remains have been identified in only these three locations, traces of Denisovan DNA in modern humans suggest they ranged across East Asia, and potentially western Eurasia. In 2019, geneticist Guy Jacobs and colleagues identified three distinct populations of Denisovans responsible for the introgression into modern populations now native to, respectively: Siberia and East Asia; New Guinea and nearby islands; and Oceania and, to a lesser extent, across Asia. Using coalescent modeling, the Denisova Cave Denisovans split from the second population about 283,000 years ago; and from the third population about 363,000 years ago. This indicates that there was considerable reproductive isolation between Denisovan populations.
Based on the high percentages of Denisovan DNA in modern Papuans and Australians, Denisovans may have crossed the Wallace Line into these regions (with little back-migration west), the second known human species to do so, along with earlier Homo floresiensis. By this logic, they may have also entered the Philippines, living alongside H. luzonensis which, if this is the case, may represent the same or a closely related species. These Denisovans may have needed to cross large bodies of water. Alternately, high Denisovan DNA admixture in modern Papuan populations may simply represent higher mixing among the original ancestors of Papuans prior to crossing the Wallace line. Icelanders also have an anomalously high Denisovan heritage, which could have stemmed from a Denisovan population far west of the Altai mountains. Genetic data suggests Neanderthals were frequently making long crossings between Europe and the Altai mountains especially towards the date of their extinction.
Using exponential distribution analysis on haplotype lengths, Jacobs calculated introgression into modern humans occurred about 29,900 years ago with the Denisovan population ancestral to New Guineans; and 45,700 years ago with the population ancestral to both New Guineans and Oceanians. Such a late date for the New Guinean group could indicate Denisovan survival as late as 14,500 years ago, which would make them the latest surviving archaic human species. A third wave appears to have introgressed into East Asia, but there is not enough DNA evidence to pinpoint a solid timeframe.
The mtDNA from Denisova 4 bore a high similarity to that of Denisova 3, indicating that they belonged to the same population. The genetic diversity among the Denisovans from Denisova Cave is on the lower range of what is seen in modern humans, and is comparable to that of Neanderthals. However, it is possible that the inhabitants of Denisova Cave were more or less reproductively isolated from other Denisovans, and that, across their entire range, Denisovan genetic diversity may have been much higher.
Denisova Cave, over time of habitation, continually swung from a fairly warm and moderately humid pine and birch forest to tundra or forest-tundra landscape. Conversely, Baishiya Karst Cave is situated at a high elevation, an area characterized by low temperature, low oxygen, and poor resource availability. Colonization of high-altitude regions, due to such harsh conditions, was previously assumed to have only been accomplished by modern humans. Denisovans seem to have also inhabited the jungles of Southeast Asia. The Tam Ngu Hao 2 site might have been a closed forest environment.
## Anatomy
Little is known of the precise anatomical features of the Denisovans since the only physical remains discovered so far are a finger bone, four teeth, long bone fragments, a partial jawbone, and a parietal bone skull fragment. The finger bone is within the modern human range of variation for women, which is in contrast to the large, robust molars which are more similar to those of Middle to Late Pleistocene archaic humans. The third molar is outside the range of any Homo species except H. habilis and H. rudolfensis, and is more like those of australopithecines. The second molar is larger than those of modern humans and Neanderthals, and is more similar to those of H. erectus and H. habilis. Like Neanderthals, the mandible had a gap behind the molars, and the front teeth were flattened; but Denisovans lacked a high mandibular body, and the mandibular symphysis at the midline of the jaw was more receding. The parietal is reminiscent of that of H. erectus.
A facial reconstruction has been generated by comparing methylation at individual genetic loci associated with facial structure. This analysis suggested that Denisovans, much like Neanderthals, had a long, broad, and projecting face; large nose; sloping forehead; protruding jaw; elongated and flattened skull; and wide chest and hips. The Denisovan tooth row was longer than that of Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans.
Middle-to-Late Pleistocene East Asian archaic human skullcaps typically share features with Neanderthals. The skullcaps from Xuchang feature prominent brow ridges like Neanderthals, though the nuchal and angular tori near the base of the skull are either reduced or absent, and the back of the skull is rounded off like in early modern humans. Xuchang 1 had a large brain volume of approximately 1800 cc, on the high end for Neanderthals and early modern humans, and well beyond the present-day human average.
The Denisovan genome from Denisova Cave has variants of genes which, in modern humans, are associated with dark skin, brown hair, and brown eyes. The Denisovan genome also contains a variant region around the EPAS1 gene that in Tibetans assists with adaptation to low oxygen levels at high elevation, and in a region containing the WARS2 and TBX15 loci which affect body-fat distribution in the Inuit. In Papuans, introgressed Neanderthal alleles are highest in frequency in genes expressed in the brain, whereas Denisovan alleles have highest frequency in genes expressed in bones and other tissue.
## Culture
### Denisova Cave
Early Middle Paleolithic stone tools from Denisova Cave were characterized by discoidal (disk-like) cores and Kombewa cores, but Levallois cores and flakes were also present. There were scrapers, denticulate tools, and notched tools, deposited about 287±41 thousand years ago in the Main Chamber of the cave; and about 269±97 thousand years ago in the South Chamber; up to 170±19 thousand and 187±14 thousand years ago in the Main and East Chambers, respectively.
Middle Paleolithic assemblages were dominated by flat, discoidal, and Levallois cores, and there were some isolated sub-prismatic cores. There were predominantly side scrapers (a scraper with only the sides used to scrape), but also notched-denticulate tools, end-scrapers (a scraper with only the ends used to scrape), burins, chisel-like tools, and truncated flakes. These dated to 156±15 thousand years ago in the Main Chamber, 58±6 thousand years ago in the East Chamber, and 136±26–47±8 thousand years ago in the South Chamber.
Early Upper Paleolithic artefacts date to 44±5 thousand years ago in the Main Chamber, 63±6 thousand years ago in the East Chamber, and 47±8 thousand years ago in the South Chamber, though some layers of the East Chamber seem to have been disturbed. There was blade production and Levallois production, but scrapers were again predominant. A well-developed, Upper Paleolithic stone bladelet technology distinct from the previous scrapers began accumulating in the Main Chamber around 36±4 thousand years ago.
In the Upper Paleolithic layers, there were also several bone tools and ornaments: a marble ring, an ivory ring, an ivory pendant, a red deer tooth pendant, an elk tooth pendant, a chloritolite bracelet, and a bone needle. However, Denisovans are only confirmed to have inhabited the cave until 55 ka; the dating of Upper Paleolithic artefacts overlaps with modern human migration into Siberia (though there are no occurrences in the Altai region); and the DNA of the only specimen in the cave dating to the time interval (Denisova 14) is too degraded to confirm species identity, so the attribution of these artefacts is unclear.
### Tibet
In 1998, five child hand- and footprint impressions were discovered in a travertine unit near the Quesang hot springs in Tibet, which in 2021 were dated to 226 to 169 thousand years ago using uranium decay dating. This is the oldest evidence of human occupation of the Tibetan Plateau, and given the Xiahe mandible is the oldest human fossil from the region (albeit, younger than the Quesang impressions), these may have been made by Denisovan children. The impressions were printed onto a small panel of space, and there is little overlap between all the prints, so they seem to have been taking care to make new imprints in unused space. If considered art, they are the oldest known examples of rock art. Similar hand stencils and impressions do not appear again in the archeological record until roughly 40,000 years ago.
The footprints comprise four right impressions and one left superimposed on one of the rights. They were probably left by two individuals. The tracks of the individual who superimposed their left onto their right may have scrunched up their toes and wiggled them in the mud, or dug their finger into the toe prints. The footprints average 192.3 mm (7.57 in) long, which roughly equates to a 7 or 8 year old child by modern human growth rates. There are two sets of handprints (from a left and right hand), which may have been created by an older child unless one of the former two individuals had long fingers. The handprints average 161.1 mm (6.34 in), which roughly equates with a 12 year old modern human child, and the middle finger length agrees with a 17 year old modern human. One of the handprints shows an impression of the forearm, and the individual was wiggling their thumb through the mud.
## Interbreeding
Analyses of the modern human genomes indicate past interbreeding with at least two groups of archaic humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans, and that such interbreeding events occurred on multiple occasions. Comparisons of the Denisovan, Neanderthal, and modern human genomes have revealed evidence of a complex web of interbreeding among these lineages.
### Archaic humans
As much as 17% of the Denisovan genome from Denisova Cave represents DNA from the local Neanderthal population. Denisova 11 was an F1 (first generation) Denisovan/Neanderthal hybrid; the fact that such an individual was found may indicate interbreeding was a common occurrence here. The Denisovan genome shares more derived alleles with the Altai Neanderthal genome from Siberia than with the Vindija Cave Neanderthal genome from Croatia or the Mezmaiskaya cave Neanderthal genome from the Caucasus, suggesting that the gene flow came from a population that was more closely related to the local Altai Neanderthals. However, Denny's Denisovan father had the typical Altai Neanderthal introgression, while her Neanderthal mother represented a population more closely related to Vindija Neanderthals.
About 4% of the Denisovan genome derives from an unidentified archaic hominin, perhaps the source of the anomalous ancient mtDNA, indicating this species diverged from Neanderthals and humans over a million years ago. The only identified Homo species of Late Pleistocene Asia are H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis, though in 2021, specimens allocated to the latter species were reclassified as H. longi and H. daliensis.
Before splitting from Neanderthals, their ancestors ("Neandersovans") migrating into Europe apparently interbred with an unidentified "superarchaic" human species who were already present there; these superarchaics were the descendants of a very early migration out of Africa around 1.9 mya.
### Modern humans
A 2011 study found that Denisovan DNA is prevalent in Aboriginal Australians, Near Oceanians, Polynesians, Fijians, Eastern Indonesians and Mamanwans (from the Philippines); but not in East Asians, western Indonesians, Jahai people (from Malaysia) or Onge (from the Andaman Islands). This means that Denisovan introgression occurred within the Pacific region rather than on the Asian mainland, and that ancestors of the latter groups were not present in Southeast Asia at the time, which in turn means that eastern Asia was settled by modern humans in two distinct migrations. In the Melanesian genome, about 4–6% or 1.9–3.4% derives from Denisovan introgression. Prior to 2021, New Guineans and Australian Aborigines were reported to have the most introgressed DNA, but Australians have less than New Guineans. A 2021 study discovered 30 to 40% more Denisovan ancestry in Aeta people in the Philippines than in Papuans, estimated as about 5% of the genome. The Aeta Magbukon in Luzon have the highest known proportion of Denisovan ancestry of any population in the world. In Papuans, less Denisovan ancestry is seen in the X chromosome than autosomes, and some autosomes (such as chromosome 11) also have less Denisovan ancestry, which could indicate hybrid incompatibility. The former observation could also be explained by less female Denisovan introgression into modern humans, or more female modern human immigrants who diluted Denisovan X chromosome ancestry.
In contrast, 0.2% derives from Denisovan ancestry in mainland Asians and Native Americans. South Asians were found to have levels of Denisovan admixture similar to that seen in East Asians. The discovery of the 40,000-year-old Chinese modern human Tianyuan Man lacking Denisovan DNA significantly different from the levels in modern-day East Asians discounts the hypothesis that immigrating modern humans simply diluted Denisovan ancestry whereas Melanesians lived in reproductive isolation. A 2018 study of Han Chinese, Japanese, and Dai genomes showed that modern East Asians have DNA from two different Denisovan populations: one similar to the Denisovan DNA found in Papuan genomes, and a second that is closer to the Denisovan genome from Denisova Cave. This could indicate two separate introgression events involving two different Denisovan populations. In South Asian genomes, DNA only came from the same single Denisovan introgression seen in Papuans. A 2019 study found a third wave of Denisovans which introgressed into East Asians. Introgression, also, may not have immediately occurred when modern humans immigrated into the region.
The timing of introgression into Oceanian populations likely occurred after Eurasians and Oceanians split roughly 58,000 years ago, and before Papuan and Aboriginal Australians split from each other roughly 37,000 years ago. Given the present day distribution of Denisovan DNA, this may have taken place in Wallacea, though the discovery of a 7,200 year old Toalean girl (closely related to Papuans and Aboriginal Australians) from Sulawesi carrying Denisovan DNA makes Sundaland another potential candidate. Other early Sunda hunter gatherers so far sequenced carry very little Denisovan DNA, which either means the introgression event did not take place in Sundaland, or Denisovan ancestry was diluted with gene flow from the mainland Asian Hòabìnhian culture and subsequent Neolithic cultures.
In other regions of the world, archaic introgression into humans stems from a group of Neanderthals related to those which inhabited Vindija Cave, Croatia, as opposed to archaics related to Siberian Neanderthals and Denisovans. However, about 3.3% of the archaic DNA in the modern Icelandic genome descends from the Denisovans, and such a high percentage could indicate a western Eurasian population of Denisovans which introgressed into either Vindija-related Neanderthals or immigrating modern humans.
Denisovan genes may have helped early modern humans migrating out of Africa to acclimatize. Although not present in the sequenced Denisovan genome, the distribution pattern and divergence of HLA-B\*73 from other HLA alleles (involved in the immune system's natural killer cell receptors) has led to the suggestion that it introgressed from Denisovans into modern humans in West Asia. In a 2011 study, half of the HLA alleles of modern Eurasians were shown to represent archaic HLA haplotypes, and were inferred to be of Denisovan or Neanderthal origin. A haplotype of EPAS1 in modern Tibetans, which allows them to live at high elevations in a low-oxygen environment, likely came from Denisovans. Genes related to phospholipid transporters (which are involved in fat metabolism) and to trace amine-associated receptors (involved in smelling) are more active in people with more Denisovan ancestry. Denisovan genes may have conferred a degree of immunity against the G614 mutation of SARS-CoV-2.
## See also |
50,009,278 | 2002 Macau Grand Prix | 1,171,872,500 | 49th running of the Macau Grand Prix | [
"2002 in Chinese motorsport",
"2002 in Formula Three",
"2002 in Macau sport",
"Macau Grand Prix"
] | The 2002 Macau Grand Prix (formally the 49th Macau Grand Prix) was a Formula Three (F3) motor race held on the streets of Macau on 17 November 2002. Unlike other races, such as the Masters of Formula 3, the 2002 Macau Grand Prix was not affiliated with any F3 championship and was open to entries from any F3 championship. The race was divided into two 15-lap aggregate legs: one in the morning and one in the afternoon. The driver who completed all 30 laps in the shortest time was declared the overall winner. The 2002 event was the 49th Macau Grand Prix and the 20th for F3 cars.
The Grand Prix was won by ASM Formule 3 driver Tristan Gommendy, having finished second in the first leg which Paolo Montin of TOM'S won. Montin lost the lead to Fortec Motorsport's Heikki Kovalainen at the start of the second leg. He held it until Gommendy in the faster car caught and passed Kovalainen at Lisboa corner after a restart on lap 12 and maintained the lead to win the race. Kovalainen took second position and the outright podium was completed by Takashi Kogure for the Mugen x Dome Project team.
## Background and entry list
The Macau Grand Prix is a Formula Three (F3) race that has been dubbed the territory's most prestigious international sporting event and a stepping stone to higher motorsport categories such as Formula One. The 2002 Macau Grand Prix was the event's 49th edition and the 20th to be held to F3 rules. It took place on the 6.2 km (3.9 mi) 22-turn Guia Circuit on 17 November 2002 after three preceding days of practice and qualifying.
Drivers had to compete in a Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA)-regulated championship race during the calendar year, in one of the seven national F3 championships that took place during the calendar year, with the best-placed drivers receiving priority in receiving an invitation to the race. Four of the five major F3 series were represented on the Macau 30-car grid by their respective champions. Robbie Kerr, the British champion, was joined in Macau by French title winner Tristan Gommendy, Italian victor Miloš Pavlović and All-Japan Formula Three winner Takashi Kogure. The only major winner of an F3 championship who did not compete in Macau for undisclosed reasons was German champion Gary Paffett. Three local competitors, Jo Merszei, Michael Ho and Kit Meng Lei, who did not compete in any F3 championship in 2002, were invited to compete by race organisers.
## Practice and qualifying
The race on Sunday was preceded by two one-hour practice sessions, one on Thursday morning and one on Friday morning. The first practice session in hot, humid weather, was delayed for ten minutes due to circuit officials repairing a tyre wall at Lisboa corner after practice for the local ACMC Trophy Race. TOM'S Paolo Montin lapped fastest at 2:17.798 in the session's closing seconds. The rest of the top ten were Yuji Ide, Gommendy, Narain Karthikeyan, Bruce Jouanny, Heikki Kovalainen, Robert Doornbos, Kosuke Matsuura, Pavlović and James Courtney. Katsuyuki Hiranaka was stranded across the turn at the Melco hairpin until marshals turned his car around. Fábio Carbone entered the corner too quickly, but he braked early to avoid a collision. Kerr hit the barrier at Fisherman's Bend, damaging his car's suspension and rear wing. Vitantonio Liuzzi went off the track and removed his car's left-hand corner.
Qualifying was divided into two 45-minute sessions, one on Thursday afternoon and one on Friday afternoon. Each driver's fastest time from either session was used to determine their starting position in Sunday's race. Matsuura led the first qualifying session first with a 2:15.768 lap. Ide, who was eight-tenths of a second slower, waited until the final lap to take provisional second. Courtney pushed hard on his final timed lap to be the highest-placed rookie in third. Montin had provisional pole before dropping to fourth and taking the escape road at Lisboa. The unwell Kovalainen was as high as second but finished fifth. With five minutes to go, Gommendy collided with a barrier exiting Reservoir bend and bent his left-rear wheel bearing, denying him provisional pole. Karthikeyan was seventh, Doornbos eighth, and the French duo of Olivier Pla and Johanny were ninth and tenth. Renaud Derlot was the quickest driver not to enter the top ten. Following him were Richard Antinucci, Kogure and Pavlović, Marcel Costa, Carbone, Hiranaka, Alan van der Merwe, Hiroki Yoshimoto, César Campaniço, Ho, Lee, Tatsuya Kataoka, Kerr, Liuzzi, Cristiano Citron, Shinya Sato, Lei and Merszei. The only driver not to set a lap time was Ronnie Bremer due to a crash at San Francisco Bend turn. Yoshimoto and his fellow Japanese Kataoka glanced a wall beside the track. Yellow and oil flags were needed for Van Der Merwe's accident into a barrier at Dona Maria Bend corner. Kit Meng's subsequent heavy accident left debris on the track and stopped qualifying for two minutes.
Jouanny set an early lap that was good enough to lead the field until Montin improved it in the second 30-minute practice session. A brief rain shower fell on parts of the circuit, causing several drivers to aquaplane as they returned to the pit lane. They waited for the circuit to dry before returning to it. Ide briefly led before Karthikeyan and, later, Montin took over. Despite a spin and lightly damaging his car's left-hand corner at Dona Maria Bend, Gommendy was fastest with a 2:16.569 lap. He was followed by Kovalainen, Montin, Pla, Ide, Campaniço, Courtney (driving with a misfiring engine), Karthikeyan, Carbone and Kerr. Pla lost control of his car late in the session and made minor contact with a barrier.
The start of the second qualifying session was delayed for 35 minutes due to multiple accidents in the Guia Race of Macau's third practice session that left cement dust, oil and debris to be cleared by marshals. A suggestion in the paddock that second qualifying was reduced to half an hour was dispelled and the full 45 minutes were held. Several drivers immediately began improving their laps and Montin led with a 2:14.995 lap in the 14th minute to displace Matsuura. He held it to claim pole position for the first time on his fifth appearance in Macau. Gommendy's team adjusted his car and he joined Montin on the grid's front row in spite of him crashing into a wall on his last try at going quicker and prematurely ending the session with 1 minute and 50 seconds left. Matsuura was the only driver in the top 26 not to improve his lap time and car problems left him third. Kovalainen moved to fourth and Karthikeyan got to fifth. Pla was the best-starting rookie in sixth. Carbone was as high as fourth before coming seventh and Ide fell six places from his provisional grid slot to start eighth. Rounding out the top ten were Jouanny and Hiranaka. Behind them the rest of the field consisted of Antinucci, Doornbos, Courtney, Bremer, Kogure, Kerr, Campaniço, Pavlović, Van Der Merwe, Costa, Derlot, Yoshimoto, Kataoka, Liuzzi, Lee, Citron, Ho, Sato, Lei and Merszei. The session's only other disruption came as Bremer entered the outside of the Reservoir bend and lost control of his car. He crashed sideways into a barrier and inflicted heavy damage to his vehicle's left-hand corner and suspension.
### Qualifying classification
Each of the driver's fastest lap times from the two qualifying sessions are denoted in bold.
## Warm-up
A 20-minute warm-up session was held on the morning of the race. Montin set the session's fastest lap of 2:14.494. Karthikeyan was four-hundredths of a second slower in second and Carbone was third. Kataoka was fourth-fastest; his fellow Japanese Kogure was fifth and Doornbos sixth. Kerr was seventh-quickest, Costa eighth and the Japanese duo of Ide and Hiranaka were ninth and tenth.
## Race
Sunday's race was divided into two aggregate legs totalling 30 laps. The first 15-lap leg took place in the morning, and the results determined the starting order for the second leg, with the winner starting from pole position. Following that, a five-hour break was observed to allow for the intervening support races. Later in the afternoon, the second 15-lap leg began. The driver who completed all 30 laps in the quickest time won overall.
### Leg 1
The start of the first leg scheduled for 10:20 Macau Standard Time (UTC+08:00) on 17 November was delayed for five minutes due to several incidents during the Macau Asian Formula 2000 Challenge round that made the track dirty. When it did start in dry and cloudy weather, Gommendy took the lead from Montin as the field approached Mandarin Oriental Bend for the first time. A slow start dropped Kovalainen to fifth, as Gommendy lost the lead to Montin on the outside into Lisboa corner. Gommendy then made a minor error, allowing Matsuura to take second. Hiranaka appeared to lightly strike the wall and ricochet into Pla's path at the Lisboa turn. Pla swerved to avoid him but ran out of space and crashed, catching out Pavlovi, Derlot, Courtney, Van Der Merwe, Merszei, and Kataoka. The safety car was deployed, and track marshals worked to move the wrecked cars involved in the accident. Costa made a pit stop on lap two, while the rest of the field drove slowly behind the safety car until it was withdrawn at the end of the fourth lap.
Montin made a quick restart after the safety car was withdrawn to maintain his lead over Matsuura. Karthikeyan then challenged Gommendy. The faster Doornbos passed Carbone for eighth place further down the field. Despite the fact that the safety car brought cars closer together, they were calmer than before despite localised yellow flags in various areas. Gommendy fell behind Matsuura and tried to repass only for the latter to keep third. Gommendy tried again and overtook Matsuura for third. At this point, Kovalainen set the fastest lap and overtook Karthikeyan for fourth. Doornbos overtook Jouanny for seventh and Kovalainen passed Matsuura into Lisboa corner for third. However, Mastuura clung onto the slipstream of Kovalainen's car and returned to third place. Despite passing Carbone for ninth, Kerr hit the barrier and lost positions. Karthikeyan got closer to Kovalainen as Gommendy drew closer to Montin. Lei's slower vehicle delayed Montin and Gommendy, who was followed by Matsuura, Kovalainen, Karthikeyan, Ide, and Doornbos.
Matsuura was unable to pass Kovalainen until he did so at Lisboa corner, and Karthikeyan's subsequent pass was blocked by Matsuura. On lap nine, Bremer drove off the track at Lisboa corner and crashed. Karthikeyan passed Matsuura on the next lap, and Kogure fell behind Carbone. Montin had now lapped Lei and was attempting to distance himself from Gommendy with a series of fastest laps. In a spin, Kovalainen damaged his rear wing in a spin on an uphill section from San Francisco Bend. Because Kovalainen's steering arm was damaged, he lost fourth to Karthikeyan. Campaniço passed Carbone for twelfth, while Ide passed Matsuura for fifth. Doornbos put Matsuura under heavy pressure, but he failed to pass him. Montin led the rest of the race to win the first leg and started the second leg from pole position joined by Gommendy in second. The final classified finishers were Karthikeyan, Kovalainen, Ide, Matsuura, Doornbos, Jouanny, Antinucci, Kerr, Kogure, Campaniço, Carbone, Costa, Yoshimoto, Lee, Hiranaka, Citron, Sato, Ho and Lei.
### Leg 2
The race's second leg began later that day at 15:40 local time, in cloudy and dry conditions. The driver who started from pole position lost the lead for the second consecutive leg as Montin narrowly avoided stalling his car, elevating Kovalainen to first place and Ide overtook Gommendy for second. Jouanny hit the armco barrier at Lisboa turn and ricocheted across the circuit. Kerr could not avoid him despite turning right and ran into his car. Carbone was also collected and the accident prompted the safety car's deployment for debris clearing by marshals. When the safety car was withdrawn on lap three, Kovalainen held off Ide on the run to Mandarin Oriental Bend to maintain his lead. Kovalainen began to pull away from the rest of the field. Lei went off at Lisboa Corner but restarted his car and continued driving. Doornbos repeated the manoeuvre on the next lap and returned to the track without incident. Meanwhile, Montin attacked Kogure, and Ide was under pressure from Gommendy, who was passed by Karthikeyan, but Gommendy quickly retook his former position.
On lap four, Karthikeyan crashed into the wall leaving Maternity Bend corner and retired. Although Kovalainen continued to pull away with a series of fastest laps, Ide began speeding up and Kovalainen responded by increasing his lead at the front to half a second. On lap eight at Mandarin Oriental Bend, Gommendy passed Ide for second. Campaniço was surprised by Costa passing him on the straight and lost his front wing against the wall at Lisboa corner. At the front Kovalainen again tried to establish a small lead when Gommendy drew close to him due to a more powerful engine. On lap nine, Ide was passed for third by fellow Japanese Matsuura as the two avoided a collision into Lisboa turn. Ide drove onto the turn's escape road after unsuccessfully blocking Matsuura due to the momentum of the latter's overtake. Matsuura continued until he spun at Dona Maria Bend and retired after a crash against the wall. This promoted Montin to third but the crash prompted the safety car's second deployment.
Gommendy overtook Kovalainen for the lead at Lisboa corner at the restart on lap 12. Montin sought to pass Kogure for third though Kogure blocked him. That caused Montin to spin at Lisboa turn and Antinucci and then Ide collected him. Consequently, all three drivers retired. Kovalainen locked his tyres heavily and Kogure overtook him for second. However, Kogure did not keep second for long as Kovalainen retook the position but was now out of contention to win. Thus, Gommendy led the rest of the leg for overall victory. Kovalainen finished second, 2.104 seconds back, and Kogure took third place. Hiranaka, Yoshimoto, Doornbos, Lee, Citron, Ho, and Campaniço completed the top ten. Sato and Lei were the final classified finishers. Overall, 17 out of the 30 entered cars were not classified in the final results.
### Race classification |
8,327,437 | SMS Wiesbaden | 1,172,955,306 | Light cruiser of the German Imperial Navy | [
"1915 ships",
"Maritime incidents in 1916",
"Ships built in Stettin",
"Ships sunk at the Battle of Jutland",
"Wiesbaden-class cruisers",
"World War I cruisers of Germany"
] | SMS Wiesbaden was a light cruiser of the Wiesbaden class built for the Imperial German Navy (Kaiserliche Marine). She had one sister ship, SMS Frankfurt; the ships were very similar to the previous Karlsruhe-class cruisers. The ship was laid down in 1913, launched in January 1915, and completed by August 1915. Armed with eight 15 cm SK L/45 guns, Wiesbaden had a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph) and displaced 6,601 t (6,497 long tons; 7,276 short tons) at full load.
Wiesbaden saw only one major action, the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916. The ship was badly damaged by gunfire from the battlecruiser HMS Invincible. Immobilized between the two battle fleets, Wiesbaden became the center of a hard-fought action that saw the destruction of two British armored cruisers. Heavy fire from the British fleet prevented evacuation of the ship's crew. Wiesbaden remained afloat until the early hours of 1 June and sank sometime between 01:45 and 02:45. Only one crew member survived the sinking; the wreck was located by German Navy divers in 1983.
## Design
Wiesbaden was 145.30 meters (476 ft 8 in) long overall and had a beam of 13.90 m (45 ft 7 in) and a draft of 5.76 m (18 ft 11 in) forward. She displaced 6,601 t (6,497 long tons; 7,276 short tons) at full load. Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3.5-meter (11 ft) screw propellers. They were designed to give 31,000 shaft horsepower (23,000 kW). These were powered by ten coal-fired Marine-type water-tube boilers and two oil-fired double-ended boilers. These gave the ship a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). Wiesbaden carried 1,280 t (1,260 long tons) of coal, and an additional 470 t (460 long tons) of oil that gave her a range of 4,800 nautical miles (8,900 km; 5,500 mi) at 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). Wiesbaden had a crew of 17 officers and 457 enlisted men.
The ship was armed with a main battery of eight 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, four were located amidships, two on either side, and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft. The guns could engage targets out to 17,600 m (57,700 ft). They were supplied with 1,024 rounds of ammunition, for 128 shells per gun. The ship's antiaircraft armament initially consisted of four 5.2 cm (2 in) L/55 guns, though these were replaced with a pair of 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns. She was also equipped with four 50 cm (19.7 in) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes. Two were submerged in the hull on the broadside and two were mounted on the deck amidships. She could also carry 120 mines. The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm (2.4 in) thick amidships. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides, and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate.
## Service history
Wiesbaden was ordered under the contract name "Ersatz Gefion" and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1913 and launched on 20 January 1915, after which fitting-out work commenced. She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 23 August 1915, after being rushed through sea trials.
### Battle of Jutland
Commanded by Captain Fritz Reiss, Wiesbaden was assigned to II Scouting Group of light cruisers under Konteradmiral Friedrich Boedicker, which took part in the Battle of Jutland on 30 May and 1 June 1916. Wiesbaden's sister ship Frankfurt served as Boedicker's flagship. The unit was assigned to screen for the battlecruisers of Vizeadmiral Franz von Hipper's I Scouting Group. At the start of the battle, Wiesbaden was cruising to starboard, which placed her on the disengaged side when Elbing, Pillau, and Frankfurt first engaged the British cruiser screen.
At around 18:30, Wiesbaden and the rest of II Scouting Group encountered the cruiser HMS Chester; they opened fire and scored several hits on the ship. As both sides' cruisers disengaged, Rear Admiral Horace Hood's three battlecruisers intervened. His flagship HMS Invincible scored a hit on Wiesbaden that exploded in her engine room and disabled the ship. Konteradmiral Paul Behncke, the commander of the leading element of the German battle line, ordered his dreadnoughts to cover the stricken Wiesbaden. Simultaneously, the light cruisers of the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons attempted to make a torpedo attack on the German line; while steaming into range, they battered Wiesbaden with their main guns. The destroyer HMS Onslow steamed to within 2,000 yards (1,800 m) of Wiesbaden and fired a single torpedo at the crippled cruiser. It hit directly below the conning tower, but the ship remained afloat. In the ensuing melee, the armored cruiser HMS Defence blew up and HMS Warrior was fatally damaged. Wiesbaden launched her torpedoes while she remained immobilized, scoring one hit against the battleship HMS Marlborough.
Shortly after 20:00, III Flotilla of torpedo boats attempted to rescue Wiesbaden's crew, but heavy fire from the British battle line drove them off. Another attempt to reach the ship was made, but the torpedo boat crews lost sight of the cruiser and were unable to locate her. The ship finally sank sometime between 01:45 and 02:45. Only one crew member survived the sinking; he was picked up by a Norwegian steamer the following day. Among the 589 killed was the well-known writer of poetry and fiction dealing with the life of fishermen and sailors, Johann Kinau, known under his pseudonym of Gorch Fock, who has since then been honored by having two training windjammers of the Kriegsmarine and the German Navy, respectively, named after him. The wreck of Wiesbaden was found in 1983 by divers of the German Navy, who removed both of the ship's screws. The ship lies on the sea floor upside down, and was the last German cruiser sunk at Jutland to be located. |
219,712 | Final Destination (film) | 1,170,606,440 | 2000 American supernatural horror film | [
"2000 directorial debut films",
"2000 films",
"2000 horror films",
"2000s American films",
"2000s English-language films",
"2000s horror thriller films",
"2000s teen horror films",
"American aviation films",
"American horror thriller films",
"American splatter films",
"American teen horror films",
"Films about aviation accidents or incidents",
"Films directed by James Wong (filmmaker)",
"Films scored by Shirley Walker",
"Films set in 2000",
"Films set in New York City",
"Films set in airports",
"Films set on airplanes",
"Films shot in San Francisco",
"Films shot in Toronto",
"Films shot in Vancouver",
"Final Destination films",
"New Line Cinema films"
] | Final Destination is a 2000 American supernatural horror film directed by James Wong, with a screenplay written by Wong, Glen Morgan, and Jeffrey Reddick, based on a story by Reddick. It is the first installment in the Final Destination film series and stars Devon Sawa, Ali Larter, Kerr Smith, and Tony Todd. Sawa portrays a teenager who cheats death after having a premonition of a catastrophic plane explosion. He and several of his classmates leave the plane before the explosion occurs, but Death later takes the lives of those who were meant to die on the plane.
The film began as a spec script written by Reddick for an episode of The X-Files in order for Reddick to get a TV agent. A colleague at New Line Cinema persuaded Reddick to write it as a feature-length film. Later, Wong and Morgan, The X-Files writing partners, became interested in the script and agreed to rewrite and direct the film, marking Wong's film directing debut. Filming took place in New York City and Vancouver, with additional scenes filmed in Toronto and San Francisco. It was released on March 17, 2000, and became a financial success, making \$10 million on its opening weekend.
The film received negative reviews from critics. While it was praised for "generating a respectable amount of suspense", "playful and energized enough to keep an audience guessing", "an unexpectedly alert teen-scream disaster chiller", and Sawa's performance, it was criticized as "dramatically flat" and "aimed at the teen dating crowd". It received the Saturn Award for Best Horror Film and Best Performance by a Younger Actor for Sawa's performance. The film's success spawned a media franchise, encompassing four additional installments, as well as a series of novels and comic books. The first sequel, Final Destination 2, was released on January 31, 2003.
## Plot
High school student Alex Browning boards Volée Airlines Flight 180, a Boeing 747, with his classmates for their senior trip to Paris from John F. Kennedy Airport. Before take-off, Alex has a premonition that the plane will face a mechanical failure, leading to a mid-air explosion, killing everybody on board. When the events from his vision begin to occur in reality, he panics until a fight breaks out between him and his rival Carter Horton, resulting in both of them being removed from the plane, along with Alex's best friend Tod Waggner, Carter's girlfriend Terry Chaney, teacher Valerie Lewton, and students Billy Hitchcock and Clear Rivers. None of the other passengers, except Clear, believes Alex about his vision until the plane explodes on take-off. Afterwards, the survivors are interrogated by two FBI agents, Weine and Schreck, who are both suspicious of Alex.
Thirty-nine days later, after attending a memorial service for the victims, an unusual chain reaction causes Tod to be accidentally hanged in his shower that night. While his death is ruled a suicide, Alex sneaks into the funeral home along with Clear to examine Tod's corpse. The home's mortician, William Bludworth, reveals that the survivors who escaped from the impending circumstance have disrupted Death's plan, who is now claiming the lives of those who were meant to die from the accident. Alex and Clear are discussing their next move when the rest of the survivors arrive outside the café, where Terry is run over and killed by a speeding bus.
After watching a news report on the cause of the explosion, Alex concludes that Death is reclaiming the survivors according to the sequence of their intended demise on the plane. Nonetheless, he is too late to save Ms. Lewton whose house explodes after she is impaled by a falling kitchen knife. The remaining survivors reunite while driving through town as Alex explains the situation. Carter, who is next, is enraged over Terry's loss and stops his car on a train crossing, attempting to die on his own terms. While the others escape, he changes his mind at the last minute but his seatbelt jams. Alex manages to save him just before the car is smashed by an oncoming train that knocks shrapnel from the wreckage into the air, decapitating Billy. Alex learns that because he intervened in Carter's death, it skipped to the next person in the sequence. The next day, while hiding out in a fortified cabin, Alex recalls having changed seats with two classmates in his premonition and realizes that Clear is actually next. He rushes to her house to save her while being pursued by Weine and Schreck. Alex finds Clear trapped inside her car and surrounded by a loose electrical cables that ignite a gasoline leak around her. He grabs a cable, allowing her to escape from the car just before it explodes.
Six months later, Alex, Clear, and Carter travel to Paris to celebrate their survival. While discussing their ordeal, Alex reveals that Death never skipped him after he saved Clear. Fearing that their struggle is unfinished, Alex retreats when a bus hurls a parking sign towards a neon sign which descends towards him. Carter pushes Alex out of the way at the last second but the sign swings back down towards Alex and kills Carter, leaving Death's plan to resume action.
## Cast
Several film characters are named after famous horror film directors, actors, and producers: Billy Hitchcock is named after Alfred Hitchcock, the Browning family and Tod Waggner are named after Tod Browning, Larry Murnau is a reference to Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau, Blake Dreyer to Carl Theodor Dreyer, Valerie Lewton to Val Lewton, Agent Schreck to Max Schreck, Terry Chaney to Lon Chaney, Christa Marsh recalls Fredric March, Agent Weine of Robert Wiene, and George Waggner is directly named after Universal Horror film producer George Waggner.
## Production
### Development
The original idea was written by Jeffrey Reddick as a spec script for The X-Files in order to get a TV agent. "I was actually flying home to Kentucky and I read a story about a woman who was on vacation and her mom called her and said, 'Don't take the flight tomorrow, I have a really bad feeling about it.' She switched flights and the plane that she would have been on crashed," said Reddick. "I thought, that's creepy—what if she was supposed to die on that flight?" Building on his idea, Reddick wrote a script and got an agent, but instead of submitting the script to The X-Files, he acted on the suggestion of a colleague at New Line Cinema to write it as a feature film.
New Line Cinema bought Reddick's treatment and hired him to write the original draft of the script, which featured Death as an unseen force. After the script was finished, New Line Cinema submitted the script to directors, including writing partners James Wong and Glen Morgan. Both writers were willing to make it into a film, although they rewrote the script to comply with their standards. "I believe that at one time or another we've all experienced a sense of prescience. We have a hunch, a feeling, and then that hunch proves true," Wong said. "We want to do for planes and air travel what Jaws did for sharks and swimming". Expanding on his decision to write and direct the film, Wong stated:
> One thing we were all in agreement on from the start is that we didn't want to do a slasher movie. [. . .] I became very excited when we decided to make the world at large, in the service of death, our antagonist. Everyday objects and occurrences then take on ominous proportions and it becomes less about whether or not our characters are going to die and more about how they will die and how they can delay their deaths. The entertainment value is in the "ride" not in the outcome, and by placing the premise of the film on the inevitability of death, we play a certain philosophical note.
Morgan said:
> The main thing they wanted about Death coming to get people is that you never saw a kind of a Michael Myers figure. You never saw a killer. And they liked that idea and they said, "Okay. Go write it." Once we had a basic story, I started cataloging the strange coincidences in my own life. For example, I was in the Vancouver airport waiting for a flight when John Denver came on over the loudspeaker. I remember saying to myself, "Hey, he just died in a plane crash – that's a little weird." We wrote that version of that experience into the script.
Producers Craig Perry and Warren Zide from Zide/Perry Productions helped with the film's budget because both were similarly fascinated about the idea of an invisible force executing its victims. Perry, a fan of The X-Files, claimed that he "responded to Wong and Morgan's work for one specific reason: dread". New Line Cinema accepted financing and distributing rights for the film after Reddick came to them personally.
### Casting
"One of the most important things we were looking for in casting was the actors' ability to play the subtleties – the little things that a character doesn't say or do that create the edge, the things that get under your skin and spook you," Morgan said about the auditions.
Alex Browning, the last role cast, went to Canadian actor Devon Sawa, who previously starred in the 1999 film Idle Hands. Sawa said that when he read the script on a plane, he found himself peeking out the window at the engine every couple of minutes. Then he went down and met Glen and Jim, and he thought "they were amazing and already had some great ideas". However, Morgan and Wong were undecided about casting him for the part, so they requested him to perform again as they reviewed his previous works. Morgan was astounded by Sawa's performance in Idle Hands, and Sawa was hired. Of the script, Sawa said, "There's not a lot of good stuff [. . .] for my age. You get a lot of scripts and all but they're teen ensembles and they're just crap. And then I got Flight 180 [. . .] it's just awesome."
Sawa described his role as "in the beginning, [Alex] was kinda loopy and cotter, and you know, probably not the most popular guy in school. I think he might have been a dork, you know, doing their stuff and they had their own thing going and they're after the two beautiful girls in school, but there's no chance of that happening. I guess after the plane goes down, his world completely changes". "Devon has an every man quality that makes him accessible," Wong said. "He doesn't appear as if he's supremely self-assured. He's more of a regular kid who can take on the complexities of the role and become a hero". Perry was amazed by Sawa's vulnerability in acting, describing him as "a very distinctive actor. He's very loose and he's kind of a cut-up when he's not on camera, but the moment the camera's on, I'd never seen anybody to completely slide right through the moment".
Ali Larter, who starred in the 1999 film Varsity Blues, was cast as female lead Clear Rivers. "The film shows how easy it is to turn on someone, to blame someone when you're scared," Larter said. "It's also about trusting your intuitions and yourself". She defined her part as "that girl who has a lot of loss in her life and has fallen for herself and had made a life within that. She's an artist, she lives by herself, and she's kinda holding to her grip for what the world has given her".
Seann William Scott, famous for portraying Steve Stifler in the 1999 film American Pie, was hired as class clown Billy Hitchcock. Scott admired the film and felt that "it's [as] dark and eerie as any Twilight Zone". He laughed at his role, saying that "[he] is lacking some social skills, he doesn't have quite a few friends, and he's like the tag-along". Scott was surprised when in the script his character was written as fat. The writers eventually changed it for Scott.
Dawson's Creek star Kerr Smith was cast as jock Carter Horton. Smith identified Carter as "your typical high school bully whose life depends on anger" and mentioned the fact that Carter feared Alex not having control of his own life.
Kristen Cloke, Morgan's wife, was cast as teacher Valerie Lewton. "I have incredible respect for them," said Cloke. "Jim's the kind of director who knows exactly what he wants. As an actor, I can find a way to get there if I know specifically what I'm going for, and Jim gives me that. The fact that he won't move on until he's got exactly what he wants creates a safe environment, which allows me to experiment and try different things". Cloke described her part as "strong and sassy – in control. After the crash, she comes unglued, probably more than any of the kids, and it's a quick, drastic change. I had to understand the psychology of a person who can turn on a dime like that".
Newcomers Amanda Detmer and Chad Donella were cast as students Terry Chaney and Tod Waggner, respectively. "When I first read the script, the thing that struck me most was that the characters were well-written and the relationships between them were strong and believable," Detmer said. "That's important because you have to care about these people in order to be worried about what might happen to them". Detmer defined Terry as "very put-together [and] seems content to defer to [Carter] – to not make waves. But the stress of what happens affects their relationship and interestingly enough brings out a certain strength in her". On the other hand, Donella observed how similar his role was to himself. "I believe in fate. I think you come into this life with some things to accomplish and you're taken out earlier or later depending on the game plan".
Tony Todd, who played Candyman in the 1992 film Candyman, was cast as mortician William Bludworth. Morgan initially wanted Todd for the role because he felt his deep voice would give the film an eerie tone.
Additional cast members included Daniel Roebuck and Roger Guenveur Smith as FBI agents Weine and Schreck; Brendan Fehr, Christine Chatelain, and Lisa Marie Caruk as students George Waggner, Blake Dreyer, and Christa Marsh; Barbara Tyson and Robert Wisden as Barbara and Ken Browning, Alex's parents; and Forbes Angus as teacher Larry Murnau.
### Filming
With Final Destination cast, filming took place on Long Island for the plane scene and Vancouver Island for the additional scenes. The cast members were filming other projects during production, so filming schedules had to be moved repeatedly for all of the cast to appear. Sawa restrained his appearance in The Guilty during production, and even commented that "[he] had to share a trailer with Bill Pullman because it was bigger and would make him look more famous". Smith, who was a regular in Dawson's Creek, had to hold episodes for the film.
According to Detmer, her death scene (being rammed by a speeding bus) was filmed first because "it was easy but much anticipated". All death scenes were filmed using lifecasts of the actual actors. The death scenes, the memorial, the forest scene and the scenes in Paris were all filmed in Victoria. Additional scenes were filmed in Toronto and San Francisco. For the airport, the crew used Vancouver International Airport as a stand-in for John F. Kennedy International Airport, the airport mentioned in the film.
### Effects
The plan behind the scenes was to create an intriguing visual signature. To serve the subtleties of the script and to help personify death, production designer John Willet developed the concept of "skewing" the sets. "What I've tried to do with the sets themselves, with their design and with various color choices, is to make things just a little unnatural," Willet explained. "Nothing that calls attention to itself, but instead creates a sense of uneasiness—the unsettling feeling that something's not quite right". To achieve this mystique, Willet designed two versions of virtually every set—one version was used before the crash and the other sets were used for scenes after the jet explodes.
"On the skewed sets I force the perspective either vertically or horizontally," Willet explained. "Nothing is square and, although you can't put your finger on it, it just makes you feel like something is not right". Skewing was also part of the overall design for the color palette used in set decoration and costume design. "In the real world, the colors are bright and rich," Willet said. "In the skewed world, they're washed out and faded. Nothing is obvious, and it's only in the overall effect that these subtle differences will work their magic".
The plane scene during which passengers die in mid-air was created inside a very large sound stage. The three-ton hydraulic gimbal was operated automatically. "We spent two months building this central set piece that weighs about 45,000 pounds and holds 89 people," special effects supervisor Terry Sonderhoff explained. Used for filming the onboard sequences, it could be shifted on the gimbal to create a pitching movement of up to 45 degrees side-to-side and 60 degrees front-to-back, realistically conveying the horror of airborne engine failure. Sawa said that "the screams of the cast inside the gimbal made it appear more real". Wong said, "You walk into the studio and there's a huge gimbal with a plane on top and you think, 'What have I done?' I was afraid we were gonna have 40 extras vomiting."
A miniature model of the Boeing 747 airplane was created for the explosion scene. The model, one of the most detailed miniature scenes in the film, was about 10 feet long and 7 feet wide, and the landing gear was made from all machined metals. According to visual effects supervisor Ariel Velasco Shaw, the miniature had to be launched about 40 feet up into the air to make it look like a real Boeing 747 exploded into a fireball. If blowing up a four-foot plane, the explosion must be a minimum of eight feet in the air. To film the explosion in detail, the crew used three cameras running 120 frames per second and one camera running 300 frames per second (if they had filmed using a real-time camera, the succession of the explosion would not be filmed in a particular order).
The train scene (in which Carter's car is smashed by the train) was one of the most difficult scenes to shoot. The car used for the crash was a replica of the original, severed in half prior to filming. According to Sonderhoff, in order to ensure the safety of the actors, they had to make sure that there was no real sheet metal in the car.
For the death scenes, the crew used several lifecasts of the actors and chocolate syrup for fake blood. Creating the Rube Goldberg effect for Ms. Lewton's death scene was the most difficult to plan according to the crew. Perry said that "it was very hard to generate an atmosphere of dread, to create suspense out of scenes that are common".
### Music
#### Soundtrack
No official album accompanied the motion picture. However, six songs are featured in the film, the most prominent of which is "Rocky Mountain High" by John Denver, which is heavily highlighted throughout the film, reminding the survivors that Denver died in a plane crash. The song is heard either before an accident or a character's demise, and is also played by a street performer (Alessandro Juliani) in French. Other songs featured in the film include "Hundred Grand" by Pete Atherton (during the Flight 180 memorial scene), "Into the Void" by Nine Inch Nails (during the café scene), "All the Candles in the World" by Jane Siberry (during Carter's car scene), as well as "And When I Die" performed by Joe 90 (during the end credits).
#### Score
Final Destination: The Complete Original Motion Picture Score was released on March 17, 2000. The film's score was conducted by Daytime Emmy Award-winning composer Shirley Walker. Wong and Morgan initially wanted Walker to score the film after having previously worked with her on their sci-fi television series Space: Above and Beyond. Walker said, "[Morgan and Wong] are great believers in melody and having music for the characters and situations they find themselves in. Of course, the atmosphere had to be there also, especially for a film with as much suspense building as this film has".
The score is mostly low-key, with the exception of the suspense and death scenes. It was performed by a union orchestra, obliging New Line Cinema to grant the film its own score. Walker described her score as "very theme-driven, conservative music that covers the range from bizarre animal noises with stronger visceral impact to stirring emotional music with well-defined melodies that evolve through the storytelling". The "Main Title" piece, used for the opening credits, was rare for opening a film aimed at a youth audience at the time. "What a treat for me to get to write a piece that calls you into the movie and lets you know something bad is going to happen from the get-go", Walker said. According to Walker, "Main Title" consumed most of her time, due to its "dark theme and counter-melody which carries throughout the score".
The score was positively received by critics. Judge Harold Jervais of DVD Verdict wrote how "[the sound effects, dialogue and] Walker's wonderfully creepy and effective score are mixed together to form a very pleasing, almost organic-like whole". Mike Long of DVD Review said that "Shirley Walker's eerie score comes across powerfully with a wide spatial integration". Derek Germano of The Cinema Laser wrote that "Walker's creepy musical score is really a winner, and is one of the things that will help to make Final Destination a minor genre classic a few years down the road".
## Release
### Box office
The film premiered on March 17, 2000, in 2,587 theaters across the United States and Canada, earning \$10,015,822 on its opening weekend, with an average of \$3,871 per theater. Final Destination placed at No. 3 in the United States box office on its opening weekend, behind biography film Erin Brockovich and the science fiction film Mission to Mars. The film remained at No. 3 during the second weekend, before dropping to No. 7 on its third weekend. Final Destination continuously dropped across subsequent weekends until it fell from the top-10 list on its eighth weekend. The film lasted in theaters for 22 weekends, its last screening airing in 105 theaters and grossing \$52,675, placing at No. 56. Final Destination grossed \$53,331,147 in the United States and Canada on its total screening, and earned \$59,549,147 in other territories, earning an overall gross of \$112,880,294 internationally.
### Home media
Final Destination was released on VHS and DVD on September 26, 2000, by New Line Home Video, in the United States and Canada. The DVD bonus features include three audio commentaries, three deleted scenes, and two documentaries. The first commentary features Wong, Morgan, Reddick, and editor James Coblentz describing the minute subtleties included by the creative team throughout the film, which either allude to death or foreshadow the deaths in the film invisible upon initial airing. They also discuss how the film was made and how they fought the executives of New Line Cinema over various factors.
The second commentary includes Sawa, Smith, Cloke, and Donella discussing what was involved in certain scenes and how they each were cast. The third commentary is the isolated music score of Walker included in the film's score.
Deleted scenes cover two subplots of Alex and Clear, an alternate ending where Alex dies after rescuing Clear from the live wires, Clear bearing a baby which she names Alex, and Clear and Carter finishing as the only survivors of the film.
The first documentary entitled A Look at Test Screenings runs for 13 minutes and outlines the test screening process, giving an overview of how those screenings were conducted and scored. The featurette shows video footage of the test screening audience and specific comments regarding why the deleted scenes were either cut or reshot. The second documentary, titled Premonitions, explores real-life intuitive investigator Pam Coronado, who has helped police solve many murders and missing person cases with her psychic abilities. The featurette runs for 20 minutes. Some DVDs contain two non DVD-ROM games—Death Clock and Psychic Test—in addition to the film's theatrical trailer and filmographies of the cast and crew.
A Blu-ray Disc edition was released on April 7, 2009, retaining a majority of the DVD's bonus features.
## Reception
### Critical response
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported 36% of critics gave the film positive write-ups based on 96 reviews, with an average rating of 4.9/10. The site's critics' consensus states, "Despite a panel of X-Files alums at the helm and a promising premise, flighty performances and poor execution keep Final Destination from ever taking off." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 36 out of 100 based on reviews from 28 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". On June 14, 2010, Nick Hyman of Metacritic included Final Destination in the website's editorial 15 Movies the Critics Got Wrong, noting that "the elaborate suspense/action set pieces from the first two films are more impressive than most". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of B− on an A+ to F scale.
On the negative side, Stephen Holden of The New York Times said that "even by the crude standards of teenage horror, Final Destination is dramatically flat". Lou Lumenick of the New York Post commented that "the film's premise quickly deteriorates into a silly, badly acted slasher movie—minus the slasher". Kevin Maynard of Mr. Showbiz described the film as "crude and witless". Rita Kempley of The Washington Post wrote that "your own final destination just might be the box office, to demand your money back".
Jay Carr of The Boston Globe commented that it "starts by cheating death and ends by cheating us". Lisa Alspector of the Chicago Reader described the film as "disturbing—if less sophisticated than the best SF (science fiction)-horror TV". Luke Thompson of the Dallas Observer found it "a waste of a decent premise"; Ernest Hardy of LA Weekly said that the film "fails because it takes itself both too seriously and not seriously enough". Barbara Shulgasser of the Chicago Tribune said that it "met the low standards of a mediocre TV movie". Walter Addiego of the San Francisco Examiner thought it was "stupid, silly and gory".
The film gathered positive reviews from several top critics. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times enjoyed the film and gave it three out of four stars, stating that "Final Destination will no doubt be a hit and inspire the obligatory sequels. Like the original Scream, this movie is too good to be the end of the road. I have visions of my own". Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle praised the film, saying "[it] was playful and energized enough to keep an audience guessing". Joe Leydon of Variety praised the film, saying "[it] generates a respectable amount of suspense and takes a few unexpected turns while covering familiar territory", while Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times said it was "a terrific theatrical feature debut for television veterans Glen Morgan and James Wong". Chris Kaltenbach of The Baltimore Sun found the film "fitfully thrilling", Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide called the film "serviceable enough, if you come to it with sufficiently modest expectations". Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle stated the film was "a flawed but often entertaining teen horror flick".
Despite the film's generally mixed reception, critics praised Sawa's performance as Alex. David Nusair of Reel Film Reviews remarked "Sawa's personable turn as the hero is matched by a uniformly effective supporting cast rife with familiar faces (i.e. Seann William Scott, Brendan Fehr, Tony Todd, etc)" while Leydon stated that "Sawa is credible as the second-sighted Alex—unlike many other actors cast teen protagonists, he actually looks like he might still be attending high school—but the supporting players are an uneven bunch". LaSalle praised Sawa and Ali Larter's pairing, saying that "Larter and Sawa, who becomes more scruffy and wild-eyed as the film progresses, make an appealing pair".
### Accolades
The film had a major impact on the horror film audience, earning the Saturn Award for Best Horror Film in 2000. Sawa won the Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor the same year, and Larter won the Young Hollywood Award for a Breakthrough Performance by a Female. At the 2001 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards, both Sawa and Larter were nominated for Favorite Actor in Horror (Internet Only) and Favorite Actress in Horror (Internet Only), respectively. Both actors lost the awards to Scream 3 actors David Arquette and Neve Campbell. Additionally, cinematographer Robert McLachlan was nominated for Best Cinematography in a Theatrical Feature at the Canadian Society of Cinematographers Awards in 2001, but lost to Pierre Gill for his work on The Art of War.
The film's concept was listed at No. 46 in Channel 4's 100 Greatest Scary Moments, in which Smith represented the film. The Flight 180 explosion scene was included in the lists of best fictional plane crashes or disaster scenes by Break Studios, Unreality Magazine, New Movies.net, The Jetpacker, MaximOnline, and Filmsite. Filmsite also included the plane scene and the deaths of three characters (Tod, Terry, and Ms. Lewton) in its Scariest Movie Moments and Scenes, and all fatalities in its Best Film Deaths Scenes. The demise of Detmer's character entered the listings of the most shocking deaths on film of George Wales and Simon Kinnear of Total Film (No. 29 and No. 10, respectively), Simon Hill of Eat Horror (No. 10), and Dirk Sonningsen of Mania (No. 10).
## See also
- Final Destination (franchise)
- "Twenty Two" (The Twilight Zone)
- List of unmade episodes of The X-Files |
8,632,918 | Floriana Lines | 1,136,589,541 | Line of fortifications in Floriana, Malta | [
"17th-century controversies",
"17th-century fortifications",
"18th Century military history of Malta",
"18th-century fortifications",
"Architectural controversies",
"Buildings and structures completed in the 18th century",
"City walls in Malta",
"Controversies in Malta",
"Floriana",
"Fortification lines",
"Hospitaller fortifications in Malta",
"Limestone buildings in Malta",
"National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands"
] | The Floriana Lines (Maltese: Is-Swar tal-Furjana) are a line of fortifications in Floriana, Malta, which surround the fortifications of Valletta and form the capital city's outer defences. Construction of the lines began in 1636 and they were named after the military engineer who designed them, Pietro Paolo Floriani. The Floriana Lines were modified throughout the course of the 17th and 18th centuries, and they saw use during the French blockade of 1798–1800. Today, the fortifications are still largely intact but rather dilapidated and in need of restoration.
The Floriana Lines are considered to be among the most complicated and elaborate of the Hospitaller fortifications of Malta. Since 1998, they have been on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as part of the Knights' Fortifications around the Harbours of Malta.
## History
### Background, controversy and construction
The city of Valletta was founded on 28 March 1566 by Jean de Valette, the Grand Master of the Order of St. John. The city occupied about half the Sciberras Peninsula, a large promontory separating the Grand Harbour from Marsamxett Harbour, and was protected by tracce italiane fortifications, including a land front with four bastions, two cavaliers and a deep ditch. Although these fortifications were well designed, by the early 17th century they were not strong enough to resist a large attack due to new technological developments which increased the range of artillery.
In 1634, there were fears that the Ottomans would attack Malta. Grand Master Antoine de Paule asked Pope Urban VIII for help in improving the island's fortifications. The Pope sent Pietro Paolo Floriani to examine the defences, who in 1635 proposed building a second line of fortifications around the Valletta Land Front. Some members of the Order and a number of military engineers strongly opposed these plans, since the large garrison needed to man the lines was deemed too expensive. Eventually De Paule decided to construct the lines, since it would have been improper to disagree with the Pope's military engineer. The Bailiff Gattinara resigned from his post in the Commission of Fortifications in protest.
Work on the lines began in 1636, but no ceremony was carried out to commemorate laying the foundation stone due to controversy surrounding the construction. Since fortification was expensive, the new Grand Master Giovanni Paolo Lascaris imposed a new tax on immovable property. This tax created dispute between the Order and the clergy, who protested to the Pope. Some priests also influenced the population to take part in a national protest, but plans leaked out to authorities and the leaders were arrested.
The fortifications were named the Floriana Lines after their architect. By June 1640, the lines were considered partially defensible, although still incomplete.
### Improvements and modifications
Fears of an Ottoman attack rose again after the fall of Candia in 1669, and the following year Grand Master Nicolas Cotoner invited the military engineer Antonio Maurizio Valperga to improve the fortifications. At the time the Floriana Lines were still under construction, and a number of weak points had been identified in their original design, especially since the demi-bastions forming the two extremities of the land front were too acute and could not be well defended. Valperga attempted to correct these flaws by making a number of alterations to San Salvatore Bastion on the western end of the lines, and constructing a faussebraye around the entire land front and a crowned hornwork near the eastern end. In the 1680s some minor modifications were made by the Flemish engineer Carlos de Grunenbergh.
Work on Valperga's modifications to the lines progressed slowly, and by the beginning of the 18th century the outworks, glacis and enceinte facing Marsamxett were still unfinished. Works continued under a number of other engineers, including Charles François de Mondion, and the lines were largely complete when Porte des Bombes was constructed in 1721. Further alterations were made over the following decades, such as the construction of the Northern Entrenchment in the 1730s.
In 1724, the suburb of Floriana was founded in the area between the Floriana Lines and the Valletta Land Front. The suburb was named Borgo Vilhena after Grand Master António Manoel de Vilhena, but it was commonly known as Floriana. It is now a town in its own right.
### French occupation and British rule
French forces invaded Malta in June 1798, and the Order capitulated after a couple of days. The French occupied the island until September, when the Maltese rebelled and blockaded the French forces in the harbour area with foreign help. The Floriana Lines remained under French control throughout the blockade, and the Maltese built Tas-Samra Battery and a battery on Corradino in order to bombard them.
After the British took over Malta in 1800, the lines remained a functional military establishment. A number of minor alterations were made, including the enlargement of Porte des Bombes, the demolition of a lunette and some other gates, and the addition of gunpowder magazines and traverses.
### Recent history
The fortifications were included on the Antiquities List of 1925, and they are now also listed on the National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands.
In the 1970s, parts of the covertway and glacis were destroyed to make way for large storage tanks. Today, the lines are still more or less intact, but some parts are in a rather dilapidated state and in need of restoration.
## Layout
### Land front
The Floriana Land Front is the large bastioned enceinte enclosing the landward approach to the Floriana. It consists of the following:
- Bastion of Provence, also known as San Salvatore Bastion or Sa Maison Bastion – a retrenched demi-bastion which was heavily altered over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries.
- Notre Dame Curtain – curtain wall linking San Salvatore and St. Philip Bastions. It contained the Notre Dame Gate, which was partially demolished in the 1920s to accommodate for traffic requirements.
- St. Philip Bastion – a large obtuse-angled bastion at the centre of the land front. It is retrenched with the following bastions:
- St. James Bastion
- St. Luke Bastion
- St. Anne Curtain – curtain wall linking St. Philip and St. Francis Bastions. It contained St. Anne's Gate, which was replaced by a larger gate in 1859. The larger gate was also demolished in 1897 to facilitate the flow of traffic.
- St. Francis Bastion – a large demi-bastion linked to the Polverista Bastion of the Grand Harbour enceinte. It is retrenched with St. Mark Bastion.
The land front is surrounded by a ditch, which contains the following outworks:
- San Salvatore Counterguard – a counterguard near San Savatore Bastion.
- Pietà Lunette – a pentagonal lunette between San Salvatore Bastion and Notre Dame Ravelin, facing Pietà Creek. It was damaged by aerial bombardment in World War II.
- Notre Dame Ravelin, also known as the Lower Ravelin – a pentagonal ravelin near Notre Dame Curtain, between San Salvatore and St. Philip Bastions. A number of modern government buildings are located in the open area within the ravelin.
- a pentagonal lunette between Notre Dame Ravelin and St. Philip Bastion. It was damaged by aerial bombardment in World War II, but the damage was repaired.
- Porte des Bombes Lunette – a lunette between St. Philip Bastion and St. Francis Ravelin. It was demolished in the early 20th century to make way for the modern road to Valletta.
- St. Francis Ravelin, also known as the Upper Ravelin – a pentagonal ravelin near St. Anne Curtain, between St. Philip and St. Francis Bastions. The Malta Environment and Planning Authority (MEPA) offices are located in the open area within the ravelin.
The outworks are surrounded by a faussebraye, advanced ditch, covertway, and glacis. In the 1720s, a gate known as Porta dei Cannoni was built in the faussebraye. The gate was enlarged by the British, and became known as Porte des Bombes. It was eventually detached from the faussebraye to facilitate the flow of traffic, and it now looks like a triumphal arch.
A crowned hornwork consisting of an inner hornwork with two demi-bastions and an outer crownwork with one full bastion and two demi-bastions is located near St. Francis Ravelin. The crownwork was protected by a musketry gallery overlooking Marsa and by two lunettes, one near its land front and another near its flank.
### Marsamxett enceinte
The enceinte along the side facing Marsamxett Harbour starts from San Salvatore Bastion of the Floriana Land Front, and originally ended at St. Michael's Counterguard of the Valletta Land Front. It consists of the following:
- La Vittoria Bastion – a small casemated bastion grafted onto the Bastion of Provence which forms part of the land front.
- Polverista Curtain – a long casemated curtain wall between La Vittoria and Msida Bastions. It overlooks the AFM base at Hay Wharf.
- Msida Bastion – a polygonal asymmetrical bastion with a demi-bastioned retrenchment. A cemetery (today Msida Bastion Historic Garden) was built on its upper part in the 19th century.
- an unnamed curtain wall between Msida and Quarantine Bastions
- Quarantine Bastion – a polygonal asymmetrical bastion with a demi-bastioned retrenchment. It is breached by a modern road.
In addition, a bastioned enceinte known as the North Entrenchment is located behind the entire Marsamxett enceinte, acting as a secondary line of defence.
### Grand Harbour enceinte
The enceinte along the side facing the Grand Harbour starts from St. Francis Bastion of the Floriana Land Front, and ends at St. Peter and St. Paul Counterguard of the Valletta Land Front. It consists of the following:
- Capuchin Bastion, also known as Dhoccara, Magazine or Polverista Bastion – a demi-bastion linked to St. Francis Bastion of the land front. It contains an 18th-century gunpowder magazine.
- a curtain wall linking Capuchin Bastion to the platform near Crucifix Curtain
- a flat-faced platform or bastion near Crucifix Curtain
- Crucifix Curtain – curtain wall linking the platform to Crucifix Bastion
- Crucifix Bastion – a large asymmetrical bastion containing a 19th-century gunpowder magazine. It also had a concrete emplacement for a 9-inch BL gun, but this has been removed.
- Kalkara Curtain – curtain wall linking Crucifix and Kalkara Bastions. It is breached by a modern road.
- Kalkara Bastion – a bastioned enceinte linking to St. Peter & St. Paul Counterguard of the Valletta Land Front. |
21,922,621 | 1957 World Professional Match-play Championship | 1,133,895,836 | Snooker tournament, held 1957 | [
"1957 in British sport",
"1957 in Jersey",
"1957 in snooker",
"Saint Helier",
"World Professional Match-play Championship",
"World Snooker Championships"
] | The 1957 World Professional Match-play Championship was a professional snooker tournament held from 1 to 13 April in Saint Helier, Jersey. This was the 1957 edition of the World Snooker Championship first held in 1927. John Pulman won the event for the first time by defeating Jackie Rea 39–34 in the 73– final. Rea led in the early stages but Pulman pulled ahead and took a winning lead of 37–29 after the final afternoon .
There were four participants. All three matches were played at the Jersey Billliards Association Match Room. Fred Davis was the defending champion, having won the 1956 World Professional Match-play Championship 38–35 against Pulman in the final, but declined to take part in the 1957 event. The world snooker championship was not contested again until 1964 due to a decline in the popularity of professional snooker making the tournament unviable.
## Background
The World Snooker Championship is a professional tournament and the official world championship of the game of snooker. The sport was developed in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India. Professional English billiards player and billiard hall manager Joe Davis noticed the increasing popularity of snooker compared to billiards in the 1920s, and with Birmingham-based billiards equipment manager Bill Camkin, persuaded the Billiards Association and Control Council (BACC) to recognise an official professional snooker championship in the 1926–27 season. In 1927, the final of the first professional snooker championship was held at Camkin's Hall; Davis won the tournament by beating Tom Dennis in the final. The annual competition was not titled the World Championship until 1935, but the 1927 tournament is now referred to as the first World Snooker Championship. Davis also won the title each year until 1940, when the contest was cancelled during World War II, and again when the championship resumed in 1946, accumulating a total of 15 titles before retiring from the event.
In 1952, the World Professional Match-play Championship was created following a dispute between the Professional Billiards Players' Association (PBPA) and the BACC. In response to player complaints that the BACC was taking too large a percentage of income from the tournament, the BACC claimed that the championship "has always been, and in theory is to be, regarded as an affair of honour and a test of merit", and that "every effort is made to arrange terms advantageous to the professionals competing in the championship, compatible with securing an equitable return for the promoters of it, the B.A.& C.C." The PBPA members established an alternative competition which became known as the World Professional Match-play Championship, now recognised as world championships. There were four entrants for the 1957 World Professional Match-play Championship: John Pulman, Jackie Rea, Rex Williams, and Kingsley Kennerley. Defending champion Fred Davis, who had won the world championship in 1948, 1949 and 1951, and the five previous editions of the World Professional Match-play Championship, each year from 1952 to 1956, did not enter the 1957 tournament.
In March 1957, Pulman won the 1956/1957 News of the World Snooker Tournament, which had been a handicapped competition. With Fred Davis declining to enter the World Matchplay competition because he was taking a "rest" from it, Pulman, who had been the runner-up in the tournament in the two-previous years, was said by the Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail to be a "hot favourite" to win it in 1957.
## Summary
The 1957 World Professional Match-play Championship was held at Saint Helier, Jersey, from 1 to 13 April 1957, organised by the Jersey Billiards Association for the PBPA. All matches were played at the Jersey Billiards Association Match Room, Le Geyt Street, and were refereed by S. A. de Gruchy.
Rea was 4–2 ahead after the opening , and achieved a 9–3 lead over Kennerley after the first day. The Jersey Evening Post reported that the first day's play was "generally disappointing", with the highest in the afternoon session being only 34, made by Kennerley. The first session had an audience of only four people, and there were twelve spectators for the evening session. Rea won all six on the second afternoon, for 15–3, making an 85 break in the 19th frame. With the six evening frames shared between the pair, Rea led 18–6 after the second day. Rea won the first frame on the third day to achieve a winning margin at 19–6, and after , won 25–12. During the dead frames, which had an audience of around 80 people, Rea compiled the highest break of the match, a 92, in the 23rd frame.
Williams won only one frame, the fourth, in the first session against Pulman, but reduced his deficit from 1–5 after the first session to 5–7 after the second session. The highest break was 72, from Pulman. The pair each won three frames on the second afternoon, leaving Pulman 10–8 ahead, before Williams took four of the six evening frames to level the match at 12–12 after Pulman had missed several easy . On the last day, Pulman claimed the first three frames. Williams then won the following frame, and added another which was decided on a . Pulman took the session's last frame and led 16–14. In the evening, Williams won the first frame with a 65 break that the Jersey Evening Post reported "gained the most enthusiastic and sustained burst of applause of the week's play." Pulman achieved a winning margin at 19–16, and after two dead frames, during which he made breaks of 92, 77 and 50 finished 21–16 ahead.
The final was over 73 frames, played from 8 to 13 April. On the first afternoon Rea took the first frame with breaks of 23, 24, and 43. Pulman won the next two frames, then Rea claimed the following three frames to end the first session 4–2 ahead. In the evening, Pulman equalised at 4–4 by taking the first two frames, which was followed by Rea building a 7–4 lead. Pulman won the 12th frame, then Rea claimed the day's last frame to lead 8–5. The highest break of the first day was 88, made by Rea in the fourth frame. Pulman won the first three frames on the second day to level at 8–8, and compiled a break of 101, the first century break of the tournament, in the second frame. Rea responded by claiming the next three frames, before Pulman added the last frame of the day, leaving Rea 14–12 in front.
Rea increased his advantage to four frames at 18–14 after the third morning session, but Pulman won five of the evening's seven frames, including the last four of the day, to move to one frame behind at 19–20. Rea had failed to pot the in the 36th frame, which would have given him a six-frame lead as he had been 20–15 up at the time.
There was just one session on the fourth day and with Pulman winning five of the seven frames he took the lead for the first time and was 24–22 up at the close. Pulman also had the best of the fifth day and, taking the afternoon session 4–2 and the evening session 4–3, thus extending his lead to 32–27. On the final day, Pulman won 5 of the 7 frames in the afternoon session to take a winning lead of 37–29. Rea won 5 of the 7 frames in the evening session to give a final score of 39–34 to Pulman. Pulman's 101 was the only century break of the final. The championship trophy was presented by Lady Coutanche. Both finalists also received six pottery goblets made in Jersey.
The final attracted an audience of about 100, and the only newspaper to carry significant coverage of it was the Jersey Evening Post. Authors Luke Williams and Paul Gadsby wrote in Masters of the Baize (2005) that "a new-found steel seemed to have developed in Pulman's game" during the final, shown by him winning several frames on the final black, and that "he displayed plenty of grit" during the match. The championship was not contested again until 1964, due to a decline in the popularity of professional snooker making the tournament unviable.
## Schedule
## Main draw
Match results are shown below. Winning players and scores are denoted in bold text. |
24,108,375 | Hurricane Babe | 1,167,159,517 | Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 1977 | [
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] | Hurricane Babe was the second named storm and the first to impact the United States during the inactive 1977 Atlantic hurricane season. Forming out of a tropical wave on September 3, Babe began as a subtropical cyclone in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. The storm gradually intensified as it tracked westward. On September 5, the storm turned north and acquired tropical characteristics. Later that day, Babe intensified into a hurricane and attained its peak strength with winds of 75 mph (120 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 995 mbar (hPa; 29.38 inHg). Several hours later, the hurricane made landfall in Louisiana and quickly weakened. By September 6, Babe had weakened to a tropical depression and later dissipated early on September 9 over North Carolina.
Hurricane Babe produced minimal impact throughout its path in the United States. The most significant impact occurred in Louisiana where the storm caused \$10 million (1977 USD; \$ 2023 USD) in damage, mainly from crop losses. An additional \$3 million (1977 USD; \$ 2023 USD) in losses resulted from tornadoes spawned by Babe. Heavy rainfall in North Carolina, peaking at 8.99 in (228 mm) triggered flash flooding but little damage. No fatalities resulted from the hurricane. Coincidentally, a typhoon, also named Babe, existed at exactly the same time as Hurricane Babe.
## Meteorological history
Hurricane Babe originated from a tropical wave that exited the western coast of Africa on August 23. Tracking westward, the wave eventually entered the Gulf of Mexico on September 2. Upon entering the gulf, a surface circulation developed; however, convection associated with the system was not concentrated around the center. The newly formed system then interacted with an upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex situated near the Florida coastline. The following day, Convective banding features around the cyclone led to the National Hurricane Center (NHC) upgrading the system to Tropical Storm Babe. Although classified a tropical storm, Babe was not fully tropical, it was later classified as a subtropical cyclone. The forward motion of Babe had slowed significantly from when it was a wave but maintained the westward direction.
By September 4, the maximum winds were found closer to the center of circulation and the cyclone developed a warmer core, a main feature in tropical cyclones. An anticyclone also developed over Babe and later that day, the storm transitioned into a tropical cyclone. By this time, Babe had turned nearly due north and was near hurricane-status. Around this time, reconnaissance missions into the storm found a closed eyewall with an eye measuring roughly 23 mi (37 km) in diameter. Another reconnaissance flight that day found sustained winds of 80 mph (130 km/h); however, these winds were located roughly 65 mi (100 km) from the center and considered to be unrepresentative of the storm's actual intensity.
Early on September 5, reconnaissance found a central barometric pressure of 995 mbar (hPa; 29.38 inHg), the lowest recorded in relation to the storm. Around this time, Babe also intensified into a hurricane, attaining maximum winds of 75 mph (120 km/h). Later that day, Hurricane Babe made landfall near Cocodrie, Louisiana and quickly weakened to a tropical storm. By landfall, the eye of Babe had contracted to roughly 14 mi (23 km). On September 6, the storm had weakened to a tropical depression and was moving northeast into Mississippi. The system continued this movement for the following two days. While crossing South Carolina, forecasters thought that the system would emerge into the Atlantic Ocean and regenerate into a tropical depression. However, the remnants of Babe dissipated shortly before crossing into North Carolina early on September 9.
## Preparations
Upon the storm's formation on September 3, gale warnings were issued for areas along the north-central coast of the Gulf of Mexico. By September 5, hurricane warnings were posted for areas between Vermilion Bay to the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana. These warnings were later discontinued as the system moved over land. Ahead of the storm, up to 30,000 residents in low-lying parts of the state moved inland. However, press reports indicate that upwards of 45,000 residents had evacuated from coastal regions prior to the storm. In Grand Isle, roughly 200 civil defense workers stayed behind in the town hall after the cities 2,300 residents evacuated. In Cameron Parish, roughly 8,000 residents evacuated inland. Emergency shelters were set up throughout Louisiana to house evacuees during the storm. As Hurricane Babe began to weaken over Louisiana, forecasters anticipated the formation of tornadoes and issued tornado watches for parts of Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia and Florida.
## Impact
Prior to becoming a subtropical depression, Babe produced scattered rainfall in Florida, with peak amounts near 3 in (76 mm) falling around Lake Okeechobee. Widespread rain fell in relation to Babe throughout the Southern United States. In Louisiana, rain was confined to eastern parts of the state, with up to 10 in (250 mm) being measured near the Mississippi border. The remnants of the hurricane continued to produce heavy rain through its dissipation over North Carolina. A storm peak of 10.99 in (279 mm) fell in Lafayette, Georgia. Most of North Carolina received between 3 and 5 in (76 and 127 mm) of rain with isolated areas exceeding 7 in (180 mm). A state maximum of 8.99 in (228 mm) fell in Lake Toxaway, North Carolina, 7.05 in (179 mm) in Caesars Head, South Carolina and 6.62 in (168 mm) in Chattanooga, Tennessee.
Upon making landfall, Babe produced a storm surge of 5 ft (1.5 m), leading to minor coastal flooding. Due to the storm's quick deterioration after moving inland, the NHC presumed that hurricane-force winds did not impact land. The highest wind gust was recorded in Grand Isle, Louisiana at 50 mph (85 km/h) and the highest sustained wind was recorded in Boothville, Louisiana at 45 mph (75 km/h). In Jean Lafitte, Louisiana, overflow from the Fleming Canal produced flooding throughout the area. The most significant damage was to croplands inundated by flood waters. Flash flooding occurred throughout the path of the former hurricane in the eastern United States, particularly in North Carolina.
Hurricane Babe produced 14 tornadoes between September 5 and 7 along its track in several states. Louisiana recorded the most, with six touchdowns, including one F2 that injured one person and caused \$2.5 million (1977 USD; \$ 2023 USD) in damages near Hammond in Tangipahoa Parish. A country store sustained severe damage from the tornado, with most of the back of the store destroyed. Six wood-frame homes were also knocked off their cinder block supports. Another F2 touched down in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama; however, minimal damage was recorded along its 8 mi (13 km) track. Another F2 briefly touched down in Harrison County, Mississippi on September 6. It struck an unoccupied elementary school, wrecking six classrooms and leaving \$500,000 (1977 USD; \$ 2023 USD) in damages. Throughout the storm's path, damages amounted to \$10 million (1977 USD; \$ 2023 USD) with an additional \$3 million (1977 USD; \$ 2023 USD) from tornadoes. There was no loss of life due to Babe.
## See also
- 1977 Atlantic hurricane season
- Hurricane Bob (1979)
- Hurricane Danny (1997) |
632,089 | Old Louisville | 1,169,262,645 | null | [
"1870s establishments in Kentucky",
"Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Kentucky",
"History of Louisville, Kentucky",
"Local preservation districts in Louisville, Kentucky",
"National Register of Historic Places in Louisville, Kentucky",
"Neighborhoods in Louisville, Kentucky",
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"Student quarters",
"Tourist attractions in Louisville, Kentucky"
] | Old Louisville is a historic district and neighborhood in central Louisville, Kentucky, United States. It is the third largest such district in the United States, and the largest preservation district featuring almost entirely Victorian architecture. It is also unique in that a majority of its structures are made of brick, and the neighborhood contains the highest concentration of residential homes with stained glass windows in the U.S. Many of the buildings are in the Victorian-era styles of Romanesque, Queen Anne, Italianate, among others; and many blocks have had few or no buildings razed. There are also several 20th-century buildings from 15 to 20 stories.
Old Louisville consists of about 48 city blocks and is located north of the University of Louisville's main campus and south of Broadway and Downtown Louisville, in the central portion of the modern city. The neighborhood hosts the renowned St. James Court Art Show on the first weekend in October.
Despite its name, Old Louisville was actually built as a suburb of Louisville starting in the 1870s, nearly a century after Louisville was founded. It was initially called the Southern Extension, and the name Old Louisville did not come until the 1960s. Old Louisville was initially home to some of Louisville's wealthiest residents, but saw a decline in the early and mid-20th century. Following revitalization efforts and gentrification, Old Louisville is currently home to a diverse population with a high concentration of students and young professionals.
## History
Old Louisville is not actually the oldest part of Louisville. In fact, large-scale development south of Broadway did not begin until the 1870s, nearly a century after what is now Downtown Louisville was first settled. The area was initially part of three different military land grants issued in 1773, and throughout the early and mid-19th century the land passed through the hands of several speculators, meanwhile much of it was used as farmland. Some of the land south of Broadway was still in its natural state during this time, such as the 50-acre (200,000 m<sup>2</sup>) tract between Broadway and Breckenridge, known as Jacob's Woods, a popular picnic ground as late as 1845. A major attraction was Oakland Race Track, near today's Seventh and Ormsby, built in 1839 and an early forerunner to Churchill Downs.
Country estates had been built in the area as early as the 1830s, and some of Louisville's great early mansions, predominantly in the Italianate style, were built along Broadway, very near Old Louisville, before the Civil War. Development from 1850 to 1870 occurred between Broadway and Kentucky Street, the northern extreme of what came to be called Old Louisville. North-south city streets were extended throughout the area in the 1850s, and a mulecar line was extended down Fourth to Oak in 1865.
The land south of Broadway that became Old Louisville was annexed by the city in 1868, as a part of larger expansion efforts. This annexation moved the southern boundary of the city as far south as the city's House of Refuge, an area which is now the University of Louisville campus and the southern border of Old Louisville. A year later, architect Gideon Shryock called the area "a growing and beautiful suburban locality". By 1876 about a quarter of the area was occupied.
Development continued as lots were sold southward to present day Oak Street, about a third of the way between Broadway and the House of Refuge. The principal road through the suburb at this time was Central Plank Road, which became Third Street. The emerging area was called the Southern Extension by this time. Growth south of Oak was very slow until the Southern Exposition was held annually in the area from 1883 to 1887.
At the urging of Courier-Journal editor Henry Watterson, the city held the Southern Exposition, which in the words of Watterson, was meant to "advance the material welfare of the producing classes of the South and West." It was held on 45 acres (180,000 m<sup>2</sup>) at the heart of Old Louisville, where St. James Court and Central Park (originally Dupont Square) would eventually be located, and included a 600 by 900-foot (270 m) enclosed exhibition building. The Exposition was opened by President Chester Arthur and attracted nearly one million visitors in its first year. The exhibition featured the first public display of Thomas Edison's light bulb, as well as what was billed as the largest artificial lighting display in history with 4,600 lamps, in a time when electric lighting was considered a novelty.
During the 1880s, after the exposition ended, the area between Oak and Hill Streets rapidly developed and became one of the city's most fashionable neighborhoods. According to historian Young E. Allison, 260 homes valued at a total of \$1.6 million were constructed in Old Louisville from 1883 to 1886. The dominant styles by this time were Queen Anne and Richardsonian Romanesque. An example of the latter, which was known for its turrets, towers and bay windows, was the Conrad house at St. James Court.
These styles became less prevalent in the 1890s as the remaining southern portions of Old Louisville, between Ormsby and the House of refuge, were filled in, predominantly with buildings in the Chateauesque and Renaissance Revival styles. This included one of Old Louisville's most famous sections, St. James Court, developed starting in 1890 and envisioned as a haven for the upper class, and was completely occupied by 1905. Described as "the epitome of Victorian eclecticism", the area included houses in such styles as Venetian, Colonial, Gothic and others.
From 1890 to 1905 the area was home to the Amphitheatre Auditorium, which claimed the second largest stage in the United States and showcased many of the day's best actors. The structure, located at the corner of 4th and Hill Streets, was razed after its owner, William Norton, Jr., died. Another form of entertainment in the area was baseball, with the game first being played by 1860 and an early ballpark at Fourth and Ormsby emerging after the Civil War. By 1875, a new park had been built near St. James Court.
Old Louisville is also home to the Ferguson Mansion, built by Edwin Hite Ferguson. Ferguson commissioned the Louisville architectural firm of Cobb and Dodd—the same firm responsible for designing the Seelbach Hotel and the new capitol building in Frankfort—to design his home in 1901. Construction of the mansion took four years (1901–1905) and cost \$100,000, which was approximately ten times the cost of the neighboring Victorian homes. At the time, the mansion was the most expensive home in Louisville. In the 1920s, the Fergusons sold the home to the Pearson family, and it served as the Pearson Funeral Home until the mid-1970s. The house also provided the headquarters for John Y. Brown, Jr.'s successful 1979 gubernatorial campaign. In 1986, the mansion became the headquarters of The Filson Historical Society.
In its peak in the late 19th century, Old Louisville was the center of Louisville's social life, with nearly all persons listed in the Society Directory of Louisville having Old Louisville addresses. The directory even listed the reception days and hours of Old Louisville's leading ladies, which varied by street, such as Tuesdays on Fourth Street or Thursdays on Second.
### Decline
The area gradually declined as the affluent moved to newer streetcar suburbs, such as Cherokee Triangle, or built estates in areas east of Louisville recently connected by railroad, such as Anchorage and Glenview. Accelerated by the Great Depression, many of the large homes in Old Louisville were converted to boarding houses during the 1930s. The Ohio River flood of 1937 caused a great number of the remaining wealthy households to move above the flood plain.
The gradual abandonment of Old Louisville by the wealthy was a reflection of changing lifestyles brought on by technology. Many homes of Old Louisville were originally built as mansions that would require several servants to maintain. Because of the relatively high wages offered by manufacturing jobs, servants were no longer affordable to all but the wealthiest families by the mid-20th century. Interurban rail lines, and increasingly automobiles, meant that the wealthy no longer had to live so close to their businesses, and many chose to live in what had previously been summer homes in the county's east end. The lifestyle that created Old Louisville was effectively obsolete.
During the years between World War I and World War II, many of the old mansions were hastily converted into apartments to house the growing labor supply, a practice encouraged by the federal government at the time through low-interest loans. However, after World War II, with the housing shortage solved by large-scale suburban development affordable to the middle class, vacancy rates in Old Louisville surged. To attract renters, landlords had to lower rents dramatically, attracting less affluent tenants with less funds to maintain the homes.
A large section of the neighborhood, from around Kentucky Street to Broadway, was razed. Many buildings south of Lee Street, and nearly all south of Avery Street (renamed Cardinal Boulevard) were razed for the construction of Noe Middle School, expansions to Manual High School and a major expansion of the University of Louisville, as well as to expand local industry east of Floyd Street. From 1965 to 1971, 639 buildings were razed as a part of this effort. However, the plan did spur the restoration of over 100 buildings in other parts of Old Louisville.
During the 1960s many low income residents downtown who were displaced as a result of urban renewal moved into the newly converted apartments, especially on the north side of the neighborhood. The area was now considered drug ridden and undesirable by most Louisvillians. The very term Old Louisville, first becoming associated with the area in the 1940s, had mostly negative connotations initially, as historian Samuel W. Thomas put it, "In an Era where architectural styles were changing dramatically, old meant out of fashion".
### Revitalization
One of the first to take an active role in preserving and revitalizing Old Louisville was Courier-Journal writer J. Douglas Nunn. In 1960 he began a vigorous public information campaign concerning the area. Nunn compared it to neighborhoods like D.C.'s Georgetown and Boston's Beacon Hill. In 1961 Nunn took a leave of absence from his job and started "Restoration, Inc.", a group that restored ten homes in Old Louisville's Belgravia Court in 1961, spurring interest in preservation that would lead many local activists to move to the area. This effort also led to the first use of the name Old Louisville in print in that year, as a reflection of the interest in preservation. With the activists' efforts the area was made into a historic preservation district in 1975. The area has continued to improve, with new restaurants and shops opening and many students, and young professionals moving into the area. Property owners, who once cheaply converted the old houses to apartments, have invested more in improvements since the 1980s, and several properties have been converted into luxury condominiums. The median home value more than doubled between 1990 and 2000, increasing at a faster rate than Louisville as a whole. This overall process of improvement and rising property values has been described as gentrification.
The area is now one of the most ethnically and economically diverse in Louisville. Crime is becoming less of a problem. While in 2003 there were 11.5 crimes per 1,000 residents, over twice the average for the city of Louisville as a whole, which was 5.0 crimes per 1,000 residents Old Louisville now has a similar number of calls for police assistance as other parts of Louisville. The Louisville Metro Police 4th Division is responsible for a large portion of Louisville beyond Old Louisville, but is conveniently located in Central Park in Old Louisville. It had 134 officers assigned to it in 2006. Most calls are related to car break-ins and non-violent crimes. Murders are still rare, with one or two per year. Overall crime rates for both Old Louisville and the city as a whole increased sharply in 2005 over the 2004 rate, although there was a decline again the first half of 2006.
## Features and attractions
Old Louisville features the largest collection of pedestrian-only streets of any U.S. neighborhood. Eleven such "courts", where houses face each other across a grass median with sidewalks, were built in the neighborhood from 1891 to the 1920s. Most of the courts are centered off of 4th Street. Belgravia Court and Fountain Court were the first ones to be built in 1891 and are the most well known. Later ones included Reeser and Kensington (1910), which were built with large Victorian styled apartments instead of single family homes; and Eutropia and Rose Courts, which were the last ones built in the 1920s and featured small, single story houses. Belgravia and St. James Court were partially rehabilitated as a part of the urban renewal that began in the 1960s. These developments are apparently unique to Louisville.
Two of the three major four-year universities in Louisville are located adjacent to Old Louisville, with Spalding University to the north and the University of Louisville to the south. DuPont Manual High School, a public magnet school, and Presentation Academy, an all-girls Catholic high school, are two other well-known schools located in Old Louisville.
The neighborhood contains The Filson Historical Society, Louisville's Central Park, which features the Kentucky Shakespeare Festival every summer, the Actors Theatre of Louisville Production Studio, and the Conrad-Caldwell House. The area of 6th and Hill Streets in the neighborhood was the setting of the best selling novel Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch by Louisvillian Alice Hegan Rice. Today there is a non-profit counseling and services center, named Cabbage Patch Settlement House for the novel, on 6th Street at Magnolia Avenue, which serves children of low-income families. During the Christmas holiday season a number of private homes are toured in the Old Louisville Holiday Home Tour.
Old Louisville's boundaries are Kentucky Street to the north, Avery Street (Cardinal Boulevard) to the south, I-65 to the east, the CSX railroad tracks to the west. Originally, the neighborhood extended all the way to Broadway on the north, Attwood Street on the south, and Floyd Street on the East; but the northern part was mostly razed for parking lots and light industry, the southern area between Attwood and Avery Streets (now Cardinal Blvd) was razed when the University of Louisville doubled the size of its main campus, and I-65 was built through the area in the 1960s, which created a physical barrier between it and Shelby Park neighborhood.
### Architecture
Old Louisville is well known for its architecture, with styles ranging from Federal to Queen Anne. Very few antebellum buildings remain, and the most impressive buildings were built in the late 19th century. There are a few Italianate, Beaux-Arts and Second Empire-style houses, but Victorian styles dominate. Victorian Gothic styles are commonly seen. Many styles in Old Louisville are united by their use of red sandstone trim, which became popular by the 1880s to the point that the Courier-Journal said "few new residences are going up in Louisville in which it is not being used". Another common Victorian style is the Richardsonian.
Aside from the best represented styles of architecture listed above, Old Louisville also has several great examples of the Chateauesque style of architecture in select buildings throughout the area. For example, one of these examples is a residential building, a mansion, at 400 Belgravia Court, which is a "walking court" where the mansions face a park like walk rather than a street. This specific building was completed in 1897 and one of its first residents was William H. Wathen, M.D., an eminent medical educator in Louisville from a family of successful distillers.
Although some portions have been razed, many entire blocks remain almost untouched, and historian Theodore M. Brown said "it remains the only nineteenth-century segment of the city that is mostly intact". As infills, some American Craftsman style houses can be found in Old Louisville.
### Tallest buildings
## Demographics
As of 2000, the population of Old Louisville was 11,043, of which 55.9% are white, 35.0% are black, 6.3% are listed as other, and 2.3% are Hispanic. College graduates are 24.5%, people without a high school degree are 22.6%, and people with college experience without a bachelor's degree are 28.4%. Females are 52.3% of the population, males are 47.7%. Households making less than \$15,000 a year are 40.8%; although that is largely a function of the 27% of residents who are full-time college students. Ironically, Old Louisville has the youngest median age of any Louisville neighborhood and the highest percent of people between the ages of 20-29 (25%).
Old Louisville's area is about 1.7 square miles (4.4 km<sup>2</sup>), and its population density is 7,800 persons per square mile. The best preserved portions, between Kentucky and Hill streets, have a density of over 10,000 persons per square mile.
## Regions
Old Louisville is broken up into five different census tracts by the US Census Bureau. There are stark differences revealed by the different tracts from North to South
In addition, there are eight different neighborhood associations, each of which provides different levels of infrastructure on each street. For example, on 4th Street the street lights are designed as old lamp posts and there are ornamented trash cans with a fleur-de-lis symbol at frequent intervals, while on St. James Court there are gas lamp posts, 3rd and 2nd Streets have small light posts on the sidewalks, Ouerbacker Court has cast iron decorative gates, and several other streets have basic infrastructure.
## Culture
After years of decline with abandoned buildings and high elderly populations, the demographics of Old Louisville began to change noticeably in the 1990s. New residents were not just college students using the area as housing, but also young professionals who wanted to live in Old Louisville. The Courier-Journal's Velocity weekly has reported the area as a hip, emerging center of culture in Louisville. This change is reflected in numerous coffeehouses, restaurants and bars opening in Old Louisville in the 1990s and early 2000s targeting at the younger crowd.
Old Louisville is one of the most liberal neighborhoods in Louisville, as evidenced by the General Election results in 2004, where it voted for John Kerry by a 60% margin and against a proposal to amend the state constitution to define marriage as "between one man and one woman" by a 66% margin (the proposal passed 75% to 25% in Kentucky).
## Images
## See also
- Cherokee Triangle, Louisville
- West Main District, Louisville
- List of attractions and events in the Louisville metropolitan area
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Old Louisville, Kentucky |
52,425,143 | Nico Hischier | 1,171,429,961 | Swiss ice hockey player | [
"1999 births",
"EHC Visp players",
"Expatriate ice hockey players in Canada",
"Expatriate ice hockey players in the United States",
"Halifax Mooseheads players",
"Living people",
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"National Hockey League first-round draft picks",
"New Jersey Devils draft picks",
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"Swiss expatriate sportspeople in Canada",
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] | Nico Hischier (; born 4 January 1999) is a Swiss professional ice hockey centre and captain of the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League (NHL). Hischier made his professional debut in his native Switzerland in 2015, spending time both in the top-tier National League A (NLA) and the second-tier National League B. He moved to North America for the 2016–17 season to play major junior hockey for the Halifax Mooseheads of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) in hopes of furthering his hockey career; in his first season in the QMJHL, he was named rookie of the year, along with the award for best rookie in the Canadian Hockey League (CHL), the governing body for major junior hockey in Canada. Internationally Hischier has represented Switzerland at several junior tournaments, including two World Junior Championships. Regarded as a strong two-way forward and a top prospect for the 2017 NHL Entry Draft, Hischier was selected first overall by the Devils, the first time a Swiss player was selected first overall, and made his NHL debut in 2017. He was named captain of the Devils in 2021.
## Playing career
### Switzerland and major junior
Hischier participated in the 2011 and 2012 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournaments with a youth team from Zürich. He grew up playing in the EHC Visp program. At the age of 15, he moved from his native canton of Valais, in the south of Switzerland, to Bern and joined SC Bern, following his brother Luca, who had done the same at that age; this allowed Hischier to play at the top levels of the Swiss under-17 and under-20 leagues. He began the 2015–16 season with EHC Visp, an affiliate of SC Bern, in the National League B, the second-highest Swiss league. However, due to several players being out with injuries in Bern, Hischier was brought to the top team on 13 November that year, playing with his brother. Hischier would play 15 games with Bern, spending most of the season with Visp.
The Halifax Mooseheads, a major junior team in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL), selected Hischier sixth overall in the 2016 Canadian Hockey League (CHL) Import Draft, conducted between the three Canadian major junior leagues (the QMJHL, the Ontario Hockey League, and the Western Hockey League). After discussions with both Halifax's general manager and Swiss former Mooseheads player Timo Meier, Hischier committed to joining Halifax. Hischier's first season with the Mooseheads saw him finish second to Maxime Fortier for the team scoring lead, and tenth overall in the QMJHL, with 38 goals and 86 points. He also led all QMJHL rookies in both goals and points. For this Hischier was awarded the RDS Cup for being the QMJHL Rookie of the Year and the Michael Bossy Trophy as the best professional prospect in the league. He was additionally named to the QMJHL Rookie All-Star Team. He would also be named the rookie of the year for the CHL, which oversees the three major junior leagues. In the playoffs he led Halifax in scoring with seven points in six games.
Regarded as a top prospect going into the 2017 NHL Entry Draft, by the conclusion of the season Hischier was regarded as a candidate to be selected first overall. Ranked the second-best North American skater in the NHL Central Scouting Bureau final list prior to the draft, Hischier was highly regarded as a tremendous offensive talent with exceptional hockey sense. Hischier was also regarded as a strong two-way player, and well-regarded for his strong skating abilities. In the lead-up to the draft Hischier was regarded as a consensus top-two pick along with Nolan Patrick.
### New Jersey Devils
Hischier was selected with the first overall pick in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft by the New Jersey Devils, becoming the first Swiss player to be drafted first overall. He signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the Devils on 15 July 2017. After a strong training camp and preseason, where he led the Devils in scoring with seven points in four games, Hischier made the opening-day roster. His NHL debut came on 7 October against the Colorado Avalanche. He recorded his first point, an assist, on 9 October in his second game, against the Buffalo Sabres, while his first two goals came ten days later against Craig Anderson of the Ottawa Senators. Hischier finished the regular season as the Devils' second best scorer (behind Hart Trophy-winning linemate Taylor Hall) with 52 points, including 20 goals and 32 assists. His performance helped the team secure their first playoff berth since 2012. After the Devils were eliminated from the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs in five games by the top-seeded Tampa Bay Lightning, Hischier revealed he had been playing with a hand injury that kept him out of the 2018 IIHF World Championship.
In his sophomore season with the Devils, Hischier completed the 2018–19 season with 47 points in 69 games. With an injured Hall out of the lineup for a large portion of the season, he recorded a team leading Corsi-For percentage, scoring chances for percentage, and high-danger chances for percentage. Despite this, the Devils performed poorly as a team and missed the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs.
Prior to the 2019–20 season, Hischier played with the Swiss Ice Hockey Federation national team prospects camp. On 16 October 2019, the Devils announced Hischier suffered an upper-body injury during a game against the Florida Panthers. Two days later, the Devils signed Hischier to a seven-year, \$50.75 million contract extension, despite the ability to become a restricted free agent. The Devils' performance woes continued through 2019–20, and saw Hischier's linemate Hall traded from the team. The season was shortened by the COVID-19 pandemic; having finished in the bottom seven teams at the time of the regular season's pause and eventual cancellation, the Devils were eliminated from playoff contention by default. Hischier played a total of 58 of the team's 69 games, scoring a total of 14 goals and 36 points in the abbreviated season.
Due to a leg injury suffered prior to training camp, Hischier missed the start of the 2020–21 season. Hischier made his season debut on 20 February 2021, against the Buffalo Sabres, where he was announced as the 12th captain in the Devils' history before the game. As such, he became the youngest captain in the league. Hischier would play only five games before suffering another injury against the Washington Capitals when a shot from Devils defenceman P. K. Subban hit Hischier in the face. Although the injury initially only projected him to miss three weeks of NHL action, the surgery for Hischier's broken nose ended up sidelining him a total of 24 games. Despite playing only 21 games that season, he would finish with six goals and five assists as the Devils once again missed the playoffs.
In the 2022–23 NHL season, Hischier put up a career high 31 goals, 49 assists, and 80 points, which was second to Jack Hughes for most points on the team. Hischier was nominated for the Frank J. Selke Trophy, which is an award for the "forward who demonstrates the most skill in the defensive component of the game."
## International play
Hischier's international tournament was the 2015 IIHF World U18 Championships, hosted in his native Switzerland. Hischier scored one goal as the Swiss team finished fourth overall. He next played in the 2015 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament, a tournament not regulated by the International Ice Hockey Federation but still considered a major event for under-18 players; Hischier recorded six points over four games. At the 2016 IIHF World U18 Championships he had four points as Switzerland placed eighth.
At the 2016 World Junior Championships Hischier was the youngest player for Switzerland, and the second-youngest player overall. He also participated in the 2017 World Juniors, scoring four goals and had seven total points in five games, the most by any player eligible for the 2017 NHL Entry Draft. Hischier also partook at the 2017 IIHF World U18 Championships, and finished with six points in five games as Switzerland lost in the quarter-finals.
Hischier was selected to represent Switzerland at the 2019 IIHF World Championship. In Switzerlands 9–0 win over Italy, he recorded one goal and two assists. Hischier would end the tournament with nine points in eight games.
## Playing style
Described as a well-rounded player, capable of offence and strong defence, Hischier has been compared to former NHL player Pavel Datsyuk, who was renowned as a skilled two-way forward. Hischier himself has made the comparison, and has stated that he models his own style after Datsyuk, even wearing the same number, 13. After being selected by the Devils, general manager Ray Shero cited both Hischier's speed and commitment to defence as reasons for picking him first overall, seeing it as ideal for the team. Head coach John Hynes, speaking after the draft, commended Hischier on "how he competes on the puck and his speed, skill set and hockey sense," saying they were already "at an NHL level."
## Personal life
Hischier comes from a family of athletes; his father Rino played football for FC Naters and his mother Katja worked as a sports teacher. He is the youngest of three siblings, with an older brother, Luca, and sister, Nina. Luca plays for EHC Biel in the NL, while Nina played volleyball at a high level in Switzerland. There were no rinks in Naters, so Katja took both her sons to nearby Visp to learn to skate and they discovered hockey there. Hischier also played football until he was 12, but followed Luca and focused exclusively on hockey. Hischier is an avid supporter of Premier League club Manchester City F.C.
After the 2018–19 season ended, Hischier began his civic military service process in his home country of Switzerland.
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
### International
## Awards and honors |
68,338,191 | GE 25-ton switcher | 1,168,474,217 | Type of switcher locomotive produced by General Electric | [
"Diesel-electric locomotives of the United States",
"General Electric locomotives",
"Railway locomotives introduced in 1941",
"Shunting locomotives"
] | The GE 25-ton switcher (also known as a 25-tonner) is a model of diesel-electric switcher locomotive that was produced by GE Transportation at their Erie, Pennsylvania, facility between 1941 and 1974. Most examples were produced for industrial customers or the United States Armed Forces, although a number of examples were purchased by freight railroads as well. The majority of production was for customers in the United States and Canada, but export models were produced for buyers on five continents. Production totaled approximately 550 units over 33 years, making it one of the most widely produced switchers in American history.
The small size, low top speed (20 mph or 32 km/h) and low power output (150 hp or 110 kW) of the locomotive made it unsuitable for much beyond switching duties. GE specifically marketed the locomotive as an industrial switcher with a low cost. Many 25-tonners operated for decades, and into the 21st century. A number have been preserved at museums, where some continue to perform switching duties.
## Design and production
### Design
The 25-ton switcher was designed primarily for switching duties (moving railroad cars to and from loading/unloading facilities, as well as making up and breaking down trains), with both low power output and low top speed for a locomotive. While not very capable of hauling mainline trains, these features made it cheaper than most other locomotives. For rail-served industries, military installations, and other customers who only needed locomotives for switching and could rely on railroad companies to haul their trains elsewhere, this made it an attractive purchase, and GE specifically marketed the locomotive towards such customers. GE claimed in advertising that the locomotive could reduce the time needed to switch cars by 50 percent, with an availability rating of 97.7 percent – figures which far exceeded those of maintenance-heavy steam locomotives. The 25-tonner's small size also allowed it to fit in places where larger locomotives could not, an asset in industrial facilities and yards where clearances were often low.
The locomotive was designed as a hood unit to improve visibility for the engineer, essential for switching duties. Power was generated using a 6 cylinder Cummins HBI-600 diesel engine producing 150 hp (110 kW) at 1,800 rpm. This engine powered a single GE GT-1503 main generator, which in turn provided electricity to the single rear-mounted GE-733 traction motor which powered the rear axle. Power was provided to the forward axle using a chain drive. The unusual chain drive system for a locomotive was part of the reason for its top speed being limited to 20 mph (32 km/h).
While most examples were built in , GE produced models anywhere between gauge and standard gauge. Some 25-tonners were built to meter-gauge and exported to Brazil.
### Production
Throughout the locomotive's long production history, minor changes were made to its shape and the location of features, such as the bell, exhaust pipe, and lights. Otherwise, the fundamental design was largely unchanged throughout the entirety of the locomotive's 33 year production history. Towards the end of production, GE added an independent axle suspension to new 25-tonners, a feature shared with the GE 35-ton switcher. Many customers made modifications to their 25-tonners after purchase, ranging from minor changes such as moving the bell to completely replacing the prime mover and adding an independent brake.
When the final unit was built in 1974, production totaled approximately 550 locomotives, making the design one of GE's most built locomotive models. While the majority of production was for customers in the United States or Canada, 25-tonners were built for customers in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
## Operating history
25-ton switchers were for many years a very common site at rail-served industries in need of small, cheap locomotives capable of switching cars around the many sidings found on their properties. Some examples of users include grain elevators, U.S. military facilities, steel mills, and commuter railroads.
The 25-tonners have been nicknamed "critters" by operators and railfans alike, due to their small size. This nickname is shared with similar GE products such as the closely related 23-ton switcher.
Starting in the 1970s, most 25-ton switchers were gradually replaced, either by more powerful and modern switcher locomotives, or by railcar movers. Many railcar movers can also travel on roads for additional flexibility, unlike the 25-tonner. A number of 25-tonners continued to operate into the 21st century, a testament to their durability. Some have found a second life at railroad museums, where they are used to move equipment.
## Modeling
PIKO manufactures a G scale model of the 25-tonner. Manufacturer Grandt Line also produces 25-tonner models in HO scale.
## Preservation
A number of 25-tonners have been preserved at museums, and some have been restored to operating condition.
- The Oklahoma Railway Museum owns former MKT \#400, which is undergoing restoration to operating condition.
- The Railroad Museum of Long Island owns former Long Island Rail Road \#399, which is in operating condition and has been cosmetically restored.
- Golden Spike National Historical Park uses a 25-tonner to move its replicas of Jupiter and Union Pacific No. 119 when they are not under their own power.
- The Nevada Southern Railroad Museum owns locomotive L-2, which served at the Nevada Test Site during the 1960s.
- The Phillipsburg Railroad Historians own a 25-tonner which previously served at an Alstom plant in Easton, PA.
- The C.P.R. Station Heritage Park and Interpretive Centre in Portage la Prairie has a 25-tonner on display, formerly of Manitoba Hydro.
- The Steam Railroading Institute owns a 25-tonner nicknamed "Mighty Mouse" that is in operating condition, formerly operated at a grain elevator.
- The Illinois Railway Museum owns a 1942-vintage 25-tonner in operating condition that worked at cement plants for 78 years prior to being donated to the museum in 2020.
- Central Texas Gravel Locomotive No. 210 is preserved at the Arkansas Railroad Museum and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The museum also owns a former Wabash Alloys locomotive, which is also listed on the NRHP.
- The Pennsylvania Trolley Museum owns operable 25-tonner No. 89 which has been converted to Pennsylvania Trolley Gauge.
- The Niagara Railway Museum in Fort Erie, Ontario owns an operational 25-tonner built in 1948.
- The Seashore Trolley Museum acquired ex-Providence and Worcester Railroad No. 150 in 2020; the unit was built in late 1945. The locomotive sees active use switching various locations on the museum's property.
## See also
- GE 44-ton switcher
- GE 45-ton switcher
- List of GE locomotives |
29,781 | The Texas Chain Saw Massacre | 1,173,829,489 | 1974 American horror slasher film directed by Tobe Hooper | [
"1970s American films",
"1970s English-language films",
"1970s serial killer films",
"1970s slasher films",
"1974 films",
"1974 horror films",
"1974 independent films",
"American exploitation films",
"American independent films",
"American serial killer films",
"American slasher films",
"American teen horror films",
"Film controversies in Australia",
"Film controversies in France",
"Film controversies in Germany",
"Film controversies in Ireland",
"Film controversies in the United Kingdom",
"Film controversies in the United States",
"Films about self-harm",
"Films directed by Tobe Hooper",
"Films originally rejected by the British Board of Film Classification",
"Films set in 1973",
"Films set in Texas",
"Films set in abandoned houses",
"Films shot in 16 mm film",
"Films shot in Texas",
"Films with screenplays by Kim Henkel",
"Films à clef",
"GA-Class film articles",
"Grave-robbing in film",
"Obscenity controversies in film",
"Southern Gothic films",
"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (franchise) films",
"Video nasties"
] | The Texas Chain Saw Massacre is a 1974 American horror film produced and directed by Tobe Hooper from a story and screenplay by Hooper and Kim Henkel. It stars Marilyn Burns, Paul A. Partain, Edwin Neal, Jim Siedow and Gunnar Hansen, who respectively portray Sally Hardesty, Franklin Hardesty, the hitchhiker, the proprietor, and Leatherface. The film follows a group of friends who fall victim to a family of cannibals while on their way to visit an old homestead. The film was marketed as being based on true events to attract a wider audience and to act as a subtle commentary on the era's political climate. Although the character of Leatherface and minor story details were inspired by the crimes of murderer Ed Gein, its plot is largely fictional. It is the first film of the Texas Chainsaw Massacre franchise.
Hooper produced the film for less than \$140,000 (\$ adjusted for inflation) and used a cast of relatively unknown actors drawn mainly from central Texas, where the film was shot. The limited budget forced Hooper to film for long hours seven days a week, so that he could finish as quickly as possible and reduce equipment rental costs. Due to the film's violent content, Hooper struggled to find a distributor, but it was eventually acquired by Louis Perano of Bryanston Distributing Company. Hooper limited the quantity of onscreen gore in hopes of securing a PG rating, but the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) rated it R. The film faced similar difficulties internationally, being banned in several countries, and numerous theaters stopped showing the film in response to complaints about its violence.
While The Texas Chain Saw Massacre initially received mixed reception from critics, it was highly profitable, grossing over \$30 million at the domestic box office, equivalent with roughly over \$150.8 million as of 2019, selling over 16.5 million tickets in 1974. It has since gained a reputation as one of the best and most influential horror films. It is credited with originating several elements common in the slasher genre, including the use of power tools as murder weapons, the characterization of the killer as a large, hulking, masked figure, and the killing of victims. It led to a franchise that continued the story of Leatherface and his family through sequels, prequels, a remake, comic books and video games. Nowadays, the film has been criticized for its acting, pacing, and its treatment towards its female characters portraying them as being helpless.
## Plot
In the early hours of August 18, 1973, a grave robber steals several remains from a cemetery near Newt, Muerto County, Texas. The robber ties a rotting corpse and other body parts onto a monument, creating a grisly display which is discovered by a local resident as the sun rises.
Driving in a van, five young people take a road trip through the area: Sally Hardesty, Jerry, Pam, Kirk, and Sally's handicapped brother Franklin. They stop at the cemetery to check on the grave of Sally and Franklin's grandfather, which appears undisturbed. As the group drive past a slaughterhouse, Franklin recounts the Hardesty family's history with animal slaughter. They pick up a hitchhiker who says that his own family also has experience with animal slaughter. When the group refuse to pay the hitchhiker for a photograph, he attacks Franklin and smears a bloody symbol on the side of the van as he is ejected. Low on gas, the van stops at a station whose proprietor says that no fuel is available. The group explore a nearby abandoned house, owned by the Hardesty family.
Kirk and Pam leave the others behind, planning to go swimming. They discover another nearby house, running gas-powered generators. Hoping to barter for gas, Kirk enters the house. A large man wearing a mask made of skin attacks Kirk with a hammer, killing him. When Pam enters the house, she finds its living room strewn with human and animal bones. The man grabs her, impales her on a meat hook, and starts up a gas-powered chainsaw to dismember Kirk's body as Pam watches. In the evening, Jerry searches for Pam and Kirk. When he enters the other house, he finds Pam's nearly-dead, spasming body in a chest freezer. The masked man kills Jerry with a hammer.
At night, Sally and Franklin start towards the other house. The masked man ambushes them, killing Franklin with the chainsaw. The man chases Sally into the house, where she finds a very old, seemingly dead man and a woman's rotting corpse. The masked man chases Sally back to the gas station and vanishes. The station's proprietor comforts Sally for a moment, after which he beats and subdues her, loading her into his pickup truck. The proprietor drives to the other house, and the hitchhiker appears. The proprietor scolds him for his actions at the cemetery, identifying the hitchhiker as the grave robber. As they enter the house, the masked man reappears, dressed in women's clothing. The proprietor identifies the masked man and the hitchhiker as brothers, and the hitchhiker refers to the masked man as "Leatherface". The two brothers bring the old man—"Grandpa"—down the stairs and cut Sally's finger so that Grandpa can suck her blood. Sally faints.
The next morning, Sally regains consciousness. The men taunt her and bicker with each other, resolving to kill her with a hammer. They try to include Grandpa in the activity, but Grandpa's grip is weak, and he drops the hammer repeatedly. Sally breaks free and runs onto a road in front of the house, pursued by the brothers. An oncoming truck accidentally runs over the hitchhiker, killing him. The truck driver attacks Leatherface with a large wrench, injuring him, and escapes on foot. Sally, covered in blood, flags down a passing pickup truck and climbs into the bed, narrowly escaping Leatherface. As the pickup drives away, Sally laughs giddily. Leatherface flails his chainsaw in frustration as the sun rises.
## Cast
- Marilyn Burns as Sally Hardesty
- Allen Danziger as Jerry
- Paul A. Partain as Franklin Hardesty
- William Vail as Kirk
- Teri McMinn as Pam
- Edwin Neal as Hitchhiker
- Jim Siedow as Old Man
- Gunnar Hansen as Leatherface
- John Dugan as Grandfather
- Robert Courtin as Window Washer
- William Creamer as Bearded Man
- John Henry Faulk as Storyteller
- Jerry Green as Cowboy
- Ed Guinn as Cattle Truck Driver
- Joe Bill Hogan as Drunk
- Perry Lorenz as Pick Up Driver
- John Larroquette as Narrator
## Production
### Development
The concept for The Texas Chain Saw Massacre arose in the early 1970s while Tobe Hooper was working as an assistant film director at the University of Texas at Austin and as a documentary cameraman. He had already developed a story involving the elements of isolation, the woods, and darkness. He credited the graphic coverage of violence by San Antonio news outlets as one inspiration for the film and based elements of the plot on murderer Ed Gein, who committed his crimes in 1950s Wisconsin; Gein inspired other horror films such as Psycho (1960) and The Silence of the Lambs (1991). During development, Hooper used the working titles of Headcheese and Leatherface.
Hooper has cited changes in the cultural and political landscape as central influences on the film. His intentional misinformation, that the "film you are about to see is true", was a response to being "lied to by the government about things that were going on all over the world", including Watergate, the 1973 oil crisis, and "the massacres and atrocities in the Vietnam War". The "lack of sentimentality and the brutality of things" that Hooper noticed while watching the local news, whose graphic coverage was epitomized by "showing brains spilled all over the road", led to his belief that "man was the real monster here, just wearing a different face, so I put a literal mask on the monster in my film". The idea of using a chainsaw as the murder weapon came to Hooper while he was in the hardware section of a busy store, contemplating how to speed his way through the crowd.
Hooper and Kim Henkel cowrote the screenplay and formed Vortex, Inc. with Henkel as president and Hooper as vice president. They asked Bill Parsley, a friend of Hooper, to provide funding. Parsley formed a company named MAB, Inc. through which he invested \$60,000 in the production. In return, MAB owned 50% of the film and its profits. Production manager Ron Bozman told most of the cast and crew that he would have to defer part of their salaries until after it was sold to a distributor. Vortex made the idea more attractive by awarding them a share of its potential profits, ranging from 0.25 to 6%, similar to mortgage points. The cast and crew were not informed that Vortex owned only 50%, which meant their points were worth half of the assumed value.
### Casting
Many of the cast members at the time were relatively unknown actors—Texans who had played roles in commercials, television, and stage shows, as well as performers whom Hooper knew personally, such as Allen Danziger and Jim Siedow. Involvement in the film propelled some of them into the motion picture industry. The lead role of Sally was given to Marilyn Burns, who had appeared previously on stage and served on the film commission board at UT Austin while studying there. Teri McMinn was a student who worked with local theater companies, including the Dallas Theater Center. Henkel called McMinn to come in for a reading after he spotted her picture in the Austin American-Statesman. For her last call-back he requested that she wear short shorts, which proved to be the most comfortable of all the cast members' costumes.
Icelandic-American actor Gunnar Hansen was selected for the role of Leatherface. He regarded Leatherface as having an intellectual disability and having never learned to speak properly. To research his character in preparation for his role, Hansen visited a special needs school and watched how the students moved and spoke. John Larroquette performed the narration in the opening credits, for which he was paid in marijuana.
### Filming
The primary filming location was an early 1900s farmhouse located on Quick Hill Road near Round Rock, Texas, where the La Frontera development is now located. The small budget and concerns over high-cost equipment rentals meant the crew filmed seven days a week, up to 16 hours a day. The environment was humid and the cast and crew found conditions tough; temperatures peaked at 110°F (43 °C) on July 26. Hansen later recalled, "It was 95, 100 degrees every day during filming. They wouldn't wash my costume because they were worried that the laundry might lose it, or that it would change color. They didn't have enough money for a second costume. So I wore that [mask] 12 to 16 hours a day, seven days a week, for a month."
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was mainly shot using an Eclair NPR 16mm camera with fine-grain, low-speed Ektachrome Commercial film that required considerably more light than modern digital cameras and even most filmstocks of the day. This allowed more mobility and cost savings over shooting on the standard theatrical 35mm format of the time, without significant sacrifices to image quality. Most of the filming took place in the farmhouse, which was filled with furniture constructed from animal bones and a latex material used as upholstery to give the appearance of human skin. The house was not cooled, and there was little ventilation. The crew covered its walls with drops of animal blood obtained from a local slaughterhouse. Art director Robert A. Burns drove around the countryside and collected the remains of cattle and other animals in various stages of decomposition, with which he littered the floors of the house.
The special effects were simple and limited by the budget. The on-screen blood was real in some cases, such as the scene in which Leatherface feeds "Grandpa". The crew had difficulty getting the stage blood to come out of its tube, so instead Burns's index finger was cut with a razor. Burns's costume was so drenched with stage blood that it was "virtually solid" by the last day of shooting. The scene in which Leatherface dismembers Kirk with a chainsaw worried actor William Vail (Kirk). After telling Vail to stay still lest he really be killed, Hansen brought the running chainsaw to within 3 inches (8 cm) of Vail's face. A real hammer was used for the climactic scene at the end, with some takes also featuring a mock-up. However, the actor playing Grandpa was aiming for the floor rather than his victim's head. Still, the shoot was quite dangerous, with Hooper noting at the wrap party that all cast members had obtained some level of injury. He stated that "everyone hated me by the end of the production" and that "it just took years for them to kind of cool off."
### Post-production
The production exceeded its original \$60,000 (about \$ adjusted for inflation) budget during editing. Sources differ on the film's final cost, offering figures between \$93,000 (about \$ inflation-adjusted) and \$300,000 (about \$ inflation-adjusted). A film production group, Pie in the Sky, partially led by future President of the Texas State Bar Joe K. Longley provided \$23,532 (about \$ inflation-adjusted) in exchange for 19% of Vortex. This left Henkel, Hooper and the rest of the cast and crew with a 40.5% stake. Warren Skaaren, then head of the Texas Film Commission, helped secure the distribution deal with Bryanston Distributing Company. David Foster, who would later produce the 1982 horror film The Thing, arranged for a private screening for some of Bryanston's West Coast executives, and received 1.5% of Vortex's profits and a deferred fee of \$500 (about \$ inflation-adjusted).
On August 28, 1974, Louis Peraino of Bryanston agreed to distribute the film worldwide, from which Bozman and Skaaren would receive \$225,000 (about \$ inflation-adjusted) and 35% of the profits. Years later Bozman stated, "We made a deal with the devil, [sigh], and I guess that, in a way, we got what we deserved." They signed the contract with Bryanston and, after the investors recouped their money (with interest),—and after Skaaren, the lawyers, and the accountants were paid—only \$8,100 (about \$ inflation-adjusted) was left to be divided among the 20 cast and crew members. Eventually the producers sued Bryanston for failing to pay them their full percentage of the box office profits. A court judgment instructed Bryanston to pay the filmmakers \$500,000 (about \$ inflation-adjusted), but by then the company had declared bankruptcy. In 1983, New Line Cinema acquired the distribution rights from Bryanston and gave the producers a larger share of the profits.
## Release
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre premiered in Austin, Texas, on October 1, 1974, almost a year after filming concluded. It screened nationally in the United States as a Saturday afternoon matinée and its false marketing as a "true story" helped it attract a broad audience. For eight years after 1976, it was annually reissued to first-run theaters, promoted by full-page ads. The film eventually grossed more than \$30 million in the United States and Canada (\$14.4 million in rentals), making it the 12th highest-grossing film initially released in 1974, despite its minuscule budget. Among independent films, it was overtaken in 1978 by John Carpenter's Halloween, which grossed \$47 million.
Hooper reportedly hoped that the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) would give the complete, uncut release print a "PG" rating due to its minimal amount of visible gore. Instead, it was originally rated "X". After several minutes were cut, it was resubmitted to the MPAA and received an "R" rating. A distributor apparently restored the offending material, and at least one theater presented the full version under an "R". In San Francisco, cinema-goers walked out of theaters in disgust and in February 1976, two theaters in Ottawa, Canada, were advised by local police to withdraw the film lest they face morality charges.
After its initial British release, including a one-year theatrical run in London, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was initially banned on the advice of British Board of Film Censors (BBFC) Secretary Stephen Murphy, and subsequently by his successor, James Ferman. While the British ban was in force the word "chainsaw" itself was barred from movie titles, forcing imitators to rename their films. In 1998, despite the BBFC ban, Camden London Borough Council granted the film a license. The following year the BBFC passed The Texas Chain Saw Massacre uncut for release with an 18 certificate, and it was broadcast a year later on Channel 4.
When the 83-minute version of the film was submitted to the Australian Classification Board by distributor Seven Keys in June 1975, the Board denied the film a classification, and similarly refused classification of a 77-minute print in December that year. In 1981, the 83-minute version submitted by Greater Union Film Distributors was again refused registration. It was later submitted by Filmways Australasian Distributors and approved for an "R" rating in 1984. It was banned for periods in many other countries, including Brazil, Chile, Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Singapore, Sweden and West Germany. In Sweden, it would also symbolize a video nasty, a discussed topic at the time.
## Reception
### Critical response
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre received a mixed reaction upon its initial release. Linda Gross of the Los Angeles Times called it "despicable" and described Henkel and Hooper as more concerned with creating a realistic atmosphere than with its "plastic script". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times said it was "as violent and gruesome and blood-soaked as the title promises", yet praised its acting and technical execution. Donald B. Berrigan of The Cincinnati Enquirer praised the lead performance of Burns: "Marilyn Burns, as Sally, deserves a special Academy Award for one of the most sustained and believable acting achievements in movie history." Patrick Taggart of the Austin American-Statesman hailed it as the most important horror film since George A. Romero's Night of the Living Dead (1968). Variety found the picture to be well-made, despite what it called the "heavy doses of gore". John McCarty of Cinefantastique stated that the house featured in the film made the Bates motel "look positively pleasant by comparison". Revisiting the film in his 1976 article "Fashions in Pornography" for Harper's Magazine, Stephen Koch found its sadistic violence to be extreme and unimaginative.
Critics later frequently praised both the film's aesthetic quality and its power. Observing that it managed to be "horrifying without being a bloodbath (you'll see more gore in a Steven Seagal film)", Bruce Westbrook of the Houston Chronicle called it "a backwoods masterpiece of fear and loathing". TV Guide thought it was "intelligent" in its "bloodless depiction of violence", while Anton Bitel felt the fact that it was banned in the United Kingdom was a tribute to its artistry. He pointed out how the quiet sense of foreboding at the beginning of the film grows, until the viewer experiences "a punishing assault on the senses". In Hick Flicks: The Rise and Fall of Redneck Cinema, Scott Von Doviak commended its effective use of daylight shots, unusual among horror films, such as the sight of a corpse draped over a tombstone in the opening sequence. Mike Emery of The Austin Chronicle praised the film's "subtle touches"—such as radio broadcasts heard in the background describing grisly murders around Texas—and said that what made it so dreadful was that it never strayed too far from potential reality.
