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14,187,737	2007 Navy vs. North Texas football game	1,129,889,859	None	[ "2007 NCAA Division I FBS independents football season", "2007 Sun Belt Conference football season", "2007 in sports in Texas", "Navy Midshipmen football games", "North Texas Mean Green football games", "November 2007 sports events in the United States" ]	The 2007 Navy vs. North Texas football game was a regular-season college football game between the Navy Midshipmen and the North Texas Mean Green, played on November 10, 2007 at Fouts Field in Denton, Texas. The game held the record for the most combined points scored in a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) regulation game with 136 total points, until 137 combined points were scored by Syracuse and Pittsburgh during their November 26, 2016 matchup. The mid-season, non-conference game was the first meeting between the two teams; both came into the game with highly rated offenses and poorly rated defenses. Before the game the Midshipmen had a 5–4 record, most recently defeating the Notre Dame Fighting Irish to break a streak of 43 consecutive losses to that team. Another win would qualify them for a bowl game. The Mean Green held a 1–7 record, and could not become bowl eligible by winning its remaining games, but the team's offense had improved over the course of the season. During the first quarter of the game, the Mean Green led the Midshipmen by as much as 18 points. In the second quarter the teams combined to score 63 points, setting records for most points scored in a quarter and a half. The Midshipmen rallied around a strong rushing offense to take the lead at the beginning of the third quarter, and the Mean Green's offensive momentum sputtered during the second half. Navy held the lead for the remainder of the game. With the win the Midshipmen improved to 6–4, making the team bowl-eligible for the fifth straight year. After finishing the regular season with a record of 8–4 they played in the 2007 Poinsettia Bowl, losing to the Utah Utes. The loss against Navy gave the Mean Green a 1–8 record, and the team eventually finished with a 2–10 record for the season. ## Pre-game buildup ### Navy The Midshipmen, using a triple option offensive scheme under head coach Paul Johnson, had gained the most rushing yards of any team in the nation and had a record of 4–4 through the first eight games of the season. In their ninth game the team defeated the Notre Dame Fighting Irish in triple overtime, ending a 43-year losing streak in the Notre Dame–Navy rivalry and improving the team's record to 5–4. With three games remaining in the season, Navy needed to win at least one more to become bowl eligible. Sponsors had arranged for Navy (which was unaffiliated with any college football conference) to play in the Poinsettia Bowl if they won six games. The Midshipmen defense allowed an average of 38.8 points per game. ### North Texas Using a spread offense scheme implemented by first-year head coach Todd Dodge, the Mean Green experienced some offensive success; however, defensive woes led to a 1–7 record through the first eight games of the season. In a rivalry game against SMU on September 8 Mean Green quarterback Daniel Meager threw for over 600 yards (one of the top 20 single-game performances in FBS history), but defensive errors and an interception returned for a touchdown during the fourth quarter led to another loss. After losing to the Arkansas Razorbacks 66–7, Dodge replaced Meager with redshirt freshman Giovanni Vizza. After four games as a starter, Vizza had set a new passing record for freshmen at North Texas. Coming into the game, the Mean Green ranked 12th nationally in passing offense. Dodge's defensive squad, however, continued to struggle; the team had allowed an average of 209 yards of rushing per game, ranking 107th in the nation in rushing defense. It also ranked 119th in scoring defense, allowing opponents to score an average of 46.5 points per game. Coming off a bye week, the team entered the game with a 1–7 record. ## Game summary The game was scheduled to begin at 3 p.m. Central Time at Fouts Field in Denton, Texas. Before the opening kickoff, the Green Brigade Marching Band performed "My Country, 'Tis of Thee" and "The Star-Spangled Banner". At the conclusion of the national anthem, four United States Navy F/A-18 Hornet aircraft performed a flyover past the stadium. ### First quarter Although the Mean Green had not scored on its first possession in its previous eight games, the team scored on its opening drive against the Midshipmen when wide receiver Casey Fitzgerald caught a nine-yard touchdown pass from quarterback Giovanni Vizza. The Mean Green recovered an onside kick on the ensuing kickoff and scored another touchdown on the following drive. After the Midshipmen kicked a field goal on their first possession, North Texas added another touchdown, giving them a 21–3 lead. Navy scored a touchdown with seven seconds remaining in the quarter. The period ended with the Mean Green ahead, 21–10. ### Second quarter After Navy forced North Texas to begin the second quarter with a punt, Midshipmen running back Eric Kettani fumbled the ball on the second play of the next drive and the Mean Green recovered. The next eight possessions – four from each team – resulted in touchdowns. Four of the drives took less than a minute of game time to reach the end zone, and a fifth took barely over a minute. In the final two minutes of the half the Midshipmen forced the Mean Green to punt after three plays, and Navy quarterback Kaipo-Noa Kaheaku-Enhada threw a 47-yard pass to running back Reggie Campbell. The Midshipmen ran for another touchdown on the next play. North Texas got the ball back with seven seconds left in the half, but chose not to attempt to score again. At the end of the first half, the Mean Green led the Midshipmen 49–45. ### Third quarter Navy began the third quarter with a 9-play, 60-yard touchdown drive composed completely of runs. This gave them their first lead of the game at 51–49 (the extra point attempt was blocked). On the next North Texas drive, Midshipmen outside linebacker Ram Vela intercepted Giovanni Vizza's pass at the Midshipmen 20-yard line. Three plays later, Navy running back Zerbin Singleton ran 65 yards for another touchdown, making the score 58–49. The Mean Green responded with a 7-play, 59-yard drive, which ended with another Vizza touchdown pass to Casey Fitzgerald. On the next play from scrimmage, Kettani ran 49 yards. Two plays later he ran for another touchdown, bringing the score to 65–56 at the end of the third quarter. ### Fourth quarter The next Mean Green drive ended in another interception, this time by Midshipmen linebacker Matt Wimsatt. After the ensuing drive stalled at midfield, the Midshipmen downed a punt at the North Texas two-yard line. Two plays later the Mean Green were called for holding in the end zone, giving Navy a safety. Campbell returned the ensuing free kick for a touchdown, giving the Midshipmen a 74–56 lead. Running back Micah Mosley scored another touchdown for the Mean Green, but their two-point conversion attempt failed, leaving them down 74–62. The Mean Green attempted another onside kick, but Navy recovered. One first down was enough to enable the Midshipmen to run out the clock for the win. ### Scoring summary Source: ## Final statistics With a combined 136 total points scored between both teams, the game set an NCAA Division I FBS record for most points scored in a regulation-length game (breaking the previous record of 133 points set when the San Jose State Spartans defeated the Rice Owls 70–63 in 2004). The 63 combined points in the second quarter and 94 points scored in the first half set NCAA records. The game capped off a monthlong period during which four of the five highest-scoring college football games were played. Giovanni Vizza's eight touchdown passes – equaling the total from his previous four games – set an NCAA record for most touchdown passes by a freshman in a single game. The Midshipmen set a school record by running for 572 yards (with 8 rushing touchdowns) in the game, and tied another school record by scoring at least 30 points for an eighth consecutive game. ## Post-game effects During a post-game press conference Midshipmen head coach Paul Johnson described the game as "bizarre", while defensive coordinator Buddy Green criticized his team's defensive performance: "...it was awful. Awful. Just awful. I can't be any clearer than that." The win guaranteed the Midshipmen a spot in the 2007 Poinsettia Bowl, held in San Diego, California on December 20, 2007; Navy lost the game to the Utah Utes, 35–32. It was the fifth straight bowl game for Navy. The loss dropped the Mean Green to 1–8, and the team finished the season with a 2–10 record. Mean Green coach Todd Dodge expressed astonishment at a post-game press conference, saying "I have never been a part of a game quite like this." The team finished the season averaging an FBS-worst 45.1 points allowed per game. After the final game of the season, Dodge fired defensive coordinator Ron Mendoza, who was replaced by Gary DeLoach. In the 2008 season the Mean Green would again finish at the bottom of the defensive rankings, allowing an average of 47.6 points per game. ## See also - 1916 Cumberland vs. Georgia Tech football game - 2001 GMAC Bowl - 2007 Weber State vs. Portland State football game - 2016 Syracuse vs. Pittsburgh football game - List of historically significant college football games
2,922,743	HMS Active (1869)	1,171,667,333	British Volage-class corvette	[ "1869 ships", "Corvettes of the Royal Navy", "Maritime incidents in February 1879", "Ships built in Leamouth", "Victorian-era corvettes of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Active was a Volage-class corvette built for the Royal Navy in the late 1860s. Launched in 1869, she entered service in 1873, and was the commodore's ship on the Cape of Good Hope and West Africa Station. Her crew served ashore in both the Third Anglo-Ashanti and Zulu Wars. From 1885 to 1898, the ship was the flagship of the Training Squadron. Active was sold for scrap in 1906. ## Description Active was 270 feet (82.3 m) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 42 feet 1 inch (12.8 m). Forward the ship had a draught of 16 feet 5 inches (5.0 m), but aft she drew 21 ft 5 in (6.5 m). Active displaced 3,078 long tons (3,127 t) and had a burthen of 2,322 tons. Her iron hull was covered by a 3-inch (76 mm) layer of oak that was sheathed with copper from the waterline down to prevent biofouling. Watertight transverse bulkheads subdivided the hull. Her crew consisted of 340 officers and ratings. The ship had one 2-cylinder horizontal return connecting rod-steam engine made by Humphreys and Tennant driving a single 19-foot (5.8 m) propeller. Five rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 30 psi (207 kPa; 2 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>). The engine produced a total of 4,130 indicated horsepower (3,080 kW) which gave Active a maximum speed of 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The ship carried 410 long tons (420 t) of coal, enough to steam 2,000 nautical miles (3,700 km; 2,300 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Active was ship rigged and had a sail area of 16,593 square feet (1,542 m<sup>2</sup>). The lower masts were made of iron, but the other masts were wood. The ship's best speed under sail alone was 12.5 knots (23.2 km/h; 14.4 mph). Her funnel was semi-retractable to reduce wind resistance and her propeller could be hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail. The ship was initially armed with a mix of 7-inch and 64-pounder 64 cwt rifled muzzle-loading guns. The six 7-inch (178 mm) guns and two of the four 64-pounders were mounted on the broadside while the other two were mounted on the forecastle and poop deck as chase guns. In 1879, ten BL 6-inch 80-pounder breech-loading guns replaced all the broadside weapons. Two carriages for 14-inch (356 mm) torpedoes were added as well. ## Service HMS Active was laid down in 1867 and launched on 13 March 1869. The ship was completed in March 1871 at a total cost of £126,156. Of this, £85,795 was spent on her hull and £40,361 on her machinery. Unlike her sister ship Volage, Active was placed in reserve after completion until 1873 when she was commissioned to serve as the flagship of the Commander-in-Chief, Cape of Good Hope and West Coast of Africa Station, Commodore William Hewett. The ship participated in naval operations during the Third Anglo-Ashanti War of 1874 and some of her crew were landed to reinforce the forces ashore. Commodore Francis Sullivan replaced Hewett in 1876 and he retained command until 1879 when the ship returned home to refit. ### Zulu War Between 19 November 1878 and 21 July 1879, during the Anglo-Zulu War, 173 men of Active (along with men from Tenedos, Shah and Boadicea) served ashore as part of an 858-man naval brigade. The group from Active comprised 10 officers, 100 seamen, 5 idlers, 42 Marines, 14 Kroomen, and 2 medical attendants. In addition to small arms, they were equipped with two 12-pounder breech-loading guns, 24-pounder rockets, and a Gatling gun. The 12-pounders were exchanged for two of the Army's 7-pounder mountain guns before entering Zululand. Attached to the No.1 Column commanded by Colonel Charles Pearson, they crossed the Tugela River from Natal into Zululand on 12 January 1879. On 22 January they saw action in the Battle of Inyezane, driving off an attacking force of Zulus with rockets, Martini-Henry rifles and the Gatling gun. The same day the British main force was defeated at the Battle of Isandlwana, and so Pearson's column advanced to Eshowe, where it was besieged for two months, until relieved on 3 April. In February, Active ran aground in Tugela Bay whilst assisting HMS Tenedos, which had also ran aground. They were refloated 36 hours later. During the campaign, Active's crew suffered only one man killed, and nine wounded in action against the enemy, while nine died of disease during the siege, and one man drowned while crossing the Tugela. In 1881 the South Africa Medal was awarded to those members of Active's crew that had served there. ### Training Squadron Active was rearmed and refitted in 1879 and placed in reserve until she was selected in 1885 to be the commodore's flagship in the newly formed Training Squadron. Active was the last square-rigged naval ship to leave Portsmouth Harbour under sail. She was paid off in 1898 and was sold for scrap on 10 July 1906. A memorial to the men of Active who lost their lives during the African campaigns can be found in Victoria Park, Portsmouth.
40,201,407	Bahrain Tamarod	1,172,487,802	Three-day protest campaign in Bahrain (2013)	[ "2013 in Bahrain", "2013 protests", "Aftermath of the Arab Spring", "Arab rebellions", "Human rights abuses in Bahrain", "Protests in Bahrain", "Rebellions in Bahrain" ]	Bahrain Tamarod (also spelled Bahrain Tamarrod; Arabic: تمرد البحرين, romanized: tamarrud al-Baḥrayn, "Bahrain Rebellion"), also known as August 14 Rebellion, was a three-day protest campaign in Bahrain that began on 14 August 2013, the forty-second anniversary of Bahrain Independence Day and the two-and-a-half-year anniversary of the Bahraini uprising. The call for protests had started in early July following and inspired by the Egyptian Tamarod Movement that led to the removal of President Mohamed Morsi. Calling for a "free and democratic Bahrain", Tamarod activists, who mobilized social networking websites, said their movement was peaceful, national and non-sectarian. They called for gradual peaceful civil disobedience starting from 14 August. The movement gained the support of opposition societies and human rights activists, including those languishing in prison. The government however, repeatedly warned against the protests, promising those who participate with legal action and forceful confrontation. Rights activists and media reported that authorities had stepped up their crackdown campaigns in the weeks leading to the protests. In late July, the king called for a parliamentary special session. The pro-government parliament submitted 22 recommendations, some of them calling for stripping those convicted of "terrorist crimes" from their nationality and banning almost all protests in the capital, Manama. Despite outcries from the United Nations, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, the king endorsed the recommendations and issued two decrees to their effect. The Prime Minister asked his ministers to carry out the recommendations immediately and issued several warnings against protests. In the following days, the government arrested three photographers, two bloggers, a lawyer and a politician, prevented human rights activists and journalists from entering the country, deported an American teacher and reportedly encircled entire areas with barbed wire. The government denied arrests had targeted activists. A few days before 14 August, activists said they had gathered tens of thousands of signatures in support of highly anticipated protests. The day of 14 August witnessed heavy deployment of security forces, which used tear gas and birdshot against hundreds to thousands of protesters who gathered in several locations throughout the country. Many shops were closed in response to Tamarod's call for a general strike. Opposition activists and media reported over 60 demonstrations throughout the country. The opposition and several citizens accused authorities of cutting Internet connections. The government blocked a website covering the protests, but activists and citizen journalists provided live coverage on social media websites, and Anonymous targeted a government website. At least twenty protesters were arrested and ten injured, two critically, activists said. The tightened security measures have succeeded in preventing large-scale protests in Manama. On 15 and 16 August, smaller protests occurred in several locations which police dispersed without injuries. Tamarod and Al Wefaq opposition society praised the protests and said they were successful. The government of Bahrain however said protests did not affect everyday life. The United States said it supported freedom of expression and assembly, and voiced its concern at the chances of violence. Analysts were divided between those who expected protests to be huge and those that did not see them having any chance. They were also divided about the reasons behind the absence of mass protests in Manama, some blaming it on the security forces, others on protest organizers. ## Background Beginning in February 2011, Bahrain saw sustained pro-democracy protests, centered at Pearl Roundabout in the capital of Manama, as part of the wider Arab Spring. Authorities responded with a night raid on 17 February (later referred to by protesters as Bloody Thursday), which left four protesters dead and more than 300 injured. In March, martial law was declared and Saudi troops were called in. Despite the hard crackdown and official ban, the protests continued. According to the International Federation for Human Rights, at least 80 people were killed during the unrest. ## Calls for a rebellion Inspired by the Egyptian Tamarod Movement that led to the removal of President Mohamed Morsi, Bahraini opposition activists formed Bahrain Rebellion Movement on 3 July 2013 and called for mass protests starting on 14 August, the forty-second anniversary of Bahrain Independence Day under the banner Bahrain Tamarod. The day also marked the two-and-a-half-year anniversary of the Bahraini uprising. The movement which is also known as the August 14 Rebellion, identified itself as "a movement calling for awareness, nationalism, sovereignty, independence and legitimacy, with a message of love, loyalty and dedication to all of the Bahraini people in rebellion against the authorities." One of its members said they were a youth movement, not a political party. A Reuters article described Tamarod as "a loose grouping of opposition activists who came together in early July to push for a 'free and democratic Bahrain' through mass anti-government demonstrations". Activists mobilized social networking websites such as Facebook and Twitter to campaign for the protest movement. They issued their first statement on 4 July titled "Bahrain has Risen up" and "The August 14 Rebels" describing their goals and reasons. "[The people of Bahrain want] a nation that embraces all its citizens. We want a Bahrain to which we can all belong ... This movement is for freedom, for which Bahrainis have long yearned and made great sacrifices over many decades of struggle." The statement also accused authorities of confiscating the people's values and rights, and "restrict[ing] their movement and activities." In an interview with France 24, Hussain Yousif, a member of the Bahrain Rebellion Movement said the movement will employ all types of peaceful civil resistance including the call for a gradual civil disobedience starting on 14 August with abstaining from shopping, commercial and government transactions such as paying electricity bills. He highlighted the royal family's almost complete monopoly on power, the political stalemate and ongoing human rights violations as main motivations. Yousif added that the main principles of the movement were peacefulness, non-exclusion and recognizing the people's right to self-determination, and called the authorities to understand their demands and refrain from using violence against protesters. "We use pure national slogans, not belonging to any specific sect or ideology," he said. The Christian Science Monitor said the 14 August protests were "the latest installment of a two-year long protest movement." Protests were planned to last for three days. Left without an epicenter after the destruction of Pearl Roundabout in 2011, Tamarod announced their plans to stage peaceful protests in nine different locations, all in the streets, with the largest expected in Manama. One of the protests was planned near the U.S. embassy, a country that protest organizers had called on to use its influence to prevent government crackdown and protect demonstrations, which they said was an "ethical responsibility" for the U.S. "We hope that you may convey our deep concern to the US State Department and the US Congress to exert a real political pressure on Bahraini regime to avoid any fatal crackdown and bloodshed," they said in an open letter. ## Events leading to the protests Soon after Tamarod's first statement, the Haq Movement for Liberty and Democracy announced its support for protest plans. "Let August 14 be the day of rebellion against the ruling gang in Bahrain," the movement said in a statement. The February 14 Youth Coalition also supported the protests and called for civil disobedience for 3 days. The youth group also told participants to avoid clashing with police. Ali Salman, leader of Al Wefaq opposition society welcomed the Tamarod plans. "We support any peaceful movement, at any time and from any party. Everybody has the right to protest ... the call for protests on August 14 shows that the Bahraini people will not cease to demonstrate until they achieve their demands," he added. Al Wefaq however, stopped short of taking part in the Tamarod movement, blaming their secession on clashes between security forces and protesters. "[I]t is going to be a peaceful movement but having said that I also expect clashes ... I only pray that there are no victims," said Ali Salman. Jailed activist Zainab al-Khawaja smuggled a letter from prison in which she called people to participate in Tamarod protests. "On 14 February 2011, the people of Bahrain took to the street to demand their rights ... and on 14 August, the day of Tamarod, the people have to go out with same strength in order to send a message to the world and the regime that they have not and will never back down," the letter read. Zainab's father, Abdulhadi al-Khawaja who is also jailed delivered a message via Mohammed al-Maskati of Bahrain Youth Society for Human Rights (BYSHR) in which he called for "a peaceful Tamarrod on August 14th ... under the banner of 'Right to Self determination'." Another jailed rights activist, Nabeel Rajab also announced his support for Tamarod protests. "I call for rebellion [tamarrod] against all laws that violate the rights of the people. The law should be enacted to establish justice and equality between people and the protection of rights," his Twitter account, followed by 211,000+ and controlled by others quoted him saying. On 13 July, the Ministry of Interior (MoI) warned against joining the 14 August protests which it called "illegal demonstrations and activities that endanger security". The MoI said it will "deal with any attempt to disturb security and stability". In anticipation to the 14 August protests, the MoI stepped up security measures and further warned that it will take legal action toward those who participate. The MOI has warned Bahrainis: > Not to respond or react to incitement from political events and social media posts that use 'Rebellion 14 August' and encourage the overthrow of the government. Rallies and activities that affect security, public order, civil peace and the interests of the people are against the law. Participants will have legal procedures taken against them. The Prime Minister joined the MoI in warning against planned protests. The Al Wefaq opposition movement slammed the warnings and affirmed "the [people's] right to protest peacefully". "This will not solve the political crisis. The solution is in satisfying the people's aspirations for liberty, social justice and democracy," Al Wefaq added. Other opposition societies such as National Democratic Action Society (Waad) and Nationalist Democratic Assembly also joined Al Wefaq in affirming the rights of freedom of speech and freedom of assembly. Mainstream opposition societies cancelled a planned mass protest on 14 August, "because of the heavily intimidating security presence in Manama". Tamarod is reported to have gained popularity among the opposition since mid-July, prompting the United States Embassy in Manama to eventually issue a warning for U.S. citizens to avoid certain areas in Bahrain on 14 August. The selected areas were mostly opposition strongholds. For weeks, the government was reported to have intensified its house raids and arrests against over five hundred wanted activists, many of them sleeping outside their homes for months in anticipation of such raids. Maryam al-Khawaja, the acting head of Bahrain Centre for Human Rights (BCHR) said nightly raids were now occurring all day long and that physical, psychological and sexual torture had continued. "Since the announcing of the planned protest on the 14th of August ... [we have been seeing] a very severe escalation in the crackdown," she said. She added that Tamarod protests were "part and parcel of the ongoing uprising that started on 14 February 2011". According to activists, up to 400 were arrested during the month of Ramadhan (10 July–7 August) and more than 100 houses were raided in Manama alone. ### Parliament emergency session On 28 July, the Parliament held an extraordinary session at the request of the King, Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa in which they submitted 22 recommendations calling for tougher penalties against "terrorist crimes" including stripping those convicted with inciting or committing such acts from their nationality and freezing their bank accounts as well as a ban on protests in the capital, Manama. Other recommendations included "increasing punishment for anyone propagating false information about Bahrain in social media networks", "taking legal action against certain political associations which incite and support violent and terrorist acts" and "taking all possible measures to impose peace and security, even if it means imposing a state of national safety [state of emergency]". The parliament has been dominated by government supporters, especially after the opposition submitted their resignations in early 2011 in protest against government crackdown. According to RT, the Bahraini government often employs the terms "terrorists" or "thugs" to refer to protesters and has