It has often been described as one of the scariest films of all time. Rex Reed called it the most terrifying film he had ever seen. Empire described it as "the most purely horrifying horror movie ever made" and called it "never less than totally committed to scaring you witless". Reminiscing about his first viewing of the film, horror director Wes Craven recalled wondering "what kind of Mansonite crazoid" could have created such a thing. It is a work of "cataclysmic terror", in the words of horror novelist Stephen King, who declared, "I would happily testify to its redeeming social merit in any court in the country." Critic Robin Wood found it one of the few horror films to possess "the authentic quality of nightmare".
Based on 70 reviews published since 2000, the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 89% of critics gave it a positive review, with an average score of 8.20/10. The site's critical consensus states, "Thanks to a smart script and documentary-style camerawork, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre achieves start-to-finish suspense, making it a classic in low-budget exploitation cinema."
### Cultural impact
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre is widely considered one of the greatest—and most controversial—horror films of all time and a major influence on the genre. In 1999, Richard Zoglin of Time commented that it had "set a new standard for slasher films". The Times listed it as one of the 50 most controversial films of all time. Tony Magistrale believes the film paved the way for horror to be used as a vehicle for social commentary. Describing it as "cheap, grubby and out of control", Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times declared that it "both defines and entirely supersedes the very notion of the exploitation picture". In his book Dark Romance: Sexuality in the Horror Film, David Hogan called it "the most affecting gore thriller of all and, in a broader view, among the most effective horror films ever made ... the driving force of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre is something far more horrible than aberrant sexuality: total insanity." According to Bill Nichols, it "achieves the force of authentic art, profoundly disturbing, intensely personal, yet at the same time far more than personal". Leonard Wolf praised the film as "an exquisite work of art" and compared it to a Greek tragedy, noting the lack of onscreen violence.
Leatherface has gained a reputation as a significant character in the horror genre, responsible for establishing the use of conventional tools as murder weapons and the image of a large, silent killer devoid of personality. Christopher Null of Filmcritic.com said, "In our collective consciousness, Leatherface and his chainsaw have become as iconic as Freddy and his razors or Jason and his hockey mask." Don Sumner called The Texas Chain Saw Massacre a classic that not only introduced a new villain to the horror pantheon but also influenced an entire generation of filmmakers. According to Rebecca Ascher-Walsh of Entertainment Weekly, it laid the foundations for the Halloween, Evil Dead, and Blair Witch horror franchises. Wes Craven crafted his 1977 film The Hills Have Eyes as an homage to Massacre, while Ridley Scott cited Hooper's film as an inspiration for his 1979 film Alien. French director Alexandre Aja credited it as an early influence on his career. Horror filmmaker and heavy metal musician Rob Zombie sees it as a major influence on his work, including his films House of 1000 Corpses (2003) and The Devil's Rejects (2005).
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was selected for the 1975 Cannes Film Festival Directors' Fortnight and London Film Festival. In 1976, it won the Special Jury Prize at the Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival in France. Entertainment Weekly ranked the film sixth on its 2003 list of "The Top 50 Cult Films". In a 2005 Total Film poll, it was selected as the greatest horror film of all time. It was named among Time's top 25 horror films in 2007. In 2008 the film ranked number 199 on Empire magazine's list of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time". Empire also ranked it 46th in its list of the 50 greatest independent films. In a 2010 Total Film poll, it was again selected as the greatest horror film; the judging panel included veteran horror directors such as John Carpenter, Wes Craven, and George A. Romero. In 2010, as well, The Guardian ranked it number 14 on its list of the top 25 horror films. It was also voted the greatest horror film of all time in Slant Magazine's 2013 list of the greatest horror films of all time. It was also voted the scariest movie of all time in a 2017 list by Complex and voted the best horror movie of all time in a 2017 list by Thrillist. It was also voted the scariest movie of all time in a 2018 list by Consequence of Sound and voted the best horror movie of all time in a 2018 list by Esquire.
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was inducted into the Horror Hall of Fame in 1990, with director Hooper accepting the award, and it is part of the permanent collection of New York City's Museum of Modern Art. In 2012, the film was named by critics in the British Film Institute's Sight & Sound magazine as one of the 250 greatest films. The Academy Film Archive houses the Texas Chain Saw Massacre Collection, which contains over fifty items, including many original elements for the film.
## Themes and analysis
### Contemporary American life
Critic Christopher Sharrett argues that since Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960) and The Birds (1963), the American horror film has been defined by the questions it poses "about the fundamental validity of the American civilizing process", concerns amplified during the 1970s by the "delegitimation of authority in the wake of Vietnam and Watergate". "If Psycho began an exploration of a new sense of absurdity in contemporary life, of the collapse of causality and the diseased underbelly of American Gothic", he writes, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre "carries this exploration to a logical conclusion, addressing many of the issues of Hitchcock's film while refusing comforting closure".
Robin Wood characterizes Leatherface and his family as victims of industrial capitalism, their jobs as slaughterhouse workers having been rendered obsolete by technological advances. He states that the picture "brings to focus a spirit of negativity ... that seems to lie not far below the surface of the modern collective consciousness". Naomi Merritt explores the film's representation of "cannibalistic capitalism" in relation to Georges Bataille's theory of taboo and transgression. She elaborates on Wood's analysis, stating that the Sawyer family's values "reflect, or correspond to, established and interdependent American institutions ... but their embodiment of these social units is perverted and transgressive."
In Kim Newman's view, Hooper's presentation of the Sawyer family during the dinner scene parodies a typical American sitcom family: the gas station owner is the bread-winning father figure; the killer Leatherface is depicted as a bourgeois housewife; the hitchhiker acts as the rebellious teenager. Isabel Cristina Pinedo, author of Recreational Terror: Women and the Pleasures of Horror Film Viewing, states, "The horror genre must keep terror and comedy in tension if it is to successfully tread the thin line that separates it from terrorism and parody ... this delicate balance is struck in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre in which the decaying corpse of Grandpa not only incorporates horrific and humorous effects, but actually uses one to exacerbate the other."
### Violence against women
The underlying themes of the film have been the subject of extensive critical discussion; critics and scholars have interpreted it as a paradigmatic exploitation film in which female protagonists are subjected to brutal, sadistic violence. Stephen Prince comments that the horror is "born of the torment of the young woman subjected to imprisonment and abuse amid decaying arms ... and mobiles made of human bones and teeth." As with many slasher films, it incorporates the "final girl" trope—the heroine and inevitable lone survivor who somehow escapes the horror that befalls the other characters: Sally Hardesty is wounded and tortured, yet manages to survive with the help of a male truck driver. Critics argue that even in exploitation films in which the ratio of male and female deaths is roughly equal, the images that linger will be of the violence committed against the female characters. The specific case of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre provides support for this argument: three men are killed in quick fashion, but one woman is brutally slaughtered—hung on a meathook—and the surviving woman endures physical and mental torture. In 1977, critic Mary Mackey described the meathook scene as probably the most brutal onscreen female death in any commercially distributed film. She placed it in a lineage of violent films that depict women as weak and incapable of protecting themselves.
In one study, a group of men were shown five films depicting differing levels of violence against women. On first viewing The Texas Chain Saw Massacre they experienced symptoms of depression and anxiety; however, upon subsequent viewing they found the violence against women less offensive and more enjoyable. Another study, investigating gender-specific perceptions of slasher films, involved 30 male and 30 female university students. One male participant described the screaming, especially Sally's, as the "most freaky thing" in the film.
According to Jesse Stommel of Bright Lights Film Journal, the lack of explicit violence in the film forces viewers to question their own fascination with violence that they play a central role in imagining. Nonetheless—citing its feverish camera moves, repeated bursts of light, and auditory pandemonium—Stommel asserts that it involves the audience primarily on a sensory rather than an intellectual level.
### Vegetarianism
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre has been described as "the ultimate pro-vegetarian film" due to its animal rights themes. In a video essay, film critic Rob Ager describes the irony in humans' being slaughtered for meat, putting humans in the position of being slaughtered like farm animals. Director Tobe Hooper has confirmed that "it's a film about meat" and even gave up meat while making the film, saying, "In a way I thought the heart of the film was about meat; it’s about the chain of life and killing sentient beings." Writer-director Guillermo del Toro became a vegetarian for a time after seeing the film.
## Post-release
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre has appeared on various home video formats. In the US, it was first released on videotape and CED in the early 1980s by Wizard Video and Vestron Video. The British Board of Film Classification had long since refused a certification for the uncut theatrical version and in 1984 they also refused to certify it for home video, amid a moral panic surrounding "video nasties". After the retirement of BBFC Director James Ferman in 1999, the board passed the film uncut for theatrical and video distribution with an 18 certificate, almost 25 years after the original release. The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was initially released on DVD in October 1998 in the United States, May 2000 in the United Kingdom and 2001 in Australia.
In 2005 the film received a 2K scan and full restoration from the original 16mm A/B rolls, which was subsequently released on DVD and Blu-ray. In 2014 a more extensive 4K restoration, supervised by Hooper, using the original 16mm A/B reversal rolls, was carried out. After a screening in the Directors' Fortnight section of the 2014 Cannes Film Festival, this was also released on DVD and Blu-ray worldwide. Dark Sky Films' US 40th Anniversary Edition was nominated for Best DVD/BD Special Edition Release at the 2015 Saturn Awards.
In 1982, shortly after The Texas Chain Saw Massacre established itself as a success on US home video, Wizard Video released a mass-market video game adaptation for the Atari 2600. In the game, the player assumes the role of Leatherface and attempts to murder trespassers while avoiding obstacles such as fences and cow skulls. As one of the first horror-themed video games, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre caused controversy when it was first released due to its violent nature; it sold poorly as a result, because many game stores refused to stock it.
The film has been followed by eight other films to date, including sequels, prequels and remakes. The first sequel, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 (1986), was considerably more graphic and violent than the original and was banned in Australia for 20 years before it was released on DVD in a revised special edition in October 2006. Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III (1990) was the second sequel to appear, though Hooper did not return to direct due to scheduling conflicts with another film, Spontaneous Combustion. Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation, starring Renée Zellweger and Matthew McConaughey, was released in 1995. While briefly acknowledging the events of the preceding two sequels, its plot makes it a virtual remake of the 1974 original. A straight remake, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, was released by Platinum Dunes and New Line Cinema in 2003. It was followed by a prequel, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning, in 2006. A seventh film, Texas Chainsaw 3D, was released on January 4, 2013. It is a direct sequel to the original 1974 film, with no relation to the previous sequels, or the 2003 remake. Another prequel, Leatherface, was released exclusively to DirecTV on September 21, 2017, before receiving a wider release on video on demand and in limited theaters, simultaneously, in North America on October 20, 2017. Another sequel, Texas Chainsaw Massacre, was released exclusively on Netflix on February 18, 2022.
## See also
- List of American films of 1974 |
36,043,809 | Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch | 1,147,445,057 | 2011 video game | [
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] | Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch is an action role-playing game, developed by Level-5. The game is a significantly enhanced version of Ni no Kuni: Dominion of the Dark Djinn, which originally released for the Nintendo DS in Japan in December 2010. It was released for the PlayStation 3 in Japan in November 2011, and published in Western regions by Namco Bandai Games in January 2013. It was also released for Nintendo Switch in September 2019. A remastered version was released for PlayStation 4 and Windows in September 2019, and for Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S in September 2022.
Players control Oliver, a young boy who sets out on a journey in search of a way to resurrect his recently deceased mother. The game is played from a third-person perspective and its world is navigated on foot, by boat, or on a dragon. While players navigate Oliver throughout the game's world, other characters can be controlled during battles against enemies; during these battles, players use magic abilities and creatures known as "familiars", which can be captured and tamed.
Development began in 2008, simultaneous to Dominion of the Dark Djinn. The game's animated sequences were produced by Studio Ghibli, while the original score was co-composed by Joe Hisaishi. The art style was also inspired by Studio Ghibli's other productions. The character development of Oliver was a large focus of the game, intending to make children empathize with the character and for adults to relive their adolescence. The developers used the power of the PlayStation 3 to its full potential to render the world with great detail not possible in Dominion of the Dark Djinn.
Following its announcement, Ni no Kuni was widely anticipated. It was acclaimed by many reviewers, with praise particularly directed at its story, graphic design and gameplay. Wrath of the White Witch became one of the best-selling PlayStation 3 games, selling over 170,000 units within a week of its Japanese release, and over one million units within fourteen months of its Western release. The game was nominated for and won awards from several gaming publications. A sequel, Ni no Kuni II: Revenant Kingdom, was released in March 2018.
## Gameplay
Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch is an action role-playing game that uses a third-person perspective. Players complete quests—linear scenarios with set objectives—to progress through the story. Outside of quests, players can freely roam the overworld. Players explore towns, villages, dungeons and dangerous places scattered throughout the world, and possess the ability to travel between the world and Oliver's hometown of Motorville. Upon leaving a location, players enter the World Map, which can be used to select a destination. The world may be fully explored from the beginning of the game without restrictions, although story progress unlocks more gameplay content and forms of transport to navigate the world: players initially run to navigate the world, though later gain the ability to travel by boat, or on the back of a dragon.
When players encounter enemies, they enter a battle system. Battles take place on an open battlefield, allowing players to freely roam around the area. During battles, players command a single human ally, or one of the familiars accompanying them; all characters and familiars are manually moved around the battlefield. To fight enemies, players use magical abilities and "familiars". Familiars are creatures that can be tamed, in order to be suitable to send out in battle to fight for players. Familiars level up and evolve alongside the human characters; each familiar has unique statistics and capabilities, and can be upgraded through the use of treats, and equipped with items. When all enemies in a battle are defeated, players may receive experience points, currency and items. When a specific amount of experience is earned, characters' levels will increase, and their abilities will improve. Health is lost when players are attacked by enemies, while mana points are depleted through the use of magic. Should a party member lose health or mana points, they can be restored by using provisions. Health and mana can also be restored by picking up orbs, known as "glims"; a golden glim restores all health, and enables the powerful "Miracle Move", which may deal significant damage to enemies or provide assistance to allies.
The errands that can be undertaken at the request of townspeople and the bounty hunts available from the Taskmaster are collectively known as "tasks". When tasks are completed, players will earn a number of stamps for their current merit stamp card, which can be exchanged for upgrades. The in-game Wizard's Companion book includes pages featuring Oliver's spells, as well as a bestiary, short stories, alchemy recipes and maps.
## Plot
Ni no Kuni follows the journey of Oliver, a resident of Motorville. While trying out a new vehicle designed by his friend Philip, Oliver almost drowns but is saved by his mother Allie who immediately after dies from heart problems. As Oliver cries, his tears cause his doll, a gift from his mother, to come to life and reveal itself as a fairy named Drippy, who tells Oliver that he is from another world where an evil wizard named Shadar took control. He also tells Oliver that each person from his world has a "soulmate", a person that shares a link with someone in Oliver's world, and that his mother looks very much like a great sage, Alicia, who was captured by Shadar. Realizing that Alicia must have been Allie's soulmate, Oliver sets out with Drippy to travel to the other world and rescue Alicia in the hope that doing so will bring Allie back in his world.
In the other world, Oliver finds a multitude of broken-hearted people affected by Shadar, and uses his new-found magic abilities to restore those pieces of heart which they lack, and travels the world to seek out the four great sages who may be able to help. Along the way, he meets Esther, daughter of one of the great sages, and Swaine, a thief who initially steals a crucial item from them but ultimately decides to help out. As they enlist the sages' help, they learn of a wand known as Mornstar that could be used to defeat Shadar, but are at a loss as to how to retrieve it as it was recently destroyed by Shadar. Soon after, they find themselves many years in the past by the actions of a stranger and are able to retrieve the wand there.
After returning to the present and retrieving three magical stones to complete the wand, Oliver learns that his mother Allie was in fact the great sage, Alicia. Realizing she could not defeat Shadar, and that he had destroyed his soulmate in the other world to avoid the possibility of being defeated through them, she chose to travel into both the future and into Oliver's world in the hopes of finding his next soulmate. After settling into this new world she eventually gave birth to her son Oliver, who unknowingly became Shadar's soulmate. After he is defeated, Shadar's past is shown. He was once a soldier who helped a young girl against orders and whose hometown was destroyed to set an example; a being known as the White Witch called to him to embrace his despair and become the Dark Djinn, Shadar. The spirit of Alicia talks to the dying Shadar who realizes that the girl he saved was the young Alicia herself. Shadar then uses his power to sever the link between himself and Oliver, to save Oliver from dying as well.
With Shadar defeated, Oliver prepares to return home but the White Witch appears and casts a spell known as "manna", an ash-like substance that turns all living beings in the three major cities into undead-like creatures. A girl named Pea, who has been appearing to Oliver on occasion, travels with the group and uses her magic to clear the cities of manna and restore the people to normal; the group proceeds to defeat the White Witch herself. They discover that she was a young queen called Cassiopeia from thousands of years ago who had noble intentions but was manipulated by her "council of twelve", calling themselves the Zodiarchs, who desired to run the country. Feeling powerless, she found and used the manna spell, believing it would bring peace and prosperity to her people. When the horrific effects of manna were revealed she gradually witnessed the death of all of her subjects, including the council, and found herself on her own. She was gradually driven to despair and became the White Witch, believing that all life must be destroyed in an attempt to "start over". Her power created an illusory version of the council to oversee the destruction of the world. The remains of her kind intentions also created Pea, the incarnation of her as a child, to help Oliver on his journey. Pea was sent to Motorville by the spirit of the Wizard King, Cassiopeia's father, to give Oliver his starting wand and teach him gateway so he could eventually save Cassiopeia/The White Witch from herself.
Having been defeated, Cassiopeia fuses together with Pea and is restored to her former, kind self. After assisting the group in destroying the Zodiarchy, the last manifestations of the council, Cassiopeia declares that she will dedicate her life to making amends for her actions and Oliver bids farewell to his friends before returning to his old life in Motorville.
## Development
Conceived as a project for Level-5's tenth anniversary in 2008, Ni no Kuni: The Another World was announced in the September 2008 issue of Famitsu, as a title for the Nintendo DS. In June 2010, Level-5 announced that the game would also be released for the PlayStation 3, with significant differences; the DS version was renamed Ni no Kuni: Shikkoku no Madoushi, while the PlayStation 3 version was given the title Ni no Kuni: Shiroki Seihai no Joō, known in English as Dominion of the Dark Djinn and Wrath of the White Witch, respectively. Both versions were revealed to be in development separately, only retaining the same "story axle", while features such as artwork, graphics and specifications all received significant changes. Journalists noted that the game's announcement ignited widespread anticipation within the gaming industry.
To spur pre-order game sales, Namco Bandai collaborated with several retail outlets to provide a special edition version of the game, with extra features and content. The "Wizard's Edition" includes a unique case packaging, the Wizard's Companion book, a Drippy plush doll, as well as exclusive downloadable content. The game was originally released in Japan on November 17, 2011, and in Western regions in early 2013: in North America on January 22, in Australia on January 31, and in Europe on February 1. At E3 2019, Bandai Namco announced that Wrath of the White Witch would be released for Nintendo Switch on September 20, 2019. A remastered version featuring some graphical improvements was also released for PlayStation 4 and Windows on the same day. At Tokyo Game Show on September 15, 2022, Bandai Namco announced that the remastered version was available for Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S the same day.
### Story and setting
The team wanted the theme of the game to resonate with children; they initially considered the idea of expressing adventure and dreams. They later explored the concept of a child's greatest influence, their mother, and the possibility of losing them. Although the framework of the story was completed prior to Studio Ghibli's involvement with the game, they still took part in many discussions regarding some ideas, including the game's final scenes.
The majority of the game takes place in a magical world, referred to as the "other world". To avoid making the world map feel outdated, the team modernized the design by arranging the terrain in "fun and fascinating ways". The game's open world was designed to remind players of a "miniature diorama", intending to invoke reminiscence to an older time, as well as the feeling of freshness. Other segments of the game are set in Oliver's fictional hometown of Motorville. The town is modelled after an American town in the peak of the automotive industry during the 1950s and 1960s; this decision was made due to Oliver's interest in cars and machines. Motorville is geographically based near the city of Detroit, Michigan; the Japanese version of the town was named "Hotroit".
### Art design
Level-5 collaborated with Studio Ghibli to produce the game's animated sequences, and the game features graphics and visuals replicating the traditional animation style of Studio Ghibli films. The collaboration began when musician Naoya Fujimaki, who had previously worked with both companies, introduced Level-5 president Akihiro Hino to Studio Ghibli president Toshio Suzuki. At the time, Studio Ghibli had completed work on Ponyo (2008), and the animation team had no ongoing projects, which influenced Suzuki's decision to collaborate with Level-5. Another influencing factor of the collaboration was witnessing Hino's passion for the project. Studio Ghibli approached the production process in the same way that they would create an animated film. Work on the animation began in July 2008, and took much longer than the predicted three months.
Studio Ghibli's Yoshiyuki Momose served as the game's director of animation, staging the scenes and directing actors during the motion capture sessions. He was also assigned to drawing character designs and storyboards. Hino wished the game to have a heartwarming feel; the artwork and character movements was greatly inspired by Studio Ghibli's work, particularly due to their attention to detail, as well as their talent in creating storyboards and utilizing camera control. The development team constantly watched Studio Ghibli's films during development. Game director Ken Motomura regularly worked with Studio Ghibli, swapping and reviewing assets, while Hino worked with the studio in regards to the game's dialogue and animated sequences. To make Studio Ghibli's hand-drawn cutscenes and the game engine's real-time cutscenes transition seamlessly, Level-5 adjusted the latter's color tones, shadows and character movements. For the backgrounds, the team used deep colors, unifying them so they would not look like "a mass of polygons". The team found particular difficulty in animating the game's cel shaded appearance, and spent time researching Studio Ghibli animation to recreate their traditional animation.
When designing the familiars, Level-5 accounted for the characteristics of their surrounding area, which inspired the later design. Some of the initial familiar designs were deemed either creepy or "overly-cute", and adapted accordingly to match the style of Studio Ghibli's artwork.
### Character development
For the game's characters, the team wished to explore the concept of opposites, mainly represented by the White Witch's goal to destroy the world, and Oliver's attempts to save it. The character performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology, followed by manual adjustment by the team to make a "more anime-like movement". The game's characters were particularly inspired by Level-5's previous work on the Professor Layton series (2007–present). During development, Momose suggested that the team design the clothes in a modern fashion, in order for players to gain a "stronger sense that you have stepped out of the familiar and into a different world".
The game's main playable character, Oliver, is a 13-year-old boy. The team decided to make him a child as they wished to showcase a coming of age story. They wanted children to empathize with Oliver's development, and adults to relive the excitement of their adolescence. A major part of the story is Oliver's personal development, which Hino describes as "the process of how a child grows into an adult". In regards to Oliver's physical appearance, Momose made his outfit represent a young boy in 1950s America, which was the inspiration for his hometown.
For the localization of the game, the team decided to give the character of Drippy a Welsh accent, citing comedian Rhod Gilbert as a reference point. Steffan Rhodri was ultimately cast as Drippy; the team immediately felt that he fit the role, during his first audition. The Fairy Godmother character was initially conceived as an "older lady with a perm", which evolved into the concept of a "mountain-like woman". The method that she uses to give birth, in which the offspring burst forth, was inspired by the process that sea anemones lay eggs. The character of Cassiopeia was conceived in a quick meeting, after which the background information and story documents were handed to Momose, who drew the character based on the information. Cassiopeia underwent various changes throughout development. In particular, Momose suggested possible alterations to her physical appearance, such as the size of her head, and changing colors to reflect her emotions. The character Pea was named as a reference to the fairy tale The Princess and the Pea, while her Japanese name of Kokoru is a reference to the word "kokoro" (心, heart).
### Technical and gameplay development
Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch was developed for the PlayStation 3. The team planned to bring the game to the console from the beginning of development, but opted to work on the DS version of the game beforehand due to the larger number of DS users in Japan at the time. The team found the PlayStation 3 allowed them to render the game world with great detail, using the hardware to its full potential to present the animation, world and music. Hino felt that the PlayStation 3 version allowed the game's music to accompany the imagery, which was not possible on the DS version. The team found particular technical difficulty in animating Oliver's cape, which was overcome by a combination of mathematical calculations and hand-drawn motions by the programmers and graphic artists, respectively.
The team considered utilizing the PlayStation Move controller for casting spells in the game, in a similar fashion to the use of the touchscreen in the DS version, though ultimately decided against it as it would limit the potential sales. The battle system was revised over ten times, in order to achieve something new and unique. For about a year of development, the battle system used a turn-based system, though this was ultimately changed when the team felt that it was not fun for players. The team eventually merged turn-based combat and action elements, popular in Japanese and Western regions, respectively, in order to appeal to both regions.
Level-5 worked with localization company Shloc to translate the game; the two studios collaborated for many weeks. The team found great difficulty when localizing the game for Western regions, particularly due to the large amounts of text and audio that required translation. Other minor changes to the artwork and animation also occurred, such as making Oliver bow in a Western manner. By December 12, 2012, development on the localized version of Wrath of the White Witch was completed and the game was submitted for manufacturing.
## Reception
Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch received generally positive reviews. Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating in the 0–100 range, calculated an average score of 86 out of 100 for the PlayStation 4 version, 85 out of 100 for the PlayStation 3 version, and 84 out of 100 for the Nintendo Switch version. Critics praised the visual design, characters and story, soundtrack, and combat system. Colin Moriarty of IGN named Ni no Kuni "one of the best RPGs", and among the best PlayStation 3 exclusives, and Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot wrote that it joins the group of greatest RPGs.
The game's artistic design received acclaim, being favorably compared to Studio Ghibli's previous work. Eurogamer's Oli Welsh wrote that the artists of Level-5 and Studio Ghibli have collaborated to make a game that belongs to both studios. Moriarty of IGN called the game "unquestionably gorgeous", surpassing the visuals of most other games. Destructoid's Jim Sterling echoed these remarks, stating that "few titles can hope to come as close". GameSpot's VanOrd felt that the "cartoonish visuals are heightened by extraordinary visual details", contributing to the "sense of wonder" created by the game. Stephanie Bendixsen of Good Game called the art "vibrant and exciting", noting that it "brings the game to life in the most beautiful way".
Brittany Vincent of GamesRadar found the story poignant, and IGN's Moriarty named it one of the game's standout features. GameSpot's VanOrd felt that the game's themes and dialogue positively contributed to the story, appreciating the use of humor, and GameTrailers called the writing "top notch". Conversely, Joystiq's Sinan Kubba wrote that the story lacked the charm that the art style possessed, while Polygon's Philip Kollar felt that the game's art style was the only motive to complete the story, which he felt was predictable. Some reviewers commented on the pacing of the story; Eurogamer's Welsh found that it was "too slow to surprise or to develop its mysteries", while GamesRadar's Vincent found the pace believable. The game's side quests also received praise; GameTrailers felt that they provide insight into the world and Eurogamer's Welsh commended their variety, while Polygon's Kollar conversely found them uninteresting and "single-minded".
The world and environments of the game drew acclaim from many reviewers. Electronic Gaming Monthly's Andrew Fitch named the world one of the game's standout features, praising the diversity of the locales. Jason Schreier of Kotaku praised the "care and precision" with which the world was crafted. Kimberley Wallace of Game Informer called the world "breathtaking", and Destructoid's Sterling felt that the world was "adorable", praising the design and use of the familiars.
The game's characters polarized reviewers. Some felt that the characters were inventive and interesting, while others noted that they lacked personality. Bendixsen of Good Game called the characters "imaginative and wacky", while IGN's Moriarty felt that Oliver's uniqueness was one of the standout points of the game, and found that it made him care about the character. Destructoid's Sterling disliked Oliver, but found that the supporting characters compensate. Wallace of Game Informer felt that the characters lack personality, and only exist to assist Oliver's journey. Joystiq's Kubba echoed similar remarks, stating that the characters have "the depth of a toothbrush". Similarly, the voice acting received mixed reactions; IGN's Moriarty felt that the English voice for Oliver was the most disappointing, but praised the other voice acting, and Ian Dransfield of VideoGamer.com wrote that the English dub is "worth hearing".
Many reviewers found the battle system a refreshing mix from other role-playing games. Fitch of Electronic Gaming Monthly commented that "it keeps getting better the longer you play". Joystiq's Kubba called the game's combat a "triumph", praising its ability to blend different styles, and GameTrailers found it "immensely satisfying". Kotaku's Schreier felt that the combat never feels unfair, although criticized the use of the artificial intelligence during the battle. Phil Iwaniuk of Official PlayStation Magazine found the game's consistent battle encounters irritating, but that combat is "otherwise a pleasure". Polygon's Kollar felt that the game's artificial intelligence resulted in a "sloppy" and "frustrating" combat system.
Reviewers praised the use of music in the game. IGN's Moriarty felt that it was appropriate in every situation, praising its ability to create emotion and involve players in the experience. GameTrailers found the soundtrack "powerful", commenting on its appropriate use during gameplay, and GamesRadar's Vincent named it "breathtaking". Sterling of Destructoid favorably compared the soundtrack to Dragon Quest VIII, praising the orchestral qualities and "sense of fun". Chris Scullion of Computer and Video Games wrote that the music ensures the game "sounds as good as it looks". Eurogamer's Welsh called the music "a lush and romantic treat", though criticized the repetitiveness of the battle music.
### Sales
Within seven days of its original release in Japan, Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch sold over 170,000 units. Following its release in the United Kingdom, the game topped the charts, and sold out in many stores across the region. By March 2014, the game had shipped over 1.1 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling PlayStation 3 games. Many pre-orders of the game's special edition, the "Wizard's Edition", were cancelled due to overselling as a result of a glitch in the order system. All canceled orders were compensated with a \$20 clubNamco voucher and the game's strategy guide by Prima Games.
### Awards
Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications. Prior to its release, it won Best RPG Game from Computer and Video Games. The game appeared on several year-end lists of the best role-playing games of 2013, receiving wins from Destructoid, Game Revolution, GameTrailers, IGN, the 18th Satellite Awards and the Spike VGX 2013 Awards. It also received Best Game from The Huffington Post. The game also won Best Sound from Cheat Code Central, and Excellence in Animation at the SXSW Gaming Awards. At the 13th National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers Awards, it received multiple wins, including awards for Animation, Art Direction, Original Light Mix Score, Original Family Game, as well as Original/Adapted Song for "Kokoro no Kakera".
## Sequel
Level-5 announced a sequel, titled Ni no Kuni II: Revenant Kingdom, during the PlayStation Experience event in December 2015. Set hundreds of years after Wrath of the White Witch, the game features a new cast of characters. Delayed twice prior to its launch, Revenant Kingdom was released for PlayStation 4 and Windows on March 23, 2018. |
26,293,965 | Vernon Treatt | 1,160,992,487 | Australian politician | [
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"University of Sydney alumni"
] | Sir Vernon Haddon Treatt (15 May 1897 – 20 September 1984) was an Australian lawyer, soldier, Rhodes Scholar and politician. Born in Singleton, New South Wales and educated at Shore School, Treatt interrupted his studies at the University of Sydney to enlist at the outbreak of the First World War. Serving in the Royal Australian Artillery, Treatt served in France and was awarded the Military Medal. Upon returning to Australia he was awarded a Rhodes scholarship and further educated at New College, Oxford.
After briefly practising law in 1923 in Britain, Treatt returned to Australia and was admitted to the New South Wales bar that same year, serving as a Crown Prosecutor at the supreme court. Treatt also was the Challis law lecturer at the University of Sydney. Treatt entered the New South Wales Legislative Assembly on 26 March 1938, representing the Electoral district of Woollahra for the United Australia Party (UAP). When UAP Premier Bertram Stevens was ousted from the leadership in August 1939 and Alexander Mair became Premier, Mair appointed Treatt, after serving only a few months in Parliament, as the Minister for Justice. He served in this office until the UAP lost power in 1941.
During this time Treatt witnessed the break-up of the UAP into the various parties including the Democratic Party, which he joined, and then the establishment of the Liberal Party of Australia as the major conservative political force in Australia in 1945. When the second leader of the party, Alexander Mair, resigned in March 1946, Treatt was elected to succeed him. As the third leader of the new party, Treatt became the first leader to contest an election. After serving eight years and almost winning government at the 1950 election, Treatt resigned as Leader in August 1954 following a July attempt to depose him. He continued as a member of parliament until he was defeated in 1962 and thereafter served in various organisations and posts, including as a Chief Commissioner of the City of Sydney in 1969, until his death in 1984.
## Early life
Vernon Treatt was born in Singleton, New South Wales, in 1897, the youngest son of Frank Burford Treatt (1845–1923), a Police Magistrate and migrant from Devon, England, and Kate Ellen Walsh (1856–1936), and was first educated at Young District School. When the Treatts moved to Sydney, he attended the Sydney Church of England Grammar School from 1913 to 1914, becoming a Prefect and Cadet Lieutenant. Treatt then took up residence in 1915 at St. Paul's College while studying for a Bachelor of Arts (BA) at the University of Sydney. During the First World War in 1916, Treatt interrupted his studies and enlisted as a gunner in the Royal Australian Artillery, 6th Field Artillery Battery. He was sent over on 5 November 1917 to the Western Front and was later promoted to Sergeant. For his service he received the Military Medal on 14 May 1919.
Upon returning from the military he completed his studies in 1920 and was awarded a Rhodes scholarship in the same year, at New College, Oxford. At Oxford, Treatt gained a Master of Arts and a Bachelor of Civil Law in 1923 and was briefly admitted to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in that year. When he returned to Australia, Treatt was appointed to the New South Wales Bar and also as the Sub Warden of St Paul's College, University of Sydney from 1925 to 1930. In 1927, he played first grade Rugby Union for the Drummoyne DRFC. He married Dorothy Isabelle Henderson (1902–1992) on 5 June 1930 and had four children: George Vernon, John Vernon (1930–1935), Rosemary Vernon (1930–1944), and Diana Vernon.
In 1927, Treatt was given the position of Challis lecturer in criminal law at the University of Sydney, a position he was to hold until 1959. One of his students was the future Justice of the High Court of Australia, Michael Kirby: "I can still see Mr Vernon Treatt QC coming on to the stage of the Phillip Street Theatre where we took some of our lectures. Treatt's task was to instruct a hundred first year law students in that most important discipline, criminal law. I can see him toss his hat onto the chair, open his notes and begin reading his latest lesson. I can hear him talking about the sections of the Crimes Act 1900 of New South Wales dealing with 'unnatural offences'. I can recall his rasping voice as he intoned the old provisions of section 79, spitting out the exceptionally ugly words of denunciation in the parliamentary prose". In March 1928, Treatt was appointed and served as a Crown Prosecutor for the Supreme Court of New South Wales and the Court of Quarter sessions for the metropolitan district.
## Political career
Treatt first entered politics at the 1927 state election as an Independent Nationalist candidate for the Legislative Assembly seat of Willoughby. He narrowly lost on a margin of 49.47%. After several years Treatt tried again to enter parliament at the 26 March 1938 state election as the United Australia Party candidate for the seat of Woollahra. On this occasion he was successful, gaining 53.62% of the vote.
### Minister of the Crown
On 16 August 1938, after only serving a few months as a member of parliament, Treatt was appointed as the Minister for Justice in the government of Alexander Mair, who had become Premier after Bertram Stevens was defeated in a motion of no confidence in the house. In 1940, he was made a King's Counsel (KC).
As Minister for Justice, Treatt generated controversy when it was alleged that he had acted to reduce a fine imposed on the Abbco Bread Company who had sold short-weight bread to the Department of Defence. It resulted in a Royal Commission in the matter from March to August 1941, chaired by Justice Maxwell, after a censure motion introduced by Labor Leader William McKell was defeated. He was removed of any suspicion in the findings with the Royal Commissioner finding that: "There is no evidence, nor any thing even remotely to suggest that the Minister was guilty of any misconduct or irregularity either in the conclusion reached by him, and fully shared by the permanent head of his department, that the fine was too severe or in the manner of his dealing with the company's application. From start to finish I can discover nothing suggesting any irregularity in any action by the Minister."
### Opposition
He served as Minister until the 10 May 1941 election when the Mair Government was defeated in a landslide defeat, losing 20 seats. Despite this, Treatt retained his seat with a significant margin increase of 67.68%. With the very poor results of the federal United Australia Party under Billy Hughes at the 1943 Federal election, the UAP disintegrated. A large number of former UAP members, including Treatt, then formed the Democratic Party in New South Wales, led by Alexander Mair, while others moved into the Commonwealth Party and the Liberal Democratic Party. The Democratic Party then merged with the Commonwealth Party in January 1944. Mair resigned in 1944 to be replaced by Reginald Weaver, who then led the hopelessly divided conservative forces to defeat at the 27 May 1944 election, losing another three seats. Treatt retained his seat with 50.50%.
In 1944, the Democratic Party and Commonwealth Party merged as the United Democratic Party, which became the NSW division of the Liberal Party a year later. The merged party's first state leader in NSW, Weaver, died in office in November 1945. Mair succeeded him, with Treatt succeeding Athol Richardson as Deputy Leader. After five months as Leader, Mair resigned in March 1946 and Treatt was then elected to succeed him as party leader and hence, Leader of the Opposition.
### Leadership
The third Leader of the New South Wales Liberal Party, Treatt became the first to contest an election. At the election on 3 May 1947, Treatt's Liberals and Michael Bruxner's Country Party failed to defeat the Labor government, now under new Premier James McGirr, despite an overall swing of 4.5% and a gain of seven seats. Treatt retained his seat with an increased 69.75%.
As opposition leader, Treatt proved effective in attacking the shortcomings of the McGirr's Labor government and in the Labor Party on a national level, particularly in areas of economics: "Because of the inflationary pressure, which is largely a result of the Socialists' own low production policy, continuation of subsidies is necessary on basic everyday goods ..." and utilities: "The public is sick of seeing Ministers hunting up alibis, shifting about from one explanation to another and washing their hands of responsibility for powershortages on some flimsy pretext." In matters of ideology, Treatt supported Federal Liberal Leader Robert Menzies in his firm opposition to communism, particularly from the Soviet Union, China and Korea. After returning from the Empire Parliamentary Conference in London in December 1948, Treatt declared "The Communists are on the move throughout the world. Australians must sit up and take just as much notice of what is happening across our narrow northern waters ... It is of outstanding importance to Australia that the Western Powers' should secure some uniform policy to combat the Communist Asian menace."
Treatt led the Coalition again at the 17 June 1950 election, which resulted in a hung parliament, with Treatt's Coalition gaining 12 seats and a swing of 6.7% for a total of 46 seats. With the Labor Party also holding 46 seats, the balance of power lay with the two re-elected Independent Labor members, James Geraghty and John Seiffert, who had been expelled from the party for disloyalty during the previous parliament. Under a legalistic interpretation of the ALP rules, Seiffert was readmitted to the party (because he had not actually opposed an official ALP candidate, as Geraghty had) and, together with Geraghty, kept McGirr's government in power. On 20 June, Treatt declared that he and his party would not make any concessions or compromises to the Labor Party, particularly in regards to the election of a speaker. Treatt retained his seat with 76.09%.
In his third term as Leader, Treatt criticised government cuts in transport services, but supported reductions in death duty taxes. At a Remembrance Day address in 1952, Treatt criticised radical student politics embodied by the "long-haired intellectual types": "My belief in the value of university life and in higher education generally is a strong and abiding one ... the sort of long-haired type I am thinking about may not even have a university degree. He is encased in self satisfied assurance of his own mental superiority."
In a speech at Sydney's Lyceum Hall, Treatt warned of Australia's attitudes on its success: "A sort of mental haze seems to obscure the vision splendid that lies before this country. We are proud of being a British country, a country with British traditions, institutions, and all those things which go to make up what we call our 'British heritage'. But this pride is not matched by a pride in being Australian. This seems to me one of the strongest sources of our weakness."
The near loss of the election by Labor further weakened McGirr's position and he was replaced as premier by Joseph Cahill in April 1952. Cahill had won popular support as a vigorous and impressive minister who had resolved problems with New South Wales' electricity supply and in his first 10 months as premier had reinvigorated the party. He appeared decisive and brought order to the government's chaotic public works program. In addition, he attacked the increasingly unpopular federal Coalition government of Menzies.
All this contributed to Treatt's Coalition being easily defeated at the 14 February 1953 election, with a total loss of ten seats and a swing against it of 7.2%. Treatt retained his seat with 67.61%. On 3 February 1954, Treatt received, along with Premier Cahill, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia, at Farm Cove, Sydney, at the beginning of her first visit to Australia. This was first occasion on which a reigning monarch (as opposed to an heir-apparent) had set foot on Australian soil. Treatt was also present on 4 February when Her Majesty opened the Parliament of New South Wales, the first time a monarch had opened an Australian parliament.
After three consecutive election losses, Treatt was no longer able to control the factional infighting among the Liberals. The party's deputy leader, Walter Howarth, resigned on 22 July 1954, having complained that Treatt doubted his loyalty. Robert Askin, the Liberal Whip, took Howarth's place. Howarth's resignation split the party and sparked a leadership challenge from Pat Morton, who criticised Treatt's "lack of aggression" towards the Labor government.
At the party meeting on 6 July, Treatt narrowly defeated Morton with 12 votes to 10. Nevertheless, he did not stay much longer as leader. On 6 August he announced that he would resign four days later:
> "Following the unsuccessful challenge for the Parliamentary leadership, it was expected that there would be an end to activities so damaging to the party's morale and effectiveness. Unfortunately these activities have continued. The responsibilities of a political leader, particularly at the present time in New South Wales, are very heavy, and a leader giving of his best is entitled to receive the fullest support from every member of the party. This support has not been forthcoming, and without it the burdens on health and effectiveness would prove too much for any man."
The subsequent party meeting produced no obvious candidate for the leadership. Neither Askin nor Morton could obtain a majority of votes. Accordingly, Askin asked another prominent Liberal, Murray Robson, to nominate himself. This solved the problem, and Robson became leader, although Treatt remained in parliament. On 17 June 1955, the Queen granted Treatt permission to retain the title "The Honourable" for life, for having served as Leader of the Opposition and the Executive Council of New South Wales.
## Later life
Robson did not have the chance to lead the Liberals to an election. Morton deposed him in 1955, and proceeded to lead the Coalition to another defeat in March 1956, while Treatt increased his majority within his own electorate (where he remained very popular) to 70.84%. At the next election, in March 1959, Morton and the Coalition lost once more to Cahill, who thereby scored his third consecutive victory. Divorcing his first wife, Treatt remarried to Frankie Jessie Embleton Wilson on 16 May 1960. Frankie Wilson was a lawyer who attended St Mary's Anglican Girls' School in Perth and was the granddaughter of Frank Wilson who twice served as Premier of Western Australia.
Treatt stayed in Parliament until his seat was abolished before the upcoming election in 1962, at which point he stood for the new seat of Bligh. At the 1962 election, Treatt was defeated by the Labor candidate, Tom Morey, gaining only 45.29% of the vote. Treatt then joined local government circles, becoming Chair of the Boundaries Commission from 1964 to 1969 and was later appointed as the Chief Commissioner for the dismissed City of Sydney from 1967 to 1969, overseeing the redistribution of council boundaries and reorganisation of council agencies. He also served as the President of the Sydney Cricket and Sports Ground Trust from 1965 to 1967. For his service as Chief Commissioner, he was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 1970. Treatt died on 20 September 1984 in Sydney. |
57,985,606 | Carrie Goldberg | 1,168,968,702 | American attorney | [
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"21st-century American lawyers",
"21st-century American women lawyers",
"Brooklyn Law School alumni",
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"People from Aberdeen, Washington",
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] | Carrie Goldberg (born 1976/1977) is an American lawyer specializing in sex crimes with her law firm C.A. Goldberg PLLC. She has represented: five clients who described sexual abuse committed by Harvey Weinstein; the former Democrat Member of Congress Katie Hill after her naked photos were published in the media; and the author Emma Cline after an ex-partner sued for plagiarism. Her legal cases with low-profile individuals—involving revenge porn, intimate partner violence and online abuse—often draw national media attention.
Goldberg is opposed to Section 230 of the U.S. Communications Decency Act (CDA), which exempts websites from being liable for third-party content; her case against Grindr for negligence was rejected for this reason. She has criticized the New York City Department of Education's responses to reports of sexual violence by students, and has represented such students.
Goldberg experienced significant sexual violence, which motivated her to start her law firm in 2014. Prior to this, she worked with Holocaust survivors for several years and in property and guardianship law. Her legal career and life experiences are the subject of her book Nobody's Victim (2019), which also describes other famous cases of sexual violence by "psychos, stalkers, pervs, and trolls".
## Early life and education
Goldberg grew up in Aberdeen, Washington, as the second-oldest of four siblings. She graduated from Aberdeen High School in 1995. Her father owned a furniture store and was involved in reopening a local paper mill; her mother wrote obituaries for the local paper before she had children. Goldberg's grandmother, born in the 1910s, was a professor of dental hygiene. Goldberg's wardrobe incorporates much of her grandmother's old clothing.
As a young girl, Goldberg started a business initiative—Masked Mams—where she would barter riot grrrl-esque bras made from doll heads at the Evergreen State College. When working on her high school yearbook with a friend, she got in trouble for writing erotica about the boys' sports teams. A formative moment in her childhood was when she dropped a friend off at a motel party and the friend was raped while unconscious and intoxicated.
Prior to college, Goldberg wanted to be a writer. She studied at Vassar College, where she started a relationship with a professor whom she later married and divorced. Working at her father's mill one summer, Goldberg faced routine workplace sexual harassment, which led her to develop an eating disorder that hospitalized her; she suspended from Vassar for a semester. She graduated with a B.A. degree in 1999, majoring in English.
## Career
Goldberg's work against revenge porn is best known but her career as an attorney is broader, including cases of "sextortion" (sexual extortion), online harassment, cyberstalking, intimate partner violence, and rape. Her clients include minors. Goldberg told Psychology Today that the one commonality in her clients is that "someone took away their control", whether it was their control over their body, privacy or reputation. She told The Cut in 2019 that she does not maintain a "traditional attorney-client relationship", as the sensitive nature of cases requires mutual trust. Her law firm has staff members who were formerly her clients; one such person is Norma Buster, a client relations manager whose ex-boyfriend posted revenge porn of her.
Goldberg focuses on civil law, but her law firm also works on some criminal cases, restraining orders and removing abuse content from the internet. Goldberg advises people who have experienced revenge porn and online abuse to keep evidence of the crimes rather than deleting it. She says that they should first report the abuse to the websites hosting the content, then contact police or Title IX co-ordinators (in educational settings), and find legal assistance if this fails. An attorney may assist in sending cease and desist letters, Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) takedown notices, and search engine de-indexing requests.
### Early career
After moving to New York in 1999, Goldberg was a case manager for Holocaust survivors; she began law school at night school in 2003. In 2007, she graduated from her night school, Brooklyn Law School, with a J.D. degree. As a lawyer, she advocated for tenants facing eviction, then moved on to guardianship law. As Director of Legal Services with the Vera Institute of Justice, Goldberg negotiated clients' wishes for end-of-life care and represented elderly people who were being taken advantage of.
In interviews, Goldberg has said that her motivation to start a law firm—C.A. Goldberg PLLC—arose from her harassment by a former partner, who she nicknamed her "psycho ex". In the final chapter of Nobody's Victim, she gave more full detail. Within the space of a few months in 2012, she was: spiked, violently raped and assaulted by a doctor; sexually assaulted by a masseur; and date raped. Soon after, in 2013, she met her "psycho ex"; after they broke up, his harassment of her included abusive messages, attempted breaking and entering, frivolous litigation, sending sexual images to judges and work colleagues, and contacting her family and ex-boyfriends with vivid descriptions of her being raped by the doctor.
While standing on a cliff over Galway Bay, Ireland, Goldberg contemplated suicide, but decided she would try to change her life around within a year. She had not found an attorney who understood the law as it related to domestic violence, copyright and the internet, so Goldberg aimed to become one. She had \$3,000 when she started her law firm in 2014, from accrued holiday time at her previous job. She rented a small Brooklyn office, made a website and paid for phone and internet bills on a shoestring budget.
### High-profile cases
Goldberg worked for five clients who alleged sexual abuse by Harvey Weinstein, a film producer. In particular, Goldberg represented Lucia Evans, whose evidence contributed to the New York County District Attorney deciding to pursue charges against Weinstein. Goldberg was sharply critical of the district attorney dropping Evans' charges. Weinstein would eventually be accused of sexual violence in over 100 instances, and be sentenced in 2020 to 23 years in prison. The public stories of abuse committed by Weinstein led to the "Weinstein effect", wherein people revealed stories of sexual violence by famous figures, and the wider \#MeToo movement. Goldberg worked as a lawyer for the Weinstein accuser Asia Argento when she was herself accused of sexual violence against an underage boy; Argento settled for \$380,000.
After the Democrat Member of Congress Katie Hill's naked photos were published by the Daily Mail—a British tabloid—and RedState—a conservative blog—Goldberg represented her. Hill filed a lawsuit against the publications, the journalist who sourced the images, and her ex-husband—who she accused of leaking them. The images related to an inappropriate relationship with a campaign staffer, drug usage, and a tattoo resembling a white supremacist symbol. Goldberg argued that they were gratuitous and unnecessary, because the information content could have been conveyed through text and other images. The judge dismissed the case early in the process under anti-SLAPP legislation, and Hill was ordered to pay her defendant's fees.
Goldberg worked for the author Emma Cline, who was sued by her ex-boyfriend Chaz Reetz-Laiolo for plagiarism. Cline counter-sued for physical and emotional abuse by Reetz-Laiolo during their relationship, and Reetz-Laiolo's lawyers responded with a letter including detailed claims about Cline's alleged sexual history, including naked images of Cline. Goldberg saw this action as "inappropriate and ludicrous" as it gave her client a choice between settling the lawsuit or allowing the claims and sexual images to be publicly released. The plagiarism case was later dismissed.
Goldberg represented Matthew Herrick in an unsuccessful lawsuit against Grindr, a dating app for men who have sex with men. Herrick's ex, Oscar Juan Carlos Gutierrez, impersonated Herrick on Grindr, giving his location and saying he wanted violent rape fantasy sex, sometimes claiming to be HIV-positive and addicted to crystal meth. Though other dating apps banned Gutierrez from their platforms, Grindr did not. Over 1,000 men were lured to Herrick's home in the year before Gutierrez was arrested. Goldberg and Herrick sued Grindr for negligence, but a judge found that they were not liable due to Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act (CDA). A Second Circuit appeal was also declined.
Alongside Maggie McLetchie, Goldberg represented one client after her ex-husband—a United States Marshals Service official—and his second wife framed her for harassing and stalking the wife and soliciting men to rape her. Coverage of the ex-husband's claims against Goldberg's client made Dateline NBC, The Washington Post, People and The Daily Beast and led to her wrongful imprisonment for 88 days. She was exonerated in 2017, and the marshal's second wife was imprisoned. In 2021, the woman received a settlement from the city of Anaheim, California, and the marshal was arrested.
### Nobody's Victim
Goldberg's book "Nobody's Victim: Fighting Psychos, Stalkers, Pervs, and Trolls" was published by Plume in August 2019. It describes a number of her cases, including that of Herrick vs. Grindr and the Weinstein accusers, as well as a man who impersonated his girlfriend's ex-partners to harass her, women coerced into pornography under false pretenses, and children who were raped or sexually extorted by adults over the internet. Goldberg also describes her personal experiences with sexual violence, including the motivation for her to start a law firm, and other famous cases.
### Political advocacy
Goldberg has been involved in creating anti-revenge porn legislation across many states. For instance, she worked on a New York bill criminalizing revenge porn that passed in 2019; it outlawed distribution of sexual images and videos without the consent of the person pictured, and with intent to harm that person. A federal law that Goldberg supported called the Ending Nonconsensual Online User Graphic Harassment (ENOUGH) Act failed to pass.
Goldberg is affiliated with a number of non-profits and working groups related to domestic violence and sexual violence. She is a board member of the Cyber Civil Rights Initiative. In 2016, she was invited to a White House meeting about sexual assault in schools. Her writing has been published in The Washington Post and Elle.
### Television
Goldberg was a series consultant on the American drama series 13 Reasons Why (2017–2020), set in a high school where a student dies by suicide. She appeared on a panel in the behind-the-scenes special, Beyond the Reasons, for season two. In 2017, Variety reported that CBS Studios and Sony Pictures Television had put work into a planned television series based on Goldberg's life and career.
## Views
In 2019, Goldberg told Ms. that technology is not "inherently harmful" but its anonymity "amplifies and perpetuates the harm instigated by abusers". She criticized law enforcement for failures to investigate or appreciate the seriousness of crimes with online elements. In an interview with The Guardian, Goldberg commented also on law schools, saying that they are not educating students properly without incorporating internet law into every course, rather than teaching it as a separate subject.
Goldberg opposes Section 230 of the U.S. Communications Decency Act (CDA)—which exempts websites from being liable for third-party content. According to Goldberg, the law has broadened since its introduction in the 1990s, and the internet has dramatically increased in scope. She said that it was "a shamefully archaic law that drastically needs a rethink", as websites can "allow abuse to flourish" without consequence. She argued that the law gives no incentive for internet companies to "build basic safety features". Goldberg's firm campaigns for reform to Section 230; Goldberg told MIT Technology Review that she would like to see it "eradicated". She testified to this effect in a 2021 congressional hearing.
Goldberg has accused the Electronic Frontier Foundation of being lobbyists for Big Tech and of protecting the online activities of harassers, stalkers and abusers. The EFF in turn have called her description of Section 230 an "oversimplification" and described one of Goldberg's lawsuits as "dangerous" to free speech.
She has criticised the New York City Department of Education for failing to protect and provide care for female African-American students who were sexually assaulted at school.
## Personal life
Goldberg enjoys running and visiting museums.
In February 2019, Goldberg became engaged to Tor Ekeland, an attorney who has specialized in defending hackers; the pair worked together on Herrick vs. Grindr. |
5,548,683 | K-52 (Kansas highway) | 1,054,633,455 | Highway in Kansas | [
"State highways in Kansas",
"Transportation in Linn County, Kansas"
] | K-52 is an approximately 23-mile-long (37 km) east–west state highway in eastern Kansas. Its western terminus is at an intersection with K-31 southeast of Mound City. K-52 then overlaps U.S. Route 69 for eight miles (13 km) through Pleasanton and Trading Post, then splits off to the east. three miles (4.8 km) later, it crosses into Missouri, becoming Route 52.
Before state highways were numbered in Kansas there were auto trails. K-192 follows a short section of the former Jefferson Highway in Mound City. The former routing through Pleasanton follows the former Ozark Trails and Kansas City-Fort Scott-Miami-Tulsa Short Line. K-52 was first established as a state highway on January 7, 1937, and went from K-38 in Blue Mound northeastward to K-7 in Mound City. It was extended west then south to US-54 in Moran by the end of 1937. It was realigned to the west of Pleasanton in 1987 and eight years later, the highway was truncated to its current western terminus.
## Route description
K-52's western terminus is at K-31 east of Blue Mound. The highway begins travelling east then after about 0.3 miles (0.48 km) curves north at 500th Road. It passes by a cemetery and through a forested area before curving northeast at 600th Road. The highway passes through a forested area for a short distance then transitions to flat rural farmlands. It continues for about 2.1 miles (3.4 km) then enters Mound City and intersects K-7. K-52 turns north and begins to overlap K-7 as 9th Street. After roughly 0.23 miles (0.37 km) K-52 turns east onto Main Street, as K-7 continues north. The highway continues along Main Street for about 0.7 miles (1.1 km) then curves northeast onto North Main Street. After 0.3 miles (0.48 km) it exits the city then curves east. K-52 continues through flat farmlands for about five miles (8.0 km) then reaches an interchange with US-69. K-52 turns north and begins to overlap the four-lane freeway.
K-52 and US-69 cross over a BNSF Railway track then curve north. They then pass under East 1000th Road and then curve northwest. About 0.3 miles (0.48 km) later, the highway reaches an interchange with East 6th Street, which travels west to Pleasanton. The highway continues through flat rural farmlands, as it curves north and crosses Muddy Creek. The freeway continues for 0.5 miles (0.80 km) and then curves northeast before it reaches an interchange with East 1350 Road. It continues northeast and soon crosses Big Sugar Creek, then Marais des Cygnes River 0.9 miles (1.4 km) later. It continues another one mile (1.6 km) and reaches another interchange, where K-52 leaves the freeway. K-52 continues for about 0.6 miles (0.97 km) then curves east. The highway continues through flat rural farmlands for roughly 2.5 miles (4.0 km) then curves southeast and enters into Missouri becoming Missouri Route 52.
The Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) tracks the traffic levels on its highways, and in 2019, they determined that on average the traffic varied from 850 vehicles per day near the eastern terminus to between 6,060 and 6,310 vehicles per day along the overlap with US-69. The second highest was 2,570 vehicles per day slightly east of Mound City. The only section of K-52 that is included in the National Highway System is its concurrency with US-69.
## History
Before state highways were numbered in Kansas there were auto trails which were an informal network of marked routes that existed in the United States and Canada in the early part of the 20th century. K-192 follows a short section of the former Jefferson Highway in Mound City. The former routing through Pleasanton follows the former Ozark Trails and Kansas City–Fort Scott–Miami–Tulsa Short Line.
K-52 was first established as a state highway on January 7, 1937, and ran from K-38 in Blue Mound northeastward to K-7 in Mound City. By the end of 1937, K-38 was decommissioned and became an extension of K-31 and K-52 was extended further west to Kincaid then south to end at US-54 in Moran. K-31 originally left K-52 in Blue Mound and went south. Then in an October 9, 1957 resolution, it was realigned further east along K-52, then turned south at K-52's current western terminus. Sometime between 1960 and 1962, US-59 was realigned along K-52 from Moran to Kincaid. Originally K-52 zig-zagged from K-31 northeastward to K-7 in Mound City, but was approved to be straightened in a February 11, 1964 resolution. The new straightened alignment was completed by 1965. On March 30, 1950, a resolution was passed to slightly realign K-52/US-69 near Trading Post. In a May 7, 1987 resolution, K-52/US-69 was realigned from going through Pleasanton to travel to the east of the city. In a January 26, 1995 resolution, K-52 was truncated from Moran to end at K-31, its current western terminus. This was done due to the concurrency having no purpose and was confusing to some travelers. In an April 29, 2008 resolution, K-52 and US-69 was realigned by Pleasanton onto a new four-lane highway. Also a 0.381-mile (0.613 km) extension was built to link the southern end of the old K-52/US-69 overlap to the new one. In another April 29, 2008 resolution, K-52 and US-69 was realigned by Trading Post onto a new four-lane highway. The north end of the K-52 and US-69 overlap was moved slightly north to the new interchange. The two new sections of freeway were completed by 2009.
## Major intersections |
38,212,607 | Gjirokastër | 1,172,862,437 | City in Albania | [
"Administrative units of Gjirokastër",
"Aromanian settlements in Albania",
"Cities in Albania",
"Gjirokastër",
"Greek communities in Albania",
"Labëria",
"Municipalities in Gjirokastër County",
"Ottoman architecture in Albania",
"World Heritage Sites in Albania"
] | Gjirokastër is a city in southern Albania and the seat of Gjirokastër County and Gjirokastër Municipality. It is located in a valley between the Gjerë mountains and the Drino, at 300 metres above sea level. Its old town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, described as "a rare example of a well-preserved Ottoman town, built by farmers of large estate". The city is overlooked by Gjirokastër Fortress, where the Gjirokastër National Folklore Festival is held every five years. It is the birthplace of former Albanian communist leader Enver Hoxha, and author Ismail Kadare.
The city appears in the historical record dating back in 1336 by its medieval Greek name, Αργυρόκαστρο, Argyrókastro, as part of the Byzantine Empire. It first developed in the hill where the Gjirokastër Fortress is located. In this period, Gjirokastër was contested between the Despotate of Epirus and the Albanian clan of Zenebishi under Gjon Zenebishi who made it his capital in 1417. It was taken by the Ottomans in 1418, a year after's Gjon's death and it became the seat of the Sanjak of Albania. Throughout the Ottoman era, Gjirokastër was officially known in Ottoman Turkish as Ergiri and also Ergiri Kasrı. During the Ottoman period conversions to Islam and an influx of Muslim converts from the surrounding countryside made Gjirokastër go from being an overwhelmingly Christian city in the 16th century into one with a large Muslim population by the early 19th century. Gjirokastër also became a major religious centre for Bektashi Sufism. Taken by the Hellenic Army during the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 it was eventually incorporated into the newly independent state of Albania in 1913. This proved highly unpopular with the local Greek population, who rebelled; after several months of guerrilla warfare, the short-lived Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was established in 1914 with Gjirokastër as its capital. It was definitively awarded to Albania in 1921. In more recent years, the city witnessed anti-government protests that led to the Albanian civil war of 1997.
Along with Muslim and Orthodox Albanians, the city is also home to a substantial Greek minority along with a considerable Aromanian community. Together with Sarandë, the city is considered one of the centers of the Greek minority in Albania, and there is a consulate of Greece.
## Names and etymology
The city appeared for the first time in historical records under its medieval name of Argyrókastron (Medieval Greek: Αργυρόκαστρον), as mentioned by John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336. The name comes from argyrón (Medieval Greek: ἀργυρόν, lit. 'silver'), and kástron (Medieval Greek: κάστρον), derived from Latin castrum, meaning "castle" or "fortress"; thus "silver castle". Byzantine chronicles also used the similar name Argyropolýchni (Medieval Greek: Αργυροπολύχνη, lit. 'silver town'). The theory that the city took the name of the Princess Argjiro, a legendary figure about whom 19th-century author Kostas Krystallis and Ismail Kadare wrote novels, is considered folk etymology, since the princess is said to have lived later, in the 15th century.
The definite Albanian form of the name of city is Gjirokastra, while in the Gheg Albanian dialect it is known as Gjinokastër, both of which derive from the Greek name. During the Ottoman era, the town was known in Turkish as Ergiri.
## History
### Early history
The Phrygian period of the region spanned from around 1150 BCE to around 850 BCE. Hammond argues that the region was checkered with a mosaic of small Phrygian principalities, with the principality of Gjirokastër and the surrounding region having its center at Vodhinë. In the later part of the period, it appears there was a change of dynasty at Vodhine.
Archaeological evidence demonstrates that during the Bronze Age, the region was inhabited by populations who likely spoke a northwestern Greek dialect. Archaeologists have found pottery artifacts dating to the early Iron Age, crafted in a style that first appeared in the late Bronze Age in Pazhok, Elbasan County, and is found throughout Albania. The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area around Gjirokastër were the ancient Greek tribe of the Chaonians, which belonged to the Epirote group. In antiquity the local urban centre was located in Antigonia, c. 5 kilometres (3 mi) from modern Gjirokastër on the opposite bank of river Drino.
### Medieval period
Gjirokastër first developed on the hill where the castle of the city is located in the Middle Ages. The first fortification dates to the 5th-6th centuries CE during the period of Slavic migrations to the Balkans. It was expanded in the 9th-10th centuries, while the first signs of actual settlement medieval urban development in the castle area date to the 13th-14th centuries. During this period, Gjirokastër developed into a center known in medieval sources as Argyropolis (Medieval Greek: Ἀργυρόπολις, meaning "Silver City") or Argyrokastron (Medieval Greek: Ἀργυρόκαστρον, meaning "Silver Castle"). The city was part of the Despotate of Epirus and was first mentioned by the name Argyrokastro by John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336. That year Argyrokastro was among the cities that remained loyal to the Byzantine Emperor during a local Epirote rebellion in favour to Nikephoros II Orsini.
The Zenebishi clan, which held Gjirokastër by the end of the century, is first mentioned in 1304 as land holders in the Angevin holdings in Albania, possibly in the southern coastal area. Laonikos Chalkokondyles mentions that in the era before 1336, Albanian clans from the area of Durrës marched southwards and took control of most areas in Gjirokastër. In this era, the city was contested between the Italian and Serbian rulers which claimed the Despotate of Epirus with occasional Ottoman support and the Zenebishi clan under Gjon Zenebishi. In 1399, the Italian ruler of Ioannina, Esau de' Buondelmonti who was allied to the Ottomans, gathered an army made up of troops from Ioannina, Zagori, Dryinoupolis and Gjirokastër and the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans and marched against Gjon Zenebishi. He was ambushed, defeated and captured along with other lords from Ioannina by Zenebishi near Dhivër. The victory secured the city of Gjirokastër for Gjon Zenebishi and it became his capital. In 1417 Gjon Zenebishi died and was succeeded by his son Simon as lord of Gjirokastër in early 1418. Immediately, the Ottomans besieged the city. Simon left the city during the siege to seek refuge in Ioannina and returned back when the Ottoman siege failed, but nevertheless he eventually surrendered Gjirokastër to the Ottomans. With the acquisition of Gjirokastër, the area became known as Zenebish-ili (land of Zenebishi) and by 1419 became the seat of the Sanjak of Albania.
During the Albanian Revolt of 1432–36 it was besieged by forces under Depë Zenebishi, but the rebels were defeated by Ottoman troops led by Turahan Bey. In 1570s local nobles Manthos Papagiannis and Panos Kestolikos, discussed as Greek representative of enslaved Greece and Albania with the head of the Holy League, John of Austria and various other European rulers, the possibility of an anti-Ottoman armed struggle, but this initiative was fruitless.
226
### Ottoman period (up to 1800)
According to Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi, who visited the city in 1670, at that time there were 200 houses within the castle, 200 in the Christian eastern neighborhood of Kyçyk Varosh (meaning small neighborhood outside the castle), 150 houses in the Byjyk Varosh (meaning big neighborhood outside the castle), and six additional neighborhoods: Palorto, Vutosh, Dunavat, Manalat, Haxhi Bey, and Memi Bey, extending on eight hills around the castle. According to the traveller, the city had at that time around 2000 houses, eight mosques, three churches, 280 shops, five fountains, and five inns. From the 16th century until the early 19th century Gjirokastër went from being a predominantly Christian city to one with a Muslim majority due to much of the urban population converting to Islam alongside an influx of Muslim converts from the surrounding countryside.
### Modern
In 1811, Gjirokastër became part of the Pashalik of Yanina, then led by the Albanian-born Ali Pasha of Ioannina and was transformed into a semi-autonomous fiefdom in the southwestern Balkans until his death in 1822. In 1833 Albanian rebels took over the town causing the Ottoman government to comply with rebel terms. After the fall of the pashalik in 1868, the city was the capital of the sanjak of Ergiri. On 23 July 1880, southern Albanian committees of the League of Prizren held a congress in the city, in which was decided that if Albanian-populated areas of the Ottoman Empire were ceded to neighbouring countries, they would revolt. During the Albanian National Awakening (1831–1912), the city was a major centre of the movement, and some groups in the city were reported to carry portraits of Skanderbeg, the national hero of the Albanians during this period. Gjirokastër from the middle of the nineteenth century also prominently contributed to the wider Ottoman Empire through individuals that served as Kadıs (civil servants) and was an important centre of Islamic culture. In early March 1908, the binbashi of Gjirokastër was assassinated by Çerçiz Topulli and his followers. The pro-Albanianists of the city during 1909–1912 were split between two groups: the urban liberals who wanted to cooperate with the Greeks and Albanian nationalists who formed guerilla bands operating in the countryside. During the 19th and early 20th century, Albanian speaking Muslims were the majority population of Gjirokastër, while only a few Greek-speaking families lived there.
Given its large Greek population, the city was claimed and taken by Greece during the First Balkan War of 1912–1913, following the retreat of the Ottomans from the region. However, it was awarded to Albania under the terms of the Treaty of London of 1913 and the Protocol of Florence of 17 December 1913.
This turn of events proved highly unpopular with the local Greek population, and their representatives under Georgios Christakis-Zografos formed the Panepirotic Assembly in Gjirokastër in protest. The Assembly, short of incorporation with Greece, demanded either local autonomy or an international occupation by forces of the Great Powers for the districts of Gjirokastër, Sarandë, and Korçë.
In April 1939, Gjirokastër was occupied by Italy following the Italian invasion of Albania. On December 8, 1940, during the Greco-Italian War, the Hellenic Army entered the city and stayed for a five-month period before capitulating to Nazi Germany in April 1941 and returning the city to Italian command. After the capitulation of Italy in the Armistice of Cassibile in September 1943, the city was taken by German forces and eventually returned to Albanian control in 1944.
The postwar communist regime developed the city as an industrial and commercial centre. It was elevated to the status of a museum town, as it was the birthplace of the leader of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, Enver Hoxha, who had been born there in 1908. His house was converted into a museum.
The demolition of the monumental statue of the authoritarian leader Enver Hoxha in Gjirokastër by members of the local Greek community in August 1991 marked the end of the one-party state It was the last statue in Albania to be demolished during the Fall of Communism in Albania, which happened in 28 July 1991, 5 months after the rest of the statues that were demolished since February and marked the end of the one-party state.
Gjirokastër suffered severe economic problems following the end of communist rule in 1991. In the spring of 1993, the region of Gjirokastër became a center of open conflict between Greek minority members and the Albanian police. The city was particularly affected by the 1997 collapse of a massive pyramid scheme which destabilised the entire Albanian economy. The city became the focus of a rebellion against the government of Sali Berisha; violent anti-government protests took place which eventually forced Berisha's resignation. On 16 December 1997, Hoxha's house was damaged by unknown attackers, but subsequently restored.
## Geography
The present municipality was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former municipalities of Antigonë, Cepo, Gjirokastër, Lazarat, Lunxhëri, Odrie and Picar, that became municipal units. The seat of the municipality is the town Gjirokastër. The total population is 28,673 (2011 census), in a total area of 469.55 km<sup>2</sup> (181.29 sq mi). The population of the former municipality at the 2011 census was 19,836.
### Climate
Gjirokastër is situated between the lowlands of western Albania and the highlands of the interior, and has thus a hot-summer Mediterranean climate, though, (as is normal for Albania), much heavier rainfall than usual for this climate type.
## Economy
Gjirokastër is principally a commercial center with some industries, notably the production of foodstuffs, leather, and textiles. Recently a regional agricultural market that trades locally produced groceries has been built in the city. Given the potential of southern Albania to supply organically grown products, and its relationship with Greek counterparts of the nearby city of Ioannina, it is likely that the market will dedicate itself to organic farming in the future. However, trademarking and marketing of such products are currently far from European standards. The Chamber of Commerce of the city, created in 1988, promotes trade with the Greek border areas. As part of the financial support from Greece to Albania, the Hellenic Armed Forces built a hospital in the city.
In recent years, many traditional houses are being reconstructed and owners lured to come back, thus revitalizing tourism as a potential revenue source for the local economy. However, some houses continue to degrade from lack of investment, abandonment or inappropriate renovations as local craftsmen are not part of these projects. In 2010, following the Greek economic crisis, the city was one of the first areas in Albania to suffer, since many Albanian emigrants in Greece are becoming unemployed and thus are returning home.
## Infrastructure
Gjirokastër is served by the SH4 Highway, which connects it to Tepelenë in the north and the Dropull region and Greek border 30 km (19 mi) to the south.
### Education
The first school in the city, a Greek language school, was erected in the city in 1663. It was sponsored by local merchants and functioned under the supervision of the local bishop. In 1821, when the Greek War of Independence broke out, it was destroyed, but it was reopened in 1830. In 1727 a madrasa started to function in the city, and it worked uninterruptedly for 240 years until 1967, when it was closed due to the Cultural Revolution applied in communist Albania. In 1861–1862 a Greek language school for girls was founded, financially supported by the local Greek benefactor Christakis Zografos. The first Albanian school in Gjirokastër was opened in 1886. Today there are 14 schools in Albanian language and two bilingual Albanian-Greek schools in the city.
The city is home to the Eqrem Çabej University, which opened its doors in 1968. The university has recently been experiencing low enrollments, and as a result the departments of Physics, Mathematics, Biochemistry, and Kindergarten Education did not function during the 2008–2009 academic year. In 2006, the establishment of a second university in Gjirokastër, a Greek-language one, was agreed upon after discussions between the Albanian and Greek governments. The program had an attendance of 35 students as of 2010, but was abruptly suspended when the University of Ioannina in Greece refused to provide teachers for the 2010 school year and the Greek government and the Latsis foundation withdrew funding.
## Demography
Gjirokastër rapidly grew in the Ottoman era and it was key area of Ottoman urbanization in the Balkans. It was one of the main cities in the Janina vilayet. The population of Gjirokastër was predominantly Albanian-speaking in the final Ottoman era (late 19th/early 20th century) except for a small number of Greek-speaking families.
Gjirokastër by the population is the largest municipality in the Gjirokastër County. According to INSTAT, based on the 2011 Census, Gjirokastër Municipality was estimated to have 28,673 residents (a density of 53.91 persons/km2) living in 6,919 housing units, while the county as a whole has a total of 72,176 inhabitants. The population of the municipality includes the urban and rural population in its Administrative Units such as: Antigonë; Cepo; Lazarat; Lunxhëri; Odrie and Picar. The city of Gjirokastër itself has a resident population of 19,836 inhabitants which are a predominantly urban population. In the municipality, the population was spread out, with 16.76% from the age 0 to 14, 69.24% from 15 to 64, and 13.98% who were 65 years of age or older. As far as the city itself is concerned, the population was spread out, with 16.93% from the age 0 to 14, 70.27% from 15 to 64, and 12.78% who were 65 years of age or older.
The town has 43,000 inhabitants. Gjirokastër is home to an ethnic Greek community that according to Human Rights Watch numbered about 4,000 out of 30,000 in 1989, although Greek spokesmen have claimed that up to 34% of the town is Greek. Gjirokastër is considered a center of the Greek community in Albania. A Greek consulate is in the town. Other minorities are smaller numbers of Aromanians and Roma.
The results of the 2011 census, the results were affected by a boycott by minorities. The European Council's Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities stated that "the results of the census should be viewed with the utmost caution and calls on the authorities not to rely exclusively on the data on nationality collected during the census in determining its policy on the protection of national minorities".
### Religion
The region was part of the Eastern Orthodox diocese of Dryinoupolis, part of the metropolitan bishopric of Ioannina. It was first mentioned in a notitia of the 10th–11th century. With the destruction of nearby Adrianupolis its see was transferred to Gjirokastër and assumed the name Doecese of Dryinopoulis and Argyrokastron (Greek: Δρυϊνουπόλεως και Αργυροκάστρου). In 1835 it was promoted to metropolitan bishopric under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Today, the city is home to a diocese part of the Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania. The two existing churches of the city were re-built at the end of the 18th century, after approval by the local Ottoman authorities who received large bribes by the Orthodox community. The Orthodox Cathedral of the "Transfiguration of the Saviour" was rebuilt at 1773 on the site of an older church and is located at the castle quarters.
During the Ottoman period Gjirokastër was a significant centre for the Muslim Sufi Bektashi Order, especially in relation to its spread and literary activity. In the early 19th century during the rule of Ali Pasha, British diplomat William Martin Leake during his journey from Vlorë to Gjirokastra and later to present-day Greece, in his diary describes his arrival on December 26, 1804, in the region of Derópoli, or Dropull as it was known from the local Albanians. According to him, its chief city Gjirokastër numbered about 2000 Muslim families and about 100 Christian families. While Libohovë, also then part of the same region, numbered half of that number with about 1000 Muslim families and 100 Christian families. In 1925, Albania became the world center of the Bektashi Order, a Muslim sect. The sect was headquartered in Tirana, and Gjirokastër was one of six districts of the Bektashi Order in Albania, with its center at the tekke of Baba Rexheb. The city retains a large Bektashi and Sunni population. Historically there were 15 and tekkes and mosques, of which 13 were functional in 1945. Only Gjirokastër Mosque has survived; the remaining 12 were destroyed or closed during the Cultural Revolution of the communist government in 1967.
According to the 2011 census, which has been widely disputed due to irregularities in the procedure and its data affected by boycott, the percentages of the local population per religious group are: Islam 42,3%, Bektashis 5,3%, Eastern Orthodox 14,6%, Roman Catholics 2,8%, while a 35,2 had not declared any religion or is non-religious. According to the Gjirokastër county census data (which includes other municipalities besides Gjirokastër), it had the highest percentage of atheists compared to all other counties in Albania, with Vlora being the second (6.3% compared to 6.01%).
## Culture
17th-century Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi, who visited the city in 1670, described the city in detail. One Sunday, Çelebi heard the sound of a vajtim, the traditional Albanian lament for the dead, performed by a professional mourner. The traveller found the city so noisy that he dubbed Gjirokastër the "city of wailing".
The novel Chronicle in Stone by Albanian writer Ismail Kadare tells the history of this city during the Italian and Greek occupation in World War I and II. It expounds on the customs of the people of Gjirokastër.
At the age of twenty-four, Albanian writer Musine Kokalari wrote an 80-page collection of ten youthful prose tales in her native Gjirokastrian dialect: As my old mother tells me (Albanian: Siç me thotë nënua plakë), Tirana, 1941. The book tells the day-by-day struggles of women of Gjirokastër, and describes the prevailing mores of the region.
Gjirokastër, home to both Albanian and Greek polyphonic singing, is also home to the National Folklore Festival (Albanian: Festivali Folklorik Kombëtar) that is held every five years. The festival started in 1968 and was most recently held in 2009, its ninth season. The festival takes place on the premises of Gjirokastër Fortress. Gjirokastër is also where the Greek language newspaper Laiko Vima is published. Founded in 1945, it was the only Greek-language printed media allowed during the People's Socialist Republic of Albania.
### Landmarks
The city is built on the slope surrounding the citadel, located on a dominating plateau. Although the city's walls were built in the third century and the city itself was first mentioned in the 12th century, the majority of the existing buildings date from 17th and 18th centuries. Typical houses consist of a tall stone block structure which can be up to five stories high. There are external and internal staircases that surround the house. It is thought that such design stems from fortified country houses typical in southern Albania. The lower storey of the building contains a cistern and the stable. The upper storey is composed of a guest room and a family room containing a fireplace. Further upper stories are to accommodate extended families and are connected by internal stairs. Since Gjirokastër's membership to UNESCO, a number of houses have been restored, though others continue to degrade.
Many houses in Gjirokastër have a distinctive local style that has earned the city the nickname "City of Stone", because most of the old houses have roofs covered with flat dressed stones. A very similar style can be seen in the Pelion district of Greece. The city, along with Berat, was among the few Albanian cities preserved in the 1960s and 1970s from modernizing building programs. Both cities gained the status of "museum town" and are UNESCO World Heritage sites.
Gjirokastër Fortress dominates the town and overlooks the strategically important route along the river valley. It is open to visitors and contains a military museum featuring captured artillery and memorabilia of the Communist resistance against German occupation, as well as a captured United States Air Force plane forced down by Anastas Ngjela, to commemorate the Communist regime's struggle against the imperialist powers. Additions were built during the 19th and 20th centuries by Ali Pasha of Ioannina and the government of King Zog I of Albania. Today it possesses five towers and houses a clock tower, a church, water fountains, horse stables, and many more amenities. The northern part of the castle was turned into a prison by Zog's government and housed political prisoners during the communist regime.
Gjirokastër features an old Ottoman bazaar which was originally built in the 17th century; it was rebuilt in the 19th century after a fire. There are more than 500 homes preserved as "cultural monuments" in Gjirokastër today. The Gjirokastër Mosque, built in 1757, dominates the bazaar.
When the town was first proposed for inclusion on the World Heritage list in 1988, International Council on Monuments and Sites experts were nonplussed by a number of modern constructions which detracted from the old town's appearance. The historic core of Gjirokastër was finally inscribed in 2005, 15 years after its original nomination.
### Sports
Football (soccer) is popular in Gjirokastër: the city hosts Luftëtari Gjirokastër, a club founded in 1929. The club has competed in international tournaments and currently plays in the Albanian Superliga until 2006–2007 and again from 2016. The soccer matches are played in Gjirokastër Stadium, which can hold up to 8,400 spectators.
## International relations
Gjirokastër is twinned with:
- Grottammare, Italy
- Klina, Kosovo
- Lipjan, Kosovo
- Nardò, Italy
## Notable residents
- Ali Alizoti, 19th century politician
- Fejzi Alizoti, interim Prime Minister of Albania in 1914
- Kyriakoulis Argyrokastritis (−1828), revolutionary of the Greek War of Independence
- Arjan Bellaj, retired soccer player and member of the Albania national football team
- Elmaz Boçe, signatory of the Albanian Declaration of Independence and politician
- Bledar Devolli (born 1978), footballer
- Georgios Dimitriou, 18th century author
- Ioannis Doukas, 19th century painter
- Vangjel Dule, representative of the Greek minority in Albanian politics
- Rauf Fico (1881–1944), politician
- Bashkim Fino, former Prime Minister of Albania
- Christos Gikas, Greco-Roman wrestler
- Ramize Gjebrea, World War II partisan
- Gregory IV of Athens, scholar and Archbishop of Athens
- Altin Haxhi, international soccer player; capped in the Albania national team
- Veli Harxhi, signatory of the Albanian Declaration of Independence and politician
- Fatmir Haxhiu, painter
- Enver Hoxha (1908–1985), former first Secretary of the Albanian Party of Labor, and leader of socialist Albania
- Feim Ibrahimi, composer
- Ismail Kadare (born 1936), novelist and poet, winner of the 2005 Man Booker International Prize, 2009 Prince of Asturias Award, and 2015 Jerusalem Prize
- Mehmed Kalakula, politician
- Xhanfize Keko movie director
- Saim Kokona (born 1934), cinematographer
- Albi Kondi (born 1989), football player
- Eqrem Libohova, former Prime Minister of Albania
- Sabit Lulo, politician
- Bule Naipi, World War II People's Heroine of Albania
- Omer Nishani, Head of State of Albania from 1944 to 1953
- Arlind Nora (born 1980), footballer
- Bahri Omari (1889–1945), politician
- Jani Papadhopulli, signatory of the Albanian Declaration of Independence and politician
- Manthos Papagiannis, 16th century revolutionary
- Xhevdet Picari, commander in the Vlora War
- Pertef Pogoni, politician
- Baba Rexheb, Bektashi Sufi religious leader and saint and 7th Dedebaba of the Bektashi Order
- Xhafer Sadik, 4th Dedebaba of the Bektashi Order
- Mehmet Tahsini, politician and professor
- Bajo Topulli, brother of Çerçiz, nationalist and guerrilla fighter
- Çerçiz Topulli, 20th-century nationalist and guerrilla fighter
- Takis Tsiakos (1909–1997), Greek poet
- Alexandros Vasileiou, merchant and Greek scholar
- Michael Vasileiou, merchant, brother of Alexandros
- Mahmud Xhelaledini, politician
- Arjan Xhumba, retired soccer player and member of the Albania national football team
## Gallery
## See also
- History of Albania
- Greeks in Albania |
28,787,397 | Gyroporus cyanescens | 1,120,256,853 | Species of fungus | [
"Boletales",
"Edible fungi",
"Fungi described in 1788",
"Fungi of Asia",
"Fungi of Australia",
"Fungi of Europe",
"Fungi of North America",
"Taxa named by Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard"
] | Gyroporus cyanescens, commonly known as the bluing bolete or the cornflower bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Gyroporaceae. First described from France in 1788, the species is found in Asia, Australia, Europe, and eastern North America, where it grows on the ground in coniferous and mixed forests.
The yellowish to buff cap surface is fibrous and roughened, and reaches up to 12 cm (4.7 in) in diameter. The thick stem, roughly the same color as the cap or lighter, is hollowed out into chambers. All parts of the mushroom turn an intense blue color within a few moments of bruising or cutting. The mushroom is edible, despite its hard stem. A less common variety occurs where the color change is to deep violet rather than blue. The bluing reaction results from the oxidation of a chemical called gyrocyanin.
## Taxonomy
The species was first described scientifically by French botanist Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard in his 1788 Herbier de la France. Later synonyms include Boletus constrictus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801, Leccinum constrictum by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821, Suillus cyanescens by Petter Karsten in 1882, and Leucoconius cyanescens by Günther Beck von Mannagetta und Lerchenau in 1923. The variety violaceotinctus was described by Roy Watling in 1969 from collections made in Michigan, USA.
The specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek κύανoς, meaning "dark blue", while the varietal epithet violaceotinctus means "having a violet tinge". It is commonly known as the bluing bolete or the cornflower bolete.
## Description
The cap of G. cyanescens is initially convex, but flattens out in maturity, sometimes becoming shallowly depressed; it reaches a diameter of 4–12 cm (1.6–4.7 in). The cap is dry, and ranges in color from buff to yellowish to pale olive, occasionally with darker streaks of color. Its surface is uneven, sometimes with wrinkles and pits. The cap margin is initially curved inward, and sometimes splits in maturity. The flesh is whitish to pale yellow, and has a brittle texture. On the underside of the cap, the pore surface is white to yellowish, sometimes with olive or tan tinges. There are roughly two circular pores per millimeter, and the tubes that comprise the pores are 5–10 mm (0.2–0.4 in) deep, but depressed around the top of the stem. Injury to the pores will cause them to stain first greenish yellow, then greenish blue or blue.
The stem is 4–10 cm (1.6–3.9 in) long by 1–2.5 cm (0.4–1.0 in) thick, and is either roughly equal in width throughout its length, or has a basal or middle swelling. The stem tissue is hard and brittle; it is initially stuffed with a soft pith that develops cavities, or becomes entirely hollow in maturity. Roughly the same color as the cap or lighter, the stem surface is dry and lacks reticulations. It is initially covered in coarse hairs that tend to disappear in maturity to leave a relatively smooth surface. All parts of the fruit body stain blue when cut or injured. The variety G. cyanescens var. violaceotinctus is nearly identical in appearance, but stains dark lilac to indigo when bruised. The odor and taste of the fruit bodies is indistinct.
The color of the spore print is pale yellow. Spores are ellipsoid, smooth, hyaline (translucent), and have dimensions of 8–10 by 5–6 μm. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club shaped, two- to four-spored, and measure 24–30 by 8–10 μm. Pleurocystidia (cystidia on the inner walls of the tubes) are light yellow brown in color, club shaped, infrequent, and measure 25–38 by 7.2 μm; the cheilocystidia (found on the tube edge) are colorless, numerous, and measure 32–47 by 7–10 μm. Clamp connections are present in the hyphae.
### Similar species
Although there are a few lookalike species with similar overall appearance, in the field, Gyroporus cyanescens is typically readily recognized by its characteristic straw-yellow color and nearly instantaneous dark blue bruising. G. phaeocyanescens is smaller, with a dull brownish-yellow cap. Although its flesh has a bluing reaction to injury, its yellow pore surface does not. It has larger spores, measuring 9–15 by 5–7 μm. G. umbrinosquamosus, found along the Gulf Coast of the United States, is similar in appearance, but lacks the bluing reaction. Newly described from China in 2003, G. brunneofloccosus closely resembles G. cyanescens, and was frequently confused with that species. It has a smaller fruit body, with a brownish cap up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in diameter. Its staining reaction involves a change from light turquoise to dark turquoise or dark blue. Its spores are 5–8.5 by 4–5.3 μm. Suillus tomentosus has brownish pores that undergo a slower blue staining reaction. If the fruit bodies are not uprooted and only the top of the cap is examined, G. cyanescens can be confused with young Russula fellea mushrooms.
### Uses
Gyroporus cyanescens is edible, and considered "choice" by several sources. The fruit bodies, even if mature, are typically free of insect larvae. Specimens collected in sandy soil, however, are difficult to clean, but cleaning may be facilitated by washing the fruit bodies in a bowl of water so that the sand sinks to the bottom. The blue color largely disappears after two minutes of sautéing. Cooked mushrooms have a meaty texture, and mild nutty flavor that is enhanced if fried to crispness. Drying the mushrooms strengthens the taste.
The variety violaceotinctus is used in mushroom dyeing, and produces a light yellow, beige, gold, or brownish-orange color depending on the mordant used.
## Ecology and distribution
Gyroporus cyanescens is an ectomycorrhizal species that has a broad host range. Fruit bodies of Gyroporus cyanescens grow singly or scattered on the ground in deciduous and mixed forests. Often found in association with birch and poplar, the fungus tends to prefer sandy soil, and also frequents road banks and woodland edges. Fruiting occurs in summer and early autumn. Fruit bodies can be parasitized by the mold Sepedonium ampullosporum. Infection results in necrosis of the mushroom tissue, and a yellow color caused by the formation of large amounts of pigmented aleurioconidia (single-celled conidia produced by extrusion from the conidiophores).
Gyroporus cyanescens is found in Asia, Australia, North America, and Europe. In China, it is known from Guangdong and Yunnan. The fungus appears in eucalypt woodland in Australia. In North America, it is widespread east of the Rocky Mountains. The geographical distribution ranges from eastern Canada to Florida, and west to Minnesota, although it has been occasionally reported from the Pacific Northwest. G. cyanescens var. violaceotinctus has been reported from Japan.
## Chemistry
The identity of the chemical causing bluing upon tissue injury was reported in 1973. The molecule, gyrocyanin, is a highly oxidized bis-phenol-substituted cyclopentenone that develops a blue color when it is oxidized. In contrast, the bluing of other boletes has been attributed to the oxidation of variegatic or xerocomic acid. Gyrocyanin is biosynthesized from intermediates supplied by the shikimate pathway, a metabolic route used by fungi for the synthesis of aromatic amino acids.
## See also
- List of North American boletes |
38,860,376 | Hugh de Cressy | 1,138,588,340 | 12th-century Anglo-Norman royal justice | [
"1189 deaths",
"Anglo-Normans",
"Year of birth unknown"
] | Hugh de Cressy (died 1189) was an Anglo-Norman administrator and nobleman. Little is known of his ancestry and he first served two brothers of King Henry II of England before becoming a royal official. He was rewarded with a marriage to an heiress for his service to the king. In England he often served as a royal justice and witnessed documents, which showed his closeness to the king. On the continent, he recruited mercenaries for the royal army and was named constable of the castle of Rouen in the royal lands in France. He died in 1189 after giving lands to various monasteries before his death.
## Background and early life
Hugh's family was from Cressy, in Normandy, and his parents were named Roger and Eustacia. Nothing further is known about his parents, but he had a brother Berengar, who married Isabel of Gressenhall, daughter of Wimar the Sewer. Hugh served William fitzEmpress, the brother of King Henry II of England from the mid 1150s. William gave Hugh the manor of Harrietsham in Kent.
After William's death in 1164, Hugh passed into royal service, while also serving as seneschal to the new Earl of Surrey, Hamelin, the illegitimate half-brother of King Henry II. On the Cartae Baronum in 1166 he held one knight's fee in the barony of Giffard. In 1167 Hugh paid a fine that is recorded in the pipe rolls for the custody of his nephew's lands at Tickhill. In 1170, he was present at the coronation of Henry the Young King in June at Westminster Abbey, when Henry II had his heir crowned as a king during the elder Henry's lifetime. During the Revolt of 1173–74 by King Henry's sons, Hugh was a partisan of the king. The revolt was brought about by the desire of Henry's three oldest sons to gain some power during Henry's reign, and by mid 1174 the revolt had been defeated by the king. During the Revolt, Hugh fought at the Battle of Fornham near Fornham St Martin in Suffolk, a victory for royalist forces, but otherwise took little part in the revolt's suppression.
## Royal service
Hugh was close to King Henry II, witnessing a large number of royal charters and serving as a royal justice. In 1175 along with Ranulf de Glanville, Hugh served as a royal justice in northern England. He also took part of the great eyre of 1176 that was commanded after the Council of Northampton. Also in 1176, Henry II summoned Roger as a Serjeant-at-law, one of the first identifiable members of that order in the historical record. During the last 10 years of Henry's reign, Hugh witnessed 15 royal charters. In 1180 he was in charge of Rouen in Henry's possession of Normandy, being named constable of the Tower of Rouen. Later, in 1184, he further served the king by hiring mercenaries in Normandy for service with King Henry II's campaign in Poitou. He appears to have led military forces for the king as well, being recorded several times as a commander of part of the royal forces in Potiou. He is last recorded in England during the period around 1187.
Hugh married Margaret, one of the daughters and heiresses of William de Chesney, the founder of Sibton Abbey. Margaret was one of three daughters, but she inherited the bulk of her father's estates. Although Margaret was the eldest daughter, the reason she received the bulk of the estates was King Henry's desire to reward Hugh, as the king arranged the marriage as well as ensuring that most of her father's lands went to her. Through Margaret, Hugh gained the barony of Blythburgh in Suffolk, which he had control of by 1174. He also acquired lands at Rottingdean in Sussex from Margaret.
## Death and legacy
Hugh died in 1189 around Easter at Rouen. His heir was his son Roger de Cressy, who died in 1246. Towards the end of his life, sometime between 1186 and 1189, Hugh gave a church at Cressy to the priory at St Lo in Rouen. On his deathbed he granted lands at Walberswick to Blythburgh Priory for the salvation of the souls of his parents and other ancestors as well as the souls of King Henry and Henry's brother William fitzEmpress. Margaret survived Hugh and married Robert fitzRoger and lived until at least 1214, when she paid a fine to the king for the right to her inheritance after the death of her second husband. |
23,918,002 | Action of 18 October 1806 | 1,060,414,760 | Minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars | [
"Conflicts in 1806",
"Naval battles involving the Netherlands",
"Naval battles involving the United Kingdom",
"Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars",
"October 1806 events"
] | The action of 18 October 1806 was a minor naval engagement during the Napoleonic Wars, fought between the British Royal Navy frigate HMS Caroline and a Dutch squadron at the entrance to Batavia harbour on Java in the Dutch East Indies. During the battle the Dutch frigate Maria Riggersbergen was left unsupported by the remainder of the squadron and, isolated, was forced to surrender. Captain Peter Rainier, the British commander, was subsequently free to remove his prize from within sight of the Dutch port when the remainder of the Dutch squadron refused to engage Caroline and their crews deliberately grounded the ships to avoid capture. He also returned many prisoners taken previously in a captured brig.
The action, and the earlier Action of 26 July 1806, demonstrated the weakness of the Dutch squadron in the East Indies and convinced Rear-Admiral Sir Edward Pellew to lead an operation against Batavia to eliminate the remainder of the Dutch squadron in November 1806. This second raid was only partially successful, and was followed a year later by a raid on the harbour of Griessie, in which the last Dutch warships in the East were eliminated.
## Background
By 1806, the French squadron under Rear-Admiral Charles Linois departed for the Atlantic Ocean and a British expeditionary force captured the Cape of Good Hope. Rear-Admiral Sir Edward Pellew, commander of the British Royal Navy in the eastern half of the Indian Ocean at Madras in British India in the eastern half of the Indian Ocean was now able to concentrate on a major threat to British shipping in the region; the Dutch squadron based in the Dutch East Indies, specifically on Java at the port of Batavia.
The Dutch squadron, which consisted of a number of old ships of the line, three frigates and a number of smaller warships, was primarily an anti-piracy force. However, their presence so close to the Straits of Malacca, a major British trade route, was of concern to Pellew, particularly following the Battle of Pulo Aura in 1804, when Linois's squadron intercepted a vital British convoy in the Strait, using Batavia both as a base to launch the operation and repair damage afterwards. Determined to eliminate the Dutch squadron, Pellew despatched frigates to the region in the spring of 1806, under orders to disrupt trade and reconnoitre the Dutch harbours and bases. In July 1806, the frigate HMS Greyhound cruised the Molucca Islands, and captured a Dutch frigate and convoy at the action of 26 July 1806 off Celebes, encouraging further expeditions. In October 1806, a second frigate, the 36-gun HMS Caroline under Captain Peter Rainier (nephew of Admiral Peter Rainier whom Pellew had replaced), cruised in the Java Sea. Caroline had a successful start to the operation, discovering that the Dutch ships of the line had left Batavia harbour and sailed eastwards. He had also captured a number of Dutch ships so that by mid-October 57 of Rainier's crew, more than a fifth, were aboard prizes on the journey back to India, leaving Caroline with just 204 men and a large number of prisoners carried below decks.
## Battle
On 18 October, Rainier was cruising in the Java Sea when he encountered and captured a small Dutch brig sailing from Bantam. From prisoners removed from this ship, Rainier learned that the Dutch frigate Phoenix was undergoing repairs at the small island of Onrust in the Thousand Islands. Deciding that Phoenix was lying in an exposed position and could be easily attacked, Rainier sailed Caroline towards Onrust, but was spotted in the passage between Middlebey and Amsterdam Islands by two small Dutch warships. Rainier attacked the small vessels, seizing the 14-gun brig Zeerop without a shot fired. The other vessel Zee-Ploeg escaped into shallow coastal waters, where the deeper drafted frigate could not follow. The delay allowed Phoenix to sail to Batavia ahead of Caroline's pursuit.
As Caroline neared Batavia, Phoenix entered the well-defended harbour, making further pursuit impossible. However, Rainier then sighted a second frigate, lying at anchor in Batavia Roads, accompanied only by the 14-gun corvette William, the elusive brig Zee-Ploeg, and the 18-gun ship Patriot that belonged to the Dutch East India Company. Prisoners from Zeerop identified this ship as the 36-gun Maria Riggersbergen under Captain Claas Jager. Although this force was significantly stronger than Caroline, and could call on the support of approximately 30 gunboats anchored closer inshore, Rainier immediately gave orders to advance on the Dutch frigate. In his preparations for battle, Rainier ordered that springs be placed on his anchor cables, giving his ship the ability to easily turn at anchor to face new threats once engaged with the Maria Riggersbergen.
As Caroline approached, Captain Jager ordered his men to open fire on the British frigate at extreme range, also calling on support from the other Dutch vessels anchored nearby. In response, Rainier gave orders for his men to hold fire, enduring the Dutch guns until his frigate was just 40 yards (37 m) away before unleashing a full broadside. Jager responded, but the British fire was too strong and within half an hour the Dutch flag was struck. Taking possession of the Dutch frigate, Lieutenant Lemage discovered that 50 of the 270 men aboard had been killed or wounded and that the ship had suffered moderate damage to its masts and rigging. British casualties in the engagement were three killed outright and eighteen more wounded, six of whom subsequently died. Also killed were four Dutch prisoners who had been sheltering in the hold.
While Lemage was boarding Maria Riggersbergen, Rainier had turned his attention to the other ships in the bay. However the sea was shallow and crossed by shoals that prevented further advance without proper charts, which Caroline lacked. Although they had fired a number of shots at long range, the interference by the smaller Dutch vessels during the battle had been negligible. Following the surrender of Maria Riggersbergen, most of the shipping in the bay including all seven of the merchant vessels, the three small warships and Phoenix, had deliberately beached themselves to avoid capture. Abandoning the idea of further operations off Batavia as too risky, Rainier ordered his ships to sail, placing most of the Dutch prisoners, including the wounded and sick, into the first brig captured that morning and ordering the ship to return to Batavia as a cartel, with the officers placed under parole restrictions. With most of his prisoners removed, Rainier then ordered Maria Riggersbergen and Zeerop to return to Madras.
## Aftermath
Rainier's action against what appeared to be superior power and numbers exposed the poor quality of the Dutch squadron at Batavia. Pellew determined to make a decisive attack on the capital of the Dutch East Indies during 1806. In November he led a powerful squadron to the harbour, once again forcing the Dutch to their squadron ashore, where it was burnt by boarding parties led by Admiral Pellew's son, Captain Fleetwood Pellew. The following year, Admiral Pellew returned in search of the missing ships of the line, discovering them at Griessie and causing the Dutch to destroy them too. With the Dutch squadron eliminated, the threat to British trade routes was removed and attention returned to the French bases in the Indian Ocean, the British waiting until 1811 to force the surrender of the remaining Dutch colonies in the East Indies.
Maria Riggersbergen was recommissioned into the Royal Navy as HMS Java, under Captain George Pigot. In his report after the battle, Rainier described the Dutch frigate as "launched in 1800 and is a fast sailing ship". The 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km) journey to Madras had revealed that she was in fact much older and very unstable at sea. Java and all hands disappeared six months later in a February 1807 hurricane in the west Indian Ocean while in convoy with the flagship of Sir Thomas Troubridge HMS Blenheim during a hurricane in the western Indian Ocean. Rainier remained in the Pacific for some time, capturing the valuable Spanish ship San Raphael in January 1807, but ultimately his career stalled on his return to Europe. |
39,058,787 | Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon | 1,173,189,352 | 2013 video game | [
"2013 video games",
"Alternate history video games",
"Cyberpunk video games",
"Dystopian video games",
"Far Cry spin-off games",
"First-person shooters",
"Open-world video games",
"Parody video games",
"PlayStation 3 games",
"PlayStation Network games",
"Retrofuturistic video games",
"Science fiction video games",
"Single-player video games",
"Spike Video Game Award winners",
"Stadia games",
"Ubisoft games",
"Video game downloadable content",
"Video game expansion packs",
"Video games about cyborgs",
"Video games about dinosaurs",
"Video games about dragons",
"Video games about ninja",
"Video games developed in Canada",
"Video games set in 2007",
"Video games set in the 2000s",
"Video games set on fictional islands",
"Video games using Havok",
"Windows games",
"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games"
] | Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon is a 2013 first-person shooter game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft. It is a standalone expansion to Far Cry 3 and the eighth overall installment in the Far Cry franchise. Blood Dragon is a retro-futuristic parody of 1980s action films, cartoons and video games, and takes place on an open world island. Players assume the role of military cyborg Sergeant Rex "Power" Colt. Gameplay is largely similar to Far Cry 3, though several systems from the base game were simplified or removed, and it introduces the titular Blood Dragon, a massive dinosaur that fires lasers from its eyes and can be lured to attack enemy garrisons.
The game's development was completed in about six months. It was part of Ubisoft's initiative to release downloadable content that would appeal to newcomers to the series, and the team was tasked to create something unexpected as Far Cry 3 downloadable content. The game was inspired by movies from the 1980s such as The Wraith and Terminator, and recent movies like Manborg and Hobo with a Shotgun. The director for Hobo with a Shotgun, Jason Eisener, became the game's informal advisor after befriending the game's director, Dean Evans. Michael Biehn was invited to provide his voice for the game's protagonist, while Australian synthwave duo Power Glove composed the game's soundtrack.
Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon was released for PlayStation 3 on April 30, 2013, and for Windows and Xbox 360 on May 1, 2013. The game received generally positive reviews upon release, and was praised for its gameplay, soundtrack and its 1980s influence, but opinions were divided on the game's attempts at humour. The game was a commercial success for Ubisoft, as it sold 1 million copies by August 2013. A remastered version of the game was released in December 2021, available for players who purchased the Far Cry 6 season pass. While the game did not have a sequel, a spin-off, Trials of the Blood Dragon, was released in 2016. An animated series based on Blood Dragon, titled Captain Laserhawk: A Blood Dragon Remix, is scheduled for a late 2023 release on Netflix.
## Gameplay
Blood Dragon is a standalone expansion to Far Cry 3, which is a first-person shooter video game. In the game, the player controls Rex "Power" Colt, a cyborg military commando stranded on an unnamed island. Like the main game, it allows players to use various means to approach their objectives; for instance, players can use various firearms such as pistols, assault rifles, shotgun, and sniper rifles, and explosives like grenades to kill their opponents. Alternatively, they can utilize stealth tactics such as distracting enemies by throwing a die, or performing silent takedowns with a large knife. Enemies can also be tagged using Rex's camera. The game features a simplified character progression system. With sufficient cyberpoints (the game's equivalent of experience), new skills and combat perks, such as increased health or increased defense, are automatically unlocked. At the beginning of the game, most of the skills unlocked by the end of Far Cry 3, such as swimming for an indefinite duration underwater and chained combat takedowns, are already unlocked. The crafting system featured in Far Cry 3 was removed in Blood Dragon.
The island is an open world that is about half the size of Far Cry 3. Players can hunt wildlife, complete side missions to unlock new weapon upgrades and attachments, and liberate enemy outposts and garrisons. The unnamed island is the home of the blood dragons, as well as various wildlife such as cybersharks and mutant cassowaries. Blood dragons are blind, but they can shoot lasers from their eyes and hunt using their sense of smell. Players can throw cybernetic hearts to lure blood dragons to an enemy base, which would help Rex to wipe out nearby enemies. The only way to collect cybernetic hearts is to rip them from the corpses of fallen enemies. Blood dragons are infused with the lights of neon, and the color the neon lights reflect their hostility status. Red means that the beast is already attacking, yellow suggests that the beast is being cautious, while green means that they are calm. The game features 13 hostile garrisons that the players can liberate. Hostile enemies will call for reinforcements and activate the alarms if they detect the presence of Rex in their compound. These bases have an energy shield that must be deactivated before a blood dragon can enter the compound. Once liberated, these outposts became fast travel points for the players, though they can also freely exploring the world on foot or by various vehicles. As the player explores the world, they will find various collectibles in the form of VHS tapes and CRT TVs.
## Plot
Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon is set in a dystopian version of 2007 where the world is suffering the aftermath of a nuclear war. Ubisoft described the game as "an 80s VHS vision of the future" where the player must "get the girl, kill the bad guys, and save the world".
The player controls an American cybernetic super-soldier named Sergeant Rex "Power" Colt (Michael Biehn). He and another American cyber-soldier, T.T. "Spider" Brown (Phil LaMarr), travel to an unnamed island to investigate Colonel Sloan (Danny Blanco Hall), an elite agent who has gone rogue. Rex and Spider confront Sloan, who knocks Rex out and kills Spider.
Rex is awoken by Sloan's assistant Dr. Elizabeth Darling (Grey DeLisle), who, disillusioned with Sloan's goals, betrays him. He teams up with Darling to overthrow Sloan's plan to revert the world to a prehistoric-like state with his rockets, armed with the blood of the "blood dragons" that roam the island. After liberating bases, saving scientists, and killing animals, Rex fights Sloan's other assistant, Dr. Carlyle (Robin Atkin Downes), who has used the blood of blood dragons to turn humans into zombie-like creatures called "the running dead". After he fights Dr. Carlyle's cyber soldiers and blood dragons, Dr. Carlyle is killed by his own AI, who had been mistreated and acted out of revenge.
Rex goes into a parallel dimension where he fights legions of Colonel Sloan's running dead. Upon defeating them, he gets the Killstar, an arm-mounted laser gun that allows him to defeat Sloan at the cost of his own vitality. After Rex and Darling have sex, she is abducted the following morning. Rex makes an assault on Sloan's base with the Killstar and the Battle Armored Dragon Assault Strike System (B.A.D.A.S.S.).
Rex confronts Sloan who, having programmed Rex, prevents him from attacking. Darling and Spider's memories remind Rex of his humanity, and he impales Sloan with his robotic hand and fires the Killstar, killing him. Darling appears and informs Rex of his success in stopping Sloan's plans, then proceeds to destroy the base. They embrace while looking on at the destruction, as Darling looks behind with purple eyes and a sinister gaze.
## Development
Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon is a standalone expansion for Far Cry 3, which was released in late 2012. At the time, Ubisoft was experimenting with a new approach to release downloadable content (DLC) for their games. The company sought to appeal to new and existing players. It first experimented with The Tyranny of King Washington, a DLC for Assassin's Creed III that is set in an alternate timeline. The team intended to continue this approach for Far Cry 3, and allowed the developers to abandon its characters and the settings. Ubisoft welcomed all types of idea for the DLC, and they were approached by Dean Evans, who had previously worked on Assassin's Creed III and Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Conviction, about a game that is set in "a 1980s vision of the future". Franchise director Dan Hay and Ubisoft executives in Paris were pleased with the idea, and gave Evans approximately six months to complete its development.
The game was heavily inspired by B-movies released in the 1980s and the early 1990s. Since Hay gave the team free rein to create something unexpected, Evans used the opportunity to "resurrect a VHS-era aesthetic he felt was lost to the times". At the time, the release of nostalgic films such as Manborg and Hobo with a Shotgun made him believe that Blood Dragon would yield similar success, since the genre was underrepresented in the video game industry. Evans contacted director Jason Eisener after watching Hobo with a Shotgun; the two soon became friends, and Eisener became Blood Dragon's informal adviser, with Evans regularly sending assets and soundtracks to him. Ubisoft also invited Eisener to visit their Montreal office to brainstorm additional ideas and read the game's script. Initially, the team planned to include a boss battle in Blood Dragon, which would involve Rex fighting "the Plague", characters from Hobo with a Shotgun. The idea was scrapped due to the game's limited development time.
Initially, Ubisoft considered hiring Dolph Lundgren for the lead role, Rex "Power" Colt, but Evans met Michael Biehn, who was known for his roles as Kyle Reese and Dwayne Hicks, during a Q&A session for The Victim, and decided that he would be the perfect candidate to voice Rex. Evans contacted Jennifer Blanc to set up a meeting, but he was initially reluctant to meet with Evans due to his unpleasant experience voicing Hicks in Aliens: Colonial Marines, his only voice role for a video game. Biehn changed his mind after meeting Evans, as he found the 1980s influence to be inherently interesting. The team described Rex Colt as "Michael Biehn in Terminator - but if he was the Terminator". Biehn portrayed Rex as "somebody that was old and done [wiping out blood dragons] 100 times". Evans added that Rex was "bored" and "cynical" about the events happening in the game. As a result, the team had Biehn record satirical one-liners with a hoarse voice.
To ensure that the game captured the aesthetics of the 1980s movie, Evans held weekly "Cyborg Nights", where the development team gathered together to watch films such as RoboCop, Predator, and The Wraith. The cutscenes featured in the game are slideshow-styled 16-bit animations. Evans also asked the team to design the characters as if they only have a budget of \$150. Many characters in the game looked like action figures, and the team incorporated found objects into their design that is commonly seen in "B-movie sci-fi". According to Evans, the team was proud of the script, which was "bad", and boasted about having "predictable and one-dimensional characters", "terrible story" and "minimal emotions" during early preview events. He further remarked that Blood Dragon did not "make much sense", and that the game was designed to be "ridiculous", "fun", "stupid" and "honest". The team hoped that the game could evoke the feeling of playing with action figures when players were young.
Since the game had a very short development cycle, many systems, such as skill trees and crafting, were either removed or streamlined significantly. Evans said the essence of the game is entirely about "running around with very big guns and shooting cyborgs in their faces whilst trying to avoid dragons that fire lasers from their eyes". Most of the enemy designs were simple, but creating the blood dragons was challenging for the team due to their massive size; the developers had to rethink the island's design to ensure that the dragons can fully interact with the environment without clipping into the terrain. Many features were cut from the game since the team became over-ambitious: one deleted ending involved Rex eating Sloan's heart before transforming into a giant to battle a massive dragon, and a boss fight with Sloan was replaced with cutscenes. At one point the game included self-aware quick-time events, such as "press A to show emotions" and "press A to cry", but this was subsequently removed from the game.
Australian synthwave duo Power Glove composed the game's music. Evans asked Eisener, who worked with the duo previously on Hobo with a Shotgun, to help him reach them. The soundtracks were produced fairly early during the game's development, as Evans wanted to use them as a baseline for the game's development. According to Evans, this allowed the team to understand more about the atmosphere and the tone the game was striving for. Concept arts were sent to Power Glove for inspiration. The team first composed the Blood Dragon theme, the theme for Rex Colt, and "Omega Force". The production of the soundtrack went smoothly, as the team rarely needed to ask the duo to revise their soundtracks. The soundtracks produced were mainly electronic music that paid homage to John Carpenter and Terminator films. To capture the retro vibe, the team also recruited the sound designer of Airwolf to serve as the game's audio director.
### Release
In March 2013, Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon was found listed on a Brazilian ratings site. On April 1, 2013, Ubisoft released a teaser video and website for Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon, leading many to believe that it was an April Fools' Day joke. Suspicions that the game was real were further confirmed when Power Glove uploaded music from the soundtrack to SoundCloud. The game was leaked on April 7, 2013, due to an exploit in Ubisoft's digital distribution service, Uplay, which led a temporary closure until the exploit was fixed. On April 8, 2013, the game was listed on the Xbox Live Marketplace.
On April 11, Ubisoft officially confirmed the game's release with a new trailer, and that the game would be released on PlayStation Network on April 30, and on Windows and Xbox Live Arcade, on May 1. The trailer was animated in a 1980s style, including all the tropes of poor voice acting and imperfections designed to make the video look like a VHS tape. A live-action video titled Blood Dragon: The Cyber War was released on April 16, 2013. The virtual box art cover for the game was designed by James White, who had previously created artwork for the film Drive.
A remastered version of Blood Dragon was included in the season pass for Far Cry 6. The remastered version, titled Classic Edition, was released on December 16, 2021 for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One, and launched for Google Stadia on July 7, 2022.
## Reception
The game received generally positive reviews according to Metacritic upon release. The game was nominated at the D.I.C.E. Awards for Downloadable Game of the Year, and won the VGX award for Best DLC. The game sold over 500,000 copies in two months, which surpassed Ubisoft's expectations, and its success also boosted the sales of Far Cry 3. At Gamescom 2013, the game was announced to have sold over 1 million copies.
The tone and the theme of the game received mixed reviews. According to GameSpot's Kevin VanOrd, Blood Dragon is "fascinatingly entertaining", its writing more clever than most other shooters in the market and that it was "hard not to be charmed from the moment it begins". Mitch Dyer from IGN liked the 80s influence and described the experience as entering the mind of a nine-year-old kid where action figures come to life. Sinan Kubba from Joystiq compared Rex Colt to Duke Nukem, and lauded Ubisoft for successfully "combin[ing] crazy ideas with classy writing", a feat that the original game failed to achieve. Dan Whitehead from Eurogamer agreed that the game was dumb, adding that it "wears its idiocy like a shield", but remarked that some players may not enjoy this kind of humor. Matt Bertz from Game Informer thought that the story was hilarious, but commented that the crass humor featured in the game, similar to the 1980s movie, may alienate some of its players. Jim Sterling from Destructoid and Alex Wiltshire from PC Gamer were more critical of the game's humor; Sterling thought that some of the jokes were banal and lame. The game's soundtracks received critical acclaim. The cutscenes were generally liked; VanOrd compared them to older games such as Metal Gear and Shadow of the Beast, though Dyer noted that some of these cutscenes were too long.
The gameplay received generally positive reviews. Most critics liked the blood dragons, as their presence gave players an additional way to clear outposts and garrisons. They found the blood dragons' interaction with other enemies to be an engaging experience. However, several critics remarked that it was not too challenging to kill a blood dragon in the game. Wiltshire added that they were not interesting to fight, and were more interesting as an ally than an enemy. Whitehead praised the game's progression and pacing, noting that the game ends before it overstays its welcome. Bertz disliked some of the side objectives for disrupting the game's pacing, and thought that some of the quests were repetitive and boring. VanOrd and Dyer liked how most of the skills in Far Cry 3 were already unlocked at the beginning of Blood Dragon, with Dyer noting that this made Rex a very powerful character. Many critics remarked that the gameplay strengths of Far Cry 3 remain in Blood Dragon. While several critics were disappointed by the lack of new gameplay additions, Arthur Gies from Polygon thought that Blood Dragon was a more manageable game due to its smaller size and simplified systems.
## Legacy
Evans initially planned for a sequel, though Far Cry 4 director Alex Hutchinson later added that the game would not have a follow-up. Although no sequels to Blood Dragon have been released, a Trials game titled Trials of the Blood Dragon was developed by RedLynx and released by Ubisoft in 2016. Evans left Ubisoft in March 2018 after his project was cancelled internally. Following the success of Blood Dragon, Ubisoft continued to release spin-offs for the series using assets built for mainline games, which led to the release of Far Cry Primal in 2016 and Far Cry New Dawn in 2019. Blood dragons return as enemies in Dead Living Zombies, the final DLC pack for Far Cry 5.
It was announced that Ubisoft was collaborating with Adi Shankar to develop an animated series titled Captain Laserhawk: A Blood Dragon Remix. During Ubisoft's 2023 Forward virtual event, it was revealed that the show is set for release on Netflix in late 2023. |
41,288,746 | Operation Una | 1,170,183,974 | Military offensive by the Croatian Army against the Army of Republika Srpska | [
"1995 in Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"Battles involving Croatia",
"Battles of the Bosnian War",
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] | Operation Una (Croatian: Operacija Una) was a military offensive conducted by the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska – HV) against the Army of Republika Srpska (Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS) in western Bosnia and Herzegovina on 18–19 September 1995, during the Bosnian War. The operation entailed a crossing of the Una and Sava rivers to establish bridgeheads at Novi Grad, Bosanska Dubica, Bosanska Kostajnica and opposite Jasenovac to allow for a subsequent advance towards Prijedor and Banja Luka.
The operation was planned in a matter of hours following a meeting between Croatian President Franjo Tuđman and U.S. diplomat Richard Holbrooke, during which Holbrooke urged Tuđman to seize Prijedor and threaten to capture Banja Luka from the VRS, short of actually seizing the city, as he believed such a development would force Bosnian Serb leaders to the negotiating table. Inadequate planning and preparation, combined with flawed military intelligence on the defending force and disregard for the high water level of the Una and Sava rivers, led to a high number of casualties and little success. The offensive was called off one day after it was launched and the bridgeheads were evacuated. The HV ultimately blamed Major General Vinko Vrbanac for its failure. Vrbanac had authorized the offensive instead of deferring to the Chief of the General Staff General Zvonimir Červenko.
Operation Una was the only unsuccessful operation by the HV from a series of offensives which had commenced in November 1994. It was controversial in the Croatian media, but was generally brushed aside as an aberration from a series of successes. In 2006, Croatian authorities launched an investigation into alleged war crimes committed by HV soldiers during the operation, in which 40 Serb civilians were killed.
## Background
As the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan, its 55,000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army, which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska (Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS). This re-organisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, ahead of the referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina that took place between 29 February and 1 March 1992. This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War. Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital, Sarajevo, and other areas on 1 March 1992. On the following day, the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj. In the final days of March, Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery, resulting in a cross-border operation by the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska – HV) 108th Brigade. On 4 April 1992, JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo. There were other examples of the JNA directly supported the VRS, such as during the capture of Zvornik in early April 1992, when the JNA provided artillery support from Serbia, firing across the Drina River. At the same time, the JNA attempted to defuse the situation and arrange negotiations elsewhere in the country.
The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH) and the Croatian Defence Council (Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO), reporting to the Bosniak-dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively, as well as the HV, which occasionally supported HVO operations. In late April, the VRS was able to deploy 200,000 troops, hundreds of tanks, armoured personnel carriers (APCs) and artillery pieces. The HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces (Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS) could field approximately 25,000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons, while the ARBiH was largely unprepared with nearly 100,000 troops, small arms for less than a half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons. Arming of the various forces was hampered by a United Nations (UN) arms embargo introduced in September 1991. By mid-May 1992, when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The extent of the control was extended to about 70 percent of the country by the end of the year.
## Prelude
By 1995, the ARBiH and the HVO had developed into better-organised forces employing comparably large numbers of artillery pieces and good defensive fortifications. The VRS was not capable of penetrating their defences even where its forces employed sound military tactics, for instance in the Battle of Orašje in May and June 1995. After recapture of the bulk of the Republic of Serb Krajina (the Croatian Serb-controlled areas of Croatia) in Operation Storm in August 1995, the HV shifted its focus to western Bosnia and Herzegovina. The shift was motivated by a desire to create a security zone along the Croatian border, establish Croatia as a regional power and gain favours with the West by forcing an end to the Bosnian War. The government of Bosnia and Herzegovina welcomed the move as it contributed to their goal of gaining control over western Bosnia and the city of Banja Luka—the largest city in the Bosnian Serb-held territory.
While NATO launched Operation Deliberate Force—a series of airstrikes that generally targeted the VRS around Sarajevo, western Bosnia remained relatively calm following Operation Storm, with the exception of probing attacks launched by the VRS, HVO or ARBiH near Bihać, Drvar and Glamoč. At the time the HV, HVO and ARBiH were planning a joint offensive in the region. The HV and HVO component of the offensive, codenamed Operation Maestral 2, was launched on 8 September with the aim of capturing the towns of Jajce, Šipovo and Drvar. On 13 September, as NATO airstrikes ceased, and the HV and HVO neared the completion of their objectives, the ARBiH 5th Corps launched Operation Sana, pushing the VRS southeast from Bihać by up to 70 kilometres (43 miles) and widening the salient held by the ARBiH north towards Novi Grad.
On 17 September, U.S. diplomat Richard Holbrooke and U.S. Ambassador to Croatia Peter W. Galbraith met with Croatian President Franjo Tuđman in Zagreb. Holbrooke was directed by the United States to urge Tuđman to stop offensive operations by the HV in western Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, Holbrooke and Galbraith thought the instructions unwise and saw the opportunity to defeat the VRS and establish a new military balance in the country. Holbrooke also considered that the changing situation on the ground allowed him and Galbraith to ignore the instructions. Holbrooke urged Tuđman to capture Sanski Most, Novi Grad and Prijedor from the VRS, and to do so quickly, but asked him to stop short of capturing Banja Luka. Holbrooke and Galbraith considered it would be advantageous for them and that justice would be served if the VRS lost Banja Luka, but decided against encouraging it, fearing there would be another 200,000 refugees from the city or that Croatia would not be willing to relinquish control of Banja Luka later on. They were also hoping that more moderate Bosnian Serb leadership might be found in the city, as it was the most urban Bosnian Serb area.
## Order of battle
Based on the outcome of the Holbrooke–Tuđman meeting and the assessment of the HV General Staff that the VRS 2nd Corps was completely destroyed, a decision was made to deploy the HV to the area with virtually no preparation and planning. The assessment of the HV General Staff was based on ARBiH gains in western Bosnia and Herzegovina over the previous four days. The order to attack was drawn up on 17 September and signed by Major General Vinko Vrbanac on behalf of the Chief of the General Staff, General Zvonimir Červenko. The attack, codenamed Operation Una, was to commence with crossings of the Una River at Novi Grad and Bosanska Dubica, and the Sava River at Jasenovac, followed by the seizing of Mount Prosara to allow for further advances towards Prijedor. The operation was intended to be coordinated with the ARBiH 5th Corps, which would continue its rapid advance towards Prijedor and Novi Grad.
The orders only gave the HV approximately 10 hours to prepare, so only those HV elements already deployed in the vicinity of the planned bridgeheads were committed to the attack—drawn from the Zagreb Corps along the Una and the Bjelovar Corps along the Sava. The Una crossings were considered the primary objectives, and were assigned to elements of the 1st Guards and 2nd Guards brigades supported by the 17th Home Guard Regiment. The two guards brigades combined had 1,500 troops, with a further 1,500 reserve infantry of the Home Guard, available for the crossing of the Una. The Bjelovar Corps had approximately 2,500 Home Guard reserve infantry at its disposal, distributed in three battlegroups (consisting of elements of the 52nd, 121st and 125th Home Guard regiments) and about 900 support troops, including a battalion of 155-millimetre (6.1 in) guns from the 16th Artillery-Rocket Brigade, and elements of the 18th Artillery Battalion (a platoon each of 155-millimetre howitzers and 130-millimetre (5.1 in) guns). The Bjelovar Corps force was commanded by Major General Luka Džanko, while the Zagreb Corps units committed to the operation were led by Major General Marijan Mareković.
The VRS had three garrison battalions in the area, generally manned by over-aged reservists. Two of them, those belonging to the 1st Novigrad Infantry Brigade and the 11th Dubica Infantry Brigade, were deployed along the Una River and faced the Zagreb Corps. The remaining one, part of the 1st Gradiška Light Infantry Brigade, was deployed along the Sava River opposite the HV Bjelovar Corps. The VRS defenders, under the overall control of the 1st Krajina Corps commanded by Lieutenant Colonel General Momir Talić, were deployed in prepared fortifications protected by minefields and strong artillery fire support. The HV estimated that the VRS units deployed along the Sava River were supported by a company of tanks and one battery each of 130-millimetre guns, 155-millimetre howitzers and 76-millimetre (3.0 in) antitank guns.
## Timeline
### 18 September
The crossings were hampered by the high level of the rivers, flooding of foreshores, strong currents and floating debris, as well as a shortage of boats and other means of river crossing. The equipment provided by the 33rd Engineer Battalion, including two tugboats and an amphibious vehicle, was late in arriving and did not reach the combat zone until noon on 18 September. All along the 100-kilometre (62 mi) course of the Una and Sava rivers where the offensive was to take place, the HV began artillery bombardment at noon, and crossings followed after 15:00 hours. The 125th Home Guard Regiment battlegroup attempted a crossing near the village of Košutarica, but failed after encountering strong small arms and mortar fire. The 52nd Home Guard Regiment battlegroup's attempt to cross the Sava downstream of Jasenovac likewise failed, deterred by strong mortar fire. The Zagreb Corps units managed to establish small bridgeheads in their designated landing zones in Novi Grad, Bosanska Kostajnica and Bosanska Dubica, but were pinned down by artillery and machine gun fire. As the HV had suffered 27 dead in the first few hours of combat, Vrbanac was sent to inspect the situation and he was appalled by the poor organization of the assault. During the night of 18/19 September, VRS artillery continued to shell HV positions along the rivers, but also fired on the towns of Novska, Kutina, Nova Gradiška, and Dvor.
The ARBiH drive towards Sanski Most and Novi Grad, where one of the bridgeheads had been established by the HV, came to a halt on 18–19 September, as the ARBiH encountered 14,000 previously undetected VRS troops in the area, supported by 2,000 troops that had arrived from Serbia.
### 19 September
Even though Vrbanac ordered a halt to the operation shortly after midnight on 18/19 September, the Bjelovar Corps failed to cancel new crossing attempts it had ordered for 6:00 the following morning. The attacks went ahead, albeit at 10:30, with the 52nd and the 125th Home Guard regiments' battlegroups trying to cross the Sava River at different locations. Despite strengthening river currents and continued VRS artillery fire, small reconnaissance elements managed to cross the river, only to be forced back an hour later.
At 12:50, a force comprising elements of the 121st and 125th Home Guard regiments and the 265th Reconnaissance-Sabotage Company managed to cross the Sava River at the confluence of the Sava and Una. The crossing force of 80 soldiers, encountered a minefield, VRS artillery fire and small arms fire from bunkers near the river bank. Extraction of the force began after 14:00, leading to an exchange of heavy artillery fire between the VRS on one bank and the 121st and the 125th Home Guard regiments' battlegroups on the other. The withdrawal required several river crossings using the available boats, and resulted in further losses. The situation was further complicated for the HV but a number of incidents and factors. These included a tugboat towing a damaged amphibious vehicle which caught fire because of faulty wiring, insufficient fire support from river gunboats, and boat crews provided by the 34th Engineer Battalion who refused to cross the river against VRS fire and had to be replaced by conscripts of the 33rd Engineer Battalion. Despite HV use of unmanned aerial vehicles to locate the VRS guns as targets for counter-battery fire, the artillery exchange continued late into the night of 19/20 September.
The 52nd Home Guard Regiment battlegroup crossed the Sava River again at 14:30 to support the extraction of the bridgehead established by the elements of the 121st and the 125th Home Guard regiments. That crossing involved 91 soldiers who advanced about 900 metres (3,000 feet) and destroyed several VRS defensive positions before withdrawing at 16:30.
On 19 September, the Zagreb Corps tried to reinforce the HV bridgeheads across the Una River, only to suffer further casualties. The Bjelovar Corps also committed the 121st Home Guard Regiment battlegroup to Jasenovac as a reinforcement to breach VRS defences. During the day, the Bjelovar Corps was approached by Irfan Torić, the commanding officer of the 520th ARBiH Brigade based in Velika Kladuša, requesting permission to deploy his troops to support the Bjelovar Corps attack. Džanko referred the request to Červenko. By the end of the day, Červenko had met with Tuđman to protest against the disorganised manner in which the operation had been launched, and the fact that he was not informed of it in advance. On the same day, the HV General Staff called the operation off.
## Aftermath
After the war, General Janko Bobetko estimated HV losses at more than 70 killed and 250 wounded. According to official records, 49 HV soldiers were killed during the operation. Of the casualties, the Bjelovar Corps accounted for five dead and 26 wounded. According to Bosnian Serb sources, the VRS sustained 44 killed, 53 wounded and three captured. In addition, six Bosnian Serb police officers were killed and nine were wounded. Bosnian Serb sources hold that Serb civilian casualties were 54 killed, 39 wounded and 6 captured in the two days of the offensive. Two Danish peacekeepers, deployed with the United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia (UNCRO), were killed in the VRS shelling of Dvor. In 2006, Croatian authorities began investigating allegations of war crimes committed during the operation, specifically the killing of 40 civilians in the Bosanska Dubica area by troops of the 1st Battalion of the 2nd Guards Brigade.
On 20 September 1995, Červenko submitted his report on Operation Una to Tuđman, divorcing responsibility from himself, and blaming Vrbanac and Defence Minister Gojko Šušak. The blame was subsequently placed on Vrbanac alone, ultimately ending his military career. Mareković, who was expected to succeed Červenko as the Chief of the General Staff, was passed over in favour of General Pavao Miljavac when Červenko retired in 1996.
The offensive was the only unsuccessful operation undertaken by the HV since Operation Winter '94 in November 1994, and was brushed aside in Croatia as an aberration. It still remained a subject of controversy in the Croatian media. According to Croatian historian Davor Marijan, the operation was primarily politically motivated and hastily launched in response to Holbrooke's remarks of 17 September. Nonetheless, Marijan claims that the attack was based on incorrect intelligence, leading to an underestimation of the VRS defenses by the HV. In addition, the HV overestimated its own capacity to execute a difficult operation, and neglected the condition of the rivers that they intended to cross. The HV never attempted to repeat the crossing, instead choosing to threaten Banja Luka from a different direction in early October in Operation Southern Move. |
2,461,592 | Casino Royale (1967 film) | 1,171,343,969 | James Bond spy comedy film | [
"1960s English-language films",
"1960s parody films",
"1960s satirical films",
"1960s spy comedy films",
"1967 comedy films",
"1967 films",
"British parody films",
"British satirical films",
"British spy comedy films",
"Casino Royale (novel)",
"Cold War spy films",
"Columbia Pictures films",
"Cultural depictions of Mata Hari",
"Films about baccarat",
"Films about gambling",
"Films about the Berlin Wall",
"Films based on thriller novels",
"Films directed by John Huston",
"Films directed by Joseph McGrath (film director)",
"Films directed by Ken Hughes",
"Films directed by Robert Parrish",
"Films directed by Val Guest",
"Films scored by Burt Bacharach",
"Films set in Berlin",
"Films set in East Germany",
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"Films set in Scotland",
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"Films with screenplays by John Law (writer)",
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] | Casino Royale is a 1967 spy parody film originally distributed by Columbia Pictures featuring an ensemble cast. It is loosely based on the 1953 novel of the same name by Ian Fleming, the first novel to feature the character James Bond. The film stars David Niven as the "original" Bond, Sir James Bond 007. Forced out of retirement to investigate the deaths and disappearances of international spies, he soon battles the mysterious Dr. Noah and SMERSH. The film's tagline: "Casino Royale is too much... for one James Bond!" refers to Bond's ruse to mislead SMERSH in which six other agents are pretending to be "James Bond", namely, baccarat master Evelyn Tremble (Peter Sellers); millionaire spy Vesper Lynd (Ursula Andress); Bond's secretary Miss Moneypenny (Barbara Bouchet); Bond's daughter with Mata Hari, Mata Bond (Joanna Pettet); and British agents Coop (Terence Cooper) and The Detainer (Daliah Lavi).
Charles K. Feldman, the producer, had acquired the film rights in 1960 and had attempted to get Casino Royale made as an Eon Productions Bond film; however, Feldman and the producers of the Eon series, Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, failed to come to terms. Believing that he could not compete with the Eon series, Feldman resolved to produce the film as a satire. The budget escalated as various directors and writers became involved in the production, and actors expressed dissatisfaction with the project.
Casino Royale was released on 13 April 1967, two months prior to Eon's fifth Bond movie, You Only Live Twice. The film was a financial success, grossing over \$41.7 million worldwide, and Burt Bacharach's musical score was praised, earning him an Academy Award nomination for the song "The Look of Love", performed on the film's soundtrack by Dusty Springfield. Critical reaction to Casino Royale, however, was generally negative, with many reviewers regarding it as a baffling, disorganised affair. Since 1999, the film's rights have been held by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures, distributors of the Bond films by Eon Productions.
## Plot
Sir James Bond 007, a legendary British spy who retired 20 years ago, is visited by M, the head of British MI6, CIA representative Ransome, KGB representative Smernov, and Deuxième Bureau representative Le Grand. All implore Bond to come out of retirement to deal with SMERSH, who have been eliminating agents. Bond spurns their pleas. He stands firm, and his mansion is destroyed by a mortar at the orders of M, who dies in the explosion.
Bond returns M's remains (a toupee) to his widow, Lady Fiona McTarry, at M's Scottish estate. However, the real Lady Fiona has been replaced by SMERSH's Agent Mimi. The household has been replaced with beautiful women. SMERSH aims to destroy Bond's "celibate image". The bevy of beauties fail to seduce Bond, and Mimi/Lady Fiona is so impressed that she helps Bond foil the plot against him and joins a convent.
On his way back to London, Bond survives another attempt on his life.
Bond is named head of MI6. He learns that many British agents around the world have been eliminated by enemy spies because of their inability to resist sex. Bond also learns that the "sex maniac" who was given the name of "James Bond" when he retired has gone to work in television. Bond orders that all remaining MI6 agents will be named "James Bond 007", to confuse SMERSH. He creates a rigorous programme to train male agents to ignore women's charms. Moneypenny recruits Coop, a karate expert. He also meets an exotic agent known as the Detainer.
Bond hires Vesper Lynd, a retired agent turned millionaire, to recruit baccarat expert Evelyn Tremble, whom he intends to use to beat SMERSH agent Le Chiffre. Le Chiffre has embezzled SMERSH's money, and is desperate to cover up his theft before he is executed.
Following a clue from agent Mimi, Bond persuades his estranged daughter, Mata Bond, to travel to West Berlin and infiltrate International Mothers' Help, an au pair service that is actually a SMERSH training centre. Mata uncovers a plan to sell compromising photographs of military leaders from the US, USSR, China and Great Britain at an "art auction", another money-raising scheme from Le Chiffre. Mata destroys the photos leaving baccarat Le Chiffre's only remaining option.
Tremble arrives at the Casino Royale accompanied by Lynd, who foils an attempt by seductive SMERSH agent Miss Goodthighs to disable him. Later that night, Tremble observes Le Chiffre at the casino and realizes that he is using infrared sunglasses to cheat. Lynd steals the sunglasses, allowing Evelyn to eventually beat Le Chiffre in a game of baccarat. Lynd is apparently abducted outside the casino, and Tremble is also kidnapped while pursuing her. Le Chiffre, desperate for the winning cheque, tortures Tremble using hallucinogens. Lynd rescues Tremble, only to subsequently kill him.
Meanwhile, SMERSH agents raid Le Chiffre's base and kill him.
In London, Mata is kidnapped by SMERSH in a giant flying saucer, and Sir James and Moneypenny travel to Casino Royale to rescue her. They discover that the casino is located atop a giant underground headquarters run by the evil Dr. Noah, Sir James's nephew Jimmy Bond, a former MI6 agent who defected to SMERSH to spite his famous uncle. Jimmy reveals that he plans to use biological warfare to make all women beautiful and kill all men over 4-foot-6-inch (1.37 m) tall, leaving him the "big man" who gets all the girls. Jimmy has already captured The Detainer, and he tries to persuade her to be his partner. She agrees, but only to dupe him into swallowing one of his atomic time pills, turning him into a walking atomic bomb.
Sir James, Moneypenny, Mata and Coop manage to escape from their cell and fight their way back to the casino director's office where Sir James establishes that Lynd is a double agent. The casino is overrun by secret agents and a battle ensues. American and French support arrives, adding to the chaos. Meanwhile, Jimmy counts down a series of hiccups, each bringing him closer to doom. The atomic pill explodes, destroying Casino Royale and everyone inside. Sir James and his agents appear in Heaven, and Jimmy Bond descends to Hell.
## Cast
- Peter Sellers as Evelyn Tremble / James Bond: A baccarat master recruited by Vesper Lynd to challenge Le Chiffre at Casino Royale.
- Ursula Andress as Vesper Lynd / James Bond: A retired British secret agent forced back into service in exchange for writing off her tax arrears.
- David Niven as Sir James Bond: A legendary British secret agent forced out of retirement to fight SMERSH.
- Orson Welles as Le Chiffre: SMERSH's financial agent, desperate to win at baccarat to repay the money he has embezzled from the organisation.
- Joanna Pettet as Mata Bond / James Bond: Bond's daughter, born of his love affair with Mata Hari.
- Daliah Lavi as The Detainer / James Bond: A British secret agent who successfully poisons Dr. Noah with his own atomic pill.
- Woody Allen as Jimmy Bond / Dr. Noah: Bond's nephew and head of SMERSH under his Dr. Noah alias. Because he is rendered mute in the presence of his uncle, he uses a prerecorded voice (that of Valentine Dyall) in some scenes.
- Deborah Kerr as Agent Mimi / Lady Fiona McTarry: A SMERSH agent who masquerades as the widow of M but cannot help falling in love with Bond.
- William Holden as Ransome: A CIA executive who accompanies the cross-spy-agency team to persuade Bond out of retirement, then reappears in the final climactic fight scene.
- Charles Boyer as Legrand: A Deuxième Bureau executive who accompanies the cross-spy-agency team to see Bond.
- John Huston as M / McTarry: Head of MI6 who dies from an explosion caused by his own bombardment of Bond's estate when the cross-spy-agency team visits.
- Kurt Kasznar as Smernov: A KGB executive who accompanies the cross-spy-agency team to see Bond.
- George Raft as himself, flicking a coin as he did in Scarface.
- Jean-Paul Belmondo as French Legionnaire
- Terence Cooper as Cooper / James Bond: A British secret agent specifically chosen, and trained for this mission to resist the charms of women.
- Barbara Bouchet as Miss Moneypenny / James Bond 007: The beautiful daughter of Bond's original Moneypenny, who works for the service in the same position her mother had years before.
Major stars, such as Raft and Belmondo, were given top billing in marketing and screen trailers despite only appearing for a few minutes in the final scene.
Supporting cast:
- Jacqueline Bisset (credited as Jacky Bisset) as Miss Giovanna Goodthighs: A SMERSH agent who attempts to kill Evelyn at Casino Royale. She also appeared as an extra who stands behind Le Chiffre at the casino.
- Bernard Cribbins as Carlton Towers: A British Foreign Office official who drives Mata Bond all the way from London to Berlin in his taxi.
- Ronnie Corbett as Polo: A SMERSH agent at the International Mothers' Help, in love with Mata Hari and expresses the same feelings for Mata Bond.
- Anna Quayle as Frau Hoffner: Mata Hari's teacher, portrayed as a parody of Cesare in the German Expressionist film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (her school is modelled on that film's expressionist decor).
- Geoffrey Bayldon as Q
- John Wells as Fordyce, Q's assistant.
- Gabriella Licudi, Angela Scoular, Tracey Crisp, Elaine Taylor and Alexandra Bastedo as Eliza, Buttercup, Heather, Peg and Meg: A quintet of SMERSH agents undercover as M/Lord McTarry's daughters.
- Derek Nimmo as Hadley: A British secret serviceman who briefs Mata Bond on her mission to Berlin.
- Colin Gordon as Casino director
- John Bluthal as MI5 Man/Casino doorman
- Graham Stark as Cashier
- Duncan Macrae as Inspector Mathis: He shows Evelyn Tremble his "credentials" in the pre-title sequence.
- Richard Wattis as British Army officer
- Vladek Sheybal as Le Chiffre's representative
- Tracy Reed as Fang Leader
- Chic Murray as Chic
- Jonathan Routh as John
- Percy Herbert as First piper
- Jeanne Roland as Captain of the Guards
- Penny Riley as Control girl
- Burt Kwouk as Chinese general (uncredited)
- Caroline Munro as a guard (uncredited)
Casino Royale also boasts the greatest number of actors in a Bond film either to have appeared or to go on to appear in the rest of the Eon series – besides Andress in Dr. No, Sheybal appeared as Kronsteen in From Russia with Love, Kwouk featured as Mr. Ling in Goldfinger and an unnamed SPECTRE operative in You Only Live Twice, Roland plays a masseuse in You Only Live Twice, and Scoular appeared as Ruby Bartlett in On Her Majesty's Secret Service. Jack Gwillim, who has a minor role as a British Army officer, played a Royal Navy officer in Thunderball. Caroline Munro, seen very briefly as one of Dr Noah's gun-toting guards, went on to play Naomi in The Spy Who Loved Me, and also appeared with other models on the cover of the 1969 Pan Books edition of On Her Majesty's Secret Service. Milton Reid, who appears in a bit part as the temple guard, opening the door to Mata Bond's hall, played one of Dr. No's guards and Stromberg's underling, Sandor, in The Spy Who Loved Me. John Hollis, who plays the temple priest in Mata Bond's hall, went on to play the implied Ernst Stavro Blofeld character in the pre-credits sequence of For Your Eyes Only. John Wells, Q's assistant, appeared in For Your Eyes Only as Denis Thatcher. Hal Galili, who appears briefly as a US Army officer at the auction, had earlier played gangster Jack Strap in Goldfinger.
### Uncredited cast
Well-established stars such as Peter O'Toole, and sporting legends like Stirling Moss took uncredited parts solely to work with the other cast members. O'Toole supposedly took payment in a case of champagne.
Stunt director Richard Talmadge employed Geraldine Chaplin to appear in a brief Keystone Cops insert. The film proved to be young Anjelica Huston's first experience in the film industry as she was called upon by her father, John Huston, to cover the screenshots of Kerr's hands. It features the first theatrical appearance of David Prowse as Frankenstein's monster. John Le Mesurier features in early scenes as M's driver.
## Production
### Development
In November 1952, several months before the publication of his first James Bond novel Casino Royale, Ian Fleming purchased the small theatrical agency Glidrose Productions Limited to make a screen adaptation of the novel. After the publication, Curtis Brown, Associated British Pictures and the Music Corporation of America all expressed interest in purchasing the film rights. Curtis Brown later licensed the rights to produce a one-hour Americanized television adaptation for Climax! on CBS. In March 1955, Fleming sold the film rights of his novel Casino Royale to the producer Gregory Ratoff for \$6,000 (\$ in dollars). after Ratoff had bought a \$600 six-month option from Fleming the previous year. Ratoff commissioned Lorenzo Semple Jr., to write a script but both men thought Bond was unbelievable and stupid. According to Semple, Ratoff considered the project needed Bond to be female and wished to cast Susan Hayward as 'Jane' Bond. In January 1956, The New York Times reported Ratoff had set up a production company with Michael Garrison to produce a film adaptation, but their pitch was rejected by 20th Century Fox and they were unable to find financial backers before his death in December 1960. Talent agent Charles K. Feldman had represented Ratoff and bought the film rights from his widow. Albert R. Broccoli, who had held an interest in adapting James Bond for some years, offered to purchase the Casino Royale rights from Feldman, but he declined. Feldman and his friend, the director Howard Hawks, had an interest in adapting Casino Royale and considered Leigh Brackett as a writer and Cary Grant as James Bond. They eventually decided not to proceed after they saw Dr. No (1962), the first Bond adaptation made by Broccoli and his partner Harry Saltzman through their company Eon Productions.
By 1964, with Feldman having invested nearly \$550,000 of his own money into pre-production of Casino Royale, he decided to try a deal with Eon Productions and United Artists. The attempt at a co-production eventually fell through as Feldman frequently argued with Broccoli and Saltzman, especially regarding the profit divisions and when the Casino Royale adaptation would start production. Feldman eventually decided to offer his project to Columbia Pictures through a script written by Ben Hecht, and the studio accepted. Given Eon's series led to spy films being in vogue at the time, Feldman opted to make his film a spoof of the Bond series instead of a straightforward adaptation. Hecht's contribution to the project, if not the final result, was in fact substantial and he wrote several complete drafts. In May 1966, Time magazine reported that Hecht had "three bashes" at completing a script, while his papers contained material from four surviving screenplays by Hecht. His treatments were almost entirely "straight" adaptations, far closer to the original source novel than the spoof which the final production became. A draft from 1957 discovered in Hecht's papers — but which does not identify the screenwriter — is a direct adaptation of the novel, albeit with the Bond character absent, instead being replaced by a poker-playing American gangster.
Later drafts see vice made central to the plot, with the Le Chiffre character becoming head of a network of brothels (as he is in the novel) whose patrons are then blackmailed by Le Chiffre to fund Spectre (an invention of the screenwriter). The racy plot elements opened up by this change of background include a chase scene through Hamburg's red light district that results in Bond escaping disguised as a female mud wrestler. New characters appear such as Lili Wing, a brothel madam and former lover of Bond whose ultimate fate is to be crushed in the back of a garbage truck, and Gita, wife of Le Chiffre. The beautiful Gita, whose face and throat are hideously disfigured as a result of Bond using her as a shield during a gunfight in the same sequence which sees Wing meet her fate, goes on to become the prime protagonist in the torture scene that features in the book, a role originally Le Chiffre's. Virtually nothing from Hecht's scripts was ever filmed, although a draft dated to February 1964 has a line of dialogue containing the idea of MI6 having given multiple agents the name of James Bond after Bond has died to confuse the other side. Hecht died from a heart attack in April 1964, two days after finishing his script and before he was able to present it to Feldman. Joseph Heller (and his friend George Mandel) worked on the project for a few weeks in early 1965 submitting more than 100 pages after Feldman offered Heller \$150,000. Heller later wrote about this episode in How I found James Bond, lost my self-respect and almost made \$150,000 in my spare time.
The script was then completely re-written by Billy Wilder, and by the time the film reached production, only the idea that the name James Bond should be given to a number of other agents remained. This key plot device in the finished film, in the case of Hecht's version, occurs after the demise of the original James Bond (an event which happened prior to the beginning of his story) which, as Hecht's M puts it, "not only perpetuates his memory, but confuses the opposition." In addition to the credited writers, Woody Allen, Peter Sellers, Val Guest, Ben Hecht, Joseph Heller, Terry Southern and Wilder are all believed to have contributed to the screenplay to varying degrees. Feldman called it "a four ring circus". Sellers had hired Southern to write his dialogue (and not the rest of the script) to "outshine" Orson Welles and Allen.
### Casting
Feldman approached Sean Connery to play Bond, but rejected Connery's offer to do the film for \$1 million. Feldman originally intended to cast Terence Cooper as Bond and had him under personal contract for two years prior to production. Feldman had worked with Sellers on What's New Pussycat? and offered the actor a part as Bond. Sellers originally turned him down saying he felt the image of Bond was "too fixed". Feldman persuaded Sellers to change his mind by asking the actor to instead play a "little man" who plays Bond. Jean-Paul Belmondo and George Raft received major billing, even though both only appear briefly. Both appear during the climactic brawl at the end, Raft flipping his trademark coin and promptly shooting himself dead with a backward-firing pistol, while Belmondo appears wearing a fake moustache as the French Foreign Legion officer who requires an English phrase book to translate "merde!" into "ooch!" during his fistfight. Raft's coin flip, which originally appeared in Scarface (1932), had been spoofed by Raft a few years earlier in Some Like It Hot (1959).
At the Intercon science fiction convention held in Slough in 1978, David Prowse commented on his part, apparently his big-screen debut. He claimed that he was originally asked to play "Super Pooh", a giant Winnie-the-Pooh in a superhero costume who attacks Tremble during the Torture of The Mind sequence. This idea, as with many others in the film's script, was rapidly dropped, and Prowse was re-cast as a Frankenstein-type monster for the closing scenes. The final sequence was principally directed by former actor/stuntman Richard Talmadge.
### Filming
Filming started 11 January 1966. The principal filming was carried out at Pinewood Studios, Shepperton Studios and Twickenham Studios in London. Extensive sequences also featured London, notably Trafalgar Square and the exterior of 10 Downing Street. Mereworth Castle in Kent was used as the home of Sir James Bond, which is blown up early in the film. Much of filming for M's Scottish castle was done on location in County Meath, Ireland, with Killeen Castle as the focus. However, the car chase sequences where Bond leaves the castle were shot in the Perthshire village of Killin with further sequences in Berkshire (specifically Old Windsor and Bracknell). Filming had wrapped by October 1966 at which stage Feldman said the budget was between \$8.5–9.5 million, of which the cast cost \$3 million. Sellers was to receive a percentage of the gross after the takings reached \$17.5 million.
Five different directors helmed different segments and stunt coordinator Richard Talmadge co-directed the final sequence. Feldman said that Huston contributed 38 minutes in the final cut, Hughes 25 minutes, McGrath 20 minutes, Parrish 20 minutes, and Guest 26 minutes. Huston's sequence involved Sir James Bond meeting the representatives of agencies. It was shot in Ireland and Kent in April 1966. Huston worked on his section of the script with Wolf Mankowitz. Huston had written most of Beat the Devil on location but says "that was discipline compared to this. It was day to day then it's moment to moment here." Huston wanted Robert Morley as M but when he was unavailable, the director decided to play the role himself. Huston says the film "was broached to me as a lark, which it was." McGrath shot for six weeks. Bob Parrish filmed the segment with Andress and Sellers at Shepperton. Hughes was not known for comedies generally but had just directed Drop Dead Darling. Guest wrote and directed the last section and was given the responsibility of splicing the various "chapters" together. Feldman says Parrish was to provide "suspense" while McGrath did "Sellers like comedy". He was offered the unique title of coordinating director but declined, claiming the chaotic plot would not reflect well on him if he were so credited. His extra credit was labelled 'additional sequences' instead. Guest, Hughes, Huston, McGrath, Parrish, and Talmadge received the directorial credits for Casino Royale.
Part of the behind-the-scenes drama of production concerned the filming of the segments involving Sellers. Screenwriter Wolf Mankowitz declared that Sellers felt intimidated by Welles to the extent that, except for a couple of shots, neither was in the studio simultaneously. Other versions of the legend depict the drama stemming from Sellers being slighted, in favour of Welles, by Princess Margaret (whom Sellers knew) during her visit to the set. Welles also insisted on performing magic tricks as Le Chiffre, and the director obliged. Director Guest wrote that Welles did not think much of Sellers, and had refused to work with "that amateur". Director McGrath, a personal friend of Sellers, was punched by the actor when he complained about Sellers' on-set behaviour.
Some Sellers biographies suggest that he took the role of Bond to heart, and was annoyed at the decision to make Casino Royale a comedy, as he wanted to play Bond straight. This is illustrated in somewhat fictionalised form in the film The Life and Death of Peter Sellers, based on the biography by Roger Lewis, who has claimed that Sellers kept re-writing and improvising scenes to make them play seriously. This story is in agreement with the observation that the only parts of the film close to the book are the ones featuring Sellers and Welles. In the end, Sellers's involvement with the film was cut abruptly short. Additionally, Sellers went absent for days or weeks at a time, refused to appear in his scenes with Welles and exited before all of his scenes had been shot. As a result, Sellers was unavailable for the filming of an ending and other interlinking scenes, leaving the filmmakers to devise a way to make the existing footage work without him. The framing device of a beginning and ending with Niven was created to salvage the material. Guest, who had been given the task of creating a narrative thread which would link all segments of the film, chose to use the original Bond and Vesper Lynd as linking characters.
Signs of missing footage from the Sellers segments are evident at various points. Tremble is not captured on camera; an outtake of Sellers entering a racing car was substituted. In this outtake, he calls for the car, à la The Pink Panther, to chase down Vesper and her kidnappers; the next thing that is shown is Tremble being tortured. Outtakes of Sellers were also used for Tremble's dream sequence (pretending to play the piano on Andress' torso), in the finale – blowing out the candles while in highland dress – and at the end of the film when all the various "James Bond doubles" are together. In the kidnap sequence, Tremble's death is also very abruptly inserted; it consists of pre-existing footage of Tremble being rescued by Vesper, followed by a later-filmed shot of her abruptly deciding to shoot him, followed by a freeze-frame over some of the previous footage of her surrounded by bodies (noticeably a zoom-in on the previous shot). As well as this, an entire sequence involving Tremble going to the front for the underground James Bond training school (which turns out to be under Harrods, of which the training area was the lowest level) was never shot, thus creating an abrupt cut from Vesper announcing that Tremble will be James Bond to Tremble exiting the lift into the training school. Many sequences were dropped, so that several actors never appeared in the final cut, including Ian Hendry (as 006, the agent whose body is briefly seen being disposed of by Vesper), Mona Washbourne and Arthur Mullard.
### Music
For the musical score, Feldman decided to bring in Burt Bacharach, who had done the score for his previous production, What's New Pussycat?. Bacharach worked over two years writing for Casino Royale, in the meantime composing the After the Fox score and being forced to decline participation in Luv. Lyricist Hal David contributed with various songs, many of which appeared in just instrumental versions. Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass performed some of the songs with Mike Redway singing the title song as the end credits roll. The title theme was Alpert's second number one on the Easy Listening chart where it spent two weeks at the top in June 1967 and peaked at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100. Alpert would later contribute a trumpet solo to the title song of the 1983 James Bond film Never Say Never Again, which was performed by Alpert's wife, Lani Hall.
The film features the song "The Look of Love" performed by Dusty Springfield. It is played in the scene of Vesper recruiting Evelyn, seen through a man-size aquarium in a seductive walk. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. The song was revisited in the first Austin Powers film, which, to a degree, was inspired by Casino Royale. For European release, Mireille Mathieu sang versions of "The Look of Love" in both French ("Les Yeux D'Amour"), and German ("Ein Blick von Dir").
Bacharach would later rework two tracks of the score into songs: "Home James, Don't Spare the Horses" was re-arranged as "Bond Street", appearing on Bacharach's album Reach Out (1967), and "Flying Saucer – First Stop Berlin", was reworked with vocals as "Let the Love Come Through" by orchestra leader and arranger Roland Shaw. A clarinet melody would later be featured in a Cracker Jack peanut popcorn commercial. As an in-joke, a brief snippet of John Barry's song "Born Free" is used in the film. At the time, Barry was the main composer for the Eon Bond series, and said song had won an Academy Award over Bacharach's own "Alfie".
The cover art was done by Robert McGinnis, based on the film poster. The original LP was later issued by Varèse Sarabande in the same track order as shown below. It has been re-released under licence by Kritzerland Records and again by Quartet Records, the latter to mark the film's 50th anniversary. This latest issue has included almost all of Bacharach's underscore, representing 35 tracks in total.
Soundtrack listing
The album became famous among audio purists for the excellence of its recording. It then became a standard "audiophile test" record for decades to come, especially the vocal performance by Dusty Springfield on "The Look of Love."
The soundtrack has since been released by other companies in different configurations (including complete score releases). The highly regarded master tapes were damaged, however, during a 1990s remastering so none of the subsequent re-releases is considered to be as fine as the original LP release.
## Release
Columbia at first announced the film was due to be released in time for Christmas 1966, however problems during production postponed the film's release until April 1967. Casino Royale had its world premiere in London's Odeon Leicester Square on 13 April 1967, breaking many opening records in the theatre's history. Its American premiere was held in New York on 28 April, at the Capitol and Cinema I theatres. It opened two months prior to the fifth Bond film by Eon Productions, You Only Live Twice.
### Box office
Despite the lukewarm nature of the contemporary reviews, the pull of the James Bond name was sufficient to make it the 13th highest-grossing film in North America in 1967 with a gross of \$22.7 million (\$ million in dollars) and a worldwide total of \$41.7 million (\$ million in dollars). Welles attributed the success to a marketing strategy that featured a naked tattooed woman on the film's posters and print ads. The campaign also included a series of commercials featuring British model Twiggy. In its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, it set a record 3-day gross for Columbia of \$2,148,711. As late as 2011, the film was still making money for the estate of Peter Sellers, who negotiated an extraordinary 3% of the gross profits (an estimated £120 million), with the proceeds currently going to Cassie Unger, daughter and sole heir of Sellers' beneficiary, fourth wife Lynne Frederick. When domestic box office receipts are adjusted for inflation, Casino Royale is 20th-largest grossing of the entire Bond franchise.
### Critical reception
No advance press screenings were held, leading reviews to only appear after the premiere. Roger Ebert, in his review for the Chicago Sun-Times, wrote "[t]his is possibly the most indulgent film ever made". Time magazine described Casino Royale as "an incoherent and vulgar vaudeville". Variety declared the film to be "a conglomeration of frenzied situations, 'in' gags and special effects, lacking discipline and cohesion. Some of the situations are very funny, but many are too strained." Bosley Crowther of The New York Times considered Casino Royale had "more of the talent agent than the secret agent". He praised the film's "fast start" and the scenes up to the baccarat game between Bond and Le Chiffre. Afterward, Crowther felt, the script became tiresome, repetitive and filled with clichés due to "wild and haphazard injections of 'in' jokes and outlandish gags", leading to an excessive length that made the film a "reckless, disconnected nonsense that could be telescoped or stopped at any point".
Writing in 1986, Danny Peary noted, "It's hard to believe that in 1967 we actually waited in anticipation for this so-called James Bond spoof. It was a disappointment then; it's a curio today, but just as hard to get through." Peary described the film as being "disjointed and stylistically erratic" and "a testament to wastefulness in the bigger-is-better cinema," before adding, "It would have been a good idea to cut the picture drastically, perhaps down to the scenes featuring Peter Sellers and Woody Allen. In fact, I recommend you see it on television when it's in a two-hour (including commercials) slot. Then you won't expect it to make any sense."
A few recent reviewers have been more impressed. Andrea LeVasseur, in the AllMovie review, called it "the original ultimate spy spoof", and opined that the "nearly impossible to follow" plot made it "a satire to the highest degree". Further describing it as a "hideous, zany disaster" LeVasseur concluded that it was "a psychedelic, absurd masterpiece". Cinema historian Robert von Dassanowsky has written about the artistic merits of the film and says "like Casablanca, Casino Royale is a film of momentary vision, collaboration, adaption, pastiche, and accident. It is the anti-auteur work of all time, a film shaped by the very zeitgeist it took on." Romano Tozzi complimented the acting and humour, although he also mentioned that the film has several dull stretches. In his review of the film, Leonard Maltin remarked, "Money, money everywhere, but [the] film is terribly uneven – sometimes funny, often not." Simon Winder called Casino Royale "a pitiful spoof", while Robert Druce described it as "an abstraction of real life".
The film holds a rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on reviews with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus states: "A goofy, dated parody of spy movie cliches, Casino Royale squanders its all-star cast on a meandering, mostly laugh-free script."
### Accolades
American Film Institute nominated the film in AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores.
### Home media and film rights
Columbia Pictures first issued Casino Royale on VHS in 1989, and on Laserdisc in 1994. In 1999, following the Columbia/MGM/Kevin McClory lawsuit on ownership of the Bond film series, the rights were transferred to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (whose sister company United Artists co-owns the franchise) as a condition of the settlement. MGM then released the first DVD edition of Casino Royale in 2002, followed by a 40th anniversary special edition in 2007.
Years later, as a result of the Sony/Comcast acquisition of MGM, Columbia would once again become responsible for the co-distribution of this film as well as the entire Eon Bond series, including the 2006 adaptation of Casino Royale. However, MGM Home Entertainment changed its distributor to 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment in May 2006. Fox was responsible for the distribution and debut of the 1967 Casino Royale on Blu-ray in 2011. While the rights today stand with United Artists (under MGM, who currently maintains home entertainment rights), Danjaq LLC, Eon's holding company, is credited as one of its present copyright owners, the other being original production unit Famous Artists Productions.
Alongside six other MGM-owned films, the studio uploaded Casino Royale on YouTube.
## See also
- Outline of James Bond |
55,924 | Prostate | 1,170,994,745 | Gland of the male reproductive system in most mammals | [
"Exocrine system",
"Glands",
"Mammal male reproductive system",
"Prostate",
"Sexual anatomy"
] | The prostate (/ˈprɒs.teɪt/) is both an accessory gland of the male reproductive system and a muscle-driven mechanical switch between urination and ejaculation. It is found in all male mammals. It differs between species anatomically, chemically, and physiologically. Anatomically, the prostate is found below the bladder, with the urethra passing through it. It is described in gross anatomy as consisting of lobes and in microanatomy by zone. It is surrounded by an elastic, fibromuscular capsule and contains glandular tissue, as well as connective tissue.
The prostate glands produce and contain fluid that forms part of semen, the substance emitted during ejaculation as part of the male sexual response. This prostatic fluid is slightly alkaline, milky or white in appearance. The alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidity of the vaginal tract, prolonging the lifespan of sperm. The prostatic fluid is expelled in the first part of ejaculate, together with most of the sperm, because of the action of smooth muscle tissue within the prostate. In comparison with the few spermatozoa expelled together with mainly seminal vesicular fluid, those in prostatic fluid have better motility, longer survival, and better protection of genetic material.
Disorders of the prostate include enlargement, inflammation, infection, and cancer. The word prostate comes from Ancient Greek προστάτης, prostátēs, meaning "one who stands before", "protector", "guardian", with the term originally used to describe the seminal vesicles.
## Structure
The prostate is a gland of the male reproductive system. In adults, it is about the size of a walnut, and has an average weight of about 11 grams, usually ranging between 7 and 16 grams. The prostate is located in the pelvis. It sits below the urinary bladder and surrounds the urethra. The part of the urethra passing through it is called the prostatic urethra, which joins with the two ejaculatory ducts. The prostate is covered in a surface called the prostatic capsule or prostatic fascia.
The internal structure of the prostate has been described using both lobes and zones. Because of the variation in descriptions and definitions of lobes, the zone classification is used more predominantly.
The prostate has been described as consisting of three or four zones. Zones are more typically able to be seen on histology, or in medical imaging, such as ultrasound or MRI. The zones are:
The "lobe" classification describes lobes that, while originally defined in the fetus, are also visible in gross anatomy, including dissection and when viewed endoscopically. The five lobes are the anterior lobe or isthmus, the posterior lobe, the right and left lateral lobes, and the middle or median lobe.
Inside of the prostate, adjacent and parallel to the prostatic urethra, there are two longitudinal muscle systems. On the front side (ventrally) runs the urethral dilator (musculus dilatator urethrae), on the backside (dorsally) runs the muscle switching the urethra into the ejaculatory state (musculus ejaculatorius).
### Blood and lymphatic vessels
The prostate receives blood through the inferior vesical artery, internal pudendal artery, and middle rectal arteries. These vessels enter the prostate on its outer surface where it meets the bladder, and travel forward to the apex of the prostate. Both the inferior vesical and the middle rectal arteries often arise together directly from the internal iliac arteries. On entering the bladder, the inferior vesical artery splits into a urethral branch, supplying the urethral prostate; and a capsular branch, which travels around the capsule and has smaller branches which perforate into the prostate.
The veins of the prostate form a network – the prostatic venous plexus, primarily around its front and outer surface. This network also receives blood from the deep dorsal vein of the penis, and is connected via branches to the vesical plexus and internal pudendal veins. Veins drain into the vesical and then internal iliac veins.
The lymphatic drainage of the prostate depends on the positioning of the area. Vessels surrounding the vas deferens, some of the vessels in the seminal vesicle, and a vessel from the posterior surface of the prostate drain into the external iliac lymph nodes. Some of the seminal vesicle vessels, prostatic vessels, and vessels from the anterior prostate drain into internal iliac lymph nodes. Vessels of the prostate itself also drain into the obturator and sacral lymph nodes.
### Microanatomy
The prostate consists of glandular and connective tissue. Tall column-shaped cells form the lining (the epithelium) of the glands. These form one layer or may be pseudostratified. The epithelium is highly variable and areas of low cuboidal or flat cells can also be present, with transitional epithelium in the outer regions of the longer ducts. The glands are formed as many follicles, which drain into canals and subsequently 12–20 main ducts, These in turn drain into the urethra as it passes through the prostate. There are also a small amount of flat cells, which sit next to the basement membranes of glands, and act as stem cells.
The connective tissue of the prostate is made up of fibrous tissue and smooth muscle. The fibrous tissue separates the gland into lobules. It also sits between the glands and is composed of randomly orientated smooth-muscle bundles that are continuous with the bladder.
Over time, thickened secretions called corpora amylacea accumulate in the gland.
### Gene and protein expression
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and almost 75% of these genes are expressed in the normal prostate. About 150 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the prostate, with about 20 genes being highly prostate specific. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in the glandular and secretory cells of the prostatic gland and have functions that are important for the characteristics of semen, including prostate-specific proteins, such as the prostate specific antigen (PSA), and the Prostatic acid phosphatase.
### Development
In the developing embryo, at the hind end lies an inpouching called the cloaca. This, over the fourth to the seventh week, divides into a urogenital sinus and the beginnings of the anal canal, with a wall forming between these two inpouchings called the urorectal septum. The urogenital sinus divides into three parts, with the middle part forming the urethra; the upper part is largest and becomes the urinary bladder, and the lower part then changes depending on the biological sex of the embryo.
The prostatic part of the urethra develops from the middle, pelvic, part of the urogenital sinus, which is of endodermal origin. Around the end of the third month of embryonic life, outgrowths arise from the prostatic part of the urethra and grow into the surrounding mesenchyme. The cells lining this part of the urethra differentiate into the glandular epithelium of the prostate. The associated mesenchyme differentiates into the dense connective tissue and the smooth muscle of the prostate.
Condensation of mesenchyme, urethra, and Wolffian ducts gives rise to the adult prostate gland, a composite organ made up of several tightly fused glandular and non-glandular components. To function properly, the prostate needs male hormones (androgens), which are responsible for male sex characteristics. The main male hormone is testosterone, which is produced mainly by the testicles. It is dihydrotestosterone (DHT), a metabolite of testosterone, that predominantly regulates the prostate. The prostate gland enlarges over time, until the fourth decade of life.
## Function
### In ejaculation
The prostate secretes fluid which becomes part of semen. Semen is the fluid emitted (ejaculated) by males during the sexual response. When sperm is emitted, it is transmitted from the vas deferens into the male urethra via the ejaculatory ducts, which lie within the prostate gland. Ejaculation is the expulsion of semen from the urethra. Semen is moved into the urethra following contractions of the smooth muscle of the vas deferens and seminal vesicles, following stimulation, primarily of the glans penis. Stimulation sends nerve signals via the internal pudendal nerves to the upper lumbar spine; the nerve signals causing contraction act via the hypogastric nerves. After traveling into the urethra, the seminal fluid is ejaculated by contraction of the bulbocavernosus muscle. The secretions of the prostate include proteolytic enzymes, prostatic acid phosphatase, fibrinolysin, zinc, and prostate-specific antigen. Together with the secretions from the seminal vesicles, these form the major fluid part of semen.
### In urination
The prostate's changes of shape, which facilitate the mechanical switch between urination and ejaculation, are mainly driven by the two longitudinal muscle systems running along the prostatic urethra. These are the urethral dilator (musculus dilatator urethrae) on the urethra's front side, which contracts during urination and thereby shortens and tilts the prostate in its vertical dimension thus widening the prostatic section of the urethral tube, and the muscle switching the urethra into the ejaculatory state (musculus ejaculatorius) on its backside.
In case of an operation, e.g. because of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), damaging or sparing of these two muscle systems varies considerably depending on the choice of operation type and details of the procedure of the chosen technique. The effects on postoperational urination and ejaculation vary correspondingly.
### In stimulation
It is possible for some men to achieve orgasm solely through stimulation of the prostate gland, such as via prostate massage or anal intercourse. This has led to the area of the rectal wall adjacent to the prostate to be popularly referred by the anatomically incorrect term, the "male G-spot".
## Clinical significance
### Inflammation
Prostatitis is inflammation of the prostate gland. It can be caused by infection with bacteria, or other noninfective causes. Inflammation of the prostate can cause painful urination or ejaculation, groin pain, difficulty passing urine, or constitutional symptoms such as fever or tiredness. When inflamed, the prostate becomes enlarged and is tender when touched during digital rectal examination. The bacteria responsible for the infection may be detected by a urine culture.
Acute prostatitis and chronic bacterial prostatitis are treated with antibiotics. Chronic non-bacterial prostatitis, or male chronic pelvic pain syndrome is treated by a large variety of modalities including the medications alpha blockers, nonsteroidal antiinflammatories and amitriptyline, antihistamines, and other anxiolytics. Other treatments that are not medications may include physical therapy, psychotherapy, nerve modulators, and surgery. More recently, a combination of trigger point and psychological therapy has proved effective for category III prostatitis as well.
### Enlarged prostate
An enlarged prostate is called prostatomegaly, with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) being the most common cause. BPH refers to an enlargement of the prostate due to an increase in the number of cells that make up the prostate () from a cause that is not a malignancy. It is very common in older men. It is often diagnosed when the prostate has enlarged to the point where urination becomes difficult. Symptoms include needing to urinate often (urinary frequency) or taking a while to get started (urinary hesitancy). If the prostate grows too large, it may constrict the urethra and impede the flow of urine, making urination painful and difficult, or in extreme cases completely impossible, causing urinary retention. Over time, chronic retention may cause the bladder to become larger and cause a backflow of urine into the kidneys (hydronephrosis).
BPH can be treated with medication, a minimally invasive procedure or, in extreme cases, surgery that removes the prostate. In general, treatment often begins with an alpha-1 adrenergic receptor antagonist medication such as tamsulosin, which reduces the tone of the smooth muscle found in the urethra that passes through the prostate, making it easier for urine to pass through. For people with persistent symptoms, procedures may be considered. The surgery most often used in such cases is transurethral resection of the prostate, in which an instrument is inserted through the urethra to remove prostate tissue that is pressing against the upper part of the urethra and restricting the flow of urine. Minimally invasive procedures include transurethral needle ablation of the prostate and transurethral microwave thermotherapy. These outpatient procedures may be followed by the insertion of a temporary stent, to allow normal voluntary urination, without exacerbating irritative symptoms.
### Cancer
Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers affecting older men in the UK, US, Northern Europe and Australia, and a significant cause of death for elderly men worldwide. Often, a person does not have symptoms; when they do occur, symptoms may include urinary frequency, urgency, hesitation and other symptoms associated with BPH. Uncommonly, such cancers may cause weight loss, retention of urine, or symptoms such as back pain due to lesions that have spread outside of the prostate.
A digital rectal examination and the measurement of a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level are usually the first investigations done to check for prostate cancer. PSA values are difficult to interpret, because a high value might be present in a person without cancer, and a low value can be present in someone with cancer. The next form of testing is often the taking of a prostate biopsy to assess for tumour activity and invasiveness. Because of the significant risk of overdiagnosis with widespread screening in the general population, prostate cancer screening is controversial. If a tumour is confirmed, medical imaging such as an MRI or bone scan may be done to check for the presence of tumour in other parts of the body.
Prostate cancer that is only present in the prostate is often treated with either surgical removal of the prostate or with radiotherapy or by the insertion of small radioactive particles of iodine-125 or palladium-103, called brachytherapy. Cancer that has spread to other parts of the body is usually treated also with hormone therapy, to deprive a tumour of sex hormones (androgens) that stimulate proliferation. This is often done through the use of GnRH analogues or agents (such as bicalutamide) that block the receptors that androgens act on; occasionally, surgical removal of the testes may be done instead. Cancer that does not respond to hormonal treatment, or that progresses after treatment, might be treated with chemotherapy such as docetaxel. Radiotherapy may also be used to help with pain associated with bony lesions.
Sometimes, the decision may be made not to treat prostate cancer. If a cancer is small and localised, the decision may be made to monitor for cancer activity at intervals ("active surveillance") and defer treatment. If a person, because of frailty or other medical conditions or reasons, has a life expectancy less than ten years, then the impacts of treatment may outweigh any perceived benefits.
### Surgery
Surgery to remove the prostate is called prostatectomy, and is usually done as a treatment for cancer limited to the prostate, or prostatic enlargement. When it is done, it may be done as open surgery or as laparoscopic (keyhole) surgery. These are done under general anaesthetic. Usually the procedure for cancer is a radical prostatectomy, which means that the seminal vesicles are removed and vas deferens is also tied off. Part of the prostate can also be removed from within the urethra, called transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP). Open surgery may involve a cut that is made in the perineum, or via an approach that involves a cut down the midline from the belly button to the pubic bone. Open surgery may be preferred if there is a suspicion that lymph nodes are involved and they need to be removed or biopsied during a procedure. A perineal approach will not involve lymph node removal and may result in less pain and a faster recovery following an operation. A TURP procedure uses a tube inserted into the urethra via the penis and some form of heat, electricity or laser to remove prostate tissue.
The whole prostate can be removed. Complications that might develop because of surgery include urinary incontinence and erectile dysfunction because of damage to nerves during the operation, particularly if a cancer is very close to nerves. Ejaculation of semen will not occur during orgasm if the vas deferens are tied off and seminal vesicles removed, such as during a radical prosatectomy. This will mean a man becomes infertile. Sometimes, orgasm may not be able to occur or may be painful. The penis length may change if the part of the urethra within the prostate is also removed. General complications due to surgery can also develop, such as infections, bleeding, inadvertent damage to nearby organs or within the abdomen, and the formation of blood clots.
## History
The prostate was first formally identified by Venetian anatomist Niccolò Massa in Anatomiae libri introductorius (Introduction to Anatomy) 1536 and illustrated by Flemish anatomist Andreas Vesalius in Tabulae anatomicae sex (six anatomical tables) in 1538. Massa described it as a "glandular flesh upon which rests the neck of the bladder," and Vesalius as a "glandular body". The first time a word similar to 'prostate' was used to describe the gland is credited to André du Laurens in 1600, who described it as a term already in use by anatomists at the time. The term was however used at least as early as 1549 by French surgeon Ambroise Pare.
At the time, Du Laurens was describing what was considered to be a pair of organs (not the single two-lobed organ), and the Latin term prostatae that was used was a mistranslation of the term for the Ancient Greek word used to describe the seminal vesicles, parastatai; although it has been argued that surgeons in Ancient Greece and Rome must have at least seen the prostate as an anatomical entity. The term prostatae was taken rather than the grammatically correct prostator (singular) and prostatores (plural) because the gender of the Ancient Greek term was taken as female, when it was in fact male.
The fact that the prostate was one and not two organs was an idea popularised throughout the early 18th century, as was the English language term used to describe the organ, prostate, attributed to William Cheselden. A monograph, "Practical observations on the treatment of the diseases of the prostate gland" by Everard Home in 1811, was important in the history of the prostate by describing and naming anatomical parts of the prostate, including the median lobe. The idea of the five lobes of the prostate was popularized following anatomical studies conducted by American urologist Oswald Lowsley in 1912. John E. McNeal first proposed the idea of "zones" in 1968; McNeal found that the relatively homogeneous cut surface of an adult prostate in no way resembled "lobes" and thus led to the description of "zones".
Prostate cancer was first described in a speech to the Medical and Chiurgical Society of London in 1853 by surgeon John Adams and increasingly described by the late 19th century. Prostate cancer was initially considered a rare disease, probably because of shorter life expectancies and poorer detection methods in the 19th century. The first treatments of prostate cancer were surgeries to relieve urinary obstruction. Samuel David Gross has been credited with the first mention of a prostatectomy, as "too absurd to be seriously entertained" The first removal for prostate cancer (radical perineal prostatectomy) was first performed in 1904 by Hugh H. Young at Johns Hopkins Hospital; partial removal of the gland was conducted by Theodore Billroth in 1867.
Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) replaced radical prostatectomy for symptomatic relief of obstruction in the middle of the 20th century because it could better preserve penile erectile function. Radical retropubic prostatectomy was developed in 1983 by Patrick Walsh. In 1941, Charles B. Huggins published studies in which he used estrogen to oppose testosterone production in men with metastatic prostate cancer. This discovery of "chemical castration" won Huggins the 1966 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
The role of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in reproduction was determined by Andrzej W. Schally and Roger Guillemin, who both won the 1977 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this work. GnRH receptor agonists, such as leuprorelin and goserelin, were subsequently developed and used to treat prostate cancer. Radiation therapy for prostate cancer was first developed in the early 20th century and initially consisted of intraprostatic radium implants. External beam radiotherapy became more popular as stronger X-ray radiation sources became available in the middle of the 20th century. Brachytherapy with implanted seeds (for prostate cancer) was first described in 1983. Systemic chemotherapy for prostate cancer was first studied in the 1970s. The initial regimen of cyclophosphamide and 5-fluorouracil was quickly joined by multiple regimens using a host of other systemic chemotherapy drugs.
## Other animals
The prostate is found only in mammals. The prostate glands of male marsupials are proportionally larger than those of placental mammals. The presence of a functional prostate in monotremes is controversial, and if monotremes do possess functional prostates, they may not make the same contribution to semen as in other mammals.
The structure of the prostate varies, ranging from tubuloalveolar (as in humans) to branched tubular. The gland is particularly well developed in dogs, foxes and boars, though in other mammals, such as bulls, it can be small and inconspicuous. In other animals, such as marsupials and small ruminants, the prostate is disseminate, meaning not specifically localisable as a distinct tissue, but present throughout the relevant part of the urethra; in other animals, such as red deer and American elk, it may be present as a specific organ and in a disseminate form. In some marsupial species, the size of the prostate gland changes seasonally. The prostate is the only accessory gland that occurs in male dogs. Dogs can produce in one hour as much prostatic fluid as a human can in a day. They excrete this fluid along with their urine to mark their territory. Additionally, dogs are the only species apart from humans seen to have a significant incidence of prostate cancer. In cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises) the prostate is composed of diffuse urethral glands and is surrounded by a very powerful compressor muscle.
The prostate gland originates with tissues in the urethral wall. This means the urethra, a compressible tube used for urination, runs through the middle of the prostate; enlargement of the prostate can constrict the urethra so that urinating becomes slow and painful.
Prostatic secretions vary among species. They are generally composed of simple sugars and are often slightly alkaline.
## Skene's gland
Because the Skene's gland and the male prostate act similarly by secreting prostate-specific antigen (PSA), which is an ejaculate protein produced in males, and of prostate-specific acid phosphatase, the Skene's gland is sometimes referred to as the "female prostate". Although it is homologous to the male prostate (developed from the same embryological tissues), various aspects of its development in relation to the male prostate are widely unknown and a matter of research.
## See also
- Ejaculatory duct
- Seminal vesicles
- Prostate evolution in monotreme mammals
- List of distinct cell types in the adult human body |
12,084,419 | Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus | 1,140,917,412 | null | [
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"April Fools' Day",
"Celine Dion",
"Cultural depictions of Saddam Hussein",
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] | "Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus" is the second season premiere of the American animated television series South Park. The 14th episode of the series overall, it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 1, 1998. The episode follows the two title characters, a duo of Canadians who attempt to save their country from the dictator Saddam Hussein while performing repetitive toilet humour. Unbeknownst to them, the plan was partially set up by their rival, Scott, a critic who is often displeased by their random jokes of flatulence. The script was written by series co-creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone, along with writer Trisha Nixon.
The episode was an elaborate April Fools' Day prank on South Park fans, who were waiting to learn the identity of Cartman's father after the cliffhanger ending of the first season finale "Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut". Angering viewers, the prank episode resulted in 2,000 e-mail complaints to Comedy Central within a week of the original broadcast. The broadcast date of the subsequent episode, "Cartman's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut", was moved up in response to the complaints. "Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus" received mixed reviews, with some commentators criticizing Parker and Stone for "duping" their viewers and others praising them for taking the risk. The creators cited this episode as their favorite, and response to it has become warmer since.
## Plot
The episode begins with an announcement that viewers have waited for weeks for the answer to the mystery "Who Is Cartman's Father", but then points out that the answer will not be revealed in this episode; instead, there is a presentation of an unrelated cartoon titled Not Without My Anus, starring Terrance and Phillip. A caption wishes the viewers a Happy April Fools' Day. The cartoon itself opens in a courtroom in Canada with Terrance on trial for the murder of a local doctor; Phillip is his lawyer while Terrance and Phillip's sworn nemesis Scott, who has had a long hatred of the duo's toilet humor, is acting as the prosecutor. Scott uses a group of airtight exhibits to prove Terrance's guilt, while Terrance's defense consists of nothing but a long string of fart jokes. The jury returns a verdict of not guilty. Angered, Scott promises vengeance. He is approached by Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, proposing a deal: Saddam would assist in getting Terrance and Phillip out of Canada, in exchange for Scott assisting Saddam and his Iraqi associates in to Canada. Scott is apprehensive about trusting Saddam but agrees to the deal. The pair then conspires to kidnap Sally, daughter of Terrance and Celine Dion, and hold her hostage, as bait to lure Terrance and Phillip to Tehran; Saddam's soldiers would then murder Terrance and Phillip on arrival.
Terrance and Phillip become aware of the kidnapping when they receive a letter, but they immediately locate Sally upon arrival in Tehran. The duo returns Sally to her home, where Saddam has now taken control. Celine, Terrance's now ex-wife, is dating, and has become pregnant by a friend of the duo named Ugly Bob. While the couple discuss their relationship, Saddam interrupts and takes them hostage, with Celine having planned to sing at a Canadian football game. Scott has also become worried about the presence of the Iraqi soldiers in Canada but becomes infuriated when he finds that Terrance and Phillip have returned to Canada safely. He confronts Saddam about the double-cross, but Saddam's armed guards scare him into backing away. It is revealed that Saddam is trying to take over Canada as the first step in a plan for world domination. Terrance and Phillip arrive at the game. Instead of following a plan set up by Scott to commit suicide by using a bomb, they produce a new plan and put on gas masks. With brute force, everyone farts a huge gas cloud which kills Saddam and his soldiers. Scott arrives and is annoyed to find that Terrance and Phillip are still alive. Terrance, Phillip, Celine, and everyone else (excluding Scott) celebrate their freedom with a rendition of "O Canada". During the credits, an announcement stating that the solution to who Cartman's father is will be answered in a few weeks is shown.
## Production
"Terrance and Philip in Not Without My Anus" was written by Trisha Nixon and South Park co-creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone and directed by Parker. It was the second season premiere and first episode centered completely around Terrance and Phillip, fictional cartoon characters within the series.
The episode first aired on April 1, 1998, as an April Fools' Day prank by Parker and Stone on South Park fans who were anxiously waiting to learn the identity of Cartman's father after the cliffhanger ending of "Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut", the first season finale. Instead, Parker and Stone presented a stand-alone episode entirely focused on a Terrance and Phillip cartoon with nothing in the story about Cartman's father. Upset fans wrote 2,000 angry e-mail complaints to Comedy Central within a week of the episode's original broadcast, and media outlets said some fans harbored a grudge against the show more than five years after the episode was broadcast. Stone said to Entertainment Weekly in response to the fan backlash, "If you get that pissed off because you don't know who a little construction paper kid's father is, then there's really something wrong with you." Allan Johnson of the Chicago Tribune said Comedy Central was "punking out" with the decision.
Several reviewers noted a significant amount of crude and vulgar humor in "Terrance and Philip in Not Without My Anus", even by South Park standards; The Sydney Morning Herald noted the episode contained 29 separate fart jokes in the span of 22 minutes. Global Television Network in Canada reported no complaints about the episode in the weeks after its release.
## Reception
Reviewers were mixed on Parker and Stone's elaborate April Fools' Day prank. Diane Werts of Newsday said of the episode, "Fans rioted. Some jumped ship and never came back. The lesson: Pay off our expectations, or you'll be sorry." Jim Minge of the Omaha World-Herald said South Park fans were "duped" by the episode. Philip Martin of the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, who said in May 1998 the South Park phenomenon was "dead", described the April Fools' prank as "lamentable" and part of the reason for the show's apparent decline. Others, however, praised Parker and Stone for making the move at the risk of upsetting fans. Tim Clodfelter of the Winston-Salem Journal said, "It was a funny, clever move [that] quickly separated the fans who truly 'got' [Parker and Stone's] humor from those who were just watching for the dirty jokes." Jon Casimir of The Sydney Morning Herald said, "It is gratifying, in an entertainment world dominated by market research and common denominators, to see a program that obviously doesn't care if you like it or not." However, he said the characterization of Terrance and Phillip was too thin to be particularly funny and added that the novelty of the prank is lost in later years.
Jakob Von Bayer said the episode continued a long history of South Park Canada-bashing: "South Park has gotten a lot of comic mileage out of Canada over the years. [...] This episode portrays a country full of Bob and Doug McKenzies; Toronto is but a highway town en route to Buffalo." "Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus" was among the episodes featured in a 2006 list by the Winnipeg Free Press of the ten most memorable South Park episodes. The Toronto Sun listed the episode as one of the most memorable television moments of 1998, and the single most memorable moment from the month of April. The prank played by the airing of this episode was revisited a number of times in subsequent episodes. The episode "Cartoon Wars Part II" revisits it by appearing to begin with a similar spoof, though the episode then cuts to the actual plot. The fifth season episode, "Terrance and Phillip: Behind the Blow", also references the controversy over the airing of this episode, as does the thirteenth season episode, "Eat, Pray, Queef".
### Home media
"Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus" was released on VHS on June 15, 1999, as a stand-alone episode. It was also released on DVD, along with the rest of season two, in June 2003. |
51,808,465 | Greg Mancz | 1,173,836,786 | American football player (born 1992) | [
"1992 births",
"American football centers",
"American football offensive guards",
"American football offensive tackles",
"Baltimore Ravens players",
"Buffalo Bills players",
"Cleveland Browns players",
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"Toledo Rockets football players"
] | Gregory Brian Mancz (born April 23, 1992) is an American football center for the Buffalo Bills of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Toledo, where he was a four-year starter at several positions along the offensive line. He earned various All-American and All-MAC honors during his college career. His senior season in 2014, he won the Vern Smith Leadership Award, which is given to the best player in the MAC. Mancz went undrafted in the 2015 NFL Draft and signed with the Texans shortly thereafter. Due to a season-ending injury to Nick Martin, Mancz was the Texans' starting center for the entire 2016 season.
## Early years
Mancz was a two-year starter for the Anderson High School football team in Cincinnati, Ohio. He played in the state championship game in 2007 and 2008, with Anderson High winning the title in 2007. He played right tackle his junior season in 2008 and left tackle his senior season in 2009.
He earned First-team All-League, Second-team All-Southwest District and honorable mention All-State honors as a senior in 2009 as the team finished the season with a 12–1 record. He was team captain his senior year as well. He was also selected to play in the 2010 Ohio North-South All-Star Game and the 2010 Big 33 Classic.
In the class of 2010, he was rated a two-star recruit by Scout.com and a three-star recruit by Rivals.com. He committed to Toledo in January 2010. He also had offers from Air Force and Ohio.
## College career
Mancz played for the Toledo Rockets of the University of Toledo (UT) from 2011 to 2014 and started 48 games. He was redshirted in 2010.
### 2011–2013
Mancz started all 13 games at right guard in 2011. He was named a First-team Freshman All-American by Yahoo! Sports and a Third-team Freshman All-American by Phil Steele. He also garnered Honorable Mention Academic All-MAC accolades. Mancz also won the Cohen Freshman of the Year Award, which is given to Toledo football's "Freshman of the Year". He again started all 13 games in 2012, earning Third-team All-MAC and Academic All-MAC honors.
In July 2013, he was named a nominee for the Allstate AFCA Good Works Team, which recognizes college football players for their community service. Mancz started 12 games in 2013, starting the first three games at right tackle before being moved back to right guard for the rest of the year. He earned Second-team All-MAC and Academic All-MAC honors. He won the team's offensive Unsung Hero Award.
### 2014
He moved to center for the 2014 season to replace the recently graduated Zac Kerin. In July 2014, Mancz was named to the watch lists for both the Rimington Trophy, which is given to the best center in college football, and the Lombardi Award, which is awarded to the best lineman or linebacker in college football. Also in July 2014, he was named a nominee for the Allstate AFCA Good Works Team for the second year in a row.
He started the first nine games of the regular season before missing the last three games due to a knee injury. He then returned as a starter in the team's GoDaddy Bowl victory over Arkansas State. The Rockets finished the year with a 9–4 record, including the bowl victory. The Rockets offense led the MAC in scoring offense, total offense and rushing offense in 2014.
He was named a Second-team All-American by the Football Writers Association of America (FWAA). He was the only player from the MAC to be named to the FWAA All-American team that year and was also the first Toledo player to be named an All-American since Eric Page in 2011. He also won the Vern Smith Leadership Award, which is given to the best player in the MAC. He was the first offensive lineman to ever win the Vern Smith Leadership Award and the first Toledo player since Bruce Gradkowski in 2005 to win the award. Mancz earned First-team All-MAC and Academic All-MAC honors as well. He also won Toledo football's Jim Nicholson Award, which is given to "the player contributing the most toward the success of the team". He was a team captain in 2014 and was also made a permanent team captain.
Mancz was a finalist for the 2014 Wuerffel Trophy, which is given to the college football player "who combines outstanding community service with athletic and academic achievement". He was also a semifinalist for the 2014 William V. Campbell Trophy, which is given to the best scholar-athlete in the nation. In May 2015, he received the MAC's Medal of Excellence Award, which is given annually to one male and one female member from the graduating class of each school in the conference.
Mancz accepted an invitation to play in the 2015 East-West Shrine Game as part of the West Team. However, he did not play in the game as he suffered a shoulder injury during the second day of Shrine Game practices.
## Professional career
Mancz attended the 2015 NFL Combine but did not work out due to his January 2015 shoulder injury. He was rated the eighth best center in the 2015 NFL Draft by NFLDraftScout.com. Lance Zierlein of NFL.com said that "Based on Mancz's tape and history, one would have to expect that he will find a way to succeed in the league." Zierlein projected him as a sixth or seventh round pick. Chris Burke of SI.com projected Mancz as a mid to late fifth round pick.
### Houston Texans
Mancz signed with the Houston Texans on May 8, 2015, after going undrafted in the 2015 Draft. He played in the first three games of the 2015 season but was inactive for the next five games. In late October, he suffered a knee injury that required surgery. He was placed on season-ending injured reserve on November 3, 2015. He was taken off injured reserve on February 8, 2016.
In August 2016, he became the team's starting center after a season-ending injury to Nick Martin. He started all 16 games for the Texans in 2016. He also started the team's two playoff games.
With Martin returning from injury in 2017, Mancz began the season as the team's primary backup along the interior of the offensive line. During the Week 1 game against the Jacksonville Jaguars on September 10, Mancz replaced starting left guard Xavier Su'a-Filo to begin the second half but was shifted to right guard after an injury to Jeff Allen. Mancz then started the Week 2 game against the Cincinnati Bengals on September 14 at right guard. On September 18, Texans head coach Bill O'Brien stated that Mancz would remain the starting right guard even if Allen is healthy. Mancz then started the Week 3 game against the New England Patriots on September 24. Mancz missed the Week 4 game against the Tennessee Titans on October 1 due to a knee injury.
On August 31, 2018, Mancz signed a two-year contract extension with the Texans through the 2020 season.
On September 5, 2020, Mancz was released by the Texans and signed to the practice squad the next day. He was elevated to the active roster on November 7, November 14, November 21, and January 2, 2021, for the team's weeks 9, 10, 11, and 17 games against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Cleveland Browns, New England Patriots, and Tennessee Titans, and reverted to the practice squad after each game. Mancz was released on January 7, 2021.
### Baltimore Ravens
On January 12, 2021, Mancz signed with the practice squad of the Baltimore Ravens. On January 29, 2021, Mancz signed a reserve/futures contract with the Ravens.
### Miami Dolphins
On August 28, 2021, Mancz was traded to the Miami Dolphins, along with a 2022 seventh-round pick, in exchange for a 2022 sixth-round pick. He was placed on injured reserve on November 10, 2021. He was activated on December 18.
### Buffalo Bills
On March 21, 2022, Mancz signed with the Buffalo Bills. He was released on August 30, 2022, and signed to the practice squad the next day. He was released on November 17.
### Cleveland Browns
On November 22, 2022, Mancz was signed to the Cleveland Browns active roster. He was released on December 23.
### Minnesota Vikings
On January 3, 2023, Minnesota signed Mancz to the active roster after losing Brian O'Neill and Austin Schlottmann to injury. He was released on January 14.
### Buffalo Bills (second stint)
On January 19, 2023, the Buffalo Bills signed Mancz to the practice squad. He signed a reserve/future contract on January 23, 2023.
On August 29, 2023, Mancz was released by the Bills and re-signed to the practice squad.
## Personal life
While at the University of Toledo, Mancz spent time as the UT Student-Athlete Advisory Council (SAAC) president, the UT vice-president for Athletes in Action and the UT vice-president for the Fellowship of Christian Athletes. He also spent time on the UT Football Team Leadership Council, the UT Football Leadership Board and the MAC Student-Athlete Advisory Committee. He participated in numerous community service events while at UT. Mancz graduated from Toledo with a degree in finance. |
15,821,635 | Kasim Reed | 1,170,999,732 | American politician and former mayor of Atlanta, Georgia | [
"1969 births",
"20th-century African-American people",
"21st-century African-American lawyers",
"21st-century African-American politicians",
"21st-century American lawyers",
"21st-century American politicians",
"African-American mayors in Georgia (U.S. state)",
"American lawyers",
"American people of Igbo descent",
"Candidates in the 2021 United States elections",
"Democratic Party Georgia (U.S. state) state senators",
"Democratic Party members of the Georgia House of Representatives",
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"Igbo lawyers",
"Igbo politicians",
"Living people",
"Mayors of Atlanta",
"Paul Hastings people",
"People from Fulton County, Georgia",
"Politicians from Plainfield, New Jersey"
] | Mohammed Kasim Reed (born June 10, 1969) is an American lawyer and politician who served as the 59th mayor of Atlanta, Georgia's state capital and largest city, from 2010 to 2018. A Democrat, Reed was a member of the Georgia House of Representatives from 1998 to 2002 and represented the 35th District in the Georgia State Senate from 2003 to 2009. He served as campaign manager for Shirley Franklin's successful Atlanta mayoral campaign in 2001. After Franklin was term limited from the mayor's office, Reed successfully ran for the position in 2009. Inaugurated on January 4, 2010, Reed was elected to a second term in 2013.
In 2014, Reed announced his marriage to Sarah-Elizabeth Langford; two months later, the mayor's office announced the birth of the couple's daughter. Divorce proceedings began in 2019.
On June 10, 2021, Reed declared that he was seeking another term as Atlanta's mayor in the 2021 election. He placed third in the November election, failing to qualify for the runoff election.
## Early life and education
Reed was born in Plainfield, New Jersey. His family moved to Fulton County, Georgia, when he was an infant. His family belonged to the United Methodist Church. His father had considered converting to Islam and named his son Mohammed Kasim, to the consternation of his minister grandfather. Reed graduated from Fulton County's Utoy Springs Elementary School and Westwood High School, now Westlake High School. According to a DNA analysis, he is a descendant through African ancestral lines from the Igbo people of Nigeria.
### Howard University
Reed attended Howard University in Washington, D.C., graduating in 1991 with a degree in political science.
Students took over the Howard administration building in 1989, protesting having Republican National Committee Chairman Lee Atwater on the university's board of trustees, saying that he had contributed to "growing anti-black sentiment in America" through his management of President George H. W. Bush's campaign. Atwater resigned from the board. Reed disagreed with their action, saying there was nothing wrong with having the Republican Party try to win the votes of black students. He felt it would have been better if Atwater had met with the protesting students, as he might have learned more about their position. For instance, "[he] might have gained insight into a generation of students portrayed as destitute and in need of more federal support." Reed noted "that 85 percent of Howard's 12,000 students receive federal aid."
An early entrepreneur, by 1989 Reed made \$40,000 running a jewelry business which he started at age sixteen. In 1990 he was invited to comment on the Persian Gulf War military buildup on the MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour. Also, in November of that year he was featured in Black Enterprise.
While at college, Reed interned for Congressman Joseph Patrick Kennedy II. During his internship he learned about a federal dollar-for-dollar matching grant program. In his senior year and as the undergraduate trustee on the university's board of trustees, he instituted a \$15-per-semester student fee increase to be matched by the federal grant, with monies to be earmarked for the university's endowment. The fees were expected to total nearly \$300,000 per semester. The estimate was conservative in the sense that it only assumes the fees from slightly more than 75% of the 12,000 students. The four-year totals would approach a \$2.4 million addition to the endowment. Reed earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science in 1991. He earned his Juris Doctor degree from Howard University School of Law in 1995. In 2002 Reed was appointed as the youngest general trustee to serve on Howard's board of trustees and continues to serve on that board.
## Legal career
After graduation from law school Reed joined the law firm of Paul, Hastings, Janofsky & Walker LLP, and later became a partner at Holland & Knight LLP, both law firms being international firms with offices in Atlanta.
## Political career
### Georgia State Representative
Henrietta Canty was a member of the Georgia House of Representatives for the 52nd district during 1975–80 and 1990–98, resigning in 1998 to run for Georgia State Insurance Commissioner. Seven candidates vied for her seat in the July 21, 1998 Democratic primary election. Reed was the leading vote-getter with 36.6% of the vote, finishing well ahead of community leaders Horace Mann Bond and Eric V. Thomas, the second and third-place finishers, respectively. This resulted in a head-to-head August 11 run-off election, which Reed won with 60.6% of the vote, against the second-place finisher, Horace Mann Bond II, who had received 19.1% of the vote in July. Reed ran unopposed in the November 3 general election and won the Assembly seat.
Reed ran a re-election campaign in 2000, when he was challenged by Clarence Canty, the son of Henrietta Canty. Reed won the July 18, 2000, Democratic primary by a large margin, with 77.0% of the vote, winning by a 12.7% margin. In the November 7, 2000, general election he ran unopposed. In the House of Representatives, he represented a predominately African-American constituency in south Atlanta. Reed served as a member of the House Judiciary, Education, and Congressional and Legislative Reapportionment Committees.
While in office, in 2001 Reed served as the campaign manager for Shirley Franklin's successful election campaign to become the 58th Mayor of Atlanta. As a campaign manager in an election occurring in the shadow of the September 11 attacks, he surveyed potential voters' perceptions of the propriety of the campaign's advertising broadcasts. At the time certain ads were thought to focus on sensitive topics. After winning the election, Franklin chose Reed as one of two co-chairs on her transition team. In this role he was charged with identifying and reviewing candidates for cabinet-level positions.
For the 2000 election, House district 52 had been entirely contained in Fulton County. After the decennary redistricting, the 52nd district was entirely within DeKalb County for the November 5, 2002, election which was won by Fran Millar.
### Georgia State Senator
In 2000 the 35th Georgia State Senate District was entirely contained in Fulton County, and State Senator Donzella James was an uncontested Democrat in the November 7 general election. In 2002 four-term incumbent Senator James vacated the seat and contested David Scott and other contenders for the Georgia's 13th congressional district, which was created after the 2000 census when Georgia added two new congressional districts. When Reed first ran for election in the 35 state senate district in the 2002 Democratic primary, it included 19 precincts in Douglas County, Georgia, and 333 in Fulton County. The district includes the southern portion of Fulton County (Atlanta, Alpharetta, College Park, East Point, Fairburn, Hapeville, Mountain Park, Palmetto, Roswell, Sandy Springs, and Union City) and the northeast portion of Douglas County (Douglasville, and Lithia Springs). Reed won the district's five-way primary on August 20, 2002, with 65.8% of the vote, and then he was uncontested in the November 5, 2002 general election. In 2004 James challenged Reed for the seat she had held before him, but he won the July 20, 2004 Democratic primary election by a 58.8%–41.2% margin. He ran unopposed in the November 2, 2004 general election, and he also ran unopposed in his 2006 and 2008 primary and general elections.
In January 2006, Reed introduced a bill to authorize scholastic teaching of the textbook The Bible and Its Influence by the non-partisan, ecumenical Bible Literacy Project. The bible curriculum bill, which came a few years after Democrats opposed Republican attempts to promote teaching a translation of the scriptures, was an attempt to preempt a Republican attempt to display the Ten Commandments in schools. Faith is an area where Georgia Democrats differ from the national party. The bill passed in the State Senate by a 50–1 margin on February 3, and it eventually became law.
Reed's committee assignments were the following: Senate Judiciary Committee, Special Judiciary Committee, Ethics Committee, Transportation Committee and the State and Local Government Operations Committee. He also serves as vice-chairman of the Georgia Senate Democratic Caucus. He has also served the Georgia Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee as its chairman. In addition, he was a partner at Holland & Knight LLP. Previously, he worked in the music industry for Paul, Hastings, Janofsky & Walker LLP.
### Mayor of Atlanta
A month before the February 5, 2008 Super Tuesday Georgia Democratic primary, Reed endorsed Barack Obama. In March 2008, Reed announced an exploratory committee, named ONE Atlanta, to investigate his viability as a candidate in the 2009 Atlanta mayoral election. Two-term incumbent Mayor Franklin was term limited and could not run again. His exploratory committee announcement was coupled with an announcement that he would be pursuing a Hillary Clinton-style coalition-building tour. During the summer of 2008, ONE Atlanta announced that the exploratory committee had become a formal campaign committee.
On September 1, Reed resigned from the Georgia Senate to run for mayor. No candidate won a majority in the November 3 general election, and Donzella James defeated Torrey O. Johnson in the runoff election on December 1 to replace Reed.
In the November 3, 2009 election, Reed qualified for a December 1 runoff election against Mary Norwood. According to The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Reed had a winning majority in the runoff election that seemed destined to be contested by a recount. The New York Times described the race as too close to call with 98 to 99 percent of the votes counted and Reed leading by only 620 of the 84,000 votes cast. On December 9 after the completion of a recount Reed was declared the winner by a margin of 714 votes, after which Mary Norwood officially conceded. Reed took office on January 4, 2010.
Thomas Friedman has praised Reed in The New York Times for balancing the city's budget by limiting the pensions of city employees. This money was instead spent on the police force, as well as on community centers in poor neighborhoods (rather than on reversing the 42% increase in property taxes passed in 2009). He praises Reed as "combining a soft touch with a hard head".
Reed announced his campaign for re-election as mayor on August 26, 2013. He was elected to a second term on November 5, 2013.
#### Bribery charges and federal indictment
In February 2017, Reed fired the city's chief procurement officer after two city contractors pleaded guilty to federal bribery charges. At a February 9 news conference, Reed insisted, "I have never taken a bribe", and gave reporters physical access to 406 boxes of documents that had been demanded by federal investigators.
On August 15, 2018, Katrina Taylor-Parks pleaded guilty to conspiring to accept bribe payments while serving as the City of Atlanta's Deputy Chief of Staff to the Mayor Kasim Reed for approximately eight years. She was sentenced to five years in prison. Atlanta's top purchasing officer, Adam Smith, received a reduced sentence of 27 months in prison. In a separate hearing, Mitzi Bickers, the former Human Services Director and campaign advisor of Mayor Reed is accused of taking over 2 million dollars in bribes.
## Policy positions
### Georgia state flag
Since the 1990s, the official State Flag of Georgia had been a center of controversy as it incorporated the historic Confederate flag dating to the American Civil War, which among some people is thought to symbolize resistance to cultural changes in the state. After 2001 changes to the flag which removed this, Governor of Georgia Roy Barnes, who had led the flag-redesign effort, was defeated for re-election; many thought it was the result of the political backlash. The 1956 version with the Confederate States of America battle emblem, known as a St. Andrew's cross, was a continuing topic of debate for southern heritage proponents.
Reed served as one of Governor Sonny Perdue's floor leaders in debates that led to the ratification of the current (2003) version of the state flag. Reed's leadership in dealmaking with Senate Republicans kept the 1956 version of the flag off Perdue's statewide referendum on the flag in 2003. The referendum was originally a two-part referendum pitting the 2001 version of the flag against the proposed version and conditional on failed ratification of a new flag considering other flags including the 1956 version. Under this format if the legislators did not approve the newly designed flag over the existing one they could have pursued other designs including the one with the controversial 1956 version of the flag. Reed and a contingent of black legislators from Atlanta limited the referendum to a single vote of preference between the 2003 version and the 2001 version.
### Gay marriage
On May 21, 2009, Reed caused controversy in Atlanta's LGBT community when he stated that he supported civil unions for gays, but not gay marriage. In December 2012, however, Reed announced his support for marriage equality for same-sex couples.
In January 2015, Reed fired Atlanta Fire Chief Kelvin Cochran following Cochran's self-publication and distribution of a book without permission from Reed or the city's Ethics Department. However, Cochran did obtain permission from Nina Hickson, the City of Atlanta's Ethics Officer. The book, in expressing his interpretation of Christian teaching, describes homosexuality as a "perversion." Cochran wrote and self-published the book in 2013. There remain questions regarding whether Mayor Reed knew of the book and its contents before Cochran was fired. Cochran has since filed suit in federal court alleging wrongful termination. This case has been decided in favor of Kevin Cochran and the City of Atlanta has agreed to a \$1.2 million settlement.
In June 2015, Reed praised the Supreme Court's ruling in favor of same-sex marriage and ordered Atlanta City Hall to be lit in rainbow colors in celebration of what he called "a momentous victory for freedom, equality, and love."
### Transportation investment tax
Along with Georgia Governor Nathan Deal, Reed was a major proponent of a campaign for a transportation special-purpose local-option sales tax, which would have levied a 1% local sales tax for ten years, from 2013 until 2022, to fund transportation infrastructure projects. Reed said that the passage of the referendum would add jobs and alleviate congestion in the city, while "failing to pass the measure would be economically damaging" for Atlanta. The proposal was defeated in a referendum, however. Reed stated that he would "work with opponents on the next plan to ease congestion."
## Awards and recognition
Mayor Reed's civic leadership and service have been nationally recognized in publications such as the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, the Washington Post, the New York Times, Ebony, and Black Enterprise. He was selected as one of Georgia Trend magazine's "40 under 40 Rising Stars" in 2001, one of "10 Outstanding Atlantans" in Outstanding Atlanta, a member of the Leadership Georgia Class of 2000, and a board member of the Metropolitan Atlanta Arts Fund. 2011, he received an honorary degree in Doctor of Laws from Oglethorpe University.
In 2017, the Atlanta Hawks retired the jersey number 59 in honor of Reed who was involved with the team throughout his tenure.
## See also
- List of mayors of the largest 50 US cities |
354,633 | Westminster tube station | 1,156,146,388 | London Underground station | [
"Circle line (London Underground) stations",
"District line stations",
"Former Metropolitan District Railway stations",
"Jubilee line stations",
"London Underground Night Tube stations",
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"Tube stations in the City of Westminster"
] | Westminster is a London Underground station in the City of Westminster. It is served by the Circle, District and Jubilee lines. On the Circle and District lines, the station is between St James's Park and Embankment, and on the Jubilee line it is between Green Park and Waterloo. It is in Travelcard Zone 1. The station is located at the corner of Bridge Street and Victoria Embankment and is close to the Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey, Parliament Square, Whitehall, Westminster Bridge, and the London Eye. Also close by are Downing Street, the Cenotaph, Westminster Millennium Pier, the Treasury, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and the Supreme Court.
The station is in two parts: sub-surface platforms opened in 1868 by the District Railway (DR) as part of the company's first section of the Inner Circle route and deep level platforms opened in 1999 as part of the Jubilee line extension from Green Park to Stratford. A variety of underground and main line services have operated over the sub-surface tracks, but the original station was completely rebuilt in conjunction with the construction of the deep level platforms and Portcullis House, which sits above the station.
## History
### Circle & District line platforms
The station was opened as Westminster Bridge on 24 December 1868 by the steam-operated District Railway (DR) (now the District line) when the railway opened the first section of its line from South Kensington. It was originally the eastern terminus of the DR and the station cutting ended at a concrete wall buffered by timber sleepers. The approach to the station from the west runs in cut and cover tunnel under the roadway of Broad Sanctuary and diagonally under Parliament Square. In Broad Sanctuary the tunnel is close to Westminster Abbey and St Margaret's church and care was required to avoid undermining their foundations when excavating in the poor ground found there.
The original station building was a temporary structure positioned over the tracks and the platforms were sheltered with individual awnings rather than the all-over glazed roof provided at the DR's other stations. Access to the station was via a passageway from Bridge Street and a pedestrian subway under the road. On 30 May 1870, the railway was extended to Blackfriars.
The DR connected to the Metropolitan Railway (MR, later the Metropolitan line) at South Kensington and, although the two companies were rivals, each company operated its trains over the other's tracks in a joint service known as the Inner Circle. On 1 February 1872, the DR opened a northbound branch from its station at Earl's Court to connect to the West London Extension Joint Railway (WLEJR, now the West London Line) at Addison Road (now Kensington (Olympia)). From that date the Outer Circle service began running over the DR's tracks. The service was run by the North London Railway (NLR) from its terminus at Broad Street (now demolished) in the City of London via the North London Line to Willesden Junction, then the West London Line to Addison Road and the DR to Mansion House – at that time the eastern terminus of the DR.
From 1 August 1872, the Middle Circle service also began operations through South Kensington, running from Moorgate along the MR's tracks on the north side of the Inner Circle to Paddington, then over the Hammersmith & City Railway (H&CR) track to Latimer Road, then, via a now demolished link, on the WLEJR to Addison Road and the DR to Mansion House. The service was operated jointly by the H&CR and the DR. On 30 June 1900, the Middle Circle service was shortened to terminate at Earl's Court, and, on 31 December 1908, the Outer Circle service was withdrawn from the DR tracks. As part of efforts to improve competitiveness, the DR's tracks were electrified during 1905 and new electric rolling stock was brought into use. In 1907, the station was given its present name, Westminster.
By the mid-1890s the station entrance had been incorporated into a larger building. In 1922, a new entrance and canopy was designed for the Bridge Street entrance by Charles Holden and, in 1924, he designed a plainly rendered replacement elevation for the eastern entrance on to the Embankment. These were the first of many projects by the architect for the London Electric Railway (the main forerunner of London Transport and Transport for London). The station platforms were also refurbished with new wall tiling in the green, blue, black and white tiling scheme used later by Holden on many stations of the period and still visible at neighbouring St James's Park station. In 1949, the Metropolitan line-operated Inner Circle route was given its own identity on the tube map as the Circle line.
Between late 1962 and early 1964 the east ends of the platforms were extended to allow longer 8-car trains to be operated. This involved carefully enlarging the tunnels under the Metropolitan Police's original headquarters at New Scotland Yard (now Norman Shaw Buildings). The station was completely rebuilt to incorporate new deep-level platforms for the Jubilee line when it was extended to the London Docklands in the 1990s. During the works, the level of the sub-surface platforms was lowered to enable ground level access to Portcullis House. This was achieved in small increments which were carried out when the line was closed at night.
### Jubilee line platforms
When the first section of the Jubilee line was planned in the 1970s, the second phase of the project was intended to continue the line eastwards from the terminus at Charing Cross to the City of London, Woolwich and Thamesmead. Westminster station would not have been on this planned route, but the need to provide transport infrastructure for the redevelopment of the London Docklands in east and south-east London led to a redirection of the route to run via Westminster to connect Waterloo and London Bridge stations with the new developments. For the Jubilee Line Extension, the buildings around the station were demolished and the sub-surface station was completely reconstructed together with the erection of a parliamentary office building, Portcullis House, which sits above the station. Both projects were designed by Michael Hopkins & Partners.
The construction of the deep-level station involved the excavation of a 39-metre (128 ft) deep void around and beneath the sub-surface station to house the escalators to the Jubilee line platforms. The void, known as the station box, was the deepest ever excavation in central London and was carried out between thick reinforced concrete diaphragm walls stiffened and braced horizontally for stability. Under Bridge Street, on the south side of the station box, the two Jubilee line platform tunnels are arranged with the westbound platform below the eastbound. The depth of the station box excavation and the proximity of the tunnels represented a significant risk to the stability of the foundation of the Houses of Parliament's clock tower (commonly known as Big Ben), which stands only 34 metres (112 ft) from the edge of the station box. To protect the foundation and manage settlement in the sub-soil, a series of 50-metre (160 ft) long steel tubes were installed horizontally around and beneath the clock tower's 3-metre (9.8 ft) thick foundation. The tubes were provided with a control system through which grout was injected into the ground to compensate for settlement detected from detailed measurements of the clock tower's position. As excavation of the station box and the tunnels took place, grout was injected on 22 occasions between January 1996 and September 1997. The process limited the movement of the clock tower to an acceptable maximum of 35 millimetres (1.4 in). Without the grout injection, the movement would have been at least 120 millimetres (4.7 in) causing cracking to the structure of the tower and the Houses of Parliament. The Jubilee line platforms were opened on 22 December 1999, although trains had been running through the station without stopping since 20 November 1999.
The station's architecture is an austere combination of concrete and stainless steel, with stacked banks of escalators supported from the cross-bracing structures spanning the station box and routes for passengers entering or leaving the station separated from those changing between lines. As with the other underground stations on the extension, the Jubilee line platforms feature platform edge doors to improve airflow through the system and increase safety. The station design won a number of awards including Civic Trust awards in 2000 and 2002, the Royal Fine Art Commission Millennium Building of the Year award in 2000 and the RIBA Award for Architecture in 2001. Both projects were jointly short-listed in 2001 for the RIBA's prestigious Stirling Prize.
In July 2003, the Royal Navy unveiled a plaque of HMS Westminster in the station concourse, commemorating the relationship between London Underground and Navy.
### Design icon
As part of the Transported by Design programme of activities, on 15 October 2015, after two months of public voting, Westminster tube station was elected by Londoners as one of the 10 favourite transport design icons.
## Services
The station is in London fare zone 1. On the District and Circle lines, the station is between St James's Park and Embankment, and, on the Jubilee line, it is between Green Park and Waterloo. Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally District line trains operate every 2–6 minutes from approximately 05:25 to 00:38 eastbound and 05:49 to 00:37 westbound; they are supplemented by Circle line trains every 8–12 minutes from approximately 05:49 to 00:24 clockwise and 05:36 to 00:19 anticlockwise. Jubilee line trains operate every 2–5 minutes from approximately 05:28 to 00:48 eastbound and 05:38 to 00:31 northbound.
## Connections
London Buses routes 3, 11, 12, 24, 87, 88, 148, 159, 211, 453 and night routes N3, N11, N44, N53, N87, N109, N136, N155 and N381 serve the station. |
25,682,420 | December 2000 nor'easter | 1,171,148,748 | null | [
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"2000 natural disasters in the United States",
"December 2000 events in the United States",
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] | The December 2000 nor'easter was a significant winter storm that impacted the Mid-Atlantic and New England regions of the United States around the end of the month. It began as an Alberta clipper that moved southeastward through the central United States and weakened over the Ohio Valley. However, it redeveloped off the coast of North Carolina and moved northward as it intensified. It moved into central Long Island and eventually tracked northward into New England. The storm dropped heavy precipitation throughout the Northeast, especially in northern New Jersey and eastern New York, where snowfall often exceeded 2 ft (0.61 m). Even so, as it struck on a weekend, its effects were generally minor and mostly limited to travel delays, traffic accidents, and business closures.
## Synoptic history
The storm developed as an Alberta clipper-type low pressure area that moved southeastward across the Great Plains and Midwest. Throughout North Dakota, Minnesota and Iowa, moderate snowfall accompanied the system. After weakening over the Ohio Valley, the storm redeveloped off the coast of North Carolina. In the days preceding the event, a cyclone over eastern Canada circulated cold air southward. Computer models indicated the potential for a major storm up to seven days in advance; however, initially, certain forecasts suggested that a separate storm over the southern U.S. would merge with the clipper. Instead, this feature moved out to sea.
As the secondary storm began to intensify offshore, precipitation rapidly expanded and tracked northward towards southern Virginia, eastern Maryland and Delaware, largely in the form of freezing rain, ice, and snow. From 0200 UTC on December 30 to 1200 UTC, the cyclone intensified by 13 mbar, and continued to deepen for several more hours. Snowfall reached southern New Jersey between 0600 and 0800 UTC, and New York City at around 1000 UTC. Thundersnow developed within heavy bands in some areas. The significant snow was characterized by a sharp western cutoff; for example, in Chester County, accumulations ranged from around 6 inches in the far eastern parts of the county to only an inch along its western border with Lancaster County.
While located off the New Jersey coast, the storm stopped strengthening and slowly moved northward. The center was situated near central Long Island at 2100 UTC. Across eastern Long Island and parts of eastern New England, snow mixed with and, in some cases, changed over to rain. The surface low had moved into eastern Connecticut by early on December 31. As it continued to head northeastward, a new center of low pressure developed near Boston and moved towards coastal Maine. The storm system had abated by January 1.
## Impact
The storm produced moderate to heavy snowfall from eastern Pennsylvania through New Jersey, New York, and New England, extending as far north as Maine. As much as 30 in (0.76 m) fell west of the New York City metropolitan region, which generally reported 10 to 16 in (0.25 to 0.41 m) of snow, making it the biggest snowstorm at the time since the North American blizzard of 1996. Washington, D.C., and Baltimore recorded little or no snowfall, while 10 in (25 cm) impacted Philadelphia. Eastern New York, especially the Hudson Valley and Catskill Mountains, western Connecticut, western and central Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine also picked up heavy snowfall. Eastern New England received up to 1 ft (0.30 m) before dry air from the south reduced the duration of the snow.
About 30 flights were canceled at the Philadelphia International Airport, and the city declared a snow emergency. Amtrak canceled Metroliner service along the northeast corridor from Washington, D.C., to New York City. Numerous businesses throughout eastern Pennsylvania closed on December 30, although because the storm struck on a weekend, the number of traffic accidents was fairly low.
In New Jersey, increasing winds caused blowing and drifting of the snow and led to near-blizzard conditions. Behind the storm, very cold and gusty weather lingered. New Jersey Transit shut down bus service in northern portions of the state, and rail lines had 20-minute delays. Most injuries in the state were related to physical strain while shoveling, snow blower accidents or slips and falls. As the snowfall was of a light nature, few trees limbs and electrical wires were downed by the storm. GPU Energy reported only around 5,500 power outages. A countywide state of emergency was declared in Sussex County, as vehicles were sliding off roadways. Several other traffic accidents and delays were reported throughout the state, and in Somerset County, a few roads were closed due to the snow. A Red Cross shelter was opened for residents of a Spotswood trailer park.
In New York State, the heaviest snow peaked at 29 in (0.74 m) in Platte Cove, Greene County. Despite 50 flight cancellations at the Albany International Airport and several traffic accidents, no major damage or injuries were reported. Although heavy snow fell in the state, no major damage was reported in Connecticut. In Massachusetts and Rhode Island, high winds, gusting to as high as 50 mph (80 km/h) buffeted the coast.
## See also
- Climate of the United States |
4,450,228 | Mark Murphy (American football executive) | 1,172,861,271 | American football executive and former NFL player | [
"1955 births",
"American football safeties",
"Colgate Raiders athletic directors",
"Colgate Raiders baseball players",
"Colgate Raiders football players",
"Georgetown University Law Center alumni",
"Green Bay Packers presidents",
"Kogod School of Business alumni",
"Living people",
"National Conference Pro Bowl players",
"National Football League team presidents",
"Northwestern Wildcats athletic directors",
"People from Erie County, New York",
"People from Fulton, Oswego County, New York",
"Players of American football from New York (state)",
"Washington Redskins players"
] | Mark Hodge Murphy (born July 13, 1955) is an American football executive and former player who is the president and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) for the Green Bay Packers of the National Football League (NFL). Murphy, a safety, went undrafted in the 1977 NFL Draft after playing college football at Colgate University. He was signed by the Washington Redskins, where he played for eight seasons from 1977 to 1984. With the Redskins, Murphy won Super Bowl XVII, played in another Super Bowl and led the NFL in interceptions in 1983, the year he was named to his only Pro Bowl and received his only First Team All-Pro honor. During his last few years in the NFL he received a Master of Business Administration from American University and then, after his career ended in 1984, a Juris Doctor degree from Georgetown University in 1988. After his playing career, he worked for the NFL Players Association and then as a trial lawyer for the United States Department of Justice. In 1992, he was hired as the athletic director of his alma mater Colgate University. In 2003, he moved to Northwestern University to serve as their athletic director, a position he would hold until 2007.
In December 2007, Murphy was announced as the next president and CEO of the Green Bay Packers, succeeding John Jones as president and Bob Harlan as CEO. He officially took over both positions in January 2008. During his tenure, the Packers have been highly successful on the field. Murphy's hiring coincided with quarterback Brett Favre leaving the team and Aaron Rodgers taking over. The Packers won Super Bowl XLV in 2011, made the playoffs eight straight seasons from 2009 to 2016 and Aaron Rodgers won four MVP awards. Murphy has only hired one new head coach and one new general manager in his tenure: Matt LaFleur and Brian Gutekunst, respectively. Off the field, Murphy oversaw two separate stock sales in 2011 and 2021 (the Packers are a publicly-owned, non-profit corporation) that funded two renovations of Lambeau Field. He also led the effort to purchase land adjacent to Lambeau Field and redevelop it into the Titletown District, a mixed-use development that supports tourism and provides year-around activities to local residents. In 2022, Murphy announced his intention to retire in 2025 when he turns 70 years old.
## Early life
Mark Murphy was born on July 13, 1955, in Fulton, New York. He attended Clarence High School, where he played football, baseball and basketball. He was the co-captain of the school's football team and during his senior year, he was recognized as the best all-around athlete in western New York.
## College
Murphy attended Colgate University where he received his bachelors degree in economics. While at Colgate, he played college football and baseball. Halfway through his freshmen year, he became a starting defensive back. During his junior year, he led his team in interceptions and tackles, while helping Colgate to a record of 8–2. That year, he was named to the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC) Division I football all-star squad, received the Hal W. Lahar Trophy (most valuable defensive player), and honorable mention for the Associated Press all-east team. During his college football career, he intercepted over 10 passes and was respected enough that opposing teams often did not throw the ball in his direction. Murphy completed post-graduate work from two universities. In 1983, while playing full-time in the NFL, he completed his Master of Business Administration from American University. Then, in 1988, he received his Juris Doctor degree from Georgetown University.
## NFL playing career
After deciding to focus on football, Murphy ended up going undrafted in the 1977 NFL Draft. He signed shortly thereafter with the Washington Redskins as an undrafted free agent, primarily to serve on special teams. In his first two seasons, Murphy played in 30 games, but did not start and did not record any defensive statistics (tackles were not officially recorded until 2001). He excelled on special teams as a rookie, including blocking a punt in a loss to the Dallas Cowboys. He did return three kick-offs for a total of 44 yards in his first season and caught one pass for 13 yards in his second. Murphy became a starter in his third season, beginning a run of four straight seasons where he started every game as the Redskins starting safety. From 1979 to 1983, Murphy recorded 27 interceptions, six fumble recoveries and one forced fumble during the regular season. He added an additional interception and a fumble recovery in the playoffs. Over his career, Murphy played in 109 regular season games and 8 playoff games, all for the Redskins and all under hall of fame head coach Joe Gibbs.
Murphy was co-captain of the 1982 Washington Redskins team that won Super Bowl XVII during the 1982 strike-shortened NFL season. During the second half of the Super Bowl, Murphy recorded a critical interception that helped prevent the Miami Dolphins from opening up a larger lead. The Redskins ultimately scored 17-straight points to secure the victory. The 1983 NFL season was Murphy's finest of his career though, as he led the NFL in interceptions with nine. The Redskins would go on to play in their second consecutive Super Bowl, although they lost 38–9 to the Los Angeles Raiders. Murphy was named to the 1984 Pro Bowl and received first-team All-Pro honors. Murphy's last season with the Redskins was the 1984 NFL season, where he missed nine games due to a knee injury. At the end of the season, he was released by the team after contract negotiations became divisive. In 1984, Murphy won the "Miller Man of the Year" for his off-field work in the community.
During his time with the Redskins, Murphy was elected by his fellow teammates as the Redskins' representative to the NFL Players Association. He served in this role from 1980 to 1984, including as vice president of the Association from 1983 to 1984. In this position, he became very active in the strike that shortened the 1982 NFL season. Many, including Murphy, felt that his prominent role in the strike shortened led to his eventual release by the Redskins. In recognition of his achievements with the Redskins, he has been named by the team to the 70, 80 and 90 Greatest players in the team's history. He also is part of the organization's 50th Anniversary Team. In 2002, he was elected to the Greater Buffalo Sports Hall of Fame in recognition of his accomplishments on and off the football field.
## Professional career
### NFL Players Association
After retiring from the NFL, he was hired by the NFL Players Association in 1985 as an assistant executive director. During his three years at the NFLPA, he worked on player counseling program, drug testing, collective bargaining and developed the agent certification system. By 1986, he had been promoted to vice president of the Association. After his playing career and tenure with the Players Association, Murphy was selected to serve on the Commissioner's Player Advisory Committee in 1994, NFL Youth Football Committee in 2002 and on USA Football's Board of Directors.
### Lawyer
Murphy worked for a year for the Street Law Clinic after graduation in 1988. He then was hired as a trial attorney in the Civil Division’s Federal Programs Branch of the United States Department of Justice from 1989 to 1992.
### Athletic director
Murphy returned to his alma mater in 1992 to serve as the university's athletic director. He held that position for 11 years until 2003. During his tenure, the football program had a complete turnaround. In 1995, the team went 0–11; the year after Murphy left, the team made the championship. During his time, the team, which did not offer athletic scholarships, made the playoffs three straight years. The university also saw sustained success in other sports, including basketball, volleyball, softball, and hockey.
In 2003, Murphy left Colgate to take a position as the athletics director for Northwestern University. He held that position for four years until 2007. During his tenure, Murphy led a program with 19 sports, a \$40 million budget and 160 employees. The sports program was highly successful, with eight national championships by individual athletes and three team titles. On the football side, the university saw increased success, with two bowl games under Murphy, after only four in the university's history beforehand. Student-athletes at Northwestern were tied for the best graduation success rate in the country in 2007, Murphy's last year in charge of the program. In 2023, Murphy was named as a defendant in two lawsuits by former football players related to a hazing scandal that occurred during his tenure as athletic director.
### Green Bay Packers
In December 2006, Bob Harlan, the Packers president since 1989 announced his intention to retire. After a selection process was finalized, John Jones, the Packers senior vice president, chief operating officer and Harlan's handpicked successor was announced as the next president of the Packers. However, just days before Jones was due to takeover, the Packers announced he was taking an indefinite leave of absence due to health reasons and concerns about performance in his role. Harlan stayed on as CEO and began another selection process. On December 3, 2007, the Packers announced Murphy as the organization's tenth president. Murphy officially began his tenure on January 28, 2008, at the conclusion of the 2007 NFL season. The Packers had just come off an overtime loss to the New York Giants in the NFC Championship Game and shortly thereafter, quarterback Brett Favre announced his retirement. However, similar to past seasons where Favre contemplated retirement, he took back his retirement announcement and expressed his intention to play in the 2008 NFL season. Ultimately Favre requested an unconditional release from the Packers so he could play for another team. Murphy met with Favre in July 2008 to discuss a \$20 million marketing agreement where Favre would work with the Packers but not as a player. Favre was reinstated into the NFL in August 2008 and planned to report to the Packers training camp. However, Favre and the team agreed that it was time for Favre to move to another team and he was ultimately traded to the New York Jets a few days later. Years later, Favre took responsibility for retiring too soon and credited Murphy with helping to restore his relationship with the Packers, which culminated with Favre being invited back to Lambeau Field to have his number retired by the Packers.
Aaron Rodgers' first season ended with a losing record of 6–10. However, his solid play impressed the team enough that he was signed to a six year, \$65 million extension. Rodgers continued to improve and lead the team to success, with the 2009 season beginning a string of eight straight playoff berths. The Packers lost in the opening round of the 2009–10 playoffs, however the next year they made the playoffs as the sixth seed in the National Football Conference (NFC) and won Super Bowl XLIV. This victory likely made Murphy the first person to win a Super Bowl both as a player and as a team's chief executive. In 2011, Murphy was put on the NFL's bargaining committee to help negotiate a new collective bargaining agreement. When negotiations failed, Murphy and other team owners locked the players out for four months. The lock out ended in July 2011 when a new agreement was reached. The next season, in 2012, Murphy and the other team owners failed to come to an agreement with the NFL referees, leading to the 2012 NFL referee lockout. An agreement with the referees was only reached after outrage from the infamous Fail Mary game between the Packers and Seattle Seahawks, where replacement officials were widely panned for their controversial decisions at the end of the game.
Off the field, Murphy advocated for another stock offering to fund a \$143 million expansion of Lambeau Field, which would add over 6,700 additional seats, better audio/video equipment and new entrance gates. The stock offering was authorized and began in 2011, running into 2012. The funds from the new 268,000 shares that were sold, as well as seat license fees funded the renovation, which was complete in 2013. Almost immediately after the completion of the renovation, the Packers announced a second phase, paid entirely by the Packers. This renovation reconfigured the atrium, moved the Packers Pro Shop, relocated the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame and provided space for a new restaurant. Additional features included reconfigured outdoor spaces, new escalators and new player training facilities. In August 2015, Murphy and the Packers announced plans for a new Titletown District adjacent to Lambeau Field. This mixed use development would provide new commercial space, residential housing, retail and public space. For a number of years, the Packers had been slowly purchasing property adjacent to Lambeau Field with the intention of developing it to provide additional year-round revenue streams and activation of the area during the off-season. Titletown District opened in 2017, with additional phases of development progressing in the subsequent years.
The 2017 season saw the Packers consecutive playoff appearance streak end. After three consecutive losses dropped the Packers to 4–7–1 in the 2018 season, Murphy fired head coach Mike McCarthy and named Joe Philbin interim coach. After the conclusion of the season, Murphy hired Matt LaFleur to be the Packers 15th head coach. After the season, general manager Ted Thompson announced that he would resign the position of general manager and step back into a special advisor role. Murphy promoted Brian Gutekunst, who was the Packers' director of player personnel, to the vacant general manager position. In addition to this hire, Murphy changed the way that the general manager and head coach report to the president. Instead of the previous linear reporting structure, Murphy had the head coach, the general manager and the executive vice president and director of football operations (who was Russ Ball at the time) all report directly to him. Although initially there was concern that this change would cause dysfunction, LaFleur helped lead the Packers to three consecutive seasons of 13 wins with Aaron Rodgers winning his third and fourth MVP awards in LaFleur's first two seasons. However, the Packers lost in the playoffs all three seasons, losing two consecutive NFC Championship Games and then in the Divisional Playoffs.
During this time period, the COVID-19 pandemic began and had major impacts on the NFL. The largest impact to the Packers was the playing of home games at Lambeau Field without any fans. All preseason and international games were cancelled, as well as the 2021 Pro Bowl. Murphy announced that for the first time the Packers would host the annual shareholder meeting fully virtual. Murphy also advocated for the ability for players to opt out of the season without impacting their contracts, a rule that was ultimately implemented. Additional safety measures included enhanced testing, expanded rosters and changes to how soon players could return off of injured reserve. Many of these mitigation measures continued into the 2021 NFL season, although fans were able to return to Lambeau Field with some mask requirements and other health mitigation measures. In 2021, Murphy announced the team's sixth stock sale. Approximately 190,000 new shares were sold, raising about \$64 million to help fund improvements to the Lambeau Field concourse, new video boards and other infrastructure projects.
Murphy found himself in a similar situation with quarterback Aaron Rodgers as he had been in 15 years prior with Brett Favre. For a couple seasons, Rodgers began publicly discussing retirement, his future with the Packers and the possibility of ending his career with another team. This was exacerbated when the Packers selected quarterback Jordan Love with their first-round pick in the 2020 NFL Draft. After the draft, the Packers publicly committed to Rodgers as the team's starting quarterback in the near future, however Rodgers felt the selection indicated the Packers were focused on the long-term future. After the 2021 season, Rodgers again contemplated moving on from the Packers. However, in March 2022, Murphy signed Rodgers to a large contract extension and publicly committed to him being the starting quarterback moving forward. However, the Packers had a poor 2022 season, with Rodgers have statistically one of his worst seasons as the Packers starting quarterback. The Packers were 8–8 going into the last game of the season, with a win guaranteeing a playoff berth. However the Packers lost to the Detroit Lions, bringing their record down to 8–9 and thus missing the playoffs. After a couple months of contemplating his future, Rodgers announced his intention to play in the 2023 NFL season, noting his desire to play for the New York Jets. Just as he did in 2008, Murphy traded his star quarterback to the Jets and publicly supported the successor, in this case Jordan Love, as the Packers new starting quarterback.
In July 2022, Murphy announced that he would retire on July 13, 2025, as that would be the day he turns 70. In May 2023, Murphy announced that for the first time the Packers would host the 2025 NFL Draft. Murphy and the Packers had been working for years to bring the draft to Green Bay, with it likely occurring right before Murphy retires. As of 2022, the Packers have made the playoffs 11 times, reached the NFC Championship Game five times and won one Super Bowl during Murphy's tenure. The Packers record since he became president is 153–87–2 during the regular season and 11–10 in the playoffs. Murphy noted in his remaining years as president, he would like to see Lambeau Field renovations completed, the Titletown District built out and continued on-field success.
## Personal life
Murphy married his wife Laurie after they met at Colgate University and they have four children together. They are active in numerous local organizations, including multiple schools, churches and youth sports leagues. Financially, the Murphy's have donated to organizations like the Milwaukee Public Schools Foundation, We All Rise Green Bay, Urban Triage and Maroon Calabash. Murphy also donated \$250,000 to "causes in Wisconsin that support social justice and racial equality" following the murder of George Floyd and subsequent protests. In 2023, Murphy and his wife purchased the Maxwell Braes Golf Course in Door County, Wisconsin, with the goal of preserving it and preventing it from being developed into housing. |
1,312,213 | Crash Bandicoot: The Huge Adventure | 1,173,704,656 | 2002 video game | [
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] | Crash Bandicoot: The Huge Adventure (released as Crash Bandicoot XS in Europe) is a 2002 platform game developed by Vicarious Visions and published by Universal Interactive for the Game Boy Advance. It is the seventh installment in the Crash Bandicoot video game series, the first Crash Bandicoot game not to be released on a PlayStation console, and the first Crash Bandicoot game to be released on a handheld console. The game's story centers on a plot to shrink the Earth by the main antagonist, Doctor Neo Cortex, through the use of a gigantic weapon named the "Planetary Minimizer". The protagonist of the story, Crash Bandicoot, must gather Crystals in order to power a device that will return the Earth to its proper size, defeating Doctor Cortex and his minions along the way.
The game stemmed from an agreement between Universal Interactive Studios and Konami that enabled them to respectively produce and publish a Crash Bandicoot game for next-generation handheld game systems, ending the franchise's exclusivity to Sony-produced consoles. Critical reactions to Crash Bandicoot: The Huge Adventure were generally positive; the game was praised for its graphics and overall design, but critics noted the game's lack of innovation. A sequel, Crash Bandicoot 2: N-Tranced, was released in 2003.
## Gameplay
Crash Bandicoot: The Huge Adventure is a platform game in which the player controls Crash Bandicoot, who must gather 20 Crystals and reverse the shrinkage of the Earth at the hands of Doctor Neo Cortex, the main antagonist of the story. Much of the game takes place in a series of hubs, from which Crash can teleport to various areas of the Earth. Initially, only the first of four hubs is available for play. Each hub features five levels and a boss level. The goal in each level is to find and obtain a hidden Crystal. After completing all five levels in a hub, the boss level must be completed, in which Crash must defeat the boss character guarding the area. By defeating the boss, a new hub will be accessible for play. When all 20 Crystals are collected and the Earth has been enlarged to its proper size, the game is won.
Besides Crystals, Gems and Colored Gems can be collected for extra accomplishment. Gems are rewarded to the player if all of the crates in a level are broken open or if a secret area is completed. Colored Gems are found in special levels and lead to hidden areas. "Relics" can be won by re-entering a level where the Crystal has already been retrieved. To obtain a Relic, the player must initiate the "Time Trial" mode and race through a level in the pre-designated time displayed before entering a level. To begin a Time Trial run, the player must enter a level and activate the floating stopwatch near the beginning of the level to activate the timer; if the stopwatch is not touched, the level is played regularly. The player must then race through the level as quickly as possible. Scattered throughout the level are yellow crates with the numbers 1, 2 or 3 on them. When these crates are broken, the timer is frozen for the number of seconds designated by the box. Sapphire, Gold and Platinum Relics can be won depending on the player's final time.
At the beginning of the game, Crash has the ability to jump to navigate ledges, spin in a tornado-like fashion to break open crates and defeat enemies, deliver a body slam to break open tough objects and can either slide across the ground or crouch and crawl to get past low areas. Crash can expand on these abilities by defeating boss characters, often resulting in more powerful attacks or increased jumping and running prowess. Crash starts the game with six lives. Crash loses a life when he is struck by an enemy attack or suffers any other type of damage. More lives can be earned by instructing Crash to collect 100 "Wumpa Fruits" or break open a special crate to collect a life. Crash can be shielded from enemy attack by collecting an Aku Aku mask. Collecting three of these masks allows temporary invulnerability from all minor dangers.
## Plot
In a space station orbiting the Earth, Uka Uka is upset with Doctor Neo Cortex for failing him once again, but Cortex promises a plan that will bring the Earth's inhabitants down to size. Cortex then introduces his Planetary Minimizer, which he immediately uses to shrink the Earth down to the size of a grapefruit. The situation is brought to Aku Aku's attention when Cortex taunts the now-microscopic people of Earth. When Aku Aku informs Crash of the Earth's predicament, Coco assumes that Cortex is using the Crystals to power his shrinking machine, and requests that Crash find the same kind of Crystals in various locations around the world, which she will use to build a device that will reverse the effects of Cortex's Minimizer.
Cortex decides to deal with Crash himself by firing the Planetary Minimizer at him after Dingodile, N. Gin and Tiny are defeated. However, Crash tricks him into shrinking the colored Gems that stabilize the Minimizer, causing it to malfunction. The unrestrained effects of the Minimizer fuse Cortex and the previous bosses together, creating a monster known as Mega-Mix, who chases Crash down the space station's hallway in an attempt to kill him. Fortunately, Crash escapes back to the Earth just in time for Coco to use the Crystals that he has gathered to return the Earth back to normal again. The Earth is returned to its original size, while the space station above Earth explodes and Cortex and the others escape in an escape pod.
## Development and release
On September 21, 2000, Konami and Universal Studios announced that they had entered an agreement that would enable Konami to publish a Crash Bandicoot game for next-generation game systems, with Universal Interactive handling the production of the games. The Game Boy Color was originally included alongside the Game Boy Advance in the deal. The agreement served to break the Crash Bandicoot franchise's exclusivity to Sony-produced consoles and effectively made Crash Bandicoot a mascot character for Universal rather than Sony. That December, Vicarious Visions approached Universal and showed off some of their technology on the Game Boy Advance. Fairly impressed with their work, Universal asked Vicarious Visions to submit a concept. Liking the submitted concept, Universal commissioned a prototype; the prototype resembled a handheld version of the PlayStation Crash Bandicoot games. Vicarious Visions was then given developmental duties for the Game Boy Advance Crash Bandicoot game.
Development was directed by Karthik Bala, Jesse Booth, and Mike Meischeid, with Vicarious Visions' Bala and Tobi Saulnier and Universal's Daniel Suarez serving as producers. The game was primarily designed by Bala and Luis Barriga, with artists Theodore Bialek and Christopher Winters providing additional design. Other artists include Steve Derrick, Mei He, Jason Harlow, Carl Schell, Jim Powell, Wes Merritt, Jorge Diaz, and Florian Freisleder. Red Eye Studios assisted in creating the graphics and animation, which was created in Maya. Some of the original animation and textures from Crash Bandicoot: Warped were repurposed and used as a basis for the Game Boy Advance game. The sprite for the Crash Bandicoot character features between 1,000 and 1,500 frames of animation. At the height of development, there were as much as seven programmers working on the game, consisting of Booth, Nate Trost, Robert Trevellyan, Alex Rybakov, Jesse Raymond, Chris Pruett, and Viktor Kuzmin; the studio Cosmigo provided coding support. The audio for the game was created by Manfred Linzner of Shin'en Multimedia and Todd Masten, with additional sound effects provided by Universal Sound Studios. The game uses a static random access memory battery, allowing the player to save their progress. The game was designed with battery saving in mind from the beginning of production, as keeping track of all the data would prove extremely cumbersome with a password system.
The game was tentatively titled Crash Bandicoot Advance and went through the titles Crash Bandicoot X/S and Crash Bandicoot: The Big Adventure before arriving at its final name. Development spanned a total of nine months from conception to completion. Crash Bandicoot: The Huge Adventure was shipped to North American stores on March 13, 2002, and is the first Crash Bandicoot title to be released on a handheld console. In Europe, the game was released under the title Crash Bandicoot XS in May 2002.
## Reception
Crash Bandicoot: The Huge Adventure received generally positive reviews from critics. Louis Bedigian of GameZone considered the series' adaptation to the Game Boy Advance to be highly successful; he praised the game's level design and replay value, and declared The Huge Adventure to be more fun than its PlayStation counterparts or the Super Mario Advance series. Craig Harris of IGN assessed the game's design as "amazingly tight with solid controls and level design" and appreciated the various gameplay styles and additional challenge provided by the Time Trials and hidden Gems. However, he mentioned that the flight levels (which he described as a "watered-down" After Burner) had imperfect collision detection, and he found fault in the game's lack of an auto-save feature or any prompting to save the game. Scott Osborne of GameSpy said that while the game was not innovative, it was executed well enough to remain entertaining. Andrew Reiner of Game Informer praised the "essentially perfect" incorporation of the gameplay intricacies of the PlayStation trilogy, but lamented the short length of the levels. Four-Eyed Dragon of GamePro commended the game as "a superb-looking, straightforward platformer that no interested GBA gamer should miss." Giancarlo Varanini of GameSpot summarized the game as a basic but solid platformer that lacked the innovation of other Game Boy Advance platformers. Scott Alan Marriott of Allgame, while acknowledging the game's lack of innovation, stated that the translation of the gameplay and feel of the PlayStation Crash games onto the Game Boy Advance was executed well. A Nintendo Power reviewer noted that the game's challenges were generally more difficult and sometimes more frustrating than those of the Mario games. Play Magazine's reviewer criticized the "straight-ahead" nature of the side-scrolling, but called it "a great, little game" otherwise. Jeanne Kim, Shane Bettenhausen and James Mielke of Electronic Gaming Monthly were all frustrated by the game's trial-and-error gameplay, although Kim and Mielke acknowledged that the essence of the series was successfully captured. However, Bettenhausen felt that its gameplay and level design were dull and derivative and that the game was too short. Osborne and Four-Eyed Dragon found the controls to be slightly sluggish, and Varanini experienced particular difficulty with the double-jump maneuver.
The visuals were lauded for their hardware-pushing fluidity and detail, with Bedigian considering the graphics to be superior to those in classic SNES titles. While Varanini agreed with the general sentiment, he felt that the enemy characters were blandly colored and the levels lacked visual variety, although he considered the chase sequences to be a highlight. Bettenhausen, however, felt that the graphics were toned down to "merely average" compared to the PlayStation games, though he admired the pseudo-3D stages.
Bedigian commended the music as "excellent" and some of the best on the Game Boy Advance. Harris called the game's audio "amazingly clear". Osborne felt that the familiarity of the audio "breeds fun rather than contempt: it's hard not to smile when the witch doctor mask Aku Aku lets out his silly cry of "Ooga booga!"". Varanini was impressed by the faithful reproduction of the PlayStation trilogy's sound design, and deemed the music's clarity to be slightly higher than most Game Boy Advance titles, but felt that the individual tracks, with the possible exception of the ice stages, did not particularly stand out. Marriott noted the sound effects to be accurate, but considered the music to be less impressive than that of the PlayStation trilogy.
In the United States, Crash Bandicoot: The Huge Adventure sold 750,000 copies and earned \$19 million by August 2006. During the period between January 2000 and August 2006, it was the 26th highest-selling game launched for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS or PlayStation Portable in that country. |
52,334,079 | Mary Dominis | 1,054,692,488 | First mistress of Washington Place, Honolulu | [
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"1889 deaths",
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"American expatriates in the Hawaiian Kingdom",
"Burials at Oahu Cemetery",
"People from Boston",
"People from Honolulu",
"People from Schenectady, New York"
] | Mary Lambert Jones Dominis (August 3, 1803 – April 25, 1889) was an American settler of Hawaii and the first mistress of Washington Place in Honolulu. Born into a large New England family, she married merchant sea Captain John Dominis, for whom Honolulu was a frequent port of trade. The couple relocated in 1837 to the Hawaiian Kingdom with their son John Owen Dominis. Their two daughters remained behind to complete their education.
As the Dominis mansion was being constructed, King Kamehameha III relocated the seat of government from Lahaina, Maui, to Honolulu, which was quickly becoming a nexus where commerce and the government intersected. As her husband was often away, Mary was responsible for overseeing the construction of the house and gardens. On a voyage to China, Captain Dominis was lost at sea, and the completion of the mansion fell to Mary, who took in long-term boarders. On the birthday of U.S. President George Washington in 1848, the U.S. commissioner to Hawaii, Anthony Ten Eyck, who was living there as a boarder, had the mansion officially named "Washington Place".
Her son John Owen Dominis married Hawaiian high chiefess Lydia Kamakaʻeha Pākī, the future Queen Liliʻuokalani. She disapproved of the marriage but came to terms with the union towards the end of her life. Upon Mary's death, her daughter-in-law removed the American flag that had flown at Washington Place.
Mary Dominis established the first European-style garden in Hawaii. She also began Hawaii's annual Christmas festivities by inviting the children of Honolulu and their parents to Washington Place to celebrate the holiday. This event marked the first appearance of the Christmas tree and Santa Claus traditions in Hawaii. The celebrations of Christmas at Washington House have continued for over 160 years and are an annual tradition in Honolulu.
## Early life
Mary Lambert Jones was born on August 3, 1803, in Boston, Massachusetts, to Owen Jones and Elzabeth Lambert. One of eight children, her extended family remained mainly in New England except for her brother-in-law Robert William Holt (1792–1862) who settled in Hawaii around 1833 after her sister Anne Marie's death in 1832. Mary was left in charge of the guardianship of her two nieces Anna Marie and Elizabeth.
Jones married the merchant sea Captain John Dominis (1796–1846), originally of Trieste, on October 9, 1821. They had three known children: Mary Elizabeth Dominis (1825–1838), Frances Ann Dominis (1829–1842), and John Owen Dominis (1832–1891). The family lived in Boston and were listed in directories of Boston until about 1831 when they moved to Schenectady, New York, where John Owen was born. Captain Dominis was frequently absent from home, as he was involved in the China Trade in the Far East and competed in the fur trade in the Pacific Northwest with the British Hudson's Bay Company. Commanding the brig Owyhee in 1827, he became the first American importer to cure and introduce the Pacific salmon to the markets of New England. He frequently stopped in the Hawaiian Islands to conduct business and resupply. Captain Dominis, Mary and their son John Owen Dominis re-settled in Honolulu, arriving by the bark Jones on April 23, 1837. Their two daughters were left in New England for their education. Mary Elizabeth and Frances Ann both died in 1838 and 1842, respectively, and were buried in the Vale Cemetery of Schenectady.
## Life in Hawaii
In Honolulu, the Dominises started building a mansion, on lands near the residence of the British consul to Hawaii Richard Charlton. Between 1841 and 1847, the construction details of the mansion were largely attended to by Mary since Captain Dominis was mostly away on voyages raising money for the building cost. Honolulu had become the political and business capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom, as during the mid-1840s, King Kamehameha III relocated the government from Lahaina, establishing his residence at ʻIolani Palace on adjacent property facing the Dominis property. In 1846 Captain Dominis sailed for China on the brig William Neilson, intending to purchase Chinese-made furniture for the house which was nearing completion. The ship was lost at sea, along with the United States commissioner George Brown, and Mary became a widow.
After the reality of her husband's death became apparent, Dominis opened up Washington Place to boarders to support herself and her young son John Owen Dominis. Among these tenants was Anthony Ten Eyck, the US resident commissioner to Hawaii. While boarding with the Dominises, his room became the United States legation in Honolulu. On February 22, 1848, the birthday of the first US President George Washington, Ten Eyck wrote to the kingdom's Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, that he had re-named the mansion "Washington Place". Wyllie replied in agreement the same date. Kuhina Nui Keoni Ana issued the official proclamation from Kamehameha III, of the renaming on Washington's birthday. Other tenants and guests included American diplomats Luther Severance, David L. Gregg and Elisha Hunt Allen and politicians William Little Lee and Robert Crichton Wyllie. Dominis also established the first European-style garden in Honolulu.