used "broad definitions of terrorism to detain scores of protesters and to convict several opposition leaders". A week earlier, the government used an explosion as a pretext to block several planned anti-government protests. The session was held after weeks of escalations in clashes between protesters and security forces which had seen militant groups using bombs and police firing tear gas and birdshot, and the Minister of Justice said "terrorism" must be quelled before national reconciliation could begin. According to Reem Khalifa of the Associated Press, however, the session "appeared prompted by opposition calls for major protests Aug. 14." Khalil al-Marzouq of Al Wefaq said the recommendations were unconstitutional and that the session was a "popular cover [for the authorities] in order to issue its decrees." Emile Nakhleh said the session was "a spectacle of venom, a display of vulgarity, and an unabashed nod to increased dictatorship." He added that one MP referred to the Shia, who form the majority of citizens as "dogs" and that 14 August planned protests "drove the timing of the session". Bill Law of the BBC News said the "recommendations if implemented in full would effectively return the country to a state of martial law". An unnamed western diplomat said the recommendations timing was likely due to 14 August protest plans and the increasing violence. Marc Jones said that many of the recommendations were already in place. "Thirty-one Bahrainis were stripped of their citizenship back in November 2012, and there has been a de facto ban on protests in Manama since last year," he added and listed other examples of what he called "reactionary laws" already in place. Maryam al-Khawaja said the government was merely giving a legal cover for its practices that have been in place for years. On the other hand, Tareq Al Hassan, the Public Security Chief said the session was historical and that it did not target a specific group or sect, rather it targeted terrorists and instigators. "14 August will pass just like regular days of the year and nothing will happen," he added. The King, the Crown Prince and the Prime Minister (PM) welcomed the recommendations of the Parliament. The King ordered their rapid codification while the PM asked his ministers to carry out the recommendations immediately, or face dismissal if they slowed down. On 6 August, the King issued two decrees banning all "demonstrations, sit-ins, marches and public gatherings" in Manama, and jailing and/or fining parents if their minor children (under 16) were found to take part in protests in two occasions within six months. During the Parliament recess period, the constitution of Bahrain allows the King to issue decrees which are effective as laws. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights expressed concern about the recommendations, highlighting the right to nationality and asking the government of Bahrain "to fully comply with its international human rights commitments, including respect for freedom of expression and peaceful assembly, and association". Amnesty International said the emergency decrees were outrageous, violated the international law and a "shameful attempt to completely ban any form of dissent and freedom of expression in the country". "We fear that these draconian measures will be used in an attempt to legitimize state violence as new protests are being planned for 14 August," said Amnesty's regional director. A spokesman of the Bahraini government cited increasing violence including a policeman death and said the recommendations were "about trying to control the situation and trying to stabilze and secure people safety." Human Rights Watch also criticized the recommendations, calling them "a whole new set of draconian restrictions" that would create "a new state of emergency". "The government has talked a lot about the need for national reconciliation but, once again, its actions in taking on a raft of stern new measures to suppress legitimate protest are undermining any prospects for successful dialogue," its regional director, Nadim Houry said. The International Federation for Human Rights and World Organization Against Torture "firmly denounce[d]" what they called "the intensifying crackdown on the Bahraini civil society". Freedom House said the recommendations were "a serious new threat to human rights in Bahrain, particularly freedom of expression and assembly", and that they violated the ICCPR treaty. The leader of Bahrain Press Associated said they were "a black page in the history [of the Parliament]". ### Crackdown Three days after the Parliamentary special session, the government escalated its crackdown, arresting a photographer, Hussain Hubail, a blogger and his lawyer, and has continued to deny visas to foreign journalists. The arrested blogger, Mohamed Hassan also worked as a fixer for foreign journalists visiting the country and his lawyer, AbdulAziz Mosa was arrested after tweeting that Hassan was mistreated in prison. On 2 August, a second photographer, Qassim Zain Aldeen was arrested. Several Bahrain-based rights organizations wrote an open letter on 6 August co-signed by a number of international NGOs asking other international NGOs, mainstream media, Bahrain allies and the United Nations to pay close attention to Bahrain over the next week, especially on 14 August, which they said would likely see the country "come under lockdown". The letter said the rights situations in Bahrain has "rapidly deteriorated" during the previous weeks. On 7 August, Al Jazeera English reporter, Hyder Abbasi was prevented from boarding a flight from Qatar to Bahrain. On 8 August, a third photographer, Ahmed Al-Fardan was briefly arrested, threatened and beaten by plainclothes police. On 9 August, Bahraini-Danish human rights activist Maryam al-Khawaja was prevented from boarding a British Airways flight to Bahrain at the request of the Bahraini government. Al-Khawaja who was planning to stay in Bahrain before and during 14 August said the move "show[ed] how nervous they [the authorities] are and how much they have to hide." The same day, an opposition activist, Mohammad Sanad al-Makina was arrested from Bahrain International Airport while attempting to board a flight to Sri Lanka with his family. Amnesty International named him a prisoner of conscience. An activist reported that 7 journalists were in hiding due to house raids. On 8 August, the February 14 Youth Coalition said they had gathered tens of thousands of signatures calling for the right to self-determination. On 10 August, the Prime Minister renewed his warning against planned protests during a visit to Muharraq island. He also accused protesters of wanting "to change the regime and drag[ging] the country to chaos and ruin." "[T]his island will burn to a cinder all those who seek to tamper with its security and stability," he added. The same day, an American teacher was deported from Bahrain due to her "activities linked to radical opposition groups," the Bahrain Ministry of Communications said. Erin Kilbride was accused of working as an unaccredited journalist writing for the outlawed Bahrain Centre for Human Rights (BCHR), and of having links with Hezbollah. "[Her posting was] deemed to incite hatred against the government and members of the Royal family," the ministry added. Al-Khawaja of BCHR denied Kilbride had written for them and said an As-Safir journalist denied the allegations too. "That was something made up by the government," she added. Bahraini authorities blocked bahrainaugust14.com, a website that offered timeline coverage for the protests within 24 hours of its launch on 10 August. A human rights activist said that despite the official ban and security checkpoints, a protest was held in Manama on 10 August, and was dispersed by police using stun grenades. On the other hand, the MoI reported that "terrorists" attacked a police patrol in Noaim using molotov cocktails. The Bahrain Mirror mentioned that all leaves for August were cancelled by several government agencies and ministries. On 12 August, a human rights activist said police fired tear gas and stun grenades on several anti-government protests, and arrested nine demonstrators. The same day, the PM issued another warning against protests after an urgent Ministerial meeting, saying his government will "forcefully confront" them. "[The government] will punish [those] who stand behind them in line with the recommendations of the Bahrain National Council [parliament]," he added. Patrick Cockburn of The Independent said the PM warning showed the "nervousness" of Bahraini authorities ahead of the protests. The PM also held a meeting with the commander of Peninsula Shield Force, a joint Gulf Cooperation Council force that helped crackdown on protests in 2011. The state-controlled Bahrain News Agency (BNA) also reported that the PM headed a "high level meeting" attended by high-ranking officials to talk over arrangements before protests. The PM said his government was "at a critical stage [in the struggle to] eliminate terrorism". On 13 August, Bahrain Mirror and activists said security forces have installed barbed wire around a number of residential areas expected to witness large protests. The areas were completely caged according to activists. Al Wefaq said authorities had turned some areas into a "vast prison for inhabitants." The Associated Press reported that barbed wire with checkpoints in between had