On September 16, 1862, Dominis' son married the Hawaiian high chiefess Lydia Kamakaʻeha Pākī, the future Queen Liliʻuokalani. The "small and quiet" wedding was held at Haleʻākala, the residence of Bernice Pauahi Bishop and her husband Charles Reed Bishop. The ceremony was officiated by Rev. Samuel C. Damon in the Anglican rites. King Kamehameha IV and other members of the royal family were honored guests. The newly married couple moved to Washington Place with Dominis. John was appointed Governor of Oʻahu in 1868 by King Kamehameha V. After the accession of Liliʻuokalani's brother King Kalākaua in 1874, John was also appointed Governor of Maui in 1878 and Lieutenant General and Commander in Chief of the Hawaiian Army in 1886.
Despite Liliʻuokalani's royal status, Mary Dominis disapproved of the marriage. According to historian James L. Haley, Mary Dominis was an "arrant racist" toward her daughter-in-law. The married life of Dominis and Liliʻuokalani was a troubled one, however by the time of Mary's death, she had learned to accepted her. In Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen, Liliʻuokalani revealed a little about her domestic difficulties:
> As she felt that no one should step between "[Dominis]" and her child, naturally "[Liliʻuokalani]", as her son's wife, was considered an intruder; and I was forced to realize this from the beginning. My husband was extremely kind and considerate to me, yet he would not swerve to the one side or to the other in any matter where there was danger of hurting his mother's feelings. I respected the closeness of the tie between mother and son, and conformed my own ideas, so far as I could, to encourage and assist my husband in his devotion to his mother. Later in life Mrs. Dominis seemed to fully realize that there had been some self-sacrifice, and she became more and more a tender and affectionate mother to me as her days were drawing to a close.
Mary Dominis died on April 25, 1889, and was buried at the Oahu Cemetery in Honolulu. After Mary Dominis's death, Queen Liliuokalani took down the American flag which had flown at Washington Place during Mary's lifetime. This flag wouldn't be raised again until April 1917 when Liliuokalani raised it in honor of Hawaiian casualties in the sinking of the SS Aztec by German U-boats.
### Christmas in Hawaii
Mary Dominis is credited with starting the Christmas tree and Santa Claus traditions in Hawaii. Christmas in Hawaii had been introduced by the American Protestant missionaries who arrived in the islands in 1820. However, celebrations were never consistent or officially sanctioned until the 1850s since the Puritanic origin of the New England missionaries disapproved of the non-canonical holiday. During the reign of King Kamehameha IV and his consort Queen Emma of Hawaii, the Christmas tradition received greater support under the influence of the newly established Anglican Church of Hawaii. On Christmas Eve of 1858, Mary Dominis invited the children of Honolulu and their parents to Washington Place to celebrate the holiday. The party, featuring the first appearance of a Christmas tree and Santa Claus in Hawaii, received significant coverage in local Hawaiian newspapers: The Pacific Commercial Advertiser, The Polynesian and The Friend. The Advertiser reported:
> Christmas passed off in good old fashioned style. The eve was ushered in by the assemblage of a large number of children and their parents at Washington Place, the mansion of Mrs. Dominis, where Santa Claus had given out that he would hold his court...A magnificent Christmas Tree had been provided...and the little folks as they gathered about it...found it all lighted up with candles, and the branches bending with the weight of gifts. Prompt as old Father Time ever was, bells were heard at the windows...and in a moment old Santa Claus stood at the door before the youthful group, who greeted him with a volley of merry shouts. He was dressed in the garb in which children love to imagine the saintly old elf...For an hour he bestowed his gifts with princely lavishness among the 100 children present, creating one of the happiest groups ever witnessed in Honolulu...who will long continue to talk of Santa Claus of Washington Place.
The tradition of opening Washington House for Christmas celebrations has continued in Honolulu for over 160 years. Annually the government sponsors tours of the home and various concerts and exhibits. |
9,107,852 | 1878 FA Cup final | 1,154,814,851 | null | [
"1877–78 in English football",
"1878 in sports",
"1878 sports events in London",
"FA Cup finals",
"March 1878 events"
] | The 1878 FA Cup final was a football match between Wanderers and Royal Engineers on 23 March 1878 at Kennington Oval in London. It was the seventh final of the world's oldest football competition, the Football Association Challenge Cup (known in the modern era as the FA Cup). Wanderers had won the Cup in the previous two seasons and on four previous occasions in total, including the first FA Cup final, in 1872, in which they defeated the Engineers. The Engineers had also won the Cup, having defeated Old Etonians in the 1875 final.
Wanderers, who were considered firm favourites to win the Cup for the third consecutive season, took the lead after only five minutes through Jarvis Kenrick, but the Engineers quickly equalised. The cup-holders regained their lead before half-time and added a third goal after the interval to secure a 3–1 victory. Under the original rules of the competition, the Cup was retired and presented to the club on a permanent basis to mark their third straight win, but the Wanderers returned the Cup to The Football Association on the condition that it never again be won outright by any club.
## Route to the final
Wanderers were the reigning cup holders and had also won the tournament in 1872, 1873 and 1876. In the first of these victories they had defeated the Royal Engineers. The Engineers had won the competition in 1875. Both teams entered the competition at the first round stage. Wanderers were allocated a home tie against Panthers and easily defeated their opponents 9–1, proceeding to the second round where they were paired with High Wycombe and again recorded a high-scoring victory, winning 9–0. Their opponents in the third round, Barnes, proved stronger opposition, particularly as key players such as Hon. Arthur Kinnaird were unavailable for the cup-holders. The match ended in a 1–1 draw necessitating a replay, which Wanderers (back to full strength) won 4–1. In the quarter-finals Wanderers defeated Sheffield 3–0 and then, with an uneven number of teams remaining in the competition, the team received a bye into the final.
The Engineers' scheduled first round opponents were Highbury Union, but they withdrew from the competition, giving the Engineers a walkover victory. The "Sappers", as the Royal Engineers regiment is traditionally nicknamed, went on to defeat Pilgrims 6–0 and Druids 8–0, with hat-tricks in both matches from Lieut. Robert Hedley, to reach the quarter-finals where their opponents were 1874 cup-winners Oxford University. The initial match finished in a 3–3 draw, and the replay also finished without a victor, ending 2–2. Finally, the Engineers emerged victorious in a second replay, winning 4–2. This set up a semi-final match against Old Harrovians, the team for former pupils of Harrow School. The match was played at Kennington Oval and the Engineers reached the final by defeating the Harrovians 2–1.
## Match
### Summary
Wanderers, who were considered the firm favourites by the book-makers, won the coin toss and chose to defend the Harleyford Road end of The Oval. The match drew a crowd estimated at 4,500 spectators, the highest yet recorded for an FA Cup final. Both teams played with two full-backs, two half-backs and six forwards; the team captains were the Hon. Arthur Kinnaird and Lieut. Robert Hedley. The cup-holders immediately dominated the game and Kinnaird quickly had an unsuccessful shot on goal. After only five minutes Henry Wace crossed the ball from a wide position and Jarvis Kenrick kicked the ball past the Engineers' goalkeeper Lieut. Lovick Friend to give the Wanderers the lead. Approximately ten minutes later, Wanderers goalkeeper James Kirkpatrick suffered a broken arm during a tussle on the goal-line, but managed to keep the ball out of the goal, and went on to play the remainder of the match despite his injury. In the 20th minute of the game, the Engineers scored an equalising goal. Some modern sources state that Lieut. William Morris scored the goal, however contemporary newspaper reports in The Field, The Sporting Life and Bell's Life in London all state that Morris took a throw-in which led to a "scrimmage" or "bully" in front of the Wanderers' goal, out of which the ball was forced over the goal-line.
Towards the end of the first half, the Wanderers were awarded a free kick. Kinnaird took the kick, which led to a second goal for the cup-holders. Modern sources list Kinnaird as the goalscorer, but some contemporary reports suggest that, following his free kick, another "scrimmage" ensued in front of the Engineers' goal before the ball was forced over the line. Shortly after the half-time break, the Engineers' captain Robert Hedley appeared to have scored a goal, but it was disallowed due to an infringement of the offside rule. After around twenty minutes of the second half, Kenrick scored his second goal following some skilful play by Hubert Heron, giving Wanderers a 3–1 lead which they retained until the end of the game.
### Details
## Post-match
As was the norm until 1882, the winning team did not receive the trophy at the stadium on the day of the match, but later in the year at their annual dinner. Under the original rules of the competition, if a team won the Cup three times in succession, it would be retired and become their "absolute property". Wanderers secretary C. W. Alcock, however, returned the Cup to The Football Association on the condition that the rule be removed and no other team permitted to win the Cup outright. The only other team to win the Cup in three successive seasons to date is Blackburn Rovers, who won it three times in a row in the 1880s. On that occasion the club was presented with a commemorative shield.
Three weeks after the Cup final, Wanderers played Scottish Cup winners Vale of Leven at Kennington Oval in a match for the unofficial "championship of Britain". In front of a crowd of around 2,000 spectators, Wanderers turned in what was regarded by the press as a sub-standard performance and were defeated 3–1. |
1,675,013 | Burnout 3: Takedown | 1,173,034,984 | 2004 racing video game | [
"2004 video games",
"BAFTA winners (video games)",
"Burnout (series)",
"Criterion Games games",
"D.I.C.E. Award for Racing Game of the Year winners",
"Electronic Arts games",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"PlayStation 2 games",
"RenderWare games",
"Spike Video Game Award winners",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom",
"Video games set in Asia",
"Video games set in Europe",
"Video games set in the United States",
"Video games with custom soundtrack support",
"Xbox Originals games",
"Xbox games"
] | Burnout 3: Takedown is a 2004 racing video game developed by Criterion Games and published by Electronic Arts. It is the third instalment in the Burnout series, which is characterised by fast-paced arcade racing. A staple of the series is the use of boost, earned through risky driving, to rapidly increase a car's speed. The central mechanic introduced in Burnout 3 is Takedowns, which allow players to slam their opponents until they crash. Takedowns work in conjunction with the boost system by filling up and extending the boost meter. Aside from standard circuit races, the game features modes focused on performing Takedowns on rival vehicles and causing monetary damage at a junction occupied with traffic. Each game variant is featured in a single-player campaign mode called World Tour, which serves as the primary method for unlocking new and faster cars. The game supports both online and split-screen multiplayer.
Before the creation of Burnout 3: Takedown, UK-based development studio Criterion had been collaborating with publisher Electronic Arts (EA) on a skating video game. However, disagreements over the game's creative direction led to its cancellation and falling out between the two companies. EA later approached Criterion about reuniting and partnering on a game, and so Criterion began developing Burnout 3: Takedown in June 2003 on the condition that EA would not interfere in the creative process. Over a year later, EA acquired Criterion and the Burnout series; their high expectations for Burnout 3: Takedown was influential in the acquisition. The game launched in September 2004 on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox video game consoles.
Upon release, Burnout 3: Takedown received critical acclaim, becoming one of the highest-rated racing video games of all time, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest video games of all time. Critics were enthused by the shift to a more aggressive style of racing game and the addition of gameplay mechanics like Takedowns. The addictive gameplay and visuals were widely praised by reviewers, many of whom ranked Burnout 3: Takedown among the best games released on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox. The game went on to win numerous awards including three from the British Academy Games Awards. Retrospective coverage of the game has been highly positive with some publications declaring it as the greatest arcade racer game ever made and the peak of the Burnout series. A successor to Takedown, titled Burnout Revenge, was released in September 2005.
## Gameplay
Burnout 3: Takedown is a racing video game with arcade-style gameplay that emphasizes dangerous and fast-paced driving. The game features standard circuit races which take place on carriageways and city streets populated with traffic. The Single Race mode pits the player against five AI opponents in a single or multiple lap race. During a race, boost, which is earned by acts of reckless driving such as drifting around corners, near misses with traffic, and driving in oncoming lanes, can be used to rapidly increase a car's speed. Boost can be used immediately in Burnout 3, unlike previous Burnout games which required the boost meter to be full. The quickest method for earning boost is a Takedown—a central mechanic introduced in this instalment of the series. A Takedown involves shunting opposing vehicles until they crash. Each one fills the boost meter and can provide an additional boost segment, causing the meter to extend up to four times its initial size. Ramming opponents will cause them to behave more aggressively in return; their level of hostility is indicated by a coloured arrow above their vehicle. When the player crashes or is taken out by an opponent, boost is lost and a bonus boost segment is withdrawn. During the crash sequence, a slow-motion mode called Impact Time can be activated. In Impact Time, the Aftertouch mechanic can be used to manoeuvre the wrecked car chassis into an opponent to get a Takedown, which acts as a recovery move by negating the penalty of crashing.
Road Rage is a new game mode in which the player must achieve a certain number of Takedowns in a preset time limit or before their vehicle is totalled. Cars continuously spawn in Road Rage so that there are always vehicles to perform Takedowns on. The Crash mode from Burnout 2: Point of Impact returns but has been enhanced to accommodate the Aftertouch feature. The goal of Crash mode is to create the largest amount of monetary damage in a multi-vehicle collision at a junction full of traffic. The game includes a total of one hundred Crash junctions. When a set number of vehicles become involved in the pileup, a Crashbreaker is available which allows the player to detonate their vehicle to cause further damage Cash bonuses, score multipliers, a speed boost, or an immediate Crashbreaker can be obtained by driving through power-ups that lie on the junction in Crash mode. One particular power-up, the Heartbreaker, has a negative effect by reducing the total score.
World Tour is a single-player career mode that combines Single Races, Road Rage, Crash mode, and several other race variants into a series of 173 events spanning ten locations across the United States, Europe, and Asia. Events are presented on a navigation map and a medal is awarded for every one that is completed successfully. World Tour includes Grand Prix events that group several races together into a point-based tournament. Face-Off is a one versus one race event wherein the player is granted with opposing vehicle if they win. Burning Lap is a single lap time-trial event where the player must beat predetermined lap times. Eliminator is a five lap race in which the driver in last place at the end of each lap gets eliminated. The game features 67 vehicles which are divided into classes based on their speed. New and faster cars are unlocked by earning medals in World Tour mode and achieving milestones such as attaining a certain number of Takedowns or causing a certain amount of damage across Crash mode junctions.
Burnout 3 supports split-screen multiplayer and online multiplayer. Five different game modes can be played online in the game. Impact Time is disabled in multiplayer and the gameplay in some modes is tweaked. Single Race is analogous to the single-player version except AI drivers are replaced with other players. Online Road Rage functions differently from offline mode. The online version is a team-based mode that supports up to six players and the objective is to destroy the rival team's cars before a certain number of miles have been driven. The remaining three modes are variations on the Crash mode that can be played online and locally. Team Crush and Double Impact are both two-player modes where both players causes pileups on a Crash junction simultaneously. Team Crush is focused cooperative gameplay while Double Impact is about competing with each other. Party Crash is an eight-player score competition mode where players crash at a junction individually and their scores are compared. In April 2010, online services were shut down.
## Development
### Background and production
Burnout 3: Takedown was developed by Guildford-based video game studio Criterion Games. The studio suffered several setbacks during the sequence of events that led up to the creation of Burnout 3, including the cancellation of a project, a failed pitch, and a fall out with the game's eventual publisher Electronic Arts (EA). In 2002, Criterion was around 130 people divided into two development teams. One team was working on Burnout 2: Point of Impact, a follow-up to Burnout, set to be published by Acclaim Entertainment. The other team had completed the development of the extreme sports game AirBlade for Sony Computer Entertainment Europe. Sony had intentions of continuing to collaborate with Criterion on a sequel to AirBlade, but the AirBlade team turned down the offer. Instead, Criterion began talks with EA, who had a proposal for Criterion to create a remake of the 1988 skateboarding video game Skate or Die!. Criterion was keen to work with EA and started development on the project. Following Burnout 2's release, Criterion prepared a pitch to EA Canada about working on a second game with the publisher. Criterion's proposed title was Need For Speed: Split Second, a stunt racing game within EA's Need for Speed series. Meanwhile, the Skate or Die! remake project was thrown into disarray when EA requested changes to the game's design and the creative direction of the project shifted away from Criterion's vision. With development staff becoming unhappy and stressed about the project, the studio decided to contact EA and cancel the game. EA was displeased with their decision and the relationship between the two companies soured, leading to dissolution of the proposed Need for Speed game.
At the 2003 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), Criterion Games' director of design Alex Ward was approached by Bruce McMillan, executive vice president at EA Worldwide Studios. McMillan wanted to reconcile EA's relationship with Criterion and partner with them on a game. Initially, Ward refused, citing their experience of working with the publisher. EA persisted and suggested Criterion make Burnout 3 with them. Originally, the studio was waiting until the next generation of video game hardware launched before starting work on a third instalment. Criterion accepted the deal on the conditions that EA would not interfere with the game's development and that Criterion had the freedom to create the game they wanted. Development on Burnout 3 began immediately after the expo in June 2003, with a larger team of staff working on the game than its predecessors. By January 2004, Criterion had a build of the game ready to demonstrate to EA. The development team had drafted several subtitles for Burnout 3 including Fuel Injection, Crash and Burn, Seek and Destroy, Takedown along with some more ridiculous suggestions like See You in Hell. Internally, they felt that Takedown was not an appealing choice, but the outcome of EA's focus testing proved otherwise. Despite a rocky start in their relationship with EA, Criterion admitted to benefiting from the publisher's experience throughout the course of Burnout 3's development. By July, development on the game was nearly complete with the remaining work confined to bug testing and polishing the experience. On 28 July, EA announced that they had acquired Criterion along with the Burnout intellectual property. McMillan stated that their strong expectations for Burnout 3 and ownership of the series were key reasons for buying Criterion.
### Design
Ward noted that EA's snowboarding video game series SSX was an influence for Burnout 3's bolder and brasher nature. There was an emphasis on making the game more aggressive than previous instalments. Ward described Burnout 3 as a game about "fighting through traffic" rather than "racing through traffic". This approach to the game's design led to the introduction of Takedowns, a feature that rewarded the player with boost and points for knocking their opponents off the track. The Takedown mechanic became a focal point of Burnout 3's design and led to other innovations. At first, the team were not convinced by the idea of having the game's camera pan to show the crash of a taken out vehicle while the player was driving; however, once it was implemented, they agreed that the feature worked well. From there, they decided to show a player's crash as well, which gave rise to the aftertouch mechanic. The crash mode from Burnout 2 was expanded and redesigned to be more puzzle-based; aftertouch control, crashbreakers, and multiplayer support were added to the mode. They wanted to include ramps in crash events so that vehicles could fly into traffic, but the game's physics system was designed to push cars down on the track to prevent them from taking off during a race. This caused vehicles to descend immediately after driving off a ramp. To bypass this issue they "killed" the vehicle once it hit the ramp, leaving it a wreck that was unaffected by the driving physics.
The game was developed on Criterion's proprietary game engine RenderWare. The graphics engine was improved to give between 50–100% faster rendering than in Burnout 2. The increased performance allowed them to add features like real-time radiosity lighting and better environment mapping effects on vehicles. Programmers at the studio were adamant about making the game run at a frame rate of sixty frames per seconds to offer instant response and feedback while driving fast. Since the crash sequences were slower, the higher frame rate was considered less critical than the spectacle of the vehicle collisions. They opted to run the game at thirty frames per second during these instances and dramatically increased the number of particles and debris that were rendered. From an early stage in development, the team wanted to include support for online network play in Burnout 3. They had never explored online play before, so they used Burnout 2 as a test-bed for the feature before integrating it into Burnout 3.
While Criterion had their own audio team to create original music, working with EA allowed them to include licensed music in Burnout 3. EA launched an initiative called EA TRAX in 2002 with the intent of including licensed tracks in all their games. Burnout 3's soundtrack featured over forty songs, delivered in a radio station format presented by DJ Stryker from alternative rock station KROQ-FM. Options were added to modify which songs play during a race or on the menu screen, and the Xbox version supports custom soundtracks.
## Release
Criterion and EA officially announced their partnership for Burnout 3: Takedown in March 2004. The game was showcased at several trade shows throughout the year, including E3. Burnout 3: Takedown was released for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles on 8 September 2004 in North America, and 10 September in Europe. In Japan, the game released on 14 October and was only available on the PlayStation 2. The PlayStation 2 version of the game included a demo for EA's Need for Speed: Underground 2, which was scheduled to launch a month after Burnout 3. Likewise, the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions of Underground 2 included a demo for Burnout 3. In 2008, the Xbox version of Burnout 3 was re-released as a downloadable emulated package for the Xbox 360 console as part of Microsoft's Xbox Originals scheme.
## Reception
### Critical reviews
Burnout 3: Takedown received "universal acclaim" from professional critics on both platforms according to review aggregator website Metacritic. Based on the game's metascore, it was ranked the second best video game on both platforms in 2004. It is also the highest scoring Xbox racing game of all time and the second highest scoring PlayStation 2 racing game of all time on Metacritic.
GameSpot editor Jeff Gerstmann opened his review by calling Burnout 3: Takedown one of the best racing games of all time, noting that it stood out among contemporaries in the diverse and expanding genre. He felt the quality of the game was high enough to recommend it to gamers who were impartial to driving games. Edge magazine regarded Burnout 3 to be Criterion's finest work to date; they thought the studio had demonstrated their proficiency by revising the series structure and dynamic. They were also mindful of how Burnout 3's offered fun and exhilarating experience while other developers were prioritising realism in their games. Andrew Reiner of Game Informer wrote that the addition of significant gameplay mechanics had helped craft one of the most addictive racing games ever made. GamesTM awarded it a perfect score; they proclaimed that Burnout 3 was without a doubt the greatest racing game ever made and described playing it as the most fun they had ever had in the genre. GameSpy reviewer Miguel Lopez, who also awarded the game a perfect score, remarked that it was possibly the best arcade racer ever made.
Reception towards the introduction of Takedowns was highly positive. Reviewers admired the impact that Takedowns had in transforming the boost mechanic and shifting the game's focus to a more aggressive style of driving. GamesTM pointed out that the hostile behaviour of AI rivals supplemented the system by presenting more opportunities to perform Takedowns, culminating in an intense and dramatic racing experience. Lopez explained that Burnout 3 had intelligently integrated elements of vehicular combat games by introducing Takedowns. Gerstmann commended the game's use of Impact Time and Aftertouch mechanics, which he believed made crashing an entertaining aspect of the game, unlike other racers. IGN's Fran Mirabella III was amazed by the crash system; he considered it to be far ahead of anything that had been done before.
The expanded and refined Crash mode was embraced by critics who found the gameplay to be addictive. Reiner highlighted Crash mode as his favourite part of the game, and Eurogamer writer Kristan Reed stated that it was the mode he spent the most time playing. Edge welcomed the inclusion of ramps and aftertouch, stating that the design of the mode had become "more complex and focused". They thought Crash mode had evolved into a substantial component that was capable of being released as a standalone product. Mirabella and Reed both complimented the balance and variation of events in World Tour, and GamesTM was pleased with the amount of content featured in the single-player component. Gerstmann agreed that Burnout 3 offered a large amount of content and excellent replay value. He also felt that the progression of difficulty in World Tour was done effectively by introducing a faster cars throughout the campaign at reasonable pace. Reviewers were in agreement that Burnout 3's engaging and frenetic gameplay remained intact during online play. Reed stated that he would have liked to see the single-player content become more integrated into the online component, citing other existing racing games as examples. He thought that progress across single-player events should be recorded in online leaderboards enabling score comparisons with friends. Mirabella believed Criterion had largely triumphed in creating a great online component.
The game's visuals and spectacle were lauded by critics who suspected that it would amaze players. Reed questioned whether it was the best looking game to have ever been made. Critics observed that the use of high frame rate and motion blur helped convey an incredible sense of speed. Other aspects such particle effects, reflections, and real-time deformation drew praise as well. Critics expressed approval over the sound design of the cars and collisions. However opinions of the licensed soundtrack and DJ were less favourable. Some writers found the DJ's enthusiastic dialogue to be annoying and had mixed opinions on the songs included in the soundtrack, but were thankful for the available audio customisation options.
### Accolades
Burnout 3: Takedown received numerous awards from the video games media and independent awards organisations following its release. Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine and Official U.S. Xbox Magazine both ranked Burnout 3: Takedown as their "Game of the Year" ahead of Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas and Halo 2 respectively. Eurogamer staff rated Burnout 3 in ninth place on their list of the top fifty games of 2004. GameSpot named it the best Xbox game of September 2004, and it won the publication's annual "Best Driving Game" award across all platforms. At the 2nd British Academy Games Awards, Burnout 3 won three awards in the "PS2", "Racing", and "Technical Direction" categories, and received three further nominations in the "Art Direction", "Online Multiplayer", and "Xbox" categories. The game won "Racing Game of the Year" and was nominated for "Console Game of the Year" at the 8th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. For its showcase at E3 2004, Burnout 3 won "Best Racing Game" from the Game Critics Awards. At the 2004 Golden Joystick Awards, Burnout 3 won the "PlayStation 2 Game of the Year" category and was a runner-up for "Online Game of the Year". At the 2004 Spike Video Game Awards, Burnout 3 won "Best Driving Game" and was nominated for "Game of the Year". It also won the viewer's choice award for "Most Addictive Game". Alex Ward and Criterion were nominated for "Designer of the Year" for their work on Burnout 3.
### Commercial performance
Burnout 3: Takedown debuted at number one in the UK software chart. During the game's launch week in the UK, 57% of sales were for the PlayStation 2 and 43% were for the Xbox. The game became the fourth fastest selling Xbox title ever in the UK. Sales of the PlayStation 2 version increased by 32% the following week. In Europe as a whole, Burnout 3 sold above 1 million units by the end of September 2004. The game's PlayStation 2 version ultimately received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. In Australia, Burnout 3 placed in third and ninth respectively in the PlayStation 2 and Xbox software charts at launch. The game performed strongly in Japan, achieving 32,000 sales during launch week and debuted in second place on the software charts. By July 2006, the PlayStation 2 version of Burnout 3 had sold 900,000 copies and earned \$28 million in the United States. Next Generation ranked it as the 65th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Combined console sales of Burnout games released in the 2000s reached 2.3 million units in the United States by July 2006.
## Legacy
In 2005, Criterion launched their follow-up to Burnout 3: Takedown, titled Burnout Revenge. Revenge retained Takedowns but continued to evolve the aggressive style of driving by introducing new features such as the ability to knock traffic out of the way and into opponents. With Revenge, Criterion wanted to set the game on its own path rather than just recreate Burnout 3 again. Ward admitted that later Burnout games may not have recaptured the same quintessential feeling that Burnout 3 did. He considered Burnout 3 to be the game that he was most proud of working on and a high point for the studio.
Retrospective coverage of Burnout 3: Takedown has been overwhelmingly favourable, with many publications considering it to be among the best games released for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles, as well as one of the greatest racing games ever made. Edge magazine called the game a pivotal moment for the series and reflected positively on the fundamental changes that had Criterion made in designing it. They praised the game for being balanced all round while noting that later instalments like Revenge and Dominator had pushed the series too far in a particular direction, consequently diluting a lot of what Burnout 3 had accomplished. IGN reaffirmed these thoughts in 2015, by declaring the game as the most perfect arcade racer ever conceived and the peak of the series. In 2015, USgamer listed Burnout 3: Takedown as the twelfth best game since 2000, stating that it remained at the forefront of the arcade racing genre. |
9,920,956 | County Route 106 (Rockland County, New York) | 1,072,614,220 | Highway in Rockland County, New York | [
"County routes in Rockland County, New York",
"Harriman State Park (New York)"
] | County Route 106 (CR 106) is a 7.8-mile (12.6 km) east–west county route in Rockland County, New York, in the United States. It serves as an eastward continuation of Kanawauke Road (former Orange CR 106), extending from the Orange County line to U.S. Route 9W (US 9W) and US 202 in Stony Point via Harriman State Park. CR 106 intersects with several county highways in Rockland County along the way. The route was only one of two in Rockland County to keep its numbering from Orange County, with the other being CR 72. CR 106 had one spur route, CR 106A, which was recently decommissioned.
The route was originally designated County Highway 416 in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1930, it became the easternmost part of New York State Route 210 (NY 210), a state highway continuing westward into Orange County. In 1982, NY 210 was truncated to end in Greenwood Lake, and its former routing east of NY 17 was replaced by CR 106 in Orange and Rockland counties. CR 106 in Orange County was decommissioned on January 1, 2014, when maintenance was transferred to the Palisades Interstate Park Commission.
## Route description
CR 106 begins at the Orange County line in Harriman State Park as a continuation of Kanawauke Road (formerly that county's CR 106). The route was only one of two county routes that have the same number in both Rockland and Orange counties; the other is CR 72.
CR 106 proceeds east from here where it then intersects Lake Welch Parkway, a seasonal road which provides a route to Lake Welch Beach and Palisades Interstate Parkway South. Then, CR 106 cross Lake Welch on a causeway over the southern side of the lake. CR 106 then begins its trek out of Harriman State Park and into the town of Stony Point.
Immediately after entering Stony Point, CR 106 intersects CR 98 where CR 106 makes a left turn. CR 106 then proceeds east toward its intersection with the Palisades Parkway at Exit 15 and the last residential exit northbound on the PIP, with everything north of this point being exits within Harriman and Bear Mountain.
Just after its intersection with the PIP, the road intersects former Rockland County Route CR 106A At this point CR 106 becomes a 45-mile-per-hour (72 km/h) highway with turning lanes. The highway intersects CR 108, CR 47, and CR 33 as Central Drive. CR 106 comes to an end shortly after these intersections at US 9W and US 202 in downtown Stony Point, about a mile west from the Hudson River and the Stony Point Marina.
## History
CR 106 originated in 1824, when the road was chartered for the New Turnpike and headed from Monroe to Haverstraw. Back in the 1820s, what is now Southfields was known as Monroe. The New Turnpike started at a nail factory in Monroe to a crossing over the Ramapo River, and progressed eastward, passing Lake Stahahe (then known as Car Pond). The turnpike continued eastward, meeting the Old Turnpike at a fork in the road. At the fork, part of the road became NY 210 in the 1930 New York State Route renumbering. In 1910, when the park opened, the road became known as the Southfields Road. Three years later, it became part of the Seven Lakes Drive. Three more years later, the route became known as County Highway 416. In 1919 and 1920, the western section of the road was reconstructed. After a bridge was built to cross a river in 1923, a new route, making up part of the original Warwick Turnpike, became NY 17A.
The responsibility for maintaining NY 210 was turned over to the county in 1982. The road was replaced with CR 106. CR 106, which was both in Orange and Rockland counties, had its Orange County segment decommissioned on January 1, 2014 when they traded maintenance to the Palisades Interstate Park Commission.
## CR 106A
CR 106A was a 0.1-mile (0.16 km) spur which began at CR 106 and ended at a dead end near CR 69 in Stony Point.
## Major intersections
## See also
- County Route 106 (Orange County, New York)
- List of county routes in Rockland County, New York (76–118A) |
2,522,179 | Arnold Fothergill | 1,172,558,503 | English cricketer (1854–1932) | [
"1854 births",
"1932 deaths",
"Cricketers from Newcastle upon Tyne",
"England Test cricketers",
"English cricketers",
"Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers",
"North v South cricketers",
"Players cricketers",
"Somerset cricketers"
] | Arnold James Fothergill (26 August 1854 – 1 August 1932) was an English professional cricketer who played first-class cricket for Somerset County Cricket Club and the MCC in a career which spanned from 1870 until 1892. A left-arm fast-medium pace bowler, he appeared for England in two Test matches in 1889.
Fothergill began his career as a club professional in the north east of England. He joined Somerset as one of their first professionals in 1880, but was forced to miss most of 1881 while he qualified for the county. He was the most productive bowler for the county in their first two years of first-class cricket, but the emergence of E. W. Bastard, and later Ted Tyler and Sammy Woods, limited his opportunities with the club. He joined the ground staff at Lord's Cricket Ground in 1882, and played for the MCC until 1892, also appearing at Lord's for representative sides.
In the English winter of 1888–89, he was chosen to tour South Africa with the MCC, and played in two matches which were later designated as Test matches, though Wisden Cricketers' Almanack described them as being "arguably not even first-class." He took 119 first-class wickets during his career, of which eight came in his two Tests.
## Early life and career
Arnold James Fothergill was born on 26 August 1854 in Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland. He began his cricket career with Northumberland Cricket Club, a private club which was a precursor to the county team. He appeared as a professional for the side from 1870 until 1879, during which time he was also employed by Benwell High Cross Cricket Club in 1870 and 1871, and Manchester Cricket Club in 1879, before moving to Somerset in 1880.
## Somerset professional
### Second-class cricket
Somerset County Cricket Club was founded in 1875, and although they initially struggled financially, Fothergill and Alfred Brooks were employed as the club's first professionals in 1880. Fothergill played his first recorded match for the county in July of that year, facing a team of sixteen men from Weston-super-Mare, taking thirteen wickets in the match. Throughout 1880, he was regularly Somerset's leading wicket-taker in their matches; he collected five wickets in an innings against the Marylebone Cricket Club twice, Hertfordshire, and Leicestershire. In 1881, Fothergill was included in the Somerset team to face Kent in Bath. The Kent captain, Richard Thornton objected to Fothergill's presence, correctly pointing out that he was not qualified to play for Somerset. As a result, Fothergill was removed from the side, and did not appear for the side in county cricket again that season, while he served his qualification. He did appear once for the county, against the MCC, taking four wickets in the first innings, and scoring 47 runs as an opening batsman.
### First-class cricket
In 1882, Fothergill joined the ground staff at Lord's Cricket Ground, and made his first-class debut for the MCC against Derbyshire in May. Bowling unchanged in the first innings, he claimed five wickets for 31 runs, and then scored the highest score of his first-class career, 74 runs, in a large victory for his side. The following month, he featured for Somerset in what is generally considered to be their first match of the first-class cricket, against Lancashire. Somerset were heavily beaten in the match, during which Fothergill took three wickets and scored three runs. That summer, he was selected to appear for the professional "Players" against the amateur "Gentlemen" in the prestigious annual fixture at Lord's, in which he had little impact as the Gentlemen won by eight wickets. In all, Fothergill played fourteen first-class matches in 1882, claiming 44 wickets at an average of 22.02, and taking five wickets in an innings twice. He was Somerset's leading wicket-taker during the season, taking twice as many wickets as the next most effective bowler, Charles Winter.
Fothergill's first match in 1883 was in a representative match, playing for the South against the North. The South, for whom Fothergill was the only player to score double figures in each innings, lost the match. He then played exclusively with the MCC until the end of July, when Somerset's fixtures began. Having collected five wickets in an innings for the MCC against Oxford University, Fothergill repeated the feat twice that season for Somerset, taking five for 23 against Gloucestershire, and then achieving his best first-class bowling figures of six for 43 against Hampshire. In the latter match, he also took four wickets in the second innings, giving him ten wickets in the match, the only occasion he achieved the feat in first-class cricket. He played one further match towards the end of the 1883 season, against that year's "Champion County", Nottinghamshire. The MCC won the game by 121 runs; in the first innings, Fothergill was not required to bowl as Nottinghamshire were bowled out for 23, with six players scoring ducks, and he took five for 30 in the second innings. Fothergill was once more Somerset's leading wicket-taker during 1883, taking 27 of his 37 first-class wickets for the county that year. His bowling average of 14.72 was his best during an English season.
During the following season, Fothergill only appeared once for Somerset, in a match against Kent early in the season. He took four for 87 in the match, which was his final first-class appearance for the county. Fothergill was again selected to play for the South against the North, but bowled just three overs in the match, without taking a wicket. The remainder of his notable appearances that season were made for the MCC, though few were considered first-class. He performed well in matches against Wiltshire and Leicestershire, taking eleven wickets in each match, including seven for 62 in the second innings against Leicestershire, but neither match had first-class status. In 1885, he enjoyed his best match for the South, taking four wickets in each innings as the North were defeated by nine wickets. The majority of his cricket from 1884 until 1886 was made for the MCC, although he did appear four times in 1886 for Somerset, which had been stripped of its first-class status. In contrast, in 1887 and 1888, he played almost exclusively for the county, appearing just three times for the MCC. Somerset, who had relied on the bowling of Fothergill in the early 1880s, were spearheaded by E. W. Bastard, Ted Tyler and Sammy Woods in the late 1880s, and Fothergill was rarely needed to bowl many overs. Despite this, he was presented with a bat during 1888, a reward usually given to batsmen who had scored a century.
## Test cricketer
During the English winter of 1888–89, the MCC sent a touring team to South Africa. Organised by Major Gardner Warton, the original itinerary only featured "odds" matches, in which an 11-player MCC team faced opposition sides including 15, 18 or 22 players, depending on their perceived strength. In his book, A History of Cricket, Harry Altham describes that the quality of the touring party "was about that of a weak county." Fothergill was selected as part of the side, despite not having played a first-class match since May 1887. The majority of the wickets during the tour were taken by Lancashire's spinner, Johnny Briggs, who took almost 300, but Fothergill was heavily used as a bowler, and claimed 119 wickets at an average of 6.89. Altham suggests that the ease of the touring side's victories justifies the selection of a comparatively weak side. As the tour continued, there were calls for an even-strength contest, with the English side facing an 11-player South African side. Two such matches were arranged, but were considered no different from the other matches during the tour, being advertised as Major Warton's XI v South Africa XI. The matches were later granted Test match status, although Wisden Cricketers' Almanack commented that, "it was never intended, or considered necessary, to take out a representative English team for a first trip to the Cape."
In the first Test, Fothergill opened the bowling with Briggs, and bowled economically, conceding 15 runs from his 24 four-ball overs. He only took one wicket in the innings, and was noted more for his batting later in the day. Having bowled South Africa out for 84, England rallied from 103 for nine due to a 45-run partnership for the tenth wicket between Fothergill and Basil Grieve. Batting at number eleven, Fothergill scored 32 runs, second only to opening batsman Bobby Abel. In South Africa's second innings, Fothergill was used as first-change bowler, and took four wickets for 19, his best figures in the two Test matches. South Africa scored 129 runs before being bowled out, and England scored the 67 runs required for victory with a day of the match remaining.
England dominated the second Test, largely due to the bowling of Briggs. Batting first, England scored 292 runs, of which Abel contributed 120. Fothergill claimed the first South African wicket, Albert Rose-Innes at the end of the first day, but only claimed two more in the match, as Briggs took fifteen wickets on the second day to help England to an innings and 202-run victory.
Fothergill's two Test appearances were the only ones of his career, and were also his final first-class matches. In all, he took 119 first-class wickets at an average of 18.18. His highest score was the 74 runs he scored on his debut.
## Later life and career
After returning from South Africa, Fothergill played occasionally for the MCC, and three further times for Somerset, but with little merit. He made his final appearance for Somerset in 1889, against Staffordshire; he took 157 wickets for the county in total, of which 57 came in first-class matches. His last match for the MCC was three years later, against Llandudno Cricket Club. In his obituary, Wisden suggest that he returned to Tyneside at the end of his professional cricket career. He died in Sunderland on 1 August 1932. |
9,854,567 | Percy Henn | 1,156,979,601 | Clergyman and teacher (1865–1955) | [
"1865 births",
"1955 deaths",
"Australian headmasters",
"British emigrants to Australia",
"Clergy from Manchester",
"Guildford Grammar School",
"People educated at Christ's Hospital",
"Schoolteachers from Greater Manchester"
] | Reverend Canon Percy Umfreville Henn (21 January 1865 – 25 February 1955) was a clergyman and teacher in England and later Western Australia. He is best known for his time as Headmaster at Guildford Grammar School and later for the building of the Chapel of SS. Mary and George.
Henn gained his BA in 1887 and MA in 1890 from Worcester College at Oxford University. He taught at various schools until 1900, when he became a missionary in Western Australia in country towns. In Western Australia Henn married Jean Elliott and had four children. After further religious work in regional WA, he moved to Guildford, Western Australia and became a leading force behind Guildford Grammar School's Guildford Grammar School Chapel and preparatory school. He died in 1955 at age 90.
## Early years
Henn was born in Manchester, England, as the tenth child of Rev. John Henn and his wife Catherine, née Holcroft. His older brother, Sydney Henn, became a member of parliament. Henn was educated at Christ's Hospital, London, as a bluecoat boy, and then at Worcester College, Oxford, on a scholarship. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1887, proceeding to a Master of Arts three years later.
## Early career
Henn decided, before taking on a spiritual career, that he would become a teacher. He began his career as an assistant master at Hurstpierpoint College, West Sussex (one of the Woodard Schools, a series of eleven schools founded by Nathaniel Woodard). There, he became interested in education through religion, and became an ordained priest in 1891. He then became Chaplain at Hurstpierpoint in 1892. Henn became recognised as a teacher when he became a founding headmaster at Worksop College in Nottinghamshire; however he resigned in 1899 amidst differences with a new superior who disagreed with Henn's philosophy of a school grounds with beautiful buildings dominated by a chapel.
## Looking abroad
In January 1900, Henn arrived as a missionary in Perth, Western Australia. After a short spell in Kalgoorlie, he moved to Geraldton as rector (parish priest). On 3 April 1902, in Geraldton, Henn married Jean Elliott. They eventually had four children together, one of whom, Guy Gavin Henn, became a member of parliament. Henn became a rector in Northam for three years (1902–1905), signifying the end of his missionary term. He returned to England and became organising secretary in the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in the dioceses of Canterbury and Rochester.
## Return to Western Australia
### A Chapel for Guildford
In 1910, Henn returned to Perth to take up the position of Headmaster of Guildford Grammar School. His task was to oversee the first attempt by the Church of England at secondary education since 1873. His first thought for the new school was the provision of a chapel. To him, a Church school without a chapel was "like the play of Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark." Henn immediately sent out a circular entitled "A Church of England Secondary School for Western Australia." This circular fell into the hands of one Cecil H. Oliverson, whom Henn eventually persuaded to pay the full cost of the Chapel, the Chapel of SS. Mary and George.
### Relations with Christ Church Grammar School
In 1918, Guildford Grammar School and Christ Church Grammar School were placed under the same ruling council. Henn became a member immediately; however, Christ Church did not gain representation until 1920. In 1918, Henn suggested that Christ Church Grammar School's oval be widened and made a first-class playing field.
### Guildford Preparatory School
In 1912, a Cecil Priestley was temporarily employed by Henn as a member of the Guildford Grammar School staff. It seems today that he conceived the idea of a Guildford Preparatory School. Henn was enthusiastic about this, however the Guildford Preparatory School did not integrate with the main Guildford Grammar School until 1921, when it became Guildford Grammar Preparatory School, and Priestley resigned from his position as the Head of the Prep School around this time.
Henn became canon of St George's Cathedral, Perth in 1921. He has a Guildford Grammar School house named after him, Henn's House, founded 1927.
## 1925 – death
Henn left his job as Headmaster at Guildford Grammar School in 1925 and returned to England. However, he could not be kept away from Western Australia and returned again to become founding warden of St Georges College, within the University of Western Australia. Henn retired permanently to Perth in 1933 and died in 1955, age 90. Henn's ashes reside in the Guildford Grammar School Chapel, with a stone slab to commemorate this situated on the north side of the sanctuary.
## See also
- Hurstpierpoint College
- Christ's Hospital
- Worcester College
- Worksop College
- St George's Cathedral, Perth |
1,159,885 | Madonna (album) | 1,173,428,060 | null | [
"1983 debut albums",
"Albums recorded at Sigma Sound Studios",
"Madonna albums",
"Post-disco albums",
"Sire Records albums",
"Warner Records albums"
] | Madonna is the debut studio album by American singer-songwriter Madonna, released on July 27, 1983, by Sire Records. After having established herself as a singer in downtown New York City, Madonna was signed by Sire president Seymour Stein, due to the club success of her debut single, "Everybody" (1982). She became the sole writer for most of the album's tracks, and chose Reggie Lucas as its primary producer. Unhappy with Lucas's production outputs, she invited John "Jellybean" Benitez to complete the album; he remixed three tracks and produced "Holiday".
Madonna has an upbeat synthetic disco sound, using new technology of the time, including the Linn drum machine, Moog bass and Oberheim OB-X synthesizer. She sang in a bright, girlish timbre, with lyrics about love and relationships. To promote the album, Madonna performed one-off gigs in clubs and on television in the United States and United Kingdom throughout 1983 and 1984, followed by The Virgin Tour in 1985. Five singles were released, including the international top-ten hits "Holiday", "Lucky Star", and "Borderline". Their accompanying music videos were released on the Madonna video compilation, which became the best-selling videocassette of 1985 in the United States.
Madonna peaked at number eight on the Billboard 200, and was certified five-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of five million copies across the United States. It reached the top ten of the charts in Australia, France, Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, and sold more than 10 million copies worldwide. The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics and was included in "The 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time" by Rolling Stone in 2013 and 2022 saying that "it succeeded in introducing the most important female voice in the history of modern music". The album has been credited for setting the standard of dance-pop for decades afterward, and for pointing the direction for numerous female artists of the 1980s.
## Background
In 1979, Madonna was living in New York City and establishing her music career as a member of rock band the Breakfast Club with her boyfriend Dan Gilroy. In late 1980, she was joined by Stephen Bray, her boyfriend from Michigan, who became the drummer of the band. Shortly after, Madonna and Bray left the Breakfast Club and formed the band Emmy and the Emmys. The two began writing songs together and they recorded a four-song demo tape in November 1980, but soon after, Madonna decided to promote herself as a solo artist.
In 1981, Madonna got signed by a music management company called Gotham Records. During that time, Madonna wrote and developed some songs on her own. She carried rough tapes of three of the songs, "Everybody", "Ain't No Big Deal" and "Burning Up". She frequented nightclubs such as Danceteria where she convinced DJ Mark Kamins to play "Everybody". The song was received positively by the crowd, and Kamins decided that he should get Madonna a record deal. Kamins, who also worked as an A&R man for Island Records, played her demo tape for the label's founder Chris Blackwell, but Blackwell refused to sign her so Kamins sent the tape to Sire Records.
The President of Sire, Seymour Stein was impressed by her demo and met Madonna while he was admitted to Lenox Hill Hospital. She was ultimately signed for a deal for a total of three singles with an option for an album. Michael Rosenblatt, who worked in the A&R department of Sire, offered Madonna \$15,000 in advance per single, plus a publishing deal for an advance of \$2,500 for each song she wrote.
## Development
The 12" single for "Everybody" was produced by Mark Kamins at Blank Tapes Studios in New York, who took over the production work from Stephen Bray. The new recording ran 5:56 on one side and 9:23 for the dub version on the reverse side. Madonna and Kamins had to record the single at their own cost. Arthur Baker, a friend of Kamins, guided him through the role of a music producer and provided him with studio musician Fred Zarr who played keyboards on the track.
Zarr became one of the common musical threads on the album by eventually performing on every track. Due to restrained budget the recording was done hurriedly. Madonna and Kamins had difficulty in understanding each other's inputs for the sessions. Rosenblatt wanted to release "Everybody" with "Ain't No Big Deal" on the other side, but later changed his mind and put "Everybody" on both sides of the vinyl record after hearing the recorded version of "Ain't No Big Deal". The single was commercially released in October 1982 and became a dance hit in the United States. Shortly after its release, Sire Records gave the green light to record an album.
The album was primarily recorded at Sigma Sound Studios in New York City. Madonna opted not to work with either Kamins or Bray, but chose Reggie Lucas, a Warner Bros. producer. Bray decided to push her in the musical direction of pop, and recorded the song "Burning Up" with her. However, Madonna still did not have enough material to generate a full album. The songs available were, "Lucky Star", a new version of "Ain't No Big Deal", "Think of Me" and "I Know It". She met with Lucas at the apartment of her boyfriend Jean-Michel Basquiat, and he brought another two songs to the project, "Physical Attraction" and "Borderline".
As he recorded the tracks he deviated considerably from the original versions of the demos. One such altered song was "Lucky Star". The song was written by Madonna for Kamins, who previously promised to play the track at Danceteria. The track was instead used by Madonna for the album, which she planned to call Lucky Star. She believed that "Lucky Star", along with "Borderline", were the perfect foundation for her album.
Problems arose between her and Lucas during the recording of the songs. Madonna was unhappy with the way the final versions turned out. According to Madonna, Lucas used too many instruments and did not consider her ideas for the songs. This led to a dispute between the two and, after finishing the album, Lucas left the project without tailoring the songs to Madonna's specifications; hence she called John "Jellybean" Benitez, a DJ at Funhouse disco, to remix the available tracks. In the meantime, due to a conflict of interest, Bray had sold "Ain't No Big Deal" to an act on another label, rendering it unavailable for Madonna's project. It was Benitez who discovered a new song, written by Curtis Hudson and Lisa Stevens of the pop group Pure Energy.
The song, titled "Holiday", had been turned down by Phyllis Hyman and Mary Wilson, formerly of the Supremes. Benitez and Madonna sent the demo to their friend, Fred Zarr so he could embellish the arrangement and program the synthesizer lines. After vocals were recorded by Madonna, Benitez spent four days trying to enhance the commercial appeal of the track before the April 1983 deadline. Just before it was completed, Madonna and Benitez met Fred Zarr at Sigma Sound in Manhattan, where Zarr added the now familiar piano solo towards the end of the track.
## Music and lyrics
According to AllMusic, Madonna is a dance-pop and post-disco album, while Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine stated that the album's sound is "post-disco, post-punk dance." The overall sound of the album is upbeat synthetic disco, using some of the new technology of the time, like the usage of Linn drum machine, Moog bass and the OB-X synthesizer. This equipment has dated since, consequently the sound of the album comes off as somewhat harsh. Madonna commented on her debut album: "The songs were pretty weak and I went to England during the recordings so I wasn't around... I wasn't in control. [...] I didn't realize how crucial it was for me to break out of the disco mold before I'd already finished the [first] album. I wish I could have got a little more variety there."
The album starts with the song "Lucky Star", a medium-paced dance track, beginning with a sparkle of synth note and is followed by heavy beats of electronic drum and handclaps. A guitar is played in high riff and a bubbling bass synth is produced to accompany the guitar sound. The song revolves around the "Starlight, starbright" hook for more than a minute, before going to the chorus. According to author Rikky Rooksby, the lyrics are repetitive and inane, revolving around the transparent ambiguity of the stars, and juxtaposition of the male character with being a heavenly body in the sky.
"Borderline" is a sentimental track, talking about a love that is never quite fulfilled. According to author Santiago Fouz-Hernández and his book Madonna's drowned worlds, the lyrics of the song like "Something in the way you love me won't let me be/I don't want to be your prisoner so baby won't you set me free" depicted a rebellion against male chauvinism. Madonna used a refined and expressive voice to sing the song, backed by Lucas's instrumentation. It opens with a keyboard rich intro and a catchy synth melody provided by Fred Zarr. Bass player Anthony Jackson doubled Dean Gant's synth bass to provide a solid and more complex texture.
The chords in the song were inspired by Seventies disco sound in Philadelphia as well as Elton John's musical style during the mid-seventies. The chord sequences cite from Bachman–Turner Overdrive's song "You Ain't Seen Nothing Yet" while the synth phases display her typical musical style. The third track "Burning Up" has a starker arrangement, brought about by bass, single guitar and Linn drum machine. The drum beats used in the song were reminiscent to the records of singer Phil Collins. It also incorporated electric guitars and the most state-of-the-art synthesizers of that time. The chorus is a repetition of the same three lines, while the bridge consists of a series of double entendres; the lyrics describing what Madonna is prepared to do for her lover, and that she is individualistic and shameless.
The next track "I Know It" has a gentler swing to it and features music from piano, a saxophone, synth phrases while having an offbeat chord change. "Holiday" consists of a four-bar sequence, featuring instrumentation from guitars, electronic drums and handclaps from the Oberheim DMX, cowbell played by Madonna and a synthesized string arrangement. A side-by-side repetitive progression is achieved by making use of the chorus. Towards the end of the song, a change in the arrangement happens, where a piano break is heard. Lyrically, the song expresses the universal sentiment that everybody needs a holiday.
In "Think of Me", Madonna warns her erring lover that he should pay her attention or else she would leave. The song consists of beats from the Linn drum machine and a saxophone interlude. "Physical Attraction" is a medium paced track, with synth bass, a guitar line, sounds of a brass and Madonna singing in a shrill voice, about the attraction between herself and a boy. The last song on the album is "Everybody", which starts with a heavily synthesized and spoken introduction, with Madonna taking a loud intake of breath. She displayed her bubblegum-pop like voice in the song, which was also doubletracked.
## Release and artwork
The album was first released in the United States by Sire Records on July 27, 1983. It was originally slated to be titled Lucky Star, after the track of the same name. The original album cover was shot by photographer Edo Bertoglio and the sleeve designed by Madonna's friend Martin Burgoyne, but according to Seymour Stein, Madonna felt "it just wasn't iconic enough." The album was eventually titled simply Madonna, perhaps that this singular name could have star power. The album cover was shot by photographer Gary Heery and directed by Carin Goldberg.
The front cover shows Madonna with short-cropped platinum hair, wearing a number of black rubber bangles on her hands and a dog chain around her throat. Her navel is also prominent on the inner sleeve of the album. Madonna commented: "The picture inside the dust of sleeve of my first album has me, like, in this Betty Boop pose with my belly button showing. Then when people reviews the album, they kept talking about my cute belly button. [...] I think there are other unobvious places on the body that are sexy and the stomach is kind of innocent." Regarding the album photoshoot, Gary Heery recalled:
> [Madonna] arrived at my Broadway studio in New York with a small bag of clothes and jewelry, and no entourage. Then, in front of the camera she was explosive, like a great model, but with her own unique style. She came over the next day to see some prints and the proofs, and there was shot after shot to choose from. We agreed on every choice and whittled it down to the album cover images. I had no idea what I had just been a party to.
The album was re-released in 1985 for the European market and re-packaged as Madonna: The First Album with a different artwork created by photographer George Holy. The cover features Madonna in similar style of dress to the original cover but this time with crucifix as her earrings. Madonna's trademark style was catching on as a fashion statement among club kids and fans, with her crucifix accessories becoming the jewelry of the moment. Madonna said that wearing a crucifix is "kind of offbeat and interesting. I mean, everything I do is sort of tongue-in-cheeks. Besides, the crucifixes seem to go with my name."
In 2001, Warner Bros. Records released a remastered version of the album with its original artwork and two bonus remix tracks of "Burning Up" and "Lucky Star". Madonna dedicated the album to her father, Tony Ciccone, with whom her relationship had not been good until the release of the album. In an interview with Time magazine, Madonna said: "My father had never believed that what I was doing here [in New York] was worthwhile, nor did he believe that I was up to any good. [...] It wasn't until my first album came out and my father started hearing my songs on the radio that he stopped asking the questions."
## Promotion
Madonna had promoted the album throughout 1983–84 by performing a series of "track dates", one-off gigs. These shows were done at New York City and London clubs like Danceteria and Camden Palace and on American and British television programs like Dancin' on Air, American Bandstand, and Top of the Pops. On American Bandstand, Madonna performed the track "Holiday" and told interviewer Dick Clark that she wanted "to rule the world." John Mitchell from MTV said that the appearance "remains one of her most legendary." The album's singles were later performed on The Virgin Tour in 1985. It was Madonna's first concert tour and visited North American dates. The Virgin Tour received mixed reception from critics, but was a commercial success. As soon as the tour was announced, tickets were sold out everywhere.
Macy's New York department store was flooded with buyers, who bought the tour merchandise like the crucifix earrings and fingerless gloves. After its end, the Virgin Tour was reported to have grossed over \$5 million (\$ million in dollars), with Billboard Boxscore reporting a gross of \$3.3 million (\$ million in dollars). The tour was recorded and released in VHS, as Madonna Live: The Virgin Tour. Later authors have looked back at the tour and commented that it was clear that "[Madonna] was a bonafide pop star in the process of becoming a cultural icon." Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss noted the clothes and fashion in the tour and said, "Virgin Tour established Madonna as the hottest figure in pop music."
### Singles
Madonna released five singles from the album, although two of those singles actually preceded the album's release by several months. "Everybody" was released on October 6, 1982, as Madonna's debut single. At this point, the rest of the Madonna album had not yet been recorded or even conceived of. Musically incorporating R&B infused beats, "Everybody" portrayed the image of Madonna as a black artist, since her picture did not appear on the single cover. This misconception was cleared later when Madonna convinced Sire executives to allow her to shoot a music video for the song. The low-budget music video directed by Ed Steinberg portrayed Madonna and her friends singing and dancing in a club to the song. The video helped to further promote the song and Madonna as an artist. "Everybody" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 and charted at number 7 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 on January 22, 1983. The single was a hit on the Billboard Hot Dance/Club Play Chart, peaking at number three.
"Burning Up" was released as the second single in the US on March 9, 1983, and later issued in some countries as a double A-side single with "Physical Attraction". The single peaked at number three on the dance chart in the US, and became Madonna's first top twenty hit in Australia. The accompanying music video of the song portrays Madonna writhing passionately on an empty road before her "lover" approaches in a car from behind. The video ends with Madonna driving the car instead, suggesting that she is ultimately in control.
"Holiday" was released as the third single on September 7, 1983, and became Madonna's first top-ten hit in many countries, including Australia, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and the UK. It also became her first entry ever on the Billboard Hot 100, reaching number 16, and her first number-one hit on the dance chart.
Originally released in the UK on September 9, 1983, "Lucky Star" was the fourth single from the album. The single peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. The music video portrayed Madonna dancing in front of a white background, accompanied by her dancers. After the video was released, Madonna's style and mannerisms became a fashion trend among the younger generation. Scholars noted that in the video, Madonna portrayed herself as narcissistic and an ambiguous character. She referred to herself as the "lucky star", unlike the lyrical meaning of the song.
"Borderline" was the fifth single from the album, and was released on February 15, 1984. In the US, the song was released before "Lucky Star" and became Madonna's first top-ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at ten. Elsewhere, the song reached the top twenty of a number of European nations while peaking the chart in Ireland. The accompanying music video portrayed Madonna, with a Latin man as boyfriend. She was enticed by a British photographer to pose and model for him, but later returned to her original boyfriend. The video generated interest amongst academics, who noted the use of power as symbolism in it.
### Video compilation
A video compilation, titled Madonna, was released on VHS by Warner Music Video and Sire Records in November 1984 to promote the album. The singer's first video compilation, it contained three music videos from the album—"Burning Up", "Borderline" and "Lucky Star"—as well as the then current single "Like a Virgin". The music video for "Lucky Star" was a special extended dance mix, and when she says "ooh yeah" it is echoed three times and her image is repeated three times. "Like a Virgin" omits the scene where the lion's tongue moves in time with the beat of the music. These videos were later released on the 1990 greatest hits compilation The Immaculate Collection with these edits changed.
The video was promoted at the Cabaret Metro club in Chicago, on February 9, 1985. Dubbed as 'The Virgin Party', the event drew a crowd of around 1,200 and promoted Madonna's LPs, cassettes, CDs and the videocassette. Attendees were encouraged to wear white, and for \$5 admission fees, were able to view the Madonna videocassette and the premiere of the music video of her then upcoming single "Material Girl". The event was organised as a drive to promote music videos, which at that point did not have a large market.
Madonna topped the Music Videocassette chart of Billboard for the period from April 13, 1985, to November 9, 1985. Jim McCullaugh from Billboard attributed the strong sales of the video to Madonna's recent studio album Like a Virgin and The Virgin Tour concert. It placed at number one on the year-end music videocassette chart for 1985. Madonna was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 100,000 units of the video. It won the award for the "Best Selling Video Cassette Merchandised as Music Video" from the National Association of Recording Merchandisers. According to The Saturday Evening Post, the video has sold over one million copies.
## Critical reception
Madonna received generally positive reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic wrote that the album "cleverly incorporated great pop songs with stylish, state-of-the-art beats, and it shrewdly walked a line between being a rush of sound and a showcase for a dynamic lead singer. This is music where all of the elements may not be particularly impressive on their own — the arrangement, synth, and drum programming are fairly rudimentary — but taken together, it's utterly irresistible." Tony Power from Blender said that the album consisted of "quacking synths, overperky bass and state-of-the-art mechanical disco, with Madonna strapped to the wing rather than holding the controls. It's a breathless, subtlety-free debut, with overtones of Soft Cell and Tom Tom Club."
Reviewing the remastered version of the album, released in 2001, Michael Paoletta from Billboard stated that "Nearly 20 years after the release of Madonna, such tracks as 'Holiday', 'Physical Attraction', 'Borderline' and 'Lucky Star' remain irresistible." Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly said that "[Madonna] might have wound up just another post-disco dolly if [the songs on the album] didn't announce her ability to fuse club beats with peerless pop." In July 2008, the magazine ranked the album at number five in their list of "Top 100 Best Albums of Past 25 Years".
Bill Lamb from About.com commented: "[The] album is state of the art dance-pop loaded with hits from 'Holiday' and 'Lucky Star' to 'Borderline'. Irresistible pop hooks glide across shimmering synth beats to make this a landmark album of the early 80's." Jonathan Ross from Q said that "'Borderline' is sweet and 'Holiday' still fizzes with invention and joie de vivre....this quintessentially '80s dance hit also features a barrelhouse piano solo."
Robert Christgau wrote in The Village Voice, "In case you bought the con, disco never died – just reverted to the crazies who thought it was worth living for. This shamelessly ersatz blonde is one of them, and with the craftily orchestrated help of a fine selection of producers, remixers, and DJs, she's come up with a shamelessly ersatz sound that's tighter than her tummy – essence of electro, the D in DOR." Don Shewey from Rolling Stone was of the opinion that "without overstepping the modest ambitions of minimal funk, Madonna issues an irresistible invitation to the dance."
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented: "Heralding the synth-heavy movement was a debut album [Madonna] that sounds just as fresh today as it did almost two decades ago." In March 2012, the publication placed the album at number 33 on their "Best Albums of the 1980s" list. Michaelangelo Matos from Spin selected the album among "The Definitive Guide to Classic Disco" and noted that it "mashed-up street sounds and reinvigorated disco for a generation that wanted nothing to do with polyester suits, ending an era and birthing a new one."
## Commercial performance
In the United States, the album entered the Billboard 200 albums chart at number 190, the week of September 3, 1983. The album had a slow and steady climb, and peaked at eight on the Billboard 200 on the week ending October 20, 1984, more than a year after its release. It also peaked at twenty on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. Within a year, Madonna had sold 2.8 million copies in the United States. It placed at number twenty-seven on the year-end chart for 1984 and at number 25 on the year-end chart for 1985, with Madonna becoming the top pop artist for the year 1985. After 17 years since its release, the album was certified five-times Platinum by the RIAA for shipment of five million copies across United States. With the advent of the Nielsen SoundScan era in 1991, the album sold a further 450,000 copies as of August 2010.
In Canada, the album was released on March 10, 1984, and debuted at number 87 on the RPM Albums Chart. After few weeks it re-entered the chart again, at number 95 on August 4, 1984. The album finally reached its peak position of number 16 in its 29th week. It was present on the chart for a total of 47 weeks, and ranked at number 50 on the RPM Top 100 Albums of 1984 list.
In the United Kingdom, the album was released on February 11, 1984, and charted on the UK Albums Chart, reaching a peak of thirty-seven and present on the chart for twenty weeks. After a re-release titled Madonna – The First Album in July 1985, the album charted again on the UK Albums chart. It ultimately reached a peak of number six and was present on the chart for 125 weeks. Six months since the re-release, the album was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipment of 300,000 copies of the album.
In Australia, the album reached a peak of ten on the Kent Music Report albums chart and was certified triple platinum. The album reached the top ten of the charts in Netherlands, France and New Zealand; in the last two markets, it was certified Platinum. It was also certified Platinum in Hong Kong and Gold in Germany and Spain. In November 2019, the album managed to enter the Spanish Albums Charts for the first time, since it failed to do it at the time of the release. Worldwide the album has sold more than 10 million copies.
## Legacy
Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that with the album, Madonna began her career as a disco diva, in an era that did not have any such divas to speak of. In the beginning of the 80s, disco was an anathema to the mainstream pop and, according to him, Madonna had a huge role in popularizing dance music as mainstream music, using her charisma, chutzpah and sex appeal. Erlewine claimed that Madonna "launched dance-pop" and set the standard for the genre for the next two decades. The staff of Vice magazine stated that the album "drew the blueprint for future dance-pop."
Rolling Stone ranked the album at number 50 on "The 100 Best Albums of the Eighties" list, writing that "[the album's] assured style and sound, as well as Madonna's savvy approach to videos, helped the singer make the leap from dance diva to pop phenom, and it pointed the direction for a host of female vocalists from Janet Jackson to Debbie Gibson." In 2013 and 2022, they ranked it as the 96th and 16th best debut album of all time, respectively, saying "it succeeded in introducing the most important female voice in the history of modern music".
According to biographer Andrew Morton, the album made Madonna a household name, and was instrumental in introducing her star power. Martin Charles Strong, author of The Great Rock Discography felt that the album's unprecedented dance-pop and naive appeal served Madonna in establishing her base as an artist. Kyle Anderson from Entertainment Weekly commented: "Madonna's sound, and of course her look, would be heavily copied for years to come, but Madonna heralded something much bigger: the arrival of the pop diva as a singular force who put personality above all else." According to author Santiago Fouz-Hernández, the songs on Madonna reveal several key trends that have continued to define her success, including a strong dance-based idiom, catchy hooks, highly polished arrangement and Madonna's own vocal style. In songs such as "Lucky Star" and "Burning Up", Madonna introduced a style of upbeat dance music that would prove particularly appealing to future gay audiences.
Music critics Bob Batchelor and Scott Stoddart, commented in their book The 1980s that "the music videos for the singles off the album, was more effective in introducing Madonna to the rest of the world." Author Carol Clerk said that the music videos of "Burning Up", "Borderline" and "Lucky Star" established Madonna, not as the girl-next-door, but as a sassy and smart, tough funny woman. Her clothes worn in the videos were later used by designers like Karl Lagerfeld and Christian Lacroix, in Paris Fashion week of the same year. Professor Douglas Kellner, in his book Media Culture: Cultural Studies, Identity, and Politics Between the Modern and the Postmodern, commented that the videos depicted motifs and strategies which helped Madonna in her journey to become a star. With the "Borderline" music video, Madonna was credited for breaking the taboo of interracial relationships, and it was considered one of her career-making moments. MTV played the video in heavy rotation, increasing Madonna's popularity further.
Following the release of the album, Madonna was dismissed by some critics. They called her voice sounding as "Minnie Mouse on helium", while the other detractors suggested that she was "almost entirely helium, a gas-filled, lighter-than-air creation of MTV and other sinister media packagers." Madonna said: "From the very beginning of my career, people have been writing shit about me and saying, 'She's a one-hit wonder, she'll disappear after a year'."
She responded to the comment "Minnie Mouse on helium" by doing a photoshoot with Alberto Tolot, where she flirted with a giant Mickey Mouse toy, putting its hand inside her dress and looking at it with an admonishing glare. Author Debbi Voller noted that "such provocative imagery at a young age of her career, could have hurt her too much. But it went on to shut those twerps who dared to take a swag at her voice again." Twenty-five years later, in her acceptance speech of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction, Madonna thanked the critics who snubbed her in the early years, "The ones that said I was talentless, that I was chubby, that I couldn't sing, that I was a one-hit wonder. They pushed me to be better, and I am grateful for their resistance."
## Track listing
Notes
- signifies a remixer/additional producer
- "Burning Up" (alternate album version) (4:48) appeared on early pressings of the album and was used for the vinyl release of Madonna: The First Album, released in Europe in 1985.
- "Everybody" (6:02) replaces the shorter original album version on releases from 2001 onwards.
- "Holiday" (3:51), an edited remix version from The Immaculate Collection, erroneously replaces the album version on digital releases of the album.
## Personnel
Adapted from the album's liner notes.
- Madonna – lead vocals, background vocals, cowbell (5)
- Dean Gant – synthesizers, acoustic piano, electric piano
- Ed Walsh – synthesizers
- Fred Zarr – synthesizers, electric piano, acoustic piano (5), Fender Rhodes (5), Oberheim OB-X (5), Moog bass (5), drums (5), co-arrangements (5)
- Paul Pesco – guitars (1, 3)
- Reggie Lucas – guitars, LinnDrum programming
- Ira Siegel – guitars
- Curtis Hudson – guitars (5), arrangements (5)
- Anthony Jackson – electric bass (2)
- Raymond Hudson – bass (5)
- Leslie Ming – LinnDrum programming
- Bashiri Johnson – percussion (5)
- Bob Malach – tenor saxophone
- Chrissy Faith – background vocals
- Gwen Guthrie – background vocals
- Brenda White – background vocals
- Norma Jean Wright – background vocals
- Tina B. – background vocals (5)
### Production
- Reggie Lucas – producer (1–4, 6, 7)
- John "Jellybean" Benitez – producer (5), remixing (1, 3, 7)
- Mark Kamins – producer (8)
- Jim Dougherty – sound engineer (1–4, 6, 7)
- Jay Mark – remix engineer (1, 3, 7), mixing engineer (5)
- Michael Hutchinson – sound engineer (5)
- Butch Jones – sound engineer (8)
- Ted Jensen – audio mastering at Sterling Sound (New York City)
- Freddy DeMann – management
- Ron Weisner – management
### Design
- Carin Goldberg – art direction
- Gary Heery – photography
- George Holy – photography (Madonna – The First Album)
### Record company
- Sire Records – record label, U.S. copyright owner (1983, 1985)
- Warner Bros. Records – U.S. marketing and distributor (all releases), record label, copyright owner (2001)
- WEA International – international distributor, international copyright owner (all releases)
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications and sales
## See also
- List of best-selling albums by women |
577,221 | 1971 San Fernando earthquake | 1,170,348,321 | Earthquake in California | [
"1970s in Los Angeles County, California",
"1971 disasters in the United States",
"1971 earthquakes",
"1971 in California",
"1971 in Los Angeles",
"Disasters in Los Angeles",
"Earthquakes in California",
"February 1971 events in the United States",
"Geology of Los Angeles County, California",
"History of the San Fernando Valley"
] | The 1971 San Fernando earthquake (also known as the 1971 Sylmar earthquake) occurred in the early morning of February 9 in the foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains in southern California. The unanticipated thrust earthquake had a magnitude of 6.5 on the scale and 6.6 on the scale, and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). The event was one in a series that affected Los Angeles county in the late 20th century. Damage was locally severe in the northern San Fernando Valley and surface faulting was extensive to the south of the epicenter in the mountains, as well as urban settings along city streets and neighborhoods. Uplift and other effects affected private homes and businesses.
The event affected a number of health-care facilities in Sylmar, San Fernando, and other densely populated areas north of central Los Angeles. The Olive View Medical Center and Veterans Hospital both experienced very heavy damage, and buildings collapsed at both sites, causing the majority of deaths that occurred. The buildings at both facilities were constructed with mixed styles, but engineers were unable to thoroughly study the buildings' responses because they were not outfitted with instruments for recording strong ground motion; this prompted the Veterans Administration to later install seismometers at its high-risk sites. Other sites throughout the Los Angeles area had been instrumented as a result of local ordinances, and an unprecedented amount of strong motion data was recorded, more so than any other event up until that time. The success in this area spurred the initiation of California's Strong Motion Instrumentation Program.
Transportation around the Los Angeles area was severely afflicted with roadway failures and the partial collapse of several major freeway interchanges. The near total failure of the Lower Van Norman Dam resulted in the evacuation of tens of thousands of downstream residents, though an earlier decision to maintain the water at a lower level may have contributed to saving the dam from being overtopped. Schools were affected, as they had been during the 1933 Long Beach earthquake, but this time amended construction styles improved the outcome for the thousands of school buildings in the Los Angeles area. Another result of the event involved the hundreds of various types of landslides that were documented in the San Gabriel Mountains. As had happened following other earthquakes in California, legislation related to building codes was once again revised, with laws that specifically addressed the construction of homes or businesses near known active fault zones.
## Tectonic setting
The San Gabriel Mountains are a 37.3 mi (60.0 km) long portion of the Transverse Ranges and are bordered on the north by the San Andreas Fault, on the south by the Cucamonga Fault, and on the southwest side by the Sierra Madre Fault. The San Bernardino, Santa Ynez, and Santa Monica Mountains are also part of the anomalous east–west trending Transverse Ranges. The domain of the ranges stretches from the Channel Islands offshore to the Little San Bernardino Mountains, 300 miles (480 km) to the east. The frontal fault system at the base of the San Gabriel Mountains extends from the San Jacinto Fault Zone in the east to offshore Malibu in the west, and is defined primarily by moderate to shallow north-dipping faults, with a conservative vertical displacement estimated at 4,000–5,000 feet (1,200–1,500 m).
Paleomagnetic evidence has shown that the western Transverse Ranges were formed as the Pacific Plate moved northward relative to the North American Plate. As the plate shifted to the north, a portion of the terrane that was once parallel with the coast was rotated in a clockwise manner, which left it positioned in its east–west orientation. The Transverse Ranges form the perimeter of a series of basins that begins with the Santa Barbara Channel on the west end. Moving eastward, there is the Ventura Basin, the San Fernando Valley, and the San Gabriel Basin, with active reverse faults (San Cayetano, Red Mountain, Santa Susana, and Sierra Madre) all lining the north boundary. A small number of damaging events have occurred, with three in Santa Barbara (1812, 1925, and 1978) and two in the San Fernando Valley (1971 and 1994), though other faults in the basin that have high Quaternary slip rates have not produced any large earthquakes.
## Earthquake
The San Fernando earthquake occurred on February 9, 1971, at 6:00:41 am Pacific Standard Time (14:00:41 UTC) with a strong ground motion duration of about 12 seconds as recorded by seismometers, although the whole event was reported to have lasted about 60 seconds. The origin of faulting was located five miles north of the San Fernando Valley. Considerable damage was seen in localized portions of the valley and also in the foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains above the fault block. The fault that was responsible for the movement was not one that had been considered a threat, and this highlighted the urgency to identify other similar faults in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The shaking surpassed building code requirements and exceeded what engineers had prepared for, and although most dwellings in the valley had been built in the prior two decades, even modern earthquake-resistant structures sustained serious damage.
Several key attributes of the event were shared with the 1994 Northridge earthquake, considering both were brought about by thrust faults in the mountains north of Los Angeles, and each resulting earthquake being similar in magnitude, though no surface rupture occurred in 1994. Since both occurred in urban and industrial areas and resulted in significant economic impairment, each event drew critical observation from planning authorities, and has been thoroughly studied in the scientific communities.
### Surface faulting
Prominent surface faulting trending N72°W was observed along the San Fernando Fault Zone from a point south of Sylmar, stretching nearly continuously for 6 miles (9.7 km) east to the Little Tujunga Canyon. Additional breaks occurred farther to the east that were in a more scattered fashion, while the western portion of the most affected area had less pronounced scarps, especially the detached Mission Wells segment. Although the complete Sierra Madre Fault Zone had previously been mapped and classified by name into its constituent faults, the clusters of fault breaks provided a natural way to identify and refer to each section. As categorized during the intensive studies immediately following the earthquake, they were labeled the Mission Wells segment, Sylmar segment, Tujunga segment, Foothills area, and the Veterans fault.
All segments shared the common elements of thrust faulting with a component of left-lateral slip, a general east–west strike, and a northward dip, but they were not unified with regard to their connection to the associated underlying bedrock. The initial surveyors of the extensive faulting in the valley, foothills, and mountains reported only tectonic faulting, while excluding fissures and other features that arose from the effects of compaction and landslides. In the vicinity of the Sylmar Fault segment, there was a low possibility of landslides due to a lack of elevation change, but in the foothills and mountainous area a large amount of landslides occurred and more work was necessary to eliminate the possibility of misidentifying a feature. Along the hill fronts of the Tujunga segment, some ambiguous formations were present because some scarps may have had influence from downhill motion, but for the most part they were tectonic in nature.
In repeated measurements of the different fault breaks, the results remained consistent, leading to the belief that most of the slip had occurred during the mainshock. While lateral, transverse, and vertical motions were all observed, the largest individual component of movement was 5 ft 3 in (1.60 m) of left lateral slip near the middle of the Sylmar segment. The largest cumulative amount of slip of 6 feet 7 inches (2.01 m) occurred along the Sylmar and Tujunga segments. The overall fault displacement was summarized by geologist Barclay Kamb and others as "nearly equal amounts of north–south compression, vertical uplift (north side up), and left lateral slip and hence may be described as a thrusting of a northern block to the southwest over a southern block, along a fault surface dipping about 45° north."
### Landslides
The USGS commissioned a private company and the United States Air Force to take aerial photographs over 97 sq mi (250 km<sup>2</sup>) of the mountainous areas north of the San Fernando Valley. Analysis revealed that the earthquake triggered over 1,000 landslides. Highly shattered rock was also documented along the ridge tops, and rockfalls (which continued for several days) were the result of both the initial shock and the aftershocks. Few of the slides that were logged from the air were also observed from the ground. The greatest number of slides were centered to the southwest of the mainshock epicenter and close to the areas where surface faulting took place. The slides ranged from 49–984 feet (15–300 m) in length, and could be further categorized as rock falls, soil falls, debris slides, avalanches, and slumps. The most frequently encountered type of slide was the surficial (less than 3 feet (0.91 m) thick) debris slides and were most often encountered on terrain consisting of sedimentary rock.
### Strong motion
In early 1971, the San Fernando Valley was the scene of a dense network of strong-motion seismometers, which provided a total of 241 seismograms. This made the earthquake the most documented event, at the time, in terms of strong-motion seismology; by comparison, the 1964 Alaska earthquake did not provide any strong motion records. Part of the reason there were so many stations to capture the event was a 1965 ordinance that required newly constructed buildings in Beverly Hills and Los Angeles over six stories in height to be outfitted with three of the instruments. This stipulation ultimately found its way into the Uniform Building Code as an appendix several years later. One hundred seventy-five of the recordings came from these buildings, another 30 were on hydraulic structures, and the remainder were from ground-based installations near faults, including an array of the units across the San Andreas Fault.
The instrument that was installed at the Pacoima Dam recorded a peak horizontal acceleration of 1.25 g, a value that was twice as large as anything ever seen from an earthquake. The extraordinarily high acceleration was just one part of the picture, considering that duration and frequency of shaking also play a role in how much damage can occur. The accelerometer was mounted on a concrete platform on a granite ridge just above one of the arch dam's abutments. Cracks formed in the rocks and a rock slide came within 15 feet (4.6 m) of the apparatus, and the foundation remained undamaged, but a small (half-degree) tilt of the unit was discovered that was apparently responsible for closing the horizontal pendulum contacts. As a result of what was considered a fortunate accident, the machine kept recording for six minutes (until it ran out of paper) and provided scientists with additional data on 30 of the initial aftershocks.
## Damage
The areas that were affected by the strongest shaking were the outlying communities north of Los Angeles that are bounded by the northern edge of the San Fernando Valley at the base of the San Gabriel Mountains. The unincorporated districts of Newhall, Saugus, and Solemint Junction had moderate damage, even to newer buildings. The area where the heaviest effects were present was limited by geographical features on the three remaining margins, with the Santa Susana Mountains on the west, the Santa Monica Mountains and the Los Angeles River to the south, and along the Verdugo Mountains to the east. Loss of life that was directly attributable to the earthquake amounted to 58 (a number of heart attacks and other health-related deaths were not included in this figure). Most deaths occurred at the Veterans and Olive View hospital complexes, and the rest were located at private residences, the highway overpass collapses, and a ceiling collapse at the Midnight Mission in downtown Los Angeles.
The damage was greatest near and well north of the surface faulting, and at the foot of the mountains. The hospital buildings, the freeway overpasses, and the Sylmar Juvenile Hall were on coarse alluvium that overlay thousands of feet of loosely consolidated sedimentary material. In the city of San Fernando, underground water, sewer, and gas systems suffered breaks too numerous to count, and some sections were so badly damaged that they were abandoned. Ground displacement damaged sidewalks and roads, with cracks in the more rigid asphalt and concrete often exceeding the width of the shift in the underlying soil. Accentuated damage near alluvium had been documented during the investigation of the effects of the 1969 Santa Rosa earthquakes. A band of similarly intense damage further away near Ventura Boulevard at the southern end of the valley was also identified as having been related to soil type.
Federal, county, and private hospitals suffered varying degrees of damage, with four major facilities in the San Fernando Valley suffering structural damage, and two of those collapsing. The Indian Hills Medical Center, the Foothill Medical Building, and the Pacoima Lutheran Professional building were heavily damaged. Nursing homes also were affected. The one-story Foothill Nursing Home sat very close to a section of the fault that broke the surface and was raised up three feet higher than the street. Scarps ran along the sidewalk and across the property. The building was not in use and remained standing. Though the reinforced concrete block structure was afflicted by the shock and uplift, the relatively good performance was in stark contrast to that of the Olive View and Veterans Hospital complexes.
### Olive View Hospital
Most of the buildings at the Los Angeles County–owned, 880-bed hospital complex had been built before the adoption of new construction techniques that had been put in place after the 1933 Long Beach earthquake. The group of one-story structures 300 feet west of the new facility, and some other buildings, were not damaged. The damaged buildings variously were wood-frame and masonry structures. The five-story, reinforced-concrete Medical Treatment and Care Building was one of three new additions to the complex (all three of which sustained damage), was assembled with earthquake-resistant construction techniques, and was completed in December 1970. The hospital was staffed by 98 employees and had 606 patients at the time of the earthquake; all three deaths that occurred at the Olive View complex were in this building. Two deaths were due to power failure of life-support systems and one employee was struck by part of the collapsing building while trying to exit the building.
The Medical Treatment and Care Building included a basement that was exposed (above grade) on the east and south sides, mixed (above and below grade) on the west side, and below grade on the north side of the building, the variation being due to the shallow slope at the site. The complete structure, including the four external staircases, could be considered five separate buildings, because the stair towers were detached from the main building by about four inches. Earthquake bracing used in the building's second through fifth floors consisted of shear walls, but a rarely used slip joint technique used with the concrete walls at the first floor kept them from being part of that system. Damage to the building, including ceiling tiles, telephone equipment, and elevator doors, was excessive at the basement and the first floor, with little damage further up. The difference in rigidity at the second floor was proposed as a cause of the considerable damage to the lower levels. Because the first floor almost collapsed, the building was leaning to the north by almost two feet, and three of the four concrete stair towers fell away from the main building.
On the grounds, there were cracks in the pavement and soil, but no surface faulting. In addition to the collapse of the stairways, the elevators were out of commission. Electrical power and communications failed at the hospital at the time of the earthquake, but very few people occupied the lower floors and the stairways at the early hour. Casualties in these highly affected areas might have increased had the shock occurred later in the day. The duration of strong ground motion at that location was probably similar to the 12 seconds observed at the Pacoima Dam, and it is thought that another few seconds' shaking might have been enough to bring the building to collapse.
### Veterans Administration Hospital
The Veterans Administration Hospital entered into service as a tuberculosis hospital in 1926 and became a general hospital in the 1960s. By 1971, the facility comprised 45 individual buildings, all lying within 5 km (3.1 mi) of the fault rupture in Sylmar, but the structural damage was found to have occurred as a result of the shaking and not from ground displacement or faulting. Twenty-six buildings that were built prior to 1933 had been constructed following the local building codes and did not require seismic-resistant designs. These buildings suffered the most damage, with four buildings totally collapsing, which resulted in a large loss of life at the facility. Most of the masonry and reinforced concrete buildings constructed after 1933 withstood the shaking and most did not collapse, but in 1972 a resolution came forth to abandon the site and the remaining structures were later demolished, the site becoming a city park.
Few strong motion seismometer installations were present outside of the western United States prior to the San Fernando earthquake but, upon a recommendation by the Earthquake and Wind Forces Committee, the Veterans Administration entered into an agreement with the Seismological Field Service (then associated with NOAA) to install the instruments at all VA sites in Uniform Building Code zones two and three. It had been established that these zones had a higher likelihood of experiencing strong ground acceleration, and the plan was made to furnish the selected VA hospitals with two instruments. One unit would be installed within the structure and the second would be set up as a free-field unit located a short distance away from the facility. As of 1973, a few of the highest risk (26 were completed in zone 3 alone) sites that had been completed were in Seattle, Memphis, Charleston, and Boston.
### Van Norman Dam
Both the Upper and Lower Van Norman Dams were severely damaged as a result of the earthquake. The lower dam was very close to breaching, and approximately 80,000 people were evacuated for four days while the water level in the reservoir was lowered. This was done as a precaution to accommodate further collapse due to a strong aftershock. Some canals in the area of the dams were damaged and not usable, and dikes experienced slumping but these did not present a hazard. The damage at the lower dam consisted of a landslide that dislocated a section of the embankment. The earthen lip of the dam fell into the reservoir and brought with it the concrete lining, while what remained of the dam was just 5 feet (1.5 m) above the water level. The upper lake subsided 3 feet (0.91 m) and was displaced about 5 feet (1.5 m) as a result of the ground movement, and the dam's concrete lining cracked and slumped.
The upper dam was constructed in 1921 with the hydraulic fill process, three years after the larger lower dam, which was fabricated using the same style. An inspection of the lower dam in 1964 paved the way towards an arrangement between the State of California and the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power that would maintain the reservoir's water level that was reduced 10 feet lower than was typical. Since the collapse of the dam lowered its overall height, the decision to reduce its capacity proved to be a valuable bit of insurance.
Differential ground motion and strong shaking (MMI VIII (Severe)) were responsible for serious damage to the Sylmar Juvenile Hall facility and the Sylmar Converter Station (both located close to the Upper Van Norman lake). The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, as well as the County of Los Angeles, investigated and verified that local soil conditions contributed to the ground displacement and resulting destruction. The area of surface breaks on the ground at the site was 900 ft (270 m) (at its widest) and stretched 4,000 ft (1,200 m) down a 1% grade slope towards the southwest. As much as 5 ft (1.5 m) of lateral motion was observed on either end of the slide, and trenches that were excavated during the examination at the site revealed that some of the cracks were up to 15 ft (4.6 m) deep. The two facilities, located near Grapevine and Weldon canyons that channel water and debris off the Sierra Madre Mountains, are lined by steep ridges and have formed alluvial fans at their mouths. The narrow band of ground disturbances were found to have been the result of settling of the soft soil in a downhill motion. Soil liquefaction played a role within confined areas of the slide, but it was not responsible for all the motion at the site, and tectonic slip of faults in the area was also excluded as a cause.
### Transportation
Substantial disruption to about 10 miles of freeways in the northern San Fernando Valley took place, with most of the damage occurring at the Foothill Freeway / Golden State Freeway interchange, and along a five-mile stretch of Interstate 210. On Interstate 5, the most significant damage was between the Newhall Pass interchange on the north end and the I-5 / I-405 interchange in the south, where subsidence at the bridge approaches and cracking and buckling of the roadway made it unusable. Several landslides occurred between Balboa Boulevard and California State Route 14, but the most significant damage occurred at the two major interchanges. The Antelope Valley Freeway had damage from Newhall Pass to the northeast, primarily from settling and alignment issues, as well as splintering and cracking at the Santa Clara River and Solemint bridges.
Golden State Freeway – Antelope Valley Freeway Interchange
While the Newhall Pass interchange was still under construction at the time of the earthquake, the requisite components of the overpass were complete. Vibration caused two of the bridge's 191-foot sections to fall from a maximum height of 140 ft (43 m), along with one of the supporting pillars. The spans slipped off of their supports at either end due to lack of proper ties and insufficient space (a 14 in (360 mm) seat was provided) on the support columns. Ground displacement at the site was ruled out as a major cause of the failure, and in addition to the fallen sections and a crane that was struck during the collapse, other portions of the overpass were also damaged. Shear cracking occurred at the column closest to the western abutment, and the ground at the same column's base exhibited evidence of rotation.
Golden State Freeway – Foothill Freeway Interchange
This interchange is a broad complex of overpasses and bridges that was nearly complete at the time of the earthquake and not all portions were open to traffic. Several instances of failure or collapse at the site took place and two men were killed while driving in a pickup truck as a result. The westbound I-210 to southbound I-5, which was complete except for paving at the ramp section, collapsed to the north, likely because of vibration that moved the overpass off its supports due to an inadequate seat. Unlike the situation at the Antelope Valley Interchange, permanent ground movement (defined as several inches of left-lateral displacement with possibly an element of thrusting) was observed in the area. The movement contributed to heavy damage at the Sylmar Juvenile Hall facility, Sylmar Converter Station, and the Metropolitan Water District Treatment Plant, but its effects on the interchange was not completely understood as of a 1971 report from the California Institute of Technology.
### Schools
A large number of public school buildings in the Los Angeles area displayed mixed responses to the shaking, and those that were built after the enforcement of the Field Act clearly showed the results of the reformed construction styles. The Field Act was put into effect just one month following the destructive March 1933 Long Beach earthquake that damaged many public school buildings in Long Beach, Compton, and Whittier. The Los Angeles Unified School District had 660 schools consisting of 9,200 buildings at the time of the earthquake, with 110 masonry buildings that had not been reinforced to meet the new standards. More than 400 portable classrooms and 53 wood frame pre-Field Act buildings were also in use. All these buildings had been previously inspected with regard to the requirements of the Act, and many were reinforced or rebuilt at that time, but earthquake engineering experts recommended further immediate refurbishment or demolition after a separate evaluation was done after the February 1971 earthquake, and within a year and a half the district followed through with the direction with regard to about 100 structures.
At Los Angeles High School (20 mi (32 km) from Pacoima Dam) where the exterior walls of the main pre-Field Act building (constructed 1917) were unreinforced brick masonry, long portions of the parapet and the associated brick veneer broke off and some fragments fell through the roof to a lower floor, while other material landed on an exit stairway and into a courtyard area. The main building was demolished at a cost of \$127,000, and none of the various post-Field Act buildings were damaged at the site. Except for the concrete gymnasium, all of the buildings at Sylmar High School (3.75 mi (6.04 km) from Pacoima Dam) were post-Field Act, one-story, wood construction. Abundant cracks formed in the ground at the site, and some foundations and many sidewalks were also cracked. The estimate for repairs at the site was \$485,000. At 2 mi (3.2 km), Hubbard Street Elementary School was the closest school to Pacoima dam and was also less than a mile from the Veterans Hospital complex. The wood-frame buildings (classrooms, a multipurpose building, and some bungalows) were built after the Field Act, and damage and cleanup costs there totaled \$42,000. Gas lines were broken and separation of the buildings' porches was due to lateral displacement of up to six inches.
## Aftermath
Following many of California's major earthquakes, lawmakers have acted quickly to develop legislation related to seismic safety. After the M6.4 1933 Long Beach earthquake, the Field Act was passed the following month, and after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, the Seismic Hazards Mapping Act and Senate Bill 1953 (hospital safety requirements) were established. Following the San Fernando event, earthquake engineers and seismologists from established scientific organizations, as well as the newly formed Los Angeles County Earthquake Commission, stated their recommendations that were based on the lessons learned. The list of items needing improvements included building codes, dams and bridges being made more earthquake resistant, hospitals that are designed to remain operational, and the restriction of development near known fault zones. New legislation included the Alquist-Priolo Special Studies Zone Act and the development of the Strong Motion Instrumentation Program.
Alquist-Priolo Special Studies Zone Act
Introduced as Senate Bill 520 and signed into law in December 1972, this legislation was originally known as the Alquist-Priolo Geologic Hazard Zones Act, and had the goal of reducing damage and losses due to surface fault ruptures or fault creep. The act restricts construction of buildings designed for human occupancy across potentially active faults. Since it is presumed that surface rupture will likely take place where past surface displacement has occurred, the state geologist was given the responsibility for evaluating and mapping faults that had evidence of Holocene rupture, and creating regulatory zones around them called Earthquake Fault Zones. State and local agencies (as well as the property owner) were then responsible for enforcing or complying with the building restrictions.
California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program
Prior to the San Fernando earthquake, some structural engineers had already believed that the existing groundwork for seismic design required enhancement. Although instruments had recorded a force of 0.33 g during the 1940 El Centro earthquake, building codes only required structures to withstand a lateral force of 0.1 g as late as the 1960s. Even at that time, engineers were against the idea of constructing buildings to resist the high forces that were seen in the El Centro shock, but after a 1966 earthquake peaked at 0.5 g, and a maximum of 1.25 g was observed at the Pacoima Dam during the San Fernando event, a debate began as to whether that low requirement was sufficient.
Despite the compelling seismogram from the 1940 event in El Centro, strong-motion seismology was not explicitly sought until later events occurred—the San Fernando earthquake made evident the need for more data for earthquake engineering applications. The California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program was initiated in 1971 with the goal of maximizing the volume of data by furnishing and maintaining instruments at selected lifeline structures, buildings, and ground response stations. By the late 1980s, the program had instrumented more than 450 structures, bridges, dams, and power plants. The 1979 Imperial Valley and 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquakes were presented as gainful events that were recorded during that period, because both produced valuable data that increased knowledge of how moderate events affect buildings. The success of the Imperial Valley event was especially pronounced because of a recently constructed and fully instrumented government building that was shaken to the point of failure.
## See also
- 1994 Northridge earthquake, a magnitude 6.7 quake which affected many of the same areas
- California State Route 126
- Interstate 105 (California)
- List of earthquakes in 1971
- List of earthquakes in California
- Long Beach Search and Rescue
- San Gabriel Fault
- Wadsworth Chapel |
30,127,340 | Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem) | 1,169,772,511 | null | [
"2010 singles",
"2010 songs",
"Dance-pop songs",
"Electronic dance music songs",
"House music songs",
"Island Records singles",
"Mariah Carey songs",
"New Year songs",
"Poetry by Robert Burns",
"Songs based on poems",
"Songs with lyrics by Robert Burns",
"Songs written by Mariah Carey",
"Songs written by Randy Jackson"
] | "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her second Christmas album/thirteenth studio album, Merry Christmas II You (2010). The second single from the album, an extended play consisting of nine remixes was released by Island on December 14, 2010. Using the public domain poem "Auld Lang Syne" by Robert Burns, Carey along with Randy Jackson and Johnny "Sev" Severin (of RedOne) composed a new arrangement, added lyrics and re-titled it. The track garnered a negative response from critics, all of whom disliked how Carey had re-composed the poem into a house song. An accompanying music video was released featuring a pregnant Carey singing in front of a background of exploding fireworks. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" charted on the lower regions of the South Korean international singles charts and at number nine on the US Holiday Digital Songs chart.
## Background and composition
"Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" is a re-write of "Auld Lang Syne" by Scottish poet and lyricist Robert Burns, which was written in 1788 and published in James Johnson's Scots Musical Museum in 1796. However, as noted by the BBC's Pauline Mackay, Burns often re-arranged and rewrote old songs before publishing them as his own work, and is thus listed under the public domain. Mariah Carey's version is a new arrangement that uses some of the original lyrics by Burns, and was composed by Carey with Randy Jackson and Johnny "Sev" Severin. The singer's vocals were recorded by Brian Garten at Henson Studios and Westlake Recording Studios, both located in Los Angeles, California.
The music for the song was recorded by Severin, Keith Gretlein and Garten. It was mixed by Phil Tan and Damien Lewis at The Ninja Beat Club in Atlanta, Georgia. All instrumentation was performed by Severin, apart from the piano which was played by James "Big Jim" Wright. Background vocals were performed Melonie Daniels, Sherry McGhee and Onitsha Shaw. Rye Songs administered by songs of Universal (BMI)/Hope Faith Destiny Music Group (BMI); 2101 Songs Admin. By Sony/ATV (BMI). Johnny "Sev" Severin appears on behalf of RedOne Productions.
It appears as the thirteenth and final song on the standard track listing of Merry Christmas II You (2010). On December 14, 2010, Carey released Extended play of nine remixes by (five by Ralphi Rosario and four by Johnny Vicious) as a digital download on iTunes. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" is a house track with a "thumping" instrumental according to Rich Juzwiak of The Village Voice, that lasts for three minutes and forty-seven seconds. At one point in the song, Carey says "Does anybody really know the words?"
## Critical reception
"Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" garnered a negative response from critics. Mike Diver of the BBC wrote that Carey shows restraint for the most part of the album, but "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" as the final track is "slathered in cheesy beats". Rolling Stone writer Caryn Ganz disapproved of the dance beat, saying "It's hard to figure out what's 'extra festive' (as the full song title promises) about her 'All I Want for Christmas Is You' update, and far easier to determine what's wrong with 'Auld Lang Syne' (an awkward dance beat)." Juzwiak was critical of the song, describing it as "robotic".
## Music video
A music video for "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" was released on December 15, 2010. A pregnant Carey, who only moves from the waist up, wears a black laced dress while standing in front of a green screen, which depict exploding fireworks in the nights sky. Becky Bain for Idolator positively reviewed the video, writing "There is something so endlessly entertaining about watching Mariah Carey do her patented diva theatrics — waving her arms like a crazy hand model; tenderly stroking her hair; spinning around dramatically."
## Track listings
\*; Digital download (Album Version)
1. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" –
\*; Digital download (Remixes)
1. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" [Ralphi Rosario Traditional Club Mix] –
2. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" [Rosario Traditional Mixshow] –
3. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" [Rosario Traditional Radio Edit] –
4. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" [Ralphi's Alternative Club Mix] –
5. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" [Ralphi's Alternative Mixshow Edit] –
6. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" [Johnny Vicious Warehouse Mix] –
7. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" [Johnny Vicious Warehouse Radio] –
8. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" [Johnny Vicious Warehouse Dub] –
9. "Auld Lang Syne (The New Year's Anthem)" [Johnny Vicious Warehouse Mix] {No Vocal Intro} –
## Charts
## Release history |
1,792,568 | Boy (I Need You) | 1,167,158,715 | 2002 single by Mariah Carey | [
"2000s Island Records singles",
"2002 songs",
"2003 singles",
"Cam'ron songs",
"Mariah Carey songs",
"Music videos directed by Joseph Kahn",
"Song recordings produced by Just Blaze",
"Songs written by Mariah Carey",
"Songs written by Norman Whitfield"
] | "Boy (I Need You)" is a song by American singer Mariah Carey, taken from her ninth studio album, Charmbracelet (2002). It was written by Carey, Justin Smith, Norman Whitfield and Cameron Giles, and produced by the former and Just Blaze. The song was released as the album's second single on November 26, 2002, by Island Def Jam and Carey's own label, MonarC Entertainment. Initially, "The One" had been chosen as the second single from the album, however, halfway through the filming of a music video for it, the singer decided to release "Boy (I Need You)" instead. Considered by Carey as one of her favorites, the track is a reworked version of rapper Cam'ron's song "Oh Boy" released earlier that year.
The song was met with generally mixed reviews from contemporary critics. Many praised Carey's versatility and considered it as one of the stand-out tracks of Charmbracelet for having a different production when compared to the others. However, the sample hook of the song was described as "annoying". The single failed to make much impact on the charts around the world; it reached number 68 on the US Billboard Hip-Hop/R&B Songs chart and number 57 on the US Hot Singles Sales chart. Elsewhere, the song reached the top-ten in Portugal, and the top-twenty in the United Kingdom, while peaking within the top-forty in Australia, the Netherlands, Ireland and New Zealand.
The music video, directed by Joseph Kahn, incorporates elements of Japanese culture and features Carey's alter-ego Bianca Storm. It was also the first time that Carey worked with Kahn in a music video, which premiered on an episode of MTV's Making the Video in 2003. Following the release of "Through the Rain", Carey embarked on several stateside, European and Asian promotional tours in support of Charmbracelet, as well as its accompanying singles. Carey performed "Boy (I Need You)" live on several television shows appearances around the world.
## Background
Following the heavy media coverage surrounding Carey's publicized breakdown and hospitalization, Carey's unprecedented \$100 million five-album record deal with Virgin Records America (EMI Records) was bought out for \$50 million. Carey later said that her time at Virgin was "a complete and total stress-fest [...] I made a total snap decision which was based on money and I never make decisions based on money. I learned a big lesson from that." Later that year, she signed a contract with Island Records, valued at more than \$24 million, and launched the record label MonarC.
## Recording and release
Carey started writing songs for then untitled Charmbracelet in 2002, before she signed the record deal. She decided to concentrate on "getting some much-needed rest" and traveled to Capri and moved into the studio, which she had reserved to record the album. While at Capri, Carey could focus on her writing and recording, without being subjected to any stress or pressure. According to her, she would write the songs in her apartment upstairs, and would record them at the studio downstairs, at night. Thus, most of the album was recorded in Capri although she traveled to Atlanta, New York and Philadelphia to record a few tracks. The result was that Charmbracelet was her "most personal album" she had ever made.
While Carey paved a lot of the album with slower and autobiographical ballads, she also attempted at making an album with a mixture of several different genres. According to Jon Pareles of The New York Times, the album showed off Carey's musical and vocal versatility, especially when viewing the differences in the record's first and second singles, "Ms. Carey is known for her voice, of course: she can hit high notes that barely sound human, and few singers leap around the octaves as gracefully as she does. But as she tries to regain her audience, her greatest weapon may be her versatility: Ms. Carey also knows how to make a hip-hop hit by holding back and letting the beat shine." Carey decided to work with Just Blaze after she heard the song "Oh Boy" he had produced for Cam'ron. Together they produced "Boy (I Need You)", a remake of "Oh Boy", and "You Got Me". Carey described the former as one of her favorites on the album. "It's definitely one of my favorites, 'cause I love the original. It was cool to have him out there doing his thing in such a random environment," she said. "Boy (I Need You)" was released as the second single from the album on November 26, 2002. Initially, "The One" was scheduled to be released as the second single and the music video was shot for the song. However, halfway through the filming, the track was changed to "Boy (I Need You)".
## Reception
"Boy (I Need You)" received mostly mixed reviews from contemporary critics. Jon Pareles of The New York Times complimented the track on its differences with most of the content on Charmbracelet. Entertainment Weekly writer Tom Sincalir said that "the herky-jerky [track], on which Cam'ron guests, [adds] some welcome energy" to the album. Michael Paoletta of Billboard considered it as one of Charmbracelet's stand-out tracks, while Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani said "Boy (I Need You)", along with "You Got Me", "provide further evidence that Carey should keep her rappers on the remix." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic noted that Carey did not "completely abandon hip-hop, but whenever it rears its head on Charmbracelet, it's utterly jarring" citing the song as an example, while describing the sampled vocal hook as "annoying". Erlewine, however, selected it as a Track Pick from the album review. The single failed to make much impact on the charts around the world; it reached number 68 on the US Billboard Hip-Hop/R&B Songs chart and number 57 on the US Hot Singles Sales chart. Elsewhere, the song reached number 17 in the United Kingdom, while peaking within the top 40 in Australia, the Netherlands, Ireland and New Zealand.
## Music video and live performances
Described as "Speed Racer meets Hello Kitty meets me and Cam'ron" by Carey, the video was directed by Joseph Kahn, stars actor Will Yun Lee and incorporates elements of Japanese culture and features Carey's alter-ego Bianca Storm. When asked about the music video, Kahn replied, "To me, videos aren't movies, they're their own art form-like poetry. If you're a poet, you want to make poetry." Carey also revealed that the music video marked the first time she worked with Kahn. The music video production and recording was shown in a MTV's Making the Video episode in 2003. The video was likened to a "clear extension of Janet's "Doesn't Really Matter" for its similar settings and theme of Japanese pop culture. Following the release of "Through the Rain", Carey embarked on several stateside, European and Asian promotional tours in support of Charmbracelet, as well as its accompanying singles. Three days prior to the album's stateside release, a one-hour special titled Mariah Carey: Shining Through the Rain aired on MTV, in which Carey was interviewed and sang several songs from Charmbracelet and of her catalog. During the interview, Carey addressed rumors of her breakdown and its cause, as well as of the album and its inspiration, followed by a question and answer with fans. During the album's month of release, Carey appeared on several television talk shows, launching her promotional tour on Today, where she performed a four-song set-list at Mall of America for a crowd of over 10,000. Carey also performed the song on Top of the Pops and on The Graham Norton Show.
## Formats and track listings
MC ... Move the Crowd 12-inch vinyl
A1. "Boy (I Need You)"
A2. "Irresistible (West Side Connection)"
A3. "You Got Me"
B1. "Boy (I Need You)" (Instrumental)
B2. "Irresistible (West Side Connection)" (Instrumental)
B3. "You Got Me" (Instrumental)
UK CD1
1. "Boy (I Need You)" (W/O Rap) – 3:12
2. "Boy (I Need You)" (Panjabi Hit Squad Mix) – 4:14
3. "Boy (I Need You)" (Copenhaniacs Remix) – 4:36
4. "Boy (I Need You)" (Music Video)
UK CD2
1. "Boy (I Need You)" – 5:15
2. "Boy (I Need You)" (Street Remix) – 5:31
3. "Boy (I Need You)" (Topnotch L8 Mix) – 4:11
4. "Boy (I Need You)" (Topnotch Tox Mix) – 4:15
Boy (I Need You) - EP
1. "Boy (I Need You)" (Street Remix) (featuring Cam’ron, Juelz Santana, Jimmy Jones & Freeway) – 5:31
2. "Boy (I Need You)" (No Rap Version) – 3:14
3. "Boy (I Need You)" (Remix By The Duke & MVP From Disco Montego) – 4:04
4. "Boy (I Need You)" (Panjabi Hit Squad Mix) – 4:14
5. "Boy (I Need You)" (Copenhaniacs Remix) – 4:36
6. "Boy (I Need You)" (Topnotch L8 Mix) – 4:12
7. "Boy (I Need You)" (Topnotch Tox Mix) – 4:17
## Charts
## Release history |
7,725,899 | M-116 (Michigan highway) | 1,171,568,702 | State highway in Mason County, Michigan, United States | [
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Mason County, Michigan"
] | M-116 is a 7.018-mile-long (11.294 km) state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that begins in Ludington at an intersection with US Highway 10 (US 10) at James Street and Ludington Avenue. The road travels northward, much of it along the shore of Lake Michigan before reaching its terminus at the entrance to Ludington State Park. The roadway has been in the state highway system since the late 1920s. It has been realigned a few times, most recently in the late 1990s.
## Route description
M-116 begins in Ludington at the intersection of James Street and Ludington Avenue. It is at this intersection where US 10 turns southward and heads to the Ludington–Manitowoc ferry docks. From here, M-116 continues westward along Ludington Avenue through a mixed commercial area for about one-half mile (0.8 km) before turning north on Lakeshore Drive. The road continues as North Lakeshore Drive through resident areas and passes the Lakeview Cemetery. Before passing the Lincoln Hills Golf Club, M-116 crosses a narrow section of Lincoln Lake and then curves westward towards the shore of Lake Michigan as it approaches the state park. The route runs along the coast of Lake Michigan for the remainder of its route, through an area of sand dunes, until reaching its northern terminus at the entrance to Ludington State Park.
Ludington State Park is bound to the west by Lake Michigan, the north by sand dunes and to the east by Hamlin Lake. As such, M-116 provides the only road access to the park from the south. The park encompasses 5,300 acres (2,100 ha) offering biking, hiking, fishing, tubing, boating and ice skating in the winter. The park is also home to the 112-foot (34 m) tall Big Sable Point Lighthouse, built in 1867, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The highway is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT), which is responsible for maintaining and constructing transportation infrastructure in the state, including highways. As part of this role, the department periodically conducts surveys on their highways to measure traffic volume. This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic (AADT), which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. In 2009, MDOT calculated that 7,377 vehicles used the southern section of M-116 daily near the US 10 junction. On the north end, only 859 vehicles used the roadway near the state park entrance each day. The highway has not been listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility.
In December 2014, Michigan Governor Rick Snyder authorized a portion of the highway in Ludington State Park between Little River and Big Sable in Mason County to be named "The Paul K. Butterfield II Memorial Highway", in honor of that Michigan State Police Trooper who was murdered during a traffic stop there in 2013. The ceremony to do so took place in early February 2015.
## History
M-116 was first designated in May or June 1928 from the north city limit of Ludington north to the Sable River, but not all of it was built and open to traffic. It was extended southerly in 1931 into the city of Ludington to US 10. There was a new alignment closer to the lakeshore opened in early 1933. The northern end was extended in late 1935 to encompass the Big Sable River bridge. The last change to the routing was made in 1998 when US 10 was shifted to follow James Street instead of William Street to the car ferry docks. At that time, M-116 was extended east along Ludington Avenue to end at James Street.
## Major intersections
## See also
- Nordhouse Dunes Wilderness |
440,137 | Scott Stevens | 1,170,613,800 | Canadian ice hockey player and coach | [
"1964 births",
"Canadian ice hockey coaches",
"Canadian ice hockey defencemen",
"Conn Smythe Trophy winners",
"Hockey Hall of Fame inductees",
"Ice hockey people from Kitchener, Ontario",
"Ice hockey players at the 1998 Winter Olympics",
"Kitchener Rangers players",
"Living people",
"Minnesota Wild coaches",
"National Hockey League All-Stars",
"National Hockey League first-round draft picks",
"National Hockey League players with retired numbers",
"New Jersey Devils coaches",
"New Jersey Devils players",
"Olympic ice hockey players for Canada",
"St. Louis Blues players",
"Stanley Cup champions",
"Washington Capitals draft picks",
"Washington Capitals players"
] | Ronald Scott Stevens (born April 1, 1964) is a Canadian professional ice hockey coach and former player. As a defenseman, Stevens played 22 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Washington Capitals, St. Louis Blues and New Jersey Devils, serving as captain of the Devils from 1992 to 2004. Although offensively capable, his defensive play and his heavy body checking on opponents were crucial to his success.
Stevens started his career with the Capitals, where he helped the team make the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time. After spending a season with the Blues, he was acquired by the Devils through arbitration. Personifying the team's defence-first mentality, he captained the Devils to four Stanley Cup Finals appearances in nine years, winning three of them. In 2000, he won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the 2000 Stanley Cup playoffs. Despite his team success with the Devils, he never won the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the league's best defenceman. His career came to an end after a slapshot hit his head and caused post-concussion syndrome.
Stevens was later inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2007, his first year of eligibility. Stevens retired with the most games played by an NHL defenceman (1,635 games), later passed by Chris Chelios and Zdeno Chara. Stevens was also the youngest player in league history to reach 1,500 games played, playing in his 1,500th game at age 37 years, 346 days. He did not have a negative plus/minus in any of his 22 NHL seasons, and had the most penalty minutes of any player enshrined in the Hall of Fame until Chris Chelios was inducted in 2013. In 2017, Stevens was named one of the "100 Greatest NHL Players" in history.
## Early life
Stevens was born in Kitchener, Ontario, to Larry and Mary Stevens, the middle child of three brothers. Larry owned a paper products company and was also a semi-professional Canadian football player. All three Stevens brothers played hockey as children; older brother Geoff would later go on to be a scout for the New Jersey Devils, while Mike, the youngest, enjoyed a brief NHL career with several teams.
As a youth, Stevens played in the 1976 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a minor ice hockey team from Kitchener. Growing up near Toronto, he was a fan of the Toronto Maple Leafs and idolized Leafs defenceman Börje Salming. Stevens attended Eastwood Collegiate Institute, where he played middle linebacker on the school's Canadian football team. One of his teammates was Markus Koch, who would go on to win a Super Bowl with the Washington Redskins of the National Football League. However, hockey was Stevens' true passion. He and his brothers often played hockey in the house, ruining the furniture repeatedly. He eventually earned a spot on the Kitchener Junior B team and passed on the opportunity to tour Czechoslovakia with the Kitchener midget team in order to play there. His play impressed scouts and he was taken ninth overall by his hometown Kitchener Rangers in the 1981 Ontario Hockey League (OHL) draft.
The 1981–82 Kitchener Rangers were a team that featured several future NHL players. The defensive corps included Dave Shaw and Al MacInnis, Wendell Young was the team's starting goaltender, and the top-scoring line on the team was Jeff Larmer, Brian Bellows and Grant Martin. Stevens and Shaw were an integral part of the Rangers' defence, playing in every game of the season en route to the team's Memorial Cup victory. In addition, both played in the OHL All-Star Game. Rangers head coach Joe Crozier said of Stevens, "He's come a long way this year ... He's strong, tough, handles the puck well and has tremendous hockey sense." Stevens led all rookie defencemen in scoring and was named the second-best defensive defenceman and second-best body-checker in a poll of OHL coaches.
## Playing career
### Washington Capitals (1982–1990)
Stevens was taken fifth overall in the 1982 NHL Entry Draft by the Washington Capitals. Due to injuries to other players during training camp, Stevens made the team at age 18 and never played a game in the minor leagues. He made an immediate impact, scoring on his first shot in his first NHL game. He scored 25 points in his debut season and made the All-Rookie Team. In addition, he led all rookie defencemen in penalty minutes. He finished third in the voting for the Calder Memorial Trophy, which is awarded to the league's Rookie of the Year. He was also named the Capitals' Rookie of the Year. Stevens' debut with the Capitals coincided with the team's first playoff appearance, although they were eliminated in the first round by the New York Islanders.
The following year, he would nearly double his point total from the previous year, finishing with 13 goals and 32 assists for 45 points. Only teammate Larry Murphy had more points among defencemen. His 201 penalty minutes would lead the team; he would ultimately lead the Capitals in the category five times during his tenure with the team, and eventually set the team record for most career penalty minutes by a defenceman. However, Stevens' personal success did not translate to the Capitals, who were eliminated in the second round of the playoffs by the Islanders. During this period, Stevens learned from veterans Rod Langway and defensive linemate Brian Engblom on the finer points of playing defence. Head coach Bryan Murray also helped calm the fiery young Stevens, who would learn to fight less and play harder. Stevens spoke fondly of his time with the Capitals years later, saying:
> We had a great bunch of guys and we worked hard. We were great defensively. We might have been at times a little challenged scoring and we might have been a bit challenged in the goal at times... But there are no regrets.
The 1984–85 season would be a breakout year for Stevens. He set a team record for defencemen by scoring 16 power play goals, and tied a team record for goals by a defenceman with 21. His performance was good enough to land him a spot in the All-Star Game. Stevens would lead all Capitals defencemen in scoring for the first time, finishing the year with 21 goals and 44 assists, and earned the team's Fan Favorite Award. His offensive abilities and size made Murray consider moving him to winger. The Capitals finished second in the Patrick Division, but were out of the playoffs early again, this time courtesy of the Islanders. Before the next season, the Capitals acquired Dwight Schofield in the waiver draft. Schofield was known for his abilities as an enforcer, and his goal was to keep other teams' hitters away from Stevens and Langway, who were deemed too valuable to lose to penalties. The plan worked, as Stevens finished with 165 penalty minutes, the lowest in his career to that point. He also added 15 goals and 38 assists that season. However, the Capitals continued their playoff woes; after defeating the Islanders in the first round, they lost to the New York Rangers in the division finals.
The 1986–87 season saw Stevens return to his old ways, as he spent a career-high 283 minutes in the penalty box. The total set a Capitals record (since broken) for penalty minutes in a season. Despite missing three games with a broken right index finger, an injury he suffered against the Islanders, Stevens would finish the year third on the team in scoring with 61 points; his 51 assists were also good enough for second on the Capitals. The Caps were once again eliminated by the Islanders in the first round of the playoffs.
During the 1987–88 season, Stevens set Capitals records for most assists and most points by a defenceman in a game, with five assists against the Los Angeles Kings on December 6, 1987. Later that season, he would score at least one assist in eight consecutive games, setting another team record for defencemen. He finished the year second on the team in scoring with 12 goals and 60 assists for 72 points, tops among all Capitals blueliners. He ended up finishing second behind Boston Bruins defenceman Ray Bourque in the voting for the James Norris Memorial Trophy. In addition, he was named as an NHL first team All-Star. Stevens would suffer a shoulder injury in the first round of the playoffs against the Philadelphia Flyers, a series the Capitals would win. He returned in time for the Capitals' divisional finals against his future team, the New Jersey Devils. Despite tying a team record by posting four assists in Game 6 of the series, the Capitals fell four games to three.
The Capitals won the Patrick Division in the 1988–89 season, and Stevens' 68 points (including a team-leading 61 assists) led Caps defencemen. He had 225 penalty minutes; this was the last time Stevens would have over 200 minutes in his career. He was named to his second All-Star game, and added an assist as the Wales Conference lost to the Campbell Conference 9–5. However, the Caps could not translate their regular-season success into the playoffs, as they lost in the first round to the Flyers. The 1989–90 season saw mixed success for Stevens. Personally he struggled, as he was beset with injuries, including a broken foot that caused him to miss nearly two months. In addition, he was suspended for three games for gouging Chicago Blackhawks player Dave Manson in the eye during a fight. Stevens said he never hit Manson's eye, but that the eye hit Stevens' helmet during the fight. Missing a third of the season led to Stevens' lowest point total since his rookie year; he finished with just 11 goals and 29 assists for 40 points, although it was still second among Capitals defencemen. Despite his lowered stats, the Capitals made their furthest inroads in the playoffs ever. After defeating the Devils in the first round and the Rangers in the second round, the Capitals were in the conference finals for the first time in team history where they were swept by the Bruins.
Over eight seasons with the Capitals, Stevens finished with 98 goals and 429 points in 601 games. He also set team records (all since broken) for penalty minutes (1,630), games played by a defenceman (601), points by a defenceman (429), goals by a defenceman (98), assists by a defenceman (331), playoff games played (67), playoff points (53), playoff assists (44) and playoff goals by a defenceman (9).
### St. Louis Blues (1990–1991)
After eight seasons in Washington, Stevens felt it was time to move on. The St. Louis Blues courted him and offered a four-year deal worth \$5.145 million. Since he was a restricted free agent, Washington had the option to match the offer sheet. However, they declined and consequently received two first-round draft picks plus \$100,000 in cash, turning into five first-round picks if the Capitals did not have a top-seven draft pick in the 1991 or 1992 entry drafts, as compensation (two of these picks would become Sergei Gonchar and Brendan Witt).
Stevens' signing had far-reaching ramifications on player contracts in the NHL. At the time, the deal made him the highest-paid defenceman in the league. In addition, the deal included a \$1.4 million signing bonus. Several defencemen considered superior players to Stevens, including Ray Bourque and Chris Chelios, were earning less money, and Capitals defenceman Kevin Hatcher held out until he received a contract similar to Stevens'. General managers worried that these players would begin demanding bigger contracts. The players did end up asking for more money, and this escalation was one of the factors in the 1994–95 NHL lockout several seasons later.
After his arrival in St. Louis, Stevens was named captain of the Blues. He scored 5 goals and added 44 assists for 49 points, good enough for fifth on a team led by Brett Hull and Adam Oates. He also made the Campbell Conference All-Star team. The Blues were eliminated in the second round of the playoffs by the Minnesota North Stars.
### New Jersey Devils (1991–2004)
Stevens' time with the Blues would only last one season. In the offseason following the 1990–91 NHL season, the Blues signed Brendan Shanahan from the New Jersey Devils, who, like Stevens the year before, was a restricted free agent, entitling the Devils to compensation. As the Blues still owed first-round picks to the Capitals (now five instead of two, as the 1991 pick given up ended up being the 21st pick), other compensation had to be negotiated, and the Blues and Devils could not agree on what the compensation was; the Blues offered goalie Curtis Joseph, forward Rod Brind'Amour, and two draft picks, but the Devils only wanted Stevens. The case went to arbitration, and arbitrator Edward Houston awarded Stevens to the Devils as compensation on September 3, 1991, with cited news reports the next day first appearing on September 4, 1991.
#### 1991–1995
Initially, Stevens refused to report to the Devils for training camp, and would not report until September 26, 1991, 22 days after the arbitration ruling. The Devils were already worried after captain Kirk Muller walked out of camp. Stevens and his wife had made plans to settle in St. Louis, and he wanted to end his career with the Blues. In addition, he was concerned about the apparent lack of unity in the organization, citing Muller's walkout as proof. Several Devils players were upset over the feeling that Stevens was being forced upon the team; some players, including Ken Daneyko, wanted more money, while other players wanted general manager Lou Lamoriello to trade Stevens. He would eventually report to the Devils three weeks later.
Stevens finished his first season in New Jersey fifth on the team in scoring, first among defencemen and good enough for a spot on the second All-Star team. He earned a spot on the All-Star roster for the second consecutive season, and would miss only one All-Star game for the remainder of his career as a Devil. The Devils would be taken out of the playoffs by their rival, the Rangers, in seven games. In the off-season, Stevens replaced Bruce Driver as team captain, a title he held until his retirement.
Although he would miss part of the following season with a concussion, his 12 goals and 45 assists still led all Devils defencemen in scoring, The Devils were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs again, losing to the Pittsburgh Penguins in five games. Stevens stepped up his offensive game in 1993–94. He posted 18 goals and 60 assists, good enough for the team lead and a career high in points. He won the NHL Plus-Minus Award, finishing with a +53; only Vladimir Konstantinov has led the league with a higher plus/minus rating since Stevens' win. The Devils made it all the way to the Conference finals against the Rangers, where they fell in double overtime of Game 7. Stevens finished as a runner-up to Ray Bourque for the Norris Trophy; the four-vote difference was the closest in Norris Trophy voting history.
After the 1993–94 season, Stevens was a potential free agent. Officials from the St. Louis Blues discussed a return to the team with him, and persuaded him to sign an offer sheet worth \$17 million over four years on July 4, 1994. Five days later, the Devils matched the offer, and thus Stevens remained in New Jersey. However, the Devils later found out Stevens had heard from St. Louis management before the free agency period began, which was illegal under NHL policy. After a five-year investigation, the league fined the Blues \$1.5 million and awarded the Devils two of St. Louis' first-round draft picks. Devils general manager Lou Lamoriello felt the punishment was not enough; he wanted five first-round draft picks plus damages. Despite the investigation, there was no evidence Stevens was aware of any wrongdoing.
After the 1994–95 season was delayed due to an owners' lockout, the Devils were off to a slow start, winning only 9 of their first 24 games. Despite the reduced schedule, Stevens managed 2 goals and 20 assists, once again leading defencemen in scoring. The Devils finished fifth in the conference, and advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they swept the heavily favoured Detroit Red Wings to win the franchise's first championship. Stevens' reputation as a hard hitter was reinforced in Game 2, where he leveled Vyacheslav Kozlov with a body check that temporarily knocked him out of the game. It was later determined that Kozlov suffered a concussion. Stevens then turned to Wings forward and former Washington teammate Dino Ciccarelli, who was upset about the check, and said, "You're next!"
#### 1996–1999
The Devils expected to defend their Stanley Cup title the following season. However, they became the first team in 26 years to miss the playoffs following a championship. Stevens voiced the team's disappointment, saying, "After winning the Cup, you expect to definitely be in the playoffs the next year ... Maybe it was just a wakeup call to get back on track."
Stevens started the 1996–97 season with a one-game suspension due to a high-sticking penalty against Igor Larionov, which drew blood. However, the team returned to a solid style of play and finished the season atop the Atlantic Division, though they would be eliminated in the playoffs once again by the Hudson River rival New York Rangers. Stevens finished second on the team among defencemen in scoring behind Scott Niedermayer.
Stevens' leadership continued into the next season. He signed a contract extension with the Devils, stating at the time that he wanted to finish his career with the team. Stevens was especially important to the Devils' defensive corps, as longtime Devil Ken Daneyko was undergoing rehabilitation for alcoholism. However, he suffered a hip pointer injury against the Tampa Bay Lightning and missed several games. Stevens once again had a good defensive season, although his lack of scoring kept him out of consideration for the Norris Trophy. The Devils finished as the top seed in the Eastern Conference but were eliminated in the first round by the Ottawa Senators.
The Devils made several changes prior to the 1998–99 season, including the hiring of Robbie Ftorek as head coach to replace Jacques Lemaire. The team continued its focus on defence, as the solid corps of Stevens, Daneyko and Niedermayer finished with plus-minuses of +29, +27 and +26 respectively. Unfortunately, the team was once again eliminated in the first round of the playoffs, this time by the Pittsburgh Penguins.
#### 2000–2004
The 1999–2000 Devils focused more on offense, which was reinforced by their 251 goals scored, good enough for second in the league. With four players scoring over 50 points, including rookie Scott Gomez's team-leading 51 assists, Stevens' 29 points were only good enough for tenth on the team and third among defencemen, behind Niedermayer and Brian Rafalski. Stevens also set an NHL record after becoming the first player to play in 600 games with two teams. After finishing the season in fourth place in the conference, the Devils swept the Florida Panthers and defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs in six games.
The Devils then met their bitter rivals, the Philadelphia Flyers, in the Eastern Conference finals. After getting behind in the series three games to one, the Devils managed to win games five and six, setting the stage for game seven in Philadelphia. During the first period, Flyers star centre Eric Lindros was skating alone through the neutral zone with his head down, when Stevens hit him with a shoulder knocking him unconscious and giving him another concussion. It was only Lindros' second game since returning from a concussion suffered in March against the Boston Bruins. Stevens had previously taken Flyers centre Daymond Langkow out with a concussion after Game 2.
The Devils completed the comeback against the Flyers with a 2–1 victory and faced off against the defending Stanley Cup champion Dallas Stars in the Stanley Cup Finals. Stevens and Rafalski were tasked with the responsibility of shutting down Dallas' scoring line of Mike Modano, Brett Hull and Joe Nieuwendyk. Stevens scored the game-winner in the first game of the series en route to a 7–3 Devils victory; the goal was his third of the playoffs. The Devils went on to win the Finals in six games, after Game 5 went to three overtimes and Game 6 was decided in double overtime. Stevens earned an assist on Jason Arnott's Cup-winning goal, and he won the Conn Smythe Trophy for his leadership role on the team.
During the 2000–01 NHL season, led by Patrik Eliáš' franchise-record of 96 points and Alexander Mogilny's team-leading 43 goals, the team finished first in the conference. After defeating Carolina, Toronto and Pittsburgh in the playoffs, the Devils once again made the Finals, this time against the Colorado Avalanche. However, despite being up three games to two, the Devils could not finish off the Avalanche and lost the series in seven games. Stevens finished third in the voting for the Norris Trophy.
The next season, Stevens finished with his lowest scoring total in his career, though he did become the youngest player ever to play in 1,500 games. The Devils fell in the first round of the playoffs to the Hurricanes, who went on to lose to Detroit in the Stanley Cup finals.
Stevens and the Devils once again had success in 2002–03, finishing first in the division. In addition, he was named as captain of the Eastern Conference All-Star team for the first time, and finished the season with the fewest penalty minutes over a full season in his career. The Devils played well in the playoffs, eliminating Boston, Tampa Bay and Ottawa to face the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in the Finals. Stevens and the Devils had a minor scare in Game 3 of the semi-finals against Tampa Bay when a slapshot from Pavel Kubina hit the side of his head and forced him to leave the game. Although there was uncertainty whether he would return for Game 4, Stevens in fact returned and did not miss a game throughout the remainder of the playoffs. In Game 2 of the Finals, he set the record for most playoff games by a defenceman, breaking the record by his former coach, Larry Robinson. Stevens added to his list of playoff hits when he blindside hit Mighty Ducks forward Paul Kariya to the head in Game 6. However, Kariya came back shortly thereafter and led the Ducks to a victory, forcing a Game 7. The Devils kept the Ducks scoreless in Game 7, 3–0, to win their third Stanley Cup in nine years. Stevens' appearance in Game 7 tied Patrick Roy's record for appearances in Game 7s with 13. Despite the play of Stevens, Martin Brodeur, Jamie Langenbrunner and Jeff Friesen, the Conn Smythe Trophy went to Ducks goaltender Jean-Sébastien Giguère. Some speculated that there were too many worthy Devils candidates for the trophy, resulting in a split vote among sportswriters.
The 2003–04 NHL season would be the last for Stevens. Before ending the season, he surpassed former teammate Larry Murphy as the NHL's all-time leader in games played by a defenceman when he appeared in his 1,616th game in November. He missed several games in January with the flu, and while he was out, he was diagnosed with post-concussion syndrome (which would eventually coerce him into retirement). Despite missing the second half of the season, he was still voted in as a starter for the Eastern Conference All-Star team. Scott Niedermayer filled in as captain in Stevens' absence, but the loss of Stevens (as well as Daneyko, who had retired before the season) was too much of a loss for the Devils' defence, and they fell to the Flyers in the first round of the playoffs. In the off-season, Stevens recovered and continued to work out and expected to return to the Devils for the 2004–05 NHL season. However, the lockout canceled the entire season and Stevens announced his retirement on September 6, 2005, after 1,635 NHL games, fourth at the time (and now seventh) all-time in games played, the leader in games played by a defenceman (since passed by Chris Chelios), and 14th all-time in career penalty minutes.
## Coaching career
### New Jersey Devils
On July 17, 2012, the Devils announced Stevens would return to the team as an assistant coach. After two seasons of failing to make the playoffs, Stevens stepped down as assistant coach in September 2014. His role as the assistant coach for defenseman was filled by another former Devil, Tommy Albelin. However, three months later, Stevens returned to the Devils along with former assistant coach Adam Oates, relieving Peter DeBoer of his coaching duties. In a unique move, both Stevens and Oates were named as "interim" co-head coaches, with Stevens focusing on defencemen and Oates on forwards.
### Minnesota Wild
On June 7, 2016, the Minnesota Wild hired Stevens as an assistant to head coach Bruce Boudreau. Less than a year later, on May 30, 2017, Stevens resigned to "spend more time with his family".
## International play
In addition to his NHL career, Stevens represented Canada in several international ice hockey competitions. He attended summer camp with Team Canada prior to the 1983 World Junior Championships, but because of his commitment to the Capitals, he was unable to join the team. His first experience with the senior team was at the 1983 World Ice Hockey Championships, where he won a bronze medal. The following year he made the Canadian team for the 1984 Canada Cup, but he did not play. During the 1985 World Ice Hockey Championships, he scored a goal and added two assists as Canada finished with a silver medal. He played only two games during the 1987 tournament; Canada finished in fourth place. Two years later, he scored two goals as Canada once again won the silver medal. During the tournament, he suffered a serious cut when Börje Salming's skate sliced his face; he would receive 88 stitches for the wound. He finally won international gold with Canada during the 1991 Canada Cup. Five years later, he played in the 1996 World Cup of Hockey, the successor to the Canada Cup. Finishing with two assists, Stevens won the silver medal; Canada finished in second place after giving up four goals in the final four minutes of the championship game against the American team.
NHL players were first allowed to participate in the Olympic ice hockey tournament at the 1998 games. Stevens was selected to join Team Canada, but finished without a point for the only time in his international career. Canada would finish fourth after losing their semi-final match-up against the Czech Republic in a shootout. Stevens would be part of Canada's orientation camp for the 2002 Games, but he would not make the final roster.
## Legacy
Stevens left a controversial lasting legacy on the NHL. Stevens was the longest reigning captain in Devils history. Later on in his career, he mentored the younger Devils defencemen like Colin White and Brian Rafalski, who was Stevens' defensive linemate. Long-time teammate Scott Niedermayer, who put personal satisfaction above the team, said Stevens was "not the most vocal guy around", but he would talk to players when it was necessary. Stevens was honoured by the Devils by becoming the first player in team history to have his number retired by the team–his number 4 was raised to the rafters on February 3, 2006. Additionally, the Kitchener Rangers have retired number 3 for Stevens.
Stevens was also remembered as one of the hardest hitters in NHL history. He has been accused by some of deliberately attempting to injure opponents, while others counter that his hits were legal for the era in which he played and only appeared malicious due to their ferocity. In any event, he was among the most feared defensemen of his day. Among the victims of Stevens' body checks were Vyacheslav Kozlov, Eric Lindros, Paul Kariya, Shane Willis and Ron Francis, the last of whom was inducted with Stevens into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2007. One of the more notable cases was young Shane Willis, who endured a concussion and was knocked out for the rest of the series. Some players have accused Stevens of playing cheap and intentionally trying to physically injure players permanently. After his check on Shane Willis, Carolina Hurricanes goaltender Artūrs Irbe said Stevens was "trying to kill [Willis] or put him out of the playoffs". Stevens responded:
> What kind of respect do I get? ... Just because I'm a physical player, it's O.K. to come at me and do what you want? Hey, it's a hockey game. It's not figure skating. You know what? I can take a hit and I can give a hit. I don't care who it is. No one gets a free ride out there. I don't get a free ride, and no one gets a free ride from me.
On the other hand, Willis insisted that the hit was clean, and Kozlov said he was a clean player. He was often credited with changing the momentum of a game not with a goal, but with a hard check, earning him the nickname "Captain Crunch". He was named the fifth-most fearsome player in NHL history by the Sporting News in 2001 and was voted the toughest player in the NHL by the voters. Former NHL defencemen Dion Phaneuf and François Beauchemin are often compared to Stevens, and Phaneuf says he has idolized Stevens' style of play.
## Personal life
Stevens met his wife Donna while he was playing junior hockey with Kitchener. The couple have three children; Kaitlin, Ryan and Kara and reside in the town of Far Hills, New Jersey. He is a fan of the outdoors, and spent his summers away from hockey at Lake Catchacoma. He also enjoys duck hunting in his spare time, and is a fan of the Three Stooges. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, he started a program called Scott's Tots for the families of the victims. Stevens joined the NHL Network as a commentator in December 2017.
### Sexual assault allegation
In May 1990, while playing for the Capitals, Stevens was accused of participating in the rape of a 17-year-old girl outside a bar, alongside teammates Dino Ciccarelli, Geoff Courtnall, and Neil Sheehy. No charges wound up occurring but it ended up being largely a he said/she said case, though a spokesperson for the Metropolitan police at the time stated that the police “have sufficient grounds to believe that a criminal offense did occur.”
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
### International play
### All-Star Games
## Awards
NHL
## See also
- List of family relations in the NHL
- List of NHL players with 1,000 games played
- List of NHL players with 2,000 career penalty minutes |
2,200,114 | American Males | 1,171,721,932 | Professional wrestling tag team | [
"WCW World Tag Team Champions",
"World Championship Wrestling teams and stables"
] | The American Males were a professional wrestling tag team in World Championship Wrestling (WCW) composed of Marcus Bagwell and Scotty Riggs. Their gimmick was of two "pretty boys" who were fond of their own bodies and popular with women. Riggs was Bagwell's third partner with whom he won the WCW World Tag Team Championship, the previous two being 2 Cold Scorpio and The Patriot. The American Males won the tag team title soon after they began teaming together but soon dropped the belts back to Harlem Heat, the previous champions. Bagwell and Riggs did not return to main-event status, and they eventually split up and feuded with each other.
## History
### Background
Marcus Bagwell had competed in the tag team division in WCW since 1993, during which time he held the WCW World Tag Team Championship with two different partners. Teaming with 2 Cold Scorpio, he held the title belts for three weeks. He later won the title twice more while teaming with The Patriot, a team that was dubbed Stars and Stripes due to the patriotic theme both wrestlers were using at the time. After being left behind by both partners, he expressed a desire to form a new tag team to challenge for the title again. According to WCW's storylines, his former partners believed that he was too demanding, and he was unable to find anyone interested in teaming with him due to his reputation as being "difficult to work with".
### Formation
The team was formed in August 1995 when Scott Antol signed a WCW contract and was placed with "tag team specialist" Marcus Alexander Bagwell. In the process, both men changed their ring names, Antol changing his last name to "Riggs" and Bagwell shortening his name to simply Marcus Bagwell. Once together, they both wore short shorts and leather vests (later wrestling tights and suspenders) to the ring and began clapping their hands over their head in time with their entrance music, which sang their praises between choruses of the team name being repeated over and over. They wrestled on the first episode of Nitro, defeating World Tag Team Champions Dick Slater and Bunkhouse Buck in a non-title match. Their first major appearance together came at the Fall Brawl pay-per-view, where they defeated The Nasty Boys in a match that aired on Main Event. Pro Wrestling Illustrated magazine stated that the team "work[ed] well as a unit and could soon challenge for the belts". Bagwell commented on the team in a scripted interview, saying that he believed that his previous tag teams had failed because they were in a rush to win the title belts and that he planned to work slowly toward a title victory with Riggs.
### World Tag Team Champions
On the episode of Nitro after Fall Brawl, Riggs and Bagwell won the World Tag Team Championship after defeating then-champions Harlem Heat (Booker T and Stevie Ray) in an upset win in an impromptu match. The American Males had been scheduled to face The Blue Bloods, but Harlem Heat attacked both members of the Blue Bloods prior to the match and volunteered to take their place. As champions, the pair defeated Harlem Heat and the team of Dick Slater and Bunkhouse Buck. However, Bagwell and Riggs lost the titles back to Harlem Heat a month later on 10-29-95Saturday Night. The American Males remained top challengers for the title belts for the rest of 1995 but were unable to regain the championship from Harlem Heat.
By the end of 1995, The American Males were no longer being pushed by WCW; they competed at Starrcade 1995 in a dark match and defeated The Blue Bloods. Through most of 1996, they competed in the tag team division with no major storylines and never reached the same heights as when they were champions. They were able to defeat other mid-card teams like the Faces of Fear, and they competed in a dark match prior to Slamboree 1996, defeating The Shark and Maxx. They were consistently defeated by the company's top tag teams, and Pro Wrestling Illustrated noted that they were getting lost in a "very deep" tag team division that included The Road Warriors, Public Enemy, Harlem Heat, The Nasty Boys, the Blue Bloods, Lex Luger and Sting, Four Horsemen, The Steiner Brothers, and The Outsiders, among others.
In October 1996, the team began showing signs of splitting, which intensified over the weeks. At World War 3 on November 24, 1996, the frustration came to a head as Bagwell attacked Riggs following both men's elimination from the three-ring battle royal that served as the main event.
The next night on Nitro Eric Bischoff, representing the New World Order (nWo) stable, informed all WCW wrestlers that they would become targets of the nWo if they did not join the group within 30 days. Bagwell and Riggs walked to the ring shortly after Bischoff's statement, with Bagwell looking to join and Riggs trying to talk him out of it. Bagwell decided to join the nWo, turning on Riggs and dissolving the team in the process. In a scripted interview, Bagwell stated, "Who needs Riggs anymore when I have the nWo?!" He also later stated that the team's lack of success after their first title reign was the fault of Riggs' ineptitude, stating "I couldn't make up for all his weaknesses."
### Split
Following the breakup, the former partners feuded for a while with Bagwell getting the better of Riggs. Riggs would go on to briefly feud with Raven, later joining The Flock, while Bagwell formed Vicious and Delicious with Scott Norton before suffering a severe neck injury that kept him out of action for a while. Bagwell later returned to WCW, teaming with Shane Douglas to win another tag team championship. After losing the championship, he formed another tag team, pairing with Lex Luger to form Totally Buffed.
When Riggs joined Extreme Championship Wrestling in 2000, he did a parody of the American Males gimmick by calling himself "The U.S. Male" and using their overhead clap taunt.
## Championships and accomplishments
- World Championship Wrestling
- WCW World Tag Team Championship (1 time) |
44,049,400 | Battle of Borgerhout | 1,155,346,684 | 1579 battle of the Eighty Years' War | [
"1579 in the Habsburg Netherlands",
"16th century in Antwerp",
"16th-century military history of Spain",
"Battles involving the Dutch Republic",
"Battles involving the Spanish Netherlands",
"Battles of the Eighty Years' War",
"Conflicts in 1579",
"Eighty Years' War (1566–1609)"
] | The Battle of Borgerhout was a battle during the Eighty Years' War, of the Spanish Army of Flanders led by Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, upon a fortified camp at the village of Borgerhout, near Antwerp, where several thousand French, English, Scottish, and Walloon soldiers in service of the recently created Union of Utrecht were stationed. It took place during the reconquest by the armies of Philip II of Spain of the Burgundian Netherlands, whose different provinces had united in 1576 under the Pacification of Ghent to drive out the foreign troops and to grant religious liberty to Protestants.
Despite the rebel victory at the Battle of Rijmenam in July 1578, much of the Southern Netherlands were lost to the Spanish Army during the autumn; Brussels was menaced, and the States General were moved to the safer Antwerp. Taking advantage of the Dutch rebel army's indiscipline, Farnese decided at the beginning of 1579 to besiege Maastricht. As a feint to distract the Dutch rebels from his goal, but also aiming to scare Antwerp's inhabitants, Farnese moved with his troops to surprise the village of Borgerhout, very close to Antwerp, where a part of the Dutch States Army had its quarters, namely 3,000 or 4,000 infantry which were the backbone of the rebel army and consisted of French Calvinists under François de la Noue, and English and Scottish troops under John Norrey's orders.
On 2 March Farnese deployed elements of his army in a plain stretching between his position at the village of Ranst and the Dutch camp at Borgerhout, which Norreys and De la Noue had fortified with moats, palisades, and earthworks. The assault was divided into three columns, each one provided with a mobile bridge to pass over the camp's moat. After one of the attacks, undertaken by Walloon troops, succeeded in securing a bridge, the Spanish forces were able to attack the States-General's soldiers inside their camp. Norreys and De la Noue's men opposed a strong defence, but Farnese, throwing his light cavalry into the battle, forced the Dutch troops to abandon Borgerhout and look for shelter under the artillery of Antwerp's walls. William of Orange, leader of the Dutch revolt, and Archduke Matthias of Habsburg, Governor-General of the Netherlands appointed by the States General, witnessed the fight from Antwerp's walls.
The battle meant the destruction of the villages of Borgerhout and Deurne and saw up to 1,500 men killed between both armies. Farnese then proceeded to besiege Maastricht, which the Spanish Army invested less than a week after the battle and was taken by assault on 29 June of the same year. Farnese's successful campaign opened the way to a nine-year period of Spanish reconquest of much of the Netherlands.
## Background
In 1566 the Burgundian Netherlands, Charles V of Habsburg's original realm, which had passed to his son Philip II of Spain on his abdication in 1556, were in disarray due to religious tensions between Protestants and Catholics and the nobility and cities' unwillingness of funding Philip's wars and ceding its powers to the Royal administration. In 1567, Philip sent an army to the Netherlands under Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba, to restore his authority, but Alba's persecution of the religious and political dissenters led William of Orange, the leader of the nobility, to exile into Germany and prepare an invasion of the Netherlands to expel Alba.
Orange invaded the Netherlands twice, in 1568 and 1572, but in both occasions Alba defeated him. The second time, however, the revolt spread into the provinces of Holland and Zealand, and Alba was unable to quell it. In 1576, the lack of an authority due to the death of Alba's successor Luis de Requesens, together with a Spanish general bankruptcy, led the Spanish mutinous soldiers to sack several towns, including Antwerp. In reaction, the loyal and rebel provinces united to expel the foreign troops under the Pacification of Ghent.
John of Austria, the victor of Lepanto and replacement to Requesens, had no choice but to sign the Perpetual Edict in 1577, accepting the Pacification of Ghent, but later, frustrated by the intransigence of Orange and his supporters, he seized the citadel of Namur and recalled his troops. John's striking victory at the Battle of Gembloux in January 1578, was followed by a tactical defeat at Rijmenam in July, and John himself died of plague in October. However, despite the Spanish failure to exploit militarily the victory of Gembloux, it rendered important political benefits to the royal cause in the Netherlands, as it shattered the unity of the Dutch rebels. As a consequence of the battle's outcome, the leaders of the main families of the Southern provinces lost faith in Orange's cause and the promises of aid made by the English queen Elizabeth I, which meant an important setback to Orange. Aiming to restore the military capability of the Dutch rebels, Elizabeth arranged with John Casimir, son of the Calvinist Elector Palatine, the raising of a German Army under English pay to assist the Dutch troops John Casimir brought to the Netherlands 11,000 men, but instead of fighting the Spanish, he sided with the Calvinist extremists at Ghent and widened the gap between the Catholic and Protestant rebels. The States General also called for help from Francis, Duke of Anjou, brother and heir to the King of France, who entered Mons in July 1578, but was back in France in a short time.
The Catholic nobility and southern provinces' defections, already started in the autumn 1578, expanded further when the provinces of Hainaut and Artois on 6 January 1579 concluded the Union of Arras, which Walloon Flanders would soon join. The Catholic provinces of Namur, Luxembourg, and Limburg were already controlled by the Spanish. The Union of Arras opened talks in February with Alexander Farnese, who succeeded his uncle John of Austria as the Royal-appointed Governor-General of the Netherlands, to reconcile with Philip II. In response, a meeting took place in Utrecht shortly thereafter between deputies from the northern provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Gelderland, and Ommelanden, which signed an alliance and union on 23 January. In the south, meanwhile, Farnese was planning the capture of Maastricht to use the city with its stone bridge over the Meuse as a base to conquer Brussels and Antwerp in the following campaigns. In November 1578, the Spanish Army left Namur and crossed the Ardennes and Limburg. However, Farnese deemed too risky starting the siege of Maastrich at midwinter and with John Casimir's numerous cavalry in the countryside.
## Campaign
For the 1579 campaign, Farnese planned two different movements. A portion of his army, under Cristóbal de Mondragón, was to clear the area between Maastricht and the German border of Dutch garrisons, while Farnese himself, ahead of the main army, decided to move against Antwerp with two objectives: to neutralize the Dutch field army, or primarily its German cavalry, before laying siege to Maastricht and to distract the Dutch from the campaign's real objective. The first part of the plan was accomplished when Mondragón took the towns of Kerpen, Erkelenz, and Straelen between 7 and 15 January. On 24 January, Farnese moved to attack the States General army, which was at Weert, east of Antwerp. Outnumbered, François de la Noue, who had taken the role of field commander of the States' army after the Count of Bossu's death, left some States' troops in the Castle of Weert and withdrew to Antwerp with his unpaid men. They asked the city council to allow them to enter the city, but it was refused, and De la Noue had no choice but to entrench his army outside the walls, in the village of Borgerhout. This was a residential area for the wealthy inhabitants of Antwerp where they had country houses and gardens, among them Peeter van Coudenberghe's botanical garden, which had more than 600 exotic plants.
In the meantime, Farnese entrusted to Count Hannibal d'Altemps the capture of Weert and continued his advance upon the Dutch Army. D'Altemps encircled Weert with 6,000 men and breached its walls with a two-cannon battery. The defenders of the castle surrendered at discretion but, on Farnese orders, were hanged from the windows, which the Count willingly did because his steward had lost an eye during the siege. Farnese, instead of following the Dutch Army to its quarters, lodged in Turnhout with his troops and his court to forage. Before moving to Antwerp he dealt with John Casimir's German army. Spanish troops attacked and defeated part of the German reiters near Eindhoven on 10 February. Moreover, while John Casimir himself was in England dealing with Elizabeth I, Farnese agreed with his lieutenant, Maurice of Saxe-Lauenburg, the withdrawal of the Calvinist army, which the Spaniards allowed to leave the Netherlands freely. Once this matter was finished, Farnese advanced upon Borgerhout.
## Order of battle
The Dutch States' troops quartered in the village of Borgerhout numbered 25 or 40 infantry companies which comprised from 3,000 to 4,000 soldiers, plus 100 additional mounted troops. They were the backbone of the rebel army and William of Orange referred to them as "his braves". Moreover, they were led by officers of renown such as François de la Noue and John Norreys. To confront the Spanish Army, they were detached along the village of Borgerhout, which they had fortified by digging a moat and building an earth rampart around the village, from the bridge of Deurne over the Groot Schijn stream, which flowed into the Scheldt, to the road of Voetweg, which ran parallel to the canal of Herentals.
Orange deployed four additional French infantry regiments and Walloon troops from the nearby garrisons of Ath and Termonde behind Borgerhout and under the protection of Antwerp's citadel and moat. The city's civic guard, numbering 80 flags of armed and trained burghers, was ready to defend the city if necessary, but not willing to go out to join the battle nor to allow the regular troops to come within Antwerp. The Spanish soldier and chronicler Alonso Vázquez claimed that Orange's army had, in all, 25,000 men. Farnese deployed a 5,000-man vanguard, both infantry and cavalry, in the plain which separated his camp at Ranst from Borgerhout. Three small battalions, not surpassing 12 companies each, but made up of chosen men, went in advance; the right was taken by the Spanish tercio of Lope de Figueroa, the center by a Lower German regiment under Francisco de Valdés, and the right by a Walloon regiment under Claude de Berlaymont, known as Haultpenne.
Each formation was supported by a sleeve of 100 musketeers, a group of men armed with axes to cut the palisades and a wheeled bridge to cross the moat. A corps of light cavalry led by Antonio de Olivera followed the infantry at some distance with instructions to cover its withdrawal if the attack went bad, or to follow up the victory, if it took place. According to Alonso Vázquez, Farnese made the Walloon soldiers of the Spanish army wear white shirts over their armor, a practise common in night attacks known as camisades, to distinguish themselves from the Walloons who fought for the Union of Utrecht. Thus the Walloons looked, in his words, like "a very colorful procession of clerics and sacristans".
In reserve, Farnese deployed a large battalion made up by the German regiments of Hannibal d'Altemps and Georg von Frundsberg, flanked on its right by troops of reiters under Duke Francis of Saxe-Lauenburg, elder brother of Duke Maurice, John Casimir's former lieutenant, and on its left by lancers under Pierre de Taxis. The remaining Spanish cavalry, led by Ottavio Gonzaga, covered the rear. Farnese led his troops personally, and before the battle was started, he scouted the Dutch position, having ordered his troops not to move until his return. On the Dutch side, while De la Noue and Norreys directed the men standing in Borgerhout, William of Orange witnessed the battle from the walls of Antwerp in company of Archduke Matthias, brother of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, whom the States General had elected as Governor of the Netherlands in opposition to the deceased John of Austria.
## Battle
The fight started with the three battalions of the Spanish first line advancing upon the Dutch camp, each one trying to be the first to lay its bridge over the moat. Haultpenne's Walloons, headed by Sergeant-Major Camille Sacchino, moved up to Deurne, crossing the Schijn river at the small village of Immerseel. Valdés' Germans advanced frontally to Borgerhout across the Borsbeek road, and Figueroa's Spaniards took the Voetweg road to assault the Dutch camp from the south. While the sleeves of musketeers from the Spanish and German units exchanged fire with the Dutch troops covered by the rampart, Sacchino's Walloons drove the defenders of Deurne behind the Groot Schijn stream and took its bridge.
De la Noue sent reinforcements there to contest the assault, but they arrived too late to prevent the Walloons from laying their bridge over the moat and began to climb the rampart, starting a close combat with the Dutch troops. In the meantime, the Spanish and German troops, supported by two or three artillery pieces, breached the rampart, crossed the moat, and also started to come inside Borgerhout, where De la Noue and Norreys' men reorganized and stood on the barricaded streets. Farnese, seeing that his attack was going well, ordered Olivera to advance with his cavalry to support the infantry's push. While the light horsemen penetrated into Borgerhout across the breach opened by Figueroa's men, Farnese himself took the command of Taxis' lancers and did the same across Valdés' path. The French and English soldiers offered a strong resistance, but after two hours of battle inside the quarters, De la Noue began to withdraw his forces to Antwerp to avoid destruction.
The retreating troops set fire to their lodgements and looked for shelter under the coverage of Antwerp's artillery. Many of the Spanish soldiers went in pursuit, despite their officers orders for them to stay together, and chased the rebels until Antwerp's moat. At William of Orange's orders, the artillery of the city walls fired shrapnel over the Spanish troops with different results, depending on the sources. The Spanish soldier Alonso Vázquez claimed that the shots were ineffective because the battlefield was covered by the smoke produced by the fire of Borgerhout. On the other hand, the Flemish official Guillaume Baudart claimed that it was precise and made "arms and legs fly on the air".
By then, Farnese, unwilling of having for a longer time his troops close to Antwerp's cannons, made drums and trumpets to call for withdrawal and gathered his men at Borgerhout. Meanwhile, people from Antwerp sallied to carry the wounded French, British, and Walloon officers and soldiers into the city to receive treatment. The Spanish soldiery, once the fire of Borgerhout was finished, looted the basements of the burned buildings and had a meal before praying to thank God. After that, the Spanish army marched across the roads of Lier and Herentals to Turnhout, where Farnese wanted to arrive the next day. Fearing a new attack, Antwerp's civic guards spent the night at their posts.
## Aftermath
The number of casualties endured by both armies differs according to the authors. The Italian Jesuit Famiano Strada noted that Farnese, in a letter to his father Ottavio, Duke of Parma, put the Dutch loss as 600 men killed and gave eight men killed and 40 wounded amongst his troops. Strada also mentions that other estimations pointed to 1,040 men killed in the Dutch ranks. On the other hand, the Flemish author Guillaume Baudart set the Dutch loss as 200 men killed and claimed that the Spanish army lost 500 men. The villages of Deurne and Borgerhout were seriously damaged by the fire during the battle: in 1580 Deurne had 133 standing buildings, while 146 had been destroyed by the fire; in Borgerhout 206 buildings remained and 280 were ruined.
Farnese's attack achieved his goal of distracting the Dutch States forces from Maastricht. After the battle, the Spanish army moved quickly to Turnhout, taking the castle of Grobbendonk on its way and appearing before Maastricht on 8 March, just six days after the battle of Borgerhout. François de la Noue followed the Spanish till Herentals with some troops, but when he realized that Farnese was to lay siege to Maastricht, it was too late for him to reinforce the city's garrison. Moreover, mutinies and defections hampered the Dutch efforts to save the city. The English soldiers under John Norrey's orders, who remained out of Antwerp, kidnapped the abbot of St. Michael's Abbey in demand for back pays, and William of Orange's had to mediate to placate them. In political terms, the battle increased the Walloon defections from the States General to the Spanish party in the following months. Emanuel Philibert de Lalaing joined the Spanish Army with 5,000 Walloon troops of the Dutch States army and expelled from Menen a garrison loyal to the States General.
Farnese besieged Maastricht in command of 15,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, 20 cannons, and 4,000 sappers, joined later by 5,000 additional troops. In May, while the siege developed, peace talks were held at Cologne under the mediation of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf to preserve the unity of the Netherlands. However, divisions become more serious during the process. In Brussels, fight erupted in early June between Catholics headed by Philip of Egmont, son of Lamoral of Egmont, whom the Royalist authorities had executed in 1568 and Calvinists under Olivier van den Tympel, resulting in the expulsion of Egmont and his supporters. At Mechelen, the Catholic inhabitants forced the Dutch garrison to leave, while in 's-Hertogenbosch an armed struggle resulted in the magistrates declaring support to the Royalist side. The revolt took a character of civil war, and as a result of the religious problem, the peace conference at Cologne failed. Henceforth, Farnese reconquered Flanders and the Brabant town after town, even forcing Antwerp to surrender after a long and exhausting siege in 1585. |
25,481,830 | Hugh Downman | 1,050,981,956 | Officer of the British Royal Navy (c.1765–1858) | [
"1760s births",
"1858 deaths",
"Knights of the Order of the Crescent",
"People from Plympton",
"Royal Navy admirals",
"Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War",
"Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars",
"Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars"
] | Hugh Downman (c. 1765 – 4 January 1858) was an officer of the Royal Navy who saw service during the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, eventually rising to the rank of admiral.
Downman spent most of the American War of Independence as a midshipman, with a spell in French captivity after his ship was wrecked off the coast of Ushant while chasing an enemy frigate. He was promoted to lieutenant shortly before the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars and served with distinction during operations in the Mediterranean. Downman served under several Admirals, and fought with Jervis at Battle of Cape St Vincent. Shortly after the battle he was rewarded with his own command, going on to capture several privateers and fighting off an attack by a larger vessel. Promoted to post-captain and given a frigate to command, he operated in the Mediterranean and performed services for the nobles and monarchs of the Italian states. Downman went on to command several ships of the line, often as a flag-captain, and took part in the capture of the Cape Colony and operations on the Río de la Plata.
Left without active employment after the end of the wars with France, he briefly returned to service in 1824. before being promoted to flag rank the following year. Downman continued to rise through the ranks, reaching the rank of full admiral before his death in 1858.
## Family and early life
Hugh Downman was born in Plympton, Devon around 1765. His uncle was Dr Hugh Downman, a physician and poet, who obtained for his nephew an offer to serve aboard the 32-gun HMS Thetis as a midshipman. Downman took up the offer, joining the ship, which was then under the command of Captain Mitchell Graham, on 10 October 1776. He served aboard Thetis for the next two years, leaving the ship in August 1778 and joining HMS Arethusa. The Arethusa was wrecked off Ushant on 19 March 1779 while chasing a French ship, and Downman and the rest of the crew were taken prisoner by the French. Exchanged in January 1780 Downman went on to serve aboard HMS Emerald under Captain Samuel Marshall, before moving into the 74-gun HMS Edgar in May 1782. Edgar at this time was flying the broad pennant of Commodore William Hotham, and in October that year was part of the fleet sent out under Lord Howe to relieve Gibraltar. In the brief encounter with the Spanish fleet that followed on 20 October Edgar had six men wounded.
## French Revolutionary Wars
Little is known of Downman's activities during the years of peace that followed, until his appearance in February 1789 with the fleet despatched to the East Indies under Commodore William Cornwallis. Cornwallis promoted him to lieutenant while serving in the East Indies on 5 March 1790. He returned to England at the start of 1793. With the commencement of the French Revolutionary Wars, Downman joined the 74-gun HMS Alcide and went out to the Mediterranean, where served with Commodore Robert Linzee's squadron. He was present at the occupation of Toulon and assisted in the attack on the tower and redoubt at Fornelli in September 1793. While helping in the reduction of Corsica, Downman cut out a French gunboat from under the guns of a battery at St Fiorenzo, and later led a party of 100 seamen and marines in scaling a cliff to place a gun overlooking the enemy's defences. For these actions he received the thanks of Lieutenant-General David Dundas.
Linzee was advanced to rear-admiral on 11 April 1794 and shifted his flag to the 98-gun HMS Windsor Castle, bringing Downman with him as his second lieutenant. He was then moved into the 100-gun HMS Victory, the flagship of Admiral Lord Hood, and returned with Hood to England. Hood was preparing to return to the Mediterranean aboard Victory, when on 2 May he was ordered to strike his flag. Victory then went out to the Mediterranean as a private ship, whereupon she became the flagship of Rear-Admiral Robert Mann, and then Sir John Jervis. Under Mann Downman saw action at the Naval Battle of Hyères Islands on 13 July 1795, and under Jervis he was at the Battle of Cape St Vincent on 14 February 1797.
## Command
### Speedy
Several months after Cape St Vincent, on 20 July, Downman was promoted to the rank of commander and appointed to command the 14-gun brig HMS Speedy. He made several cruises with Speedy, capturing a number of enemy vessels. On 3 February 1798 she encountered the large enemy privateer Papillon, mounting 18 guns and carrying 160 men, while sailing off Vigo. The Papillon attacked Speedy, which had a reduced crew owing to her master Mr Marshall, and 12 men, being absent in command of a prize Speedy had taken earlier. The two ships fought each other for two days, and by the second Downman had exhausted his supply of shot, and resorted to firing nails and pieces of iron hoop at his opponent. Having observed the difficulty his captain was in, Master Marshall secured the Spanish crew of his prize below deck, and then took the prize crew off in a small boat to come to Downman's assistance. After a fierce fight the Papillon was driven off, with Speedy suffering losses of five killed and four wounded. Downman then recaptured his prize that the master had been compelled to abandon, and returned to Lisbon to carry out repairs. During his time in command of Speedy Downman captured five privateers, altogether mounting 17 guns and 28 swivels, and carrying 162 men. For his efforts protecting British trade out of Oporto, the merchants presented him with a letter of thanks, and a piece of plate valued at £50.
### Santa Dorothea
As a reward for his good service Downman was advanced to post-captain on 26 December 1798 and was appointed to command the 32-gun HMS Santa Dorothea, a frigate that had recently been captured from the Spanish. On 28 November that year Santa Dorothea, operating in company with HMS Perseus, HMS Strombolo and HMS Bulldog captured the 16-gun San Leon on the Lisbon station. Captain William Brown was to have succeeded Downman in 1799, but he was given another ship instead, and Downman retained Santa Dorothea. He cut out vessels from Bordiguera on 11 January 1800 and Hospitallier on 11 February 1800, before taking command of a small squadron blockading Savona. The town surrendered after 41 days, on 15 May. Downman then destroyed all the fortifications on the Gulf of Spezia. He went on to land the Duke of Savoy at Naples and evacuated the gallery of Florence to Sicily, ahead of the invading French. For his services to the monarchies of Italy he received several presents of money and rings. In July 1801 he conveyed troops to Egypt and received the Order of the Crescent. Also during this time Downman captured three vessels sailing from Egypt carrying General Dessaix and some of Napoleon's staff.
### Caesar, Diomede and Diadem
Downman then took command of the 80-gun HMS Caesar, which was then the flagship of Sir James Saumarez on the Lisbon station. Downman was flag-captain to Saumarez until Caesar was paid off at Portsmouth on 23 July 1802. Saumarez then requested Downman to serve as his flag-captain aboard the 50-gun HMS Diomede on the Guernsey station, where he spent the next 14 months. In November 1805 he took command of the 64-gun HMS Diadem, flying the broad pennant of Commodore Sir Home Popham. He was supported the operations under Lieutenant-General Sir David Baird to capture the Cape Colony, and landed in Table Bay at the head of a party of marines and two howitzers. He was sent home with the despatches announcing the capture of the colony, after which he was sent out to the Rio de la Plata, where he resumed command of his old ship, Diomede. Downman supported the British assaults, and was present at the capture of Montevideo. After this he returned home, carrying General William Beresford. Diomede was paid off in September 1807, and Downman went ashore.
### Prison ships and Princess Charlotte
Downman's next appointment was to superintend the prison ships moored at Portsmouth, a task he carried out until January 1811, when he was given another seagoing command, the 74-gun HMS Princess Carolina and attached to the fleet in the North Sea. He took part in the destruction of the 40-gun French frigate Amazone off Cape Barfleur, conveyed a fleet of East Indiamen to Madeira and carried out cruises in the North Sea. In November 1813 he landed marines at Scheveningen in support of the Prince of Orange, and went on to visit Spitsbergen. Princess Carolina was paid off in 1814 and Downman spent the next ten years with no active service.
## Later years, family and legacy
Downman briefly returned to active service in 1824, taking command of the 74-gun HMS Windsor Castle. He commanded her until being promoted to flag rank in May 1825. He was advanced to vice-admiral in 1837 and a full admiral in 1847. From 1851 he received a service pension of £150 a year. On 4 January 1858, he died at his seat in Hambledon, Hampshire.
Downman married Dorothea Palmer, the youngest daughter of Peter Palmer of Portsmouth on 23 June 1803. The couple had a son, the Reverend Hugh Downman, and two daughters, Dorothea Frances and Caroline. Caroline married Edward Hale and had two sons, Henry George Hale who joined the navy, and William Godfrey Hale, who joined the army. Henry Hale distinguished himself in the Baltic campaign during the Crimean War and was twice mentioned in dispatches by Vice-Admiral Richard Saunders Dundas. Lieutenant-General T. Downman, superintendent at Woolwich, was a first-cousin of Admiral Hugh Downman.
Politically Downman was an ardent supporter of Whig Charles James Fox and opposed the Melvilles, Henry and his son Robert, who were for a number of years powerful at the Admiralty. Downman attributed this political interest as being the cause of his period of unemployment after having reached flag-rank. He was described as a "strict disciplinarian, but an accomplished gentleman; well-read...[and] temperate..." Whilst serving in the Mediterranean he was apparently especially disliked by Emma Hamilton, with Downman's obituary noting that "from this fact some slight judgement of his character may be formed."
## See also |
45,387,178 | The Restoration (1910 film) | 1,168,157,336 | null | [
"1910 drama films",
"1910 films",
"1910 lost films",
"1910s American films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American drama short films",
"American silent short films",
"Lost American drama films",
"Silent American drama films",
"Thanhouser Company films"
] | The Restoration is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company. The film focuses on Hugh Logan, a single father who leaves his little girl, May, at home when he goes on a business trip. On the way to the city he is attacked by robbers and left in the road. He is found and taken in, but he suffers from amnesia. He falls in love with Maud Neals and proposes to her. Due to the prolonged absence of her father, May is taken to an orphan asylum, but she escapes. May goes to the city and ends up stopping to sleep on the doorstep of the Neals' home. Maud finds her and takes her in, where Logan recognizes his daughter and his memory comes back. Little is known of the production credits, but the film does feature Marie Eline as the little girl. It was released on August 5, 1910 and was met with mixed reviews. The film is presumed lost.
## Plot
Though the film is presumed lost, a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 6, 1910. It states: "Hugh Logan is a widower who lives with his only child, a little girl, in a small cottage in the country. Logan is a commercial traveler and, as the play opens, is preparing to leave on a business trip. He takes the train to the city, where he is attacked by footpads, who leave him unconscious in the roadway. He is found by Maud Neal and her father, who are passing in an auto, and they take him into their home. There he revives, but the shock has affected his memory, and he is unable to recall anything of his past life. The kindly Neal secures him employment, and as time passes Logan falls deeply in love with Maud. He finally proposes to her and it is accepted. In the meantime, little May has been waiting in vain for her father. As no word is received from him, and she has no other relatives, Bridget, the servant, takes her to the orphan asylum, where she is compelled to make her home with other little unfortunates. May dislikes the place. In the end she escapes from it. But, gaining the city, she gets lost there and, tired and hungry, goes to sleep on a doorstep - the Neals'. There she is found by Maud, who takes her into the house. Maud is much attracted by the child's charms and finally decides that she must never be parted from her. She tells Logan of her decision and he objects. They quarrel. Feeling himself in the wrong, Logan returns and asks Maud's pardon. He meets May, who recognizes her father. At the sight of her, his memory returns. Speedily he determines to retain May from out of the things of the old life, and Maud from out of the new."
## Production
The writer of the scenario is unknown, but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan. He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. Lonergan liked to use the deus ex machina dramatic technique in the conclusion of the plots and this production was no exception. The film director is unknown, but it may have been Barry O'Neil. Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production, but at least two possible candidates exist. Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company, but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer. The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions. The only cast credit claimed by Bowers is that of Marie Eline as the little girl. Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions. Known and more prominent members of the cast to appear in productions include the leading ladies, Anna Rosemond and Violet Heming, and the leading man was Frank H. Crane.
## Release and reception
The single reel drama, approximately 1000 feet long, was released on August 5, 1910. Curiously, The Moving Picture World makes a reference to aphasia instead of amnesia in advertising the film, "The Friday release (August 5) is a gripping heart-drama, by name The Restoration. It is a curious, a novel thing; in a sense a study in aphasia - one of those weird plots you expect a Thanhouser picture to unfold." The film likely had a wide national release as evidenced by numerous advertisements, including theaters in Maryland, Indiana, and Kansas. Some advertisements for The Restoration were not specific and may refer to D. W. Griffith's 1909 The Restoration. These advertisements are noted in Oregon, Washington, and North Carolina.
The film received mixed reviews, but also criticism for several aspects of the production. The Morning Telegraph stated, "The photography at the beginning of the film is poor. It seems queer that the child should be able to escape from the orphan asylum in such an easy manner and that no search be made by the institution. It seemed very theatrical and hardly possible that the child should make the first stop at the house of the father's intended. Why did not the producer have the child make a few more stops or have something happen to her instead of making the first stop at the woman's house?" The Moving Picture World spared little coverage of the actual film in its review, noting that the emotional story might be a plausible. The New York Dramatic Mirror gave a detailed review that found the acting favorable, but found the plot and its resolution to be fantastical by stating, "The manifest absurdity of this plot lies in the adoption. No girl just betrothed would ever adopt a runaway orphan."
## See also
- List of American films of 1910 |
26,268,717 | French cruiser Latouche-Tréville | 1,155,276,955 | French Amiral Charner-class cruiser | [
"1892 ships",
"Amiral Charner-class cruisers",
"Ships built in France",
"World War I cruisers of France"
] | Latouche-Tréville was one of four Amiral Charner-class armored cruisers built for the French Navy (Marine Navale) in the 1890s. The ship spent the bulk of her career in the Mediterranean and was assigned to the International Squadron off the island of Crete during the 1897–1898 uprising there and the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 to protect French interests and citizens. Latouche-Tréville spent most of the first decade of the 20th century as a training ship or in reserve. The ship was recommissioned before World War I began in 1914, and escorted convoys for several months before she was assigned to the eastern Mediterranean to support Allied operations and bombard the Ottoman-controlled coast. She was lightly damaged in 1915 by an Ottoman shell while providing naval gunfire support during the Gallipoli Campaign. Latouche-Tréville became a training ship in late 1917 and was decommissioned in 1919. She was stricken from the navy list the following year and was sold for scrap in 1926.
## Design and description
The Amiral Charner-class ships were designed to be smaller and cheaper than the preceding armored cruiser design, the Dupuy de Lôme. Like the older ship, they were intended to fill the commerce-raiding strategy of the Jeune École.
The ship measured 110.2 meters (361 ft 7 in) long overall, with a beam of 14.04 meters (46 ft 1 in). Latouche-Tréville had a forward draft of 5.55 meters (18 ft 3 in) and drew 6.06 meters (19 ft 11 in) aft. She displaced 4,748 metric tons (4,673 long tons) at normal load and 4,990 metric tons (4,910 long tons) at deep load.
The Amiral Charner class had two triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a single propeller shaft. Steam for the engines was provided by 16 Belleville boilers and the engines were rated at a total of 8,300 metric horsepower (6,100 kW) using forced draught. Latouche-Tréville had a designed speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph), but during sea trials on 28 December 1894 the engines produced 8,276 metric horsepower (6,087 kW), although the ship only reached a maximum speed of 18.16 knots (33.63 km/h; 20.90 mph). She carried up to 535 metric tons (527 long tons; 590 short tons) of coal and could steam for 4,000 nautical miles (7,400 km; 4,600 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).
The ships of the Amiral Charner class had a main armament that consisted of two Canon de 194 mm Modèle 1887 guns that were mounted in single gun turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure. Their secondary armament comprised six Canon de 138.6 mm Modèle 1887 guns, each in single gun turrets on each broadside. For anti-torpedo boat defense, they carried four 65 mm (2.6 in) guns, four 47-millimeter (1.9 in) and eight 37-millimeter (1.5 in) five-barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns. They were also armed with four 450-millimeter (17.7 in) pivoting torpedo tubes; two mounted on each broadside above water.
Unlike her sister ships, Latouche-Tréville's gun turrets were electrically powered by two dynamos, each rated at 20.8 kilowatts (27.9 hp). While they performed well during trials, the electrical installation proved to be unreliable in service. The electromagnetically operated friction clutch tended to burn out at normal operating voltages, the direct current components often caused arcing and the mechanical components wore out more quickly than anticipated. In addition the system was not water resistant and often malfunctioned when water entered the turrets, a not uncommon occurrence. It was replaced by a more reliable system in 1905.
The side of the Amiral Charner class was generally protected by 92 millimeters (3.6 in) of steel armor, from 1.3 meters (4 ft 3 in) below the waterline to 2.5 meters (8 ft 2 in) above it. The bottom 20 centimeters (7.9 in) tapered in thickness and the armor at the ends of the ships thinned to 60 millimeters (2.4 in). The curved protective deck of mild steel had a thickness of 40 millimeters (1.6 in) along its centerline that increased to 50 millimeters (2.0 in) at its outer edges. Protecting the boiler rooms, engine rooms, and magazines below it was a thin splinter deck. A watertight internal cofferdam, filled with cellulose, ran the length of the ship from the protective deck to a height of 1.2 meters (4 ft) above the waterline. Below the protective deck the ship was divided by 13 watertight transverse bulkheads, with five more above it. The ship's conning tower and turrets were protected by 92 millimeters of armor.
## Construction and career
Latouche-Tréville, named in honor of Vice Admiral comte de Latouche-Tréville, was laid down on 26 April 1890 at the Granville shipyard of Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée. She was launched on 5 November 1893 and commissioned for sea trials on 16 October. While initial trials were successful, further testing revealed multiple problems that required over a year and a half of work before she was commissioned for service on 6 May 1895.
Latouche-Tréville was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron (Escadre du Nord), and participated in a fleet review by President Félix Faure on 6 August 1895, before she was transferred to the 2nd Light Division of the Mediterranean Squadron on 11 January 1896. The ship was briefly assigned to the Higher Naval War College (École supérieure de guerre de la marine), with her sister Amiral Charner and the protected cruiser Suchet until she was transferred to the Reserve Squadron on 20 October. Latouche-Tréville was sent to Souda Bay, Crete, on 17 March 1897, at the outbreak of the Greco-Turkish War, and stayed there until 24 June. On 18 October the ship rejoined the light division and remained with the Mediterranean Fleet until 22 July 1904. During this time, she participated in a fleet review by King Umberto I of Italy at Cagliari, Sardinia, in April 1899, the combined fleet maneuvers with the Northern Squadron during June–July 1900 and another Presidential fleet review on 19 July. During gunnery training on 24 January 1901, her forward turret was damaged. While under repair from 1 February to 1 May, bilge keels were installed. In October 1901, Latouche-Tréville was one of the ships ordered to proceed to the port of Mytilene. After landing two companies of marines that occupied the major ports of the island on 7 November, Sultan Abdul Hamid II agreed to enforce contracts made with French companies and to repay loans made by French banks.
During a gale on 18 December 1902 in Toulon, the small cargo liner SS Médoc was blown onto the ram of Latouche-Tréville and had to be run aground lest she sink, although the cruiser was barely damaged in the incident. The ship was based at Syra in the Cyclades for duty in the eastern Mediterranean from 7 May to 16 December 1903, and then visited Naples in April 1904 together with the entire Mediterranean Squadron. Latouche-Tréville participated in the spring cruise to the eastern Mediterranean shortly thereafter, before she was placed in reserve on 22 July when the new armored cruiser Kléber replaced her in the light division. During this time, all of her 37 mm guns were removed and the number of her 47 mm guns was increased from four to eight. In addition, the electrical system for her turrets was upgraded and various other minor modifications were made.
Latouche-Tréville was recommissioned on 15 February 1907 and assigned to the gunnery school. The following month, her torpedo tubes were removed. On 22 September 1908, her aft turret was badly damaged when one of her loaded guns misfired when the breech was opened. The ignition of the propellant blew the breechblock through the turret door and threw the sighting hood onto the ship's deck. The ship was saved from being lost by a crewman who closed the door between the magazine and the ammunition hoist. Fourteen crewmen were killed and five were wounded in the incident. Repairs took until the end of the year to complete, and she resumed her duties until she was again placed in reserve on 1 January 1912. Latouche-Tréville was recommissioned on 20 November for service in the Levant; she departed Toulon on 10 December and arrived in Port Said, Egypt on 16 December. The ship was refitted in Bizerta, Tunisia, from 8 November 1913 to 26 December, during which time her military masts were replaced by light pole masts. She arrived back in Egypt on 30 December and resumed her duties.
Latouche-Tréville was recalled to Bizerta on 29 July 1914, where she unloaded surplus equipment as tensions rose shortly before the outbreak of the First World War. The ship was assigned to escort convoys between Morocco and France together with her sisters Amiral Charner and Bruix, and then blockaded the Strait of Otranto until 5 February 1915, when she was transferred to the Dardanelles. She was then transferred to the Syrian squadron on 20 March, and later bombarded Ottoman installations at Gaza and a railroad bridge at Acre in Palestine. Latouche-Tréville rejoined the Dardanelles squadron on 25 April and was providing fire support there on 4 June when her aft turret was struck by a 210-millimeter (8.3 in) shell. It killed two men and wounded five others. She was transferred to the Aegean to conduct anti-submarine patrols from 17 June to 20 August before repairs were made at Toulon from 27 August to 21 September. The ship was then returned to the Aegean to support Allied forces near Salonica, Greece, until she was ordered home on 5 January 1916 to be disinfected and refitted. After its completion on 9 February, Latouche-Tréville spent most of the next year and a half in the central and eastern Mediterranean performing a variety of missions. The ship was placed in reserve on 18 December 1917, and served as a gunnery training ship until she returned to Toulon on 31 December 1918. Latouche-Tréville was decommissioned on 1 May 1919 and condemned on 21 June 1920. Her hulk was used by the company salvaging the wreck of the battleship Liberté as accommodations and a workshop from 4 September 1920 to 1925. She was sold for scrap in 1926.
## See also
- Russian Expeditionary Force in France |
13,938,136 | Kepler triangle | 1,136,430,107 | Right triangle related to the golden ratio | [
"Golden ratio",
"Johannes Kepler",
"Types of triangles"
] | A Kepler triangle is a special right triangle with edge lengths in geometric progression. The ratio of the progression is $\sqrt\varphi$ where $\varphi=(1+\sqrt{5})/2$ is the golden ratio, and the progression can be written: $1 : \sqrt\varphi : \varphi$, or approximately $1 : 1.272 : 1.618$. Squares on the edges of this triangle have areas in another geometric progression, $1:\varphi:\varphi^2$. Alternative definitions of the same triangle characterize it in terms of the three Pythagorean means of two numbers, or via the inradius of isosceles triangles.
This triangle is named after Johannes Kepler, but can be found in earlier sources. Although some sources claim that ancient Egyptian pyramids had proportions based on a Kepler triangle, most scholars believe that the golden ratio was not known to Egyptian mathematics and architecture.
## History
The Kepler triangle is named after the German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), who wrote about this shape in a 1597 letter. Two concepts that can be used to analyze this triangle, the Pythagorean theorem and the golden ratio, were both of interest to Kepler, as he wrote elsewhere:
> Geometry has two great treasures: one is the theorem of Pythagoras, the other the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio. The first we may compare to a mass of gold, the second we may call a precious jewel.
However, Kepler was not the first to describe this triangle. Kepler himself credited it to "a music professor named Magirus". The same triangle appears earlier in a book of Arabic mathematics, the Liber mensurationum of Abû Bekr, known from a 12th-century translation by Gerard of Cremona into Latin, and in the Practica geometriae [it] of Fibonacci (published in 1220–1221), who defined it in a similar way to Kepler. A little earlier than Kepler, Pedro Nunes wrote about it in 1567, and it is "likely to have been widespread in late medieval and Renaissance manuscript traditions". It has also been independently rediscovered several times, later than Kepler.
According to some authors, a "golden pyramid" with a doubled Kepler triangle as its cross-section accurately describes the design of Egyptian pyramids such as the Great Pyramid of Giza; one source of this theory is a 19th-century misreading of Herodotus by pyramidologist John Taylor. Many other theories of proportion have been proposed for the same pyramid, unrelated to the Kepler triangle. Because these different theories are very similar in the numeric values they obtain, and because of inaccuracies in measurement, in part caused by the destruction of the outer surface of the pyramid, such theories are difficult to resolve based purely on physical evidence. The match in proportions to the Kepler triangle may well be a numerical coincidence: according to scholars who have investigated this relationship, the ancient Egyptians most likely did not know about or use the golden ratio in their mathematics or architecture. Instead, the proportions of the pyramid can be adequately explained using integer ratios, based on a right triangle with sides 11 and 14.
The name "Kepler triangle" for this shape was used by Roger Herz-Fischler, based on Kepler's 1597 letter, as early as 1979. Another name for the same triangle, used by Matila Ghyka in his 1946 book on the golden ratio, The Geometry of Art and Life, is the "triangle of Price", after pyramidologist W. A. Price.
## Definitions
The Kepler triangle is uniquely defined by the properties of being a right triangle and of having its side lengths in geometric progression, or equivalently having the squares on its sides in geometric progression. The ratio of the progression of side lengths is $\sqrt\varphi$, where $\varphi=(1+\sqrt{5})/2$ is the golden ratio, and the progression can be written: $1 : \sqrt\varphi : \varphi$, or approximately 1 : 1.272 : 1.618. Squares on the edges of this triangle have areas in another geometric progression, $1:\varphi:\varphi^2$. The fact that the triangle with these proportions is a right triangle follows from the fact that, for squared edge lengths with these proportions, the defining polynomial of the golden ratio is the same as the formula given by the Pythagorean theorem for the squared edge lengths of a right triangle: $\varphi^2 = \varphi + 1.$ Because this equation is true for the golden ratio, these three lengths obey the Pythagorean theorem, and form a right triangle. Conversely, in any right triangle whose squared edge lengths are in geometric progression with any ratio $\rho$, the Pythagorean theorem implies that this ratio obeys the identity $\rho^2=\rho+1$. Therefore, the ratio must be the unique positive solution to this equation, the golden ratio, and the triangle must be a Kepler triangle.
The three edge lengths $1$, $\sqrt\varphi$ and $\varphi$ are the harmonic mean, geometric mean, and arithmetic mean, respectively, of the two numbers $\varphi\pm1$. These three ways of combining two numbers were all studied in ancient Greek mathematics, and are called the Pythagorean means. Conversely, this can be taken as an alternative definition of the Kepler triangle: it is a right triangle whose edge lengths are the three Pythagorean means of some two numbers. The only triangles for which this is true are the Kepler triangles.
A third, equivalent way of defining this triangle comes from a problem of maximizing the inradius of isosceles triangles. Among all isosceles triangles with a fixed choice of the length of the two equal sides but with a variable base length, the one with the largest inradius is formed from two copies of the Kepler triangle, reflected across their longer sides from each other. Therefore, the Kepler triangle can be defined as the right triangle that, among all right triangles with the same hypotenuse, forms with its reflection the isosceles triangle of maximum inradius. The same reflection also forms an isosceles triangle that, for a given perimeter, contains the largest possible semicircle.
## Properties
If the short side of a Kepler triangle has length $s$, the other sides will have lengths $s\sqrt\varphi$ and $s\varphi$. The area can be calculated by the standard formula for the area of right triangles (half the product of the two short sides) as $\tfrac{s^2}{2}\sqrt\varphi$. The cosine of the larger of the two non-right angles is the ratio of the adjacent side (the shorter of the two sides) to the hypotenuse, $\varphi$, from which it follows that the two non-right angles are $\theta=\sin^{-1}\frac{1}{\varphi}\approx 38.1727^\circ$ and $\theta=\cos^{-1}\frac{1}{\varphi}\approx 51.8273^\circ.$
Jerzy Kocik has observed that the larger of these two angles is also the angle formed by the centers of triples of consecutive circles in Coxeter's loxodromic sequence of tangent circles.
## See also
- Automedian triangle, a triangle whose squared side lengths form an arithmetic progression, including the right triangle with side lengths $1:\sqrt2:\sqrt3$
- Golden triangle, an isosceles triangle whose ratio of base to side length is the golden ratio. |
2,459,136 | Unbreakable (2005) | 1,163,927,690 | 2005 Total Nonstop Action Wrestling pay-per-view event | [
"2005 Total Nonstop Action Wrestling pay-per-view events",
"2005 in professional wrestling in Florida",
"Impact Wrestling pay-per-view events",
"Professional wrestling shows in Orlando, Florida",
"September 2005 events in the United States"
] | The 2005 Unbreakable was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) promotion that took place on September 11, 2005 at the TNA Impact! Zone in Orlando, Florida. It was the first under the Unbreakable name, the second was Unbreakable 2019. It was also the ninth event in the 2005 TNA PPV schedule. Nine professional wrestling matches and two pre-show matches were featured on the card, three of which were for championships.
The main event at Unbreakable was a three-way match for the TNA X Division Championship, in which then-champion Christopher Daniels defended the title against the challengers A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe. Styles ended up gaining the pinfall in the bout, thus winning the title. The NWA World Heavyweight Championship was defended in a Raven's Rules match between then-champion Raven and the challenger Rhino. Raven pinned Rhino in the encounter to retain the championship. A Four Way Elimination Tag Team match for the NWA World Tag Team Championship was held at Unbreakable, in which then-champions The Naturals (Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens) defeated the teams of Alex Shelley and Johnny Candido, America's Most Wanted (Chris Harris and James Storm), and Team Canada (A-1 and Eric Young) to remain champions. On the undercard, Abyss defeated Sabu in a No Disqualification match during the show.
Unbreakable is remembered for the three-way match for the TNA X Division Championship, which received a rare 5 Star match rating from wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer, the first and currently the only one the company had received. The main event was ranked by TNA as the fourth greatest moment in the company's history. Corey David Lacroix of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the show an 8 out of 10, stating "TNA's Unbreakable PPV was an astounding buffet of action, catering to the variety of tastes among professional wrestling fans."
In October 2017, with the launch of the Global Wrestling Network, the event became available to stream on demand.
## Production
### Background
Unbreakable was announced in June 2005 to take place on September 11, 2005. TNA scheduled Unbreakable to be held at the TNA Impact! Zone in Orlando, Florida. TNA released a poster to promote the event featuring Raven and Rhino. A thirty-minute pre-show was slatted to take place prior to the telecast. Unbreakable was dedicated to the "unbreakable spirit of the American people."
### Storylines
Unbreakable featured nine professional wrestling matches and two pre-show matches that involved different wrestlers from pre-existing scripted feuds and storylines. Wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches.
The main event was a three-way match for the TNA X Division Championship, in which then-champion Christopher Daniels defended the title against the challengers A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe. Prior to Unbreakable, TNA held the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament to determine the number-one contender to the TNA X Division Championship. The tournament involved eight men, with Joe and Styles making it to the final round at TNA's previous PPV event Sacrifice on August 14. There, Joe defeated Styles after interference from Daniels to earn a shot at the title. On the August 19 episode of TNA's television program TNA Impact!, TNA commentator Mike Tenay announced that Daniels would defend the title against Joe at the event. Later during the same episode, Daniels assaulted Joe until Styles came out to attack Daniels over his interference in the bout at Sacrifice. Due to Styles' actions, Daniels demanded that NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko suspend Styles. Instead, Zbyszko added Styles to the encounter on the August 26 episode of Impact!, making it a three-way match for the TNA X Division Championship at the event. This match was also promoted as the X Division "Dream Bout", as the top competitors in the division were being pitted against each other for the championship.
The predominant bout on the card was for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between then-champion Raven and the challenger Rhino. At Sacrifice, Raven teamed with Sabu to face the team of Jeff Jarrett and Rhino. On the pre-show of the gathering, Zbyszko announced if Jarrett pinned Raven during the contest then he would earn a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match. However, he added that if Raven pinned Jarrett during the contest then Jarrett would not have another title match for an entire year. Rhino ended up pinning Raven at the event, with TNA declaring him number-one contender on their website after the show. Tenay promoted Raven versus Rhino for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at Unbreakable on the August 19 episode of Impact!.
The NWA World Tag Team Championship was defended at Unbreakable in a Four Way Elimination Tag Team match by then-champions The Naturals (Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens), who were pitted against the teams of Alex Shelley and Sean Waltman, America's Most Wanted (Chris Harris and James Storm; AMW), and A-1 and Eric Young of Team Canada. This match was the combination of several storylines. The Naturals were involved in an on-screen rivalry heading into Unbreakable with A-1, Bobby Roode, Petey Williams, and Young—collectively known as Team Canada. At TNA's Slammiversary PPV event on June 19, The Naturals defeated Williams and Young to retain the World Tag Team Championship. The Naturals then teamed with Lance Hoyt in a Six Man Tag Team match to face A-1, Roode, and Young in a losing effort at TNA's No Surrender PPV event on July 17. Afterwards, The Naturals began an alliance with AMW leading to an Eight Man Tag Team match against A-1, Roode, Williams, and Young at Sacrifice. Team Canada were the victors at the show. On the August 19 episode of Impact!, The Naturals defeated A-1 and Young by disqualification to retain the World Tag Team Championship. Following the bout, Team Canada assaulted The Naturals until AMW came to their aid, which resulted in a brawl between the two teams with The Naturals feeling they did not need AMW's help. Concurrently at this time TNA held the Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament, which involved eight randomly assigned teams. Zbyszko announced on the August 26 episode of Impact! that a Four Way Elimination Tag Team match for the NWA World Tag Team Championship was planned for Unbreakable, in which The Naturals would defend against AMW, Team Canada, and the winners of the tournament. The final round of the Tournament was held on the September 9 episode of Impact!, where the team of Shelley and Waltman defeated the team of Chris Sabin and Shocker to join the match.
## Event
### Pre-Show
Prior to Unbreakable, TNA held a thirty-minute pre-show. During the broadcast, TNA interviewer Shane Douglas announced the NWA World Heavyweight Championship match between Raven and Rhino was changed to a Raven's Rules match. Two bouts were held during the telecast, the first pitted Cassidy Riley against Jerrelle Clark. The encounter went to a no contest at 1 minute and 56 seconds when Monty Brown interfered in the bout attacking both wrestlers and proceeding to challenge the winner of Raven versus Rhino for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship to a title defense at TNA's next PPV event Bound for Glory on October 23. Shark Boy fought Mikey Batts in the second, winning the contest at 3 minutes and 20 seconds by pinfall after forcing Batts chin into his shoulder with his signature Dead Sea Drop.
### Miscellaneous
Unbreakable featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches. Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast. Jeremy Borash (for the main event only) and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event. Andrew Thomas, Rudy Charles, and Mark "Slick" Johnson participated as referees for the encounters. Shane Douglas handled the interview duties during the show. Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role, Traci Brooks, Sonny Siaki, Matt Bentley, Jeff Jarrett, James Mitchell, and Jimmy Hart all appeared on camera, either in backstage or in ringside segments.
### Preliminary matches
The gathering began with a Six Man Tag Team match between the 3Live Kru (B.G. James, Konnan, and Ron Killings) and The Diamonds in the Rough (David Young, Elix Skipper, and Simon Diamond). The duration of the bout was 4 minutes and 20 seconds. Konnan used his shoe as a weapon during the encounter. 3Live Kru won the match by pinfall after Konnan slammed Young face-first into the mat with his signature Facejam maneuver.
The second bout of the show was between two non-contracted wrestlers, Austin Aries and Roderick Strong. It lasted 8 minutes even. Aries gained the pinfall after slamming Strong head-first into the mat with a brainbuster, followed by a 450° aerial splash onto a prone Strong.
Sonny Siaki accompanied the team of Apolo and Lance Hoyt for their match with Kip James and Monty Brown next. Kip attempted to kick Apolo with a charging big boot, but accidentally hit Brown. This allowed Apolo to kick Kip in the face and cover for a near-fall. Brown then gained the win for his team after crashing into Apolo with his signature Pounce maneuver at 9 minutes and 58 seconds.
The following contest pitted Chris Sabin against Petey Williams, lasting 12 minutes and 34 seconds. The bout was originally scheduled as Sabin facing his tag team partner in the Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament, Shocker. However, Shocker was unable to attend the show and was replaced by Williams. Williams held Sabin by Sabin's legs in a Sharpshooter submission hold twice during the match, with Sabin forcing Williams to release the hold both times. Near the end, Williams went to perform his signature Canadian Destroyer maneuver on Sabin, before Sabin countered the move into his signature Cradle Shock maneuver. After lifting up and slamming Williams back and neck-first into the mat, Sabin followed with the pinfall to win the encounter. Matt Bentley—formally known as Michael Shane—returned to TNA by attacking Sabin and Williams after the bout. Bentley then announced an Ultimate X open challenge to take place at Bound for Glory.
TNA held a No Disqualification match between Abyss, who was accompanied by James Mitchell, and Sabu next. Its duration was 11 minutes and 30 seconds. This was originally promoted as Abyss versus Sabu, however, a No Disqualification stipulation was added during the event. In a No Disqualification match, weapons are legal, as well as outside interference, with a victor determined only by pinfall or submission. In the final minutes, Abyss retrieved a bag of thumbtacks which were hidden under the ring. He then poured the contents onto the ring mat before slamming Sabu back-first into the tacks with his signature Black Hole Slam maneuver.
Bobby Roode faced Jeff Hardy in the sixth encounter. Roode's fellow Team Canada member Petey Williams interfered in the contest distracting the referee, allowing Roode to attempt to hit Hardy with the a hockey stick. Hardy dodged the swing and countered with his signature Twist of Fate maneuver, forcing Roode's chin into his shoulder. Afterwards, Hardy jumped off the top of a padded turnbuckle onto both Williams and Roode at ringside. Later, Roode re-entered the ring with Hardy remaining at ringside, allowing Jeff Jarrett to attack Hardy from behind with a hockey stick. Jarrett then pushed Hardy into the ring with Roode covering for the pinfall victory at 9 minutes and 7 seconds.
### Main event matches
The Four-Way Elimination Tag Team match for the NWA World Tag Team Championship was next, in which The Naturals (Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens), who were accompanied by Jimmy Hart, defended against the teams of Alex Shelley and Sean Waltman, America's Most Wanted (Chris Harris and James Storm), and Team Canada (A-1 and Eric Young). The bout duration was 18 minutes and 1 second. Waltman was advertised to team with Shelley for the encounter, but missed the show due to undisclosed reasons. In this bout, if a member of a team is pinned or made to submit, then him and his partner is eliminated from the contest; the objective is to be the last team standing. Shelley began the bout alone, until Chris Candido's legitimate brother Johnny Candido, who was in attendance along with several of Candido's family members, jumped the railing to join Shelley as his tag team partner. A bit later, Douglas kicked Candido in the crotch and pinned him with a roll-up pin, thus eliminating Shelley and Candido from the contest. AMW were the next eliminated; Young pinned Harris with a roll-up after A-1 hit Harris across the back with a hockey stick. The Naturals pinned A-1 after slamming him into the mat face-first with their signature tag team Natural Disaster maneuver. Due to the pin, Team Canada were eliminated from the contest, thus giving the victory to The Naturals who retained the NWA World Tag Team Championship.
The NWA World Heavyweight Championship was defended in a Raven's Rules match by Raven against Rhino in the eighth encounter on the card. A contest conducted under Raven's Rules means there are no count-outs or no disqualifications, and weapons are provided for the environment; the only way to win is by pinfall or submission. Raven used a pizza cutter early on in the bout to cut open Rhino's forehead, causing him to bleed heavily. Later, Raven's forehead was also cut open due to being hit by a trashcan. Rhino used a staple gun during the contest; Rhino placed several staples in Raven's forehead. Cassidy Riley, Jeff Hardy, and Jeff Jarrett interfered in the bout. Riley interfered by accidentally distracting the referee during a pin attempt by Raven, whom Riley was attempting to aid. Jarrett came down to the ring near the end trying to bash Raven in the face with the NWA World Heavyweight Championship belt, but was stopped by Hardy. Raven then performed his signature Raven Effect DDT maneuver on Jarrett, forcing his head into the ring mat. Afterwards, Raven performed the Raven Effect DDT on Rhino and covered for the pinfall victory to retain the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at 14 minutes and 28 seconds.
The main event was a three-way match for what ring announcer Jeremy Borash described as the "TNA X Division Championship of the World", in which then-champion Christopher Daniels defended against the challengers A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe. Its duration was 22 minutes and 50 seconds. The match began with Joe and Styles double teaming Daniels, with the two engaging in a kicking competition against Daniels' back to see who could kick the hardest. While Daniels and Joe stood at ringside, Styles used the ropes to slingshot himself up into the air where he performed a backflip onto both competitors in what Styles' named the Shooting Styles Press. Later back in the ring, Daniels grabbed Styles and fell backwards in the process causing Styles to flip overhead towards Joe. Styles landed on Joe's shoulders and quickly fell backwards, flipping Joe forward. A few minutes later, Joe held Daniels in his signature Coquina Clutch submission hold, which was broken when Styles ascended a padded turnbuckle and jumped off to perform his signature Spiral Tap aerial technique, landing onto Daniels and Joe. Afterwards, Styles and Daniels fought on the top of a turnbuckle, with Joe ascending as well in order to lift up both and throw them off in a suplex. Joe followed by performing his signature Muscle Buster maneuver on Styles, forcing him back and neck-first into the mat. Daniels then attempted to hit Joe with the TNA X Division Title belt, which Joe countered into a powerslam. Daniels then followed by kicking the belt into the side of Joe's head. Styles eventually gained the pinfall on Daniels after countering Daniels' signature Angel's Wings maneuver into a bridging pin to win the TNA X Division Championship.
## Reception
A total of 775 people attended Unbreakable. Canadian Online Explorer writer Corey David Lacroix rated the entire event an 8 out of 10. TNA's previous event Sacrifice did not receive a rating, however, No Surrender, which took place prior to Sacrifice, was given an 8 out of 10 by Jason Clevett. Unbreakable was ranked lower than TNA's next event, Bound for Glory, which received a 9 out of 10 from Bob Kapur. Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE)'s Unforgiven PPV event held on September 18, Unbreakable was rated higher, as Chris Sokol gave Unforgiven a 6 out of 10.
Lacroix felt that with Unbreakable TNA "truly cemented the formula needed for delivering great pay per views." He concluded with "TNA's Unbreakable PPV was an astounding buffet of action, catering to the variety of tastes among professional wrestling fans." Lacroix also commented "If you missed it, get the replay. Don't think, just do it – – the main event is well worth the price." The main event was given Lacroix's highest match rating of 10 out of 10 in his review. He gave his lowest rating of 4 out of 10 to the opening Six Man Tag Team match. The NWA World Heavyweight Championship bout was ranked with a 7.5 out of 10, while a 7 out of 10 was given to the NWA World Tag Team Championship contest. Commenting on the main event, Lacroix spoke of it as a "certified match of the year candidate." Going onto describe in detail: "Unbreakable came to a close with mind-boggling main event, featuring a three-way dance between Samoa Joe against AJ Styles against X Division champion Christopher Daniels for the championship title. Now, this is the part where I go into a detail review of the match, but I'm not going to that. Fact is there is no review that could do justice in describing just how stellar this bout was." Regarding the Four Way Elimination match, Lacroix believed Johnny Candido's participation was "a nice gesture", but wonder "if they could have come up with something else, preferably outside of the match."
James Caldwell of the Pro Wrestling Torch published a review of the show. In his review he stated that the main event was an "amazing, special match", which he felt was "pro wrestling at its finest in 2005." As for the Raven's Rules match, Caldwell thought it was a "brutal hardcore match", which was a "good adrenaline rush but nothing separated the match from previous TNA hardcore matches." Regarding the NWA World Tag Team Championship bout, Caldwell say it was a "decent tag match that could have been much better if Waltman and Shelley were around at the end where the formula could have been changed up."
Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer bestowed a rare 5 Star match rating to the three-way match for the TNA X Division Championship main event between A.J. Styles, Christopher Daniels, and Samoa Joe. TNA released a DVD counting down the top 50 moments in their history in 2007, with the three-way match for the TNA X Division Championship ranked at number 4.
In 2021, the promotion ranked the Styles vs. Daniels vs. Joe match as the No1 of the Top 10 X-Division Title Matches.
## Aftermath
The three-way main event began an extended storyline revolving around the participants. At Bound for Glory, A.J. Styles defeated Christopher Daniels in a Thirty-Minute Iron Man match to retain the TNA X Division Championship. TNA then held a Four-on-Four Tag Team Elimination X match at TNA's Genesis PPV event on November 13. In that match, Team Ministry (Alex Shelley, Daniels, Samoa Joe, and Roderick Strong) defeated the team of Austin Aries, Chris Sabin, Matt Bentley, and Sonjay Dutt. After the contest, Joe assaulted Daniels, performing his signature Muscle Buster maneuver on him twice, the second time on a steel chair. Daniels suffered an injury in the storyline due to the attack, sidelining him until December 11 at TNA's Turning Point PPV event. At that event, Daniels saved Styles from an assault by Joe following Joe's victory over Styles to win the TNA X Division Championship. Daniels then challenged Joe for the championship at TNA's Final Resolution PPV event on January 15, 2006, but Joe retained the title. At TNA's Against All Odds PPV event on February 12, 2006, Daniels, Joe, and Styles competed in another three-way match for the TNA X Division Championship; Joe gained the pinfall to retain the title. The three competed again, but this time in a three-way Ultimate X match for the championship at TNA's Destination X PPV event on March 12, 2006. Daniels won, becoming the new TNA X Division Champion. The rivalry ended on the April 13, 2006 episode of Impact! when Joe defeated Daniels to win back the championship. TNA promoted an Unbreakable rematch at their 2009 Turning Point PPV event on November 15. This time it was a three-way match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between Styles, Daniels, and Joe. Styles won the match to retain the championship. This encounter reignited the feud between Styles and Daniels, leading to a bout for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at TNA's Final Resolution PPV event on December 20, 2009, which Styles also won.
Following Unbreakable, Raven lost the NWA World Heavyweight Championship to Jeff Jarrett at a Border City Wrestling event on September 15 after interference by America's Most Wanted (Chris Harris and James Storm; AMW) and Scott D'Amore to win the championship. Raven did not receive a rematch for the title. Instead, Jarrett was scheduled to defend the championship against a returning Kevin Nash at Bound for Glory. Nash could not attend the event due to a legitimate medical emergency, with TNA holding a Ten-Man Gauntlet match to find his replacement at the show. Rhino won the match and took Nash's place in the main event. There, Rhino defeated Jarrett to win the NWA World Heavyweight Championship. Rhino also competed in a Four Way Monster's Ball match at Bound for Glory against Abyss, Jeff Hardy, and Sabu. Rhino was the victor in this encounter as well.
The Naturals (Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens) defended the NWA World Tag Team Championship against AMW on the October 22 episode of Impact!. They were unsuccessful in their defense, as AMW won the match by pinfall. AMW and The Naturals fought again at Bound for Glory, where AMW retained the championship.
A three-way Ultimate X match was held at Bound for Glory, with the winner becoming number-one contender to the TNA X Division Championship. Petey Williams defeated Chris Sabin and Matt Bentley in the match. A rematch was held on the November 3 episode of Impact!, which Williams also won.
TNA management were very upset with Sean Waltman after he failed to appear to participate in the Four Way Elimination Tag Team match. This anger was due to Waltman being one-half of the winners of the Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament. Despite not appearing on the show, Waltman was in Orlando and dressed to compete, but did not arrive at the arena in time. Waltman was not used by TNA until January 15, 2006 when he appeared at their Final Resolution PPV event.
## Results
Four Way Elimination Tag Team match
1\. |
12,475,877 | White-throated treerunner | 1,170,311,940 | Species of bird | [
"Birds described in 1831",
"Birds of Chile",
"Birds of Patagonia",
"Birds of Tierra del Fuego",
"Furnariidae",
"Taxonomy articles created by Polbot"
] | The white-throated treerunner (Pygarrhichas albogularis) is a species of bird in the family Furnariidae. It is the only species in the genus Pygarrhichas. The white-throated treerunner is about 15 cm (5.9 in) long, with a stiff and rounded tail. The are dark brown, turning red on the lower back and tail and contrasting sharply with the throat and chest of a bright white. The rest of the are coarsely mottled with white. The bill is long, slightly curved upwards. The general appearance is reminiscent of a nuthatch (Sitta spp.), although they are not directly related. Like the Sittidae, Furnariidae tirelessly scours the trunks and branches of old trees for the small arthropods that make up its food, spiraling up the trunks, or sometimes moving head down. The white-throated treerunner consumes small invertebrates found on bark and nests in tree cavities. Outside of the breeding season, it may form mixed-species foraging flocks with other bird species.
The White-throated treerunner inhabits the southern tip of the American continent, in Chile and Argentina, from Santiago and Mendoza to Tierra del Fuego. It seeks out forests with large trees – the old trunks offer suitable nesting sites – whether they are lowland or highland, dense or open. It was described in 1831 by Phillip Parker King, a British explorer of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Its systematic placement has remained unclear within its family, superficial similarities with other Furnariidae gleaning their food from the bark of trees seem to be the result of an evolutionary convergence. Molecular phylogenies seem to link it to the genera Microxenops and Ochetorhynchus. No subspecies is described. Its range is relatively large and there is no evidence of decline in numbers, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature considers this bird to be of "least concern".
## Taxonomy
The white-throated treerunner was scientifically described in 1831 under the protonym Dendrocolaptes albogularis by the British explorer Phillip Parker King, who visited Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego among other places. The specific name, albogularis, means "white-throated" in Latin; the type locality is not known but is supposed to be the Strait of Magellan. In 1837, the Argentine zoologist Hermann Burmeister removed the species from the genus Dendrocolaptes, which today includes only five species of climbers, and assigned it a separate genus, Pygarrhichas, giving it the novel specific name of "ruficaudis" (from Latin meaning "red-tailed"). Burmeister constructs this name from the ancient Greek πυγη (pugē) meaning "rump" and αρριχος (arrhikhos) denoting wicker, to refer to the stiffness of the bird's tail helping it progress along trunks.
In 1839, English ornithologist John Gould, presumably unaware of King's work, independently described the species in Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle as Dendrodramus leucosternus (from the ancient Greek for "white-bellied"). He observed the species on the Chiloé Island, and found similarities with the Eurasian treecreeper (Certhia familiaris) in its behavior. In 1890, English zoologist Philip Lutley Sclater placed this genus in the now obsolete family Dendrocolaptidae, a position changed by paleornithologist Alan Feduccia in 1973 who placed the genus in its current family, Furnariidae. According to the International Ornithological Congress and Alan P. Peterson, no subspecies is distinguished.
### Placement in the family
In 1839, Gould mentions that English zoologist George Robert Gray would relate the white-throated treerunner to the genus Dendroplex described by English ornithologist William John Swainson. In the 2003 Handbook of the Birds of the World, Volume 8, American ornithologist James Van Remsen Jr. explains that while P. albogularis is traditionally related to the Xenops sittines and other tree-bark gleaning Furnariidae, plumage and biogeography suggest that these different species are not directly related and that their similarities are merely the result of convergent evolution. It has also been suggested that similarities in plumage and foraging behavior may bring the white-throated treerunner closer to Synallaxis of the genus Aphrastura.
Two molecular phylogenies of the family published in 2009, and then one in 2011, negate such relatedness and clarify the evolutionary history somewhat while implying significant classification changes. The naming of a subfamily (that of "Pygarrhichinae") or tribe (that of "Pygarrhichini", within the subfamily Furnariinae) is advanced for a clade that would include the white-throated treerunner, the rufous-tailed xenops (Microxenops milleri), species of the genus Ochetorhynchus, and would absorb the band-tailed Eremobius (O. phoenicurus) as well as the crag chilia (O. melanurus), previously placed in the monotypic genera Eremobius and Chilia respectively.
## Description
The white-throated treerunner is 15–16 cm (5.9–6.3 in) long on average, with a weight between 20–27 grams (0.71–0.95 oz). It has an appearance reminiscent of the nuthatch, with its overall look and plumage, unlike other species in the Furnariidae. Wing chord is from 76–86 mm (3.0–3.4 in), tail is 52–65 mm (2.0–2.6 in), and torso from 20–23.7 mm (0.79–0.93 in). The iris is dark brown. It has a long , at around 16–23.8 mm (0.63–0.94 in) with a slight upward curve. Its upper mandible is dark gray and lower mandible a whitish-pale gray. The feet are dark gray, blackish or brown.
The species is easily recognized by its white throat, contrasting with its upper parts. Its face is blackish-brown and slightly darker than its head , which is a dull brown. The back is a paler chestnut-brown, pulling against the red rump and tail. The wing coverts are dark brown, with red or chestnut brown on the feather edges and tail end. The primaries are darker, the remiges black-brown with light edges and inner primaries marked with a short, light red wing bar. The tail is rounded, with rigid rectrices with shortened barbs ending in small spines up to 9 mm (0.35 in) long.
A large white zone covers the treerunner's cheek and throat, descending to the middle of the chest. The rest of the lower parts, to the , are made up of white feathers largely bordered with dark brown, giving an irregularly spotted appearance. Both sexes of adults look similar. The chick is distinguished by an ochre-striped crown and back, and often with blackish borders on the throat feathers.
## Ecology and behavior
### Vocalizations
The white-throated treerunner gives off a short and piercing cry, evoking a rapid succession of water droplets. Its contact call is described as a loud, fast, metallic "kik-ik", "tsi-ik" or "tsik", which is repeated rapidly. The treerunner can also emit a sonorous "peet peet", and during flight, a dry "tic".
### Food
Similar in behavior to nuthatches (Sitta spp.), the white-throated treerunner is a restless bird, moving in a jerky manner and changing direction rapidly. The bird may descend from trunks head first. It scours the trunks and large branches of old trees, often spiraling around the trunks, searching for small insects and their larvae in every crevice for food, sometimes tapping lightly with its bill, much like a woodpecker, or digging out larvae from under the bark with its bill. It may use its tail for support, or it may use its tail as a support for the insects. It may use their tail for support, but it also does a lot of tail-first browsing. It explores trunks quickly and spends more time foraging in smaller branches, looking for prey at the base of leaf petioles.
Its diet is little known, consisting of arthropods including adults and larvae of beetles, as well as diptera. A study conducted in the province of Osorno showed that the white-throated treerunner mainly forages on trees such as Coigüe (Nothofagus dombeyi), but also Neuquén Roble (N. obliqua), Ulmo (Eucryphia cordifolia), and more generally on dead trees, even when other tree and shrub species are available. These preferences could be explained by the structure of the bark and the greater abundance of accessible insects. In some locations, particularly on islands with no terrestrial predators, the species may also feed on the ground. Outside the breeding season, it may form mixed-species foraging flock with the thorn-tailed rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda), as well as with the striped woodpecker (Veniliornis lignarius), and sometimes also with the fire-eyed diucon (Xolmis pyrope), Patagonian sierra finch (Phrygilus patagonicus) and the black-chinned siskin (Spinus barbatus).
### Breeding
The white-throated treerunner nests in tree cavities. It may nest in the trunks of senescent or fire-damaged trees, but is not as successful at this task as other species such as woodpeckers and therefore also reuses existing cavities. Observations of antagonistic behavior by the woodpecker toward other species reusing tree cavities suggest that it competes with these birds in cavity use more than it provides them with new nesting sites by excavating its own hole. A study of the thorn-tailed rayadito to assess whether or not broadcast conspecific songs attracted individuals to a suitable nesting area showed that, on the contrary, cavity-nesting birds-including white-throated treerunners and house wrens-avoided competitive areas. The white-throated treerunner, however, readily uses nest boxes.
The nest cavity is usually between 3–8 mm (0.12–0.31 in), above the ground, and is 25–40 cm (9.8–15.7 in), deep. There is no lining other than the chips from the excavation, but a carpet of grasses and feathers has been reported once. The breeding season probably spans the southern spring and summer, with eggs laid in November-December and young hatching in December. The white-throated treerunner is thought to be monogamous, laying two to three eggs. Eggs preserved at the Natural History Museum in London and measured by English naturalist Eugene William Oates are approximately 21.5 mm–22 mm × 16.7 mm–17 mm (0.85 in–0.87 in × 0.66 in–0.67 in). Capture-mark-recapture data from 35 individuals in the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve indicate a longevity of at least 3 years and 8 months.
## Distribution and habitat
This species lives in central and southern Chile and western Argentina, from Santiago and Mendoza to Tierra del Fuego. It is found in the south of its distribution in the southernmost forest in the world, on Horn Island. It lives from sea level to 1,200 m of altitude, populating forests with large trees, whether dense or not, but avoiding young forests. The white-throated treerunner seeks out forests dominated by "false beech" species of the genus Nothofagus. It exploits the trunks at mid-height of trees up to the top of the canopy as a small woodpecker would. The species is sedentary, but can be erratic outside the breeding season.
## In relationship with humans
### In culture
The white-throated treerunner appears in some traditional Yagana stories as tatajurj, where it accompanies women and collects epiphytic fungi of the genus Cyttaria (katran in Yagan) from the trunks of Magellanic Beech (N. betuloides), Lenga (N. pumilio), and Ñire (N. antarctica) trees.
### Status and threats
The white-throated treerunner needs to have old senescent trees available for nesting, a specific and scarce habitat that deserves a conservation effort. However, it is quite common, and present in many protected areas such as Vicente Pérez Rosales National Park, Puyehue National Park, Nahuelbuta National Park and La Campana National Park in Chile, or Tierra del Fuego National Park in Argentina. The range of the white-throated treerunner is estimated at 470,000 km<sup>2</sup> (180,000 sq mi) and its numbers are believed to be stable; thus, the species is considered of "least concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. |
3,908,009 | History of the Eurovision Song Contest | 1,173,394,083 | History of the annual song competition | [
"Eurovision Song Contest"
] | The Eurovision Song Contest () was first held in 1956, originally conceived as an experiment in transnational television broadcasting. Following a series of exchange broadcasts in 1954, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) commissioned an international song competition, from an idea developed by Sergio Pugliese and Marcel Bezençon and originally based on the Italian Sanremo Music Festival.
67 contests have been held since its first edition, and over 1,600 songs representing 52 countries have been performed on the Eurovision stage as of 2023. The contest has seen many changes since its inauguration, such as the introduction of relegation in the 1990s, and subsequently semi-finals in the 2000s, as a response to growing numbers of interested participants. The rules of the contest have also seen multiple changes over the years, with the voting system and language criteria being modified on several occasions.
The Eurovision Song Contest has been identified as the longest-running annual international televised music competition in the world, as determined by Guinness World Records, and around 40 countries now regularly take part each year. Several other competitions have been inspired by Eurovision in the years since its formation, and the EBU has also created a number of complimentary contests which focus on other aspects of music and culture. The of the contest was the first to be cancelled, as no competitive event was able to take place due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
## Competition overview
### Contest themes and slogans
An individual slogan has been associated with each edition of the contest since 2002, except in 2009. This slogan is decided by the host broadcaster and is then used to develop the contest's visual identity and design. This slogan is typically used by the producers in planning and formulating the show's visual identity, and is channelled into the contest's stage design, the opening and interval acts, and the "postcards": short videos interspersed between the entries which usually highlight the host country, and in many cases introduce the competing acts.
## Origins
The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) was formed in 1950, when British broadcaster BBC hosted a conference with 23 organisations at the Imperial Hotel in Torquay, England, with the aim of establishing cooperation on creative endeavours and setting a foundation for the exchange of television programmes across borders. "Eurovision" as a term in telecommunications was first used by British journalist George Campey in the London Evening Standard in 1951, when he referred to a BBC programme being relayed by Dutch television; the EBU's Eurovision transmission network was subsequently founded in 1954, at the time formed of a series of microwave links across Europe.
In the years following the formation of the EBU a number of big events were transmitted via their infrastructure, including the coronation of Elizabeth II, which was broadcast in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany, in addition to the United Kingdom. In September 1953, an EBU meeting in London resulted in a series of international exchange programmes organised the following year, entitled the "European Television Season", and relayed live across Europe through the Eurovision network. The first of these programmes was shown on 6 June 1954, showing coverage of the Narcissus Festival held in Montreux, France, followed by a tour of Vatican City. Further events were broadcast over the following days, including the Palio di Siena, an athletics meet in Glasgow, a parade by the Royal Navy passing Queen Elizabeth II, and live transmission of football matches from the 1954 FIFA World Cup in Switzerland, the first time the FIFA World Cup was accompanied by live television coverage.
Following this summer season of programmes, the EBU formed a "Programme Committee" to investigate new initiatives for cooperation between broadcasters each year, with Marcel Bezençon, Director-General of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SRG SSR), serving as the committee's first President, and Rene McCall, deputy director of the BBC, and Jean d'Arcy, Director of the French broadcaster Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (RTF), serving as Vice Presidents. This committee met in Monte Carlo in January 1955, and approved two new projects for further study: a European song competition, initially proposed by Sergio Pugliese from the Italian broadcaster RAI, and a contest of amateur entertainers; the latter idea was eventually discarded. On 19 October 1955, at the annual General Assembly of the EBU, held in the Palazzo Corsini in Rome under the Presidency of the Director-General of the BBC Sir Ian Jacob, the EBU agreed to the organising of the song contest, under the initial title of the European Grand Prix, and accepted a proposal by the Swiss delegation to host the event in Lugano in the spring of 1956. A planning sub-group was formed to establish the rules of the competition, headed by Eduard Hass of SRG SSR, which used the Italian Sanremo Music Festival as a basis for their work, with several amendments and additions made to better reflect this new international version.
## 1950s
The Eurovision Song Contest 1956 was the first edition of the contest, organised by Radiotelevisione svizzera di lingua italiana (RTSI) and held on 24 May 1956 at the Teatro Kursaal in Lugano, Switzerland. The regulations for this first contest allowed one participating broadcast organisation from each country to submit two songs of between 3 and 31⁄2 minutes in length, the only edition to permit more than one song per country. Each country was strongly encouraged to hold a national contest to select their competing entries, with only solo artists permitted to perform. Seven countries entered the inaugural contest, with entries received from , , , , , the and . Voting in this first contest was held behind closed doors: two jury members from each country situated at the venue ranked the competing songs, including those of their own country. Switzerland's Lys Assia was crowned the contest's first winner, with the song "Refrain". Only the overall winner of the contest was announced at its conclusion, and the full results have never been made public. No known video footage of the event is known to survive beyond newsreel of the winning reprise; audio of most of the contest however does exist.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1957 was the second edition of the contest, organised by Hessischer Rundfunk (HR) on behalf of ARD and held on 3 March 1957 at the Großer Sendesaal des hessischen Rundfunks in Frankfurt, West Germany. Early rules established that a different broadcaster would take on the task of organising the contest each year, and Germany was selected to host the 1957 event. Ten countries entered this second contest, with the seven original broadcasters joined by , and the , with each country submitting one song for consideration. Taking inspiration from the Festival of British Popular Songs, organised by the BBC in August 1956 which included a scoreboard and voting by regional juries, the contest organisers decided to incorporate these ideas into the pan-European contest, allowing viewers at home to follow the voting procedure. A new voting system was introduced in tandem, with a jury of ten members in each country casting a single vote for their favourite song; jury members from one country could not vote for the song of their own country, a rule which still applies to the present day. The Netherlands was voted the winner, represented by Corry Brokken with the song "Net als toen".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1958 was the third edition of the contest, organised by Nederlandse Televisie Stichting (NTS) and held on 12 March 1958 at the AVRO Studios in Hilversum, Netherlands. This marked the first time that the winning country of the previous edition was given the honour of hosting, setting a precedent that continues to be observed. The United Kingdom decided not to compete in this edition, however made its debut, keeping the total number of competing countries at ten. A new rule limiting the duration of each competing entry to 3 minutes was introduced, prompted by the previous year's contest when the Italian entry lasted for over 5 minutes. France gained its first win in the contest, represented by André Claveau and "Dors, mon amour". Despite only placing third, Italy's "Nel blu, dipinto di blu", popularly knows as "Volare" and performed by Domenico Modugno, would go on to greater commercial success than the winning song, hitting number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 and being recorded by various artists over the years, with combined sales of over 22 million copies worldwide.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1959 was the fourth edition of the contest, organised by Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (RTF) and held on 11 March 1959 at the Palais des Festivals in Cannes, France. 11 countries competed in this edition, which saw the United Kingdom returning to the contest along with new entrants , while Luxembourg decided to withdraw. The Netherlands's Teddy Scholten was crowned the winner with the song "Een beetje", becoming the first country to win the contest twice. This contest also marked the only time that the top three entries were given a reprise performance, with the United Kingdom's Pearl Carr & Teddy Johnson and France's Jean Philippe also performing for a second time at the broadcast's conclusion.
## 1960s
The Eurovision Song Contest 1960 was the fifth edition of the contest, organised by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and held on 25 March 1960 at the Royal Festival Hall in London, United Kingdom. Dutch broadcaster NTS declined the opportunity to stage the event for the second time in three years, leading the EBU to approach the BBC to host the event as the previous year's runner-up. The number of competing countries grew to 13, as Luxembourg returned and sent its first entry. France recorded their second contest win, with Jacqueline Boyer taking the title with "Tom Pillibi".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1961 was the sixth edition of the contest, organised by RTF and held on 18 March 1961 at the Palais des Festivals in Cannes, France. France became the first country to host two contests, with the Palais des Festivals having also hosted the 1959 event. This was also the first contest to be held on a Saturday night, which has now become the standard time-slot for the contest's final. A record 16 countries competed in this year's event, with debut entries from , and . Luxembourg became the fourth country to win the Eurovision title, with French singer Jean-Claude Pascal giving the Grand Duchy their first win with "Nous les amoureux".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1962 was the seventh edition of the contest, organised by Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Radiodiffusion (CLT) and held on 18 March 1962 at the Grand Auditorium de RTL, Villa Louvigny in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg. For the first time there was no change in the countries competing, with the same line-up seen as in 1961. A new voting system was implemented at this contest, with each country now giving 3, 2 and 1 points to the top three songs as determined by the combined votes of the assembled jury. France's Isabelle Aubret was crowned the winner with "Un premier amour", giving France its third victory in five years.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1963 was the eighth edition of the contest, organised by the BBC and held on 23 March 1963 at the BBC Television Centre in London, United Kingdom. France's RTF had declined the offer to stage the contest once again, and the BBC stepped in to host the contest for the second time. A modification of the voting system used in 1962 was adopted, with countries now giving 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 points for their favourite songs. In a close fought contest for first place between Denmark and Switzerland, Grethe and Jørgen Ingmann emerged victorious with "Dansevise" for Denmark, giving the Scandinavian country their first victory on the final vote.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1964 was the ninth edition of the contest, organised by Danmarks Radio (DR) and held on 21 March 1964 at the Tivoli Concert Hall in Copenhagen, Denmark. Sweden were forced to withdraw due to industrial action by the Swedish Musicians' Union, however as made its debut appearance the total number of competing countries remained at 16. Another modification of the voting system now saw each country giving 5, 3 and 1 points to the top 3 songs based on the total of all votes cast by jury members, with each jury member having three votes to distribute among the songs; if all members voted for only two songs, these would get 6 and 3 points, and if all members voted for the same song it would get 9 points. This event marked the first time that the contest was interrupted by a protester, when a man demonstrating against the right-wing dictatorships of Spain and Portugal and the inclusion of these countries in the contest entered the stage holding a banner stating "Boycott Franco and Salazar", before being quickly removed as cameras cut to a shot of the scoreboard. No footage of this protest remains however as, like the 1956 contest, no video footage of the contest is known to exist, but footage of the opening sequence and the winning reprise, as well as audio recordings are known to survive. Italy's Gigliola Cinquetti scored a landslide victory with the song "Non ho l'età", gaining almost three times as many points as the United Kingdom in second place and giving Italy its first Eurovision win.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1965 was the tenth edition of the contest, organised by Radiotelevisione italiana (RAI) and held on 20 March 1965 at the Sala di Concerto della RAI in Naples, Italy. A record 18 countries competed in this anniversary event, with Sweden making its return and making its debut. With the contest being picked up by the Eastern Europe Intervision network and broadcast in countries such as the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and East Germany for the first time, the 1965 contest was the biggest yet with an estimated global audience of 150 million viewers. Sweden's entry caused some controversy when their entry was performed in English, rather than in their national language Swedish; as there was no rule in place to dictate in what language a country could perform this was allowed despite protest from other competing countries. Luxembourg won for the second time, with French chanteuse France Gall performing "Poupée de cire, poupée de son". It was the first time that a pop song had won the contest, which would become an international hit for Gall, and would have an influence on the type of songs entered into the contest in years to come.
Ahead of the 1966 contest, the EBU invited broadcasters to submit proposals on ideas they believed should be introduced in future editions. This was prompted by concerns from CLT on their ability to stage the next event. Some ideas in common among several broadcasters included: the introduction of semi-finals to reduce the number of competing acts, with some also suggesting that competing countries should be split on a geographic or linguistic basis; music experts having a 50% stake in the result to enable more of an emphasis being placed on musical quality; and a tightening of the rules on language and submission cut-off, with the creation of an executive supervisor role in order to oversee the contest and raise production standards. Further proposals on changes to the contest included holding the event over multiple locations, with performances and hosting duties split across two or three different competing countries; this proposal was rejected following concerns raised that musical quality and consistency would suffer in a contest held across multiple locations and with multiple orchestras, and that the risk of technical failure would also increase by using multiple venues. The EBU went on to adopt a number of the suggestions raised, with the following contest featuring music experts in the national juries, and the implementation of a language rule stipulating that songs must be performed in one of the national languages of the participating country. Other changes, such as semi-finals and splitting countries by set criteria, would subsequently be revisited in decades to come.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1966 was the eleventh edition of the contest, organised by CLT and held on 5 March 1966 at the Grand Auditorium de RTL, Villa Louvigny in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg. This marked Luxembourg's second contest as host broadcaster, using the same venue as that in 1961. This contest saw the first performance by a black artist at Eurovision, when Milly Scott represented the Netherlands. Udo Jürgens secured Austria's first win with "Merci, Chérie"; this was Jürgens' third attempt at victory, having previously finished 6th in 1964 and 4th in 1965.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1967 was the twelfth edition of the contest, organised by Österreichischer Rundfunk (ORF) and held on 8 April 1967 at the Großer Festsaal der Wiener Hofburg in Vienna, Austria. Denmark withdraw from this contest, reducing the number of competing countries to 17. The scoring system last used in 1961, with ten members casting a single vote for their favourite, was reintroduced, with at least half of the jury members in each country required to be less than 30 years old. A number of other innovations introduced for the first time at this contest, such as shots of the green room during the voting process and each country's broadcaster appointing an official representative, have since become integral parts of the present-day contest. The United Kingdom's Sandie Shaw won the contest with "Puppet on a String" in a landslide victory, with the UK gaining more than twice as many votes as the runner-up Ireland to gain its first Eurovision title.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1968 was the thirteenth edition of the contest, organised by the BBC and held on 6 April 1968 at the Royal Albert Hall in London, United Kingdom. This was the first edition of the contest to be produced in colour. A tight voting sequence saw Spain and the United Kingdom vie for first place by the end, with the votes of the final juries being decisive in favour of Spain's Massiel by just one vote. Joan Manuel Serrat had originally been announced as the Spanish representative, but when he wanted to sing in Catalan, Spain's dictator Francisco Franco demanded that he perform "La La La" in Castillian, resulting in his replacement by Massiel. A Spanish documentary in 2008 claimed that, in an attempt to avoid civil unrest seen in other parts of Europe and to boost Spain's standing globally, Franco had ordered agents to attempt to manipulate the votes of the other countries' juries to secure a Spanish win at the contest. The documentary goes on to suggest that the United Kingdom's Cliff Richard, who had been tipped for victory before the contest with "Congratulations", should have been the winner. However the effectiveness of any potential bribery has been disputed, and others, including Massiel, have accused the documentary creators and broadcaster of manufacturing the scandal.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1969 was the fourteenth edition of the contest, organised by Televisión Española (TVE) and held on 29 March 1969 at the Teatro Real in Madrid, Spain. 16 countries entered this year's contest, with Austria refusing to take part due to the Spanish dictatorship. A tight voting sequence saw France, Spain, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom in contention for first place, when with the votes of the final jury, all four countries finished on an equal number of points. With no rules in place to break a tie for first place all four countries were declared victors, the only time that more than one country has won in a single year. As four medals had fortunately been struck for the prize-giving, Spain's Salomé, the UK's Lulu, the Netherlands' Lenny Kuhr and France's Frida Boccara were all able to receive their prize ahead of a reprise of all four winning songs: "Vivo cantando", "Boom Bang-a-Bang", "De troubadour", and "Un jour, un enfant" respectively. The result meant that France gained a new record fourth win in the contest, with the Netherlands recording its third win, and both Spain and the United Kingdom earning their second wins; Spain also became the first country to achieve two wins in a row.
## 1970s
The Eurovision Song Contest 1970 was the fifteenth edition of the contest, organised by Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) and held on 21 March 1970 at the RAI Congrescentrum in Amsterdam, Netherlands. A draw was held to determine the host country of this contest following the four-way tie for first place in 1969, which chose the Netherlands as hosts over France, as Spain and the United Kingdom declined to take part in the draw due to having hosted recent contests. Widespread dissatisfaction with the result of the 1969 contest led to the withdrawals of Finland, Norway, Sweden and Portugal, with Austria and Denmark also declining to participate in response, leaving only 12 countries to compete in Amsterdam, the lowest number of participants since 1959. A tie-break rule was introduced for the first time to ensure there would be no further joint winners: in the result of a tie for first place the artists of the countries involved would perform again, and the juries in all other remaining countries would determine the winner by a show of hands; if that too resulted in a tie then the countries would share the title. A number of innovations which have since become regular features of the contest were first implemented in this year, originally as a way to extend the broadcast due to the low number of participating entries. These include an extended opening film sequence highlighting the host country, and short film clip "postcards" highlighting the participants or host country which were placed between the competing songs. Ireland, which would go on to win more times than any other country, recorded its first win here, with Dana taking the contest with "All Kinds of Everything".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1971 was the sixteenth edition of the contest, organised by Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ) and held on 3 April 1971 at the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin, Ireland. A number of changes to the contest saw groups allowed for the first time, with a maximum of six performers on stage; previously only one or two principal vocalists had been permitted with support from a maximum of three supporting artists. A new voting system was also introduced for this contest, implemented to ensure that there would be a clear-cut winner and to avoid countries receiving nul points: two jurors from each country, one below the age of 25 and the other above, ranked all songs except that of their own country on a scale of one to five. All countries were now obligated to provide a music video of their entry and to broadcast all entries ahead of the contest via a preview show. With these changes, the countries which had sat out in 1970 felt able to return, and 18 participants in total were present, the biggest contest since 1966, with Norway, Sweden, Finland, Austria and Portugal returning and making its debut. Monaco recorded their first and only win, with French singer Séverine victorious for the principality with "Un banc, un arbre, une rue".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1972 was the seventeenth edition of the contest, organised by the BBC and held on 25 March 1972 at the Usher Hall in Edinburgh, United Kingdom. Monaco's Télé Monte-Carlo (TMC) had initially expressed interest in hosting, however no suitable venue in Monaco was available in time for the contest. After Spain's TVE and Germany's ARD, having come second and third the previous year, and France's ORTF had turned down the opportunity to host, the BBC offered once again to step in, taking the contest outside of London and England for the first time, to the Scottish capital. The same 18 countries from 1971 were again present, and the same voting system was implemented. The contest was broadcast in 28 countries, and for the first time was available live in Asia, with viewers able to watch the show in Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Hong Kong and Thailand. Luxembourg earned their third contest win, represented by the Greek singer Vicky Leandros with "Après toi"; it was Leandros' second attempt at Eurovision, having previously come 4th for Luxembourg in 1967.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1973 was the eighteenth edition of the contest, organised by CLT and held on 7 April 1973 at the Nouveau Théâtre in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg. made its first appearance, becoming the first non-European nation to enter the contest, while Austria and Malta both withdrew, bringing the total participating nations to 17. Coming less than a year after the Munich massacre, security was unusually tight in light of Israel's debut, with the venue sealed off by the authorities and the Israeli delegation being isolated in their hotel and surrounded by armed guards when not required at the venue; the audience had also been warned not to stand during the show at the risk of being shot. This year marked the first abolition of the language rule, allowing participants the freedom to choose the language in which they wished to perform: several countries capitalised on this, with Finland and Sweden performing in English, while Norway performed in both English and French. Pre-recorded backing tracks were also permitted for the first time, however all vocals were still required to be performed live and any instruments featured on the track had to be seen on stage. Luxembourg won the contest for the second year in a row, with the French singer Anne-Marie David giving Luxembourg its fourth win with "Tu te reconnaîtras"; Luxembourg thus became the first country to win two outright back-to-back victories, Spain having won in both 1968 and 1969 but sharing the latter title.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1974 was the nineteenth edition of the contest, organised by the BBC and held on 6 April 1974 at The Dome in Brighton, United Kingdom. Luxembourg's CLT turned down the offer to host the contest for a second year in a row, and Spain's RTVE as runner-up in 1973 had also rejected hosting duties; an offer by Israel's IBA was turned down due to their limited technical capabilities, and in the end the BBC threw its hat into the ring once again to take on the contest for the fifth time. 17 countries competed in total, with making its debut appearance; France withdrew a number of days before the event following the death of the President of France Georges Pompidou, in a mark of respect as his funeral was arranged for the day of the contest. The voting system was modified once again to bring back the system last used in 1970, with 10 jury members casting a single vote for their favourite song. Sweden's ABBA were declared the winners of the contest with "Waterloo", giving Sweden its first Eurovision title. ABBA's win in the contest would propel them to worldwide fame, with an estimated 380 million records sold across their career, with "Waterloo" alone selling five million copies and becoming one of the contest's most successful winning songs.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1975 was the twentieth edition of the contest, organised by Sveriges Radio (SR) and held on 22 March 1975 at the Stockholmsmässan in Stockholm, Sweden. A then-record 19 countries took part in this edition, which saw Greece withdrawing, France and Malta returning, and making its debut entry. SR had initially been hesitant in staging the contest due to the expense that came with it, and had wanted all competing countries to share the costs, however these cost sharing plans were not implemented in time for the '75 event. The Stockholm event also saw demonstrations by left-wing activists who opposed the high costs of hosting the event. A new voting system was introduced at this contest, which has been the basis for the rewarding of points at all future contests: each country's jury awarded 12 points to their top placed song, 10 points to their second placed, and then 8 to 1 points for those ranked third to tenth. The Netherlands was the first country to win the contest under this new system, with Teach-In achieving a fourth Dutch Eurovision win with "Ding-a-dong".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1976 was the twenty-first edition of the contest, organised by NOS and held on 3 April 1976 at the Nederlands Congresgebouw in The Hague, Netherlands. The previous year's host Sweden, in response to the protests during the 1975 event and fearful of the costs involved in staging the event should they win again, decided to withdraw, joining Malta and Turkey, however with Austria and Greece returning a total of 18 countries took to the stage for the Netherlands' third contest as hosts. Partly in response to the concerns raised by the Swedish broadcaster, all competing countries were now required to contribute to the costs of running Eurovision, with the value of the contribution fee dependent on the country's viewership and population. The United Kingdom earned its third Eurovision victory, courtesy of Brotherhood of Man and "Save Your Kisses for Me", which would go on to sell over six million records worldwide, more than any other winning song in the history of the contest.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1977 was the twenty-second edition of the contest, organised by the BBC and held on 7 May 1977 at the Wembley Conference Centre in London, United Kingdom. Originally scheduled to take place on 2 April, a strike by BBC cameramen and technicians forced a five-week delay. The language rule was re-introduced at this contest, meaning that songs could only be performed in one of the national languages of the country it represented. 18 countries took part in the London contest, with Sweden returning and Yugoslavia withdrawing; an attempt was also made by to take part in the contest for the first time, however this eventually did not materialise, despite being drawn to perform fourth on stage. France set a new record in recording its fifth Eurovision win, with Marie Myriam taking the contest with "L'Oiseau et l'Enfant", in what would become France's last victory to date.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1978 was the twenty-third edition of the contest, organised by TF1 and held on 22 April 1978 at the Palais des Congrès in Paris, France. A new record of 20 countries competed in France's third showing as host, with Denmark and Turkey returning, the former making its first appearance since 1966. Israel won the contest for the first time, represented by Izhar Cohen and the Alphabeta with the song "A-Ba-Ni-Bi". Israel's win proved problematic for a number of non-competing broadcasters who were airing the event, particularly those in the Arab world with limited recognition of Israel, and many broadcasters ended the transmission of the event early when it became clear that Israel would win.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1979 was the twenty-fourth edition of the contest, organised by the Israel Broadcasting Authority (IBA) and held on 31 March 1979 at the International Convention Centre in Jerusalem. 19 countries took part, with Turkey, who had initially intended to participate and had already selected their act, withdrawing at a late stage following pressure from Arab nations who objected to a predominantly Muslim nation taking part in Israel. A tight result saw Israel and Spain vie for first place, with Spain leading by only one point going into the final vote, which was Spain's own; by giving the hosts 10 points they awarded Israel its second victory in a row, handing the victory to Milk and Honey and the song "Hallelujah".
## 1980s
The Eurovision Song Contest 1980 was the twenty-fifth edition of the contest, organised by Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) and held on 19 April 1980 at the Nederlands Congresgebouw in The Hague, Netherlands. Israel, having won the previous year, had initially agreed to host the contest, however due to the cost of hosting the event for a second year in a row, IBA eventually declined to host the event. After a number of other broadcasters, including the BBC, appeared reluctant to stage the event, NOS stepped in on the understanding that they could host a scaled-back production, using the same venue as in 1976. The 19 April date proved problematic for Israel as it conflicted with Yom HaZikaron, and after failed attempts to move the date Israel ultimately pulled out, the first and only time that the previous year's winning country was unable to defend its title. Monaco also withdrew from the contest, however the number of competing countries remained steady at 19, with Turkey returning and making its debut entry, becoming the first African country to compete in the contest. Johnny Logan recorded the first of his three Eurovision wins in The Hague, giving Ireland its second victory with the song "What's Another Year".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1981 was the twenty-sixth edition of the contest, organised by RTÉ and held on 4 April 1981 at the RDS Simmonscourt in Dublin, Ireland. 20 countries competed in total, with making its debut appearance, Israel and Yugoslavia returning, and Morocco and Italy withdrawing, the latter for the first time since the contest was formed. A worldwide audience of around 500 million viewers was expected, with some 30 countries taking the broadcast across Europe, Asia and North Africa. The voting came down to a close contest between Switzerland, the United Kingdom and Germany, and the UK gained its fourth victory by a 4-point margin over Germany. Bucks Fizz, specially formed for the contest, would have great success in the following years, and their Eurovision winning song "Making Your Mind Up" would go on to become a Europe-wide hit.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1982 was the twenty-seventh edition of the contest, organised by the BBC and held on 24 April 1982 at the Harrogate Convention Centre in Harrogate, United Kingdom. 18 countries competed in total, with France and Greece withdrawing. French broadcaster TF1 in withdrawing criticised the contest's musical quality and describing it as a "monument to drivel", where as Greece, which would have performed second on the night, was forced to pull out a few weeks before the contest when it was discovered that its intended entry had been previously released and based on a Greek folk song. Germany dominated the voting and would win with the biggest margin yet seen under the current system (61 points), as well as gaining a new record number of 12 points, with 9 juries placing them top. Nicole became the first German act to win the contest, 26 years after their first entry, and during the winning reprise would perform her winning entry "Ein bißchen Frieden" in English, French, Dutch and the original German.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1983 was the twenty-eighth edition of the contest, organised by Bayerischer Rundfunk (BR) on behalf of ARD and held on 23 April 1983 at the Rudi-Sedlmayer-Halle in Munich, West Germany. 20 countries were present at Germany's second contest has hosts, with returns from Italy, Greece and France, with the latter represented by a new broadcaster, Antenne 2, following a public outcry over the previous year's absence, however Ireland withdrew for the first time due to a financial crisis at broadcaster RTÉ. Luxembourg recorded its fifth outright win after a close vote over Israel, Sweden and Yugoslavia, with the French singer Corinne Hermès cementing the Grand Duchy as one of the contest's most successful countries with "Si la vie est cadeau".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1984 was the twenty-ninth edition of the contest, organised by CLT and held on 5 May 1984 at the Théâtre Municipal in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg. 19 countries in total took part, with Ireland returning and Israel declining to participate as the date of the contest clashed with Yom HaZikaron, with Greece also withdrawing at a late stage after broadcaster ERT decided that their potential songs were too low quality for the event. Désirée Nosbusch, chosen as the hostess for the event, became the youngest person to compère the contest, at only 19 years old. 10 years after ABBA had earned Sweden its first Eurovision win, Herreys gave the Scandinavian country its second, taking the contest with "Diggi-Loo Diggi-Ley".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1985 was the thirtieth edition of the contest, organised by Sveriges Television (SVT) and held on 4 May 1985 at the Scandinavium in Gothenburg, Sweden. With over 8,000 spectators present in the arena, the 1985 event was the largest yet held, and was the first contest to be broadcast live via satellite. 19 countries were again present, with Israel and Greece returning but Yugoslavia and the Netherlands withdrawing, the latter for the first time; in both cases the contest clashed with national memorial days, with the Remembrance of the Dead held in the Netherlands and in Yugoslavia the anniversary of the death of President Josip Broz Tito. A close-fought contest in the voting between Norway, Germany and Sweden saw the perennial losers victorious for the first time: Norway had previously come last on six occasion, more than any other country, leading to great celebrations in the arena when Bobbysocks! were crowned the winners with "La det swinge".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1986 was the thirty-first edition of the contest, organised by Norsk rikskringkasting (NRK) and held on 3 May 1986 at the Grieghallen in Bergen, Norway. 20 countries competed in total: the Netherlands and Yugoslavia returned after a year's absence and made its debut appearance. Italy had decided to opt-out of this year's event, while Greece withdrew at a late stage due to the contest coinciding with Holy Saturday. In a landmark event the 500th song to grace the Eurovision stage was performed at this contest, courtesy of Luxembourg's Sherisse Laurence and "L'amour de ma vie". This contest also saw one of the first open representations of a member of the LGBT community, when members of the Norwegian drag group the Great Garlic Girls accompanied the home nation's singer Ketil Stokkan. Belgium scored its first and only victory to date, with Sandra Kim becoming the contest's youngest ever winner, at only 13 years old, with the song "J'aime la vie"; Kim had previously told producers before the contest that she was 15 years old, and when the truth was revealed the Swiss delegation, who had come second, protested and petitioned for Belgium to be disqualified to no avail.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1987 was the thirty-second edition of the contest, organised by Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française (RTBF) and held on 9 May 1987 at the Palais de Centenaire in Brussels, Belgium. Belgium had at that point waited longer than any other country to host its first contest, 31 years after their debut entry. Since the contest's formation two broadcasters had been responsible for choosing Belgium's entries, with French-language RTBF and Dutch-language Belgische Radio- en Televisieomroep (BRT) alternating every other year. Initially BRT had wanted to co-produce the first Belgian contest with RTBF, the broadcaster which had won the previous year, however disagreements quickly arose between the two organisations, and so RTBF organised the contest on its own, with BRT selecting the Belgian entry. 22 countries entered the contest, a new record, with Italy and Greece making a return and joining the 20 countries from the previous year. Johnny Logan, the winner of the 1980 contest, returned for Ireland and became the first artist to record two wins in the contest with "Hold Me Now", and in doing so giving Ireland its third contest win.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1988 was the thirty-third edition of the contest, organised by RTÉ and held on 30 April 1988 at the RDS Simmonscourt in Dublin, Ireland. This was Ireland's third contest, which fell in the same year as the millennium of Dublin's founding. The same group of countries from 1987 entered, however Cyprus was forced to withdraw at a late stage when it was discovered that their entry had previously competed in the Cypriot national selection in 1984. The RTÉ production team made a great effort to modernise the contest and attract a younger audience, with a modern stage commissioned, the largest yet seen, which featured two giant video walls, and the first ever use of a computerised scoreboard. In one of the closest contests yet seen, Switzerland emerged victorious by only a single point over the United Kingdom, with a then-unknown Céline Dion earning Switzerland its second victory with "Ne partez pas sans moi". Although her Eurovision-winning song was not commercially successful, Dion would later become one of the world's best-selling artists, having sold over 200 million records throughout her career.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1989 was the thirty-fourth edition of the contest, organised by the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SRG SSR) and held on 6 May 1989 at the Palais de Beaulieu in Lausanne, Switzerland. This marked the second Eurovision to be held in Switzerland, 33 years after the inaugural contest was held in the Alpine country. With Cyprus returning, the final contest of the 1980s equalled the record of 22 competing countries set in 1987. A modification to the tie-break rule was implemented this year: a count-back would now occur for the countries which were tied for first place, with the country with the most 12 points being declared the winner, with further comparisons against 10 points and lower also conducted if required to break the tie. Two of the competing acts created controversy in the run-up to the contest due to their young age, with France's Nathalie Pâque and Israel's Gili Netanel becoming the youngest ever participants in contest history at 11 and 12 years old respectively. Yugoslavia recorded their only win in the contest, when Riva took victory with "Rock Me".
## 1990s
The Eurovision Song Contest 1990 was the thirty-fifth edition of the contest, organised by Jugoslovenska radio-televizija (JRT) and Radiotelevizija Zagreb (RTZ) and held on 5 May 1990 at the Vatroslav Lisinski Concert Hall in Zagreb, Yugoslavia. In response to the Israeli and French singers in 1989, the EBU introduced a new age rule, barring anyone below the age of 16 on the day of the contest from competing; this rule means that Sandra Kim, the contest's youngest winner at 13 years old, remains so in perpetuity. Italy's Toto Cutugno became the first winner of the decade, giving Italy its second win with Insieme: 1992, an ode to the planned formation of the European Union in 1992.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1991 was the thirty-sixth edition of the contest, organised by RAI and held on 4 May 1991 at Studio 15 di Cinecittà in Rome, Italy. This was the second edition of the contest to be held in Italy, and was presented by the two previous Italian winners, Gigliola Cinquetti and Toto Cutugno. The contest was originally planned to be held in Sanremo, the site of the Sanremo Music Festival which was the inspiration for Eurovision, however following the outbreak of the Gulf War, RAI decided to move the contest to the Italian capital to better ensure the security of the foreign delegations. The Netherlands once again withdrew as the contest fell on the Remembrance of the Dead memorial, but Malta made its first appearance in the contest since 1975, keeping the contest participants at 22; Germany also made its first appearance as a unified country following German reunification in October 1990. The closest ever final result was recorded, with Sweden and France both finishing with the same number of points; Sweden was subsequently declared the winner when, in the only ever use of the tie-break rule in contest history, a count-back revealed that Sweden had collected more 10 points than France, after both countries had collected the same number of 12 points. Carola therefore became the third Swedish act to win the contest with "Fångad av en stormvind" in her second participation in the contest, having previously come third in 1983.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1992 was the thirty-seventh edition of the contest, organised by SVT and held on 9 May 1992 at the Malmö Isstadion in Malmö, Sweden. A new record 23 countries entered the contest, with the Netherlands making its return. This contest would mark the last appearance of Yugoslavia, having already begun the process of breaking up and now representing the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Ireland's Linda Martin emerged the winner with the Johnny Logan-penned "Why Me?", giving Ireland its fourth win and Logan his third as both performer and songwriter; it was Martin's second contest appearance, having previously come second for Ireland in 1984. With the United Kingdom and Malta taking second and third, this was the first contest to have solely English-language songs feature in the top 3.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1993 was the thirty-eighth edition of the contest, organised by RTÉ and held on 15 May 1993 at the Green Glens Arena in Millstreet, Ireland. It remains the only Irish production of the contest to be held outside of Dublin and, as a small town of only 1,500 people, Millstreet became the smallest Eurovision host to date, although the Green Glens Arena was able to hold up to 8,000 spectators. Changes in Europe in the 1990s were first reflected at this contest, with several new countries formed following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and breakup of Yugoslavia wishing to compete for the first time. In order to accommodate this growing number, the first Eurovision pre-selection took place in Ljubljana, Slovenia on 3 April, Kvalifikacija za Millstreet; seven countries competed for three places at the contest, with the former Yugoslav states , and emerging the winners and joining 22 countries which had taken part in Malmö, with only Yugoslavia absent, banned from competing following UN sanctions. In order to better manage the participating countries in years to come, a relegation system was introduced, which saw the bottom-placed countries missing out the following year and replaced by new and returning countries. A two-horse race soon developed in the voting between the United Kingdom and Ireland, with the final jury crucial in giving victory to the hosts: Niamh Kavanagh became the first Irish act to win on home soil with "In Your Eyes", their second consecutive win and a record-equalling fifth win in total.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1994 was the thirty-ninth edition of the contest, organised by RTÉ and held on 30 April 1994 at the Point Theatre in Dublin, Ireland. RTÉ thus became the first broadcaster to host two consecutive contests. Seven countries joined the contest for the first time, replacing the bottom 6 countries from Millstreet, and Italy which withdrew voluntarily; Luxembourg, one of those countries relegated, has yet to re-enter the contest. , , and , which had failed to qualify from Kvalifikacija za Millstreet the previous year, joined new entries from , and in debuting, competing alongside the top 18 countries from Millstreet. Riverdance, which would go on to become one of the world's most successful dance productions, made its debut in this edition as the interval act; originally a seven-minute performance, it would later be expanded into a full show which would go on to be performed at over 450 venues worldwide and be seen by over 250 million people. Satellite links were used during the voting at this contest, which enabled the jury spokespersons to be seen in vision for the first time. Ireland secured its third consecutive win, a feat yet to be replicated, and earned a record-breaking sixth win courtesy of Paul Harrington and Charlie McGettigan and "Rock 'n' Roll Kids"; Poland secured the best-ever showing yet seen for a debut country, when Edyta Górniak placed second.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1995 was the fortieth edition of the contest, organised by RTÉ and held on 13 May 1995 at the Point Theatre in Dublin, Ireland. RTÉ had concerns about staging the contest for a third consecutive year, and the BBC submitted an offer to take on the event, as well as proposing a joint production in Belfast, the capital of Northern Ireland; ultimately RTÉ decided to produce the contest solo, hosting its third consecutive contest, which remains a record, with the Point Theatre becoming the first venue to host two contests in a row. The number of competing countries was reduced to 23, with the bottom seven countries from 1994 relegated and the five countries relegated at Millstreet in 1993 returning. Norway scored its second contest victory with the Irish-Norwegian duo Secret Garden and the song "Nocturne"; some criticism arose following its victory that, as a mainly instrumental number containing only 24 words in total, the winning song should not have been eligible for the song contest, to no avail.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1996 was the forty-first edition of the contest, organised by NRK and held on 18 May 1996 at the Oslo Spektrum in Oslo, Norway. A new qualifying system was introduced at this contest, principally to appease Germany, one of the contest's biggest financial backers, which otherwise would have been relegated, which saw all countries, except the host nation, competing in an audio-only qualifying round. 29 countries entered in total, with all competing nations and Norway voting and deciding the 22 countries which would advance in the final. Germany however would be one of the seven countries to be eliminated, along with Hungary, Denmark, Russia, Israel, Romania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, in what would have been their debut entry. For the first and only time to date, the voting was conducted using virtual reality technology, with the graphics for the scoreboard superimposed over the contest's 'blue room'. Ireland secured its record seventh win, with Eimear Quinn providing its fourth win in five years with "The Voice". As in previous contests the most commercially successful contest entry would be one of the losing songs, with the UK's "Ooh Aah... Just a Little Bit" by Gina G becoming an international hit, reaching the top 20 of the US Billboard Hot 100 and eventually being nominated for a Grammy Award; it also remains the last UK entry to reach number one on the UK Singles Chart.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1997 was the forty-second edition of the contest, organised by RTÉ and held on 3 May 1997 at the Point Theatre in Dublin, Ireland. 25 countries competed in the third contest held at the Point Theatre, with a new relegation system implemented to reduce the number of competing entries: the number of points each country earned in the last four contests was used to calculate an average score for each country, and the countries with the lowest average were made to sit out for a year. Israel withdrew voluntarily due to the contest conflicting with Yom HaShoah, giving a reprieve to Bosnia and Herzegovina which would have otherwise been relegated; Italy also made a brief return after a four-year absence, in what would be their last entry for 14 years. The first use of televoting was implemented at this contest on a trial basis, with the points from Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Sweden and the United Kingdom being determined by the viewing public rather than an assembled jury. Full backing tracks were also now permitted without restriction, allowing songs to be performed without live music if desired, although live vocals were still required. The United Kingdom emerged victorious for the fifth time, 16 years after their last win, with Katrina and the Waves and "Love Shine a Light".