separated Shia neighborhoods from main roads and Reuters witnesses said security forces had deployed reinforcements, including armored vehicles by night. The area of the-now demolished Pearl Roundabout was filled with hundreds of riot police standing next to armored personnel carriers. Tamarod spokesperson, Hussain Yousif said they will carry on with the protests despite government definite crackdown. The MoI said the heavy deployment was in order to "[preserve] security and order, and to guarantee an easy flow of traffic". On the same day, Bahraini authorities summoned the Lebanese ambassador in Bahrain to file a complaint against a conference held by Bahrain Rebellion Movement in Beirut. In the conference, opposition activists called for civil disobedience and mass protests, the BNA reported. A number of Bahraini opposition politicians and human rights activists have based their activities in Beirut where they enjoy more freedom. The BNA added that the Lebanese ambassador said his government was not supportive of the conference and that they did not wish to interfere in Bahraini internal affairs. A day earlier, the salafist Al Asalah Islamic Society had criticized Lebanon for hosting the conference. ### Reactions prior to protests Reporters Without Borders expressed its concern at what it described "a new upsurge in abusive treatment of journalists in the run-up to the major 'Tamarod' rally". The France-based NGO said authorities had arrested 2 bloggers and 3 photographers in recent days. "The authorities plan to impose a news blackout on the 14 August demonstration by jailing netizens and preventing journalists and human rights defenders from visiting Bahrain," it added. Amnesty International issued a statement calling the government of Bahrain to allow Wednesday protests and expressed its fear that the new legislation will be used as a legal cover for quashing peaceful protests. "The Bahraini authorities must not crack down on mass anti-government protests scheduled for tomorrow," it said. The UK-based NGO also condemned the arrest of "journalists, photographers, bloggers and others active on social media networks in recent days [as a move to silence critics]". The Bahraini government "vehemently refutes any allegations of targeted arrests," said an Information Affairs Authority spokesperson. Nicholas McGeehan of Human Rights Watch said the government preparations were unjustified, inappropriate and disproportionate. "Bahraini authorities have a grim recent history of using excessive and lethal force to suppress peaceful protests, followed by the persecution of protesters and even doctors who treated their wounds," he added. The International Freedom of Expression Exchange described Bahrain authorities preparations as "pre-emptive crackdown on a peaceful, nationwide protest that has been weeks in the planning." The United States embassy said it would close its doors on 14 August and told Americans to "avoid non-essential travel inside the country". Naval Support Activity Bahrain, the base of United States Fifth Fleet ordered sailors to avoid Manama Souq, Bahrain City Centre and Seef Mall where protests were expected. ## Timeline ### 14 August Large numbers of security forces were deployed in Manama and helicopters hovered over. Roads leading to the city were guarded by security checkpoints and surrounded by barbed wire. Reuters reported that all shops were closed in some villages, while most shops in Manama remained open, with big police presence in the area, especially near Bab Al Bahrain. Tamarod had called for a general strike and pleaded businesses to close, while the Bahrain Chamber of Commerce and Industry issued a warning for businesses against responding to calls for a general strike, or risk facing legal action. An activist said protests started by dawn and that at least 3 were held in Manama. The Associated Press reported that small protests occurred in the morning and that most businesses "appeared to be shuttered", prompting Al Wefaq to claim success for the general strike. BNA reported that the PM made a visit to a shopping mall in Manama to assure visitors it was "business as usual". In the early morning, up to 100 protesters took to the street in Saar village, west of Manama. The protest was peaceful and protesters were chanting anti-government slogans and waving Bahraini flags, witnesses said. Shortly before the arrival of security forces, the protest dispersed peacefully. In another village south of Manama, the MoI reported that an Asian worker trying to open a blocked road was injured after getting attacked with molotov cocktails and that a main road in Muharraq was blocked with burning tires. It described both incidents as "terrorism". Protests were also held in Malkiya, Juffair and Sitra where protesters held peaceful sit-ins and formed human chains. Some protesters were sitting in front of their houses, still they were attacked by security forces, witnesses reported. A video posted on YouTube showed police arresting and beating two men who were sitting in front of a house. In Shakhura, west of Manama, police charged a group of 300 protesters who were restricted behind a barbed wire using tear gas and birdshot. Images by Reuters showed police beating an arrested protester after they dispersed the protest. In Karrana similar clashes occurred, with protesters hurling back molotov cocktails. No injuries were reported for both incidents. Later, police converged at Seef district in Manama, and "cordoned off the area using barbed wire" following a video message by Hussain Yousif to hold a rally there. Agence France-Presse (AFP) witnesses reported that hundreds of protesters who gathered in several Shia villages faced police tear gas and birdshot. Citizen journalists and activists provided live photo coverage of the violence on Instagram and Twitter. Human Rights First (HRF) estimated turnout to be in thousands. Al Wefaq reported that over 60 rallies were held in 40 different areas throughout the day. Euronews and Al Jazeera English estimated the number of protests at 60 and reported they were mostly peaceful. Al-Mahafdha of BCHR reported that authorities arrested 20 protesters, including 5 women and a minor. He said protests turnout was in thousands "despite the campaign of intimidation and surrounding villages with barbed wire". The MoI said the woman driver who was arrested with her companions tried to "run over a policeman at a road block". The MoI added they arrested 20 individuals, among them 8 fugitives. Al Wefaq reported that the number of the arrested was 23 and that 4 were released later. Some injuries were reported in Karzakan and Demistan by the BYSHR. BCHR said 10 were injured by tear gas (inhalation) and birdshot, while Al Wefaq said 2 people were in a critical condition. The BCHR accused the government of using "large amounts of tear gas ... to disperse anyone gathering on the streets". "[I]t has been very difficult for protesters to move from their villages onto the main streets because of the barbed wires that were set up last night," al-Khawaja said. The BCHR also accused the government of dispatching a large number of mercenaries from Pakistan and Jordan to aid security forces in the crackdown, however an opposition figure said this claim was hard to prove, because security forces wear masks. The Associated Press and AFP reported that the heavy deployment of security forces have succeeded in preventing large-scale protests in Manama, instead protesters were confined to neighborhoods around the city. Al Wefaq released a statement accusing authorities of cutting Internet connection in a number of areas. "Personal devices of some citizens have also been selectively cut off," the statement added. The secular-leftist Waad society said that instant messaging applications such as WhatsApp had been blocked by VIVA Bahrain telecommunications company. Several citizens also complained of loss of Internet for several hours in different locations during the day. They said the cut was at a time when protests were being held. Previously in February 2011, when the uprising began, a similar situation occurred during which the Internet became either slow or was lost completely. Telecommunication companies said then that the problem was due an overload on Internet networks. Reuters described the protests as "an upsurge of a two-and-a-half-year-old campaign". It reported that the morning saw protests end peacefully, while in the evening clashes between protesters and police occurred. Bahrainis in London organized a small, but vocal protest starting from the Bahraini embassy to Downing Street. Protesters criticized the United Kingdom over continuing to sign arms trades to Bahrain, despite human rights violations. "Instead of challenging Bahrain on human rights record our government is supporting it and it's a disgrace," said one protester. The websites of MoI and Qorvis public relations firm, which works for Bahraini authorities were targeted by hackers belonging to Anonymous group. ### 15–16 August In the morning of 15 August, protesters blocked several main streets and in the afternoon they clashed with police after holding sit-ins in a number of villages, in response to a call by February 14 Youth Coalition, the Bahrain Mirror reported. Tamarod had planned protests in Manama on 16 August, including a "car demonstration", however few hours before the start time, they cancelled the event. Security forces had been