The Eurovision Song Contest 1998 was the forty-third edition of the contest, organised by the BBC and held on 9 May 1998 at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham, United Kingdom. 25 countries were featured in the eighth contest held in the UK, a new record, with making its debut appearance. Following the successful trial in 1997 televoting took place in the majority of countries for the first time at this contest. The first result widely determined by the viewing public saw Israel, the UK and Malta vie for first place, with Israel's Dana International declared victorious with the final result, giving Israel its third win with "Diva". Dana International, the contest's first trans performer, had emerged a controversial figure in Israel following her selection for the contest, with criticism being levied by conservative sections of Israeli society and death threats being received from fanatical factions.
The Eurovision Song Contest 1999 was the forty-fourth edition of the contest, organised by IBA and held on 29 May 1999 at the International Convention Centre in Jerusalem, Israel. 23 countries took part in Israel's second contest as hosts, with Lithuania returning after a 5-year absence. It was the first contest not to feature an orchestra, which had become an optional requirement this year, a change which IBA had utilised in an effort to cut costs. This change, which proved controversial, meant that all entries would be accompanied by a backing track for the first time, a decision which former winner Johnny Logan claimed had turned the contest into "karaoke". The language rule was also relaxed once again, which allowed artists the option to perform in any language, with many now choosing to sing in English. The "Big Four" group of countries was formed at this contest, a rule which saw the contest's largest financial backers, Germany, France, Spain and the United Kingdom, now being exempt from relegation and able to participate every year. The contest became a close race between Sweden and Iceland, with Charlotte Nilsson earning Sweden's fourth contest win with "Take Me to Your Heaven". Following the winning reprise the broadcast was concluded by all participating artists assembling on-stage to perform "Hallelujah", the Israeli winning song from 1979, as a tribute to the victims of the then-ongoing war in the Balkans.
## 2000s
The Eurovision Song Contest 2000 was the forty-fifth edition of the contest, organised by SVT and held on 13 May 2000 at the Globe Arena in Stockholm, Sweden. 24 countries competed in the contest, with making its first appearance. The first contest of the new millennium was held before the biggest crowd yet seen in its history, with over 13,000 spectators witnessing the show in the arena, and it was the first contest to be broadcast live via the internet. Denmark secured its second win, its first since 1963, represented by the Olsen Brothers with the song "Fly on the Wings of Love". Russia, which had placed second, petitioned for the song's disqualification for the partial use of a vocoder, which was rejected by the EBU.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2001 was the forty-sixth edition of the contest, organised by DR and held on 12 May 2001 at the Parken Stadium in Copenhagen, Denmark. A retractable roof was specially constructed over the football stadium for the contest, and with 38,000 spectators it became the biggest live audience ever seen at Eurovision, a record which still stands. 23 countries competed in total, and the relegation system was again altered, by removing the average score comparison and bringing back the system used in 1994 and 1995 of relegating the bottom-placed countries, with the Big Four being exempt no matter their placing. Estonia were declared the winners, represented by Tanel Padar, Dave Benton and 2XL with "Everybody". With their victory Estonia became the first country from the former Eastern Bloc to win the contest, sparking an 8-year chain of victories for new countries, and Aruba-born Benton became the first black artist to win the contest.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2002 was the forty-seventh edition of the contest, organised by Eesti Televisioon (ETV) and held on 25 May 2002 at the Saku Suurhall in Tallinn, Estonia. 24 countries participated in the first contest to be held behind the former Iron Curtain. The Marcel Bezençon Awards, a series of additional prizes honouring some of the best songs and artists in each contest's final as voted for by the accredited press, commentators and composers, were first awarded at this contest and have been subsequently featured at every contest since, traditionally handed out backstage shortly before the grand final. Latvia earned its first title, only two years after their first entry, represented by Marie N and "I Wanna". Latvia had originally been relegated due to its poor performance in Copenhagen, however were given a reprieve when Portugal decided to withdraw voluntarily.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2003 was the forty-eighth edition of the contest, organised by Latvijas Televīzija (LTV) and held on 24 May 2003 at the Skonto Hall in Riga, Latvia. 26 countries took part in the contest, with joining the contest for the first time. This would become the last contest to be held over a single evening, with an announcement in January 2003 that from 2004 a semi-final would be introduced: the top 10 countries from the 2003 event alongside the "Big Four" would qualify automatically for the final in 2004, with all other countries competing in the semi-final for 10 qualification places. Turkey gained its first Eurovision win, with Sertab Erener victorious in one of the closest contests ever seen, as "Everyway That I Can" triumphed with only three points separating the top three countries.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2004 was the forty-ninth edition of the contest, organised by the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) and held on 12 and 15 May 2004 at the Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul, Turkey. A record 36 countries competed in the first contest held under the new format, with the relegated countries from 2003 being joined by , , and in their debut appearances, with Monaco also making its first appearance after a 25-year absence. 22 countries entered the first Eurovision semi-final, with the top 10 joining the 14 automatic qualifiers in the final. Ukraine emerged the winner, in only their second contest appearance, represented by Ruslana and "Wild Dances".
The Eurovision Song Contest 2005 was the fiftieth edition of the contest, organised by the National Television Company of Ukraine (NTU) and held on 19 and 21 May 2005 at the Palace of Sports in Kyiv, Ukraine. 39 countries competed in total, with debut entries from and , and a return from Hungary for the first time since 1998. had also planned to make a debut appearance, however they withdrew at a late stage due to issues with competing alongside Israel. Greece's Helena Paparizou became the winner of the anniversary edition of the contest with "My Number One", the first win for Greece after 31 years of competition.
On 22 October 2005, a special competition was held to celebrate the contest's 50th anniversary. Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest was organised by DR and held at the Forum Copenhagen in Copenhagen, Denmark, hosted by former Eurovision contestants Katrina Leskanich and Renārs Kaupers. 14 songs from Eurovision history, chosen by fans and the contest's Reference Group, competed to determine the most popular song from the contest's first 50 years. Broadcast live in 31 countries which had competed in Eurovision at that point, the combined votes of the viewing public and juries selected a winner over two rounds. The winning song, announced at the end of the show, was "Waterloo" by ABBA, the winning song from the for Sweden.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2006 was the fifty-first edition of the contest, organised by the Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT) and held on 18 and 20 May 2006 at the Olympic Indoor Hall in Athens, Greece. 37 nations competed in the contest, with the first appearance of . Serbia and Montenegro had intended to compete, but controversy over the winner of their national selection resulted in their late withdrawal. A new landmark was achieved at this contest with the performance of the 1,000th song in Eurovision history, when Ireland's Brian Kennedy performed "Every Song Is a Cry for Love" in the semi-final. 45 years after first entering the contest, Finland secured its first win, represented by Lordi and "Hard Rock Hallelujah".
The Eurovision Song Contest 2007 was the fifty-second edition of the contest, organised by Yleisradio (YLE) and held on 10 and 12 May 2007 at the Hartwall Arena in Helsinki, Finland. A record 42 countries competed in the contest, which saw the debut entries from the , , and , the latter two as independent countries for the first time. 28 countries competed in the single semi-final, the biggest number of participants ever seen in a Eurovision show. Serbia became only the second country to win on its debut appearance, represented by Marija Šerifović and "Molitva".
The Eurovision Song Contest 2008 was the fifty-third edition of the contest, organised by Radio-televizija Srbije (RTS) and held on 20, 22 and 24 May 2008 at the Belgrade Arena in Belgrade, Serbia. A new record 43 countries competed in the contest, with and making their first appearances in the contest. A second semi-final was introduced at this contest, with all countries except the hosts and the "Big Four" now competing on one of the two semi-finals. Russia gained its first contest win, represented by Dima Bilan and the song "Believe"; it was Bilan's second appearance in the contest, having previously come second for Russia in 2006.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2009 was the fifty-fourth edition of the contest, organised by Channel One (C1R) and held on 12, 14 and 16 May 2009 at the Olimpiyskiy Arena in Moscow, Russia. 42 countries competed, including Slovakia in its first appearance in 11 years. Georgia's entry was embroiled in controversy, when it was accused of being critical of Russian leader Vladimir Putin following the recent Russo-Georgian War; after requests made by the EBU to change the lyrics were rejected, Georgia subsequently withdrew. Juries returned to the contest this year, with the points awarded in the final decided by an equal mix of jury and televoting; the qualifiers from the semi-finals however remained predominantly decided by televoting in this contest. Norway secured its third contest win, as Alexander Rybak earned a runaway victory with "Fairytale"; with 387 points, Rybak earned the highest points total yet seen in the contest, which remains the highest total under this system.
## 2010s
The Eurovision Song Contest 2010 was the fifty-fifth edition of the contest, organised by NRK and held on 25, 27 and 29 May 2010 at the Telenor Arena in Oslo, Norway. 39 countries participated in total, with Georgia returning after a year's absence. Several countries withdrew for this year due to the effects of the 2007–2008 financial crisis, including Andorra which has yet to make a reappearance, with the crisis also impacting the production of the contest. The mix of jury and televoting seen in the 2009 final was extended into the semi-finals this year, each with an equal stake in determining the 10 qualifiers in each semi-final. Germany gained its second contest win, becoming the first "Big Four" country to win since its formation in 1999, with Lena the first German winner in 28 years with "Satellite".
The Eurovision Song Contest 2011 was the fifty-sixth edition of the contest, organised by Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR) on behalf of ARD and held on 10, 12 and 14 May 2011 at the Düsseldorf Arena in Düsseldorf, Germany. 43 countries competed in the third contest held on German soil, equalling the record set in 2008; among the returning countries was Italy, making its first appearance since 1997, which automatically qualified for the final as a member of the newly expanded "Big Five". Azerbaijan earned its first title, represented by Ell & Nikki and the song "Running Scared".
The Eurovision Song Contest 2012 was the fifty-seventh edition of the contest, organised by İctimai Television (İTV) and held on 22, 24 and 26 May 2012 at the Baku Crystal Hall in Baku, Azerbaijan. 42 countries competed in the contest; Armenia had originally applied to compete, but withdrew at a late stage due to security concerns related to the ongoing conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan. The contest was also marked by concerns over Azerbaijan's human rights record, as well as tensions with neighbouring Iran over the "anti-Islamic" nature of the contest. Sweden secured its fifth Eurovision title, represented by Loreen and "Euphoria", which would go on to become a great commercial success following the contest, selling over two million copies worldwide.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2013 was the fifty-eighth edition of the contest, organised by SVT and held on 14, 16 and 18 May 2013 at the Malmö Arena in Malmö, Sweden. 39 countries competed in total, with Armenia returning after a year's absence; among the withdrawing countries were Slovakia and Turkey, which have yet to make subsequent appearances in the contest, with the Turkish broadcaster TRT citing amendments to the contest rules in recent years, as well as espousing criticism of the LGBT nature of some performances, as reasons for their continued non-participation. Denmark won the contest for the third time, represented by Emmelie de Forest and "Only Teardrops".
The Eurovision Song Contest 2014 was the fifty-ninth edition of the contest, organised by DR and held on 6, 8 and 10 May 2014 at the B&W Hallerne in Copenhagen, Denmark. Artists representing 37 countries competed in Denmark's third contest as host, with Austria emerging as the victor to gain their second victory, their first in 48 years, with Conchita Wurst and "Rise Like a Phoenix". The bearded drag queen's victory proved controversial among some, particularly in Russia where several conservative voices voiced criticism for her win. Developments in Russia, particularly the introduction of a gay propaganda law and developments in Crimea, were also present in the contest when audible booing could be heard during the Russian entry and voting.
In celebration of the contest's sixtieth anniversary, the EBU organised a special concert at the Hammersmith Apollo in London, United Kingdom on 31 March 2015. Eurovision Song Contest's Greatest Hits featured live performances from fifteen previous Eurovision acts from thirteen countries, video montages of past editions of the contest and footage of former entries, and a performance by the cast of Riverdance, originally conceived as the interval performance for the before being developed into a full production. A BBC production, the concert was recorded live and aired as a delayed broadcast on various dates that suited the individual participating broadcasters: the BBC and Ireland's RTÉ were the first to broadcast the event, in a simulcast on 3 April 2015.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2015 was the sixtieth edition of the contest, organised by ORF and held on 19, 21 and 23 May 2015 at the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna, Austria. 39 countries were initially announced as appearing at the contest, the first held in Austria since 1967; was later added as the 40th country, making its first appearance in what was billed as a one-off to celebrate the contest's 60th anniversary. Australia would advance directly to the final, meaning 27 countries would compete in the largest final ever seen in the contest. Sweden earned its sixth contest victory, represented by Måns Zelmerlöw and "Heroes".
The Eurovision Song Contest 2016 was the sixty-first edition of the contest, organised by SVT and held on 10, 12 and 14 May 2016 at the Globe Arena in Stockholm, Sweden. 43 countries were initially announced as being represented at the contest, with Australia being invited to compete for a second time; Romania was subsequently barred from competing due to outstanding debts owed by the Romanian broadcaster TVR, leaving 42 countries to compete in Sweden's sixth outing as hosts. The voting system was transformed for the first time in over 30 years at this contest: each country would now award two sets of points, representing the votes of each country's jury and public separately. Ukraine recorded its second win in the contest, courtesy of Jamala with "1944".
The Eurovision Song Contest 2017 was the sixty-second edition of the contest, organised by the Public Broadcasting Company of Ukraine (UA:PBC) and held on 9, 11 and 13 May 2017 at the International Exhibition Centre in Kyiv, Ukraine. 43 countries applied to take part in the contest, however only 42 would subsequently take part in Ukraine's second contest: Russia were unable to compete after Ukrainian authorities banned their selected performer Yuliya Samoylova from entering Ukraine due to illegally entering Crimea in 2015, with proposals for Samoylova to compete via satellite from Russia being rejected by the Russian broadcaster. Portugal earned its first Eurovision title, 53 years after first entering the contest, with Salvador Sobral earning the biggest points total ever seen in Eurovision history as "Amar pelos dois" gained 758 points.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2018 was the sixty-third edition of the contest, organised by Rádio e Televisão de Portugal (RTP) and held on 8, 10 and 12 May 2018 at the Altice Arena in Lisbon, Portugal. 43 countries competed in this contest, matching the previous record, with Russia returning after its absence the previous year. This contest saw the performance of Eurovision's 1,500th song, when former winner Alexander Rybak performed "That's How You Write a Song" in the second semi-final for Norway. Israel gained its fourth Eurovision title, represented by Netta with "Toy".
The Eurovision Song Contest 2019 was the sixty-fourth edition of the contest, organised by the Israeli Public Broadcasting Corporation (IPBC/Kan) and held on 14, 16 and 18 May 2019 at the Expo Tel Aviv in Tel Aviv, Israel. The third Israeli contest was marked by controversy on multiple fronts, with Orthodox religious leaders and politicians in Israel calling on the contest to not interfere with Shabbat, while other groups, including BDS, called for a boycott of the event in response to the country's policies towards Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, and in opposition to what some consider as "pinkwashing" by the Israeli government. 42 countries were initially announced as competing in this contest, with Australia having secured participation rights up to 2023. However, only 41 countries entered the contest when Ukraine subsequently withdrew: conflicts between the Ukrainian broadcaster UA:PBC and the winner of its Maruv led to the latter refusing to compete, resulting in its withdrawal after other acts from the selection also declined to partake. The Netherlands recorded its fifth Eurovision win and first in 44 years, courtesy of Duncan Laurence with "Arcade", which would later become a sleeper hit in 2021, becoming the most-streamed Eurovision song on Spotify and the first since "Ooh Aah... Just a Little Bit" to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100, eventually reaching the top 30 of the chart.
## 2020s
The Eurovision Song Contest 2020 was scheduled to be held on 12, 14 and 16 May 2020 at the Rotterdam Ahoy in Rotterdam, Netherlands and organised by Nederlandse Publieke Omroep (NPO), Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) and AVROTROS. 41 countries applied to enter what would have been the Netherlands' fifth contest as hosts, but in March 2020, for the first time in its history, the contest was cancelled due to the uncertainty caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and the restrictions put in place by governments across Europe, which included lockdowns and travel restrictions. In its place, a special broadcast from Media Park in Hilversum, Eurovision: Europe Shine a Light, was held on what would have been the day of the final, in a celebration and showcase of the artists and songs that would have competed in the 2020 contest in a non-competitive format, as well as featuring performances by former Eurovision artists.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2021 was the sixty-fifth edition of the contest, held on 18, 20 and 22 May 2021 at the Rotterdam Ahoy in Rotterdam, Netherlands and organised by NPO, NOS and AVROTROS. Rotterdam was revealed as the host city of the 2021 contest during Eurovision: Europe Shine a Light. Many of the artists which had initially been selected to compete in 2020 were confirmed for their countries once again, however any song entered into the 2020 contest was ineligible for 2021 per the rules of the contest. Pre-recorded backing vocals were permitted for the first time in 2021 on a trial basis, announced as an effort to modernise and increase the sustainability of the contest. The same 41 countries which had originally planned to enter the 2020 contest were initially announced as competing again in this contest, however, a late withdrawal of Armenia and subsequent disqualification of the entry from Belarus brought the number of competing countries down to 39. Multiple contingency scenarios were devised in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, ranging from a normal, albeit less-crowded contest (which was the chosen option) to a fully-remote contest with participants performing via 'live-on-tape' recordings. Australia and Iceland were ultimately unable to perform at the contest live: the Australian delegation opted to use their 'live-on-tape' performance given logistical difficulties in travelling abroad as part of the country's pandemic response; while Iceland competed using rehearsal footage following a COVID-19 outbreak among its delegation. Italy recorded its third Eurovision win, becoming the second "Big Five" country to win since its formation, as Måneskin ended a 31-year wait for victory with "Zitti e buoni". Second-placed France and third-placed Switzerland also achieved their best results since 1991 and 1993 respectively. Måneskin's win in the contest marked the band's international breakthrough, with their releases entering numerous European and global weekly charts in the months following their victory.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2022 was the sixty-sixth edition of the contest, held on 10, 12 and 14 May 2022 at the PalaOlimpico in Turin, Italy and organised by RAI. 41 countries applied to take part in the contest, with Armenia and Montenegro submitting their first entries since 2019. Russia, which had initially appeared on the list, was subsequently barred from competing following its invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, resulting in 40 countries competing in Italy's third outing as hosts. Ukraine recorded its third win in the contest, represented by Kalush Orchestra with "Stefania", while the United Kingdom, which placed second, and Spain, which placed third, also achieved their best results since 1998 and 1995 respectively.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2023 was the sixty-seventh edition of the contest, held on 9, 11 and 13 May 2023 at the Liverpool Arena in Liverpool, United Kingdom and organised by the BBC. Ukraine's UA:PBC was initially given the opportunity to host following its victory the previous year, but due to security concerns caused by the Russian invasion of the country, the BBC was chosen, as the runner-up, to host the contest on its behalf. 37 countries applied to take part in the ninth contest held in the UK, with several countries withdrawing for this year due to the effects of the 2021–2023 global energy crisis. Substantial changes to the voting system were made for this contest, with full televoting returning to determine the qualifiers from the semi-finals, and viewers from non-participating countries being allowed to vote in all shows, with their votes being aggregated and awarded as one set of points from an "extra country" for the overall public vote. Loreen, the winner of the 2012 contest, returned for Sweden and became the second artist to record two wins in the contest with "Tattoo", and in doing so giving Sweden a record-tying seventh contest win.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2024 will be the sixty-eighth edition of the contest, to be held on 7, 9 and 11 May 2024 at the Malmö Arena in Malmö, Sweden and organised by SVT. |
43,236,335 | Mya (program) | 1,076,811,384 | Discontinued intelligent personal assistant by Motorola | [
"Computer telephony integration",
"Motorola",
"Telecommunication services",
"Vaporware",
"Virtual assistants"
] | Mya was an intelligent personal assistant under development by Motorola. Proposed features for the program included the ability to read emails and answer questions 24 hours a day. Mya was intended to work with an internet service Motorola was developing called Myosphere, and was planned to be a paid service that would eventually be used by other mobile carriers. A female computer-generated character was created to represent Mya in advertising. While the quality of the character's animation was praised, it received criticism for being over sexualised.
Both the character and the program were announced to the public via an advertisement in March 2000, though the program was not ready for use at that time. Despite the announcement generating a considerable amount of attention, little was heard regarding the project in subsequent months. The program was never officially released nor cancelled, though the trademarks for both Myosphere and Mya were abandoned by Motorola in 2002. The name Mya was believed to be a play on the words 'My assistant'.
## Proposed features and development
The Internet service that Mya was developed for was called Myosphere. Motorola began development of Myosphere in 1998, and it had been described as a speech enabled service "which enables consumers to manage and control wireless and wireline communications from a single point of access using natural voice commands." Several other companies had already announced plans for similar software at the time; Alan Reiter from Wireless Internet and Mobile Computing was puzzled at Motorola's announcement of Myosphere, saying "They're kind of late to the [voice activation] party. But the party is likely to be very big. ... Motorola's entry will help further legitimize the value of voice response systems. But it's a tough market, and it will take time." The term myosphere was "a play on the theme of connecting the elements of an individual's world, or sphere."
Intended to provide a human-like interface to the Internet, Mya was to be accessed via a toll-free telephone number and a pin code. The program was designed to work with any phone, including landlines, but primarily for mobiles, and was to be accessible 24 hours a day. Mya was said to be able to answer questions on topics such as stock prices, news, sports, weather conditions, traffic, airline reservations, addresses, and appointments, as well as being able to call contacts in a mobile phone's address book.
Intended to be a paid service that would be ready by December 2000, Motorola hoped that Mya would also eventually be used on Palm Pilot and by other mobile carriers. In July 2000 Motorola was reported to be planning to work with Nuance Communications to internationalize Mya, and that same month BellSouth was declared to be the first carrier to buy the service. According to an article in Popular Science in August 2000, Motorola was spending "millions of dollars" on both the Mya character and the program. Mya was originally programmed only for English, though by April 2001 the program was being developed in six languages, and additionally Nippon Telegraph and Telephone were said to be working with Motorola to develop a Japanese version. Mya was voiced by actress Gabrielle Carteris, and mechanically altered to sound more digital.
## Character
To create a commercial for Mya, Motorola hired the McCann Erickson company, who in turn hired Digital Domain to create the character. The design was described as a "big-budget" production, though Digital Domain were only given three months to complete the project. Mya's physical representation: a tall, thin, blonde, blue-eyed white female, was created in the likeness of a human model, Michelle Holgate. The initial inspiration for Mya came from vintage pin-up girls. The first representation of Mya had a very small waist and large breasts, and was said to resemble Jessica Rabbit, which did not impress either Motorola or McCann Erickson. Motorola asked Digital Domain to make Mya look as human as possible yet still be obviously artificial. The first completed iteration of Mya was so realistic that Motorola asked for her to be made more obviously digital. Viewers were reportedly not impressed with Mya because they thought she was a real person. Digital Domain visual effects supervisor and animation director, Fred Raimondi, decided to remodel Mya's appearance to be "just to the left of real".
> You know how when you first looked at Max Headroom and were like 'What is that?' That's [the effect] we were after.
Mya's hair was changed from brunette to bleach blonde. Her short spiky hair style was said to resemble that of Serena Altschul. According to Digital Domain, giving Mya hair that was longer than ear-length was not possible in the time they had been given, due to the difficulties of creating digital photorealistic hair. Mya's final body shape was an almost exact copy of the original model's measurements. Mya was typically seen wearing a silver pantsuit but also appeared in halter tops in some shots and dressed in an evening gown for her debut. While Digital Domain staff wanted Mya to appear in a knee-length skirt with high boots, Motorola and McCann chose the pantsuit, due to its contemporary look.
Digital Domain chose not to use motion capture for Mya's movements as they believed it would constrain the character too much. Instead they used rotoscoping to place their digital character over the real model. The evening gown Motorola selected for Mya to debut in was described by Digital Domain as the most difficult item of clothing they could have chosen, due to its transparency and layering. To render 150 frames (equating to 5–6 seconds of actual footage) of Mya moving in the gown in low-resolution required approximately 6 hours of processing time; the final high-resolution shots took longer. Mya's rendering was so complex she crashed the computers at Digital Domain several times. Mya's creators said they had difficulty making Mya appear as if she were "alive", and focused intensely on movements, specular highlights and eye blinks in order to "bring her to life". The specular highlights also had the intended effect of making Mya shine in an inhuman manner; when the light hit Mya at certain angles, a rainbow would appear. Mya's skin was described as "part china doll, part disco ball." Her distinct shine was based on that of a china plate that the commercial's director, Alex Proyas, had bought in Australia. In some shots of Mya, images were deliberately downgraded and had scan lines added to make the character appear more artificial.
Mya's visual representation, however, appeared solely during advertising and on her website. Only her voice was to be heard when using the actual program. Demonstrations of Mya's abilities and images of the character could be viewed at the now defunct website, mya.com. Raimondi said he believed the name Mya was a play on the words 'My assistant', as did Sidney Matrix in the book Cyberpop: Digital Lifestyles and Commodity Culture.
## Debut and appearances
Mya made her debut on March 26, 2000 in a 60-second advertisement shown during the 72nd Academy Awards. The ad featured Mya dressed in her evening gown and wearing a headset. In the ad Mya steps out of a stretch limousine and walks down the red carpet for the show. The ad declared Mya to be "the darling of the e-world, the 24-hour talking Internet" and stated that Mya's abilities would change users' lives. Despite making her first advertising appearance in March, the Mya program was not scheduled to be ready until December 2000.
Mya subsequently received considerable media attention, and was featured on the front covers of USA Today, InStyle, Wired and Adbusters. One promotion for Mya showed Hugh Hefner sitting in a limousine with two Playboy Bunnies, asking Mya to read him his emails.
The Mya program was on display at the Motorola wireless booth at COMDEX in April 2000, which was visited by then president Bill Clinton. Mya "chok[ed] up halfway" through a demonstration for the president and had to be restarted.
In 2006, Sidney Matrix stated Mya "disappeared" after her debut commercial; in August 2000, a Yankee Group vice-president stated the debut advertisement for Mya was a "great ad, but where have [Motorola] gone with it? ... The spot drove viewers to its website to demo the product ... but failed to market Mya further." Mya was never documented to have been released, nor was there an announcement of the program's cancellation; Motorola abandoned their trademark for 'Mya' on September 19, 2002 and their trademark for 'Myosphere' on December 1, 2002.
## Reception
### Character
The reception of the character was mixed. Libby Callaway from New York Post stated Mya was one of their favourite "virtual babes", and said she threatened to take Lara Croft's title as the internet's most popular pin-up girl, also describing Mya as "the world's first 'cyber assistant'". Whilst admitting that the character of Mya was visually appealing, John Sullivan of Wireless Insider also stated that Motorola "went overboard" by trying to give the Mya program a character in the hopes she would become a celebrity in her own right, and accused Motorola of trying to mimic the success of Lara Croft. Mya was described in the 2003 book Data Made Flesh: Embodying Information as "by far" the best-rendered and most self-assured digital woman. Noah Robischon from Entertainment Weekly called her debut the second creepiest moment at that year's Academy Awards (the first being Angelina Jolie kissing her brother).
Writing in Popular Mechanics, Tobey Grumet described Mya as a male-chauvinistic creation, and she was cited in the 2006 book Physical Culture, Power, and the Body as an example of simulated sexualised females. Sidney Matrix stated that Mya's seductive appearance and sultry voice "depended on, borrowed from and retrench[ed] sexist stereotypes", and accused Motorola of normalising the assumption that technology users are both male and heterosexual. Motorola's marketing director Julie Roth defended the design of Mya's appearance and voice, attributing it to market research of what would appeal to users.
Mya's character was often compared to the female computer-simulated character for Ananova, a web-based news service that was being developed around the same time.
### Announced program
Though Mya's character was generally regarded as impressive, the underlying technology was described by Peggy Albright in Wireless Week as not surprising; Albright said Motorola was "latest company in recent weeks to introduce a voice-activated virtual assistant", as Mya was announced shortly after Microsoft had announced their MiPad, and Lucent had launched their Mobile Voice Activated Dialing software. However, Tobey Grummet spoke highly of the program in anticipation of its release, and Mya was described by Elliot Drucker of Wireless Week as a solution to the limitations of accessing the Internet on a mobile phone, without a keyboard or large colour display. While regarding the program with interest, John Sullivan doubted that Mya would persuade people who were not already on the Internet to start using it, and stated that if Mya could only read emails and not actually converse with him, he would rather just read his emails himself. Dawn Chmielewski from the Orange County Register called Mya a "crude interpretation of things to come", noting that speech technology at the time was not without its limitations.
> You need to speak like a BBC broadcaster to be understood and use the vocabulary of a toddler to get what you want.
The program won the "Most Innovative Telephony Application" award at the 20th Annual AVIOS Conference in April 2001. |
2,790,883 | Washington State Route 4 | 1,106,045,174 | State highway in Washington | [
"State highways in Washington (state)",
"Transportation in Cowlitz County, Washington",
"Transportation in Pacific County, Washington",
"Transportation in Wahkiakum County, Washington"
] | State Route 4 (SR 4) is a 62.27-mile-long (100.21 km) state highway, serving the southwestern region of the U.S. state of Washington. The highway, also known as Ocean Beach Highway, travels east along the Columbia River from U.S. Route 101 (US 101) at Johnston's Landing through Pacific, Wahkiakum and Cowlitz counties to an interchange with Interstate 5 (I-5) in Kelso. SR 4 is designated as part of the Lewis and Clark Trail Scenic Byway, a state scenic byway, as well as part of the National Highway System.
The highway, along with I-5 and SR 14, forms the former route of US 830, which ran along the Columbia River from Johnston's Landing to Maryhill from the creation of the United States Numbered Highways in 1926 until 1968. US 830 was co-signed with Primary State Highway 12 (PSH 12) from Johnston's Landing to Kelso and was created in 1937 as the successor to various unsigned state highways.
## Route description
SR 4 begins at an intersection with US 101 at Johnston's Landing, located on the Naselle River in rural Pacific County. The highway, designated as the Lewis and Clark Trail Scenic Byway, travels southeast along the Naselle River and serves as the northern terminus of SR 401 in the census-designated place of Naselle before leaving the Naselle River. SR 4 continues east along Salmon Creek and the Deep River into Wahkiakum County before it intersects the former route of SR 403 in Rosburg. The highway travels upstream along the Grays River and turns southeast towards Skamokawa, passing east of the Julia Butler Hansen Refuge for the Columbian White-Tailed Deer on the shores of the Columbia River. SR 4 continues east through the county seat of Cathlamet and intersects the former terminus of SR 407 and the northern terminus of SR 409. The highway travels into Cowlitz County and intersects the western terminus of SR 432, which serves the Port of Longview, in West Longview. SR 4 continues through the northern part of Longview and passes the campus of the Lower Columbia College before traveling onto Cowlitz Way. Cowlitz Way intersects the former spur route of SR 411 and crosses over SR 411 and the Cowlitz River into Kelso before SR 4 splits into a one-way pair traveling south through downtown Kelso. SR 4 turns east onto Allen Street and continues to its eastern terminus, a diamond interchange with I-5 north of the Three Rivers Mall.
Every year, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume. This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic (AADT), which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. In 2011, WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 4 was the intersection with Catlin Street in Kelso west of the Cowlitz Way Bridge, serving 34,000 vehicles daily, while the least busy section was between Rosburg and Cathlamet in rural Wahkiakum County, serving less than 1,000 vehicles per day. The entire route of SR 4 is designated as part of the National Highway System, a highway system that includes roadways important to the national economy, defense, and mobility; and as a Highway of Statewide Significance by WSDOT from US 101 at Johnston's Landing to SR 432 in West Longview, which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington.
## History
The present route of SR 4 was codified into the state highway system in 1915 as State Road 19, connecting Naselle, Cathlamet, Longview, and Kelso along the Columbia River. The highway was built by Pacific County in the Naselle area and Cowlitz County between Stella and Kelso, while the Department of Highways built a road connecting Cathlamet to Skamokawa by 1915. State Road 19 was officially designated as the Ocean Beach Highway in 1919 and renumbered to State Road 12 in 1923. The highway was incorporated into US 830 during the creation of the United States Numbered Highways in 1926, traveling east along the Columbia River from US 101 at Johnston's Landing to US 97 in Maryhill. The highway was paved with the macadam method between Johnston's Landing and Grays River and between Skamokawa and Kelso by 1931. The remaining gap was constructed of gravel by 1933 and the entire highway was paved by 1939. State Road 12 was replaced by PSH 12 in 1937, traveling west from PSH 1 and US 99 in Chehalis to PSH 13 in Raymond, south on US 101 to Johnston's Landing, and east on US 830 to PSH 1 and US 99 in Kelso. During the 1964 highway renumbering, US 830 replaced PSH 12 between Johnston's Landing and Kelso and was designated as part of the Lewis and Clark Trail Scenic Byway during the creation of the state scenic highway system in 1967. US 830 was decommissioned in 1968 and was replaced with SR 4; however, the highway was proposed as a route for US 12 before it was extended west via White Pass to Aberdeen.
## Major intersections |
1,123,388 | 2000 Brazilian Grand Prix | 1,171,904,331 | 2nd round of the 2000 Formula One season | [
"2000 Formula One races",
"2000 in Brazilian motorsport",
"Brazilian Grand Prix",
"March 2000 sports events in South America"
] | The 2000 Brazilian Grand Prix (officially the XXIX Grande Prêmio Marlboro do Brasil) was a Formula One motor race held on 26 March 2000 at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace in São Paulo, Brazil. The race, which was the second round of the 2000 Formula One World Championship and the 29th Brazilian Grand Prix, drew 72,000 spectators. Michael Schumacher, a Ferrari driver, won the 71-lap race after starting third. Benetton's Giancarlo Fisichella finished second, and Jordan's Heinz-Harald Frentzen was third.
McLaren's Mika Häkkinen qualified on pole position and led the first lap of the race before being passed by World Drivers' Championship leader Michael Schumacher on lap two. Following that, Michael Schumacher built a 17.6-second lead before making the first of two pit stops for fuel and tyres on lap 20. After Häkkinen retired with a shortage of engine oil pressure ten laps later, he retook the lead. In the final 12 laps, David Coulthard in the other McLaren gained on Michael Schumacher as the latter slowed to manage an oil pressure problem. He was not close enough to make a pass for the win and Michael Schumacher took his second consecutive victory of the season and the 37th of his career.
Following the race, Coulthard was disqualified from second place due to an illegal front wing endplate. McLaren submitted an appeal with the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile's International Court of Appeal, which was denied. The disqualification moved every driver behind Coulthard forward by a single position. The result extended Michael Schumacher's lead atop the World Drivers' Championship to 12 points. Fisichella moved from fifth to second as Rubens Barrichello in the second Ferrari fell to third after not finishing the race. Ferrari further increased their lead in the World Constructors' Championship to 18 points as Benetton advanced from fourth to second with fifteen races remaining in the season.
## Background
The 2000 Brazilian Grand Prix was the second of 17 races in the 2000 Formula One World Championship and the 29th Brazilian Grand Prix. On 26 March. it took place at the 15-turn 4.309 km (2.677 mi) Autódromo José Carlos Pace in the Brazilian city of São Paulo. It was the second of six non-European Grands Prix. The high-altitude, anti-clockwise track featured significant elevation changes, putting a heavy load of g-force on the left side of drivers' necks. Teams modified their cars to run at medium to high levels of downforce and dampers, springs and suspensions were tuned to adapt to the bumpy track surface. Bridgestone, Formula One's control tyre supplier, supplied the race with soft and medium dry compound tyres.
Following his victory in the preceding , Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the World Drivers' Championship with ten points, followed by teammate Rubens Barrichello with six points and Williams' Ralf Schumacher with four points. Jacques Villeneuve of British American Racing (BAR) was fourth with three points and Giancarlo Fisichella of Benetton was fifth with two points. Ferrari led the World Constructors' Championship with a maximum of 16 points. Williams and BAR tied for third with four points each, and Benetton were fourth with four points.
Prior to the event, most the 11 teams tested their cars and new components at various locations across Europe. McLaren, Jordan, Williams, Jaguar and Prost tested at the Silverstone Circuit in the United Kingdom from 14 to 16 March. Luca Badoer, a Ferrari test driver, completed shakedown runs at the Fiorano Circuit in northern Italy. On the first two days of testing, McLaren test driver Olivier Panis led; on day three, Williams' Jenson Button went fastest. The BAR, Arrows, Sauber and Minardi teams did not test before the Grand Prix.
The press and bookmakers considered Michael Schumacher the favourite to win the race. In response to a statement by McLaren team principal Ron Dennis, who claimed Ferrari was not as competitive as McLaren, Schumacher expressed optimism about a continuing challenge to McLaren for the rest of the season. After faulty seals on their pneumatic valve systems forced him and two-time world champion Mika Häkkinen to retire from the preceding Australian Grand Prix, McLaren's David Coulthard predicted the team would start on the front row and win: "We weren't beaten fair and square in the race because we dropped out. You have to give Ferrari credit because they won when we dropped out and that's our mistake. But it means we come here believing we are competitive and still have a chance."
The Autódromo José Carlos Pace was resurfaced in February to try to reduce its bumpiness. The pit lane exit was relocated from the Senna S chicane entry to the Repa Opposta straight. Following Ricardo Zonta's crash and injury during the 1999 race, a larger run-off area was installed to the outside of Laranjinha turn, and its concrete barrier was padded with tyres. The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA; Formula One's governing body) technical delegate, Charlie Whiting, inspected the circuit and ordered that the pit lane barriers be moved to improve driver access. The drivers were divided about the resurfacing work. Jaguar's Eddie Irvine criticised the track's condition. His teammate Johnny Herbert described the bumps approaching the start/finish straight as "horrendous," raising concerns about a repeat of Stéphane Sarrazin's 1999 accident. Conversely, Barrichello and his teammate Michael Schumacher said the track was better for them.
The Grand Prix featured 11 teams (each representing a different constructor) with no changes from the season entry list. Several teams modified their cars, either to refine aerodynamic appendages or to address reliability issues that arose during the Australian Grand Prix. McLaren identified an air filter failure which led to the pneumatic valve system problem in the previous race and modified its design to prevent it from reoccuring. Ford-Cosworth altered its engine lubrication system while the Arrows team altered the steering linkage design. The FIA granted Arrows permission to compete after changing the headrests design in its A21 car to protect the driver.
## Practice
The race was preceded by four practice sessions, two one-hour sessions on Friday and two 45-minute sessions on Saturday. The weather was hot and clear for the Friday sessions. Barrichello led with a 1-minute, 17.631-second lap after making minor changes to his car's aerodynamic setup before the morning session. Häkkinen, Coulthard, Michael Schumacher, Villeneuve, Prost's Jean Alesi, Fisichella, Jordan's Heinz-Harald Frentzen, Sauber's Mika Salo and Arrows' Jos Verstappen rounded out the top ten drivers. Alesi spun three times during the session, removing the front wing on the third. A driveshaft joint leak ended Michael Schumacher's session ended early after eight laps and Zonta was restricted to four timed laps after debris accumulation overheated his engine. A stray dog ran onto the circuit and was knocked over by marshals in a car, interrupting practice.
Häkkinen improved his 1999 pole position lap by six-tenths of a second with three minutes remaining in the afternoon session, setting the day's fastest lap of 1 minute, 15.896 seconds. Second through tenth were Michael Schumacher, Coulthard, Barrichello, Pedro de la Rosa's Arrows, Alesi, Verstappen, Jordan's Jarno Trulli, Villeneuve and Fisichella. Ralf Schumacher was taken off the track twice because of a brake and balance issue. Alexander Wurz spun and beached his Benetton at Mergulho corner. Coulthard spent part of the session in the pit lane as McLaren replaced his front wing after he drove onto the grass midway through. Verstappen experimented with a tyre compound that altered his car's setup and landed him in a gravel trap at the end of practice.
The weather remained hot and dry for Saturday's two practice sessions. Different ride height setups were tested on teams' cars, resulting in a noticeable difference in performance. They also selected the tyre compounds for the rest of the weekend. Coulthard led the third practice session with a lap of 1 minute, 15.035 seconds, followed by his teammate Häkkinen, Ferrari teammates Michael Schumacher and Barrichello, Frentzen, Fisichella, Trulli, Irvine, Minardi's Marc Gené and Alesi. During the session, Michael Schumacher's team spent an hour and ten minutes changing a problematic engine. Gastón Mazzacane's Minardi had an oil leak, limiting him to five timed laps and preventing him from participating in the final practise session later that day.
Hakkinen's lap of 1-minute, 14.159-seconds on a new set of tyres led the fourth session, with teammate Coulthard third. Barrichello separated them. Michael Schumacher was fourth, Trulli fifth, while Fisichella was sixth, repeating his third practice result. Villeneuve, Verstappen, Ralf Schumacher and Frentzen completed the top ten. While testing a new rear wing, Barrichello spun twice, one of which was caused by a broken footrest. Frentzen and his teammate Trulli ran into a gravel trap, causing minor bodywork damage to their vehicles. Zonta lost track time due to a gearbox actuator fault and ran into a gravel trap. Button's engine failed, laying oil on the racing line between the Laranjinha and Bico do Pato corners. Salo's rear wing failed on the start/finish straight, causing him to spin as he braked before the Senna S chicane and hit the wall. He was unhurt.
## Qualifying
During Saturday's one-hour qualifying session, drivers simultaneously circulated the track. Each driver was limited to twelve laps; their fastest laps determined the race's starting order. The 107% rule was in effect during qualifying, requiring each driver to stay within 107% of the fastest lap to qualify for the race. Heavy rain fell during the session's final 15 minutes, making the track slippery and preventing drivers from lapping faster. A heavy wind caused a 6 ft (1.8 m) gantry-mounted cardboard advertising hoarding connected by nylon ties above the start/finish straight to detach from the fasteners and fall 10 m (33 ft) onto the track, forcing qualifying to be stopped three times to have them removed. Häkkinen lapped fastest with 15 minutes to go before the rain began at 1-minute, 14.111-second lap for his second consecutive and 23rd career pole position. His teammate Coulthard qualified second, with the Ferraris of Michael Schumacher and Barrichello third and fourth, respectively.; Schumacher understeered into the grass on his second timed lap, damaging his car's undertray on the corrugations of a high-mounted kerb. He finished qualifying in the spare Ferrari. Because of the stoppage, Barrichello had to abandon a fast lap. Fisichella, fifth, praised his car's handling. Irvine in sixth was happy with his Jaguar's grip and balance.
Frentzen qualified seventh after Pedro Diniz slowed him. Zonta, eighth, focused on aerodynamic setup to improve his car's handling. Between the final practice session and qualifying, Button switched engines and worked with race engineer Tim Preston to change his car's setup. He was fourth early on before falling to ninth. Villeneuve qualified tenth after traffic slowed two of his timed laps and he ran onto the grass. Ralf Schumacher was the fastest driver to not qualify in the top ten after trying different spring rates but failing to improve his chassis setup. Trulli spun into a gravel trap at the Bico de Peto hairpin on his first timed lap. He returned to the pit lane to drive the spare Jordan car; an electronic control unit fault affected its gear selection, leaving him 12th. Wurz, 13th, had traffic slow all of his laps. Clutch issues put Verstappen 14th. Alesi, 15th, swerved at more than 250 km/h (160 mph) to avoid a falling advertising hoarding, damaging his car's front wing. Alesi was unhurt. The rain slowed De La Rosa in 16th. Car setup issues put Herbert 17th. Gené in 18th ventured onto the track early in qualifying. Nick Heidfeld used the spare Prost car to secure 19th after a clutch failure in his race car. Diniz in 20th and teammate Salo in 22nd had similar rear wing failures. Mazzacane, 21st, drove the spare Minardi car after fuel pressure issues.
### Post-qualifying
Sauber announced its withdrawal from the race during the second stoppage, citing a lack of time in Brazil to analyse and repair the structural integrity of the rear wings on both of their cars. When Sauber returned to their Hinwil headquarters, they discovered that the track's bumpy surface had caused both of their cars to have higher-than-expected impact loads; Salo's rear wing failed on the lower plane while Diniz's failed on the upper plane.
### Qualifying classification
Notes:
- – Sauber withdrew Pedro Diniz and Mika Salo on the grounds of safety due to separate rear wing failures on their cars.
## Warm-up
On Sunday morning, a 30-minute warm-up session was held in hot, overcast weather. All drivers fine-tuned their race set-ups and drove their spare cars. Häkkinen set the session's fastest lap at 1 minute, 16.343 seconds, ahead of Michael Schumacher, Coulthard, Barrichello, Verstappen, Ralf Schumacher, Gené, Fisichella and Zonta. Wurz's car stalled at the exit of the pit lane ten minutes in, and the session was stopped. For the rest of the session, he drove the spare Benetton B200 car. Alesi's engine failed, so he switched to the spare Prost AP03, which had a rear wing failure on the bumpy start/finish straight, resulting in a second stoppage.
Prost examined Alesi's rear wing after the warm-up session and determined that its failure was caused by older bodywork parts on his car, and readied its spare chassis in case it was needed. The team said it was unconcerned about the drivers' safety and confirmed their participation in the race.
## Race
The race began before 72,000 spectators (mostly supporting Ferrari) at 14:00 local time. At the start, the weather was hot and dry, with an ambient temperature of 22 °C (72 °F), a track temperature of 35 °C (95 °F), and a humidity of 76%. According to computer simulations, drivers who made a single pit stop had the fastest overall race times. Wurz's engine stalled during the formation lap, delaying Alesi and Herbert; both drivers took their starting positions. Wurz began from the pit lane. Häkkinen led the field into the Senna S chicane after a brisk start from the grid. Michael Schumacher passed Coulthard for second, who had wheelspin and failed to challenge Häkkinen for the lead. Coulthard kept third after Barrichello made a slow start. Irvine overtook Fisichella for fifth place. Verstappen advanced from 14th to 11th by the end of the first lap. Button fell from 9th to 14th over the same distance. Trulli passed Ralf Schumacher and Villeneuve to take tenth on the track's inside.
As the top two approached the start/finish line, Michael Schumacher, who had been close behind Häkkinen's heavier car throughout lap one, steered off the racing line to take the lead heading into the Senna S chicane. Barrichello slipstreamed past Coulthard for third on the start/finish straight. He then ran wide, returning Coulthard to third. By the end of lap two, Barrichello had retaken third after a gearbox fault lost Coulthard the use of the first three gears and was slower in the slow-speed corners. A malfunctioning radio prevented Coulthard from alerting McLaren to the problem, meaning he braked earlier as engine braking proved ineffective and changed his driving line. With a series of fastest laps, Michael Schumacher increased his advantage over Häkkinen to four seconds by lap 4 and to 15 seconds by lap 15. In the meantime, Trulli passed Zonta for eighth, Button overtook Alesi for 13th and Heidfeld lost 16th to de la Rosa. Verstappen progressed from 11th to seventh by passing Villeneuve, Zonta, Frentzen, and Fisichella as Alesi overtook Ralf Schumacher, Villeneuve, Zonta, and Frentzen to advance to ninth. During this time, Wurz and Heidfeld both experienced separate engine failures on laps seven and nine, while Alesi experienced an electrical failure at the Bico de Pato hairpin on lap 11.
After Häkkinen ran wide at the conclusion of lap 14, Barrichello closed up. Before the Senna S chicane, he braked, slipstreamed Häkkinen, and turned left to pass him for second at the start of the 15th lap. De la Rosa passed Herbert for 14th on that lap and Trulli overtook Irvine for fifth into the Curva do Sol turn on lap 16. That lap, Villeneuve retired with a race-long gearbox problem. The Ferrari and McLaren teams used various pit stop strategies; the Ferrari team planned for two stops in the hope that they would establish a significant enough lead over McLaren on the circuit. McLaren, conversely, planned just one pit stop because they hypothesised that the long pit lane would lose them time. When the first round of fuel and tyre pit stops began four laps later, Michael Schumacher had a 17.6 second advantage over the rest of the field. He rejoined the track in third and Barrichello led the next two laps until his stop. On lap 21, Irvine lost control of his vehicle's rear into the Bico de Pato hairpin and crashed into a tyre barrier. Six laps later, Barrichello pulled into the pit lane with a hydraulic motor issue that had spread from the steering wheel to the throttle linkage. As Barrichello exited the car to retire a small fire was extinguished by his mechanics.
At the conclusion of the 28th lap, Trulli made the first of his two stops from fourth place, emerging in seventh. Before he slowed with a loss of oil engine pressure on the 30th lap, Häkkinen had pulled away to lead Michael Schumacher by 12 seconds since there was less fuel in his car. He slowed and retired in his garage. Michael Schumacher retook the lead, with the yet-to-stop Coulthard second, Verstappen third, and Fisichella fourth. Coulthard lapped to within a tenth of a second of Michael Schumacher who slowed slightly with an imbalance in all four of his tyres as Ralf Schumacher challenged Fisichella for fourth. On lap 32, Gené retired from 11th with an engine failure. Verstappen (who had conditioning issues) and his teammate de la Rosa made their first pit stops on laps 35 and 37. Four laps later, Frentzen was the first driver on a one-stop strategy to enter the pit lane earlier than scheduled because of heavy rear tyre wear losing him five seconds. Coulthard made his only stop on lap 43 and remained in second position. Michael Schumacher led by 48 seconds when he made his second pit stop on the 51st lap and retained the lead. On the same lap, Fisichella made his only stop and kept third place.
On lap 51, Herbert retired in the pit lane with a gearbox failure. Four laps later, De la Rosa lost concentration, running into a gravel trap but lost no positions. Button battled Verstappen for several laps before passing him for seventh on the 56th, as Trulli made a pit stop from fourth after his second set of tyres slowed him slightly and rejoined the track in fifth. From the 59th lap, Coulthard began to gain on Michael Schumacher, who slowed due to an oil pressure problem. He could not draw close enough to pass, and Schumacher took his second victory of the season and the 37th of his career in a time of 1 hour, 31 minutes, 35.271 seconds, averaging 200.404 km/h (124.525 mph) over a distance of 305.939 km (190.102 mi) and 71 laps. Coulthard followed 4.302 seconds later and Fisichella took third. Frentzen finished fourth after driving consistently, Trulli finished fifth on a two-stop strategy, and Ralf Schumacher was the final points-scorer in sixth. Button, Verstappen, de la Rosa, Zonta and Mazzacane (in his first F1 race finish) were the final finishers. The attrition rate was high; only 11 of the 20 starters finished the race.
### Post-race
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and later spoke to the media at a press conference.. Michael Schumacher, who received the winners' trophy from Brazilian footballer Pelé, said his pit stop strategy helped him to win: "In the past, as you may remember, we could not overtake the McLaren entries, regardless of their strategy. Now we are looking a lot more competitive – which is where we wanted to be – and the season could hardly have started better than it has." Coulthard stated that his second-place finish gave him a start on his championship campaign following gearbox issues.: "It must have been entertaining for those who had places to watch at the first corner. Given the circumstances, I am very happy with my six points." Fisichella revealed that his car understeered and oversteered for the first 15 laps until its grip and balance improved. Nonetheless, he expressed satisfaction at finishing third, "This is a great result and will help us to be even more competitive in the future. I am confident about the next race when we will have some new aerodynamic parts."
Approximately one hour after the race, when the cars were subjected to post-race checks at the FIA scrutineering bay by officials, all of the top six finishers, except Fisichella, were found to have excess wear on the wooden planks attached to the floors underneath their cars, in violation of a regulation concerning illegal plank wear. The Ferrari, McLaren, Jordan, and Williams teams had a successful appeal because the bumpy racing surface caused wear from cars bottoming out. All four teams were reinstated after a second inspection caused a 3+1⁄2 hour delay. During the inspection, FIA technical delegate Jo Bauer discovered that Coulthard's front wing endplates were 43 mm (4.3 cm) above the ground (7 mm (0.28 in) too low) rather than 50 mm (5.0 cm) above a line of reference below a car as required by the FIA regulations. Bauer determined that this gave Coulthard a competitive aerodynamic advantage and the stewards disqualified him six hours later. Adrian Newey, McLaren's technical director, rejected the stewards' offer to transport Coulthard's car to Paris for a fair hearing and instead agreed to a set of four measurements in São Paulo. McLaren filed an appeal, claiming that vibrations from the bumpy racing surface damaged and shifted the car's undertray and chassis. A five-man panel heard the appeal on 4 April at a meeting of the FIA International Court of Appeal in Paris. In a 90-minute hearing, they rejected McLaren's appeal and declared the race result final.
This promoted every driver behind Coulthard one position; Button was reclassified sixth and became the youngest driver to score a Formula One World Championship point at the age of 20 years, 2 months, 7 days old, breaking Ricardo Rodríguez's record from the 1962 Belgian Grand Prix. The Brazilian Grand Prix organisers were summoned to a meeting of the FIA General Assembly on 6 April. They were fined \$100,000 for the track's safety issues and the three times qualifying was stopped for falling advertising hoardings. The governing body ruled it "exceptional circumstances" and allowed the track to remain in Formula One. The FIA's president, Max Mosley, said that no increased fine or race cancellation were imposed because the organisers provided evidence to prevent either action from occurring, "Bearing in mind that we allowed the Brazilian promoters to place the signs there – and they probably didn't know what potential there was for the failures which occurred – it seemed only fair to impose the comparatively modest penalty."
Häkkinen limited his media interviews and left the track before the race ended. He expressed his disappointment at having to retire from the race's lead, "Nothing can describe how I feel, We have been quick all weekend, right the way through, so I am not happy to be leaving Brazil without any points. We have some work to do before the start of the European season." Button was quoted in the press as saying that he would rather score points in the race than a court of appeal, "I heard the news about David as I was making my way to the airport to fly back from Brazil – and I can't say it gave me any great feeling of joy. You want to earn any success through your driving skills, not someone else's misfortune." Eddie Jordan, the Jordan team owner, said that both his cars finishing the event demonstrated they could last a full race distance after retiring from the Australian Grand Prix with mechanical issues. According to Frentzen, the team's season had begun in Brazil and required maintenance to improve their performance, "But we are a very strong team with a good atmosphere, I get along well with Jarno and everything is fine so far."
After the race, Michael Schumacher led the World Drivers' Championship by 12 points, with Fisichella moving from fifth to second after finishing second. Ralf Schumacher dropped to fourth, while Barrichello fell to third and Frentzen was fifth. In the World Constructors' Championship, Ferrari increased its lead to 26 points, while Benetton advanced from fourth to second. Jordan's first points of the season put them third, while Williams and BAR were fourth and fifth with 15 races remaining.
### Race classification
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
## Championship standings after the race
Note, only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
Drivers' Championship standings
Constructors' Championship standings |
18,934,072 | Lactarius blennius | 1,134,046,965 | Species of fungus | [
"Fungi described in 1815",
"Fungi of Europe",
"Inedible fungi",
"Lactarius",
"Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries"
] | Lactarius blennius (commonly known as the slimy milkcap or beech milkcap) is a medium-sized mushroom of the genus Lactarius found commonly in beech forests in Europe, where it is mycorrhizal, favouring the European beech (though associations with other trees are known). It was first described by Elias Magnus Fries. Though its colour and size vary, it is distinctive because it is slimy when wet and exudes copious amounts of milk. It has been the subject of some chemical research, and it can be used to produce pigments and blennins. Blennins, some of which have shown potential medical application, are derived from lactarane, a chemical so named because of their association with Lactarius. The edibility of L. blennius is uncertain, with different mycologists suggesting that it is edible (though not recommended), inedible or even poisonous.
## Taxonomy and naming
Lactarius blennius was first described by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries as Agaricus blennius in 1815, before being given its current binomial name by the same author in 1838. Within the genus Lactarius, it is closely related to Lactarius cinereus, another Lactarius species that also favours beech. It has been suggested that the two species (forming a group) could have a coevolutionary pathway with beech. The specific epithet is derived from a Latin adjective blennius, meaning "slimy". Lactarius mushrooms are commonly known as milkcaps, and L. blennius is known as the Slimy Milkcap or the Beech Milkcap.
Lactarius blennius is synonymous with Agaricus blennius (the name under which Fries first described the species in 1815) and Agaricus viridis, a name given earlier by Heinrich Schrader, in 1794. Galorrheus blennius (a name proposed in 1871 by Paul Kummer), Lactarius viridis (proposed in 1888 by Lucien Quélet) and Lactifluus blennius (proposed by Otto Kuntze in 1891) are also now recognised as synonyms. Lactarius albidopallens was originally described as a form of L. blennius as Lactarius blennius f. albidopallens by Jakob Emanuel Lange in 1928, before being classified as a separate species by J. Blum. Lange also described Lactarius blennius f. virescens, which is now recognised as nomen invalidum (an invalid name). Lactarius fluens is another species that has been included in L. blennius; originally described in 1899 by Jean Louis Émile Boudier, in 1999, German Joseph Krieglsteiner suggested that it is actually a variety of L. blennius, naming it Lactarius blennius var. fluens. However today L. fluens is normally regarded as a related but separate species, distinguished by a pale cap margin, less sliminess and a deeper cream gill colour. The situation with Lactarius viridis is similar but with a different outcome; it was first described as a separate species by Quélet in 1888, and then in 1980 A. Marchand proposed that it is in fact a variety of L. blennius, naming it Lactarius blennius var. viridis. In this case the synonymy has become accepted.
## Description
Lactarius blennius has a flattened convex cap that is 4–10 cm (1.6–4 in) across that later becomes depressed in the centre. In colour, it is pale olive to a greenish grey, sometimes a dull green or pale grey-sepia, and has blotches of darker colouration in concentric bands, though the colour can vary greatly. Heavily spotted specimens are also known, and a very brown specimen similar to Lactarius circellatus was recorded in Scotland. The cap is very slimy when moist and has a margin that is curved inwards. The stem is a paler colour than the cap, but also very slimy, and measures from 4–5 cm (1.6–2 in) tall by 1–1.7 cm (0.4–0.7 in) thick, tapering a little towards the bottom. The flesh is whitish, similar in colour to the gills, which later become a creamy or pale buff colour. The gills turn a brownish-grey colour when wounded, and are crowded. In shape, they are slightly decurrent or adnate, meaning that they run a small way down the stem in attachment, or that they are attached to the stem by the whole depth of the gills. The milk is white and dries grey, and is very plentiful. L. blennius spores leave a creamy print, and are elliptic with low warts joined by ridges with a small number of cross-connections, measuring from 6–9 by 5.5–7 μm.
## Distribution, habitat and ecology
Lactarius blennius is very common and is found in broad-leaved woodland, favouring beech; it is most associated with Fagus sylvatica, the European Beech, though it has also been observed growing in association with species of oak. It forms an ectomycorrhizal association with trees, and can grow on a wide variety of subsoil types, but is more typical of acidic soil. It is found between late summer and late autumn, and is native to Europe. The distribution of the mushroom coincides with the distribution of beech. In the British Isles, the species is one of the one hundred most common mushrooms. Other areas in which it has been recorded include Sweden, France, Italy, and Poland.
## Uses
Mycologist Roger Phillips claims that L. blennius is edible when cooked, but not recommended, while others describe it as inedible or even poisonous. The milk tastes very hot and acrid.
Lactarius blennius has been the subject of some research in chemistry. Lactarane derivatives (known as "blennins") have been acquired from the mushroom, including the lactone blennin D, and blennin A, which was first isolated from this species. Lactaranes are chemicals so named because of their occurrence in Lactarius species. Blennins have been shown to be potentially useful- blennin A, for instance (a lactarane-type sesquiterpene) has been shown to be an anti-inflammatory, having a strong inhibitative affect against leukotriene C<sub>4</sub> biosynthesis. L. blennius can also be refined to create a green pigment, known as blennione.
## See also
- List of Lactarius species |
60,512,502 | Pydnae | 1,162,390,270 | Ancient fortress on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey | [
"Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey",
"Former populated places in Turkey",
"Populated places in ancient Lycia"
] | Pydnae (Turkish: Pydnai; Ancient Greek: Πύδναι) is the site of an abandoned Hellenistic fort on the coast of ancient Lycia in Asiatic Turkey between the River Xanthus and Cape Hieron. It was built to defend the road from the coast to Xanthos, then the most important city in Lycia, and was well placed, being near to fresh water supplies and a safe landing area for shipping. During the period when the fort was controlled by the Romans, it was mentioned in the 3rd century Stadiasmus Maris Magni, and listed by Ptolemy in his Geography. During the Byzantine period, the defensive walls were used to protect the local Christian population from raiders.
The ruins, rediscovered by European archaeologists during the first half of the 19th century, consist of a complete circuit of walls, 11 towers and seven sets of steps that lead up to the battlements. The remains of a Byzantine church are also visible. The Lycian Way, a long-distance hiking trail, passes through Pydnae.
## History
Pydnae was a Hellenistic fort on the coast of ancient Lycia, which was situated near the mouth of the River Őzlen. It was first mentioned in the anonymous 3rd century Stadiasmus Maris Magni, a Roman guidebook for sailors, as well as in Ptolemy's Geography (5.3.5), written in the 2nd century, when it was referred to as Kydna.
The fort was built to protect the coast closest to Xanthos, the most important city in Lycia. Situated close to a mountainous promontory, the location protected ships from the dangerously strong winds and currents of the Lycian coast. The nearby small stream flowing into the sea would have been valuable as a fresh water source, which is not very common on the coasts here. Geomorphological studies have shown that Pydnae was originally on the edge of the coast, as was the nearby fort of Bükses. Both forts acted as a form of coastal defence.
Both the fort and the swampy region between Xanthos and the sea acted to protect the city. In the late Roman period, Xanthos was connected to the shore by means of an important road that circumnavigated the swamp, the presence of which is indicated by a 3rd century military boundary stone in the nearby village of Karadere. The road connected the anchorage near Pydnae with Xanthos and nearby Letoon.
There is a Byzantine church in Pydnae, indicating that the fort was once to protect the local Christian population.
### Discovery
The site's existence was first mentioned in the modern period by the Irish hydrographer Francis Beaufort in 1811. On the basis of information provided by Beaufort, the ruins were discovered by the British explorer Charles Fellows, who was to lead archaeological expeditions to Lycia in 1838, 1839, 1841, and 1844. Fellows reported his discovery and provided an account of the ruins in his An Account of Discoveries in Lycia, Being a Journal kept during a Second Excursion in Asia Minor (1841), describing the hillside as "fortified with a beautifully built Cyclopean wall, with towers and loopholes, and showing a fine specimen of an ancient Greek fortification". Within the walls, Fellows found an inscription, and translated it as "To Poseidon; the vow of Mausolus, the Alabarches". He produced a sketch of the site.
Pydnae was also identified by Charles Texier, who led a French archaeological expedition to Asia Minor in 1835.
In 1842 the British Army officer William Martin Leake recognised the fortification as Pydnae. The fort was described by the explorers Edward Forbes and Thomas Abel Brimage Spratt in the same decade:
> From the theatre we rode across a very flat marshy plain, to a short but deep and sluggish stream, called the Uzlan river, which, like many of the streams of the lower part of Lycia, springs full grown out of the base of the mountains. It runs a course of about three miles, and there is a bridge built over it. Uzlan is a small scala of two or three houses, and a rendezvous for Greek sailors. Near it are some massive hellenic walls, as if fortifying a point of rock. Beyond it is the fortress described and well figured by Fellows as Cydna. It is beautifully built, and in fine preservation. The walls are crowned with battlements, which, however, are not part of the original architecture, but subsequent additions, constructed apparently during the middle ages. In the original wall the Cyclepsean and regular styles are mingled. Loop-holes are placed at intervals. Within this fine fortress are the remains of a Christian church.
The English lexicographer William Smith suggested in 1870 that the settlement was referred to by Ptolemy as Cydna, who placed it at the foot of Mount Cragus.
## Archaeology
The German archaeologists Otto Benndorf and George Niemann were among those 19th–century scholars who published a description of the ruins at Pyndae. They recorded that the fortress had one entrance on the east side and another on the north; the towers had doors, an upper floor accessible from the wall parapet, and loopholes. They observed that at seven places around the perimeter there were narrow steep stairs up to the wall. The undergrowth made it difficult for them to explore the interior, and they found no remains of occupation, except the ruins of a church in the east corner. The church, a small east-facing basilica with a nave that was measured to be 15 feet (4.6 m) wide, and made of rubble with mortar. The archaeologists failed to find the inscriptions said to have been seen by Fellows.
The French archaeologist Jean-Pierre Adam has shown that a tower at Xanthos resembles the stonework at Pydnae, which he dates to the 3rd century BC, and has attributed the same date to most of the Xanthos rampart. However, according to the French archaeologist Jacques Des Courtils, the sites have notable differences: Pydnae was built in one homogeneous phase, but the tower at Xanthos shows evidence of having undergone alterations at different times. Des Courtils notes that at Xanthos there is both a semi-circular tower and a round tower, and that those at Pydnae are quadrangular. He speculates that Pydnae was built in the 2nd century (when the round tower of Xanthos was constructed), and suggests that Pydnae may have been part of an important defence program, that included the reinforcing or restoring of the defences of Xanthos and the building of a new fort located near the shore.
Based on evidence from construction techniques, the Turkish archaeologist Cevdet Bayburtluoğlu has dated the fortification to the 1st century or first part of the 2nd century AD. There is also evidence of an aqueduct at Pydnae. The fort's inscriptions are Byzantine.
## Description
Pydnae has a total area of 4 acres (1.6 ha). It is located close to the western end of Patara Beach, on the side of a low hill. The defensive walls of the fort-like structure are 3 feet (0.91 m) thick, and more than 300 metres (980 ft) long. Some of the 11 towers and seven stairways are more than 10 metres (33 ft) high. The walls are still in a good condition, with battlements and a parapet still extant. All the walls are constructed using close fitting polygon-shaped blocks; the only building in the interior is a small church.
The walls at Pydnae are built from closely-fitting polygonal stonework, a form of construction often used in the defensive walls of Lycian cities. It is not usually possible to date such walls, but those at Pydnae have been considered to have coincided with similarly built walls at Xanthos, allowing a tentative suggestion of a date during the rule of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283–246 BCE), a period when Lycia, like all the southern coasts of Asia Minor, was ruled by the Egyptian Ptolemies.
The Lycian Way, a 540 kilometres (340 mi) way-marked footpath around the coast of Lycia from Fethiye to Antalya, passes through the two entrances to Pydnae. The area away from the path, both around and within the site, is overgrown with trees and bushes. |
1,338,293 | Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto | 1,172,964,542 | Fast battleship of the Italian Royal Navy | [
"1937 ships",
"Littorio-class battleships",
"Ships built by Cantieri Riuniti dell'Adriatico",
"World War II battleships of Italy"
] | Vittorio Veneto was the second member of the Littorio-class battleship that served in the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) during World War II. The ship's keel was laid down in October 1934, launched in July 1937, and readied for service with the Italian fleet by August 1940. She was named after the Italian victory at Vittorio Veneto during World War I, and she had three sister ships: Littorio, Roma, and Impero, though only Littorio and Roma were completed during the war. She was armed with a main battery of nine 381-millimeter (15.0 in) guns in three triple turrets, and could steam at a speed of 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph).
Vittorio Veneto saw extensive service during the war. The ship escaped undamaged during the British raid on Taranto in November 1940. Early in the war, she participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento in November 1940 and the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 where she was damaged by a torpedo bomber, and then she was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS Urge in December 1941. She spent 1941 and early 1942 attempting to attack British convoys to Malta, but crippling fuel shortages in the Italian fleet curtailed activity thereafter. Vittorio Veneto was among the Italian ships that were surrendered to the Allies in September 1943 after Italy withdrew from the war, and she spent the following three years under British control in Egypt. After the war, she was allocated as a war prize to Britain and subsequently broken up for scrap.
## Description
Vittorio Veneto was 237.76 meters (780 ft 1 in) long overall and had a beam of 32.82 m (107 ft 8 in) and a draft of 9.6 m (31 ft 6 in). She was designed with a standard displacement of 40,724 long tons (41,377 t), a violation of the 35,000-long-ton (36,000 t) restriction of the Washington Naval Treaty; at full combat loading, she displaced 45,236 long tons (45,962 t). The ship was powered by four Belluzo geared steam turbines rated at 128,000 shaft horsepower (95,000 kW). Steam was provided by eight oil-fired Yarrow boilers. The engines provided a top speed of 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph) and a range of 3,920 mi (6,310 km; 3,410 nmi) at 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph). Vittorio Veneto had a crew of 1,830 to 1,950 over the course of her career.
Vittorio Veneto's main armament consisted of nine 381 mm (15 in) 50-caliber Model 1934 guns in three triple turrets; two turrets were placed forward in a superfiring arrangement and the third was located aft. Her secondary anti-surface armament consisted of twelve 152 mm (6 in) /55 Model 1934/35 guns in four triple turrets placed at the corners of the superstructure. These were supplemented by four 120 mm (4.7 in) /40 Model 1891/92 guns in single mounts; these guns were old weapons and were primarily intended to fire star shells. Vittorio Veneto was equipped with an anti-aircraft battery that comprised twelve 90 mm (3.5 in) /53 Model 1939 guns in single mounts, twenty 37 mm (1.5 in) /54 guns in eight twin and four single mounts, and sixteen 20 mm (0.79 in) /65 guns in eight twin mounts. EC 3 ter Gufo radar, which could detect surface targets at a range of 30 kilometers (19 mi) and aircraft at 80 km (50 mi), was installed in July 1943.
The ship was protected by a main armor belt that was 280 mm (11 in) with a second layer of steel that was 70 mm (2.8 in) thick. The main deck was 162 mm (6.4 in) thick in the central area of the ship and reduced to 45 mm (1.8 in) in less critical areas. The main battery turrets were 350 mm (14 in) thick and the lower turret structure was housed in barbettes that were also 350 mm thick. The secondary turrets had 280 mm thick faces and the conning tower had 260 mm (10 in) thick sides. Vittorio Veneto was fitted with a catapult on her stern and equipped with three IMAM Ro.43 reconnaissance float planes or Reggiane Re.2000 fighters.
## Service history
### Construction
Vittorio Veneto was ordered under the 1934 construction program, and was named for the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, a decisive Italian victory over the Austro-Hungarian Empire in October–November 1918 during World War I. Her keel was laid down on 28 October 1934 at Cantieri Riuniti dell'Adriatico in Trieste, the same day as her sister ship Littorio. Vittorio Veneto was launched on 25 July 1937, and major construction was completed by October 1939. The fitting-out process was greatly delayed due to repeated changes to the design and shortages of heavy armor plate. Before she could begin sea trials, Vittorio Veneto was moved to Venice on 4 October to have her bottom cleaned of the fouling that had accumulated during the long fitting-out period, since the Venice Arsenal had the only drydock in Italy long enough to accommodate a ship the size of the Littorio class.
On 17 October, with the cleaning completed, the dockyard personnel flooded the drydock to conduct stability tests. The new battleship moved to Trieste on 19 October, and her trials began on 23 October. The trials, which also included tests for the ship's weaponry, lasted until March 1940, after which some additional fitting-out work was completed. She was delivered on 28 April, though she was not yet complete. On 1 May, Vittorio Veneto was sent to La Spezia for final fitting-out work, escorted by the destroyers Leone Pancaldo and Emanuele Pessagno. On 6 May, she was loaded with shells for her main battery; the loading work for the main and secondary guns lasted until 20 May. Later that day, she was transferred to Taranto, escorted by the destroyers Ascari and Carabiniere, where she joined the 9th Division of the Italian fleet. The following month, Italy joined the war against Britain and France, though it wasn't until 2 August that Vittorio Veneto and Littorio were formally declared operational.
### World War II
On 31 August – 2 September 1940, Vittorio Veneto sortied as part of an Italian force of five battleships, ten cruisers, and thirty-four destroyers to intercept British naval forces taking part in Operation Hats and Convoy MB.3, but contact was not made with either group due to poor aerial reconnaissance and no action occurred. In addition, British aerial reconnaissance detected the oncoming Italian fleet and was able to escape. On 6 September, the fleet sortied again to attack a British force that had been reported leaving Gibraltar, but the British ships instead steamed south into the Atlantic. A similar outcome resulted from the movement against British Operation "MB.5" on 29 September - 1 October; Vittorio Veneto, four other battleships, eleven cruisers, and twenty-three destroyers had attempted to intercept the convoy carrying troops to Malta. In this operation, the Italian Regia Aeronautica (Royal Air Force) did locate the convoy, but the British were able to evade the Italian fleet.
On the night of 10–11 November, the British Mediterranean Fleet launched an air raid on the harbor in Taranto. Twenty-one Swordfish torpedo bombers launched from the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious attacked the Italian fleet in two waves. The Italian base was defended by twenty-one 90 mm anti-aircraft guns and dozens of smaller 37 mm and 20 mm guns, along with twenty-seven barrage balloons. The defenders did not possess radar, however, and so were caught by surprise when the Swordfish arrived. The first wave struck at 20:35, followed by the second about an hour later. Vittorio Veneto was undamaged in the attack, but three other battleships were hit, two of which were severely damaged. The morning after the Taranto raid, Vittorio Veneto led the Italian fleet to Naples. There, she took over the role of fleet flagship, under the command of Admiral Inigo Campioni.
#### Battle of Cape Spartivento
On 17 November, Vittorio Veneto and Giulio Cesare—the only operational Italian battleships—participated in an attempt to intercept the British Operation White convoy to Malta, though the forces made no contact. On 26 November, the Italian fleet made another attempt to attack a British convoy, Operation Collar, which resulted in the Battle of Cape Spartivento (known as the Battle of Cape Teulada to the Italians). Vittorio Veneto, Giulio Cesare, six cruisers, and fourteen destroyers attempted to catch a convoy steaming to Malta. The British escort included the aircraft carrier Ark Royal, the battleship Ramillies, and the battlecruiser Renown; Italian aerial reconnaissance detected the escorts but exaggerated their strength and Campioni, under orders to not risk his two operational battleships against equal or stronger opponents, broke off the engagement shortly after it began. Vittorio Veneto briefly engaged several British cruisers at the extreme range 27,000 metres (17 miles). Vittorio Veneto fired 19 rounds in seven salvos from long range and slightly damaged the light cruiser Manchester; that was enough for the now outgunned British cruisers, which turned back at the fourth salvo. During the engagement, Ark Royal launched torpedo bombers against Vittorio Veneto, but the latter successfully evaded the torpedoes.
Repeated British air attacks on Naples, one of which damaged the cruiser Pola, prompted the high command to move Vittorio Veneto and the rest of the major warships of the fleet to Sardinia on 14 December. They were returned to Naples six days later, however, after the high command concluded that removing the fleet to Sardinia would allow British convoys from Alexandria to reach Malta with relative ease. On the night of 8–9 January 1941, the British launched an air raid with Vickers Wellington bombers on the Italian fleet in Naples, but the aircraft again failed to hit Vittorio Veneto; Giulio Cesare was slightly damaged by several near misses. Both ships were moved to La Spezia the next day, with Vittorio Veneto providing cover for Giulio Cesare. Vittorio Veneto was now the only operational battleship in the fleet. Giulio Cesare was back in service by early February, as was Andrea Doria. The three battleships, along with eight destroyers, attempted to intercept Force H on 8 February, which was en route to bombard Genoa. The two forces did not encounter each other, and the Italian fleet returned to La Spezia.
#### Battle of Cape Matapan
Vittorio Veneto returned to Naples on 22 March, and four days later led an attempt to attack British shipping off Greece, in company with eight cruisers and nine destroyers. The fleet would be supported by the Regia Aeronautica and the German Fliegerkorps X (10th Air Corps). This operation resulted in the Battle of Cape Matapan; the engagement began when the Italian 3rd Division—comprising the two Trento-class heavy cruisers and Bolzano and commanded by Vice Admiral Luigi Sansonetti—encountered the British 15th Cruiser Squadron. Iachino attempted to maneuver Vittorio Veneto to the east of the British cruisers while they were distracted with Sansonetti's cruisers, but HMS Orion spotted the battleship before she could close the trap. Vittorio Veneto immediately opened fire and quickly found the range, but only inflicted splinter damage on Orion, which fled to the south, back toward the main British fleet. Misfires in Vittorio Veneto's forward-most turret forced her to cease firing temporarily. The Italian gunners quickly returned the guns to action, however, and resumed their bombardment of the British cruisers. Poor visibility and smokescreens hampered the accuracy of Vittorio Veneto's gunners and they scored no hits, though they straddled the cruisers several times. In the course of this phase of the battle, she had fired 92 rounds from her main battery.
During this period of the battle, torpedo bombers from the carrier HMS Formidable arrived on the scene and their attack forced Vittorio Veneto to break off the engagement with the British cruisers to take evasive action. She evaded the torpedoes, but the attack convinced Iachino that the Mediterranean Fleet was at sea, which prompted him to end the operation and return to port. The British launched several air attacks against the Italian fleet in an attempt to slow down Vittorio Veneto, including land-based Blenheim bombers from Greece and Crete. Later in the afternoon Formidable launched a second strike, and at 15:10 one of her Swordfish hit Vittorio Veneto on her port side, aft. The Italian anti-aircraft gunners shot the plane down after it launched its torpedo. The hit sheared off the port side propeller, damaged the shaft, jammed the port rudder, and disabled the aft port pumps. It also caused severe flooding—some 4,000 long tons (4,100 t) of water entered the ship—which gave her a 4–4.5 degree list to port, and forced her to stop for about ten minutes. While she was immobilized, a Blenheim bomber dropped a bomb that landed near her stern; the blast caused further, minor damage to the stern.
The damage control parties had great difficulty in controlling and reducing the flooding, as they could use only emergency hand pumps. Some forward and starboard voids were counter-flooded to reduce the list. In the meantime, engine room personnel were able to restart the starboard shafts and steering could be effected with the backup hand-steering gear. After she got back underway, she was able to slowly increase her speed to 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph) using only her starboard shafts. While the Italian fleet was withdrawing, Formidable launched another air strike of nine Swordfish in an attempt to slow Vittorio Veneto down. But instead of hitting the Italian battleship, they struck the cruiser Pola, leaving her dead in the water. Vittorio Veneto returned to port while two cruisers and several destroyers were detached to protect Pola; all three cruisers and two destroyers were sunk in a furious night action at very close range with the battleships Valiant, Warspite, and Barham. Vittorio Veneto meanwhile reached Taranto on 29 March, where repairs lasted until July. She was not fully operational again until August.
#### Later operations
Vittorio Veneto and Littorio participated in an unsuccessful sortie to intercept British forces on 22–25 August. The British had intended to mine Livorno and launch an air raid on northern Sardinia, but Italian agents in Spain warned the Regia Marina of the British operation when it departed Gibraltar. The Italian fleet positioned itself too far to the south, however, and aerial reconnaissance failed to locate the British. A month later, Vittorio Veneto led the attack on the Allied convoy in Operation Halberd on 27 September 1941, in company with Littorio, five cruisers, and fourteen destroyers. The British had hoped to lure out the Italian fleet and attack it with a powerful convoy escort centered on the battleships Rodney, Nelson, and Prince of Wales. It too ended without contact with the British fleet; neither side located the other, but Italian torpedo bombers hit Nelson. At 14:00, Iachino cancelled the operation and ordered the fleet to return to port.
On 13 December, she participated in another operation to escort a convoy to North Africa, but the attempt was broken off after a British radio deception effort convinced the Italians that the British fleet was in the area. While returning to port the following day, Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS Urge in the Straits of Messina. Urge fired a spread of three torpedoes, but only one hit on her port side. The torpedo tore a hole 13 m (43 ft) long and caused over 2,000 metric tons (2,000 long tons; 2,200 short tons) of water to flood the ship, though the ship's Pugliese torpedo defense system successfully contained the explosion. Vittorio Veneto took on a 3.5 degree list to port and was down by 2.2 m (7 ft 3 in) by the stern. Some counter flooding of a compartment on the starboard side abreast of the forward-most turret reduced the list by a degree, and she was able to steam under her own power back to port. She returned to Taranto for repairs, which lasted until early 1942.
On 14 June, Vittorio Veneto participated in the interception of the Operation Vigorous convoy to Malta from Alexandria. Vittorio Veneto, Littorio, four cruisers and twelve destroyers were sent to attack the convoy. The British quickly located the approaching Italian fleet and launched several air strikes early on 15 June with Wellington and Bristol Beaufort bombers in an attempt to prevent them from reaching the convoy. The aircraft scored no hits on the battleships, but they did disable the cruiser Trento, which was later sunk by a British submarine. Later that morning another air attack, this time B-24 Liberators from the USAAF, occurred. The high-level bombers scored one hit on Littorio and several near misses around her and Vittorio Veneto, but neither ship was seriously damaged. Another British strike with Beauforts arrived shortly thereafter, but Italian and German fighters had since arrived and they shot down two Beauforts and damaged five others. By the afternoon, Iachino had concluded that he would not reach the convoy before dark, and so he broke off the operation; by then, however, the threat from the Italian battleships had led to the failure of the British operation, as the convoy had been ordered back to Alexandria, and did not reach Malta. On the return voyage, another British air attack succeeded in torpedoing Littorio.
### Fate
On 12 November, Vittorio Veneto was moved to Naples from Taranto in response to the Allied invasion of North Africa. While en route, the British submarine HMS Umbra unsuccessfully attacked Vittorio Veneto. An American air raid on the harbor on 4 December prompted the Italians to withdraw the fleet to La Spezia, where it remained for the rest of Italy's active participation in the war. On 5 June 1943, Vittorio Veneto was badly damaged by an American air raid on La Spezia; she was hit by two large bombs toward the bow, though only one detonated. That bomb passed through the ship and exploded under the hull, causing serious structural damage. The damage forced her to be transferred to Genoa for repair work, since the dockyard in La Spezia had also been damaged by the attack. On 3 September, Italy signed an armistice with the Allies, ending her active participation in World War II. Six days later, Vittorio Veneto and the rest of the Italian fleet sailed for Malta, where they would be taken into internment for the remainder of the war. While en route, the German Luftwaffe (Air Force) attacked the Italian fleet using Dornier Do 217s armed with Fritz X radio-controlled bombs. Vittorio Veneto was undamaged but Littorio—by now renamed Italia—was hit and damaged and her sister Roma was sunk in the attack.
Vittorio Veneto remained in Malta until 14 September, when she and Italia were moved to Alexandria, Egypt and then to the Great Bitter Lake in the Suez Canal on 17 October. The two battleships remained there until 6 October 1946, when they were permitted to return to Italy. Vittorio Veneto went to Augusta, Sicily before moving to La Spezia on 14 October. In the Treaty of Peace with Italy, signed on 10 February 1947, Vittorio Veneto was allocated as a war prize to Britain. She was paid off on 3 January 1948, stricken from the naval register on 1 February, and subsequently broken up for scrap.
Vittorio Veneto had been the most active Italian battleship of the war, having participated in eleven offensive operations. Twelve 90 mm anti-aircraft guns taken from Vittorio Veneto were reused by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) as armament of its Žirje Island coastal artillery battery. The battery surrendered without resistance to the Croatian National Guard on 14 September 1991, during the Croatian War of Independence, and played a pivotal role in 16–22 September Battle of Šibenik, helping defend the city of Šibenik against the JNA and bottling up in harbor 34 Yugoslav Navy's patrol boats and minesweepers, one-fourth of the Yugoslav fleet, which were eventually seized by Croatian forces. |
64,968,426 | Quinton Hooker | 1,165,623,705 | American basketball player (born 1995) | [
"1995 births",
"21st-century African-American sportspeople",
"African-American basketball players",
"American expatriate basketball people in France",
"American expatriate basketball people in Germany",
"American expatriate basketball people in Hungary",
"American expatriate basketball people in Poland",
"American men's basketball players",
"Basketball players from Minnesota",
"Bnei Hertzeliya basketball players",
"GTK Gliwice players",
"JA Vichy-Clermont Métropole players",
"Living people",
"Mitteldeutscher BC players",
"North Dakota Fighting Hawks men's basketball players",
"People from Brooklyn Park, Minnesota",
"Point guards",
"Sportspeople from Hennepin County, Minnesota"
] | Quinton Hooker (born January 22, 1995) is an American professional basketball player for SIG Strasbourg of the French LNB Pro A. At a height of 1.83 m (6 ft. 0 in.) tall, he plays at the point guard position.
He attended Park Center High School in his hometown of Brooklyn Park, Minnesota, earning Minnesota Mr. Basketball honors during his senior year after taking his team to the state title game. Nevertheless, he was lightly recruited out of high school and played college basketball at North Dakota from 2013 to 2017, where he was a two-time all-conference selection in the Big Sky during his decorated career. In his senior season he led the Fighting Hawks to a conference title and their first-ever NCAA Division I tournament appearance.
Undrafted out of college, Hooker embarked on an overseas career in Europe, signing his first professional contract with Polish club GTK Gliwice in the summer of 2017. He earned the starting point guard spot in his lone season with the club and noticeably recorded just the tenth triple-double in league history. After a season at French club Vichy-Clermont Métropole, he joined the reigning Hungarian champions Falco Szombathely in 2019, where he played continental basketball in the Basketball Champions League. The team sat atop the domestic league standings when the season was cut short due to the COVID-19 pandemic and no champion was crowned. He joined German club Mitteldeutscher in 2020.
## Early life
Hooker was born on January 22, 1995, to Raynard, who is African-American and Janice, who is white. His father, who played college football at Wayne State College, worked in insurance while his mother worked night jobs. Hooker participated in basketball, soccer, baseball and football in his youth, deciding to focus solely on basketball by the time he was in ninth grade.
## High school career
Hooker attended and played at Park Center Senior High School in Brooklyn Park, Minnesota, scoring over 2,000 points in his career. He was a starter by the time he was a sophomore. In his junior year, he averaged 26 points, seven rebounds and seven assists per game and was named second-team all-state and all-metro. As a senior, he averaged 23 points per contest and led the Pirates to the Class 4A state title game. In addition to earning first-team all-state honors, he was named Minnesota Mr. Basketball as the best player in the state.
On the AAU circuit he played with the Howard Pulley Panthers, although most of the attention focused on his teammate, five-star guard and eventual Duke commit Tyus Jones. Combined with his relatively short stature at 6'0", Hooker was not considered a major recruit. 247Sports rated him a two-star recruit and he was not ranked by ESPN or Rivals. North Dakota assistant coach Gameli Ahelegbe, who had served as a childhood mentor of his, secured his verbal commitment to the school early on. Although he received several mid-major offers and even made visits to schools like Florida Gulf Coast, he signed his letter of intent (LOI) to play with North Dakota on November 21, 2012.
## College career
Hooker played with the University of North Dakota (UND) from 2013–2017, finishing sixth all-time in scoring (just ahead of Phil Jackson), fourth in assists and third in steals. After going 8–22 his sophomore year, he captained the Fighting Hawks his senior year to their first Big Sky conference title (regular-season and tournament) and their maiden appearance in the NCAA Division I tournament.
### Freshman and sophomore seasons
Although he was expected to redshirt his freshman year, the coaching staff felt he was college-ready and informed him he was playing on the day before the first game. He made his UND debut on November 13, 2013, scoring a season-high 17 points against Minnesota Morris, and became a starter late in the season. Hooker played all 34 games that season with modest averages of 4.2 points, 1.9 assists and 1.9 rebounds per game. North Dakota reached the Big Sky conference title game, where they lost to Weber State.
With four guards graduating the year prior, Hooker's minutes doubled in his sophomore season and he was the only player to start and appear in all 30 games, leading the team in scoring (12.8 ppg), assists (4.2 apg), and steals (1.5 spg). He registered his first career double-double with 14 points and 10 assists in an overtime loss to Northern Colorado on January 17, 2015. Two weeks later, he recorded 15 points, 10 assists, nine rebounds in an 80–69 home win over Idaho State, finishing one rebound short of a triple-double. He finished out the season with five straight 20-point games, including a game-high and then-career-high 28 points in their season finale 72–71 win against Northern Colorado. Nevertheless, the Fighting Hawks finished third-last in the conference with a 4–14 record (8–22 overall), failing to qualify for the conference tournament.
### Junior season
In his junior season, Hooker stepped into a leadership role on a team with no seniors. He ranked third in the Big Sky in scoring with 20.1 points per game, which was also the best scoring mark in school history since UND moved up to Division I. He equaled his career-high with 28 points, including 26 in the second half, in their first conference game against Idaho before matching that mark again three weeks later in a 88–72 win at Southern Utah the day after his 21st birthday. On February 4, 2016, he recorded the first triple-double in UND Division I history, tallying 13 points, 10 assists and a career-high 12 rebounds in a 76–60 win over Idaho State. He followed that with an 18-point showing, including four free throws in the closing minutes, that secured a 78–71 victory over league-leaders Weber State, and was named Big Sky Player of the Week for his performances. On February 25, he set a career-high with 38 points in their 80–77 victory against Portland State, shooting 15-for-20 from the field and setting a new UND Division I single-game scoring record. He also surpassed 1,000 career points during the game, becoming just the tenth junior in UND history to reach the mark. Two days later, he scored 34 points in a 97–71 win over Sacramento State on senior night, shooting 11-for-12 and a perfect 5–5 from three-point range. For his back-to-back scoring outbursts he was named Lou Henson National Player of the Week and, for the second time that month, Big Sky Player of the Week.
North Dakota entered the 2016 Big Sky Conference tournament as the no. 5 seed after failing to qualify the year before. They defeated Southern Utah 85–80 in the first round, with Hooker contributing 30 points and eight rebounds. He added 13 points and seven rebounds as UND routed Idaho State 83–49 in the quarterfinals. In their semi-final match-up versus Weber State, Hooker tied his career-high with 38 points on 19 shots, but UND fell in overtime 78–83 to the no. 1 seed and eventual champion Wildcats. He was named to the all-tournament team after leading the first-ever neutral-site Big Sky Championship in scoring with 27.0 points per game. UND finished the season with an 86–89 loss to UC Irvine in the opening round of the 2016 CIT. At the conclusion of the season, Hooker was named first-team All-Big Sky and a Lou Henson Mid-Major All-American.
### Senior season
Ahead of his senior season, Hooker was voted preseason Big Sky MVP by the media. He was named to the Men Against Breast Cancer Classic all-tournament team after averaging 19.3 points and 4.7 rebounds in three games over Thanksgiving weekend. On December 31, 2016, he posted 31 points, five rebounds and three assists in a 90–82 overtime victory over Sacramento State, putting an end to a four-game losing streak. On January 5, 2017, he scored a game-high 20 points in their Big Sky home opener against Northern Arizona, which they won 68–63. On January 26, Hooker filled up the stat sheet with 23 points, seven assists, six rebounds, and two steals, and hit the game-winner with one second left to beat Southern Utah 91–89. He scored a season-high 35 points on February 9 in a 95–86 win over Eastern Washington that broke the second-place tie they had with the Eagles in the conference standings. The team won seven of their last eight regular-season games to finish with a 14–4 Big Sky record and the regular-season conference title.
In the quarterfinals of the 2017 Big Sky Conference tournament, they defeated Portland State 95–72 with Hooker contributing 17 points and seven assists. He recorded 13 points and five assists in their semi-final victory over Idaho. In the finals they faced Weber State, the team that had eliminated UND two out of the last three years. Hooker scored a game-high 28 points, adding five assists and three steals, to lead them to a 93–89 win in the championship game and the school's first-ever berth in the NCAA Division I tournament. As a \#15 seed, they faced the \#2 seed Arizona in the first round of the west regional. Hooker led his squad in scoring in his final collegiate game with 25 points but they were overwhelmed by the Wildcats and lost 82–100. UND finished the season with a Division I-program record 22 wins, while Hooker finished with averages of 19.3 points, 4.6 rebounds and 3.6 assists per game, earning both first-team All-Big Sky and Lou Henson Mid-Major All-American honors for the second year in a row.
### Awards and honors
- 2× First-team All-Big Sky Conference (2016, 2017)
- Big Sky tournament MVP (2017)
- 2× Big Sky All-Tournament Team (2016, 2017)
- 2× Lou Henson Mid-Major All-American (2016, 2017)
- 2× Lou Henson Mid-Major Player of the Year Award finalist (2016, 2017)
- 2× College Court Report Mid-Major Player of the Year (2016, 2017)
- 2× NABC All-District (6) Second Team (2016, 2017)
- Men Against Breast Cancer Classic All-Tournament Team (2016)
- Glenn "Red" Jarrett UND Male Athlete of the Year (2017)
- Lou Henson National Player of the Week
- 4× Big Sky Player of the Week
- Division I single-game school scoring record
- First Division I triple-double in school history
#### North Dakota career ranks
- 5th in games played (128)
- 6th in points (1,787)
- 4th in assists (417)
- 3rd in steals (195)
- 5th in field goals attempted (1,278)
- 10th in field goals made (592)
- 7th in three-pointers attempted (436)
- 7th in three-pointers made (180)
- 7th in free throws made (433)
- 10th in free throws attempted (523)
- 7th in free throw percentage (.828)
Source:
## Professional career
### 2017–20
After unsuccessful tryouts with the Houston Rockets and Minnesota Timberwolves, Hooker signed his first professional deal with newly-promoted GTK Gliwice of the Polish Basketball League (PKL) in August 2017. He credited a 2015 UND trip to Europe as having "opened his eyes to the basketball world outside of the United States." He made his pro debut on September 30, coming off the bench during a defeat to Miasto Szkła Krosno, and by December he was the starting point guard. In an overtime loss to Legia Warszawa on February 11, 2018, he recorded 20 points, 16 assists and 13 rebounds – just the tenth triple-double in PKL history. His 16 assists were also a leaguewide season-high. On March 28 he scored a season-high 40 points, adding 10 assists and five rebounds in another loss to Stal Ostrów Wielkopolski. In 31 games with Gliwice that season, Hooker averaged 15.0 points, 5.0 assists and 4.7 rebounds per game.
Hooker joined the French second-tier club Vichy-Clermont Métropole on a one-year deal in July 2018. He started all 34 regular-season games during the 2018–19 season, averaging 12.1 points, 3.0 assists, 3.0 rebounds and 1.6 steals per game. Vichy-Clermont finished in third place in the league but were upset in the first round of the playoffs by Gries Oberhoffen.
In July 2019 Hooker signed with Falco Szombathely, the reigning Hungarian champions. He made his debut with the team on September 17 as the starting point guard in their Basketball Champions League (BCL) qualifying round victory against Romanian champs CSM Oradea. He registered a season-high 20 points and four assists in a 95–82 league win over Alba Fehérvár on November 2. He also recorded a season-high seven assists to go with nine points in an 89–80 BCL group stage win over PAOK at the P.A.O.K. Sports Arena on December 17. Falco was eliminated from BCL play following the group stage, but sat at the top of the Hungarian League standings when the season was prematurely cut short due to the COVID-19 pandemic in March. No national champion was crowned and no teams were relegated. In 21 league games Hooker averaged 9.2 points, 2.3 rebounds, 2.8 assists and 1.4 steals per game, and Eurobasket.com named him an All-Hungarian League honorable mention for the season. Additionally, he played in 18 BCL games, posting averages of 8.7 points, 3.3 rebounds, 2.9 assists and 1.4 steals per game.
### 2020–present
He signed a one-year deal with Mitteldeutscher of the German Basketball Bundesliga in July 2020. Hooker averaged 14.0 points, 5.2 assists, and 1.3 steals per game. On June 30, 2021, he signed with Riesen Ludwigsburg of the Basketball Bundesliga.
Hooker signed with Bnei Herzliya Basket of the Israeli Basketball Premier League on September 6, 2021. In 2021–22 for the team, he averaged 10.8 points, 4.8 assists, and 1.3 steals per game in 22 games.
On July 4, 2023, he signed with SIG Strasbourg of the French LNB Pro A.
## Career statistics
### College
\|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2013–14 \| style="text-align:left;"\| North Dakota \| 34 \|\| 15 \|\| 17.6 \|\| .393 \|\| .250 \|\| .778 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .2 \|\| 4.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2014–15 \| style="text-align:left;"\| North Dakota \| 30 \|\| 30 \|\| 34.2 \|\| .449 \|\| .441 \|\| .758 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 4.2 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .3 \|\| 12.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2015–16 \| style="text-align:left;"\| North Dakota \| 32 \|\| 31 \|\| 35.5 \|\| .487 \|\| .383 \|\| .858 \|\| 4.9 \|\| 3.5 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .3 \|\| 20.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2016–17 \| style="text-align:left;"\| North Dakota \| 32 \|\| 31 \|\| 36.1 \|\| .468 \|\| .444 \|\| .865 \|\| 4.6 \|\| 3.6 \|\| 1.8 \|\| .2 \|\| 19.3 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\| Career \| 128 \|\| 107 \|\| 30.6 \|\| .463 \|\| .390 \|\| .828 \|\| 3.9 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .2 \|\| 14.0
## Personal life
Hooker has two older sisters, Chelsia and Brehana, who were also athletes at Park Center High School and now work as a registered nurse and at Delta Air Lines, respectively. He also has a younger brother, Amani, who plays as a safety for the Tennessee Titans after a three-year college career at Iowa.
He got engaged to his high school sweetheart shortly before signing his first professional deal. |
2,864,939 | The Great Silence | 1,167,800,141 | 1968 film directed by Sergio Corbucci | [
"1960s French films",
"1960s Italian films",
"1968 Western (genre) films",
"1968 films",
"20th Century Fox films",
"English-language French films",
"English-language Italian films",
"Films adapted into comics",
"Films directed by Sergio Corbucci",
"Films scored by Ennio Morricone",
"Films set in 1898",
"Films set in Utah",
"Films set in the 19th century",
"Films shot in Italy",
"Films with screenplays by Mario Amendola",
"Foreign films set in the United States",
"French Western (genre) films",
"French films about revenge",
"Italian films about revenge",
"Revisionist Western (genre) films",
"Spaghetti Western films"
] | The Great Silence (Italian: Il grande silenzio) is a 1968 revisionist Spaghetti Western film directed and co-written by Sergio Corbucci. An Italian-French co-production, the film stars Jean-Louis Trintignant, Klaus Kinski, Vonetta McGee (in her film début) and Frank Wolff, with Luigi Pistilli, Mario Brega, Marisa Merlini and Carlo D'Angelo in supporting roles.
Conceived by Corbucci as a politically-charged allegory inspired by the deaths of Che Guevara and Malcolm X, the film's plot takes place in Utah prior to the Great Blizzard of 1899. It pits a mute gunslinger (Trintignant), fighting in the defence of a group of outlaws and a vengeful young widow (McGee), against a group of ruthless bounty killers led by "Loco" (Kinski) and the corrupt banker Henry Pollicut (Pistilli). Unlike most films of the genre, which were filmed in the Almería province of Spain to double for areas such as Texas and Mexico, The Great Silence was primarily filmed on location in the Italian Dolomites.
Distributed in most territories by 20th Century Fox, The Great Silence was theatrically released to a mediocre commercial reception in Italy, but it fared better in other countries. Controversial for its bleak and dark tone, the film's reputation grew, and it gained a cult following in the wake of its release. The film was withheld from release in the United States until 2001, when it was made available on DVD by Fantoma Films and Image Entertainment; in Britain, it was first shown in 1990 on the BBC2 program Moviedrome.
Having received several theatrical re-releases, most notably in 2012 and 2017, The Great Silence is now widely regarded by fans and authorities on Spaghetti Westerns as one of the greatest films of the genre, and is acknowledged as Corbucci's masterpiece. Praise has gone to the acting, the utilization of snowbound landscapes, Ennio Morricone's score, and the film's subversion of several conventions of the Western film genre. Retrospective critics and scholars of Corbucci's Westerns have also deemed The Great Silence to be the second film in the director's "Mud and Blood" trilogy, which also includes Django (1966) and The Specialists (1969).
## Plot
Henry Pollicut and two other bounty killers murder a man named Gordon and his wife. To prevent Gordon's son from giving them away, one of the killers slices the boy's throat, rendering him permanently mute. Pollicut becomes a corrupt Utah banker and judge of peace.
Years later in 1898, Gordon's son, now going by the moniker "Silence", operates on a principle whereby he provokes his enemies into drawing their weapons first so he can kill them in self-defense with his Mauser C96. A severe blizzard has swept the frontier, bringing privation to the town of Snow Hill. As a result, much of the community is forced to steal in order to survive. Pollicut, seeking to make a profit by attaining their property after they are killed, places prices on the thieves' heads, attracting the attention of a bounty killer gang led by "Loco". As they prey on the outlaws, Silence works with the bandits and their allies to fight against the killers.
One of the outlaws, James Middleton, leaves the safety of the group to be with his wife, Pauline. James is subsequently killed by Loco when he takes Pauline hostage. Vengeful, Pauline writes to Silence, requesting him to kill Loco. Meanwhile, the newly elected governor, hoping to have order maintained before declaring an amnesty regarding the outlaws, assigns the righteous but bumbling soldier Gideon Burnett as the sheriff of Snow Hill. On his way, Burnett encounters the outlaws, who steal his horse for food. After getting lost in the snow, he finds a stagecoach travelling to Snow Hill, on which he meets Silence, and later, Loco. Upon arrival, Silence meets Pauline, who promises to raise his reward.
Pauline attempts to sell her house to Pollicut, who demands that she becomes his mistress – his reason for putting a bounty on her husband. Pauline bitterly refuses. Silence leaves for the town saloon, and attempts to provoke Loco into drawing. Instead, Loco savagely beats him before Silence fights back. Angered, Loco attempts to shoot him, but he is stopped by Burnett, who arrests him for attempted murder and prepares to take him to a prison in Tonopah. Before leaving, Burnett requests that the townspeople provide food for the outlaws. Meanwhile, Pauline becomes romantically and sexually involved with Silence while tending his wounds.
Burnett and Loco stop by a frozen lake to allow Loco to relieve himself, but he springs a trap, shooting the ice surrounding Burnett and leaving him to die in the freezing water. Loco rides to his hideout and convinces the rest of his gang to confront Silence. Determined to take Pauline by force, Pollicut attempts to rape her as his henchman, Martin, tortures Silence by burning his right hand. Silence overpowers Martin and kills Pollicut. Loco and his gang arrive to look for Silence, just as the outlaws appear at the edge of town to collect the provisions, having been previously advised to do so by Burnett. Deciding to use them to draw out Silence, the gang herds the bandits into the saloon and captures Pauline. Loco tells Pauline to have Silence duel with him – if Silence wins, the outlaws will be set free; if he wins, they will be killed.
Despite Pauline's pleas that the duel is a trap, Silence stands outside the saloon. A killer shoots his left hand, greatly impairing his speed and marksmanship. Loco then stands in the doorway, ready to face the weakened Silence. As Silence begins reaching for his Mauser, Loco reaches for his Colt Single Action Army – but as Silence draws, another wounding shot is fired. Loco fires at Silence's head, killing him. Distraught, Pauline attempts to shoot Loco herself, but swiftly dies as well. The bounty killers turn their guns on the outlaws, massacring the entire group. As Loco and his men prepare to collect their bounties, he takes Silence's Mauser from Pauline's hands. The killers ride out of Snow Hill into the morning sun. A title card explains that Loco's actions resulted in widespread public condemnation of bounty killing, and a memorial was erected in Snow Hill to honor those who died by his greed.
### Alternate endings
#### Happy ending
Due to the bleak nature of the original finale, Corbucci was obliged to shoot an alternate ending to appease his producers, who wanted the film to have a "seasonal" appeal due to its intended Christmas holiday release. Production histories of The Great Silence previously suggested that this "happy" ending was shot specifically for the North African and Asian markets, although there is no evidence to suggest that this ending was seen in either region. Some of the footage shot for this ending did, however, appear in the film's trailers. Because it was believed that no audio elements for this ending had survived, early DVD releases of the film, such as the American release from Fantoma Films, feature it without sound. Later releases, such as the Film Movement Blu-ray, include the ending with synchronized Italian audio.
In this ending, Loco draws his gun without waiting to be prompted by Silence. Suddenly, Burnett, having survived falling into the frozen lake, rides into town on horseback and shoots Loco in the head, allowing Silence to kill the remaining bounty killers. Burnett frees the outlaws as Pauline takes the bandages on Silence's burnt right hand off, revealing a gauntlet that he used for protection, before applying bandages to his wounded left hand. As Burnett takes the thieves to the local jail to await their amnesty, he asks Silence to become his deputy, which he accepts with a smile.
#### Ambiguous ending
Corbucci also delivered another, lesser-known ending to his producers. This version serves as a recut of the intended ending with additional footage not seen in the theatrical version. It was never publicly released until it was included among the special features of Film Movement's Blu-ray.
This ending depicts Silence being shot by Loco's henchman in both of his hands before he can draw his gun; wounded, he collapses to the ground as Pauline watches in shock. Appearing to show a change of heart, Loco gestures to his men to leave the saloon. As a result, the fates of Silence, Pauline and the outlaws are left unknown.
#### Analysis
In reviewing the alternate endings, film critic Simon Abrams believes that the producers' rejection of both of the above endings was justified, describing them as "emotionally dissatisfying conclusions for Corbucci's otherwise harrowing anti-fable". While finding the "ambiguous" ending's failures in its lack of answers for the fates of its characters, he considers the "happy" ending "amusing" due to its attempt to overhaul the film's pre-established tone. He also considers the latter to be of interest to fans of Sergio Leone's films due to Silence's gauntlet serving as a possible reference to Joe's use of a bullet-proof sheet of metal in A Fistful of Dollars.
## Cast
- Jean-Louis Trintignant as Gordon/"Silence" ("Silenzio" in the Italian version)
- Klaus Kinski as "Loco" ("Tigrero" in Italian)
- Vonetta McGee as Pauline Middleton
- Frank Wolff as Sheriff Gideon Burnett (Corbett in Italian)
- Luigi Pistilli as Henry Pollicut
- Mario Brega as Martin, Pollicut's Assistant
- Carlo D'Angelo as the Governor of Utah
- Marisa Merlini as Regina, the Saloon Madam (Régine in Italian)
- Raf Baldassarre as Sanchez's Brother (Bobo Schultz in Italian)
- Spartaco Conversi as Walter, Outlaw Leader
- Remo De Angelis as Fake Sheriff in Flashback
- Jacques Dorfmann (as Jacques Toulouse on French prints) as Miguel, Young Outlaw
- Loris Loddi as Young Silence in Flashback (uncredited)
- Bruno Corazzari as Charlie (uncredited)
- Fortunato Arena as Outlaw (uncredited)
- Benito Pacifico as Stagecoach Driver (uncredited)
- Mimmo Poli as Barman (uncredited)
- Claudio Ruffini as Bounty Killer (uncredited)
Sources:
## Production
### Development
By 1967, Sergio Corbucci had grown weary of making Westerns that varied widely in quality and commercial viability. Having returned to Rome after completing principal photography on the Eurospy film Death on the Run in Athens, he decided that another Western, set during a blizzard — reportedly an homage to two other "snow Westerns", André de Toth's Day of the Outlaw and John Ford's Cheyenne Autumn — would provide a similar change of pace. He had previously considered snowed-in valleys as the setting of Django, although the prior film took place in muddy conditions due to time and budget constraints. According to actor and producer Lars Bloch, this also gave Corbucci an opportunity to visit resorts within the Dolomites, thus allowing him to go on a skiing holiday while making a film. The project was a co-production between the Rome-based production company Adelphia Compagnia Cinematografica and the Paris-based studio Les Film Corona.
Casting English-speaking lead actors in Spaghetti Westerns was a growing practice because it was believed to allow international marketability. Marcello Mastroianni had conceived the idea of a mute gunfighter when he told Corbucci that he had always wanted to appear in a Western, but would have been held back by his inability to speak English. When Corbucci first met Jean-Louis Trintignant, who was hired for the leading role of the film by Les Films Corona after it was turned down by Franco Nero (who had previously played the title character of Django), he learned that Trintignant did not speak English either. To bypass the need for an English-speaking lead, Corbucci decided to turn Trintignant's character into a mute. At the time, Trintignant was known for his role in the critically acclaimed romantic drama A Man and a Woman, and is believed to have accepted the role in support of co-producer Robert Dorfmann, who was a friend of his. Silence was his only role in a Spaghetti Western.
### Casting
Corbucci hired established German actor Klaus Kinski to play Loco, a character who was partially intended to emulate Gorca, the vampire played by Boris Karloff in Mario Bava's Black Sabbath, which served as a major stylistic influence on The Great Silence. Other cast members were established character actors in or outside the Spaghetti Western genre, including Luigi Pistilli, Mario Brega, Marisa Merlini, Raf Baldassare, Carlo D'Angelo, Spartaco Conversi and Bruno Corazzari (an actor often compared to Kinski). Frank Wolff, usually known for playing serious or villainous characters, was cast against type in the semi-comical role of Sheriff Burnett. Vonetta McGee, a then-unknown pre-law San Francisco State College dropout and amateur actress who had moved to Rome to find work at Cinecittà, was cast as Pauline in her first film role. After appearing in Corbucci's film and Luigi Magni's Faustina, McGee was invited to return to America by Sidney Poitier, where she became a major actress in the blaxploitation genre. Alex Cox later cast her as Marlene in his film Repo Man based on her performance as Pauline.
### Filming
Location filming began in late 1967 in Cortina d'Ampezzo (Veneto) and San Cassiano in Badia (South Tyrol). Several Snow Hill scenes were shot on a set specifically built for the film, with log cabins and alpine roofs. Many of the surrounding hills were used for various set-pieces, including Loco's gang's hideout, the way station, the stagecoach route and the Snow Hill graveyard. According to his autobiography Kinski Uncut, Kinski had an on-set affair with actress "Sherene Miller" during the Cortina shoot, while his wife Brigitte and daughter Nastassja enjoyed sledding in the snow. Production then moved to southern areas of Italy; Silence's flashback to his childhood was shot at Bracciano Lake, near Manziana in Lazio. The Elios Film town set in Rome, which had previously been used by Corbucci in Django, was used for several Snow Hill scenes (including the final duel).
Most of the Snow Hill scenes filmed at Elios were shot at night so that the fake "snow" looked more convincing; 26 tons of shaving cream was used to give the street a snowbound look. For the daylight scenes, the Elios set was swathed in fog, to disguise the fact that the surrounding countryside had no snow. Camera overexposure was also occasionally used to avoid continuity errors. The film's costumes were designed by Enrico Job (the husband of director Lina Wertmüller), and were influenced by hippie fashion styles, including mufflers, shawls, and outfits made of fur and leather; Corbucci was known for standing heavily against the hippie subculture. Like other Spaghetti Westerns, the film was shot without direct sound to allow for post-production dubbing in multiple languages; to further accommodate this, Corbucci claimed that he would often direct actors to perform in "numerological diction", a technique also used by Federico Fellini, which required actors to count off numbers in their native language instead of performing lines.
According to McGee, Corbucci was "the nicest man" during production, and "never tried to put the make on" her. The actress attributed this to the frequent presence of his wife Nori on the set, noting that "they were such a happy couple. They made it a great environment to work in." However, at one point while filming, Wolff had to be restrained from strangling Kinski when the latter insulted his Jewish heritage by telling him "I don't want to work with a filthy Jew like you; I'm German and hate Jews." Following the incident, Wolff refused to speak to Kinski unless required to by the script. Kinski later declared that he insulted Wolff because he wanted to help him get into character.
The Great Silence was one of several Spaghetti Westerns produced between 1967 and 1968, along with Enzo G. Castellari's Kill Them All and Come Back Alone and One Dollar Too Many, Sergio Sollima's Run, Man, Run and Sergio Leone's Once Upon a Time in the West, to be showcased in Patrick Morin's made-for-television documentary Western, Italian Style. During the making of the film, Corbucci and Trintignant were interviewed; Corbucci discussed the nature of violence in his films and Spaghetti Westerns in general (comparing the use of violence in such films to the James Bond franchise), while Trintignant spoke of the unusual nature of his role and how he would practice drawing his gun – by pulling a sock (substituting for the gloves Silence wears in the film) off his hand and reaching for a long-stemmed artichoke in his pocket.
### Post-production
Following the film's completion, The Great Silence was, as per standard procedure for a Spaghetti Western, edited in its final, completed form and dubbed into five languages: Italian, French, Spanish, German and English. Subtitled versions were created for foreign markets outside of the dubbed versions. The English-language version was written by John Davis Hart and Lewis E. Ciannelli (the son of Eduardo Ciannelli) and recorded at Via Margutta Studios in Rome under Ciannelli's direction. Among the voice actors for the English version were Carolyn De Fonseca, Edward Mannix, Ted Rusoff and Mel Welles.
Although Hart and Ciannelli's dub script remains relatively faithful to the original Italian dialogue, the meaning of numerous lines and scenes were changed; Ciannelli in particular frequently embellished the dialogue of films in the dubbing stage, such as Arizona Colt. Much of the dialogue concerning the outlaws, such as a remark made by Walter, the leader of the bandits, about their forthcoming amnesty, as well as Loco's conversation with Burnett about the morality of the thieves, were rewritten to imply that most of the outlaws were being persecuted not simply because of their poverty, but for also practising Mormonism. Several of the characters' names were also changed from Corbucci's originals, for example, "Tigrero" became "Loco", "Sheriff Gideon Corbett" changed to "Sheriff Gideon Burnett", and "Bobo Schultz" was renamed "Sanchez".
Film historian Howard Hughes suggests that, despite the implications of a large budget as a result of an international cast, as well as elaborate set and costume designs, there are several aspects that suggest otherwise. These include several continuity errors and revealing mistakes present throughout the film, and a variance in the quality of the film stock. In comparison to the Technicolor/Techniscope presentation most Spaghetti Westerns were filmed in, The Great Silence was filmed in the standard European widescreen format and printed in Eastmancolor.
## Interpretations and themes
### Character and environment subversion
The Great Silence has been interpreted by various film critics and historians as a subversion of various conventions of the Western film genre. Corbucci, who made his left-wing views either the subtext or subject of several of his films, wrote the film's story as an allegory highlighting the corruptions stemming from authoritarian forms of capitalism, which are personified by the sadistic, greedy bounty killers led by Loco (who use the bounties to fuel their desires for violence and money while acting under the law), as well as the schemes of the banker Pollicutt. This is partially in line with the "Classical Plot" of both American Westerns (such as Shane) and certain Spaghetti Westerns (such as A Fistful of Dollars), in which, according to Will Wright, a "lone stranger rides into a troubled town and cleans it up, winning the respect of the townsfolk and the love of the schoolmarm." As a result of his sympathetic portrayal of the outlaws and the demoniac characterization of the people who hunt them, Corbucci's presentation of bounty killers is far more negative than such figures in Sergio Leone's films – the closing title card of The Great Silence contrasts with the opening title card of For a Few Dollars More.
A key aspect of the film that differentiates its stylistic choices from other Westerns is its setting – a snow-bound Utah that contrasts with the desert plains seen in most Western films, American or Italian. The bleakness of the winter landscape complements the dark and pessimistic tone of the film, while providing motivation for the characters, as the living conditions and chances of survival are made more dire. The snowy backdrop isolates the events of the story by providing very little visible geographical detail, and "fair metaphors for the enclosed, cruel world herein" are created.
### Subversion of protagonist
In his analysis of the film, Donato Totaro compares Silence to other Spaghetti Western protagonists, and analyses him in Freudian terms – he is dressed in black (like Corbucci's previous creation, Django), is extremely fast and accurate with his gun, and is anti-heroic, sharing some of his characteristics with Loco (both will kill other people on the grounds that they will receive payment). However, unlike other "strong and silent" Spaghetti Western characters, such as Django or Joe from A Fistful of Dollars, Silence is completely mute, giving him a sense of vulnerability and sensitivity. In contrast to the Colt Single Action Army revolvers used by his fellow Spaghetti Western protagonists and the other characters in the film, Silence's choice of weapon is a semi-automatic Mauser C96 – its rapid rate of fire gives him an unfair advantage over his opponents, therefore his marksmanship comes in part from technological, not physical, prowess. Like Django and Joe before him, Silence's hands are injured prior to the climax, greatly impeding his marksmanship. However, a further link to the bounty killers he fights is established – due to his throat being cut by their kind, Silence frequently shoots the thumbs of his enemies off, rendering them unable to use a gun. Also, unlike Django and Joe, neither his will to survive nor his advanced weaponry can save Silence in the final duel against Loco. The latter then delivers a "symbolic castration", as described by James Newton, upon the hero by taking the Mauser for himself after killing him.
### Pauline's role
The Great Silence, as with many of Corbucci's Westerns, is known for its depictions of strong-willed female characters, namely the mother of the young outlaw Miguel (who requests Silence to kill Loco's compatriot Charlie), Regina, the saloon madam who Sherriff Burnett falls for, and Pauline. Because she seeks vengeance for the death of her husband through Silence, falls for him through shared pain and loneliness, and supports him until they are both killed by Loco, Pauline plays a vital part in the film's narrative. She is also shown to be readily in control of her sexuality, as seen in her refusals to become Pollicut's mistress and her seduction of Silence as she tends to his wounds. Pauline is also African-American, and her interracial love scene with Silence has been seen as highly subversive, both in the context of Western films and commercial cinema as a whole. Corbucci later commented:
> People don't go to the cinema to see love scenes. Buñuel was right when he said the most embarrassing thing, for a filmmaker, is to point a camera at a couple kissing. Nothing is more banal than a kiss. Generally you can't have love scenes in stories which are action-based – though in The Great Silence I shot quite a beautiful love scene between a black woman and a mute. There was something very beautiful and very morbid about it. This was the only love scene I ever included in a film of this genre, where the women are generally bizarre.
### Deaths of protagonists
The deaths of Silence, Pauline and the outlaws at the hands of Loco and his gang are a culmination of the subversive elements of The Great Silence and its anti-authoritarian stance. Killing sympathetic or leading characters was not a new tactic to Corbucci – the title character of his second Western, Minnesota Clay, was seemingly killed at the end of the film's American prints. However, the political context of the later film plays a major factor in the presentation of its thematic concerns: when interviewed by the German magazine Film, Corbucci revealed that he had dedicated The Great Silence to the memories of Che Guevara, Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, as he believed that their assassinations (all three happening while he was making the film) served to further their causes and resulted in widespread condemnations of violence.Alex Cox elaborates:
> Corbucci's widow, Nori, told [producer] Katsumi Ishikuma that her husband had the deaths of [Guevara] and Malcolm X in mind when he conceived The Great Silence ... For the radical, for the revolutionary, both deaths were terrible news. You could only take on the powerful and the wicked for a short while, it seemed, before they crushed you.
In contrast to the deaths of leading characters in similarly countercultural films of the time, such of Ben, Duane Jones' character in Night of the Living Dead, and Wyatt and Billy (Peter Fonda and Dennis Hopper) in Easy Rider, in which said characters are killed by members of similarly disenfranchised groups, the bounty killers are working as part of the State, acting in the service of capital by helping to protect it. What further separates the deaths of the heroes and the anti-authoritarian position of The Great Silence from Romero and Hopper's films is that, unlike Night of the Living Dead and Easy Rider, which were produced without the restrictions of well-established genre conventions, Corbucci's film also subverts and comments on the genre that it is part of; in contrast to the relatively rare circumstances of the face-to-face gunfight at the O.K. Corral — which provided the primary template for cinematic depictions of Old West duels — actual shootouts of the era tended to closer resemble ambushes like the one committed by Loco and his gang. Donato Totaro states that the film's title "is rich in possible meaning, suggestive not only of the great white expansive snow, the lead character's muteness, but the late 1960s political defeats that impacted Corbucci's mood that led him to make one of the grimmest Westerns ever made".
Cox believes that the moral message of the film is that "sometimes, even though you know you'll fail, you still do the right thing". He also adds that by facing an unbeatable foe and dying in the ensuing duel, Silence "becomes the noblest hero of any Western film since Shane".
## Soundtrack
The Great Silence's soundtrack was composed by Ennio Morricone, Corbucci's frequent musical collaborator since Navajo Joe, and conducted by Bruno Nicolai. A melancholic, emotive score, Morricone personally viewed it as his best Spaghetti Western soundtrack aside from his compositions for Sergio Leone. The soundtrack was released on CD, also containing five tracks from Morricone's score for That Splendid November, in 1995, 2005 and 2014. A limited edition LP (consisting of 500 copies) was released by Dagored in April 2016.
In reviewing Morricone's score for Electric Sheep Magazine, Robert Barry expressed that the compositions of the film eschew "the soaring heroic melodies and pounding horse-hoof rhythms of the Leone films" and that the music closely resembles Morricone's own 1970s horror film soundtracks, Florian Fricke's music for Werner Herzog's films, and modernist compositions by Luciano Berio and Pierre Boulez. He also noted that solo violins (playing fifth intervals) and flutes are used in creating Wagnerian leitmotifs to highlight Silence's conflict within the society he is placed in.
In reviewing Morricone's soundtrack for CineAction, Mark Lager described how "The celeste and choir of Silence’s theme (“Restless”) and the trilling flutes of his painful childhood scar show his status as an eternal outsider and wanderer as he drifts through the snowy forest and mountain scenery. The diabolical cackle of the trumpets shows the sinister sneer of bounty hunter Loco (Klaus Kinski) as he guns down his hapless victims. The soaring strings in this score are only present during the love making (“Invito all’Amore”) of Pauline (Vonetta McGee) and Silence (Jean-Louis Trintignant)—a striking scene for its time in its presentation of interracial romance. The strings are otherwise dirgelike and funereal—summoning an existential emptiness of facing the infinite void in the climax (“L’Ultimo Gesto”). “Voci Nel Deserto” is a haunting and sorrowful prayer for the dead: a requiem for the lost lives of 1968."