heavily deployed in Manama in anticipation of the protests. Tamarod said that by playing out this tactic, they "controlled the distribution and actions of security forces". Hundreds of protesters in several Shia villages took to the street at night following a call by February 14 Youth Coalition. They called for the overthrow of the monarchy and chanted "Down with [King] Hamad", before clashes erupted with security forces. Police fired "buckshot, tear gas, and sound grenades" in response to protesters throwing stones and molotov cocktails at them. Al-Mahafdha said protests were held in Manama, Al Daih and Samaheej among other places and that there were no reported injuries. The MoI reported arresting members of a "terrorist group" in the village of Bani Jamra, west of Manama. Witnesses from Bani Jamra said detainees were severely beaten before arrest and that one of them with sickle-cell anemia was taken by an ambulance. ## Reactions Spokesperson of Tamarod, Hussain Yousif lauded protesters response and called for further protests on Thursday and Friday, and said they planned to organize further protests in the weeks to come. "Many responded to the calls to come out and protest today ... The government has converted Bahrain into a military base trying to isolate the villages to prevent people from reaching protest sites," he added. Ali Salman of Al Wefaq praised Tamarod protests, saying they scored more success than expected by drawing media attention and maintaining peacefulness. He also expressed his relief about the small number of casualties and the lack of deaths. Human Rights First (HRF) criticized the government of Bahrain response to protests, which they said reflected the "increasing levels of frustration felt by many in Bahrain at the lack of any real reform". "What happened today confirmed fears that the government of Bahrain is determined to crush any form of dissent," said Brian J. Dooley of HRF. The BNA downplayed the effect of the protests, saying it was "business as usual" in the country. "Bahrainis and expatriates reported to work on Wednesday just like any other day, defying calls by radical opposition groups of road blockades and attack on properties," the state-run agency added. Critics said the protests failed as most streets were empty and protests disorganized. Abdulla Al Junaid of the pro-government National Union Gathering said an opposition cleric criticized Tamarod as a "stillborn". The United States expressed its concern at the possibility of violence. "We remain very concerned about continuing incidents of violence in Bahrain and, of course, the possibility for violence and would urge all parties to strongly condemn violence and contribute to fostering a climate of dialogue and reconciliation," said the spokesperson of State Department. The spokesperson added that they "support[ed] the right of individuals to peacefully assemble and of course, the right of freedom of expression, including in Bahrain". ## Analysis Prior to the protests, HRF said they were "likely to be the most significant in over a year". Saeed al-Shehabi of the London-based Bahrain Freedom Movement said the Tamarod movement would "renew Bahrain's forgotten revolution". Mansoor al-Jamri, editor of Al-Wasat independent newspaper expressed pessimism about the situation, saying that "it's a very volatile situation. We might be heading for a very harsh period." Marc Jones was also pessimistic. "It is unlikely that these 'Tamorrod' protests will amount to anything, especially as the Bahraini authorities have spent the past two years breaking the back of the opposition movement. In 2011, thousands were arrested, tens killed, and dozens tortured," he said. Ashley Lindsey of Stratfor global intelligence firm said the likelihood of protests reaching Manama was low due to the experience of security forces. Ken Hanly wrote that the political violence in Egypt "will no doubt overshadow whatever repressive measures are taken against protests in Bahrain". Ala'a Shehabi wrote in the Foreign Policy that the choice of Independence Day by Tamarod should be understood as an attempt to gain true full sovereignty as opposed to Stephen D. Krasner's Organized Hypocrisy (1999): "the paradox that though there is an informal understanding that states are sovereign, they can still be subject to constant intervention". Jane Kinninmont of Chatham House said Tamarod protests would not succeed to replicate the Egyptian scenario "because the army in Bahrain doesn't play the same role, and many of the security services don’t include Shi'ite Bahrainis, so you don’t get that same sense of solidarity". Matar Matar of Al Wefaq said that even if thousands had participated in Tamarod protests, the situation would remain the same as long as the United States continued to support what he called an "authoritarian regime" in Bahrain. Writing for the Gulf News Hasan Tariq Al Hasan argued that Tamarod protests on 14 August had failed to live up to the expectations. He said that one of the main reasons was conflicting instructions between Bahrain Rebellion Movement and February 14 Youth Coalition, which launched its own Tamarod protest under the title "Tamarod Storm". Ala'a Shehabi said the security measures had made it "physically impossible" for big numbers to gather in one place. In an opinion column in Al-Wasat, Jameel al-Mahari said it was not appropriate to speak about failure or success of the protests, instead he argued that Bahrain's real success was when the unrest ended, "when everyone listens to the voice of reason, when we reach compatible solutions, when the national cohesion is restored and when people feel they are equal before law and that they all are first class citizens."
39,798,511	Bound 2	1,142,099,528	null	[ "2013 singles", "2013 songs", "Charlie Wilson (singer) songs", "Def Jam Recordings singles", "GOOD Music singles", "Kanye West songs", "Kim Kardashian", "Roc-A-Fella Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Kanye West", "Song recordings produced by Mike Dean (record producer)", "Song recordings produced by No I.D.", "Songs written by Charlie Wilson (singer)", "Songs written by John Legend", "Songs written by Kanye West", "Songs written by Malik Yusef", "Songs written by Mike Dean (record producer)", "Songs written by Ronnie Self" ]	"Bound 2" is a song by American rapper Kanye West, featured as the final track from his sixth studio album, Yeezus (2013). It was produced by West and Che Pope, with additional production being handled by Eric Danchick, Noah Goldstein, No ID and Mike Dean. The song features vocals from American soul singer Charlie Wilson and serves as the album's second single. "Bound 2" incorporates samples from "Bound" by Ponderosa Twins Plus One and the lines "Uh-huh, honey" and "Alright" from Brenda Lee's "Sweet Nothin's". The song also interpolates Wee's "Aeroplane (Reprise)" for the bridge, sung by Charlie Wilson. "Bound 2" received universal acclaim from music critics, who referred to the song as one of the highlights of the album, comparing its soul influenced, sample-based production to West's debut studio album, The College Dropout (2004). The song peaked at number 55 on the UK Singles Chart and 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. The song received two nominations at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards for Best Rap Song and Best Rap/Sung Performance. West performed the song live on Later... with Jools Holland and The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. ## Background and composition On June 1, 2013, West revealed the cover art of his sixth studio album Yeezus and premiered a 13-second preview of "Bound 2". It was only one of three songs that were previewed prior to the album's release, the others being "New Slaves" and "Black Skinhead". "Bound 2" features substantial soul music samples, which critics noted as reminiscent of West's production style in his earlier work. The song is predominantly built around a sample taken from "Bound", a song by soul-group Ponderosa Twins Plus One from their 1971 album, 2 + 2 + 1 = Ponderosa Twins Plus One. Interpolations from "Aeroplane (Reprise)", written by Norman Whiteside and performed by Wee and the line "Uh-huh, honey" from the song "Sweet Nothin's", written by Ronnie Self and performed by country singer, Brenda Lee, were also used in the song. Lee reacted to the sampling of her song on the track, saying: > As I've said, it's always nice to be recognized. It says a wonderful thing about Ronnie Self, who wrote the song. That 50 years after it was written, somebody in Kanye's camp knew the song and said, 'Let's use it.' That's a compliment to Ronnie. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Rick Rubin explained how the song was constructed: > The whole song was written without that main sample; it was a last-minute thing. The song had kind of a lot of R&B music in it. And Kanye gave marching orders of "Take out anything you want, but don't add. Just take away." Like, "OK." And before that, we listened to the sample together and thought, "Hmm, maybe there's a way to integrate this into the song." So we started by getting the sample to work in the song, and then taking out as much stuff as we could, and then in the chorus reducing what was this whole musical thing, just this sort of one ugly, distorted bass note. I was thinking like Alan Vega and Suicide, that kind of noise-synth minimal vibe. So that was the idea behind the chorus: Take it from this sort of R&B thing and turn it into this kind of post-punk, edge thing. And the lyrics he wrote were so good and funny. It just turned into a really good record. The sample is so good. On February 15, 2014, Hudson Mohawke played an original version of "Bound 2" during a DJ set in Leeds. The earlier version features piano-driven production and a much more stripped down ending compared to the album version. Rapper/Producer Tyler, the Creator revealed over Twitter that he helped produce the original version along with Hudson Mohawke. ## Release and promotion "Bound 2" was released on June 18, 2013, as the tenth and final track on West's sixth studio album Yeezus. The song was revealed to be the second single released from Yeezus in August 2013, following "Black Skinhead". On September 9, 2013, West appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon for the first time, to promote his upcoming Yeezus Tour. During his appearance, he performed "Bound 2" with Charlie Wilson, The Roots and a male children's choir. It was his first national television performance of the song. The song was also performed on the season premiere of Later... with Jools Holland by West and Wilson on September 17, 2013. To take a more minimal approach, they were accompanied by just the song's signature Ponderosa Twins sample and a brief piano intro for the Later... with Jools Holland performance. ## Reception ### Critical response "Bound 2" received universal acclaim from music critics. Rolling Stone described "Bound 2" as "maybe the most audacious song he's ever written, not to mention the most beautiful." Julian Kimble of Complex called the song "a brilliant way to end the album" and wrote that it "stands out as a love song—a dark, twisted fantasy of a love song, perhaps, but one that's beautiful in its own way." David Jeffries of AllMusic described "Bound 2" as a "new wave beauty of a closer." Writing for The A.V. Club, Evan Rytlewski referred to the song as "an overt homage to West's bright early production, reimagining The College Dropout'''s cheerful chipmunk soul." Dan Buyanovsky of XXL called it the album's "emotional and musical highlight... a perfect sendoff that reminds you of Kanye's roots while pointing you in the direction of his future." A writer for the Kitsap Sun cited "Bound 2" as a "classic Yeezy effort" and "arguably the album's best track." ### Accolades XXL positioned it at number 17 on their list of the best songs of 2013. They said, "'Bound 2' showed the doubters that he could still give them the soul-soaked laments that everyone wanted, he just decided not to. But that doesn't mean this song is a throwaway—the video might be more of one than the song itself—this is Kanye's introspection colliding with his self-doubt in a way that is eminently relatable to anyone with a pulse." NME ranked "Bound 2" at number 22 on their list of the 50 best songs of 2013; "in Kanye's mind this is what constituted a pop song: sped up '70s soul samples, a totally unconventional structure and lyrical gems." Pitchfork Media positioned "Bound 2" at number 40 on their list of the top 100 tracks of 2013. They commented, "On an album that takes itself awful seriously throughout, "Bound 2" is something that recontextualizes the entire affair, leaving more questions than answers." Belgium magazine Le Vif/L'Express named it the seventh best song of 2013. PopMatters placed it 15th on its list of the best songs of 2013. Swedish newspaper Expressen named it the 22nd best song of 2013. "Bound 2" was ranked 9th place on the annual Pazz & Jop critics songs poll. In end of decade lists, i-D placed it 21st on its list of "The 30 Hip-Hop Tracks that Defined the 2010s", commenting; "Having reached his artistic and technical peak somewhere around the 7 minute mark of the monumental "Runaway", Kanye began taking his creations apart to show how they worked. This consciously self-de(con)structive streak produced diminishing returns as the decade progressed but on something like "Bound 2" it felt genuinely transgressive—the lush, dusty soul samples of 'the old Kanye' but artificial-seeming (like that ludicrous green screen music video) and jarring; clever-dumb lyrics that mashed together the crude ("don't get spunk on the mink") and the affecting ("I'm tired, you tired / Jesus wept") in the space of a few bars." Rolling Stone listed it at 65th on its list of the 100 best songs of the 2010s, stating; "Seventy-six seconds into “On Sight," the gleefully abrasive opener to Kanye West's gleefully abrasive Yeezus, he says (via choral sample) that he intends to give the audience what they need, not what they want. For the next 35 minutes, he does just that, coarsening his textures into something industrial and vital and new. Then, just to prove he can, West brings the beauty back. Over a roughly looped sample of the Ponderosa Twins Plus One – with occasional interjections from Brenda Lee and Charlie Wilson – West returns to his roguish side, penning a filthy ode to his new wife at the time, Kim Kardashian West. There's a reason we’re still paying attention to West after the decade he's had; he's always capable of something you never see coming. ## Music video On November 16, 2013, it was revealed that West would be premiering the music video for "Bound 2" on The Ellen DeGeneres Show the following week. The Nick Knight-directed music video was released on November 19, 2013. The video features his then-fiancée Kim Kardashian, topless, riding atop West's motorbike (Honda CRF-X) through Monument Valley and other landscapes. Eric Diep of XXL described it as, "a confident display of love and passion with little to no narrative." Spin felt it was "a pretty bad idea seen through so completely that it stops being a bad idea". Tom Breihan from Stereogum found the video confusing, saying "it'll take a little bit to figure out what all's going on there". Lanre Bakare of The Guardian described it as "self-indulgent, idiosyncratic and a bit weird". By the time that it had reached seven million views on YouTube, the music video's 13,000 likes were outbalanced by the 50,000 dislikes. In an interview with The Breakfast Club West explained the concept for the video. > "I wanted to take white trash T-shirts and make it into a video. I wanted it to look as phony as possible, I wanted the clouds to go one direction, the mountains to go one direction, the horses to go over there, cause I want to show you that this is The Hunger Games. I want to show you that this is the type of imagery that's been presented to all of us. And the only difference is a black dude in the middle of it." On November 25, 2013, "Bound 3", a parody of the music video was released, starring actors James Franco and Seth Rogen. The parody is a shot-for-shot remake, filmed while they were shooting their movie The Interview. Afterwards, Kim Kardashian revealed through Twitter that she and West found the video to be very funny. On December 11, 2013, the music video was parodied in the South Park episode "The Hobbit", where West is shown trying to convince the world that Kardashian is not a hobbit. On December 21, 2013, the video was parodied on Saturday Night Live, with cast members portraying the couple having sex while riding a red-nosed reindeer. Slant Magazine listed it 15th on its list of the best music videos of 2013, commenting; "Wherein Kanye continues to dismantle white American iconography, subverting it by placing himself (and his topless reality star of a honey) in the middle of it all. This is Kanye deconstructing Marlon Brando, James Dean, and Elvis all at once while instilling fear of a black planet." ## Lawsuit On December 23, 2013, Ricky Spicer of the Ponderosa Twins Plus One filed a lawsuit against West over the sample of the group's song, "Bound," alleging that he used Spicer's voice without permission. Spicer asked that West pay him or cease and desist using his vocals. Roc-A-Fella Records, Universal Music Group, Island Def Jam, and Rhino Entertainment were all named in the lawsuit along with West. The suit was settled in May 2015. ## Commercial performance Despite not being released as a single initially, "Bound 2" managed to debut at number five on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 and number 31 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart upon the release of Yeezus. After its release as a single, the song debuted at number 73 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on December 7, 2013. It re-entered at number 24 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in the same week. On the Billboard Hot 100, the song reached its peak position of number twelve the following week. On the UK Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 94 on September 15, 2013, having been released as a single recently. It peaked at number 55 the following week. A Drum and bass re-working titled "Nobody to Love" by Sigma topped several charts including the UK in 2014. ## Awards and nominations ## Remixes British drum and bass duo Sigma created a remix of the song entitled "Nobody to Love" featuring vocals from Daniel Pearce which was officially released on April 6, 2014. It topped the UK Singles Chart upon release, with sales of over 121,000 copies in the first week. Rick Ross freestyled over the instrumental of "Bound 2" on January 1, 2014. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Yeezus''. - Delbert Bowers – assistant mixing - Eric Danchick – additional production - Mike Dean – bass, guitar, songwriting, additional producer - Robert Dukes – songwriting - Nabil Essemlani – assistant engineer - Chris Galland – assistant mixing - Noah Goldstein – engineer, additional producer - Khoï Huynh – assistant engineer - Malik Jones – songwriting - Anthony Kilhoffer – engineer - Manny Marroquin – mixing - Bob Massey – songwriting - No I.D. – additional production - Keith Parry – assistant engineer - Raoul Le Pennec – assistant engineer - Ché Pope – co-producer, songwriting - Elon Rutberg – songwriting - Sakiya Sandifer – songwriting - Ronnie Self – songwriting - John Stephens – songwriting - Kanye West – lead vocals, producer, songwriting - Norman Whiteside – songwriting - Charlie Wilson – additional vocals, songwriting - Cydel Young – songwriting ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