### Track listing
### Subsequent music covers and samples
The Russian progressive rock band Little Tragedies, the Hungarian band Yesterdays and the Italian group N.O.T. (Noise Overtones Therapy) composed and performed 20-minute pieces based on the film, titled The Voice of Silence, Suite Pauline and Epilogo respectively, as part of the Colossus Project, a musical project set up by the Finnish Progressive Music Association to encourage bands and musical artists to musically interpret the film and other Spaghetti Westerns. The songs were released on the album The Spaghetti Epic Volume Three – The Greatest Silence.
Morricone's music was sampled and remixed by Thievery Corporation for the album Morricone Rmx. The grindcore band Cripple Bastards released an album with the film's Italian title. Anima Morte also recorded a version of the main theme for the 2010 compilation album Cani Arrabbiati – Opening Themes ... A Tribute.
## Release
The Great Silence was released in Italy in November 1968. Due to its graphic violence, the film was awarded an 18 rating in Italy, limiting its domestic box office returns. It performed better in the French and West German markets, largely due to the presence of Trintignant and Kinski. It has been reported that during a screening of the film in Sicily one audience member fired a gun at the screen in anger over the film's ending. The film was released in France on 27 January 1969. In Japan, The Great Silence received a theatrical re-release alongside another Corbucci film, Sonny & Jed, through Cable Hogue and PSC in 1995 as part of a "Spaghetti Western Revival" event.
### Proposed remake and English release
When The Great Silence was screened for Darryl F. Zanuck of 20th Century Fox to see whether the film could be released on the American market, he was offended by the film (to the point where he reportedly swallowed the cigar he was smoking in shock upon watching the ending), and refused to distribute it in the United States. 20th Century Fox did, however, distribute the film in Italy and several other markets. The company also considered a remake of the film starring Clint Eastwood, which eventually evolved into a largely unrelated project by Universal Pictures, Joe Kidd.
The Great Silence made its British premiere on BBC2's Moviedrome block on August 26, 1990, under the title of The Big Silence, where the film was introduced by Alex Cox. Under license from the film's current exhibition rights holder, Beta Film, its first US theatrical release took place in 2012, when an English-dubbed 35 mm film print owned by Swiss film library Kinemathek Le Bon Film was toured in cinema screens across the country. A German-dubbed, English-subtitled print was also screened from November 14 to 25 that same year at the Brisbane International Film Festival.
Following initial screenings at the Festival du Nouveau Cinema, beginning on October 4, 2017, Film Movement announced on October 21 that they had acquired all North American distribution rights to The Great Silence, resulting from a deal that had been brokered between the distributor's president, Michael E. Rosenberg, and Oliver Bachert of Beta Film. The announcement revealed that the film would receive a theatrical re-release in North American theatres, followed by a release on Blu-ray Disc and digital formats. Regarding the acquisition, Rosenberg commented "Following our experiences releasing Time To Die in the States for the very first time, we’re excited to sidle up to bring yet another restored classic western to North American moviegoers, certain to be thrilled by Corbucci’s masterful dark vision". The film began screening in American cinemas on November 12, 2017, at the Winchester Alamo Drafthouse Cinema, utilizing a 2K restoration of the original negative created by Compass Film SRL. Between April 1 and September 27, 2018, the film earned \$53,074 from its North American theatrical run.
### Home media release
Fantoma Films and Image Entertainment released The Great Silence on DVD on September 4, 2001, with their release being the film's first appearance on the American market. The release used an English-language print that was digitally remastered by Zoetrope Aubry Productions, presented in 1.66:1 letterboxed widescreen, with the only audio option being a Dolby Digital Mono mix of the English dub. The DVD's special features consist of a video introduction to the film by Alex Cox, the alternative happy ending (with optional commentary by Cox), and the English version of the film's trailer. Fantoma reissued the disc on January 27, 2004. Glenn Erickson felt that the transfer on Fantoma's DVD was "reasonable but not great" due to the transfer having washed-out colours despite being clean from damage. Erickson also felt that the English dub "still plays as artificial and false, and detracts mightily from Kinski's performance" despite praising the voice acting itself.
In the UK, Digital Classics also released their first DVD of the film in 2004; this release includes the English dub alongside the Italian track with English subtitles, the trailer and the alternative happy ending, but lacks Cox's introduction and commentary. Australian distributor Beyond Home Entertainment's release is identical to Digital Classics' initial release. Digital Classics later issued a second DVD of the film, using an anamorphic widescreen transfer, featuring both the English and Italian tracks, English subtitles and the special features from Fantoma's DVD.
On February 6, 2013, TC Entertainment released The Great Silence on Blu-ray Disc in Japan, using a 1080i, AVC-encoded high-definition transfer of an Italian print and DTS-HD Mono mixes of the Italian, English and Japanese dubs. This release includes the alternative happy ending, the English opening and credits, English and German theatrical trailers, a subtitled interview with Nori Corbucci, a text-based historical overview of bounty hunting and illustrated liner notes as special features. Reviewing the disc for Rock! Shock! Pop!, Ian Jane criticized the disc for the poor quality of its transfer, stating that it "doesn't offer much of an upgrade over that older DVD release at all", and expressed that the film deserved a better high-definition treatment.
German distributor AL!VE re-released the film with remastered, high-definition video and audio (with options for German, Italian and French) on Blu-ray and DVD on December 8, 2017. Their releases include the alternative happy ending, trailers, an audio commentary by filmmaker Mike Siegel, an alternative German "grindhouse" version of the film, several featurettes and image galleries, and a liner notes booklet.
Following their theatrical release, Film Movement released The Great Silence on Blu-ray and DVD in the US and Canada on June 5, 2018. Presenting the film using with the same 2K restoration from the theatrical run, the disc includes Italian LPCM Mono (with optional English subtitles) and English Dolby Digital Mono audio options. Extras include "Cox on Corbucci", a featurette in which Cox discusses the film and its significance in the context of Corbucci's career, the documentary Western, Italian Style, the alternative happy ending (with optional commentary by Cox) and the previously-unreleased "ambiguous" recut of the ending, both with restored audio, original and re-release theatrical trailers, and a liner notes booklet featuring "Ending the Silence", an essay about the film by Simon Abrams. Film Movement's release received positive notices from DoBlu.com, DVD Compare, Rock! Shock! Pop! and Slant Magazine, whose reviewers singled out the video, Italian audio and extras for praise, while deeming the English dub to have been handled with less attention.
British distributor Eureka Entertainment released the film on Blu-ray as the 257th entry in its Masters of Cinema series on November 22, 2021. Presented in a 2K restoration with Italian and English audio options (with English subtitles for the former), this release includes three audio commentaries: one with author Howard Hughes and filmmaker Richard Knew, another with Siegel, and a third with Cox. Other special features include both alternative endings, Western, Italian Style, the "Cox on Corbucci" featurette from Film Movement's release, a new interview with Radical Frontiers in the Spaghetti Western: Politics, Violence and Popular Italian Cinema author Austin Fisher, trailers and image galleries. The initial print run of 3000 copies of the disc also includes a slipcase, a reversible poster, four facsimiles of promotional lobby cards from the film's original release, and a liner notes booklet featuring essays by Hughes.
### 4K restoration
In March 2017, the Cinémathèque Française reported that Cineteca Nazionale, with the cooperation of Italian distribution rights holder Movietime, had authorised a complete restoration of The Great Silence (including the alternative ending) from the original camera and sound negatives in 4K resolution. The restoration was carried out at the film laboratories Augustus Color and Studio Cine in Rome.
## Critical reception
The Great Silence has a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on eleven reviews with an average rating of 8.5 out of 10. It has been widely acclaimed by critics and audiences, and has appeared on numerous lists of the best Spaghetti Western films compiled by audiences, filmmakers and historians. Alongside Django, it is usually regarded as Corbucci's best film and one of the best Spaghetti Westerns not to be directed by Sergio Leone. A contemporary review of The Great Silence in the French newspaper Le Populaire described Corbucci as "an excellent creator of atmosphere and a director perfectly at ease with actors: Klaus Kinski [...] is excellent here".
Time Out gave the film a mostly positive review, writing, "While Django remains the erratic Corbucci's best picture, this slightly later spaghetti Western does well by an inventive set-up [...] between the bullets there's engaging stuff from the two stars and an unmistakable chill in the air". Film critic Leonard Maltin praised the film, awarding it 3 1/2 out of a possible 4 stars. In his review he wrote that The Great Silence is a "brutal, bleakly beautiful spaghetti Western filmed on stark locations in the Dolomites, with one of the most uncompromising and unforgettable finales ever filmed". Kyle Anderson of Nerdist News described the film as Corbucci's "most artful and daring" Western, one that "pushes the genre to new levels and creates a story unlike anything people were used to, even though it's likely more historically accurate". He concluded his review by stating that "If you're looking for a good time on a Saturday night, I'd say this movie is not what you want, but if you're looking for a dark, violent, thoughtful, and well-made film, look no further".
Glenn Erickson of DVD Talk spoke less enthusiastically about the film, but felt that it was a good Spaghetti Western nonetheless. Although praising the locations, as well as the performances of Kinski and Trintignant, Morricone's score, the realistic approach to the story and Silvano Ippoliti's cinematography, he felt that the characterizations were lacking, adding that Corbucci's direction often "drifts and falters" and lacks the "operatic grandeur" of Leone's films. Erickson also expressed that the film's ending was unsurprising given the nihilistic nature of the rest of the film, but noted that he would have been more shocked by it had he seen the film upon its 1968 theatrical release.
In his analysis of the Spaghetti Western genre, Alex Cox described The Great Silence as Corbucci's "tightest, most relentless Western; his best and his bleakest. It's shot in his trademark messy, over-edited, jerky-zoom style, and its telephoto close-ups are frequently out of focus. Yet it is incredibly beautiful". He voiced praise for Ippoliti's strategy of "shooting through things" (a marked improvement over his work on Navajo Joe), the tight script, the strong female characters and the tragic nature of the ending, rooted in Corbucci's pessimism towards the deaths of radical political leaders. Performance-wise, he described Sheriff Burnett and Regina, the film's equivalent of the "cute/funny" characters that had appeared in Corbucci's earlier Westerns, as "tolerable" due to their senses of dark humour and morality, and praised McGee, Pistilli and Brega's acting. Cox also felt that Kinski's Loco was the actor's finest appearance in a Western, and that Trintignant's performance, which might have seemed doll-like in the hands of actors such as Franco Nero, John Phillip Law and Terence Hill, was pulled off "flawlessly. His character's moral quandary, and decision to sacrifice himself, are perfectly conveyed". Noting that Corbucci seemed proud of The Great Silence – "a great work, a great Spaghetti Western, a great Western, a classic of transgressive cinema" – Cox believes that Zanuck's withholding of the international release and its poor domestic performance were key factors in the decline in quality of Corbucci's output following its release.
### Reception of US theatrical run
During its North American 2017-2018 theatrical run, The Great Silence received enthusiastic notices from several reviewers, who tended to note its influence on Tarantino's work. The New York Times''' A. O. Scott felt that the film's "brazen mixing of incompatible elements that defies categorization, imitation or even sober critical assessment. It's anarchic and rigorous, sophisticated and goofy, heartfelt and cynical", and expressed that despite its influence, "this plate of pasta — bitter and pungent, nourishing and perhaps a bit nauseating — should be savored on its own". Simon Abrams, writing for The Village Voice felt that the ending "still hurts so good a half-century later", while Kenneth Turan of Los Angeles Times noted the film's subversive qualities, and particularly praised the opening sequence and McGee's "affecting" performance, concluding that "nothing works out the way these [characters], not to mention audiences who love classic Hollywood westerns, expect. Not even close". Eric Monder of Film Journal International praised the film in its entirety, particularly its political themes and cinematography, as well as the chemistry between Trintignant and McGee and the 2K restoration, which he felt was "so crisp, the production looks like it was finished yesterday".
### Accolades
Shared with Cold Water, Honeysuckle Rose, The Docks of New York and The Changeling, the film won the Best Rediscoveries Award at the 2018 Boston Society of Film Critics Awards following its screening at the Brattle Theatre.
## Influence
The Great Silence has influenced the works of Quentin Tarantino. Describing the film as his favorite "snow Western", he has paid homage to it in Django Unchained and The Hateful Eight. Robert Richardson, the cinematographer for The Hateful Eight, noted that he and Tarantino studied The Great Silence's photography to get an understanding of the intimacy Tarantino wanted to achieve in the film. Upon being asked what his favorite Western films were, Richardson responded with "I do love The Great Silence, because Quentin turned me on to it and I love the cinematic nature of that, in the snow. But I'm going with Peckinpah's The Wild Bunch'' if I've got to pick one". |
54,873,435 | Scythe (board game) | 1,167,098,045 | null | [
"Alternate history games",
"Board games introduced in 2016",
"Board wargames",
"Dieselpunk",
"Games about mecha",
"Kickstarter-funded tabletop games",
"Science fiction board games",
"Works set in the 1920s"
] | Scythe is a board game for one to five players designed by Jamey Stegmaier and published by Stonemaier Games in 2016. Set in an alternative history version of 1920s Europe, players control factions that produce resources, develop economic infrastructure, and use dieselpunk combat mechs to engage in combat and control territories. Players take up to two actions per turn using individual player boards, and the game proceeds until one player has earned six achievements. At this point, the players receive coins for the achievements they have attained and the territories they control, and the player with the most coins is declared the winner.
Stonemaier Games crowdfunded the development of Scythe, raising over \$1.8 million through a Kickstarter campaign. Scythe was released to critical and commercial praise for its gameplay, combination of Eurogame and combat mechanics, theme, and the game artwork, which was produced by Polish painter Jakub Różalski under the name World of 1920+. Three major expansions, a spin-off, and a digital version have been released for the game.
## Gameplay
Scythe takes place in an alternative history version of 1920s Europe that is recovering from the effects of the WWI. Players represent different factions seeking their fortune in the redeveloping landscape. Players build an economic engine by selecting one of four main actions each turn. Each action is listed on the top of a personal player board, and players cannot take the same action in consecutive turns. They may also take a corresponding second action as listed on their player board. Actions allow players to move units on the board, trade for or produce goods, bolster their military for combat, deploy mechs, enlist recruits for continuous bonuses or build structures. The actions themselves may also be upgraded, making them either less costly to enact or stronger when deployed.
Each player is given six stars, which are placed on their player boards when they complete specific goals, such as deploying all four of their mechs. The game immediately ends when one player has completed all of their goals. Players then tally the money that they receive from achievements earned, territory controlled, and gathered resources based on their in-game popularity achieved; the player who finishes the game with the most money wins.
## Development and release
Scythe was designed by Jamey Stegmaier, the CEO of Stonemaier Games, and was revealed as a Kickstarter campaign on October 13, 2015. Backers contributed over \$1.8 million to the campaign. Physical copies of the game were delivered to backers in July 2016; it was later released in Gen Con and other retail stores the following month.
Approximately 130 alternate history artworks were illustrated by the Polish artist Jakub Różalski. The game's theme is set in the 1920+ alternate history universe, which was inspired by the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921, and also later used in Iron Harvest. The plot focuses on the conflict between several nations in Central and Eastern Europe that occurred in the aftermath of World War I. The factions are Polania, Rusviet, Saxony, Crimea, Nordic (based on Poland, Imperial Russia, Imperial Germany, Ukraine, and Scandinavia, respectively). The video gaming website Polygon also stated that the artwork also was "the inspiration for dozens of objective and narrative cards".
During playtesting, Stegmaier asked players to quantitatively rate the game with a maximum score of ten, and described that "when I start to see those ratings creep over 8, I know we’re getting really close". Scythe also includes the Automa, a solo-player mode designed by Morten Monrad Pedersen, who also contributed to other Stonemaier Games products including Wingspan and Viticulture. He stated the difficulty in designing one-player games was for the Automas to resemble human players while being streamlined, which required "a purging of unnecessary mechanics" to reduce the downtime.
### Expansions
Scythe has received three major expansions and several promotional packages. The first expansion, Scythe: Invaders from Afar, was released in 2016. It added new player mats and two new factions into the game, increasing the player count from five to seven. The new factions are Albion and Togawa (based on United Kingdom and Japan, respectively). The second expansion, Scythe: The Wind Gambit, was released in 2017, featuring airships and adding variable end-game conditions to the base game. The Wind Gambit was met with praise for its new victory conditions and components, but the airships were critiqued for providing only limited appeal as the game progressed. In 2017, The Wind Gambit won the Golden Geek Award for Best Game Expansion.
Scythe: The Rise of Fenris was published in 2018 as the third expansion of Scythe. It introduced 11 modules, featuring an eight-episode campaign, two factions (Fenris and Vesna), a cooperative mode, and a multiplayer Automa variant. The Rise of Fenris was met with positive reviews, winning the 2018 Golden Geek Award for Best Game Expansion. Hall praised the storyline, art, and enhancements to replayability provided by the expansion, while Williams described each module as "mind-blowing" and the campaign as "flavorful, exciting, memorable and, most importantly, extremely fun".
Outside of traditional expansions, Stonemaier Games has released several promotional packages for Scythe. Scythe Encounters, published in December 2018, included a set of 32 promotional encounter cards designed primarily from fan submissions. Scythe Modular Board, which alters the in-game map, was released in July 2019. In late 2020, Scythe Complete Rulebook was released. It was compiled by Matt Griepp and Brittany Griepp, and combined rulebooks for the base game and expansions.
### Alternate versions
In 2017, Stonemaier Games published a stand-alone spin-off to Scythe. Titled My Little Scythe, the game was initially a fan project that was later developed into a print and play designed by Hoby and Vienna Chou, which received the 2017 Golden Geek Award for Best Print and Play [fr] game. The game was inspired by Scythe and featured similar mechanisms, but was re-themed and simplified for a more casual, family-friendly experience. Initially, the designer wanted to incorporate the My Little Pony franchise, although due to problems with licensing, the board game is not directly connected to that franchise. An expansion adding two new factions and airships, titled My Little Scythe: Pie in the Sky, was released in June 2020.
In a Techraptor review, Travis Williams praised the game’s accessibility, engagement, mechanics, playtime, and components. This sentiment was echoed by Polygon, which also praised the game's accessibility and mechanics. Michał Szewczyk from Rebel Times concluded that the game is a well-executed if simplified version of Scythe, bridging the world of serious board games and family games.
In 2018, Scythe: Digital Edition, a video game, was released by Asmodee Digital as a digital adaptation of Scythe. The game was released on 5 September 2018 on Steam for PC, including both Mac and Windows. In 2020, a mobile version was subsequently released and available to download on iOS and Android. Iron Harvest, a real-time strategy game inspired by Scythe's 1920s setting, was also released in September 2020, and was positively received for its artwork and thematic setting.
## Reception
Scythe was released to acclaim from board game critics, who praised its mechanism, gameplay, and art. It was listed as one of the best games of 2016 by several reviewers, including William Herkewitz from Popular Mechanics, Aaron Zimmerman from Ars Technica, Tomasz Sokoluk from Rebel Times, and Peter Jenkinson from the Telegraph. The reviewer Aaron Zimmerman described it as a "deep, puzzly, interactive Euro-style board game". Zimmerman also praised the complementary nature of the simple turn structure and the "many complex, interlocking parts" of the engine building mechanics. This sentiment was echoed by Matt Jarvis from Tabletop Gaming, who praised the game's balance of depth and accessibility, the "cleverly designed" player mats, and as the encounter mechanism, which he believed "round[s] out Scythe's in-game universe and offer[s] a more micro-level human edge". Several years after its release, Scythe appeared on a list from The Wirecutter of the best board games. The reviewers praised the game's "immense strategic depth" and "beautiful, steampunk-meets-pastoral idyll world-building aesthetic".
Reviewers particularly highlighted Scythe's use of Eurogame-style resource management and combat mechanics found in American-style board games. Zimmerman compared the simplicity of combat to the systems in Kemet and Dune, describing it as a "tense exercise", but also noted the relative infrequency of combat within the game world. Jarvis praised the "quick and highly strategic" combat system but found that resource production was instrumental for victory. Luke Plunkett from Kotaku also observed that resource management and construction were more significant for in-game success than combat. Różalski's artwork also received significant praise from reviewers, with Charlie Hall of Polygon acknowledging the game's use of artwork as a thematic core for objective and encounter cards and stating that each card "is a treasure". PC Gamer editor Jonathan Bolding also commended the art quality, noting that "[t]he cards have fascinating scenes of agrarian life juxtaposed with smoking dieselpunk mechs and war machines". Reviewing for the Dicebreaker, Alex Meehan praised the artwork displaying both the war setting and its "consequences on the ordinary people". She concluded that it was "a huge draw for players looking for a game with an arresting setting". Sokoluk also stated that the most distinctive element of the game is Różalski's art style, which has helped to create hype for the game even before its debut. Zimmerman was additionally complimentary, writing that the game is "tied together through the stunning art".
The single-player artificial opponent, the Automa, was also well-received. Plunkett praised the functionality of the Automa as "a great way to learn the ropes before getting a crew together", but noted that there were major differences between the game's single- and multiplayer modes. Travis Williams from TechRaptor agreed, saying that the Automa was "slickly designed" and praising its suitability as a non-player faction in multiplayer games.
Scythe received four Golden Geek Awards from BoardGameGeek in 2016, for Board Game of the Year, Artwork & Presentation, Strategy Game, and Solo Game, while also placing as a runner-up for Most Innovative. The game was also well received commercially: as of April 2021, Stonemaier Games had sold over 382,000 copies. Scythe had the highest sales of any Stonemaier Game until 2021, when it was surpassed by Wingspan.
Upon its release, Scythe: Digital Edition received mostly positive reviews upon its release on Steam. Calvin Wong Tze Loon from PC Gamer commended the "slick tutorial", the mechanisms, visuals and the soundtrack; concluding that it was "evocative, clever, and rewarding". Keith Law from Ars Technica also praised the visuals of the adaptation and engagement but criticised the price of 20 dollars and complexity of the tutorial. In a mixed review, CD-Action noted the game's similarity with the original board game, stating that "Its biggest merit in the eyes of purists is arguably also its biggest flaw – Scythe: Digital Edition offers nothing that the original board game wouldn't".
## See also
- Tapestry, a 2019 board game also designed by Jamey Stegmaier.
- Scythemen, soldiers armed with war scythes. |
2,530,984 | Sky Fits Heaven | 1,126,459,890 | null | [
"1998 songs",
"Madonna songs",
"Song recordings produced by Madonna",
"Song recordings produced by Patrick Leonard",
"Song recordings produced by William Orbit",
"Songs based on poems",
"Songs written by Madonna",
"Songs written by Patrick Leonard"
] | "Sky Fits Heaven" is a song recorded by American singer Madonna for her seventh studio album, Ray of Light (1998). It was written and produced by Madonna and Patrick Leonard; the song also contained additional production from William Orbit, and lyrical interpretations from British poet Max Blagg's 1992 poem, What Fits?. Uncredited in the album's official liner notes, Blagg's role in the song was the subject of several publications questioning Madonna's inspiration behind the track. A remix was created by Sasha and Victor Calderone, and was released as a promotional single by Maverick and Warner Bros. on October 2, 1998.
When released, various music critics appreciated Orbit's extensive production on "Sky Fits Heaven". On a list of Madonna's best non-singles compiled by Idolator, the track was ranked at number nine and acclaimed by critic Sal Cinquemani who enjoyed its "heavenly hook". The Sasha and Victor Calderone remix reached number 41 on Billboard's Dance Club Songs chart in November 1998, despite not being released as a commercial single. "Sky Fits Heaven" was performed on Madonna's Drowned World Tour in 2001, accompanied by flying acrobats during a Japanese-inspired sequence.
## Background
In 1992, poet Max Blagg's work What Fits? was used in commercials for Gap Inc., showcasing a new line of jeans worn by American actress Mädchen Amick. The poem was also used in the advertisements for Gap on NBC. Upon viewing them, Madonna contacted Blagg for obtaining permission to use the poem in her new musical material. While composing her 1998 album Ray of Light, Madonna and Blagg reached a deal which would allow the singer to include excerpts of What Fits? within her song "Sky Fits Heaven"; in exchange, Blagg would receive no credit. The lines in particular: "Sky fits heaven so ride it / Child fits mother so hold your baby tight" would be used, with the exception of the first line which would be changed to "Sky fits heaven so fly it".
Upon its initial release on Ray of Light, Daniel Frankel of E! News questioned Madonna's intentions on the track, which he found to be extremely similar to Blagg's work; Frankel was unaware of the agreement reached between the two. George Rush and Joanna Molloy from the New York Daily News first reported the incident on March 12, 1998, and claimed that "Madonna took care of the sticky issue of credit by paying Blagg" and leaving his name out of the album notes. Francesca Chapman from Philly.com summarized the report: "Madonna's muses have ranged from the Virgin Mary to porn purveyors, so it's no shock that her latest inspiration might come from... a Gap ad."
## Composition and lyrics
"Sky Fits Heaven" was written and produced by Madonna and Patrick Leonard, with additional production from William Orbit. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing, "Sky Fits Heaven" is written in the key of D major and is set in time signature of common time with a moderately fast dance beat of 126 beats per minute. Madonna's vocals range from G<sub>3</sub> to B<sub>4</sub>, leading an instrumentation of a piano and a guitar. The song follows a basic sequence of Dm–Am/D–Dm–Am/D as its chord progression. According to Hrisztalina Hrisztova-Gotthardt and Melita Aleksa Varga in their book Introduction to Paremiology (2015), the singer and Leonard use pseudo proverbs to convey general messages often expressed by "real proverbs": "Hands fits giving, so do it / If the caps fits, wear it". Further discussing the track's religious themes, Madonna confessed about the inspiration surrounding both "Sky Fits Heaven" and "Shanti/Ashtangi":
> I feel that talking about it trivializes it. I've been studying the Cabala [sic], which is the mystical interpretation of the Torah. I've studied Buddhism and Hinduism and I've been practising yoga and obviously I know a lot about Catholicism. There are indisputable truths that connect all of them, and I find that very comforting and kind. My spiritual journey is to be open to everything. Pay attention to what makes sense, be absorbed. For me, yoga is the closest thing to our real nature.
The song itself sheds light on Eastern worship prayer through personal methodology, and spiritual connections between herself and her then-newborn daughter Lourdes. Paul Northup from Third Way noted the singer's claim that "all paths lead to God" within the lyrics: "Isn't everyone just / Traveling down their own road / Watching the signs as they go?".
## Remixes and chart performance
Disc jockeys Sasha and Victor Calderone was exclusively commissioned to produce a partnered remix for "Sky Fits Heaven" in 1998. The Sasha Remix was created solely by the former while the more well known Sasha and Victor Calderone mix was composed as part of a collaboration. According to Calderone himself, he had to restructure the entire composition in order for the remix to work properly. Neither of the two musicians were able to personally meet Madonna as part of the job, which Sasha found more pressuring. Calderone would later include the finalized remix, in addition to remixes for both "Frozen" and "Ray of Light" on a demo CD released by Sony Music on October 2, 1998.
Since it was not released as a commercial single or sent for radio airplay, "Sky Fits Heaven" could not appear on any Billboard sales or airplay charts. Although the Sasha and Victor Calderone's Remix version managed to appear on Billboard's Dance Club Songs chart in 1998. The remix itself had only been released to clubs and was not physically available for purchase; however, the aforementioned version and the Sasha Remix appeared as B-side cuts on selected vinyl release of her 1998 single "Drowned World/Substitute for Love", and the respective CD single released in the United Kingdom and Japan. "Sky Fits Heaven" debuted on the chart for the week ending October 24, 1998, at number 45. The track reached its peak position at number 41, and lasted an additional three weeks on the chart before departing in its sixth week total at the bottom position at number 50.
## Critical reception
Billboard's Michael Paoletta appreciated Madonna for helping "shine mainstream 'light' on [the] dance genre" and admitted that he "can't help but get goose bumps" from the recording, while Rolling Stone's Rob Sheffield found it "interesting". As part of reviewing Ray of Light in lieu of its fifteenth anniversary, Stephen Sears from Idolator positively stated that in addition to the album track "Skin", the two songs "sound earth-shaking on a large sound system". In Slant Magazine's list of "15 Greatest Madonna Non-Singles", Sal Cinquemani and Eric Henderson listed "Sky Fits Heaven" at number nine. Cinquemani claimed the song a marvel due to its "heavenly hook" and Orbit's impeccable production. In his book Kate Bush and Hounds of Love, Ron Moy disliked the singer's role of "guesting" on the recording, which he found "typical of the work of ...Orbit". Author Matthew Rettenmund included the song at number 16 on his list of songs released by Madonna. In August 2018, Billboard picked it as the singer's 52nd greatest song, calling it "one of the most musically ambitious tracks of 1990s Madonna, ["Sky Fits Heaven"] blends trance throb with drum n bass propulsion, ambient atmsopherics and even some light rock shredding for a strikingly buoyant soundscape. Madge's Max Blagg-inspired lyrical meditations occasionally border on the impenetrable, but the chorus lifts even higher than expected with an easily comprehended refrain that practically registers as career-defining".
## Live performances
While promoting Ray of Light on February 14, 1998, Madonna performed "Sky Fits Heaven", "Shanti/Ashtangi" and "Ray of Light" at Roxy NYC nightclub. "Sky Fits Heaven" was also included on the Drowned World Tour of 2001, to support both Ray of Light, and her eighth studio album Music (2000). For the act, Madonna appeared swinging from wires in a Japanese-inspired sequence. AllMusic's Clive Young complemented the singer's live rendition of the track, and found it surprising that she "sang every note" to the audience. During the final concert held in Los Angeles at the Staples Center, Madonna's then-husband at the time, Guy Ritchie, appeared as a samurai while wearing a Los Angeles Lakers jersey. The performance of the song on August 26, 2001, at The Palace of Auburn Hills was recorded and released in the live video album, Drowned World Tour 2001.
## Track listing and formats
- CD and 12" single
1. "Ray of Light" – 9:29
2. "Frozen" – 11:25
3. "Sky Fits Heaven" – 10:28
## Credits and personnel
Management
- WB Music Corp./Webo Girl Publishing, Inc. (ASCAP)
- WB Music Corp./No Tomato Music (ASCAP)
Personnel
- Madonna – vocals, songwriter, producer
- Mark Endert – engineer
- Jon Englesby – engineer
- Ted Jensen – mastering
- Patrick Leonard – songwriter, producer
- Pat McCarthy – engineer
- William Orbit – producer
- David Reitzas – engineer
- Matt Silva – engineer
Credits and personnel adapted from the album's official liner notes.
## Charts
## Release history |
33,586,744 | Lisa (Japanese musician, born 1987) | 1,173,623,214 | Japanese singer-songwriter (born 1987) | [
"1987 births",
"21st-century Japanese women singers",
"Anime singers",
"Crunchyroll Anime Awards winners",
"Japanese women pop singers",
"Japanese women rock singers",
"Living people",
"Sacra Music artists",
"Singers from Gifu Prefecture"
] | Risa Oribe (織部 里沙, Oribe Risa, born June 24, 1987), better known by her stage name LiSA, is a Japanese singer and songwriter from Seki, Gifu, signed to Sacra Music under Sony Music Artists.
After aspiring to become a musician early in life, she started her musical career as the vocalist of the indie band Chucky. Following Chucky's disbandment in 2008, LiSA moved to Tokyo to pursue a solo career, making her major debut in 2010 singing songs for the anime television series Angel Beats! as one of two vocalists for the fictional band Girls Dead Monster. In April 2011, she made her solo debut with the release of her mini-album Letters to U. She performed at Animelo Summer Live in August 2010, Anime Expo in 2012, and is a regular guest at Anime Festival Asia.
LiSA's songs have been featured as theme music for various anime such as Fate/Zero, Sword Art Online and Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba. Her singles have regularly been in the top ten of the Oricon weekly charts, with "Crossing Field" being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan and "Oath Sign" being certified gold. She performed at the Nippon Budokan in 2014 and 2015. In 2015, she made her acting debut as Madge Nelson in the Japanese dub of the animated film Minions.
## Career
### Early years and major debut
Oribe was born in Gifu Prefecture on June 24, 1987. She took piano lessons starting at age three, and later took dance and vocal lessons, which continued through her junior high school years. While in elementary, she participated in an audition held at the Nippon Budokan, and it was during this time she decided to become an artist. In junior high school, she formed a band which covered songs by Avril Lavigne, Love Psychedelico, and Ego-Wrappin'.
Oribe began her singing career in 2005 during her first year in high school when she formed a cover band playing indie rock band called Chucky. She chose not to attend university to focus on her work with Chucky, but it eventually became difficult for them to continue performing. Following the band's disbandment in July 2008, she moved to Tokyo to continue her singing career.
In Tokyo, Oribe formed the band Love is Same All with members from the indie band Parking Out and began using the stage name LiSA, which is an acronym for Love is Same All. The band performs with LiSA during the latter's solo live performances. In 2010, she made her major debut singing songs for the anime series Angel Beats! as one of two vocalists for the fictional in-story band Girls Dead Monster. She put out three singles and one album in 2010 under the name Girls Dead Monster on Key's record label Key Sounds Label. The first single "Thousand Enemies" was released on May 12; the second single "Little Braver" came out on June 9; and the third single "Ichiban no Takaramono (Yui final ver.)" (一番の宝物 〜Yui final ver.〜, "My Most Precious Treasure (Yui final ver.)") was sold on December 8. The album Keep The Beats! was released on June 30. LiSA made her first appearance at Animelo Summer Live during the concert's 2010 iteration on August 28.
LiSA made her solo debut on April 20, 2011, with the release of the mini-album Letters to U by Aniplex under Sony Music Artists. The songs on the album were composed by dōjin and major artists, and she composed the first song "Believe in Myself"; she wrote the album's lyrics. On November 12, 2011, she appeared at the Anime Festival Asia in Singapore. She released her first solo single "Oath Sign" on November 23, 2011, which was used as the opening theme to the 2011 anime series Fate/Zero. The single peaked at No. 5 on the Oricon weekly charts and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ).
### 2012–2015
LiSA released her first full solo album Lover"s"mile on February 22, 2012; the album peaked at No. 7 on the Oricon weekly charts. She attended the Anime Expo 2012 in Los Angeles as a guest of honor and performed her first concert in North America there on July 1. After her success with "Oath Sign", she was chosen to perform "Crossing Field", the first opening theme to the 2012 anime series Sword Art Online. "Crossing Field", released as a single on August 8, 2012; it peaked at No. 5 on Oricon and was later certified gold by the RIAJ. Her third single "Best Day, Best Way", which peaked at No. 6 on Oricon, was released on April 3, 2013, and her fourth single "Träumerei", which peaked at No. 15 on Oricon and was used as the opening theme to the 2013 anime series Day Break Illusion, was released on August 7, 2013. LiSA released her second solo album Landspace on October 30, 2013; the album peaked at No. 2 on Oricon charts.
On January 3, 2014, LiSA held a sold-out solo concert at the Nippon Budokan. Her fifth single "Rising Hope", which is used as the opening theme to the 2014 anime series The Irregular at Magic High School, was released on May 7, 2014; the single peaked at No. 4 on Oricon. She later covered the songs "Headphone Actor" (ヘッドフォンアクター) and "Yūkei Yesterday" (夕景イエスタデイ, "Yesterday Evening") from the Kagerou Project franchise for the sixth episode of the 2014 anime series Mekakucity Actors. She released her sixth single "Bright Flight / L. Miranic" on September 17, 2014, which peaked at No. 8 on Oricon, and her seventh single "Shirushi" (シルシ, lit. "Sign") on December 10, 2014, which peaked at No. 3 on the Oricon; the title song is used as the third ending theme to the 2014 anime series Sword Art Online II, and the single also includes the song "No More Time Machine", which was used as the second ending theme to Sword Art Online II.
She held her second Nippon Budokan concert on January 10 and 11, 2015, tickets for which were sold out. She released her third solo album Launcher on March 4, 2015 and her eighth single "Rally Go Round" on May 27, 2015; the song is used as the opening theme to the second season of the anime television series Nisekoi. She was cast as Madge Nelson in the Japanese dub of the animated film Minions, which premiered in Japanese theaters on July 31, 2015. She released her ninth single "Empty Mermaid" on September 30, 2015. In late 2015, she performed "ID", which was used as theme song of the 2015 video game Dengeki Bunko: Fighting Climax Ignition.
### 2016–present
To commemorate her fifth year as a solo artist, LiSA released her Letters To U EP as a limited edition LP on March 23, 2016. She released a mini-album titled Lucky Hi Five! on April 20, 2016. She released the single "Brave Freak Out", which was used as the first opening theme to the 2016 anime television series Qualidea Code, and the single also includes the song "AxxxiS", which was used as the second opening theme to Qualidea Code, on August 24, 2016. She released the single "Catch the Moment" on February 15, 2017; the title track was used as the theme song to the 2017 anime film Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale. LiSA moved to the Sacra Music record label under Sony Music Entertainment Japan in April 2017. She released her fourth studio album Little Devil Parade on May 24, 2017. She held a two-day concert at the Saitama Super Arena on June 24 and 25, 2017. She released her single "Datte Atashi no Hero." (だってアタシのヒーロー。, lit. "Because He is My Hero") on August 2, 2017; the song was used as the second ending theme for the second season of the anime series My Hero Academia. Her single "Ash", which was released digitally on October 1, 2017, was used as the second opening theme to the anime television series Fate/Apocrypha; the single received a physical release on November 29, 2017.
LiSA performed "Thrill, Risk, Heartless" as the theme song for the video game Sword Art Online: Fatal Bullet. The song was released digitally on January 9, 2018. She released two compilation albums titled LiSA Best -Day- and LiSA Best -Way- on May 9, 2018. She released a double A-sided single titled "Akai Wana (Who Loves It?) (赤い罠 (who loves it?)) / Adamas" on December 12, 2018. The song "Adamas" was used as the first opening theme to the 2018 anime series Sword Art Online: Alicization; it was released digitally on October 7, 2018. She is featured on Hiroyuki Sawano's song "Narrative", which was used as the ending theme song of the anime film Mobile Suit Gundam Narrative under the name "SawanoHiroyuki[nZk]:LiSA". Her single "Gurenge" (紅蓮華, Red Lotus), used as the first opening theme song for the 2019 anime series Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba, was released digitally on April 22, 2019 and received a physical release on July 3, 2019. She collaborated with FictionJunction in performing the song "From the Edge" which is used as the first ending theme to Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba. The song was released digitally on September 1, 2019. Her single "Unlasting" was released on December 11, 2019, with the title track being released digitally on October 21, 2019; "Unlasting" was used as the third ending theme to Sword Art Online: Alicization. She appeared at the 2019 Kōhaku Uta Gassen. She released her digital single "Aijō" (愛錠, Love Lock) on August 17, 2020; the song is used as the theme song for Japanese drama series 13. On October 14, 2020, she released her fifth studio album Leo-Nine, and also a single titled "Homura" (炎, Flame); The song was used as the theme song for the anime film Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba the Movie: Mugen Train. "Homura" won the Grand Prix at the 62nd Japan Record Awards.
In July 2020, LiSA's "Gurenge" single surpassed 1 million downloads since its release. The single is the first by a female artist to surpass 1 million downloads in the history of Oricon's digital single ranking chart. It is the third overall single in the chart's history to do so, after Kenshi Yonezu's 2018 single "Lemon", and his 2019 single "Uma to Shika". In October 2020, "Homura" peaked at No. 8 on the Billboard Global 200.
On August 4, 2021, LiSA announced that she would be going on hiatus following reports from Shūkan Bunshun alleging that her husband Tatsuhisa Suzuki had been engaged in an extramarital affair. She later gradually resumed her music activities, beginning with a Hokkaido concert on August 28. She released the single "Hadashi no Step" on September 8, 2021; the title song is used as the theme song to the television drama Promise Cinderella.
On March 24, 2022, Netflix announced that they would stream a documentary film titled LiSA Another Great Day featuring her career; the film was released on October 18, 2022.
In June 2022, LiSA, Abema TV, and TV Asahi announced that the single "Issei no Kassai" would be the theme song for their broadcast of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The single was released in November 2022.
In May 2023, LiSA announced that she would be taking the in-charge for the theme song "REALiZE" for the Japanese dubbed version of the CG animated film Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse, making it LiSA’s first-ever theme song for a Hollywood film.
## Musical style and influences
LiSA lists Avril Lavigne, Oasis, Green Day, Paramore, Ke\$ha, and Rihanna as among her musical influences, as well as her time in Chucky. LiSA wrote the lyrics for some of her songs in her Landspace and Launcher albums, as well as the lyrics for the singles "Bright Flight / L. Miranic", "Shirushi", and "Rally Go Round"; "Rally Go Round" was co-written with songwriter Shin Furuya. LiSA was described by Dennis Amith of J!-ENT as a young woman with style, beautiful vocals, and the ability to take on various musical styles.
## Personal life
Shūkan Bunshun reported that LiSA and Tatsuhisa Suzuki were engaged in May 2019. In January 2020, the two publicly revealed their relationship and announced they had married. On April 25, 2023, LiSA announced the birth of her first child on an Instagram post.
## Discography
- Letters To You (2011)
- Lover"s"mile (2012)
- Landspace (2013)
- Launcher (2015)
- Little Devil Parade (2017)
- Leo-Nine (2020)
- Lander (2022)
## Awards and nominations |
11,908,084 | John Cameron (Alberta politician) | 1,062,666,068 | Canadian politician | [
"1845 births",
"1919 deaths",
"Edmonton city councillors"
] | John Cameron (May 28, 1846 – October 6, 1919) was a merchant and politician in Alberta, Canada and a municipal councillor in Edmonton. He is regarded as one of the city's pioneer citizens.
Born in Canada West (later Ontario), Cameron worked as a merchant in his birth province and Manitoba before coming to Edmonton in 1881. In Edmonton he continued as a merchant, owning and operating a store for 15 years. In Edmonton he quickly established himself as a prominent citizen, serving on the inaugural Edmonton Board of Trade as president, which he would remain for five years. Cameron also was involved in the development of the Edmonton Public School Board, serving on the board in the 1890s. He was also involved in the town's politics, winning election to Edmonton's first town council in 1892 and serving an additional term when elected in 1895. After this retirement from politics, he worked in the coal and real estate business until his death in 1919, at the age of 73. Upon his death, he was lauded as one of the pioneer citizens of Edmonton; a street, neighbourhood and ravine were named for him.
## Early life and career
John Cameron was born at East Hawkesbury, Canada West in 1846, the son of Colin and Anna (née McLaurin) Cameron. His brother was Sir Douglas Cameron, who also went into politics, serving in the Ontario Legislature and as Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba. John attended school in Hawkesbury and Renfrew and in 1871 became a merchant at Vankleek Hill, with a partner in the firm Cameron & Mode General Merchants. In 1876, he went west and relocated to Winnipeg, Manitoba to establish Cameron & Company general merchants, where he remained until 1881.
## Career in Edmonton
Cameron moved from Winnipeg to Edmonton in 1881 by ox-cart, travelling through Carlton and Battleford, bringing with him 96,000 pounds (44,000 kg) of freight on a journey that took three months. Once in Edmonton, he used this freight as the initial inventory of a store, the A. McDonald Company, where he entered into a partnership. In 1891, he would purchase the store from its original owner, A. McDonald. He moved into a new building in 1893, designed by architect William S. Edmiston and constructed by contractor Kenneth McLeod. The building, located on Jasper Avenue, included a cellar, main floor for merchandise and storage, and an upper storey, heated in its entirety by a furnace. He would operate until 1896. After the sale of the store, he entered into the real estate and coal business. In 1914, Cameron was serving as managing director and treasurer of Gainford Colleries Ltd. and as chairman of the provisional directors of the Canada Northwest Loan and Mortgage Company.
He was elected the first president of the Edmonton Board of Trade upon its founding in 1889. He served until 1894. He also played a vital role in the development of the school system in Edmonton, involving himself in education-related affairs as early as 1881, and serving on the public school board from 1886–87 and 1889 until 1897. In 1881, he was part of a group that provided funds for the first school teacher in the city. In 1886, with the school board, Cameron was responsible for introducing a fee for the parents of students attending schools in the Edmonton Public School District who did not live within the district, as district residents were taxed for the school's services. He would serve as secretary-treasurer from 1882 to 1884 and later as chairman of the school board from 1890 to 1892 and 1894.
### Civic politics
Cameron was one of six candidates elected as aldermen to Edmonton's first town council in 1892; he received the fifth most votes of the fourteen candidates. He was defeated in his 1893 re-election bid, in which he finished seventh of nine candidates. He briefly returned to the council after being elected again in 1895, but did not seek re-election the following year and remained out of politics thereafter. During his first term on the council, he was involved in an altercation in which the dominion government had made a decision to Dominion Land Office from Edmonton to Strathcona, at the time a separate town, south of the North Saskatchewan River. When news of the decision and crews to execute it arrived in Edmonton, angry citizens descended on the office and tore to pieces the wagon that the officer was packing with records for transportation. Led by mayor Matthew McCauley, Cameron was part of a group of prominent citizens that headed the resistance, eventually leading to the dominion reversing its decision.
## Personal life
At Vankleek Hill in 1872, he married Jane Vogan. She would die some time afterwards, and John Cameron, aged 29, would remarry Elizabeth Ann McCann on November 8, 1875. They had two sons, John Hilliard and Howard, and four daughters, Mabel, Florence, Alice and Jessie. He was a member of the Edmonton Old Timers' Association as well as the Edmonton Agricultural Society. He was an avid outdoorsman who enjoyed canoeing and hiking in the Edmonton North Saskatchewan River Valley. Along with his wife Elizabeth, he was an early member of the Presbyterian church in Edmonton, attending First Presbyterian Church, where he was an elder. Though he served as an independent on the Edmonton Town Council, he was a Liberal.
## Death and legacy
He died of heart failure in the morning of October 6, 1919 after a brief illness at his Edmonton home. He was survived by his wife and children. After his funeral at his home on Cameron Avenue, he was buried at the Edmonton Cemetery. At the time of his death, the Edmonton Bulletin praised Cameron for his efforts in establishing the foundations of the city Edmonton, and remarked that "the city owes much to him because of his strenuous efforts with others in maintaining this as the permanent site for the city". Elizabeth Cameron died in Edmonton in 1933 at the age of 79.
Cameron Street, the neighbourhood of Cameron Heights, and the Cameron Ravine (in the vicinity of Cameron Heights) in Edmonton are named in honour. |
66,634,020 | Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy | 1,163,900,862 | Transfer of U.S. presidential power | [
"December 1960 events in the United States",
"January 1961 events in the United States",
"Lyndon B. Johnson",
"November 1960 events in the United States",
"Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower",
"Presidency of John F. Kennedy",
"Richard Nixon",
"United States presidential transitions"
] | The presidential transition of John F. Kennedy began when he won the 1960 United States presidential election, becoming the president-elect of the United States, and ended when Kennedy was inaugurated at noon EST on January 20, 1961.
Kennedy placed Clark Clifford in charge of the transition effort. Outgoing president Dwight D. Eisenhower and his administration cooperated with President-elect Kennedy and his team on a number of aspects of the transition to facilitate the peaceful transfer of power. Ahead of the election, Clifford had been studying presidential transitions both independently on behalf of Kennedy and as part of a study being undertaken by the Brookings Institution.
At the time, United States presidential transitions were far less elaborate than they have since developed to be in subsequent decades. Kennedy's transition was a volunteer-run operation. Preparations for the transition started in advance of the election, with Clark Clifford working on behalf of Kennedy to studying past presidential transitions and Richard Neustadt doing the same on behalf of the Democratic National Committee (DNC). After the election, Clifford led the transition and Neustadt continued as an advisor. Top officials of Kennedy's transition were largely individuals that had also been part of his presidential campaign, including Robert F. Kennedy, Larry O'Brien, Kenneth O'Donnell, Pierre Salinger, Sargent Shriver, Stephen Edward Smith, and Ted Sorensen, and Dick Donahue. The transition was largely funded by the DNC.
While Eisenhower and Kennedy each thought negatively of the other at the time of the transition, the two intended to avoid a rough, tension-filled transition akin to the previous one between President Truman and Eisenhower. Ahead of the election, Kennedy's campaign and the administration of term-limited outgoing president Eisenhower had taken some actions to study past transitions and prepare for the 1960–61 presidential transition. Shortly after the election, Kennedy began receiving extensive daily briefings from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), as well as briefings from the Department of State. Eisenhower named White House Chief of Staff Wilton Persons as his administration's representative to the transition. Particularly during the later part of the transition, Kennedy's transition head Clifford and Persons both spoke on the phone and met in person with each other frequently.
## Pre-election actions
A presidential transition was scheduled to occur after the 1960 United States presidential election, as incumbent president Dwight D. Eisenhower was term-limited. In anticipation of this, shortly after the 1960 presidential nominating conventions, Eisenhower created an advisory committee to study presidential transitions, headed by Robert Daniel Murphy.
Planning for a prospective presidential transition by John F. Kennedy began in advance of the election. Clark Clifford and Richard Neustadt were placed in charge of these preparations. The two largely acted independently of one another in researching presidential transitions and advising Kennedy on his potential transition. Clifford worked directly for Kennedy, while Neustadt worked for the Democratic National Committee (DNC).
Kennedy first began to talk with Clifford about his prospective presidential transition soon after winning the Democratic nomination at the 1960 Democratic National Convention. The Brookings Institution discreetly established an advisory group to review past presidential transitions and to help plan for a smooth transition into the next presidency. Involved in this review of transitions was also Laurin L. Henry, who had been writing a book on the subject of presidential transitions (Presidential Transitions), which would be published that November. The Brookings Institution review was funded with a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York. David W. Kendall, incumbent president Dwight D. Eisenhower's White House counsel, was key in establishing this project and bringing both major party candidates into the fold. Shortly after Kennedy received the Democratic Party's presidential nomination, he met with former Frankin Delano Roosevelt administration official James H. Rowe with the goal of discussing how he might prospectively deal with post-election matters. Rowe was a member of the team conducting the Brookings Institution Review of presidential transitions, and their discussion resulted in Kennedy appointing Clark Clifford to participate in the review, advise Kennedy on how he would run a post-election transition, and prepare a memorandum for Kennedy on how to run a transition. The Eisenhower administration had Secretary to the Cabinet Brad Patterson serve as its liaison attend these discussions, while the team of Kennedy's opponent, Richard Nixon, sent Robert E. Cushman Jr. as their liaison.
Neustadt had first been asked by Chairman of the Democratic National Committee Henry M. Jackson to write a memo on presidential transitions, which Jackson received on September 15. On September 18, 1960, days after Jackson received the memo, he held a meeting with Kennedy and Neustadt at Kennedy's house in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C. where Kennedy read the memo and asked Neustadt various questions. Kennedy then tasked Neustadt with elaborating on his memo by creating a report assessing post-election problems for presidents-elect, particularly those regarding organizing a White House staff.
In mid-1960, Kennedy also announced the creation of a special defense and foreign policy committee led by Paul Nitze.
## Organization of the transition
United States presidential transitions were far smaller and more informal at the time Kennedy was elected than they have since become. Kennedy based his transition operations largely out of his personal residence in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C. He additionally held transition planning meetings at his home and other locations in Washington, including his U.S. Senate office, the Democratic National Committee offices, his former campaign headquarters in the Esso Building, Clark Clifford's law offices, and conference rooms at the Brookings Institution. Serving the function of Kennedy's personal offices during the campaign was his Georgetown residence, his family's Palm Beach, Florida residence, and the penthouse of the Carlyle Hotel.
The post-election transition was headed by Clark Clifford, who worked with a handful of close associates of Kennedy. None of the transition workers received financial compensation. The transition relied on volunteer staffers. The transition's top officials were individuals who had been part of Kennedy's presidential campaign. These individuals happened to largely be relatively young, but were also experienced in Washington, D.C. politics. Many were even more so experienced than their counterparts in previous presidential transitions. On November 10, during a meeting in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts with his top advisors, Kennedy assigned them their roles for the transition. Clifford and Neustadt were named the formal transition advisors, tasked with planning the transition. Clifford was additionally named the transition's liaison to the Eisenhower administration. During the transition, Kennedy had Neustadt compile and send him further papers providing specific in-depth analysis of specific positions and jobs in a presidential administration. Pierre Salinger was assigned to be the head of the transition's press team (the press secretary). Kenneth O'Donnell was put in charge of administration and appointments. Sargent Shriver (Kennedy's brother-in-law) was put in charge of the selection process for high-level appointees and Larry O'Brien was put in charge of patronage appointments. Dick Donahue was also tasked with assisting in the process of selecting planned presidential appointees as well as managing communications between the transition team and Vice President-elect Lyndon B. Johnson. Ted Sorensen was put in charge of creating the policy agenda and the writing of statements and speeches. Robert F. Kennedy (Kennedy's brother) was a general advisor to the transition. Stephen Edward Smith (Kennedy's brother-in-law) was in charge of the transition's finances. Additionally advising the transition on certain matters were Kennedy's brother Ted Kennedy and father, Joseph P. Kennedy.
As part of the transition, Paul Samuelson headed an economic task force. Harris Wofford was charged with leading the transition in laying-out policy related to civil rights, as well as selecting civil rights-related personnel. Others who played a role in the transition included James E. Webb. There had been tensions during the campaign between individuals aligned with Sorensen and individuals aligned with O'Donnell. To diffuse any similar tensions if they arose, Fred Dutton was brought into the transition in an initially unclear role to act as a sort of neutral figure.
Kennedy's transition effort had to request funding from the Democratic National Committee in order to pay its expenses. Ultimately, the DNC provided most of the funding for the transition.
## Start of the transition
Kennedy, arguably, did not become president-elect of the United States until November 9, 1960, the day after the election. While The New York Times (among the first outlets to project Kennedy to be the victor) had projected Kennedy's victory shortly before midnight EST on election night, many other prominent media outlets, such as NBC, waited until the morning of November 9 to project Kennedy as the victor.
After Nixon conceded the election on November 9, President Eisenhower sent President-elect Kennedy two telegrams. One of the telegrams was sent to briefly congratulate the president-elect, and the second one saw Eisenhower both promise to cooperate on an orderly transfer of power and give proposals on how to proceed with one. In Eisenhower's second telegram, he offered to meet with Kennedy, "to consider problems of continuity of government and orderly transfer of Executive responsibility on January 20th from my administration to yours". He also named his White House chief of staff, Wilton Persons, as his administration's representative for the transition. He stated that Persons would be prepared to make arrangements by which representatives appointed by Kennedy could meet with heads of executive branch departments. He also suggested that Kennedy's representatives meet with the White House budget office hold meetings to discuss government administration and budget matters and that Kennedy's representatives also meet with the secretary of state in order to receive foreign policy updates.
Kennedy held his first post-election press conference on November 9, where he discussed the transition and announced, for the first time, the names of several individuals that he had selected for his administration. That same day, Kennedy received the memorandum that Clark Clifford had created for him. The following day, Kennedy and his team held a staff meeting in which they went over the three separate memos created by Clifford, Neustadt, and the Brookings Institution.
On November 14, Clifford met with Wilton Persons at the White House for their first face-to-face meeting to discuss the transition. During the meeting, Persons agreed to Clifford's request to have the Kennedy team send an office manager to examine the organizational structure of Eisenhower's White House. It was also at this meeting that the two scheduled the December 6 meeting between the president-elect and the outgoing president. After their meeting, they provided a general summary of the two-hour meeting to deputy White House press secretary Anne Williams Wheaton, who then provided a briefing on it to the press. After this meeting, further transition activities by Clifford and Persons would be done closed doors, with the two receding from the public eye for the rest of the transition. By December 1, the two had held five in-person meetings. As the transition progressed, Clifford and Person would meet twice or thrice weekly with Persons. Clifford was often accompanied at these meetings by Ted Sorenson, and Persons was often accompanied by individuals such as White House counsel Dave Kendall and White House executive clerk William J. Hopkins. They would also have daily telephone conversations. Per instructions issued by Eisenhower several days after the two men's November 14 meeting, Persons kept a detailed written record of his activities in the transition.
## Intelligence briefings for the president-elect
At the November 14 meeting between Clifford and Persons, arrangements were made for Kennedy to receive briefings. Kennedy afterwards received extensive daily briefings from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), including some delivered directly from Richard M. Bissell Jr. and Allen Dulles (Director of Central Intelligence). Kennedy also received briefings from the State Department. Among the subjects that the CIA briefed on Kennedy were covert plans against Fidel Castro of Cuba, as the CIA was planning what would ultimately become the Bay of Pigs Invasion. In response to tensions with Cuba, in March 1960, the Eisenhower administration approved the training of a group Cuban exiles to lead an overthrow of Castro's government. These exiles would later unsuccessfully undertake the Bay of Pigs Invasion. In 1987, historian Carl M. Brauer would fault the fiasco of the Bay of Pigs Invasion on Kennedy and his team having been too trusting of the bureaucratic experts in the government during the transition.
Kennedy was given forewarning on certain Eisenhower administration actions during the transition. For instance, when Eisenhower decided on December 5 to put a pause on the nuclear arm negotiations that were taking place with the Soviet Union in Geneva, Secretary of State Christian Herter decided to inform Kennedy before informing the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union.
## Eisenhower's role in transition and his relations with Kennedy
The presidential transition marked a generational change in the presidency with the youngest person to win a United States presidential election succeeding Eisenhower, who at the time was the oldest man to have served as president of the United States. Going into the transition, Kennedy and Eisenhower had both thought ill of one another, in large part due to conceptions of each other that were shaped by this generation gap. However, Eisenhower, who had failed to run a smooth transition when he was president-elect, understood the costs of a poorly managed transition, and sought overall to help to make Kennedy's transition run smoothly. Moreover, Kennedy also desired to avoid the sort of open antagonism that had been displayed between Eisenhower and Truman during Eisenhower's presidential transition. Kennedy understood that the despite his own harsh judgements of him, Eisenhower was still a popular figure in the opinion of the American public. Eisenhower sent Kennedy a congratulatory message after the birth of the president-elect's son John F. Kennedy Jr. (born November 25, 1960), helping to break the ice between the two of them.
During the transition, outgoing President Eisenhower held two meetings with Kennedy; one on December 6 and another on January 19. The December 6 meeting was the first time the two men had ever had a one-on-one meeting. Outside of large gatherings Kennedy and Eisenhower had both attended during Eisenhower's presidency, their only previous meeting had been a brief interaction Kennedy had with then-commanding general Eisenhower when accompanying Navy secretary James Forrestal to the warfront in 1945. During their post-election meetings they discussed, among other things, nuclear codes and foreign policy topics such as Berlin (tensions between East Germany and West Germany), Guatemala, the Far East, conflict in Asia, Cuba, Pentagon reform, and the operations of the National Security Council. Eisenhower also shared insight into foreign leaders such as Charles de Gaulle, Harold Macmillan, and Konrad Adenauer. Their first meeting, on December 6, saw the two men meet alone for two hours in the White House's Oval Office, before joining several members of the outgoing Cabinet (Secretary of the Treasury Robert B. Anderson, Secretary of Defense Thomas S. Gates Jr., Secretary of State Christian Herter) for a second meeting in the Roosevelt Room. Clark Clifford and Wilton Persons also attended the group meeting in the Roosevelt Room, and White House Press Secretary James Hagerty and Kennedy advisor Pierre Salinger both joined to help write a joint statement to be released by the president and president-elect after the meeting. Their second meeting had been requested by Kennedy, as he particularly hoped to further discuss the Laotian Civil War.
Eisenhower thought that the Kennedy administration would blame him for its failures and take credit for Eisenhower's successes. He worried that any holdovers from his administration would be used as foils by the new administration. Eisenhower discouraged senior members of his own administration from accepting jobs in Kennedy's. For example, when he discovered that C. Douglas Dillon, under secretary of state in the Eisenhower administration, was under consideration to be Kennedy's secretary of the treasury, Eisenhower urged Dillon not to accept the position, warning him that he would become a scapegoat to the "radicals" in Kennedy's administration. Eisenhower was angered when Dillon disregarded his advice and accepted the position. Other Republicans were worried that Dillon holding this role would limit their ability to attack Kennedy on the economy.
Eisenhower's White House executive clerk William J. Hopkins provided the Kennedy transition team with detailed briefing books on the incumbent White House staff, as well as maps illustrating the layout of the West Wing of the White House and the Old Executive Office Building. During the transition, Eisenhower's administration also prepared their documents for transfer to the future Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library.
Per later recounting by some officials involved, in the waning days of his presidency, Eisenhower invited Kennedy to play a role in decision-making on significant issues, but Kennedy declined the offer. Kennedy advisor Ted Sorensen would later write that Kennedy, "thought it was inappropriate, unwise, until he had full responsibility and information to participate in, commit himself to, or even comment or be consulted upon these actions being taken by the outgoing administration between election and inauguration – including a mission to western Europe to improve the payments balance and ending of all diplomatic relations with Cuba." Incidentally, during Eisenhower's own presidential transition from President Truman there were reports that Truman had extended a similar offer which Eisenhower had also declined.
On January 3, with just more than two weeks left in his presidency, the lame duck Eisenhower made a major international relations decision and ended diplomatic relations with Cuba and closed the United States Embassy in Cuba. On January 17, Eisenhower delivered his farewell address. This was considered a significant speech of Eisenhower's presidency, being regarded as the closing "bookend" to his tenure as president.
## Kennedy and Johnson's resignations from the U.S. Senate
On December 22, Kennedy formally resigned his seat in the United States Senate. On January 3, immediately after taking an oath for the new Senate term to which he had been elected in the November 1960 Senate election (which coincided with the presidential election), Vice President-elect Johnson resigned from his Senate seat. That day, at the urging of president-elect Kennedy, Mike Mansfield successfully ran to be senate majority leader at the meeting of the Senate Democratic caucus held at the Dirksen Senate Office Building. After Mansfield was elected to the position, Johnson asked Mansfield to allow him to have office S-211 (which Johnson been using as his office while senate majority leader) and several other rooms as his vice presidential office at the Capitol. He also wanted the Senate Democrats to keep Bobby Baker as party secretary. These two requests were granted. Johnson, as a third request, asked that, as president of the United States Senate (a role which the vice president formally holds), he be made permanent presiding officer of the Senate Democratic caucus, making the (false) claim that Alben Barkley had done the same when he was vice president. The Democratic caucus was shocked when Johnson brought this proposal to them. After made his proposal, Senator Albert Gore Sr. rose and voiced a long litany of concerns about it. Mansfield threatened to resign as majority leader if the caucus did not approve it. While they approved it, the 63 Democratic senators voted only 46 to 17 to approve it, which was seen as a humiliating total for Johnson. After this, Johnson abandoned the idea of serving as the Senate's "super leader", thereby surrendering his position of dominance in the Senate.
## Other activities of Kennedy
Early into the transition, Kennedy had a long vacation at a home owned by his father, Joseph P. Kennedy, in Palm Beach, Florida. His wife, Jacqueline, due to give birth in three weeks (to their son John F. Kennedy Jr.), did not join him, as she had been advised by her doctors against traveling to Florida.
On November 11, Kennedy spoke by telephone with former president Herbert Hoover. On November 14, Kennedy traveled from Palm Beach to Key Biscayne, Florida to meet with Richard Nixon, who was both his presidential election opponent and the outgoing vice president. This meeting had been arranged with the assistance of Kennedy's father Joseph P. Kennedy and former president Hoover. On November 16, Kennedy flew to Texas to meet with Vice President-elect Johnson at the LBJ Ranch. This was the first time that the two had met with one another since the election.
On December 11, Kennedy avoided an assassination effort. That day, Richard Paul Pavlick delayed his planned assassination attempt and was apprehended by authorities four days later, before he could carry one out.
On January 19, after his meeting with Eisenhower, Kennedy and his secretary of labor designee Arthur Goldberg met at the home of Kennedy's friend, William Walton. Kennedy and Goldberg then held a meeting with the AFL–CIO Executive Council, as well as other trade union leaders, at the Carlton Hotel. Also, Kennedy held a meeting at the Sheraton-Park Hotel with the governors of 38 states.
## Meeting of the presidential spouses
On December 9, Kennedy's wife Jacqueline received a tour of the White House from Eisenhower's wife Mamie. This was marked by an unfriendly moment in the transition. Mamie Eisenhower was apparently unhappy with having her husband be succeeded by a Democrat, and herself being succeeded by a woman she held in low regard. Despite Mrs. Kennedy having given birth to her son via caesarean section only two weeks earlier, Mrs. Eisenhower did not inform Kennedy that there was a wheelchair available for her to use on the tour. Sensing Mrs. Eisenhower's displeasure during the tour, Mrs. Kennedy kept her composure while in Mrs. Eisenhower's presence, finally collapsing in private once she returned home. When Mamie Eisenhower was later questioned as to why she did not inform Mrs. Kennedy of the wheelchair available for her use, she simply stated, "Because she never asked."
## Selection of appointees
Kennedy spent the eight weeks following his election choosing his Cabinet and other top officials. Kennedy's top priority after becoming president-elect was to craft his national security team. Kennedy believed that the establishment figures of the United States military were largely too obsessed with nuclear weapons, and too willing to utilize them. Kennedy would, ultimately, craft an administration that saw military decisions placed in the hands of a greater number of civilian figures than had been the case in Eisenhower's administration. On November 9, in announcing his first choices for his administration, Kennedy also announced that he had asked J. Edgar Hoover to remain as director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Allen Dulles to remain as director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and that both had accepted his requests to remain.
Some individuals declined positions in Kennedy's administration. Kennedy offered Robert A. Lovett a position in his Cabinet, but Lovett declined. Additionally, Kennedy had originally offered the position of postmaster general to Congressman William L. Dawson, who also declined. Had he accepted this offer and been confirmed to the position, Dawson would have been first black Cabinet secretary in United States history. To avoid creating a conflict of interest regarding their roles in the transition, both Clifford and Neustadt attempted to remove themselves from consideration for positions in Kennedy's administration. However, before the end of the transition Neustadt ultimately would be designated to serve as the Kennedy White House's consultant on government organization.
Ahead of the election, many correspondences were sent to Kennedy and the Democratic National Committee requesting appointments to government positions. Larry O'Brien was tasked with handling the management of such correspondence. In addition, Vice President-elect Johnson and his staff sent requests of their own for individuals they wanted to see appointed. Requests coming from Johnson and his office were forwarded to Dick Donahue.
On December 17, Kennedy announced the last of his ten Cabinet designees, J. Edward Day for postmaster general. John D. Morris of The New York Times News Service noted of Kennedy's Cabinet,
> It is the first to include two Jews and the first to include a brother of the President and the first in which a member lists his occupation as "foundation executive". Its average age is 47, making it the youngest of the twenieth century but six years older than the first Cabinet of the first President, George Washington.
The age of many members of the designated Cabinet was young. The youngest designee was Robert F. Kennedy, at the age of 35. Robert F. Kennedy was to be the second-youngest United States attorney general, after only Richard Rush, who had been 33 when he assumed the office. Despite concerns about nepotism, Kennedy's father successfully demanded that Robert F. Kennedy be chosen for this position. Two of Kennedy's designees for his Cabinet would be the youngest holders of their designated Cabinet positions: Secretary of Agriculture-designate Orville Freeman (age 42) and Secretary of Defense-designate Robert McNamara (age 44). Morris noted that Eisenhower's initial Cabinet had averaged a decade older in age than Kennedy's designated Cabinet.
Kennedy, a Democrat, designated some Republicans for roles in his administration, including McGeorge Bundy, Douglas Dillon, and Robert McNamara. Dillon, a business-oriented Republican that had served as Eisenhower's undersecretary of state, was to be Kennedy's secretary of the treasury. Kennedy balanced this appointment of a conservative figure by choosing liberal Democrats for two other important economic advisory posts, choosing David E. Bell for the director of the Bureau of the Budget and Walter Heller as chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers. Robert McNamara, who was selected for secretary of defense, was well known as one of Ford Motor Company's "Whiz Kids".
Kennedy rejected liberal pressure to select Adlai Stevenson II as secretary of state, instead choosing Dean Rusk, a restrained former Truman-administration official. Stevenson accepted the non-policy position of United States ambassador to the United Nations.
In his White House staff, Kennedy did not choose a formal White House chief of staff. He instead preferred the idea of effectively acting as his own chief of staff.
During his presidency, Eisenhower had created the first White House Office of Congressional Relations to oversee liaison between the White House and the legislature. Clark Clifford's memo had advised Kennedy not to carry this over into his White House, as he believed the vice president would serve as an effective-enough liaison between the president and the Congress. He also believed that the chairman of the Democratic National Committee and Democratic National Committee staff would be able to sufficiently sort out demands related to patronage coming from congressional Democrats, making such a liaison unnecessary for that concern. In a November meeting between Kennedy and Richard Neustadt, the matter of congressional liaison had been discussed. In a December 7, 1960, follow-up paper that Neustadt had written recalled their discussion on this. This paper makes it evident that Kennedy had rejected the advice from Clifford to have the Democratic National Committee handle patronage concerns, and instead opted to have a senior aide do so in the function of a congressional liaison, making this one of the concerns that Larry O'Brien would be assigned to deal this in his position.
### Defense and foreign policy
- Robert McNamara, secretary of defense (announced December 13, 1960)
- Dean Rusk, secretary of state (announced December 12, 1960)
- Adlai Stevenson II, United States ambassador to the United Nations (announced December 12, 1960)
- Eugene M. Zuckert, secretary of the Air Force (announced December 28, 1960)
- Elvis Jacob Stahr Jr. secretary of the Army
- John Connally, secretary of the Navy (announced December 28, 1960)
- Allen Dulles, director of the Central Intelligence Agency (announced November 9, 1960) incumbent officeholder
- J. Edgar Hoover, director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (announced November 9, 1960) incumbent officeholder
- McGeorge Bundy, national security advisor (announced December 31, 1960)
- Roswell Gilpatric, deputy secretary of defense
- Chester B. Bowles, under secretary of state
- George Ball, under secretary of state for economic affairs
- Joseph V. Charyk, under secretary of the Air Force incumbent officeholder
- G. Mennen Williams, assistant secretary of state for African affairs
- Roger W. Jones, deputy under secretary of state for administration
- Angier Biddle Duke, chief of protocol
- Lyle S. Garlock, assistant secretary of the Air Force for financial management incumbent officeholder
- James H. Wakelin Jr., assistant secretary of the Navy for research and development incumbent officeholder
- Walt Whitman Rostow, deputy national security advisor
- Charles E. Bohlen, special advisor on Soviet affairs
- W. Averell Harriman, special ambassador at large
- John Kenneth Galbraith, United States ambassador to India
- David K. E. Bruce, United States ambassador to the United Kingdom
- Herschel C. Loveless, member of the Federal Renegotiation Board
- John J. McCloy, chief of the U.S. Disarmament Administration
- George McGovern, director of Food for Peace
### Domestic policy
- Robert F. Kennedy, attorney general (announced December 16, 1960)
- J. Edward Day, postmaster general (announced December 16, 1960)
- Orville Freeman, secretary of agriculture (announced December 15, 1960)
- Luther H. Hodges, secretary of commerce (announced December 8, 1960)
- Abraham Ribicoff, secretary of health, education, and welfare (announced December 1, 1960)
- Stewart Udall, secretary of the interior (announced December 7, 1960)
- Arthur Goldberg, secretary of labor (announced December 15, 1960)
- Luther Terry, surgeon general (announced January 16, 1961)
- Byron White, deputy attorney general (announced December 16, 1960)
- W. Willard Wirtz, undersecretary of labor (announced January 8, 1961)
- H. H. Brawley, deputy postmaster general
- James K. Carr, under secretary of the interior (announced January 12, 1961)
- Edward Gudeman, under secretary of commerce
- Archibald Cox, solicitor general of the United States (announced December 28, 1960)
- Robert C. Weaver, administrator of the Housing and Home Finance Agency (announced December 31, 1960)
- Newton N. Minow, chairman of the chairman of the Federal Communications Commission
- Rex Marion Whitton, administrator of the Federal Highway Administration
- Harry J. Anslinger, commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (announced December 16, 1960) incumbent officeholder
- Floyd Dominy, commissioner of the United States Bureau of Reclamation (announced January 12, 1961) incumbent officeholder
- John S. Gleason Jr., administrator of Veterans Affairs
- Robert J. Burkhardt, assistant postmaster general for facilities
- Ralph W. Nicholson, assistant postmaster general for finance
- Frederick C. Belen, assistant postmaster general for postal operations
- James M. Quigley, assistant secretary of health, education and welfare for federal and state matters (announced January 16, 1961)
- Wilbur J. Cohen, assistant secretary of health, education, and welfare for legislative matters (announced January 16, 1961)
- Boisfeuillet Jones, assistant secretary of health, education and welfare for health and medical affairs (announced December 31, 1960)
- Kenneth Holum, assistant secretary of the interior for water and power (announced January 12, 1961)
- John A. Carver Jr., assistant secretary of the interior for public lands management (announced January 12, 1961)
- Jerry R. Holleman, assistant secretary of labor
- James J. Reynolds, assistant secretary of labor (announced January 8, 1961)
- George C. Lodge, assistant secretary of labor for international affairs incumbent officeholder
- George Leon-Paul Weaver, special assistant to the secretary of labor (announced January 8, 1961)
- Frank Barry, Department of the Interior solicitor general (announced January 12, 1961)
- Charles Donahue, Department of Labor solicitor (announced January 8, 1961)
- Alan Willcox, general counsel of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare
- Glenn T. Seaborg, chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission (announced January 16, 1961)
- Michael Monroney, United States Postal Service executive assistant for White House and congressional liaison
### Economic policy
- C. Douglas Dillon, secretary of the treasury (announced December 16, 1960)
- David E. Bell, director of the Bureau of the Budget
- Elizabeth Rudel Smith, treasurer of the United States (announced December 18, 1960)
- Harry J. Anslinger, commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics incumbent officeholder
- John M. Leddy, assistant secretary of the treasury for international affairs (announced January 16, 1961)
- David E. Bell, director of the Bureau of the Budget
- Walter Heller, chair of the Council of Economic Advisers
- John E. Horne, administrator of the Small Business Administration
- Henry H. Fowler, under secretary of the treasury
- Robert Roosa, under secretary of the treasury for monetary affairs
- Elmer B. Staats, deputy director of the Bureau of the Budget incumbent officeholder
- Esther Peterson, director of the United States Women's Bureau and assistant to the Secretary of Labor (announced January 8, 1961)
- Kermit Gordon, member of the Council of Economic Advisers
- James Tobin, member of the Council of Economic Advisers
- George Docking, director of the Export-Import Bank
### White House staff
- Pierre Salinger, White House press secretary (announced November 9, 1960)
- Andrew Hatcher, associate White House press secretary (announced November 9, 1960)
- Ted Sorensen, White House counsel (announced November 9, 1960)
- Kenneth O'Donnell, secretary to the president (announced November 9, 1960)
- Fred Dutton, White House Cabinet secretary
- Ralph A. Dungan, White House staff secretary
- Larry O'Brien, assistant to the president for Congressional relations
- David Powers, special assistant to the president
- James M. Landis, special assistant to the president
- Timothy Reardon, administrative assistant to the president
- Richard Neustadt, consultant on government organization
### Other
- John Moore, administrator of the General Services Administration
- Bernard L. Boutin, deputy administrator of the General Services Administration
- John Macy, chairman of the Civil Service Commission
## Impact on Kennedy's presidency
As his transition had, Kennedy's presidential administration would come to often consult Brookings Institute briefing papers. In 1987, historian Carl M. Brauer would fault Kennedy's authorization of the failed the Bay of Pigs Invasion on Kennedy and his team having been too trusting of the bureaucratic experts in the government during his presidential transition. |
4,520,084 | From Elvis in Memphis | 1,168,994,291 | null | [
"1969 albums",
"Albums produced by Chips Moman",
"Albums produced by Felton Jarvis",
"Elvis Presley albums",
"Legacy Recordings albums",
"RCA Records albums",
"RCA Victor albums"
] | From Elvis in Memphis is the 10th studio album by American rock and roll singer Elvis Presley. It was released by RCA Records on June 2, 1969. It was recorded at American Sound Studio in Memphis in January and February 1969 under the direction of producer Chips Moman and backed by its house band, informally known as the Memphis Boys. Following the success of Presley's TV special Elvis and its soundtrack, the album marked Presley's return to non-soundtrack albums after the completion of his film contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
Presley's entourage convinced him to leave the RCA studios and record this album at American Sound, a Memphis studio at the peak of a hit-producing streak. The reason was for the southern soul sound of the house band, the Memphis Boys. The predominance of country songs among those recorded in these sessions gave them the feel of the "country soul" style. This impression was emphasized by the frequent use of the dobro in the arrangements.
From Elvis in Memphis was released in June 1969 to favorable reviews. It reached number 13 on the Billboard 200, number two on the country charts and number one in the United Kingdom, and its single "In the Ghetto" reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1970. In later years, it garnered further favorable reviews, while it was ranked number 190 on Rolling Stone's 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.
## Background
After Presley's 1960 return from military service, his manager, Colonel Tom Parker, shifted the focus of his career from live music and albums to films and soundtracks. In March 1961, Presley performed his last live concert for eight years: a benefit for the construction of the USS Arizona Memorial at Boch Arena in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. During the first half of the 1960s, three of Presley's soundtrack albums reached number one on the pop charts and a number of his most popular songs were from his films, including 1961's "Can't Help Falling in Love" and 1962's "Return to Sender".
After 1964, Parker decided that Presley should only record soundtrack albums. He viewed the films and soundtracks as complementary, with each helping to promote the other. However, the commercial success of Presley's films and soundtracks steadily diminished (Paradise, Hawaiian Style; Easy Come, Easy Go; Speedway), while he was increasingly disappointed with the quality of his work. From 1964 to 1968, Presley had just one top-ten hit: "Crying in the Chapel" (1965), a gospel song recorded in 1960. Only one LP of new material by Presley was issued: the gospel album How Great Thou Art (1967), which won him his first Grammy Award for Best Sacred Performance.
In 1968, Parker arranged a deal with NBC for a Christmas television special starring Presley in front of a live audience. Parker originally planned to have Presley sing Christmas carols only, but the producer, Steve Binder, convinced Presley to perform songs from his original repertoire. The high ratings received by the special and the success of its attendant LP re-established Presley's popularity. During the making of the special, Presley said to Binder: "I'll never sing another song that I don't believe in, I'm never going to make another movie that I don't believe in." As part of his decision to refocus on music rather than film, Presley decided to record a new album.
## Recording
Presley left his usual musicians and studios (Radio Recorders in Hollywood, California and RCA Studio B in Nashville, Tennessee), recording new material in Memphis. After the special he approached Scotty Moore and D. J. Fontana, who had played with Presley during his early hit-making career, and who rejoined him on the television show. Presley asked Moore about using Music City Recorders in Nashville, but that suggestion never came to fruition.
During a January 1969 meeting at Graceland, Presley told his usual producer, Felton Jarvis, that he did not want to record his next album at RCA Studios. Two of Presley's friends, DJ George Klein and Marty Lacker, suggested that he use American Sound Studio, an up-and-coming studio with which Lacker was involved. RCA contacted the studio's producer Chips Moman. Willing to work with Presley, Moman postponed a session with Neil Diamond after being asked to produce the sessions with Felton Jarvis as second producer. It was agreed that Presley's recordings would take ten days and cost \$25,000. He would be backed by the studio's house band, the 827 Thomas Street Band (informally known as the Memphis Boys), which consisted of Reggie Young on guitar, Tommy Cogbill and Mike Leech on bass, Gene Chrisman on drums, Bobby Wood on piano, and Bobby Emmons on organ.
Although RCA Records oversaw their company policy to record only in their own studios, the label sent their personnel out to American Sound. Recording began on January 13, 1969, when Presley arrived at the studio nursing a cold. In addition to his personal entourage, he was accompanied by Hill & Range publisher Freddy Bienstock, Colonel Parker's assistant Tom Diskin, producer Felton Jarvis, executive Harry Jenkins and engineer Al Pachucki, representing RCA Records. With Pachucki on the board, American Sound engineer Ed Kollis joined the musicians on harmonica. The session, which produced recordings of "Long Black Limousine", "Wearin' That Loved On Look" and several non-album songs, continued until 5:00 am. After the first day's recording, Moman and his colleagues expressed discomfort with the size of Presley's entourage, and Presley was accompanied by fewer people for the remaining sessions.
The next day Presley recorded "I'm Moving On" and "Gentle on My Mind", leaving the studio while working on the latter to rest his throat. The following night, he did not appear, as his cold worsened, and on January 15 and 16 the house band recorded backing tracks for subsequent sessions. Presley returned on January 20, recording "In the Ghetto" in 23 takes and finishing the vocal track for "Gentle on My Mind". On January 22, he recorded Eddy Arnold's "I'll Hold You in My Heart (Till I Can Hold You in My Arms)" and the non-album single "Suspicious Minds". Presley then took a break from recording for a vacation trip to Aspen, Colorado to celebrate his daughter Lisa Marie's first birthday.
During Presley's absence, Moman was approached by Bienstock, who was concerned about possible future disputes concerning the songs' publication. Moman and Presley decided not to record Hill & Range compositions, instead using songs by American Sound writers. Bienstock, particularly interested in the non-album "Suspicious Minds" and "Mama Liked the Roses", warned that Moman would have to surrender the publishing rights to release the songs. In response, Moman told Bienstock to take all the recordings and leave the studio. RCA vice-president Harry Jenkins interceded, siding with Moman and ordering Bienstock to stay away from the studio and let Presley work with the staff. Meanwhile, Diskin informed Presley about the publishing issues. Presley supported Moman, assuring Diskin that he and the producer would handle the session work. Diskin contacted Parker, who told him to return to California. Moman retained the publishing rights, and the sessions were scheduled to resume several weeks later.
Presley returned on February 17, recording "True Love Travels on a Gravel Road" and "Power of My Love", and Eddy Arnold's "After Loving You" and "Do You Know Who I Am?" the following day. On February 19, he devoted most of the session to the non-album single "Kentucky Rain", one of the few Hill & Range songs used on the American Sound recordings. Presley followed with a recording of "Only the Strong Survive", a hit for Jerry Butler the previous year, which took twenty-nine takes. On February 20, he recorded Johnny Tillotson's "It Keeps Right on a Hurtin'" in three takes and "Any Day Now" in six. Presley's final session was on February 22, when he recorded vocal overdubs for "True Love Travels on a Gravel Road" and "Power of My Love" and vocals for several non-album cuts. The following month, Mike Leech and Glenn Spreen began work on the string and horn overdubs to finish the album; several brass overdubs were recorded by the Memphis Horns.
## Music
Moman moved away from the usual Presley pop recordings aimed at an established audience. A developer of the Stax Records sound, he incorporated a Memphis sound integrating soul, country, gospel and rural and electric blues. Many arrangements lean heavily on the rhythm section, with lesser contributions from strings, brass and woodwinds. Arrangers Glenn Spreen and Mike Leech changed Presley's image on the tracks with the addition of violas, cellos and French horns. The arrangers intended to blend the tracks for a distinctive sound; the strings are used in counterpoint, rising when the track fades and vice versa. The violas play the same lines as the French horns, with cello used for darker tones. Syncopation was incorporated by bowing.
The twelve tracks on the album were selected from thirty-four which were recorded in the American Sound sessions. The first song, "Wearin' That Loved On Look" features an electric-bass lead for the first time in a Presley recording. The second is "Only the Strong Survive", with Presley backed by bass and drums. He plays piano on the third track, the country song "I Hold You in My Heart ('Till I Can Hold You in My Arms)". Presley's voice is roughened by a cold on the fourth song, the country-rhythm-and-blues "Long Black Limousine" featuring a trumpet solo. The fifth song, Johnny Tillotson's traditional country-western "It Keeps Right on A-Hurtin'", was arranged to sound more like Memphis soul. Side one ends with a version of Hank Snow's country-western "I'm Moving On" with a strong bass line and driving rhythm.
Side two begins with Florence Kaye and Bernie Baum's "Power of My Love". The song has a blues-based sound, with Presley backed by a brass section, drums and electric guitar and organ. The lyrics include double entendres ("Crush it, kick it / You can never win / I know baby you can't lick it/ I'll make you give in)", with groans by backing female singers emphasizing sexuality. The second track, a cover of John Hartford's "Gentle on My Mind" follows. The string-laden arrangement was inspired by Glen Campbell's 1967 Grammy-winning version of the song. The next song, Eddy Arnold's 1962 hit "After Loving You", is arranged in a 12/8 tempo. Elvis plays guitar throughout the song including the intro. This is followed by Dallas Frazier's "True Love Travels on a Gravel Road" and Chuck Jackson's 1962 hit, "Any Day Now".
The twelfth and final song of the album, selected as a single, is Mac Davis' "In The Ghetto". The song was chosen by Billy Strange, who had previously picked material for other Presley sessions. The protest song denounces the consequences of poverty, with compassion for inner-city youth. Because of "In the Ghetto"'s lyrics, controversial for its time, Presley originally did not plan to record the song because he thought it might alienate fans. After Moman said he might give the song to Rosey Grier, Presley's friends convinced him to record it.
The album cover is a still from the "Trouble"-"Guitar Man" production number of NBC's Elvis special. Presley is featured with a red electric guitar, wearing a black leather suit with a red scarf around his neck, with silhouettes of guitar players at the back of the set. From Elvis in Memphis became one of American Sound Studio's best-known productions, with Dusty Springfield's Dusty in Memphis; both albums reflected similar times and musical trends on the Memphis scene.
## Release and reception
The single "In the Ghetto" was released on April 14, 1969, with 300,000 copies shipped by RCA. In its second week after release, it entered the charts, where it remained for thirteen weeks (reaching number three on June 14). The single sold a million copies in the United States. Meanwhile, it reached number two on the British Singles chart. However, its success triggered a confrontation between RCA and American Sound. During the sessions, Presley's usual producer, Jarvis, grew increasingly worried about losing control of Presley and his recordings. During its first two weeks on the chart, "In the Ghetto"'s production was credited to Jarvis. Lacker then called Billboard and had them correct the producer credit to Moman. During the fourth week, Parker asked Billboard to remove the production credit from the song's entry entirely (arguing that Presley's records did not traditionally list a producer credit).
From Elvis in Memphis was released on June 2, 1969. The album topped the UK Albums Chart, disposing for one week Jethro Tull's Stand Up. In the United States, it reached number thirteen on Billboard's Top LPs, and was ranked number seventeen on the magazine's Top Country albums of 1969. By January 28, 1970, it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America after selling over 500,000 copies.
On July 12, 1969, Presley was featured on the cover of Rolling Stone, with the album receiving the lead review. Peter Guralnick, the magazine's reviewer, described it as "great ... Flatly and unequivocally the equal of anything (Presley) has ever done" and praised the "evident passion which (Presley) has invested in this music", adding: "(he) is trying, and trying very hard, to please us. He needs to have our attention ... It is his involvement after all which comes as the surprise." Billboard also published a positive review, saying that Presley had "never sounded better, and the choice of material is perfect". High Fidelity wrote, "Elvis has been through a number of stages, and his latest is the best".
The Los Angeles Times delivered a mixed review: Critic Pete Johnson praised Presley's voice, which he considered had gone back "down to grittiness". Meanwhile, Johnson criticized the music arrangements that he considered inconsistent with the original Sun Records style of Presley, or the contemporary Memphis Sound produced by Stax Records. He pointed that the rhythm section "rarely gets off the ground", called the use of the horns "scarse and generally insipid", the arrangements "Hollywoodish", and he attributed to "laziness" the production of the more scarcely backed tracks to Moman and arrangers Spreen and Leech. Johnson concluded that Presley's voice had "arrived in Memphis" but "no one else concerned with the LP did". For the Associated Press, the album presented "quality country" and Presley's voice featured "depth" and "feeling". The Pittsburgh Press felt that it was a "typical" Presley album that featured a "rock 'n' roll style" that later morphed into "love portions". Detroit Free Press considered that Presley's style appeared "brand new" in From Elvis in Memphis that featured lyrics that were "country hip" and a beat that was "1969 all the way".
From Elvis in Memphis has continued to receive praise in retrospective reviews. In 2009 Rolling Stone described it as "extraordinary" and attributed the sessions' success to Presley's "newfound maturity and soulfulness" and Moman's "warm, distinctly Southern musical backing". AllMusic gives it five stars out of five, and highlights it as an "AllMusic album pick". Critic Bruce Eder said that together with 1956's Elvis Presley, From Elvis in Memphis was Presley's "greatest album". Eder called it "one of the greatest white soul albums (and one of the greatest soul albums) ever cut", with Presley "rejuvenated artistically (while) he's supported by the best playing and backup singing of his entire recording history". Richie Unterberger of the same website cited the album as a return to rock music for Elvis and called it "reasonably gutsy late-'60s pop/rock".
PopMatters has described From Elvis in Memphis as "some of the best music Elvis Presley ever made". Sputnik Music's reviewer considered that the album "rivaled" Presley's early recordings in "terms of historical importance and innovation", and was "downright essential, for any Elvis fan and for any music fan".
## Legacy
Following the American Sound sessions, Presley returned to Hollywood. Between March–April 1969, he recorded the soundtrack and starred in his thirty-first and last motion picture as an actor, Change of Habit.
When the album was due for release, Parker arranged Presley's return to performing live. He made a deal with Kirk Kerkorian, owner of the Las Vegas International Hotel, to play the newly built 2,000-seat showroom for four weeks (two shows per night, with Mondays off) for \$400,000. For his appearance, he assembled a band later known as the TCB Band: James Burton (guitar), John Wilkinson (rhythm guitar), Jerry Scheff (bass-guitar), Ronnie Tutt (drums), Larry Muhoberac (piano) and Charlie Hodge (rhythm guitar, background vocals). The band was complemented by the backing vocals of The Sweet inspirations and the Imperials. His initial Las Vegas show attracted an audience of 101,500, setting a new Vegas performance record. In 1970, Presley began to tour the United States for the first time in thirteen years.
"Don't Cry Daddy" reached No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100. "Kentucky Rain" was a moderate hit in 1970, reaching No. 16, but "Suspicious Minds" became one of Presley's signature songs and was the final chart-topper of his career.
In 2003, From Elvis in Memphis was number 190 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, then dropping to number 322 in a 2020 revised list.
## Reissues
In 2000 RCA released a remastered compact disc of From Elvis in Memphis, including six bonus tracks (released as A- or B-sides) recorded during the album sessions. The reissue received five stars out of five from Rolling Stone. In 2009, Sony Music Entertainment issued a Legacy RCA Edition of the album for its 40th anniversary: two discs (From Elvis In Memphis and the studio disk of From Memphis To Vegas/From Vegas To Memphis), four outtakes and ten tracks originally released as monaural singles (including "Suspicious Minds" and "Kentucky Rain"). In 2013 From Elvis in Memphis was reissued on the Follow That Dream label in a special two-disc edition that contained the original album tracks along with numerous alternate takes. The 1970 Quadraphonic eight-track release of the album has never been reissued.
## Track listing
### Original release
### 2009 CD reissue
## Personnel
- Elvis Presley – vocals, guitar, piano on "I'll Hold You In My Heart (Till I Can Hold You In My Arms)"
- Glen Spreen – string and horn arrangements
- Ed Kollis – harmonica on "Power of My Love" and "True Love Travels on a Gravel Road"
- John Hughey – pedal steel guitar (on "In the Ghetto")
- Reggie Young – lead guitar
- Bobby Wood – piano
- Bobby Emmons – Hammond organ
- Tommy Cogbill – bass guitar
- Mike Leech – bass guitar, string and horn arrangements
- Gene Chrisman – drums
Overdubbed
- Wayne Jackson – trumpet
- Dick Steff – trumpet
- R.F. Taylor – trumpet
- Ed Logan – trombone
- Jack Hale – trombone
- Gerald Richardson – trombone
- Tony Cason – French horn
- Joe D'Gerolamo – French horn
- Andrew Love – saxophone
- Jackie Thomas – saxophone
- Glen Spreen – saxophone
- J.P. Luper – saxophone
- Joe Babcock – backing vocals
- Dolores Edgin – backing vocals
- Mary Greene – backing vocals
- Charlie Hodge – backing vocals
- Ginger Holladay – backing vocals
- Mary Holladay – backing vocals
- Millie Kirkham – backing vocals
- Ronnie Milsap – backing vocals
- Sonja Montgomery – backing vocals
- June Page – backing vocals
- Susan Pilkington – backing vocals
- Sandy Posey – backing vocals
- Donna Thatcher – backing vocals
- Hurschel Wiginton – backing vocals
## Charts
## Certifications
## Release history |
2,047,802 | King of the Hill (The Simpsons) | 1,169,720,504 | null | [
"1998 American television episodes",
"Physical fitness in popular culture",
"Television episodes about publicity stunts",
"Television shows written by John Swartzwelder",
"The Simpsons (season 9) episodes"
] | "King of the Hill" is the twenty-third episode of the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 3, 1998. It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Steven Dean Moore, and guest stars Brendan Fraser and Steven Weber. The episode sees Homer trying to climb a large mountain to impress Bart after he humiliates him at a church picnic with his lack of fitness.
## Plot
After his obesity embarrasses Bart at a church picnic, Homer attempts to lose weight by going on midnight jogs around town. He soon discovers "Power Sauce", an energy bar made with apples which he starts to eat regularly.
At a gym, Homer meets Rainier Wolfcastle, who becomes his fitness coach. In two months, Homer is healthier, and more muscular and reveals his new exercise habits to his family. At the gym, two Power Sauce representatives, Brad and Neil, ask Rainier to climb to the top of Springfield's tallest mountain, "The Murderhorn", as a publicity stunt. When he refuses, Bart insists Homer volunteer to do it.
Grampa begs Homer not to climb the mountain, telling him how he "died" when he was betrayed by a friend, C. W. McAllister, during their climb on the Murderhorn in 1928, also as a corporate publicity stunt. Despite this, he accepts the challenge and is aided by two Sherpas, whom he fires after waking up one night to find them secretly dragging him up. Homer radios this to Brad and Neil, who fail to convince him to abandon the climb.
The mountain proves too treacherous and high for Homer, who takes shelter in a cave. In it, he finds McAllister's frozen body and evidence proving it was Grampa who betrayed him. Too tired and ashamed to continue, Homer sticks his flagpole on the plateau. An ensuing crack collapses the rest of the mountain, making the plateau he is on the peak. Proud, Homer uses McAllister's body to sled down the mountainside, where he is greeted by the crowd.
## Production
The episode was pitched and written by John Swartzwelder. The writing staff had to find a new angle for Homer's weight problems, as the idea had been used several times before. This was emphasized in this episode when Marge does not seem to care that Homer is going to try to lose weight again.
In the scenes where the Sherpas were speaking, the show staff went to great lengths to find translations. Originally, the producers of the film adaption of the book Into Thin Air were contacted to help. The film producers were shocked at the trouble the Simpsons staff were going to, and replied that they had simply made up translations in the film. The staff then had to consult various experts by telephone.
The idea of the upper part of the mountain collapsing so Homer would be at the peak came from Mike Scully's brother Brian, after the staff "desperately needed a way out".
## Cultural references
The mountain Homer must climb, the Murderhorn, is a reference to the mountain Matterhorn, which is located in the Swiss Alps. The name of the episode is a reference to the Fox series King of the Hill.
When the Power Sauce representatives confess to Homer that their nutrition bars are made from apple cores and Chinese newspapers, Homer looks at the bar he is eating and reads a headline that Deng Xiaoping died. The Chinese leader did, indeed, die in February 1997, a little over a year before this episode aired.
## Reception
In its original broadcast, "King of the Hill" finished 23rd in ratings for the week of April 27–May 4, 1998, with a Nielsen rating of 9.4, equivalent to approximately 9.2 million viewing households. It was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, King of the Hill, and Ally McBeal.
The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, thought well of the episode, stating: "A quite charming little adventure in which, in an effort to impress Bart, Homer undertakes a dangerous adventure and comes through successfully. It's nice because just for once, to all intents and purposes, Homer actually succeeds in something." |
22,033,929 | SS Batavier II (1897) | 1,173,156,408 | Ductch steam packet | [
"1897 ships",
"Maritime incidents in 1917",
"Passenger ships of the Netherlands",
"Ships built in Dundee",
"Ships sunk by British submarines",
"World War I shipwrecks in the North Sea"
] | SS Batavier II was a steam packet for the Batavier Line that sailed between Rotterdam and London for most of her career. The ship was built in 1897 by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee. The Dutch ship could carry a limited amount of freight and up to 321 passengers. She was rebuilt in 1909 which increased her length by over 5 metres (16 ft).
During World War I, the Batavier Line attempted to maintain service, but in September 1916, Batavier II was seized as a prize by German submarine UB-6 and sailed into Zeebrugge and retained. Ten months later, Batavier II was shelled by British submarine E55 and sank near Texel.
## Career
Batavier II and her sister ship Batavier III were built for William Müller and Company by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee, Scotland. The ship was launched on 17 August 1897. As built, she was 74.4 metres (244 ft 1 in) long (between perpendiculars) and 10.2 metres (33 ft 6 in) abeam. Batavier II was powered by a single 4-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engine of 2,000 indicated horsepower (1,500 kW) that moved her up to 14 knots (26 km/h). She could carry up to 321 passengers: 44 in first class, 27 in second class, and up to 250 in steerage. She was listed at 1,136 gross register tons (GRT).
Upon completion in October 1897, she joined the 683-ton Batavier I in packet service between Rotterdam and London. The pair were joined by Batavier III after her completion in November. In Rotterdam, the ships docked at the Willemsplein; in London, the ships originally docked near London Bridge, but in 1899 switched to the Customs House and Wool Quays near the Tower Bridge. Also beginning in 1899, Batavier Line service between Rotterdam and London was offered daily except Sundays; each of the ships made three round trips per week. In addition to passengers, Batavier II could also carry a limited quantity of freight. One example that may be typical was a load of 1 long ton (1.1 short tons) of dry chemical wood pulp in 5 bales carried to London in March 1907. In 1909, Batavier II was rebuilt to 1,335 GRT and lengthened by 5.3 metres (17 ft 5 in) to 79.7 metres (261 ft 6 in).
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Batavier Line continued service on the Rotterdam–London route. In December 1914, Batavier II made news when porters handling what was identified as a 750-pound (340 kg) crate of Swedish matches discovered an escaped German Army officer inside. The plan, apparently, was for him to be shipped from London to Rotterdam via Batavier II. The plot unraveled when the porters could only move the heavy crate by rolling it, which knocked the man unconscious; the officer was returned to the custody of British military officials.
In June 1915, passengers on Batavier II witnessed an attack by two German airplanes against a British steamship between the Galloper and the North Hinder Lightships. The attack was broken off when two British airplanes arrived over the ship to engage the German aircraft; none of the airplanes were destroyed, and the ship was unscathed.
On 24 September 1916, after Batavier II had departed from Rotterdam, the ship was stopped by the German submarine UB-6. She was seized as prize and sailed into German-held Zeebrugge. There, Batavier II's Dutch crew and women and children passengers were released and sent via train to Rotterdam. The Germans confiscated the ship's cargo of food. Also on board Batavier II were four escaped Russian prisoners of war and Richard Hansemann, a German-born New York businessman. American newspapers carried reports of Hansemann's plight, reporting by 1 October that he would likely be impressed into the German Army.
Batavier II's whereabouts and activities over the next ten months are uncertain. She remained under German control for a time, but how long is not clear from sources. Batavier II was back under Dutch control by late July 1917.
On 27 July 1917, Batavier II was shelled by British submarine E55 just outside Dutch territorial waters. Damaged by E55's gunfire, Batavier II's crew steered her back into Dutch territorial waters. E55 then sent a prize crew on board Batavier II and sailed her back outside Dutch waters. By the time a Dutch torpedo boat arrived on the scene, Batavier II was taking on water and had drifted back into Dutch territory. The torpedo boat sent the message "respect neutrality" to E55 which retrieved her prize crew and departed. Despite efforts to stem the flow of water, Batavier II sank 1 nautical mile (1.9 km) from the Molengat North Buoy, off Texel. |
26,705,301 | Colors (Morandi song) | 1,105,531,662 | null | [
"2009 singles",
"2009 songs",
"English-language Romanian songs",
"Number-one singles in Slovakia",
"Songs written by Marius Moga"
] | "Colors" is a song by Romanian group Morandi intended to be the lead single off the group's fourth studio album, Zebra. However, it was later included in their compilation album, Best Of (2011). The supposed Zebra's mix of club and British rock served as inspiration for the track. Written by the group, the song was first released on 16 June 2009 in Romania and on 6 August 2009 for digital download and streaming in the United States through Universal Music Romania.
Commercially, the song topped the charts in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Slovakia, and reached the top five in Bulgaria and the Czech Republic. A music video directed by Marius Moga and Giuliano Bekor was released to promote the song, which premiered on Romanian radio station Radio 21's website and was aired on MTV in late September 2009. The song was nominated at the 2010 Balkan Music Awards and at the 2010 Radio România Actualităţi Awards for Best Song from Romania and Best Pop/Dance Song, respectively. The video also received a nomination in the former ceremony for Best Video in the Balkans 2009.
## Background and release
In an interview with MTV Romania, the group stated that following the success of their third studio album, N3XT (2007), they were busy touring and admitted that they did not have time to record new material. Following the release of "Save Me" (2008), they began working on their new album, titled Zebra, which would include two types of songs, those "written for club[s]" and the others would have British rock influences. According to member Marius Moga, the inclusion of the two different music genres acted like an antithesis, which was the inspiration behind "Colors". Moga and Andrei Ropcea wrote the song.
On 12 June 2009, Urban.ro reported that filming for the music video would commence soon, and the song was confirmed to be the lead single off Zebra. "Colors" was first released on 16 June 2009 in Romania. On 6 August 2009, the song was released via digital download and streaming in the United States by Universal Music Romania. A remix extended play was also issued in the same year in various territories. The track was later included in their compilation album Best Of (2011).
## Reception
Commercially, "Colors" reached the summit in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Slovakia, spending three consecutive weeks atop the chart in the latter. It peaked at number four in both Bulgaria and Czech Republic. On the native Romanian Top 100, the song debuted and peaked at number 32. It also peaked at number eight on Media Forest's Romania Radio Airplay. At the 2010 Balkan Music Awards the song was nominated for Best Song from Romania, but lost to Akcent's "That's My Name" (2009). It also received a nomination at the 2010 Radio România Actualităţi Awards for Best Pop/Dance Song.
## Promotion
The music video was filmed on 15 June 2009 in Buftea Studios and was directed by Moga and American photographer Giuliano Bekor. It premiered on Romanian radio station Radio 21's website on 29 September and started being broadcast on MTV the next day. The music video was an MTV exclusive until October 6. It begins with Ropcea and a woman rising from water and walking towards each other. They are shown holding each other while backgrounds change behind them and Ropcea is depicted singing intermittently with smoke floating beneath him. Thereafter, Moga starts singing underneath the water surface. The visual pans back to Ropcea's previous pose and he is then shown next to the woman inside a flaming square. Interspersed scenes throughout the video portray Moga flying in front of various backgrounds, the group's members being splashed by paint and musical instruments being submerged underwater. The video ends with the woman going down into the water and the word zebra appearing briefly from flames above her. The music video was nominated at the 2010 Balkan Music Awards for Best Video. On 15 October 2009, Morandi performed the song alongside "Angels" at the Slovakian Musiq1 Awards. They performed "Colors" along with other tracks at Greek television network MAD TV on 22 October 2009.
## Track listing
- Digital download
1. "Colors" – 4:03
- Remix EP
1. "Colors" – 4:00
2. "Colors (Gojira Remix)" – 5:15
3. "Colors (OK Corral Spectrum Vocal)" – 6:43
4. "Colors (OK Corral Spectrum Radio Edit)" – 3:41
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Release history |
42,195 | 1948 Winter Olympics | 1,157,397,058 | Multi-sport event in Sankt Moritz, Switzerland | [
"1948 Winter Olympics",
"1948 in Swiss sport",
"1948 in multi-sport events",
"February 1948 sports events in Europe",
"January 1948 sports events in Europe",
"Olympic Games in Switzerland",
"Sport in St. Moritz",
"Winter Olympics by year",
"Winter sports competitions in Switzerland"
] | The 1948 Winter Olympics, officially known as the V Olympic Winter Games (German: V. Olympische Winterspiele; French: V<sup>es</sup> Jeux olympiques d'hiver; Italian: V Giochi olimpici invernali; Romansh: V Gieus olimpics d'enviern) and commonly known as St. Moritz 1948 (French: Saint-Moritz 1948; Romansh: San Murezzan 1948), were a winter multi-sport event held from 30 January to 8 February 1948 in St. Moritz, Switzerland. The Games were the first to be celebrated after World War II; it had been twelve years since the last Winter Games in 1936.
From the selection of a host city in a neutral country to the exclusion of Japan and Germany, the political atmosphere of the post-war world was inescapable during the 1948 Games. The organizing committee faced several challenges due to the lack of financial and human resources consumed by the war. These were the first of two winter Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Sigfrid Edström.
There were 28 nations that marched in the opening ceremonies on 30 January 1948. Bibi Torriani played for the Switzerland men's national ice hockey team, and became the first ice hockey player to recite the Olympic Oath on behalf of all athletes. Nearly 670 athletes competed in 22 events in four sports. The 1948 Games also featured two demonstration sports: military patrol, which later became the biathlon, and winter pentathlon, which was discontinued after these Games. Notable performances were turned in by figure skaters Dick Button and Barbara Ann Scott and skier Henri Oreiller. Most of the athletic venues were already in existence from the first time St. Moritz hosted the Winter Games in 1928. All of the venues were outdoors, which meant the Games were heavily dependent on favorable weather conditions.
## Host city selection
The IOC selected St. Moritz to host the 1948 Games by acclamation at the 40 general session in Lausanne, Switzerland, on September 6, 1946. The selection process consisted of two bids, and saw St. Moritz be selected ahead of Lake Placid, New York, United States. St. Moritz was chosen due to the fact that all of the venues of the 1928 Winter Olympics were available and the Swiss resort could organise the Games much quicker than any other city except for 1936 host Garmish-Partenkirchen which was not considered. Despite the existence of many of the 1928 sites, it was still a difficult task to organize a Winter Olympic Games in less than 18 months.
## Organizing
The Comite Olympique (CO) was composed of local dignitaries and members of the Swiss National Olympic Committee (COS). They decided to separate into several sub-committees responsible for various aspects of the Games. These committees included housing and maintenance, venue construction, finances, and media and advertising. The local committees worked very closely with the Swiss federal government and the IOC to ensure that the organization of the Games proceeded without hindrance. Since no athletes' village existed from the previous Games, the athletes and officials were housed in hotels around the city. It was very important for the committees to draw upon their experiences from the 1928 Olympics. Their selection of locations for the various events was contingent on the weather conditions as all the events were held outdoors.
Over 800 people were involved in reporting the news of the Games to the world. Nearly 500 press credentials were issued by the Press Commission for the Games. Television would not make its Olympic debut until 1956. The coverage of the 1948 Games was split between newspapers and radio broadcasts. The organizing committee had to provide technology, such as long-distance telephone lines and telegraph services, to assist the press in communicating with their constituents.
Over 2,200 people were needed to provide all the services for the press, officials and athletes at the Games. These services included sanitation, security, and care of the venues. Accommodating the influx of people into St. Moritz was a difficult task for the organizing committee. It was complicated by the mountainous region in which the community was situated. A massive project to improve the village's transportation infrastructure had to be completed prior to the Games. This included building and widening roads for vehicular traffic. Several train stations were built to accommodate the increased demands for public transit. They also had to increase the capacity of the city's sewers. All of the projects had to be approved by the Swiss government, and justified by its impact on the success of the Games. To aid the organizing committee the IOC demanded that all participating nations provide lists of their athletes several months prior to the Games. Consequently, the Swiss knew exactly how many athletes and officials to plan for.
## Politics
Since these Games were the first since World War II they were given the name "The Games of Renewal." Japan and Germany were not invited to these Games because they were still ostracized by the international community for their role in World War II. Their absence was short-lived though, as they returned to Olympic competition in 1952. The Soviet Union did not send athletes to the St. Moritz Games of 1948, but they did send ten delegates as observers of the Games to determine how successful the Soviet athletes would have been had they competed.
### Impact of World War II
Sapporo, Japan had been the choice for the 1940 Winter Games. In 1938, the Japanese decided to decline the invitation to host the Games claiming that preparations for the Olympic Games were draining the country's resources. The IOC turned to the host of the 1936 Games, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, which would make it the only city to host consecutive Games. This became impractical when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939; subsequently Germany withdrew its bid to host the Games. Finland believed it could host the Games and extended an invitation to the IOC, but the Soviet Union's invasion of Finland ended all hope of an Olympic Games in 1940. The 1944 Winter Olympics had been awarded to Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy in 1939. As the war continued, this proved to be impractical and the second consecutive olympiad passed without a celebration of the Games. The IOC was presented with two possible host cities for the first post-war Games: Lake Placid, United States and St. Moritz, Switzerland. The IOC decided to award the Games to Switzerland, a neutral country, immediately following World War II, in order to avoid political posturing on the part of former combatants.
The impact of World War II was still being felt in 1948. The lack of financial resources and human energy made the organization of the Games challenging. Athletes were also affected by a lack of resources. Many competitors arrived with little or no equipment. In one notable case, Norwegian skiers had to borrow skis from the American team in order to compete.
## Events
Medals were awarded in 22 events contested in 4 sports (9 disciplines).
- Bobsleigh
-
-
- Skating
-
-
- Skiing
-
- -
-
-
There were also two demonstration sports, military patrol and the winter pentathlon.
### Bobsled
Two sliding sports were contested at the 1948 Winter Games, the first was bobsled. A controversy erupted when it was alleged that the sleds of the United States team had been sabotaged. It was discovered that the steering wheels had been damaged. After news broke of the apparent improprieties a truck driver stepped forward and admitted to having accidentally backed into the shed housing the bobsleds. The accident however did not hinder the United States teams who won a bronze in the two-man event and a gold and a bronze in the four-man event. The Swiss two-man teams placed first and second, which is the best possible results for the event since only two teams were allowed to enter. The driver of the first place team, Felix Endrich, beat his coach, the driver of the second place team, Fritz Feierabend.
### Ice Hockey
The ice hockey tournament was won by Canada, with Czechoslovakia second and Switzerland third. This was the fifth Olympic gold medal for Canada in hockey. The only team to beat Canada since hockey was introduced at the 1920 Summer Olympics was Great Britain at the 1936 Winter Olympics. The tournament was almost cancelled when rival teams representing the United States arrived. An Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) team was supported by the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), and an Amateur Hockey Association (AHA) team was supported by the Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace (LIHG). The International Olympic Committee ruled that neither team could compete, but the Swiss organizing committee allowed the AAU team to march in the opening ceremony, and the AHA team to play unofficially, without being eligible for medals.
### Figure skating
Barbara Ann Scott became the first and only Canadian woman to win an Olympic gold medal in figure skating, when she won the competition at St. Moritz. Despite the distraction caused by a low-flying airplane during her compulsory routine, she was able to muster the focus to place first entering the free skate. The ice had been shredded the night before the free skate by two ice hockey games (the ice resurfacer had not yet been invented); nonetheless she was able to adjust her routine to avoid the potholes and emerge victorious.
Eighteen-year-old American Dick Button completed the unprecedented North American sweep of the figure skating gold medals. He led the field after the compulsory skate and then won the gold medal by becoming the first person to ever complete a double Axel in competition. Later in the 1952 Olympics, Dick Button would win gold a second time. Swiss world champion Hans Gerschwiler fell during the free skate, but rebounded to win the silver medal.
### Speed skating
The speed skating competition was held on the same rink that had hosted the events in 1928. At 1,856 m (6,089 ft) above sea level, the speed skating competition was held at the second highest altitude in Olympic history, only Squaw Valley in 1960 was higher. The competition was dominated by the Scandinavian countries of Norway and Sweden who won nine out of the twelve possible medals. Scandinavians had done poor in speed skating events up until the 1948 Games. The reason for their success was that speed skating in Europe had come to a stand still during World War II. Only countries that were ancillary to the conflict had the resources to keep their speed skating programs intact. The 500 meter race was won by Finn Helgesen of Norway. There was a three-way tie for second place between Norwegian Thomas Byberg and Americans Robert Fitzgerald and Kenneth Bartholomew. All three had finished in exactly 43.2 seconds. Swede Åke Seyffarth won a gold medal in the 10,000 meter race and a silver medal in the 1,500 meter race. The 5,000 meter event was affected by weather. The twenty racers encountered both wind, sun, and snow in the course of the day's competition. Finally long-distance specialist Reidar Liaklev from Norway prevailed.
### Alpine skiing
Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut at these Games. A few events had been held at the 1936 Games but the St. Moritz Games featured a full slate of three men's and three women's alpine events. Frenchman Henri Oreiller won a medal in all three Alpine events; gold in the downhill and combined, and bronze in the slalom. He was one of only two athletes to win two gold medals at the 1948 Games, and he was also the only athlete to win three or more medals.
Austria dominated the women's alpine events, winning five out of a possible nine medals. Trude Beiser was a double-medal winner, earning gold in the combined event and silver in the downhill. She was not the only female skier to win two medals though, United States skier Gretchen Fraser won gold in the slalom and took silver behind Beiser in the combined. Austrian Erika Mahringer earned two medals by winning bronze medals in both the slalom and the combined.
### Cross-country skiing
In cross-country skiing a total of 106 skiers from 15 nations competed in three events. The events were the 50 kilometer race, the 18 kilometer race and the 4 x 10 kilometer relay. There were no women's events at the 1948 Games. Martin Lundström of Sweden was the other athlete to win two gold medals when he won the 18 kilometer race and participated on the winning cross-country relay team. Overall Sweden won seven out of a possible fifteen medals in the Nordic events, including all three gold medals and a sweep of the 18 kilometer race. All fifteen medals were won by either Sweden, Norway, or Finland.
### Skeleton
Skeleton made its second appearance at the Olympics during these Games. It debuted at the 1928 Winter Olympics also held in St. Moritz. Skeleton was a form of luge, which had originally appeared in the St. Moritz region at the end of the 19th century. American John Heaton won his second Olympic medal in the skeleton, he won his first 20 years earlier when he was 19 years old. Italian slider Nino Bibbia won the gold medal. It was the first of his 231 career wins on the Cresta Boblsed track. One of the curves at Cesana Pariol, where the bobsled, luge, and skeleton events took place at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, was named after Bibbia.
### Nordic combined
The Nordic combined event had been contested at each Winter Olympics since 1924. Nordic combined required athletes to first compete in the open 18 kilometer cross-country ski race alongside the other cross-country competitors. Their times would be assigned a point value. Two days later the athletes would take two jumps off the ski jump hill. The jumps would be given a point value and the longest jump would be combined with their cross-country time to create a score. Traditional Nordic combined power Norway was stunned at the 1948 Games when Finland's Heikki Hasu became the first non-Norwegian to win the event. In fact Norway did not even make the podium. Hasu's teammate Martti Huhtala took the silver and Sven Israelsson from Sweden won the bronze.
### Ski jumping
The Norwegians swept the ski jumping event. Birger Ruud had won the gold medal in the ski jumping event at both the 1932 and 1936 Winter Games. The twelve-year hiatus due to World War II meant that Ruud was 36 years old in 1948. He had retired from competition and was coaching the Norwegian team. However, when he arrived at the Games he decided to come out of retirement and compete one last time. Despite not having competed for several years he earned a silver medal. Norwegian Petter Hugsted won the gold and teammate Thorleif Schjelderup won the bronze.
### Demonstration sports
Two demonstration sports were held at the 1948 Games. Military patrol had been a demonstration sport at the 1924, 1928, and 1936 Winter Olympic Games. It entailed a combination of cross-country skiing and shooting at targets. Eventually the competition would be renamed Biathlon and was made an official Olympic medal sport at the 1960 Games in Squaw Valley, United States. Winter pentathlon involved five competitions: 10 kilometer cross-country ski race, shooting, downhill skiing, fencing and horseback riding. This was the first and last time the event was held. Fourteen competitors took part in the event.
## Calendar
All dates are in Central European Time (UTC+1)
The opening ceremonies were held at 10:00 am on January 30 along with the initial hockey games and the first two runs of the two-man bobsled. The closing ceremonies were held at 4:00 pm on February 8. All of the medals were awarded at the closing ceremonies rather than immediately after the event as current tradition dictates.
## Venues
The Stad Olympique (Olympic Stadium) hosted the opening and closing ceremonies. The stadium was also used for speed skating, the figure skating competition and the medal games for ice hockey. Most of the ice hockey games were held at the Suvretta and Kulm stadiums in St. Moritz. Bobsled was held at the St. Moritz-Celerina Olympic Bobrun. Skeleton was contested on the Cresta Run track. Olympia Bob Run was built in 1897 and modernized for the 1948 Games while the Cresta Run was first constructed in 1885. The ski jump competitions were held at Olympiaschanze ski jump hill in St. Moritz. It was built in 1927 for the 1928 Games, and remained in use until 2006. The alpine events were held on ski-runs in and around Piz Nair.
## Participating nations
28 nations competed in St. Moritz, the same number as the previous Winter Games in 1936. Chile, Denmark, Iceland, Korea, and Lebanon all made their Winter Olympic debut at these Games. Germany and Japan were not invited because of their involvement in World War II. Italy, despite being an Axis power originally, was allowed to send athletes after their defection to the Allies in 1943. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania had been annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940, and would not compete again as independent nations until 1992. Argentina returned to the Winter Games after missing the 1932 and 1936 Games, and Australia and Luxembourg did not compete in 1948, even though they had participated in 1936.
### Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees
## Medal count
These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1948 Winter Games.
### Podium sweeps
## See also
- List of 1948 Winter Olympics medal winners |
56,568 | Pleiades | 1,173,635,664 | Open cluster in the constellation of Taurus | [
"Astronomical objects known since antiquity",
"Messier objects",
"NGC objects",
"Orion–Cygnus Arm",
"Pleiades Open Cluster",
"Taurus (constellation)"
] | The Pleiades (/ˈpliː.ədiːz, ˈpleɪ-, ˈplaɪ-/), also known as the Seven Sisters, Messier 45, and other names by different cultures, is an asterism and an open star cluster containing middle-aged, hot B-type stars in the north-west of the constellation Taurus. At a distance of about 444 light years, it is among the nearest star clusters to Earth. It is the nearest Messier object to Earth, and is the most obvious cluster to the naked eye in the night sky. It is also observed to house the reflection nebula NGC 1432, an HII region.
The cluster is dominated by hot blue luminous stars that have formed within the last 100 million years. Reflection nebulae around the brightest stars were once thought to be left over material from their formation, but are now considered likely to be an unrelated dust cloud in the interstellar medium through which the stars are currently passing. This dust cloud is estimated to be moving at a speed of approximately 18 km/s relative to the stars in the cluster.
Computer simulations have shown that the Pleiades were probably formed from a compact configuration that resembled the Orion Nebula. Astronomers estimate that the cluster will survive for about another 250 million years, after which it will disperse due to gravitational interactions with its galactic neighborhood.
Together with the open star cluster of the Hyades, the Pleiades form the Golden Gate of the Ecliptic.
## Origin of name
The name of the Pleiades comes from Ancient Greek: Πλειάδες. It probably derives from plein ("to sail") because of the cluster's importance in delimiting the sailing season in the Mediterranean Sea: "the season of navigation began with their heliacal rising". However, in mythology the name was used for the Pleiades, seven divine sisters, the name supposedly deriving from that of their mother Pleione and effectively meaning "daughters of Pleione". In reality, the name of the star cluster almost certainly came first, and Pleione was invented to explain it.
## Astronomical role of M45 in antiquity
The M45 group played an important role in ancient times for the establishment of calendars thanks to the combination of two remarkable elements. The first, which is still valid, is its unique and perfectly identifiable aspect on the celestial vault near the ecliptic. The second, essential for the Ancients, is that in the middle of the third millennium BC., this asterism marked the vernal point. The importance of this asterism is also evident in northern Europe, on the Nebra sky disc, dating around 1600 BC. and where it is represented beside the Sun and the Moon.
It is also this asterism that indicates the beginning of the ancient calendars. Several examples can be given:
- In ancient India, it constitutes, in the Atharvaveda, compiled around 1200-1000 BC, the first nakṣatra (Sanskrit name for lunar stations), which is called क्रृत्तिका Kṛittika, a revealing name since it literally means "the Cuttings", i.e. "Those that mark the break of the year". This is so before the classic list lowers this nakṣatra to third place, henceforth giving the first to the couple βγ Arietis which, notably in Hipparchus, at that time ,marks the equinox.
- In Mesopotamia, the MUL.APIN compendium, the first known Mesopotamian astronomy treatise, discovered at Nineveh in the library of Assurbanipal and dating from no later than 627 BC., presents a list of gods [holders of stars] who stand on "the path of the Moon", a list which begins with mul.MUL.
- In Greece, the Πλειάδες, are a group whose name is probably functional before having a mythological meaning, as André Lebœuffle points out, who has his preference for the explanation by the Indo-European root \*pe/ol-/pl- which expresses the idea of multiplicity, crowd, assembly.
- We find a similar thing among the Ancient Arabs who begin their old parapegma type calendar, that of the anwā, with M45 under the name of الثريّا al-Ṯurayyā. And this before their classic calendar, that of the manāzil al-qamar or "lunar stations", also begins with the couple βγ Arietis whose name, الشرطان al- Šaraṭān, is literally "the Two Marks [of entering the equinox]"
So when M45 leaves the vernal point, the asterism still remains important, both functionally and symbolically. In addition to the changes we have just seen in the calendars based on the lunar stations among the Indians and the Arabs, consider the case of an ancient Yemeni calendar in which the months are designated according to an astronomical criterion which caused it to be named Calendar of the Pleiades: the month of ḫams, literally "five", is that during which the Sun and al-Ṯurayyā, ie the Pleiades, deviate away from each other by five movements of the Moon, i.e. five times the path that the "Moon" travels on average in one day and one night, to use the terminology of cAbd al-Raḥmān al-Sūfī al-Ṣūfī.
## Nomenclature and mythology
The Pleiades are a prominent sight in winter in the Northern Hemisphere, and are easily visible from mid-Southern latitudes. They have been known since antiquity to cultures all around the world, including the Celts (Welsh: Tŵr Tewdws, Irish: Streoillín); pre-colonial Filipinos (who called it Mapúlon, Mulo‐pulo, or Muró‐púro, among other names) for whom it indicated the beginning of the year, Hawaiians (who call them Makaliʻi), Māori (who call them Matariki), Indigenous Australians (from several traditions), the Achaemenid Empire, whence in Farsi (who called them پروین Parvīn or پروی Parvī), the Arabs (who call them الثريا al-Thurayyā), the Chinese (who called them 昴 mǎo), the Quechua (who call them Qullqa or the storehouse), the Japanese (who call them Subaru (昴, スバル)), the Maya, the Aztec, the Sioux, the Kiowa, and the Cherokee. In Hinduism, the Pleiades are known as Kṛttikā and are scripturally associated with the war-god Kartikeya and are also identified or associated with the Saptamatrika(s) (Seven Mothers). Hindus celebrate the first day (new moon) of the month of Kartik as Diwali, a festival of abundance and lamps. The Pleiades are also mentioned three times in the Bible.
The earliest-known depiction of the Pleiades is likely a Northern German Bronze Age artifact known as the Nebra sky disk, dated to approximately 1600 BC. The Babylonian star catalogues name the Pleiades <sup>MUL</sup>MUL (), meaning "stars" (literally "star star"), and they head the list of stars along the ecliptic, reflecting the fact that they were close to the point of vernal equinox around the 23rd century BC. The Ancient Egyptians may have used the names "Followers" and "Ennead" in the prognosis texts of the Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky Days of papyrus Cairo 86637. Some Greek astronomers considered them to be a distinct constellation, and they are mentioned by Hesiod's Works and Days, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, and the Geoponica. The Pleiades was the most well-known star among pre-Islamic Arabs and so often simply referred to as "the Star" (al Najm). Some scholars of Islam suggested that the Pleiades (ath-thurayya) are the "star" mentioned in Surah An-Najm ("The Star") in the Quran.
On numerous cylinder seals from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC., M 45 is represented by seven points, while the Seven Gods appear, on low-reliefs of Neo-Assyrian royal palaces, wearing long open robes and large cylindrical headdresses surmounted by short feathers and adorned of three frontal rows of horns and a crown of feathers, while carrying both an ax and a knife, as well as a bow and a quiver
### Subaru
In Japan, the cluster is mentioned under the name Mutsuraboshi ("six stars") in the 8th-century Kojiki. The cluster is now known in Japan as Subaru.
It was chosen as the name of the Subaru Telescope which is the 8.2-meter (320 in) flagship telescope of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. It is located at the Mauna Kea Observatory on the island of Hawaii. It had the largest monolithic primary mirror in the world from its commissioning in 1998 until 2005.
It was chosen as the brand name of Subaru automobiles to reflect the origins of the firm as the joining of five companies, and is depicted in the firm's six-star logo.
## Observational history
Galileo Galilei was the first astronomer to view the Pleiades through a telescope. He thereby discovered that the cluster contains many stars too dim to be seen with the naked eye. He published his observations, including a sketch of the Pleiades showing 36 stars, in his treatise Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610.
The Pleiades have long been known to be a physically related group of stars rather than any chance alignment. John Michell calculated in 1767 that the probability of a chance alignment of so many bright stars was only 1 in 500,000, and so surmised that the Pleiades and many other clusters of stars must be physically related. When studies were first made of the stars' proper motions, it was found that they are all moving in the same direction across the sky, at the same rate, further demonstrating that they were related.
Charles Messier measured the position of the cluster and included it as M45 in his catalogue of comet-like objects, published in 1771. Along with the Orion Nebula and the Praesepe cluster, Messier's inclusion of the Pleiades has been noted as curious, as most of Messier's objects were much fainter and more easily confused with comets—something that seems scarcely possible for the Pleiades. One possibility is that Messier simply wanted to have a larger catalogue than his scientific rival Lacaille, whose 1755 catalogue contained 42 objects, and so he added some bright, well-known objects to boost his list.
Edme-Sébastien Jeaurat then drew in 1782 a map of 64 stars of the Pleiades from his observations in 1779, which he published in 1786.
## Distance
The distance to the Pleiades can be used as a key first step to calibrate the cosmic distance ladder. As the cluster is relatively close to the Earth, its distance should be relatively easy to measure and has been estimated by many methods. Accurate knowledge of the distance allows astronomers to plot a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram for the cluster, which, when compared to those plotted for clusters whose distance is not known, allows their distances to be estimated. Other methods can then extend the distance scale from open clusters to galaxies and clusters of galaxies, and a cosmic distance ladder can be constructed. Ultimately astronomers' understanding of the age and future evolution of the universe is influenced by their knowledge of the distance to the Pleiades. Yet some authors argue that the controversy over the distance to the Pleiades discussed below is a red herring, since the cosmic distance ladder can (presently) rely on a suite of other nearby clusters where consensus exists regarding the distances as established by the Hipparcos satellite and independent means (e.g., the Hyades, Coma Berenices cluster, etc.).
Measurements of the distance have elicited much controversy. Results prior to the launch of the Hipparcos satellite generally found that the Pleiades were about 135 parsecs (pc) away from Earth. Data from Hipparcos yielded a surprising result, namely a distance of only 118 pc by measuring the parallax of stars in the cluster—a technique that should yield the most direct and accurate results. Later work consistently argued that the Hipparcos distance measurement for the Pleiades was erroneous. In particular, distances derived to the cluster via the Hubble Space Telescope and infrared color-magnitude diagram fitting (so-called "spectroscopic parallax") favor a distance between 135 and 140 pc; a dynamical distance from optical interferometric observations of the Pleiad double Atlas favors a distance of 133 to 137 pc. However, the author of the 2007–2009 catalog of revised Hipparcos parallaxes reasserted that the distance to the Pleiades is \~120 pc and challenged the dissenting evidence. In 2012, Francis and Anderson proposed that a systematic effect on Hipparcos parallax errors for stars in clusters biases calculation using the weighted mean and gave a Hipparcos parallax distance of 126 pc and photometric distance 132 pc based on stars in the AB Doradus, Tucana-Horologium, and Beta Pictoris moving groups, which are all similar in age and composition to the Pleiades. Those authors note that the difference between these results can be attributed to random error. More recent results using very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) (August 2014) and preliminary solutions using Gaia Data Release 1 (September 2016) and Gaia Data Release 2 (August 2018), determine distances of 136.2 ± 1.2 pc, 134 ± 6 pc and 136.2 ± 5.0 pc, respectively. The Gaia Data Release 1 team was cautious about their result and the VLBI authors assert "that the Hipparcos-measured distance to the Pleiades cluster is in error".
For another distance debate see Polaris#Distance, also with a different measurement from Hipparcos, although this time it suggested a greater distance.
## Composition
The cluster core radius is about 8 light-years and tidal radius is about 43 light-years. The cluster contains over 1,000 statistically confirmed members, a figure that excludes an unresolved likely further number of binary stars. Its light is dominated by young, hot blue stars, up to 14 of which can be seen with the naked eye depending on local observing conditions and visual acuity of the observer. The arrangement of the brightest stars is somewhat similar to Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. The total mass contained in the cluster is estimated to be about 800 solar masses and is dominated by fainter and redder stars. An estimate of the frequency of binary stars in the Pleiades is about 57%.
The cluster contains many brown dwarfs, which are objects with less than about 8% of the Sun's mass, not heavy enough for nuclear fusion reactions to start in their cores and become proper stars. They may constitute up to 25% of the total population of the cluster, although they contribute less than 2% of the total mass. Astronomers have made great efforts to find and analyse brown dwarfs in the Pleiades and other young clusters, because they are still relatively bright and observable, while brown dwarfs in older clusters have faded and are much more difficult to study.
## Brightest stars
The nine brightest stars of the cluster are named the Seven Sisters in Greek mythology: Sterope, Merope, Electra, Maia, Taygeta, Celaeno, and Alcyone, along with their parents Atlas and Pleione. As daughters of Atlas, the Hyades were sisters of the Pleiades. The following table gives details of the brightest stars in the cluster:
## Age and future evolution
Ages for star clusters can be estimated by comparing the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram for the cluster with theoretical models of stellar evolution. Using this technique, ages for the Pleiades of between 75 and 150 million years have been estimated. The wide spread in estimated ages is a result of uncertainties in stellar evolution models, which include factors such as convective overshoot, in which a convective zone within a star penetrates an otherwise non-convective zone, resulting in higher apparent ages.
Another way of estimating the age of the cluster is by looking at the lowest-mass objects. In normal main-sequence stars, lithium is rapidly destroyed in nuclear fusion reactions. Brown dwarfs can retain their lithium, however. Due to lithium's very low ignition temperature of 2.5 × 10<sup>6</sup> K, the highest-mass brown dwarfs will burn it eventually, and so determining the highest mass of brown dwarfs still containing lithium in the cluster can give an idea of its age. Applying this technique to the Pleiades gives an age of about 115 million years.
The cluster is slowly moving in the direction of the feet of what is currently the constellation of Orion. Like most open clusters, the Pleiades will not stay gravitationally bound forever. Some component stars will be ejected after close encounters with other stars; others will be stripped by tidal gravitational fields. Calculations suggest that the cluster will take about 250 million years to disperse, with gravitational interactions with giant molecular clouds and the spiral arms of our galaxy also hastening its demise.
## Reflection nebulosity
With larger amateur telescopes, the nebulosity around some of the stars can be easily seen; especially when long-exposure photographs are taken. Under ideal observing conditions, some hint of nebulosity around the cluster may even be seen with small telescopes or average binoculars. It is a reflection nebula, caused by dust reflecting the blue light of the hot, young stars.
It was formerly thought that the dust was left over from the formation of the cluster, but at the age of about 100 million years generally accepted for the cluster, almost all the dust originally present would have been dispersed by radiation pressure. Instead, it seems that the cluster is simply passing through a particularly dusty region of the interstellar medium.
Studies show that the dust responsible for the nebulosity is not uniformly distributed, but is concentrated mainly in two layers along the line of sight to the cluster. These layers may have been formed by deceleration due to radiation pressure as the dust has moved towards the stars.
## Possible planets
Analyzing deep-infrared images obtained by the Spitzer Space Telescope and Gemini North telescope, astronomers discovered that one of the cluster's stars, HD 23514, which has a mass and luminosity a bit greater than that of the Sun, is surrounded by an extraordinary number of hot dust particles. This could be evidence for planet formation around HD 23514.
## Videos
## Gallery
## See also
- Stozhary
- Matrikas
- The Seven Sages |
42,656,382 | West Creek (Pennsylvania) | 1,155,021,709 | Tributary in Pennsylvania, United States | [
"Rivers of Columbia County, Pennsylvania",
"Rivers of Pennsylvania",
"Tributaries of Fishing Creek (North Branch Susquehanna River)"
] | West Creek is a tributary of Fishing Creek, in Columbia County and Sullivan County, in Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is 9.1 miles (14.6 km) long and flows through Davidson Township in Sullivan County and Jackson Township, Sugarloaf Township, Benton Township, and Benton in Columbia County. The water temperature of the creek ranges from 0 °C (32 °F) to 25 °C (77 °F). The discharge ranges from nearly zero to ten cubic meters per second (0 to 353 cu ft/s). Rock formations in the watershed include the Trimmers Rock Formation, the Catskill Formation, and the Huntley Mountain Formation. The creek's watershed has an area of 16.6 square miles (43 km<sup>2</sup>), most of which is agricultural, forested, or urban land. A small number of dams, mills, and schoolhouses were built on West Creek in the 19th and early 20th century. West Creek has the highest level of biodiversity of any stream in the upper Fishing Creek watershed.
## Course
West Creek begins on Huckleberry Mountain in Davidson Township, Sullivan County. It flows east for several hundred feet before turning south-southeast for several tenths of a mile, exiting Sullivan County and entering Jackson Township, Columbia County. It then turns south-southwest for a short distance, reaching the base of Huckleberry Mountain and crossing Pennsylvania Route 118, before southeast for a few miles in a valley, receiving one unnamed tributary from the left and another from the right. The creek then enters Sugarloaf Township and receives another unnamed tributary from the left and turns south. For the next few miles, it flows alongside West Creek Road and receives another unnamed tributary from the right. It then crosses Pennsylvania Route 239 and receives York Hollow, its first named tributary, from the right. The creek then turns southeast for several miles, flowing alongside Pennsylvania Route 239 and receiving another unnamed tributary from the left and entering Benton Township. It turns south for more than a mile, still flowing alongside Pennsylvania Route 239 and crossing it several times. The creek then exits its valley and turns south-southwest, flowing along the edge of a plain. After several tenths of a mile, it receives Spencer Run, its second and final named tributary, from the right and then turns south for more than a mile, passing along the western border of Benton. The creek then turns south-southeast and exits Benton. A few tenths of a mile further downstream, it reaches its confluence with Fishing Creek.
West Creek joins Fishing Creek 21.72 miles (34.95 km) upstream of its mouth.
## Hydrology
The water temperature in West Creek in the summer can be as high as 25 °C (77 °F), which is 3°C (5.4°F) higher than coldwater fish can tolerate. Between May 2010 and July 2011, it ranged from below 0 °C (32 °F) in February and March 2011 to 25 °C (77 °F) in August 2010.
Between May 2010 and July 2011, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in West Creek ranged from slightly under eight milligrams per liter (4.6×10<sup>−6</sup> oz/cu in) in May 2010 to nearly seventeen milligrams per liter (9.8×10<sup>−6</sup> oz/cu in) in late January 2011. This is well above the minimum required concentration of dissolved oxygen for optimal fish habitation.
West Creek is less affected by episodic acidification than most of the rest of the upper Fishing Creek watershed, with the exception of Coles Creek. The pH of West Creek is at its lowest in late winter and spring, when it is typically around 6.3. During the rest of the year, it is above 7.0. The entire pH range of the creek ranges from just over 6.0 to 7.2 or 7.3. The concentration of dissolved aluminum in West Creek is under 70 micrograms per liter (0.0049 gr/imp gal), considerably less than the concentration needed to kill fish. The aluminum concentration is, in fact, usually approximately zero and is often under 40 micrograms per liter (0.0028 gr/imp gal). However, early in 2011, the concentration was observed twice to be nearly 60 micrograms per litre (0.0042 gr/imp gal).
The discharge of West Creek is usually less than two cubic meters per second (71 cu ft/s). However, it sometimes is between two and five cubic meters per second (71 and 177 cu ft/s) and has occasionally been as high as nearly ten cubic meters per second (350 cu ft/s). The conductance of the creek ranges from slightly over 40 to more than 60 micro-siemens per centimeter.
## Geography and geology
The elevation near the mouth of West Creek is 735 feet (224 m) above sea level. The elevation of the creek's source is between 1,780 and 1,800 feet (540 and 550 m) above sea level.
The rock in the southern part of the watershed of West Creek is of the Trimmers Rock Formation. This consists of siltstone and shale and comes from the Devonian period. The northern part of the watershed has rock belonging to the Catskill Formation, which consists of sandstone and siltstone and also comes from the Devonian. The Huntley Mountain Formation can be found at the headwaters of the creek. This formation consists of sandstone and siltstone and comes from the Mississippian and Devonian periods.
## Watershed
The watershed of West Creek has an area of 17.2 square miles (45 km<sup>2</sup>). The creek's mouth is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Benton. However, its source is in the quadrangle of Elk Grove.
There is significant agricultural activity done in the lower reaches of the watershed of West Creek and there are also some residential areas. Additionally, there are some agricultural lands in the upper reaches of the watershed. Much of the rest of the watershed is forested land. Some of the most downstream parts of the watershed are urban.
## History and etymology
West Creek has been known by its current name since at least the late 1830s. The creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1192054.
In 1799, a schoolhouse was constructed on West Creek near Benton. It was one of the first schoolhouses in the vicinity of Benton. During the 1864 elections, at least two Union soldiers were stationed on the creek, guarding the polling venues. A mill called the Thomas Mill was built on the creek in 1865 and remained operational in 1914, when it was owned by N.B. Cole. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, there was a timber-producing business on the creek, run by J. Harvey Creveling.
In 1881, J. J. McHenry constructed a queen truss covered bridge over West Creek for \$348.00. The bridge was moved to South Branch Roaring Creek when it was sold to H. H. Knoebel in 1936. A two-span concrete tee beam bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 239 was built over the creek in 1934. It is 65.9 feet (20.1 m) long and is located 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Benton. Another bridge of the same type, but with only a single, was built 3.5 miles (5.6 km) north of Benton in the same year. This bridge is 47.9 feet (14.6 m) long. A two-span steel stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge was constructed over the creek in Benton in 1951. It is 81.0 feet (24.7 m) long and carries State Route 4030. A bridge of the same time, was built 0.2 miles (0.32 km) north of Benton in 1958. It is 65.0 feet (19.8 m) long and carries T-720. A prestressed box beam or girders bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 239 was built in 2004. It is located 1 mile (1.6 km) north of Benton and is 55.1 feet (16.8 m) long.
In 1914, the Benton Water Supply Company constructed a dam on West Creek upstream of Benton. A 10-acre (4.0 ha) private campground called the West Creek Gap Campgrounds was established at the headwaters of West Creek in 1979 by the wife of George Mikulski.
## Biology
There are 41 macroinvertebrate taxa that have been observed in West Creek, more than have been observed in all of upper Fishing Creek. The number of macroinvertebrates per square meter in West Creek at the site WC1 (in the lower reaches of the creek) is nearly 900, which is far higher than the number of macroinvertebrates per square meter in any other site except the site WC2, in the middle reaches of the creek. Site WC2 has a macroinvertebrate density of 600 macroinvertebrates per square meter. Approximately 60% of the taxa are Ephemeroptera (mayflies), 10% each are Plecoptera (stoneflies), and approximately 5% are Trichoptera (caddisflies).
There are a total of eight species of wild fish in West Creek. Brook trout and brown trout both inhabit West Creek, although brook trout are slightly more common than brown trout, with nine brook trout and only seven brown trout being observed in a 2010 or 2011 electrofishing survey. Trout are more common upstream of the Pennsylvania Route 239 crossing of the creek than downstream of it. The most common fish in the creek are sculpin, eastern blacknose dace, and cutlips minnows. In the aforementioned electrofishing survey, a total of 81 sculpin, 34 black-nosed dace, and 17 cutlips minnows were observed. Other species of fish in the watershed include johnny darter, white sucker, and creek chub.
In 2011, the habitat quality of upper Fishing Creek and its tributaries were rated on a scale of 1 to 200 (with a higher rating indicating better habitability) by Point Park University and the Fishing Creek Sportsmans' Association. The headwaters of West Creek were given a rating of 192. The rating is significantly lower further downstream, with it being 175 downstream of the crossing of Pennsylvania Route 239. The rating averages 138 where the creek is in Benton and the lowest rating is 115. This rating occurred downstream of the Market Street bridge in Benton.
The Shannon Diversity Index, which is commonly used to measure the diversity of biological communities, of West Creek is slightly over 2.5. The Hilsenhoff Biotic Index, a measure of pollution-tolerant macroinvertebrates, on much of the creek ranges from 1.6 to 2.5, although an area of the creek near Benton ranges from 2.6 to 3.5. There is little riparian buffering along the sections of West Creek where agriculture is done.
## See also
- Coles Creek (Pennsylvania), next tributary of Fishing Creek going upstream
- Culley Run, next tributary of Fishing Creek going upstream
- List of tributaries of Fishing Creek (North Branch Susquehanna River)
- List of rivers of Pennsylvania |
21,776,705 | Dæmonicus | 1,167,596,762 | null | [
"2001 American television episodes",
"Fiction about the Devil",
"Television episodes about demonic possession",
"Television episodes set in Virginia",
"Television episodes set in West Virginia",
"Television episodes written by Frank Spotnitz",
"The X-Files (season 9) episodes"
] | "Dæmonicus" is the third episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files and the show's 185th episode overall. It first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on December 2, 2001. The episode was written and directed by executive producer Frank Spotnitz. The episode is a "monster-of-the-week" episode, a stand-alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology, or overarching fictional history, of The X-Files. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5.5 and its premiere was viewed by 5.80 million households. The episode received mixed reviews from television critics.
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett (Robert Patrick), Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish), and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson). In this episode, Doggett, Reyes, and Scully investigate a series of bizarre killings that seem to be due to demonic possession but which Doggett believes is a hoax. The agents soon meet Josef Kobold (James Remar), a man who seems to be playing some sort of demonic game.
"Dæmonicus" was written by Spotnitz to develop the new settings for the show's Monster-of-the-Week episodes, as well as the series in general. One of the major steps taken was to move Scully from the X-Files office to the FBI Academy at Quantico. When creating Josef Kobold, the episode's antagonist, Spotnitz researched various crimes and criminals, until he learned about Caryl Chessman, a man who had been sentenced to death on a technical charge of kidnapping. Series co-star Robert Patrick had issues remembering and delivering his lines, due to the theme of demonic possession, which reportedly made him uneasy.
## Plot
Following a bizarre double-murder with Satanic ritual overtones in Weston, West Virginia, John Doggett (Robert Patrick) and Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish) are offered the case. Doggett and Reyes ask Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) to do an autopsy on the murder victims. The agents come to the conclusion that one of the murder victims was somehow tricked into killing his wife, while evidence at the scene points to two perpetrators. A single clue, the word "Daemonicus", is left spelled out on a Scrabble board the victims had been playing before being attacked. When Reyes claims to have felt the presence of evil, Doggett responds with great irritation. Dr. Monique Sampson calls them, saying that the murders may be connected to an escaped mental patient, Dr. Kenneth Richman, and a guard, Paul Gerlach.
Meanwhile, in a wooded area, the two perpetrators, both wearing demon masks, face each other some twenty paces apart. One of the perpetrators raises his gun and shoots the other. At the mental institution, the two agents interview Josef Kobold (James Remar), the neighbouring patient of Richman. The answers Kobold gives are unsettling for the agents, as he says that one of the perpetrators has killed again, showing them the location and warning them of "something horrible" happening there. After the dead perpetrator's body is recovered, Scully performs an autopsy and discovers that the body belongs to Gerlach.
The agents ask Kobold for help finding the remaining perpetrator. When speaking to Kobold, he suddenly speaks in a strange backward whispering and erupts in convulsions. Reyes hears the word "medicus," meaning "physician." After putting Kobold in the custody of another guard named Custer, Doggett and Reyes race to Sampson's home and find her dead, with a dozen hypodermic needles jammed into her face. During a one-on-one confrontation, Kobold taunts Doggett about his personal life before vomiting all over him. That night, the power suddenly goes out in the mental institution: Custer approaches Kobold's cell and witnesses him turning into a demon.
Doggett phones Scully to tell her that Kobold claims Richman is at an old marina near Annandale, Virginia. Scully drives there, but is attacked by Richman. When Doggett and Reyes arrive, they hear a gunshot from inside an abandoned warehouse. There, they find Richman dead. Scully explains that he was holding her at gunpoint until they arrived, then shot himself. After Scully's lecture to FBI cadets, Doggett explains to her and Reyes that Kobold planned the entire ordeal as a game and got away with it. Explaining that the word "Dae/moni/cus" was code for the chosen victims' names, in a game Kobold devised to culminate in his eventual escape from the asylum. That the "demons" angle was merely to get the X-files' involvement and that they were all thoroughly "checkmated" by Kobold. Reyes, though accepting of Doggett's theories, is still nevertheless disconcerted with the true feeling of evil that she experienced, and believes Doggett was equally out of sorts because, though loath to admit it, he too felt its presence.
## Production
### Writing and directing
"Dæmonicus" was written and directed by executive producer Frank Spotnitz, marking his third credit as a writer and first credit as director for the season. The episode also marked the second time that Spotnitz helmed an episode's directing, with the first being "Alone". "Daemonicus" is the first Monster-of-the-Week episode of season nine, meaning a stand-alone episode unconnected to the series' wider mythology; as season nine was promoted as the "new" X-Files, it was important to develop new settings for the show. One of these new settings was to move Dana Scully from the X-Files office to the FBI Academy at Quantico. The scenes at the FBI Academy were shot at a lecture hall at UCLA. Spotnitz’s wife, Melissa, appears as one of the students in Scully’s class.
Spotnitz later called Kobold, the episode's main antagonist, "the devil, in a cell." When creating Kobold, Spotnitz researched various crimes and criminals, until he came across the name of Caryl Chessman, who had been sentenced to death on a technical charge of kidnapping. He was then able to connect the word "chessman" to the idea that, for Kobold, his crimes were all a game. Spotnitz wanted the villain to be a character that "could help", and not a character that would just tell the viewers "what The X-Files was again".
Series co-star Robert Patrick had issues remembering and delivering his lines due to the theme of demonic possession, which reportedly "was freaking" him out. He later explained, "It was the first time that I couldn't do my lines. Usually I would show up, and they'd always put the camera on me first [but this time] I couldn't do it."
### Filming
The finished episode contains several sequences of Josef Kobold vomiting. Spotnitz had not intended the finished product to feature all the shots but the editor at that time, Chris Cooke, "cut it that way." Spotnitz felt that it "was so completely over the top." To create the shots, the production crew used tubes which supplied the faux vomit. The tubes were discreetly fitted to actor James Remar's mouth. Remar, in turn, only had to open his mouth during the shooting of the sequence. Spotnitz later joked that he had "a thing for vomiting".
## Reception
"Dæmonicus" first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on December 2, 2001. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5.5, meaning that it was seen by 5.5% of the nation's estimated households and was viewed by 5.80 million households. "Dæmonicus" was the 68th most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending December 2. The episode later aired in the United Kingdom on BBC One on November 17, 2002.
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics. Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode a "C" grade rating. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode one-and-a-half stars out of five. The two criticized Spotnitz "attention seeking direction", citing the "strange cross fades" and "exaggerated camera angles" as detractors. Furthermore, they were critical about the story, writing that it was "all over the place". Ultimately, Shearman and Pearson concluded that the entry was an example of "this new season [needing] to try a little harder" in order to become a success.
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a "C−" and wrote that while the episode had a lot of gruesome moments, such as the corpses with snakes inside of them and the gristly murders, the "meandering structure, over-emphasized grimness, and deadening pace render all of these elements inert". He also felt that, after "Nothing Important Happened Today"—which he called a "snooze-fest"—"Daemonicus" was a "disheartening [way] to get back to monster of the week episodes". Other reviews were more positive. M.A. Crang, in his book Denying the Truth: Revisiting The X-Files after 9/11, said the episode was "sluggishly paced" but praised the "wonderfully tense atmosphere" and Spotnitz's "stylish directing choices". In a season review, Michelle Kung from Entertainment Weekly called the episode "worthy", but noted that it was overshadowed by the show's "ludicrous conspiracy plots". |
28,210,383 | Road to ... (Family Guy) | 1,168,687,039 | Series of episodes in Family Guy | [
"2000 introductions",
"Family Guy episodes",
"Road to... (Family Guy)"
] | The "Road to ..." episodes, also known as the Family Guy Road shows, are a series of episodes in the animated series Family Guy. They are a parody of the seven Road to... comedy films, starring Bing Crosby, Bob Hope, and Dorothy Lamour.
These episodes revolve around Stewie Griffin and Brian on a road trip in a foreign, supernatural or science fiction setting not familiar to the show's normal location in Quahog, Rhode Island. The first, titled "Road to Rhode Island", aired on May 30, 2000, as a part of the second season. The episodes are known for featuring elaborate musical numbers, similar to the original films. As of 2019, there are eight "Road to" episodes.
The "Road to" episodes contain several signature elements, including a special version of the opening sequence, custom musical cues and musical numbers, and parodies of science fiction and fantasy films. Many of the episodes are popular among television critics, and have been nominated for several awards. In 2000, "Road to Rhode Island" was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award in the "Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less Than One Hour)" category. In 2009, "Road to Germany", along with two other episodes from the seventh season, were nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award in the "Outstanding Comedy Series" category, the first time in 48 years multiple episodes of one animated series were nominated for the same award.
## Episodes
## Segments
"Road to" episodes typically consist of three parts following a series of theatrical or cultural-themed credits, and beginning with a segment at the Griffin family home in Quahog, Rhode Island. This segment usually establishes a conflict that Stewie and Brian must overcome by leaving Quahog and the rest of the Griffin family. For the second segment, Stewie and Brian obtain the established goal, which differs in each episode, and have included Brian reuniting with his mother in "Road to Rhode Island", Stewie finding his lost teddy bear in "Road to Rupert", or rescuing Mort Goldman, the town's pharmacist, in "Road to Germany".
## Production and development
`The "Road to" episodes are a parody of the seven Road to... comedy films released between 1940 and 1962, which starred actors Bing Crosby, Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour. Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane came up with the idea to create the episodes, being a fan of the original film series.`
The first "Road to" episode, titled "Road to Rhode Island", aired in 2000 as a part of the second season of Family Guy, and featured Brian and Stewie attempting to find Brian's mother. The episode was the first Family Guy contribution by director Dan Povenmire, and it was written by Gary Janetti, who had previously written for the show during its first and second seasons. MacFarlane granted Povenmire substantial creative freedom. Povenmire recalled that MacFarlane would tell him, "We've got two minutes to fill. Give me some visual gags. Do whatever you want. I trust you." Povenmire praised MacFarlane's management style for letting him "have [...] fun".
`After the episode's success, including its nomination for a Primetime Emmy Award, a second episode in the "Road to" series was produced for the third season, titled "Road to Europe". The episode was inspired by the 1941 film Road to Morocco, including its musical number "(We're off on the) Road to Morocco", which was previously parodied by the two characters, with new lyrics, in "Rhode Island". Povenmire returned to direct the episode but this time it was written by Daniel Palladino, who was a guest-writer.`
The fifth-season episode "Saving Private Brian", originally titled "Road to Iraq", was at first intended to be the third installment in the Road series, however it was changed before airing.
The third episode in the series was not produced in the fourth season, but instead it was produced in the fifth season, titled "Road to Rupert", which followed Stewie in his attempt to relocate his teddy bear, Rupert, who was taken to Aspen, Colorado, was the last episode of the Road shows to be directed by Dan Povenmire. Povenmire left Family Guy soon after, following the conclusion of the fifth season, to create his own series, titled Phineas and Ferb, which has since been nominated for five Primetime Emmy Awards with two Emmy wins. It was written by Patrick Meighan who had written the fourth-season episode "8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter".
As a result, series regular Greg Colton, who had worked on "Brian Goes Back to College", "No Meals on Wheels", and also "8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter", took over Povenmire's role as director of the "Road to" episodes. The next installment was titled "Road to Germany", which follows Brian and Stewie going back in time to rescue their neighbor Mort Goldman from the Nazi invasion of Poland. The episode was produced for the seventh season, it aired on October 19, 2008. Meighan returned to write the episode. After reading the script aloud, Jewish executive producer David A. Goodman said, "I'm going to get kicked out of my temple."
The next "Road to" episode was announced at the 2008 San Diego Comic-Con International in San Diego, California, on July 25, 2008. It was titled "Road to the Multiverse" and it was produced in the eighth season. Though it was not originally intended to be a "Road to" episode, Greg Colton convinced series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane and "Spies Reminiscent of Us" director Cyndi Tang to change the episode's title from "Sliders", parodying the science fiction television series Sliders. Colton's suggestion of the new title "Road to the Multiverse" was accepted, as was altering the premise of "Spies Reminiscent of Us", the season's original "Road to" episode. The episode was not written by Meighan, instead it was written by Wellesley Wild who wrote "PTV".
The sixth episode was announced at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International, and follows Brian and Stewie on an adventure to the North Pole. It aired during the show's ninth season, and is titled "Road to the North Pole". The episode was the first Road show to be produced and broadcast in high-definition, the first to be a full hour in length, and was directed by Colton.
The tenth-season episode "Back to the Pilot", originally titled "Road to the Pilot", was at first intended to be the seventh installment in the Road series, however it was changed before airing.
The seventh episode was announced at the 2012 San Diego Comic-Con International. The episode involves Brian and Stewie teleporting to Las Vegas. Except something goes wrong with the machine and Brian and Stewie get cloned. One pair has the best possible time in Las Vegas, the other two have the worst possible time. The episode, titled "Roads to Vegas", aired as the show's eleventh-season finale in May 2013.
## Reception
The "Road to" episodes are often among the most critically acclaimed episodes of the series. In a 2009 review of "Road to Rhode Island", Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode a perfect score of ten out of ten, praising the episode for its "great writing, hilarious jokes, a catchy musical, and a story that's both hilarious and touching at the same time". In a subsequent review by IGN of "Road to Germany", Haque again gave the episode high marks for its "exciting storyline, and some hilariously offensive humor". Similarly, "Road to the Multiverse" was received very positively by television credits, who called the episode "the best of the early episodes we've seen on the series". In addition, "Road to the Multiverse" was the highest rated episode of the eighth season, in terms of total viewership.
The episodes are generally praised by critics for the connection between Brian and Stewie. IGN stated that when Stewie and Brian are paired together for adventures in the series it becomes hilarious, also mentioning that it was great that they could learn more deeply Brian and see Stewie's transformation of character. TV Squad critic Brett Love has stated that he enjoys the episodes, especially the parts that show Stewie and Brian relationship, in his review of "Road to Rupert" he commented that Stewie and Brian's story made the episode for him. Both IGN and TV Squad have praised "Road to Germany", "Road to Rupert" and "Road to Rhode Island" for having that type of connection in their respective reviews.
Despite the praise, reviews of some episodes were more critical. During her review of Road to Germany, Alex Rocha of TV Guide wrote, "it seemed that the show has taken a slight fall back. After having great episodes the past few weeks to get this current season started on a roll, we have witnessed another average, even sub-par episode. Brett Love of TV Squad praised "Road to Rupert", though noted that he did not like the episode's B-story.
### Awards
In 2000, "Road to Rhode Island" was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award in the "Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less Than One Hour)" category, but ultimately lost to The Simpsons episode "Behind the Laughter". In 2009, "Road to Germany", along with two other episodes from the seventh season, were nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award in the "Outstanding Comedy Series" category, the first time in 48 years an animated series was nominated for the same award. The show lost to the NBC series 30 Rock, who had won the award in both 2007 and 2008. In 2011, "Road to the North Pole" won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (Half-Hour) and Animation.
In IGN's top ten list of Stewie and Brian's Greatest Adventures, the "Road to" episodes gains each spot on the top five with "Road to Europe" in spot number five, "Road to Germany" in number four, "Road to Rupert" in number three, "Road to the Multiverse" in number two, and the first episode, "Road to Rhode Island", in the number-one spot in the list. Other episodes in the list included "Saving Private Brian", "Stuck Together, Torn Apart" and "Movin' Out (Brian's Song)".
## See also
- Family Guy
- List of Family Guy episodes |
64,394,477 | Japanese destroyer Tsuta (1944) | 1,093,076,818 | WWII-era Japanese escort destroyer | [
"1944 ships",
"Destroyers of the Republic of China Navy",
"Ships built by Yokosuka Naval Arsenal",
"Tachibana-class destroyers",
"World War II destroyers of Japan"
] | Tsuta (蔦, "Ivy") was one of 23 escort destroyers of the Tachibana sub-class of the Matsu class built for the Imperial Japanese Navy during the final stages of World War II. Completed in February 1945, she finished training in late April, but does not appear to have seen any subsequent use during the war. The ship was surrendered to the Allies at the end of the war and used to repatriate Japanese troops until 1947. Mid-year the destroyer was turned over to the Republic of China and was renamed Hua Yang. The ship ran aground in 1949 and was wrecked; she was not stricken until 1954.
## Design and description
The Tachibana sub-class was a simplified version of the preceding Matsu class to make them even more suited for mass production. The ships measured 100 meters (328 ft 1 in) long overall, with a beam of 9.35 meters (30 ft 8 in) and a draft of 3.37 meters (11 ft 1 in). They displaced 1,309 metric tons (1,288 long tons) at standard load and 1,554 metric tons (1,529 long tons) at deep load. The ships had two Kampon geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by two Kampon water-tube boilers. The turbines were rated at a total of 19,000 shaft horsepower (14,000 kW) for a speed of 27.8 knots (51.5 km/h; 32.0 mph). The Tachibanas had a range of 4,680 nautical miles (8,670 km; 5,390 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph).
The main armament of the Tachibana sub-class consisted of three Type 89 127-millimeter (5 in) dual-purpose guns in one twin-gun mount aft and one single mount forward of the superstructure. The single mount was partially protected against spray by a gun shield. The accuracy of the Type 89 guns was severely reduced against aircraft because no high-angle gunnery director was fitted. They carried a total of 25 Type 96 25-millimeter (1 in) anti-aircraft guns in 4 triple and 13 single mounts. The Tachibanas were equipped with Type 13 early-warning and Type 22 surface-search radars. The ships were also armed with a single rotating quadruple mount amidships for 610-millimeter (24 in) torpedoes. They could deliver their 60 depth charges via two stern rails and two throwers.
## Construction and service
Tsuta (Ivy) was ordered in Fiscal Year 1943 under the Modified 5th Naval Armaments Supplement Program as part of the Matsu class, but the design was simplified to facilitate production and the ship was one of those built to the modified design. She was laid down on 31 July 1944 by Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, launched on 2 November and completed on 8 February 1945. The ship was assigned to the 11th Destroyer Squadron of the Combined Fleet for working up, and was briefly attached to the Second Fleet on 1–20 April. Tsuta was transferred to Destroyer Division 43 of Escort Squadron 31 of the Combined Fleet on 25 April. Five days later the ship was moored and camouflaged in the Seto Inland Sea. She was turned over to Allied forces at Kure at the time of the surrender of Japan on 2 September and was stricken from the navy list on 5 October.
The destroyer was disarmed and used to repatriate Japanese personnel in 1945–1947. Tsuta was turned over to the Republic of China Navy on 31 July of the latter year and renamed Hua Yang. The ship ran aground in the Pescadores en route to Taiwan in 1949 and remained there until she was stricken from the navy list in 1954. |
32,376,391 | What You Want (Evanescence song) | 1,171,175,734 | 2011 song by Evanescence | [
"2011 singles",
"2011 songs",
"Evanescence songs",
"Gothic rock songs",
"Industrial rock songs",
"Music videos directed by Meiert Avis",
"Song recordings produced by Nick Raskulinecz",
"Songs about freedom",
"Songs written by Amy Lee",
"Songs written by Terry Balsamo",
"Songs written by Tim McCord",
"Wind-up Records singles"
] | "What You Want" is a song by American rock band Evanescence. It was released as the lead single from the band's third eponymous album on August 9, 2011 through Wind-up Records. The song was written by Amy Lee, Terry Balsamo and Tim McCord and produced by Nick Raskulinecz. Lee described "What You Want" as a departure from the band's previous sound and said she was inspired to write the song by several experiences she had with her fans. Musically "What You Want" contains a variety of musical elements and it uses drums, guitars, synthesizers and a piano. Lyrically, the song has a theme of freedom.
Upon its release, "What You Want" received positive reviews from music critics who praised its instrumentation, Lee's vocals and the song's musical hook; several of them listed it as an album highlight. The song peaked at number 68 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and achieved higher success in its component charts. It also peaked at number 55 on the Canadian Hot 100, topped the UK Rock Chart and appeared in eight charts in different countries.
The music video for "What You Want" was filmed in Brooklyn, New York and it was directed by Meiert Avis and Stefan Smith. It shows the band performing the song live in a small warehouse and Lee running in various locations. The video received positive response from critics who generally praised the imagery. "What You Want" was performed live for the first time on MTV and later on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. It was added to the set list of the band's third world tour, Evanescence Tour (2011-2012).
## Background and recording
"What You Want" was written by Amy Lee, Terry Balsamo, and Tim McCord in New York City and the production was handled by Nick Raskulinecz. During an interview with MTV News in June, Lee talked about the song saying, "[...] the song that I think is the first single is the song that wraps it all up. It's got a cool meaning, a lot of great lyrics going on, it also just smacks you right in the face and it's heavy and it's great." She noted that the song was a departure from the band's previous material and acknowledged that they wanted the new single to be "more than a hit".
Lee stated the song was inspired by and talked about her relationship with the band's fans, and the realization that following a music career "is what I'm supposed to do". She also explained that the theme of the song was freedom, saying that the song's lyric "Remember who you really are" was "exactly everything you could assume it means". Another inspiration for the song came from Lee's life, "That song is me talking to myself about not being afraid and coming back to this thing and living the life I was born to live. Sometimes, it takes a lot to do this. And I do love it very much, but there is always that fear of putting yourself under the microscope."
Speaking about the sound, Lee described "What You Want" as "very danceable" and her own vocals as "fun and snappy and it gives a cool dynamic [to the song]". Lee stated that the process of recording the song was fun for the band as they had excess time. She said that initially the song was conceived while the band was just recording demo, but as time passed it progressed and grew into something more. She wrote a chorus for "What You Want" and played it on the piano. Lee revealed that she was initially embarrassed when she came up with the lyrics and the melody of the song as she thought the members of her band would think she was Janet Jackson due to the usage of a hook. During an interview with M Music & Musicians Lee revealed that she wouldn't have recorded the song if it had been brought to her before the recording of Evanescence as she would have thought it was "stupid".
## Release
On August 22, 2011 Lee went to Toronto's Liberty Studios, to preview 5 mastered songs from Evanescence to a selected crowd of thirty people. "What You Want" was one of the five previewed songs. A snippet of "What You Want" premiered on MTV on July 11, 2011. During that time it was reported that the band's new single would be released in early August. After the performance by the band on MTV on August 8, 2011, the album version premiered on the channel's official website. The song was digitally released on August 9, 2011 exclusively on the iTunes Store, and to all other digital retailers on August 16. In the United Kingdom, the song was released on August 21, and a CD single of the song was released on September 9, 2011 in Germany. The band revealed during an interview that there were a lot of songs they were planning to release as the album's first single, but it was a "natural choice" to release "What You Want". To promote the single, the band partnered with SoundTracking and GetGlue. Fans who identified an Evanescence song using the SoundTracking application and shared it to Twitter, using the hashtag \#Evcomeback, entered themselves to win an album from the band. If fans checked into Evanescence using GetGlue, they unlocked an exclusive sticker.
The song was well received by the band's fans. After James Montgomery from MTV News showed the snippets of the song, he asked the fans on Twitter to share their opinions about it. According to the fans' tweets, the new songs were well received and praised. Kara Klenk of the same publication also confirmed the positive reception adding, "In the fast-paced music world where artists need to constantly reinvent themselves and pump out music, videos, appearances, and tours to keep their fans happy and interested, it's rare for a band to take a multi-year hiatus and come back to legions of fans who have anxiously awaited their return."
## Composition
"What You Want" contains a variety of musical elements and influences of several music genres: industrial rock, gothic pop, nu metal, classic synth-pop, electro-pop dance and baroque metal along with a pop hook. Several critics noted that some of the gothic and metal elements were prominent in the band's previous material, mostly due to their songs' piano-driven melody. Lewis Corner of the website Digital Spy noted that the classical strings present in the song reinforced the band's medieval influences. Dane Prokofiev of PopMatters further compared the song with Korn's music while Rick Florino of Artistdirect noted similarities to works by Depeche Mode. The song's beat was further described as dynamic, "slamming" and loud. As the song progresses, the melody goes through "dramatic crashes" and crescendos.
"What You Want" opens with rapid drums and soon moves into a guitar-driven mode, accompanied by synthesizers. Throughout the song, Lee uses "pseudo operatic" and "poppy" vocals. In the opening lines, she sings: "Do what you, what you want / If you have a dream for better / Do what you, what you want / 'Til you don't want it anymore." Those sounds are followed by a hard rock surging guitar and strings which were noted to be part of the band's characteristic sound. The chorus is instrumentally complete with crashing cymbals, "thrashing, high-wired rawk" guitars, electric guitars, keyboards and piano as Lee sings, "Hello, hello, remember me? I’m everything you can’t control / Somewhere beyond the pain there must be a way to believe we can break through." At the end of the song, Lee shouts the hook "Do what you, what you want," as her vocals are echoed and eventually fade away. Laurie Tuffrey of NME summarized the song as a "standard goth-pop fare, full of rapid drum breaks, swathes of fuzzy riffing and a catchy, chant-friendly chorus." Overally, Scott Shetler of Pop Crush described its production as "polished".
Several critics interpreted the song's lyrics during their reviews. Its theme was noted to be about freedom. Jason Lipshutz of Billboard said that in the song, Lee is "trying to convince a romantic partner to stop 'spiraling down, down, down' and help her find a new beginning." Kerrang! writer Steve Beebee wrote that Lee reaches a conclusion that "Love will guide you home." Talking about the lyrical content of the song, Laurie Tuffrey of NME opined: "It's quite hard to tell what the song's about, with lots of references to 'the unknown' and 'the pain', and it confusingly switches between suggesting people 'do what you want you want, if you have a dream for better' in the first verse and the decidedly creepier final chorus where Lee seemingly gets an ex-lover on the blower, only to tell them 'Hello, hello, it’s only me, infecting everything you love'."
## Critical reception
Scott Shetler of Pop Crush described the song as a "forceful rock track that reminds fans why the group was one of the most successful crossover acts of the past decade" and praised Lee's "strong-but-pretty vocals". James Montgomery from MTV News, praised the song saying that the "elastic-yet-lock-step energy not only makes the song the perfect comeback single for a band that's been gone for far too long, but it manages to capture the very essence of what inspired them to press on." Tom Goodwyn of the same publication wrote: "A big thumping drumbeat and driving guitar riff kick things off, before giving way to a stomping chorus written with NFL stadiums in mind." Karen Bliss of the magazine Rolling Stone praised Lee's "haunting" and "crystalline" vocals in the "industrial-strength sound" of "What You Want". Nick Catucci of the same publication gave the song three stars writing, "Amy Lee trades anguish for defiance, goosing her wail with welcome sass. Still, she's nearly overrun by the music, a collision of two-ton guitars, strings and piano." Steven Hyden of The A.V. Club wrote: "Lee really can sing, and the opener 'What You Want' shows she has the pipes (and even the submerged spunk) to become the new Pat Benatar this generation desperately needs." Rick Florino of Artistdirect gave the song five out of five stars praising the hook as one of the best in the band's career adding that it managed to make the song "instantly unforgettable". Florino further called the song "another classic from Evanescence" which will "revive rock music again" and concluded:
> At the heart of this epic, Lee relays another personal story that impacts intensely, especially as the song breaks during the bridge and her voice takes flight like never before. Lyrics like 'Somewhere beyond the pain there must be a way to believe' sear and soar, as Lee continues to hypnotize like no other singer in rock or pop for that matter.
While reviewing Evanescence as a whole, Catucci of Rolling Stone called the song "pummeling but pretty." In another review for the same publication, Matthew Perpetua wrote that the "heaviness is less top-heavy" in the song before adding that the band "never sounded so brisk and dynamic". Camille Dodero of the same publication called "What You Want" a "hair-blowingly grandiose" song. Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly gave the song a B rating and said, "the song's grinding guitars, massive drums, goth-princess piano frills, and warrior-grrrl vocal rage feel like 2007 all over again." Melinda Newman of HitFix praised the chorus lines saying that it should have been chosen as a theme song for the film Contagion.
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy described the song as a "hefty slab of dramatic rock which includes the band's trademark electric guitars with melodic choruses". In another review, he awarded the song four stars out of five stating "electro it certainly ain't, but the result is as dancefloor-friendly as it is mosh pit-ready." He further praised the "catchy-as-cholera" chorus and gave a mixed review about the lyrics and the title saying "fortunately their words seemed to have been a touch overzealous; though it's clear from the trailer for the group's third album that they've been spending a night or two on the tiles." Lewis Corner of the same publication concluded: "'What You Want' proved... the band's melodious rock sensibilities remain firmly in tact [sic]". Tamar Anitai of MTV, Theon Weber of Spin, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic and Edna Gundersen of USA Today chose the song as an album highlight. Entertainment Weekly's Kyle Anderson also chose it as a highlight, further describing it as "fierce". Los Angeles Times' Mikael Wood wrote that "'What You Want' rides its central riff with a bulldozer's efficiency." Marc Hirsh of The Boston Globe found a "metallic lurch playing off of Lee's goth-empress vocals" in the song. Hirsh went on to call the song a "strong declaration" announcing the band's comeback.
In 2011, Loudwire ranked the song number four on its list of the 10 greatest Evanescence songs, and in 2020, Kerrang ranked the song number ten on its list of the 20 greatest Evanescence songs.
## Chart performance
On the chart issue dated August 20, 2011, "What You Want" debuted at number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, selling more than 78,000 copies according to SoundScan. The song also debuted at number 32 on the Billboard Rock Songs becoming the "Greatest Gainer" of the week on the same chart. Later, during the digital release of Evanescence, it moved from number 15 to number 13. It debuted at number 35 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart in the United States while also peaking at number 7 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Chart. As of November 2011, it has sold more than 112,000 digital downloads. On the Canadian Hot 100, "What You Want" debuted at number 55.
"What You Want" peaked at number 30 on the Brazilian Billboard Brasil chart on August 12, 2011. On August 22, 2011, the song debuted on the German Singles Chart and peaked at number 84. It charted for three weeks and left the chart on October 2, 2011. On September 3, the song debuted at number one on the UK Rock Chart, removing Evanescence's own single "My Immortal" (2003) from the top spot. That achievement helped the song debut at number 72 on the main UK Singles Chart the same day. "What You Want" debuted at number 86 on the ARIA Singles Chart in Australia on April 2, 2012. According to the ARIA Charts' official website, the song debuted in April, though it was released in Australia in August 2011.
## Music video
### Background and development
The filming of the music video for "What You Want" started on July 30, 2011 in a warehouse in Brooklyn, New York, and it was directed by Meiert Avis and Stefan Smith. The video featured the band's fans who played a crowd on a concert by Evanescence. During an interview, Lee revealed that the music video for the song was one of the band's "realest" videos adding, "[...] this is more a personal video. We've done a lot in the past that [were] very 'fantasy,' and this is sort of the real us.[...] I just wanted to do something that really felt personal for a change. Obviously, I'm wearing crazy makeup, and that's not my everyday, but, you know, I want ... to connect with the fans again. We all do. We miss them. A lot of this record is about them, and that's why they're going to be here and be in it, too." In an interview with MTV News, she described the concept of the video:
> "This video is sort of, like, the history of the band. This club [set] is emulating old shows we used to play in the beginning — we used to play this club called Vino's in Little Rock [Arkansas] — it's sort of like back then, the gritty, dirty club, sweaty. And basically, it's also [about] New York, where I've been, [and] where [bassist] Tim [McCord] lived in the past few years since we've been gone. And it's sort of about escaping New York and.[...] coming back out into the world."
However, before the filming of the video, the band was still finishing the album and when the time to shoot the video came, Lee didn't conceive an idea about how it should look like. As she felt the song was different for the band, Lee knew that they didn't want to "go the classic, sort of fantastic, epic [thing]." Lee asked her sister Carrie to help her around the concept of the video. Her sister said that they should film the video for the song in New York and Lee agreed with her idea, "She just started saying things that were right on. She was like, 'This should be in New York. You guys need to do something different, this song feels different.' And she started talking about running across the Brooklyn Bridge, and it being where I live, and I was like, 'Oh my God, this is great.'" However, the final shot of the video filmed at Coney Island was Lee's own idea. The shot represented the band coming back in the world and "heading into the unknown, coming into a new world".
### Synopsis
The video begins with shots of several skyscrapers in New York, which are followed by scenes of the band performing in a warehouse that has been converted into a stage (similar to Vino's bar which is where the band used to regularly perform before they became popular). The crowd at the concert is seen singing along with the band. The video continually cuts the singer walking through Brooklyn in a dark dress and makeup. She walks through a train station, streets and the Brooklyn Bridge. During the bridge of the song, Lee runs through the Brooklyn Bridge and jumps on the other side, landing on her feet. At the end of the video, the band meet up and walk to the beach where they walk into the sea. The final shot shows the band walking in the sea as the video fades out.
### Release and reception
A twenty-two second teaser of the video was released on September 9, 2011. The video for the song officially premiered online on September 13, 2011 and it was made available for digital download on the iTunes Store the same day. James Montgomery from MTV News, said that the video was a departure for the band "eschewing the dark fantasy worlds they've created in previous videos in favor of good old-fashioned realism: the blood, sweat and tears that not only took them to the top, but have fueled their current comeback, too." Later, he added that the video "recalls the halcyon days of big-ticket rock videos" and some "claustrophobic, cathartic performance footage." Entertainment Weekly's Grady Smith, called the video "heavy goth-rock head-banger" and added that the shots of Lee falling from the bridge were similar to the music video for "Bring Me to Life" (2003).
Melinda Newman of the website HitFix compared the video with the movies The Crow (1994) and Run Lola Run (1998). She further praised the lighting, the photographs and the mood which according to her, were "perfection, especially the city scapes at night and the intense looks on the fans faces, as they are enraptured by Lee. It's a big budget shoot, the kind we don't see that much of anymore." Jason Lipshutz of the magazine Billboard praised the video with its "crystal-clear" shots of the concert and the "hazy" shots of Lee running through New York. Nicole James of MTV Buzzyworthy simply said "rock videos + themes = the only kind of math I like" referring to the music video for "What You Want". A more negative review of the video was given by Laurie Tuffrey of NME who called the video "uninspiring". He further found CCTV effects and concluded that Lee was "looking for some love to infect" while running through Brooklyn streets.
As of April 2022, the song has 65 million views on YouTube.
## Live performances
Evanescence performed the song live for the first time on MTV, on August 8, 2011 during a broadcast called MTV First: Evanescence. After the performance the band had an exclusive interview with the publication. Writing for the channel's website, James Montgomery described Lee's vocals as "powerful" during the performance. On October 15, 2011, Evanescence performed the song during a televised appearance on the Jimmy Kimmel Live! show.
They later added the song to the set list on their third worldwide tour in support of Evanescence, titled Evanescence Tour. While reviewing a concert by the band, Rick Florino of Artistdirect wrote that Lee sounded "pristine and powerful" during the chorus of the song. He further praised Tim McCord's bass and Terry Balsamo's guitar, "volleying with Troy McLawhorn as Evanescene's methodical metallic theatrics hypnotized." He concluded that the song "proved to be an undeniable anthem echoed throughout the room by every voice present." Evanescence performed the song during their concert at the 2011 Rock in Rio festival on October 2, 2011.
## Track listing
Digital download
1. "What You Want" – 3:40
CD single
1. "What You Want" – 3:40
2. "What You Want" (Elder Jepson Remix) – 3:18
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Release history
## See also
- List of UK Rock Chart number-one singles of 2011 |
7,896,061 | Texas State Highway 211 | 1,163,993,346 | Highway in San Antonio, Texas | [
"State highways in Texas",
"Transportation in Bexar County, Texas",
"Transportation in Medina County, Texas"
] | State Highway 211 (SH 211), also known as the Texas Research Parkway and the Hill Country Parkway, is an 18.8-mile (30.3 km) state highway west of the city of San Antonio in the U.S. state of Texas. It runs from U.S. Highway 90 (US 90) to SH 16, crossing between Bexar County and Medina County. Designated in 1986 as an access route to the Texas Research Park, the route was composed of two disconnected sections—a southern segment from US 90 to Farm to Market Road 1957 (FM 1957) and a northern segment from FM 471 to SH 16—before the gap was closed in 2022.
## Route description
SH 211 begins at a diamond interchange with US 90 in western Bexar County. The route travels to the north as a two-lane highway and is known as either the Texas Research Parkway or the Hill Country Parkway, providing access to the Texas Research Park and a Citi service center. After 3.7 miles (6.0 km), it reaches FM 1957 just east of the Bexar–Medina county line. The route continues north, crossing back and forth between the two counties before reaching FM 471 in Medina County. From here, SH 211 crosses back over into Bexar County, passing briefly through the San Antonio city limits, before ending at an at-grade intersection with SH 16. The section between FM 471 and SH 16 features the occasional passing lane in both directions.
The northern segment of the roadway includes a design to provide protection to the Edwards Aquifer, the drinking water supply of San Antonio. To prevent runoff from the highway entering the aquifer, a 555-foot-long (169 m) bridge was sealed to prevent it from leaking and an aqueduct was constructed nearby to carry the runoff.
The traffic volume of the highway differs between the southern and northern sections, with the southern section seeing a traffic volume six times that of the northern section. In 2005, the southern section had a traffic volume of 6,450 annual average daily traffic (AADT), which increased to 6,700 AADT in 2006. The traffic volume of the northern section saw a slight increase from 2005 to 2006 as well: in 2005, it had a traffic volume of 1,000 AADT near the southern end of the road and 1,300 AADT near the northern end, and in 2006, these numbers had increased to 1,050 and 1,550 AADT, respectively.
## History
A previous route numbered SH 211 was designated on August 1, 1934, on a route from Brenham northward to Independence. On January 26, 1935, it was extended north to Clay. On July 15, 1935, this extension was cancelled. On January 6, 1939, the remainder of SH 211 was cancelled. On January 22, 1940, the SH 211 was restored south of Old Independence. On October 26, 1942, SH 211 was cancelled, and its mileage was transferred to FM 50 and Spur 197.
The current alignment was designated on March 31, 1986, from US 90 northward to SH 16. On November 29, 1988, the designation was extended northeastward from SH 16 to FM 3351; however, this segment was never constructed. The southern portion, from US 90 to FM 1957, was the first to be completed with the interchange at US 90 and the bridge over Lucas Creek completed in 1990. The northern portion, from FM 471 to SH 16, was completed in 1991 with the completion of the bridges over San Geronimo Creek.
Plans to close the gap between FM 1957 and FM 471 were stymied by insufficient funds available to complete the nearly 8-mile (12.9 km) project and right-of-way acquisition. In 2007, TxDOT only had \$7.7 million of the \$30 million required for construction costs. Bexar County was to pay for the balance of the project costs, with TxDOT reimbursing the county when funds became available. Relocation assistance was provided to landowners to persuade them to sell their property for the project. Local opposition to the extension cited greater highway needs elsewhere, environmental concerns in the corridor, and a reluctance to sell land needed for the highway as chief concerns of the highway, while support for the route indicated the belief that it would provide relief to nearby Loop 1604.
The findings for the environmental impact study were released by July 2017, and construction broke ground in late 2020. The route was completed and opened to traffic in November 2022. The total cost of the project was \$33 million.
## Major intersections
## See also |
64,004 | Apt Pupil (film) | 1,170,842,397 | 1998 film by Bryan Singer | [
"1990s American films",
"1990s English-language films",
"1990s psychological drama films",
"1990s psychological thriller films",
"1998 drama films",
"1998 films",
"1998 horror films",
"American coming-of-age films",
"American psychological thriller films",
"Bad Hat Harry Productions films",
"Films about Nazi fugitives",
"Films about neo-Nazis",
"Films based on American novels",
"Films based on novellas",
"Films based on works by Stephen King",
"Films directed by Bryan Singer",
"Films produced by Bryan Singer",
"Films produced by Don Murphy",
"Films scored by John Ottman",
"Films set in 1984",
"Films set in California",
"Films shot in California",
"Phoenix Pictures films",
"TriStar Pictures films"
] | Apt Pupil is a 1998 American psychological thriller film based on the 1982 novella of the same name by Stephen King. The film was directed by Bryan Singer and stars Ian McKellen and Brad Renfro. Set in the 1980s in southern California, the film tells the story of high school student Todd Bowden (Renfro), who discovers a fugitive Nazi war criminal, Kurt Dussander (McKellen), living in his neighborhood under a pseudonym. Bowden, obsessed with Nazism and the Holocaust, persuades Dussander to share his stories, and their relationship stirs malice in each of them. Singer has called Apt Pupil "a study in cruelty", with Nazism serving as a vehicle to demonstrate the capacity of evil.
The film was released in the United States and Canada in October 1998 to mixed reviews and made under \$9 million. The main actors won several minor awards for their performances.
## Plot
In Southern California in 1984, 16-year-old high school student Todd Bowden discovers that his elderly neighbor, Arthur Denker, is Kurt Dussander—a former Nazi concentration camp commandant who is now a fugitive war criminal. Todd, fascinated with Nazi atrocities perpetrated during World War II, blackmails Dussander, forcing him to share disturbing stories of what it was like working at Nazi extermination camps and how it felt to participate in genocide.
Todd purchases an SS uniform from a costume shop and forces Dussander to wear it. As he spends more time with Dussander, his schoolwork suffers, he loses interest in his girlfriend, and he conceals his bad grades from his parents. Dussander begins blackmailing Todd in return, forcing him to work to restore his grades by threatening to expose the subterfuge and his dalliance with Nazism to his parents. Dussander even poses as Todd's grandfather and goes to an appointment with Todd's school counselor Edward French. Talking about the war crimes affects both the old man and the young boy. An intoxicated Dussander tries and fails to kill a cat with his gas oven. Dussander also takes pride in Todd's remarkable turnaround, going from near-dropout to straight As in a matter of weeks.
One night, Dussander tries to kill a homeless person who earlier had seen him in the uniform. When Dussander has a heart attack, he calls Todd, who finishes the killing, cleans up, and calls an ambulance for Dussander. At the hospital, Dussander is recognized by a death camp survivor sharing his room. He is arrested and an extradition to Israel is arranged. Todd graduates as valedictorian and gives a speech about Icarus, saying, "All great achievements arose from dissatisfaction. It is the desire to do better, to dig deeper, that propels civilization to greatness." The scene is juxtaposed in a montage with Dussander's home being searched and the corpse being found in the basement.
Todd is questioned about his relationship with Dussander and he convinces the police that he knew nothing of the man's true identity. A group of Neo-Nazis demonstrates outside the hospital; realizing his situation is hopeless, Dussander commits suicide by giving himself an air embolism. When French learns that the man who met Todd at school was not Todd's grandfather but a war criminal, he confronts Todd, who then blackmails French into silence by threatening to accuse him of making inappropriate sexual advances.
## Cast
Ian McKellen stars as Kurt Dussander, a Nazi war criminal who hides in America under the pseudonym Arthur Denker. Screenwriter Brandon Boyce described Dussander as being "a composite of these ghosts of World War II" but not based on any real-life individual. McKellen was attracted to the role because he was impressed with Singer's The Usual Suspects and saw the role of Dussander as "a nice, meaty part and difficult". Singer, who enjoyed McKellen in John Schlesinger's 1995 film Cold Comfort Farm, invited the actor to take the role. The character's language was written originally for "a very stoic German", but Singer felt that McKellen's "complex" personality could contribute to the character. The director said of choosing McKellen, "I felt if I could combine his complexity, his colorfulness, to the stoic German character it would create a character that, although evil, would garner more sympathy and would be more enjoyable for the audience to watch."
Brad Renfro stars alongside McKellen as Todd Bowden, a 16-year-old who discovers Denker's criminal past. Singer auditioned a couple hundred young men and chose 14-year-old Renfro, saying of him, "Brad was the brightest, the most intense and the most real. Not only could he have the intensity when we wanted, there was a hollowness that he could convey, and by the end of the picture he had to become this empty vessel." Portraying a manipulative character temporarily influenced Renfro, who said that people around him were worried about his state of mind. Renfro said of his performance, "It's a trip I have to take. People just kind of have to leave me alone when I'm doing it. It's my job." Singer described his impression of the character:
> I don't believe for one minute that [Todd Bowden] was pure as the driven snow. The capacity to blackmail an old man — obviously there's a search for something going on that's a good hard step beyond innocence. I think he had it within him, some emptiness that needed fulfillment and taken to a new place, a new direction. His school, his parents, his environment weren't doing it for him. This particular individual came along before some other, but it perhaps could have been drugs, it could have been rape. Todd was probably not a very good guy. But that kind of bad guy can exist within a lot more people than we realize.
Schwimmer plays Edward French, Todd Bowden's high school guidance counselor. Before Schwimmer, Kevin Pollak was attached to the role. While Schwimmer was known for his comedic role on the television show Friends, Singer was impressed by the actor's performance in a Los Angeles stage production and decided to cast him as the counselor.
## Production
The film was adapted from the Stephen King novella of the same name.
### Previous production attempt
When Stephen King's novella Apt Pupil was published as part of his collection Different Seasons in 1982, producer Richard Kobritz optioned feature film rights to the novella. Kobritz met with actor James Mason to play the novella's war criminal Kurt Dussander, but Mason died in July 1984 before production as a result of a heart attack. The producer also approached Richard Burton for the role, but Burton also died in August that same year. By 1987 production on the film began with Nicol Williamson cast as Kurt Dussander, and 17-year-old Rick Schroder was cast as Todd Bowden. In that year, Alan Bridges began direction of the film with a script co-written by Ken Wheat and his brother Jim Wheat. After ten weeks of filming, the production suffered from a lack of funds from its production company Granat Releasing, and the film had to be placed on hold. Kubritz sought to revive production, but when the opportunity came a year later, Schroder had aged too considerably for the film to work. Forty minutes of usable footage was abandoned.
### Direction under Bryan Singer
Bryan Singer first read Apt Pupil when he was 19 years old, and when he became a director, he wanted to adapt the novella into a film. In 1995, Singer asked his friend and screenwriter Brandon Boyce to write a spec script adapting the novella. Boyce recalled the writing process, "I thought it was a great stageplay, actually ... two people, pretty much in a house talking. My script was completely on spec, so, if it didn't work out, at least I'd have a writing sample." When the original option to the novella expired in 1995, Stephen King sued to get the rights back. Singer and Boyce then provided to King a first draft of their script and a copy of Singer's film The Usual Suspects (1995), which had yet to be publicly released. Impressed with Singer, King optioned the rights to the director for \$1, arranging to be compensated when the film was released. Singer said of King's ultimate response to the film, despite some changes made to the source material, "Stephen loved it. He seemed to think I captured the mood of the piece." The director appreciated being able to make a Stephen King horror film but with less supernatural terror and more character-driven terror. Singer spoke of his goal: "There have been a lot of fun horror movies like Nightmare on Elm Street and Scream, and I Know What You Did Last Summer. But I miss movies like The Shining, The Exorcist, and The Innocents by Jack Clayton, so this is a movie sort of in the spirit of the real horror movie."
Singer described Apt Pupil's premise as a "study in cruelty". He prepared for the film by reading books like the 1996 history book Hitler's Willing Executioners, which confirmed his beliefs that Nazi war criminals felt "guiltless and matter-of-fact about what they did". He referred to how young Todd Bowden's interactions with Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander start to affect him: "I liked the idea of the infectious nature of evil ... The notion that anybody has the capacity within them to be cruel if motivated properly is, I think, a scary concept." The director also perceived the film as not about the Holocaust, believing that the Nazi war criminal could have been replaced by one of Pol Pot's executioners or a mass murderer from Russia. "It wasn't about fascism or National Socialism. It was about cruelty and the ability to do awful deeds, to live with them and be empowered by them," Singer said. To this end, the director sought to avoid overt use of swastikas and other Nazi symbols. He was also attracted to the film as "[an] idea that the collective awfulness of this terrible thing that happened decades ago in Europe had somehow crept up across the ocean and through time, like a golem, into this beautiful Southern California suburban neighborhood".
Singer turned down directing opportunities with films like The Truman Show and The Devil's Own after the success of The Usual Suspects. He instead pursued Apt Pupil: "It was a very dark subject matter, and it was something that came from passion." He acknowledged in retrospect that Apt Pupil "wasn't really supposed to be a big success". Singer was financially supported by producer Scott Rudin and the production company Spelling Films. Ian McKellen was cast as Dussander, and Brad Renfro was cast as Bowden. With \$1 million paid toward pre-production, filming was scheduled to begin in June 1996. Due to financial disagreements between Singer and Rudin, the start date was pushed back and subsequently canceled. Singer and his production team stayed together while producer Don Murphy and his partner Jane Hamsher sought refinancing. Mike Medavoy, a former chairman of TriStar Pictures, rescued the production with the financial backing of his production company Phoenix Pictures. The company provided filmmakers with \$14 million to produce Apt Pupil. Filming took place on location in Altadena, California. Singer related to how Todd Bowden rebelled against his suburban environment. The director used the name of his high school football team, the Pirates, and the green-and-gold team colors in the film, saying, "I just projected my own childhood right out to Southern California."
### Editing and composition
John Ottman served as both film editor and music composer for Apt Pupil. When he edited the film, he found it a challenge to create the proper musical score. Ottman recalled, "Normally, an editor will score scenes with temporary music from CDs, and so forth, and nothing I could find worked for this film." The composer sought a mix between the scores of the science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and the military-based comedy 1941 (1979) to create an "otherworldly pastiche". Ottman said of his approach:
> When you throw a cat in the oven, it's easy to have someone in the orchestra slam a hammer down on an anvil, scaring the hell out of everyone. The hard part is manipulating the story and accenting the characters. In the beginning, when Todd is laying down the rules, there's a certain repetitive thematic idea you hear. You hear the same music when Dussander is turning the tables on Todd, which makes you remember the first scene ... You hope people are subliminally making the connection that the tables are turning back and forth.
Another scene in which Ottman meshed his editing and composing duties was when Dussander wakes up in the hospital with the television show The Jeffersons playing in the background. Ottman explained his intent for the scene, "I used The Jeffersons as this innocuous thing—going between him and the television—so that when he does open his eyes, it scares the hell out of you ... I added this deafening Bartok pizz, which is when all the violins pluck their strings really loud and they create this gnarly, unsettling sound." Ottman recorded the film's score with the Seattle Symphony.
## Critical analysis
### Obsession with Nazism and the Holocaust
In The Films of Stephen King, Dennis Mahoney writes that the obsession with Nazism and the Holocaust that unfolds in Apt Pupil is the result of the paternal bond between Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander and high school student Todd Bowden. Such bonds are common themes in Stephen King's works: "King's portrayal of evil most often appears to require an active, illicit bond between a male (often in the role of a father or father surrogate) and a younger, formerly innocent individual (often in the role of a biological or surrogate progeny) who is initiated into sin". In the film, the year 1984 highlights, in addition to Orwellian overtones, the time in American history in which the Holocaust is treated as a week-long course with little time "to be tempered with self-questioning as to the motivations behind it". Bowden's obsession with the Holocaust is a key plot device "wherein the past has this unbreakable hold on the present". The film's opening sequence shows how Bowden treats this history as a simulacrum in which the history becomes his own, as evidenced by his head's brief overlapping with the Nazis he is studying. Though history becomes alive for Bowden, he perceives it through the perpetrators (namely Dussander) and not through the victims, characterizing Bowden as "apt" in the sense of "a natural tendency to ... undesirable behavior".
Mahoney says language serves as "a vehicle for corruption", as Dussander tells Bowden horrific stories of his service at the fictional Death Camp of Patin. Bowden, in listening to the stories, becomes "a vampiric extension of the evil" that Dussander exhibits. The sharing of stories lead both Dussander and Bowden to have nightmares, and for Bowden, the nightmares are "a past that is becoming ever more present". One of the key motifs of the film is that "a door was opened that could not be shut", referring to Dussander's confession about following orders and being unable to hold back. The motif is also conveyed in the scene in which Bowden forces Dussander to put on a Schutzstaffel uniform and to march to Bowden's commands. Dussander continues marching despite Bowden's insistences to stop, emulating the premise of Goethe's poem The Sorcerer's Apprentice in which the untrained apprentice uses magic to enchant brooms and lacks the skill to stop them. The scene is "the figurative and literal turning point in the film".
### Sadomasochism, homoeroticism, and homophobia
Mahoney says that sadomasochism, homoeroticism, and homophobia are highlighted in Bryan Singer's retelling of Stephen King's novella. In Frames of Evil: The Holocaust as Horror in American Film, Caroline Picart and David Frank write that the face of evil is represented in the film as Nazism, oft labeled as "quintessentially innate [and] supernaturally crafty", but also "in a more subterranean way, dangerously blurring ... the boundaries between homoeroticism and homosexuality". The Nazi monstrosity in Apt Pupil is structured through sexual "abnormality", where a series of binary dichotomies are introduced: "normal versus monstrous, heterosexual versus homosexual, and healthy versus sick". An additional dichotomy, victimizer (masculinized) versus victim (feminized), reflects the film's "hidden tensions" in which Bowden and Dussander's roles of powers are reversible. While the "set of perversions" that unfold in the novella are misogynistic, the film unfolds the set as "ambivalently homoerotic and homophobic". The film removes the novella's misogyny and leaves intact the underlying homoeroticism of the central characters. The film also expounds the connection between homophobia and how male Holocaust victims are portrayed.
The central characters Todd Bowden and Kurt Dussander are onscreen most of the time, and they are frequently framed in close proximity, which Picart and Frank describe as "[intensifying] a homoerotic intimacy [which is] punctuated by dread of contact with the monstrous". Homoeroticism in Apt Pupil is further demonstrated by the focus on Todd's body. In the opening scene in which Bowden is in his bedroom during a stormy night, "the ever-encroaching camera and the lighting fetishize Todd's youthful body", similar to the fetishism of the female body in films like Psycho (1960). This depiction creates a dualism in which "he is now simultaneously dangerous and endangered" in his homophobic and homoerotic ties to Nazism.
When Bowden gives Dussander an SS uniform to wear and in which to march under Bowden's orders, the student's demands are more heightened in the film as "more dominant and voyeuristic", according to Picart and Frank. Bowden tells Dussander, "I tried to do this the nice way, but you don't want it. So fine, we'll do this the hard way. You will put this on, because I want to see you in it. Now move!" The editing style of the Nazi march scene juxtaposes Dussander marching in the uniform and Bowden reacting to the march. Shots of Bowden's reaction are from a low angle, which reflects "the sexual difference between the characters"; Bowden is masculinized as "the bearer of the [sexual] gaze", and Dussander is feminized as "the object of the gaze". The cutting between Bowden and Dussander "corroborates a homoerotic arrangement of images" which visualizes the latent homoeroticism of the scene from the novella. When Dussander speeds up his march and Bowden tells him to stop, the sped-up shot reverse shot "radically [ruptures] the structure of power", where Bowden loses "control of his sadistic power over Dussander".
## Differences between novella and film
Stephen King's novella Apt Pupil begins in 1974, when Todd Bowden is in junior high, and it ends with him graduating from high school. In Bryan Singer's film, the story takes place fully in 1984, when Todd Bowden is in his last year in high school. In the novella, for three years leading to the end of the story, Todd Bowden and discovered Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander independently murder a large number of hobos and transients, whereas in the film, the murders are condensed to Dussander's attempt to kill the hobo Archie. Singer sought to reduce the novella's violence, not wanting it to appear "exploitative or repetitive". Unlike in the novella, animosity toward Jews was not explicitly displayed by the characters in the film. The novella's dream sequence in which Bowden rapes a sixteen-year-old Jewish virgin as a laboratory experiment under Dussander's guidance was replaced by the film's dream sequence in which Bowden sees three shower-gas chamber scenes unfold. Reduced in the film was Todd's encounter with the schoolgirl Betty (named Becky in the film). In the novella, he dreams of Betty as a concentration camp inmate whom he can rape and torture. In the film, he has a brief encounter with Becky where he finds himself unable to perform sexually.
In the novella, Bowden's high school counselor Edward French confronts the student with suspicions that Dussander is not really Bowden's grandfather, and Bowden murders French in cold blood. Bowden then embarks on a shooting spree from a tree overlooking a freeway, which results in his death five hours later. Singer felt unable to accomplish King's ending: "I told [King] the ending reads so beautifully. I could never measure up to it; I would have killed it." In the film, Bowden intimidates French, who suspects Dussander's false relationship to the student, by threatening to destroy him with "rumor and innuendo". Stanley Wiater, author of The Complete Stephen King Universe, wrote, "As depicted on screen, Todd is much more consciously evil, in his way, than in the book. This switch, while making the ending less brutal, perhaps, achieves the impossible: it also makes the ending even darker."
## Release and reception
Bryan Singer previewed Apt Pupil at the Museum of Tolerance's L.A. Holocaust Center to assess feedback from rabbis and others about referencing the Holocaust. With a positive response, the director proceeded with the film's release. Apt Pupil was originally scheduled to be released in February 1998, but the film's distributor moved the release date to autumn, feeling that it belonged "alongside other more serious-minded films". It premiered at the Venice Film Festival in September 1998. It was then commercially released on October 23, 1998 in 1,448 theaters in the United States and Canada, grossing \$3.6 million on its opening weekend and placing ninth at the weekend box office. The film went on to gross \$8.9 million in the United States and Canada. Apt Pupil was considered a critical and commercial disappointment. The film was less successful than Singer's previous film The Usual Suspects, with Rotten Tomatoes describing it as "a somewhat disturbing movie that works as a suspenseful thriller, yet isn't completely satisfying".
Roger Ebert, reviewing for the Chicago Sun-Times, wrote that the film was well-made by Bryan Singer and well-acted, especially by Ian McKellen, but that "the film reveals itself as unworthy of its subject matter". The critic felt that the offensive material lacked a "social message" or an "overarching purpose" and found the film's later scenes to be "exploitative". Janet Maslin of The New York Times applauded the production value of Bryan Singer's direction, liking Newton Thomas Sigel's "handsomely shot" cinematography and John Ottman's "stunningly edited" work. Maslin wrote of McKellen and Renfro's performances, "Both actors play their roles so trickily that tensions escalate until the horror grows unimaginatively gothic." The critic felt that as the film approached the end, "the story's cleverness is noticeably on the wane".
Kathleen Murphy of Film Comment called McKellen and Renfro's performances "skin-crawling" but felt that it did not complete the film. Murphy wrote, "[The acting] makes you wish Apt Pupil had the art and the courage actually to look into evil's awful abyss." The critic perceived that Apt Pupil came off as a conventional horror film, that it had Stephen King's "characteristically unsavory" touches, and that Singer's "inept" direction "trivialize[s] the characters and the subject matter". Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly saw Apt Pupil as not a "hunted-Nazi thriller" nor a "full-tilt Stephen King thriller", but as a "student-teacher parable" that comes off as "disturbing". Schwarzbaum felt that Singer told "a story with serious moral resonance", though patience was needed to get past Singer's "more baroque cinematic touches" of "visual furbelows ... and aural gimmicks" in the film, citing as examples Dussander watching Mr. Magoo on television or the musical piece Liebestod being blared during a bloody scene.
Jay Carr of The Boston Globe called Apt Pupil "most compelling for its moral dimension", enjoying the "duet between Renfro's smooth-cheeked latter-day Faust and McKellen's reawakened Mephistopheles". While Carr found the film's framework to be realistic, he noted the change of pace, "Perhaps sensing a narrative slackening and a smothering claustrophobia ... 'Apt Pupil' veers into melodramatic devices that yank the film out of its disquieting amorality and turn it into something much more ordinary and mundane." The critic concluded, "It maintains a bleak integrity by not pretending to arrive at remorse. Never is there any discussion." Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune described Apt Pupil as "a good shocker that misses the ultimate horror", finding the film's weakness to be the "contrived" bond between Dussander and Bowden. Wilmington called the plot "overly slick", asking, "How can Todd not only conveniently find a Nazi war criminal in his hometown but also instantly coerce and control him?"
## Accolades
## Lawsuit
For Apt Pupil, Bryan Singer filmed a shower scene in which Todd Bowden, saturated with horrific stories from Kurt Dussander, imagines his fellow showering students as Jewish prisoners in gas chambers. The scene was filmed at Eliot Middle School in Altadena, California on April 2, 1997, and two weeks later, a 14-year-old extra filed a lawsuit alleging that Singer forced him and other extras to strip naked for the scene. Two boys, 16 and 17 years old, later supported the 14-year-old's claim. The boys claimed trauma from the experience, seeking charges against the filmmakers including infliction of emotional distress, negligence, and invasion of privacy. Allegations were made that the boys were filmed for sexual gratification. The local news shows and national tabloid programs stirred the controversy. A sexual crimes task force that included local, state, and federal personnel investigated the incident. The Los Angeles District Attorney's office determined that there was no cause to file criminal charges, stating, "The suspects were intent on completing a professional film as quickly and efficiently as possible. There is no indication of lewd or abnormal sexual intent." The scene was filmed again with adult actors so the film could finish on time.
The Hollywood Reporter wrote in 2020, "Singer was one of several defendants named in the suits, which reportedly were settled for an undisclosed sum, with the plaintiffs bound by confidentiality agreements."
## Home media
The film was released in DVD on April 13, 1999. The film was released in Blu-ray on June 7, 2011. It is also included on streaming service, Prime Video.
## See also
- List of Holocaust films
- List of American films of 1998
Nazi Next Door films
- Marathon Man (1976)
- The Boys from Brazil (1978)
- Hôtel Terminus: The Life and Times of Klaus Barbie (1987)
- Music Box (1989) |
33,776,456 | SK Ull | 1,160,981,151 | Norwegian Nordic skiing club | [
"1883 establishments in Norway",
"SK Ull members",
"Sport in Oslo",
"Sports clubs and teams established in 1883",
"Sports clubs and teams in Norway"
] | Skiklubben Ull was a Norwegian Nordic skiing club based in Oslo. Founded in 1883, Skiklubben Ull attracted several skilled sportsmen who between 1883 and 1891 won six Ladies' Cups and one King's Cup in national skiing events. The sporting facilities belonging the club were located in Vestre Aker, with the ski jumping hill Ullbakken near Frognerseteren being opened in 1884. The prestigious Husebyrennet was staged there once. Members of SK Ull were later instrumental in moving this prestigious contest to the hill Holmenkollbakken.
Club members also held important positions in the general administration of skiing in Norway. The first Ull chairman Johan Bechholm was also the first secretary of the Association for the Promotion of Skiing; Karl Roll became the first chairman of the Norwegian Ski Federation, Hjalmar Krag became chairman in the Confederation of Sports and Fritz R. Huitfeldt was a pioneer in several respects.
The club was founded by students and its membership later drew from the upper social strata. During the first ten years of club history, forty-four of the sixty members admitted into the club belonged to one of four prestigious professions; physician, military officer, jurist or engineer. The club was furthermore exclusive, in that it only had 119 members during its first 100 years of existence. In 1893 the club raised its own cabin, thus grouping it together with other so-called "cabin ski clubs" such as Christiania SK. SK Ull eventually evolved from a skiing club to a social club in a skiing setting, using the old cabin for member meetings, which were also visited by the King of Norway.
## The most active sporting period, 1883–1898
Skiklubben Ull was founded on 29 January 1883, and named after the Norse deity Ullr. In Norse mythology, Ullr was a god for hunting and competition, superior with his skis and his bow. SK Ull has been credited as being the second-oldest skiing club in the world, after Christiania SK. The club founders were a group of university students who socialized in apartments in Wessels gate. The young men usually conversed about their studies or played card games, but they were also hobby cross-country skiers, and decided to take up skiing in a more organized form by starting a club. The term describing a club member was ullaner.
The founding members were Thoralf Fabritius, Paul Lorck, Petter Dahl Thams, Andreas Bechholm, Johan Bechholm, Otto Dahl, Sigurd Gotaas and Michael Strøm Lie. New members were allowed every year until 1887, after which new members were usually admitted biannually, in 1889, 1891, 1893, 1895, 1896 and 1897. Notable members who joined the club shortly after the foundation include Fritz R. Huitfeldt, Henrik Florentz, Hans Grüner, Marius Grüner and Stefan Meidell. The first chairman was Johan Bechholm, followed by Sigurd Gotaas from 1885 and Fritz R. Huitfeldt from 1887 to 1891. The three honorary memberships proclaimed in the early period were Fritz R. Huitfeldt (1883), Hans Grüner (1884) and Axel Huitfeldt (1889).
The club saw sporting success on the national level (international competitions were few or none) in its first years. Johan Bechholm finished eleventh and won the Ladies' Cup in Husebyrennet of 1883. In 1884 Ingvald M. Smith-Kielland, Sr. won the Ladies' Cup and Richard Blichfeldt won the King's Cup. Vilhelm Nicolaysen finished fourth and won the Ladies' Cup in 1886, Karl Roll won the Ladies' Cup in 1889, Vilhelm Heiberg in 1890 and Otto Orre in 1891.
Ull maintained its own ski jumping hill, Ullbakken, near Frognerseteren in Vestre Aker. It was opened in 1884 with a festive ski jumping contest, attended by Prince Eugen of Norway and Sweden. Ullbakken was the site of Husebyrennet in 1890, when Kastellbakken was unusable. The dinner after this race was attended by Crown Prince Gustaf of Norway and Sweden. Karl Roll had an especially close relationship with the Swedish royal family, being a ski tutor for the princes while stationed in Stockholm between 1898 and 1904. After Norway abolished the personal union in 1905 and elected its own king, Roll immediately became an aide-de-camp for the new monarch.
The club also staged the members-only contest Ullrennet. In the invitation for Ullrennet and the subsequent banquet in 1897, the members were asked to take their place at the table "according to rank, estate, age, dignity and skiing profess". SK Ull also became the second in Norway to raise its own skiing cabin, "Ydale" at Voksenkollen in 1893. This was named after Ýdalir, the mythological dwelling of the deity Ullr. Some of Ull's rival clubs were Christiania SK, Skuld, Fram and Ondur. Christiania, Skuld and Fram owned skiing cabins similar to that of Ull—they were collectively referred to as "cabin skiing clubs".
Reportedly, it was SK Ull's forays into the district around Holmenkollen for sporting purposes that spurred the establishment of the new hill Holmenkollbakken in 1891. The knowledge of the area spurred Fritz R. Huitfeldt to pinpoint the location of the new hill, together with Hans Krag. This hill lay at a higher altitude than Kastellbakken, and thus had more favourable snow conditions. Holmenkollbakken quickly replaced Kastellbakken as the main hill in the district, and eventually became world-famous.
SK Ull also saw some sporting success in the 1890s, although the last Ladies' Cup was taken in 1891. The club was joined by top skiers like Tobias Bernhoft and Jørgen Berg. In the late 1890s, however, as many members reached higher ages, SK Ull became more of a gentlemen's social club than an active skiing club. This social club was exclusive by nature, with a clause in the by-laws that the membership could not surpass forty. Actually the club never had more than thirty members, which was the case in 1890, and rarely more than twenty. The members were drawn from the higher social strata of Norway's capital region. Forty-four of the sixty members admitted into the club up to the opening of Ydale belonged to one of four prestigious professions: physician, military officer, jurist or engineer.
## 1900–1945
After 1898, there was a pause in admitting new members. Four were admitted between 1906 and 1908, followed by only one in the 1915, three in 1924, and two in 1935. In 1940 the average member age was 69.
After finishing their active careers, some of Ull's members entered the ranks of sports officials and administrators. Most notable was Karl Roll, who became the first chairman of the Norwegian Ski Federation in 1908. Several members had already held positions in the older organization Association for the Promotion of Skiing, founded three weeks before Ull, in 1883. Johan Bechholm was its first secretary, from 1883 to 1886, and many others followed. Johan Sverre (member since 1896) was a notable Olympic administrator after the Norwegian independence in 1905, and Hjalmar Krag (member since 1887) became chairman in the Confederation of Sports. Fritz R. Huitfeldt also became a known figure in his field; for his ski bindings, and for pioneering Telemark skiing. Huitfeldt's ski factory, which he started together with Richard Blichfeldt, was named Ull.
During the first years of the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, Ull continued to host private parties. Later, however, the club's cabin Ydale was occupied by the Germans from December 1942 to March 1945. Ull instead used the Grand Hotel for its sixtieth anniversary in 1943 and the annual convention of 1944. Two new members were admitted during the war; Sverre Martens and Einar Poulsson.
## After 1945
At the war's end in 1945, Ull only had fourteen members. Its average member age was lowered to 65 years after the admission of five new members in 1946 and 1947. The post-war period also saw the admission to SK Ull of men from more professional groups. One of the new members, Erik Plahte, would serve as chairman from 1951 to 1973, when he backed down at the age of 84. Another of the new post-war members, Jakob Vaage, took over. He was then aged 68. By 1953, all the club's elected positions were held by post-war members. Three of the older members, some with experience dating to the 1880s, were admitted as honorary members, the first honorary members in SK Ull since 1889.
After professor Johs. Andenæs was admitted as a member in 1949, the club admitted thirteen members in the 1950s; seven in the 1960s as well as a corresponding member, Norwegian-Canadian Herman Smith-Johannsen; and only three in the 1970s. One member was elected i 1980, and three in 1983; Arvid Fossum, Odd Harsheim and Birger Ruud. Three honorary members were proclaimed after 1960: Erik Plahte in 1969, Herman Smith-Johanssen in 1975 and Jakob Vaage in 1983.
The cabin Ydale was still used for festivities, and became a small "museum" with skiing antiquities left behind by former members. The cabin was also used during the 1952 Winter Olympics as the residence of the Danish skiing team. A road leading to the cabin was named Ullveien in 1964. In 1983 the 100-year anniversary of Ull was hosted at Ydale with attendance from King Olav V of Norway.
## List of position-holders
This is a list of chairmen, deputy chairmen and managers/secretaries of SK Ull.
### Chairmen
- 1883–1885 : Johan Bechholm
- 1885–1887 : Sigurd Gotaas
- 1887–1891 : Fritz R. Huitfeldt
- 1891–1905 : Emil Roll
- 1905–1910 : Karl Roll
- 1910–1912 : Andreas Brandrud
- 1912–1913 : Jørgen Tandberg
- 1913–1917 : Vilhelm Heiberg
- 1917–1928 : Alf Scott-Hansen, Sr.
- 1928–1933 : Johan Fredrik Gram
- 1933–1935 : Emil Roll
- 1935–1940 : Johan Fredrik Gram
- 1940–1949 : Andreas Brandrud
- 1949–1951 : Harald Kjerschow
- 1951–1973 : Erik Plahte
- 1973–1992 : Jakob Vaage
- 1992–1994 : Odd Harsheim
[...]
- 2004–2011 : Odd Seim-Haugen
[...]
### Vice chairmen
- 1883–1885 : Sigurd Gotaas
- 1885–1890 : Johan Bechholm
- 1890–1891 : Enevold Munch Falsen
- 1891–1893 : Sigval Jacobsen
- 1893–1894 : Jørgen Tandberg
- 1894–1905 : Vilhelm Heiberg
- 1905–1910 : Andreas Brandrud
- 1910–1912 : Jørgen Tandberg
- 1912–1916 : Alf Scott Hansen
- 1916–1917 : Jørgen Tandberg
- 1917–1926 : Tobias Bernhoft
- 1926–1928 : Johan Fredrik Gram
- 1928–1933 : Jørgen Berg
- 1933–1940 : Andreas Brandrud
- 1940–1944 : Nicolai Martens
- 1944–1949 : Harald Kjerschow
- 1949–1970 : Helge Dahl
- 1970–1973 : Jakob Vaage
- 1973–???? : Annar Poulsson
[...]
### Managers and secretaries
The position as manager existed from 1883, but in 1952 it was split into two; secretary and treasurer.
- 1883–1887 : Henrik Florentz
- 1887–1890 : Marius Grüner
- 1890–1892 : Sven Poppe
- 1892–1893 : Mathias Rye
- 1893–1894 : Otto Orre
- 1894–1897 : Herman Løvenskiold
- 1897–1900 : Wilhelm Myhre
- 1900–1902 : Jørgen Barth
- 1902–1903 : Marcus Meisterlin
- 1903–1906 : August Koren
- 1906–1908 : Olaf Rye
- 1908–1911 : Adolf Denis Horn
- 1911–1919 : Marcus Meisterlin
- 1919–1935 : Ulrik F. L. Lyng
- 1935–1936 : Harald Kjerschow
- 1936–1949 : Otto P. Børresen
- 1949–1951 : Erik Plahte
- 1951–1963 : Jakob Vaage (secretary from 1952)
- 1963–1975 : Aage Træffen
- 1975–???? : Arild Smith-Kielland
[...] |
6,009,939 | Interstellar (film) | 1,173,719,438 | 2014 film by Christopher Nolan | [
"2010s American films",
"2010s British films",
"2010s English-language films",
"2010s disaster films",
"2010s science fiction drama films",
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] | Interstellar is a 2014 epic science fiction film co-written, directed, and produced by Christopher Nolan. It stars Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway, Jessica Chastain, Bill Irwin, Ellen Burstyn, Matt Damon, and Michael Caine. Set in a dystopian future where humanity is embroiled in a catastrophic blight and famine, the film follows a group of astronauts who travel through a wormhole near Saturn in search of a new home for humankind.
Brothers Christopher and Jonathan Nolan wrote the screenplay, which had its origins in a script Jonathan developed in 2007 and was originally set to be directed by Steven Spielberg. Kip Thorne, a Caltech theoretical physicist and 2017 Nobel laureate in Physics, was an executive producer, acted as a scientific consultant, and wrote a tie-in book, The Science of Interstellar. Cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema shot it on 35 mm movie film in the Panavision anamorphic format and IMAX 70 mm. Principal photography began in late 2013 and took place in Alberta, Iceland, and Los Angeles. Interstellar uses extensive practical and miniature effects, and the company Double Negative created additional digital effects.
Interstellar premiered in Los Angeles on October 26, 2014. In the United States, it was first released on film stock, expanding to venues using digital projectors. The film received generally positive reviews from critics and grossed over \$677 million worldwide (\$715 million after subsequent re-releases), making it the tenth-highest-grossing film of 2014. It has been praised by astronomers for its scientific accuracy and portrayal of theoretical astrophysics. Interstellar was nominated for five awards at the 87th Academy Awards, winning Best Visual Effects, and received numerous other accolades.
## Plot
In 2067, as humanity is facing extinction following a global famine caused by ecocide, it has since abandoned scientific pursuits such as space exploration. As a result, ex-NASA pilot Joseph Cooper is now forced to work as a farmer with his son Tom, daughter Murph and father-in-law Donald.
Cooper observes a pattern formed by an apparent gravitational anomaly in Murph's bedroom. He decodes it into GPS coordinates and arrives at a secret NASA facility headed by Professor Brand. Brand explains that NASA is trying to find an exoplanet capable of supporting life, and he is working on solving a gravity equation to provide a way of transporting large numbers of people off the dying Earth ("Plan A"). He enlists Cooper to pilot an exploratory spacecraft called the Endurance, holding the supplies and embryos for a new colony potentially without the population of Earth ("Plan B"), with a crew of three scientists: Romilly, Doyle, and Brand’s daughter Amelia, accompanied by robot assistants TARS and CASE. With few resources to mount more expeditions, this is humanity's last chance to travel through a wormhole that mysteriously appeared near Saturn to a series of potentially habitable planets.
Cooper reluctantly leaves his family and embarks on the mission. After reaching their destination, the crew investigates three planets orbiting a supermassive black hole, Gargantua, with each previously checked by a NASA scientist-explorer. Romilly remains in orbit to study Gargantua while the others take a Ranger craft to the first planet, an ocean world of shallow water assigned to explorer Laura Miller. Upon arriving at Miller's beacon and finding debris, they realize she was killed by colossal tidal waves generated by Gargantua's gravity. Doyle is swept away by a wave that temporarily grounds the Ranger, and Cooper and Amelia narrowly escape the next. They return to the Endurance after only one hour in their perspective, yet 23 years have passed due to the time dilation caused by Gargantua's gravity. Back on Earth, Murph has become a scientist and begun working with the elder Brand.
On the second planet, the crew awaken the explorer Mann from cryostasis. Mann convinces them that his planet, an ice world, is habitable. On Earth, a dying Brand confesses to Murph that he lied about being close to a solution for the gravity equation; he put his hopes on Cooper's team accomplishing Plan B for humanity's survival. Murph reveals this to her father in a video message transmitted to the mission during the disastrous experience on Miller's planet. A distraught Cooper opts to return to Earth. As the astronauts begin to deploy the colony, Mann suddenly attempts to kill Cooper. He reveals to Cooper that he lied about the planet's habitability in the hope that someone would come to rescue him. Romilly dies in an explosion at Mann's camp when he attempts to access the system logs of a booby trapped robot. Mann escapes by stealing a Ranger, and attempts to hijack the Endurance; he is killed after failing to properly dock. Cooper and Amelia approach in the Lander and manage to regain control of the heavily damaged Endurance.
Cooper devises a plan to use the thrust of the remaining Ranger and Lander craft to initiate a slingshot maneuver around Gargantua and propel the Endurance onwards to the third and final planet, assigned to Dr. Wolf Edmunds. However, Cooper and TARS sacrifice themselves by detaching their spacecraft and falling into the black hole to enable Amelia to reach Edmunds' planet.
Cooper finds himself inside a five-dimensional tesseract where time is physically presented. Seeing past moments from Murph's childhood bedroom, he tries to contact her by manipulating items in the room with gravity, eventually creating a Morse code. Cooper deduces this construct has been created by future humans able to interact with five dimensions in order for him to send messages he received in the past. With TARS's help, Cooper relays the information Murph needs to solve the gravity equation in the form of Morse code on her watch. The tesseract closes, and he and TARS are returned to the orbit of Saturn. Cooper is rescued and brought to an interstellar ark, where he tearfully reunites with an elderly Murph, who has used the gravity equation to accomplish Plan A and enable humanity's exodus from Earth. Nearing death, she advises him to seek out Amelia. Cooper and TARS set off again to reunite with Amelia. On Edmunds' planet, Amelia buries the deceased Edmunds before removing her helmet to breathe.
## Cast
- Matthew McConaughey as Joseph Cooper, a widowed NASA pilot who, after the agency was closed by the government, became a farmer
- Anne Hathaway as Dr. Amelia Brand, a NASA scientist, astronaut, and Professor John's daughter
- Jessica Chastain as Murphy "Murph" Cooper, Joseph's daughter, who eventually becomes a NASA scientist
- Mackenzie Foy as young Murph
- Ellen Burstyn as elderly Murph
- Bill Irwin as TARS (voice and puppetry) and CASE (puppetry)
- Michael Caine as Professor John Brand, a high-ranking NASA scientist, ideator of Plan A, former mentor of Cooper, and father of Amelia
- John Lithgow as Donald, Cooper's elderly father-in-law
- David Gyasi as Romilly, another high-ranking NASA member, and Endurance crew member
- Wes Bentley as Doyle, a high-ranking NASA member, and Endurance crew member
- Casey Affleck as Tom Cooper, Joseph's son, who eventually grows up to become a farmer
- Timothée Chalamet as young Tom
- Matt Damon as Mann, a NASA astronaut sent to an icy planet during the Lazarus program
- Josh Stewart as CASE (voice)
- Topher Grace as Getty, Murph's colleague and love interest
- Leah Cairns as Lois, Tom's wife
- David Oyelowo as School Principal
- Collette Wolfe as Ms. Hanley
- William Devane as Williams, another NASA member
- Elyes Gabel as Administrator
- Jeff Hephner as Doctor
## Production
### Crew
- Christopher Nolan – Director, producer, writer
- Jonathan Nolan – Writer
- Emma Thomas – Producer
- Lynda Obst – Producer
- Hoyte van Hoytema – Cinematographer
- Nathan Crowley – Production designer
- Mary Zophres – Costume designer
- Lee Smith – Editor
- Hans Zimmer – Music composer
- Paul Franklin – Visual effects supervisor
- Kip Thorne – Consultant, executive producer
### Development and financing
The premise for Interstellar was conceived by the producer Lynda Obst and the theoretical physicist Kip Thorne, who collaborated on the film Contact (1997), and had known each other since Carl Sagan set them up on a blind date. The two conceived a scenario, based on Thorne's work, about "the most exotic events in the universe suddenly becoming accessible to humans", and attracted Steven Spielberg's interest in directing. The film began development in June 2006, when Spielberg and Paramount Pictures announced plans for a science-fiction film based on an eight-page treatment written by Obst and Thorne. Obst was attached to produce. By March 2007, Jonathan Nolan was hired to write a screenplay.
After Spielberg moved his production studio, DreamWorks, from Paramount to Walt Disney Studios in 2009, Paramount needed a new director for Interstellar. Jonathan Nolan recommended his brother Christopher, who joined the project in 2012. Christopher Nolan met with Thorne, then attached as executive producer, to discuss the use of spacetime in the story. In January 2013, Paramount and Warner Bros. announced that Christopher Nolan was in negotiations to direct Interstellar. Nolan said he wanted to encourage the goal of human spaceflight, and intended to merge his brother's screenplay with his own. By the following March, Nolan was confirmed to direct Interstellar, which would be produced under his label Syncopy and Lynda Obst Productions. The Hollywood Reporter said Nolan would earn a salary of \$20 million against 20% of the total gross. To research for the film, Nolan visited NASA and the private space program at SpaceX.
Warner Bros. sought a stake in Nolan's production of Interstellar from Paramount, despite their traditional rivalry, and agreed to give Paramount its rights to co-finance the next film in the Friday the 13th horror franchise, with a stake in a future film based on the television series South Park. Warner Bros. also agreed to let Paramount co-finance an indeterminate "A-list" property. In August 2013, Legendary Pictures finalized an agreement with Warner Bros. to finance approximately 25% of the film's production. Although it failed to renew its eight-year production partnership with Warner Bros., Legendary reportedly agreed to forgo financing Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) in exchange for the stake in Interstellar.
### Writing and casting
Jonathan Nolan worked on the script for four years. To learn the scientific aspects, he studied relativity at the California Institute of Technology. He was pessimistic about the Space Shuttle program ending and how NASA lacked financing for a human mission to Mars, drawing inspiration from science-fiction films with apocalyptic themes, such as WALL-E (2008) and Avatar (2009). Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly said: "He set the story in a dystopian future ravaged by blight, but populated with hardy folk who refuse to bow to despair." His brother Christopher had worked on other science fiction scripts, but decided to take the Interstellar script and choose among the vast array of ideas presented by Jonathan and Thorne. He picked what he felt, as director, he could get "across to the audience and hopefully not lose them," before he merged it with a script he had worked on for years on his own. Christopher kept in place Jonathan's conception of the first hour, which is set on a resource depleted Earth in the near future. The setting was inspired by the Dust Bowl that took place in the United States during the Great Depression in the 1930s. He revised the rest of the script, where a team travels into space, instead. After watching the 2012 documentary The Dust Bowl for inspiration, Christopher contacted the director, Ken Burns, and the producer, Dayton Duncan. They granted him permission to use some of their featured interviews in Interstellar.
Christopher Nolan wanted an actor who could bring to life his vision of the main character as an everyman with whom "the audience could experience the story." He became interested in casting Matthew McConaughey after watching him in an early cut of the 2012 film Mud, which he had seen as a friend of one of its producers, Aaron Ryder. Nolan went to visit McConaughey while he was filming for the TV series True Detective. Anne Hathaway was invited to Nolan's home, where she read the script for Interstellar. In early 2013, both actors were cast in the starring roles. Jessica Chastain was contacted while she was working on Miss Julie (2014) in Northern Ireland, and a script was delivered to her. Originally, Irrfan Khan was offered the role of Dr. Mann but rejected it due to scheduling conflicts. Matt Damon was cast as Mann in late August 2013 and completed filming his scenes in Iceland.
### Principal photography
Nolan shot Interstellar on 35 mm film in the Panavision anamorphic format and IMAX 70 mm photography. Cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema was hired for Interstellar, as Wally Pfister, Nolan's cinematographer on all of his previous films, was making his directorial debut working on Transcendence (2014); Pfister would later retire as a cinematographer for films. More IMAX cameras were used for Interstellar than for any of Nolan's previous films. To minimize the use of computer-generated imagery (CGI), Nolan had practical locations built, such as the interior of a space shuttle. Van Hoytema retooled an IMAX camera to be hand-held for shooting interior scenes. Some of the film's sequences were shot with an IMAX camera installed in the nose cone of a Learjet. Nolan, who is known for keeping details of his productions secret, strove to ensure secrecy for Interstellar. Writing for The Wall Street Journal, Ben Fritz stated, "The famously secretive filmmaker has gone to extreme lengths to guard the script to ... Interstellar, just as he did with the blockbuster Dark Knight trilogy." As one security measure, Interstellar was filmed under the name Flora's Letter, Flora being one of Nolan's four children with producer Emma Thomas.
The film's principal photography was scheduled to last four months. It began on August 6, 2013, in the province of Alberta, Canada. Towns in Alberta where shooting took place included Nanton, Longview, Lethbridge, Fort Macleod, and Okotoks. In Okotoks, filming took place at the Seaman Stadium and the Olde Town Plaza. For a cornfield scene, production designer Nathan Crowley planted 500 acres (200 ha) of corn that would be destroyed in an apocalyptic dust storm scene, intended to be similar to storms experienced during the Dust Bowl in 1930s America. Additional scenes involving the dust storm and McConaughey's character were also shot in Fort Macleod, where the giant dust clouds were created on location using large fans to blow cellulose-based synthetic dust through the air. Filming in the province lasted until September 9, 2013, and involved hundreds of extras in addition to 130 crew members, most of whom were local.
Shooting also took place in Iceland, where Nolan had previously filmed scenes for Batman Begins (2005). It was chosen to represent two extraterrestrial planets: one covered in ice, and the other in water. The crew transported mock spaceships weighing about 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg). They spent two weeks shooting there, during which a crew of about 350 people, including 130 locals, worked on the film. Locations included the Svínafellsjökull glacier and the town of Klaustur. While filming a water scene in Iceland, Hathaway almost suffered hypothermia because her dry suit had not been properly secured.
After the schedule in Iceland was completed, the crew shot in Los Angeles for 54 days. Filming locations included the Westin Bonaventure Hotel and Suites, the Los Angeles Convention Center, a Sony Pictures soundstage in Culver City, and a private residence in Altadena, California. Principal photography concluded in December 2013. Production had a budget of \$165 million, \$10 million less than was allotted by Paramount, Warner Bros., and Legendary Pictures.
### Production design
Interstellar features three spacecraft— the Endurance, a ranger, and a lander. The Endurance, the crew's mother ship, is a circular structure consisting of 12 capsules, laid flat to mimic a clock: Four capsules with planetary settling equipment, four with engines, and four with the permanent functions of cockpit, medical labs, and habitation. Production designer Nathan Crowley said the Endurance was based on the International Space Station: "It's a real mish-mash of different kinds of technology. You need analogue stuff, as well as digital stuff, you need backup systems and tangible switches. It's really like a submarine in space. Every inch of space is used, everything has a purpose." The ranger's function is similar to the Space Shuttle's, being able to enter and exit planetary atmospheres. Lastly, the lander transports the capsules with settling equipment to planetary surfaces. Crowley compared it to "a heavy Russian helicopter."
The film features two robots, CASE and TARS, as well as a dismantled third robot, KIPP. Nolan wanted to avoid making the robots anthropomorphic and chose a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) quadrilateral design. He said: "It has a very complicated design philosophy. It's based on mathematics. You've got four main blocks and they can be joined in three ways. So, you have three combinations you follow. But then within that, it subdivides into a further three joints. And all the places we see lines—those can subdivide further. So you can unfold a finger, essentially, but it's all proportional." Bill Irwin voiced and physically controlled both robots, with his image digitally removed, and Josh Stewart replaced his voicing for CASE. The human space habitats resemble O'Neill cylinders, a theoretical space habitat model proposed by physicist Gerard K. O'Neill in 1976.
### Sound design and music
Gregg Landaker and Gary Rizzo were the film's audio engineers tasked with audio mixing, while sound editor Richard King supervised the process. Christopher Nolan sought to mix the sound to take maximum advantage of theater equipment and paid close attention to designing the sound mix, like focusing on the sound of buttons being pressed with astronaut suit gloves. The studio's website stated that the film was "mixed to maximize the power of the low-end frequencies in the main channels, as well as in the subwoofer channel." Nolan deliberately intended some dialogue to seem drowned out by ambient noise or music, causing some theaters to post notices emphasizing that this effect was intentional and not a fault in their equipment.
Hans Zimmer, who scored Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy and Inception (2010), returned to score Interstellar. Nolan chose not to provide Zimmer with a script or any plot details, but instead gave him a single page that told the story of a father leaving his child for work. It was through this connection that Zimmer created the early stages of the Interstellar soundtrack. Zimmer and Nolan later decided the 1926 four-manual Harrison & Harrison organ of the Temple Church, London, would be the primary instrument for the score. Zimmer conducted 45 scoring sessions for Interstellar, three times more than for Inception. The soundtrack was released on November 18, 2014.
### Visual effects
The visual effects company Double Negative, which worked on Inception, was brought back for Interstellar. According to visual effects supervisor Paul Franklin, the number of effects in the film was not much greater than in Nolan's The Dark Knight Rises (2012) or Inception. However, for Interstellar, they created the effects first, allowing digital projectors to display them behind the actors, rather than having the actors perform in front of green screens. The film contained 850 visual-effect shots at a resolution of 5600 × 4000 lines: 150 shots that were created in-camera using digital projectors, and another 700 were created in post-production. Of those, 620 were presented in IMAX, while the rest were anamorphic.
The ranger, Endurance, and lander spacecraft were created using miniature effects by Nathan Crowley in collaboration with effects company New Deal Studios, as opposed to using computer-generated imagery, as Nolan felt they offered the best way to give the ships a tangible presence in space. 3D-printed and hand-sculpted, the scale models earned the nickname "maxatures" by the crew due to their immense size; the 1/15th-scale miniature of the Endurance module spanned over 7.6 m (25 ft), while a pyrotechnic model of part of the craft was built at 1/5th scale. The Ranger and Lander miniatures spanned 14 m (46 ft) and over 15 m (49 ft), respectively, and were large enough for van Hoytema to mount IMAX cameras directly onto the spacecraft, thus mimicking the look of NASA IMAX documentaries. The models were then attached to a six-axis gimbal on a motion control system that allowed an operator to manipulate their movements, which were filmed against background plates of space using VistaVision cameras on a smaller motion control rig. New Deal Studio's miniatures were used in 150 special effects shots.
## Influences
Nolan was influenced by what he called "key touchstones" of science fiction cinema, including Metropolis (1927), 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), Blade Runner (1982), Star Wars (1977), and Alien (1979). Andrei Tarkovsky's The Mirror (1975) influenced "elemental things in the story to do with wind and dust and water", according to Nolan, who also compared Interstellar to The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) as a film about human nature. He sought to emulate films like Steven Spielberg's Jaws (1975) and Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) for being family-friendly but also "as edgy and incisive and challenging as anything else on the blockbuster spectrum". He screened The Right Stuff (1983) for the crew before production, following in its example by capturing reflections on the Interstellar astronauts' visors. For further inspiration, Nolan invited former astronaut Marsha Ivins to the set. Nolan and his crew studied the IMAX NASA documentaries of filmmaker Toni Myers for visual reference of spacefaring missions, and strove to imitate their use of IMAX cameras in the enclosed spaces of spacecraft interiors. Clark Kent's upbringing in Man of Steel (2013) was the inspiration for the farm setting in the Midwest. Apart from films, Nolan drew inspiration from the architecture of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.
## Scientific accuracy
Regarding the concepts of wormholes and black holes, Kip Thorne said he "worked on the equations that would enable tracing of light rays as they traveled through a wormhole or around a black hole—so what you see is based on Einstein's general relativity equations". Early in the process, Thorne laid down two guidelines: "First, that nothing would violate established physical laws. Second, that all the wild speculations ... would spring from science and not from the fertile mind of a screenwriter." Nolan accepted these terms as long as they did not get in the way of making the film. At one point, Thorne spent two weeks arguing Nolan out of having a character traveling faster than light before Nolan finally gave up. According to Thorne, the element which has the highest degree of artistic freedom is the clouds of ice on one of the planets they visit, which are structures that would go beyond the material strength that ice could support.
The astrobiologist David Grinspoon criticized the dire "blight" situation on Earth portrayed in the early scenes, pointing out that even with a voracious blight it would have taken millions of years to reduce the atmosphere's oxygen content. He also notes that gravity should have pulled down the ice clouds. Neil deGrasse Tyson, an astrophysicist, explored the science behind the ending of Interstellar, concluding that it is theoretically possible to interact with the past, and that "we don't really know what's in a black hole, so take it and run with it". The theoretical physicist Michio Kaku praised the film for its scientific accuracy and said Interstellar "could set the gold standard for science fiction movies for years to come". Timothy Reyes, a former NASA software engineer, said "Thorne's and Nolan's accounting of black holes and wormholes and the use of gravity is excellent".
### Wormholes and black holes
To create the visual effects for the wormhole and a rotating, supermassive black hole (possessing an ergosphere, as opposed to a non-rotating black hole), Thorne collaborated with Franklin and a team of 30 people at Double Negative, providing pages of deeply sourced theoretical equations to the engineers, who then wrote new CGI rendering software based on these equations to create accurate simulations of the gravitational lensing caused by these phenomena. Some individual frames took up to 100 hours to render, totaling 800 terabytes of data. Thorne described the accretion disk of the black hole as "anemic and at low temperature—about the temperature of the surface of the sun," allowing it to emit appreciable light, but not enough gamma radiation and X-rays to threaten nearby astronauts and planets. The resulting visual effects provided Thorne with new insight into the gravitational lensing and accretion disks surrounding black holes, resulting in the publication of three scientific papers.
Nolan was initially concerned that a scientifically accurate depiction of a black hole would not be visually comprehensible to an audience, and would require the effects team to unrealistically alter its appearance. The visual representation of the black hole in the film does not account for the Doppler effect which, when added by the visual effects team, resulted in an asymmetrically lit black and blue-black hole, the purpose of which Nolan thought the audience would not understand. As a result, it was omitted in the finished product. Nolan found the finished effect to be understandable, as long as he maintained consistent camera perspectives.
As a reference, the asymmetric brightness of the accretion disk is very well visible in the first image of the event horizon of a black hole obtained by the Event Horizon Telescope team in 2019. Futura-Sciences praised the correct depiction of the Penrose process.
According to Space.com, the portrayal of what a wormhole would look like is scientifically correct. Rather than a two-dimensional hole in space, it is depicted as a sphere, showing a distorted view of the target galaxy.
## Marketing
The teaser trailer for Interstellar debuted December 13, 2013, and featured clips related to space exploration, accompanied by a voiceover by Matthew McConaughey's character, Cooper. The theatrical trailer debuted May 5, 2014, at the Lockheed Martin IMAX Theater in Washington, D.C., and was made available online later that month. For the week ending on May 19, it was the most-viewed film trailer, with over 19.5 million views on YouTube.
Christopher Nolan and McConaughey made their first appearances at San Diego Comic-Con in July 2014 to promote Interstellar. That same month, Paramount Pictures launched an interactive website, on which users uncovered a star chart related to the Apollo 11 Moon landing.
In October 2014, Paramount partnered with Google to promote Interstellar across multiple platforms. The film's website was relaunched as a digital hub hosted on a Google domain, which collected feedback from film audiences, and linked to a mobile app. It featured a game in which players could build Solar System models and use a flight simulator for space travel. The Paramount–Google partnership also included a virtual time capsule compiled with user-generated content, made available in 2015. The initiative Google for Education used the film as a basis for promoting math and science lesson plans in schools.
Paramount provided a virtual reality walkthrough of the Endurance spacecraft using Oculus Rift technology. It hosted the walkthrough sequentially in New York City, Houston, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C., from October 6 through November 19, 2014. The publisher Running Press released Interstellar: Beyond Time and Space, a book by Mark Cotta Vaz about the making of the film, on November 11. W. W. Norton & Company released The Science of Interstellar, a book by Thorne; Titan Books released the official novelization, written by Greg Keyes; and Wired magazine released a tie-in online comic, Absolute Zero, written by Christopher Nolan and drawn by Sean Gordon Murphy. The comic is a prequel to the film, with Mann as the protagonist.
## Release
### Theatrical
Before Interstellar's public release, Paramount CEO Brad Grey hosted a private screening on October 19, 2014, at an IMAX theater in Lincoln Square, Manhattan. Paramount then showed Interstellar to some of the industry's filmmakers and actors in a first-look screening at the California Science Center on October 22. On the following day, the film was screened at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, California for over 900 members of the Screen Actors Guild. The film premiered on October 26 at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, and in Europe on October 29 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. The film premiered on November 7 in Canada.
Interstellar was released early on November 4 in various 70 mm IMAX film, 70 mm film and 35 mm film theaters, and had a limited release in North America on November 5, with a wide release on November 7. The film was released in Belgium, France, and Switzerland on November 5, the UK on November 7 and in additional territories in the following days. For the limited North American release, Interstellar was projected from 70 mm and 35 mm film in 249 theaters that still supported those formats, including at least forty-one 70 mm IMAX theaters. A 70 mm IMAX projector was installed at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles to display the format. The film's wide release expanded to theaters that showed it digitally. Paramount Pictures distributed the film in North America, and Warner Bros. distributed it in the remaining territories. The film was released in over 770 IMAX screens worldwide, which was the largest global release in IMAX cinemas, until surpassed by Universal Pictures' Furious 7 (2015) with 810 IMAX theaters.
Interstellar was an exception to Paramount Pictures' goal to stop releasing films on film stock and to distribute them only in digital format. According to Pamela McClintock of The Hollywood Reporter, the initiative to project Interstellar on film stock would help preserve an endangered format, which was supported by Christopher Nolan, J. J. Abrams, Quentin Tarantino, Judd Apatow, Paul Thomas Anderson, and other filmmakers. McClintock reported that theatre owners saw this as "backward," as nearly all theatres in the US had been converted to digital projection.
### Home media
Interstellar was released on home video on March 31, 2015, in both the United Kingdom and United States. It topped the home video sales chart for a total of two weeks. It was reported that Interstellar was the most pirated film of 2015, with an estimated 46.7 million downloads on BitTorrent. It was released in the Ultra HD Blu-ray format on December 19, 2017.
## Reception
### Box office
Interstellar grossed \$188 million in the US and Canada, and \$490 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of \$678 million on original release, against a production budget of \$165 million. Deadline Hollywood calculated net profit to be \$47 million, accounting for production budgets, marketing, talent participations, and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from home media, placing it 20th on their list of 2014's "Most Valuable Blockbusters". It sold an estimated 22 million tickets domestically.
The film set an IMAX opening record worldwide with \$20.5 million from 574 IMAX theaters, surpassing the \$17 million record held by The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013), and is the best opening for an IMAX 2D, non-sequel, and November IMAX release. It had a worldwide opening of \$133 million, which was the tenth-largest opening of 2014, and became the tenth-highest-grossing film of 2014. Interstellar is the fourth film to gross over \$100 million worldwide from IMAX ticket sales. It was released in the UK, Ireland and Malta on November 6, 2014, and debuted at number one earning £5.5 million (\$8.6 million) in its opening weekend, which was lower than the openings of The Dark Knight Rises (£14.4 million), Gravity (£6.2 million), and Inception (£5.9 million). The film was released in 35 markets on the same day, including major markets like Germany, Russia, Australia, and Brazil earning \$8.7 million in total. Through Sunday, it earned an opening weekend total of \$83 million from 11.1 million admissions from over 14,800 screens in 62 markets. It earned \$7.3 million from 206 IMAX screens, at an average of 35,400 viewers per theater. It went to number one in South Korea (\$14.4 million), Russia (\$8.9 million), and France (\$5.3 million). Other strong openings occurred in Germany (\$4.6 million), India (\$4.3 million), Italy (\$3.7 million), Australia (\$3.7 million), Spain (\$2.7 million), Mexico (\$3.1 million), and Brazil (\$1.9 million). Interstellar was released in China on November 12 and earned \$5.4 million on its opening day on Wednesday, which is Nolan's biggest opening in China after surpassing the \$4.61 million opening record of The Dark Knight Rises. It went on to earn \$41.7 million in its opening weekend, accounting for 55% of the market share. It is Nolan's biggest opening in China, Warner Bros.' biggest 2D opening, and the studio's third-biggest opening of all time, behind 2014's The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies (\$49.5 million) and 2013's Pacific Rim (\$45 million).
It topped the box office outside North America for two consecutive weekends before being overtaken by The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 (2014) in its third weekend. Just 31 days after its release, the film became the 13th-most-successful film and 3rd-most-successful foreign film in South Korea with 9.1 million admissions trailing only Avatar (13.3 million admissions), and 2013's Frozen (10.3 million admissions). The film closed down its theatrical run in China on December 12, with total revenue of \$122.6 million. In total earnings, its largest markets outside North America and China were South Korea (\$73.4 million), the UK, Ireland and Malta (\$31.3 million), and Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (\$19 million). Interstellar and Big Hero 6 opened the same weekend (November 7–9, 2014) in the US and Canada. Both were forecast to earn between \$55 million and \$60 million. In North America, the film is the seventh-highest-grossing film to not hit No. 1, with a top rank of No. 2 on its opening weekend. Interstellar had an early limited release in the US and Canada in selected theaters on November 4 at 8:00 pm, coinciding with the 2014 US midterm elections. It topped the box office the following day, earning \$1.35 million from 249 theaters (42 of which were IMAX screens); IMAX accounted for 62% of its total gross. Two hundred and forty of those theaters played in 35 mm, 70 mm, and IMAX 70 mm film formats. It earned \$3.6 million from late-night shows for a previews total of \$4.9 million. The film was widely released on November 7 and topped the box office on its opening day, earning \$17 million ahead of Big Hero 6 (\$15.8 million). On its opening weekend, the film earned \$47.5 million from 3,561 theaters, debuting in second place after a neck-and-neck competition with Disney's Big Hero 6 (\$56.2 million). IMAX comprised \$13.2 million (28%) of its opening weekend gross, while other premium large-format screens comprised \$5.3 million (10.5%) of the gross. In its second weekend, the film fell to No. 3 behind Big Hero 6 and newcomer Dumb and Dumber To (2014), and dropped 39% earning \$29 million for a two-weekend total of \$98 million. It earned \$7.4 million from IMAX theaters from 368 screens in its second weekend. In its third week, the film earned \$15 million and remained at No. 3, below newcomer The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 and Big Hero 6.
### Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 73% of 378 critic reviews are positive, with an average of 7.1/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Interstellar represents more of the thrilling, thought-provoking, and visually resplendent filmmaking moviegoers have come to expect from writer-director Christopher Nolan, even if its intellectual reach somewhat exceeds its grasp." Metacritic assigned the film a score of 74 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave it an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Scott Foundas, chief film critic at Variety, said that Interstellar is "as visually and conceptually audacious as anything Nolan has yet done" and considered the film "more personal" than Nolan's previous films. Claudia Puig of USA Today praised the visual spectacle and powerful themes, while criticizing the "dull" dialogue and "tedious patches inside the space vessel." David Stratton of At the Movies rated the film four-and-a-half stars out of five, commending its ambition, effects, and 70 mm IMAX presentation, though criticizing the sound for "being so loud" as to make some of the dialogue "inaudible". Conversely, co-host Margaret Pomeranz rated the film three out of five, as she felt the human drama got lost among the film's scientific concepts. Henry Barnes of The Guardian scored the film three out of five stars, calling it "a glorious spectacle, but a slight drama, with few characters and too-rare flashes of humour." James Berardinelli called Interstellar "an amazing achievement" and "simultaneously a big-budget science fiction endeavor and a very simple tale of love and sacrifice. It is by turns edgy, breathtaking, hopeful, and heartbreaking." He named it the best film of 2014, and the second-best movie of the decade, deeming it a "real science fiction rather than the crowd-pleasing, watered-down version Hollywood typically offers".
Oliver Gettell of the Los Angeles Times reported that "film critics largely agree that Interstellar is an entertaining, emotional, and thought-provoking sci-fi saga, even if it can also be clunky and sentimental at times." James Dyer of Empire awarded the film a full five stars, describing it as "brainy, barmy, and beautiful to behold ... a mind-bending opera of space and time with a soul wrapped up in all the science." Dave Calhoun of Time Out London also granted the film a maximum score of five stars, stating that it is "a bold, beautiful cosmic adventure story with a touch of the surreal and the dreamlike." Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film a full four stars and wrote, "This is one of the most beautiful films I have ever seen—in terms of its visuals, and its overriding message about the powerful forces of the one thing we all know but can't measure in scientific terms. Love."
Describing Nolan as a "merchant of awe," Tim Robey of The Telegraph thought that Interstellar was "agonisingly" close to a masterpiece, highlighting the conceptual boldness and "deep-digging intelligence" of the film. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "This grandly conceived and executed epic tries to give equal weight to intimate human emotions and speculation about the cosmos, with mixed results, but is never less than engrossing, and sometimes more than that." In his review for the Associated Press, Jake Coyle praised the film for its "big-screen grandeur," while finding some of the dialogue "clunky." He described it further as "an absurd endeavor" and "one of the most sublime movies of the decade." Scott Mendelson of Forbes listed Interstellar as one of the most disappointing films of 2014, stating that the film "has a lack of flow, loss of momentum following the climax, clumsy sound mixing," and "thin characters" despite seeing the film twice in order to "give it a second chance." He wrote that Interstellar "ends up as a stripped-down and somewhat muted variation on any number of 'go into space to save the world' movies." Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, saying that despite his usual quibbles regarding Nolan's excessive dialogue and its lack of a sense of composition, "[Interstellar] is still an impressive, at times astonishing movie that overwhelmed me to the point where my usual objections to Nolan's work melted away ... At times, the movie's one-stop-shopping storytelling evokes the tough-tender spirit of a John Ford picture ... a movie that would rather try to be eight or nine things than just one."
New York Times columnist David Brooks concludes that Interstellar explores the relationships among "science and faith and science and the humanities" and "illustrates the real symbiosis between these realms." Wai Chee Dimock, in the Los Angeles Review of Books, wrote that Nolan's films are "rotatable at 90, 180, and 360 degrees," and that "although there is considerable magical thinking here, making it almost an anti-sci-fi film, holding out hope that the end of the planet is not the end of everything, it reverses itself, however, when that magic falls short when the poetic license is naked and plain for all to see." Author George R. R. Martin called Interstellar "the most ambitious and challenging science fiction film since Kubrick's 2001." In 2020, Empire magazine ranked it as one of the best films of the 21st century.
### Accolades
At the 87th Academy Awards, Interstellar received nominations for Best Original Score, Best Production Design, Best Sound Editing, and Best Sound Mixing, and won Best Visual Effects.
## See also
- Black holes in fiction
- Blanet – planet orbiting a black hole
- Causal loop
- Interstellar travel
- List of American films of 2014
- List of British films of 2014
- List of films featuring drones
- List of films featuring space stations
- List of time travel works of fiction
- Starship
- Wormholes in fiction |
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