34,251,114	Serious Sam: The Random Encounter	1,171,017,019	2011 video game	[ "2011 video games", "Devolver Digital games", "Indie games", "Role-playing video games", "Serious Sam", "Single-player video games", "Video games developed in the Netherlands", "Video games set in Egypt", "Vlambeer games", "Windows games", "Windows-only games" ]	Serious Sam: The Random Encounter is a 2011 role-playing and bullet hell game developed by Vlambeer and published by Devolver Digital. It follows Sam "Serious" Stone travelling to the future in search of his nemesis, Mental, teaming up with mercenaries on the way. The player controls Sam and his accomplices through confined levels, engaging in battles through random encounters. These pit the player characters against large waves of enemies, and the player controls the weapons and items each character uses against them in five-second turns. Announced in March 2011, The Random Encounter was created as part of the Serious Sam Indie Series to promote the release of Serious Sam 3: BFE. Devolver Digital initially envisioned a clone of Vlambeer's Super Crate Box. The studio disliked this idea, drafting a pitch for a turn-based role-playing game instead. The Random Encounter was released for Windows in October 2011 to a mixed reception. The combat system was given a varied response, with some critics calling it innovative. The game's tone, visuals, and sound were well received. Conflicting opinions were expressed regarding the game's arsenal and short duration. ## Gameplay Serious Sam: The Random Encounter is a hybrid of a role-playing video game with turn-based elements and a bullet hell game. The gameplay is split into two parts, world exploration and battle sequences, in a style similar to Japanese role-playing games. In the former, the player sequentially traverses nine confined areas, distributed across three thematic worlds. Initially alone, protagonist Sam "Serious" Stone teams up with mercenaries Bam and Bim over the course of the game. Every few steps made in these levels, a random encounter occurs, initiating a battle. In these, the player characters appear to the right of the screen, while a horde of enemies approaches from the left. The player chooses for each character to either fire their equipped weapon at the enemies, swap that weapon for another, or use an item. When firing a weapon, the player determines how it should be used. Revolvers aim automatically, while shotguns have an adjustable radius in which they automatically aim, doing more damage to enemies at close range. Several weapons can have their trajectory angled, of which most fire in a straight line; some fire continuously, while others only have limited shots per turn. Grenade launchers can shoot at a specific point on the screen. When a character switches weapons, they lose some time before also firing the newly equipped weapon. Items include additional health or armour for the characters, revivals of dead party members, a "Serious Bomb" that defeats the majority of visible enemies, and a "Kamikaze Bait" that spawns 100 (or more) Beheaded Kamikaze enemies. In each turn, the player characters perform their selected actions, while enemies also attack. Turns last five seconds, after which the player can assign new actions. During a turn, the player may also move the entire party up or down to shift their weapons' aim or dodge enemies and their projectiles. Individual enemies have different attack styles. Characters take damage when hit by an enemy or projectile and die when their armour and health are depleted. Should all party members be dead at once, the battle ends, with the party losing a life and being reset to its position prior to the lost battle. Should the player lose all of their three lives, gameplay pauses and the active level is reset. Battles end normally once all enemies are defeated, although additional enemies may spawn during a battle. Battles become progressively more difficult by pitting the player against more enemies. The game includes five boss fights. Through victories, the player gains some experience points that can add up to unlocking a new weapon or item. Further items can be found in chests during world exploration. Levels further include some puzzle elements, such as collecting a key, activating a switch or defeating large amounts of enemies, that the player has to solve to progress. Upon completion of the main game, an endless mode is unlocked, in which the player can play for an undetermined time to achieve the highest possible score. ## Development and release Serious Sam: The Random Encounter was developed by Vlambeer, an indie game developer composed of Rami Ismail and Jan Willem Nijman. Its previous releases included Super Crate Box and Radical Fishing. After coming across the former, Devolver Digital, the publisher of the Serious Sam series, contacted Vlambeer, asking them to develop a game for the Serious Sam Indie Series. A triplet of spin-offs to be created by small studios to promote the impending launch of the mainline first-person shooter entry Serious Sam 3: BFE, the Indie Series also encompasses Serious Sam Double D and Serious Sam: Kamikaze Attack!. Ismail and Nijman had been fans of the series, wherefore they accepted the request. However, Devolver Digital requested a copy of Super Crate Box with a Serious Sam theme, which Ismail and Nijman disliked. During a brainstorming session, they instead drafted a turn-based role-playing video game. The intent was to place the game in a genre as far away as possible from a first-person shooter, while not sacrificing other core elements of the series. From this idea, they crafted a crude drawing, which they scanned and emailed to Devolver Digital, expecting that the publisher would turn down the pitch. As such, the team was surprised when it was quickly approved. The game concept did not change significantly from the pitch thereafter. Ismail stated that Vlambeer had full creative control and would not have undergone the project otherwise. The visuals for The Random Encounter were produced by Roy Nathan de Groot and Paul Veer. De Groot worked on all static assets, starting with designing the first world and the sprite for Sam. When creating Sam's accomplices, the team intended to use his sister but found that she was already deceased in the lore of the Serious Sam series. Instead, they went through the characters of the series' multiplayer modes and chose the two most "visually attractive": Groovy Gregory and Wild Wyatt. To avoid battle scenes feeling "flat", de Groot added parallax scrolling to their backgrounds. He also designed the cover artwork and, when its files were lost in a crash shortly before the associated deadline, quickly re-created it from a low-resolution version that he upscaled and re-coloured. Veer produced character animations and visual effects. Because Groovy Gregory and Wild Wyatt (now named Bam and Bim) had a shape similar to that of Sam, Veer was able to repurpose some of Sam's animations by applying different colours. For greater variety between them, he added minor cosmetic details and altered a few animations. To fit the action theme of Serious Sam, characters were fully animated, as opposed to the more static style of other role-playing video games of the time. The Random Encounter's soundtrack was composed by Alex Mauer. The Serious Sam Indie Series was announced by Devolver Digital in March 2011. To prepare The Random Encounter in time for its announcement, Ismail and Nijman worked from their hotel rooms in San Francisco while attending the 2011 Game Developers Conference, in the plane back to the Netherlands, as well as at home under jet lag. They took several days off following the announcement. The game was playable for the first time at the May 2011 "Indigo Connected by Ziggo" event in the Netherlands, as well as shown at Fantastic Arcade in September 2011. During the development of The Random Encounter, a clone of Vlambeer's Radical Fishing was released by another company for iOS and quickly became successful. Because Vlambeer had itself been working on an iOS version of Radical Fishing (titled Ridiculous Fishing) that had not yet been released, this plagiarism led to demotivation within the studio, resulting in the delay of The Random Encounter and other projects. Ismail had been fully engaged in working on The Random Encounter but shifted to handling the fallout of the controversy, with Nijman taking over the game's development. Two trailers for The Random Encounter were edited by Kert Gartner. Both published in October 2011, the first focused on the game's mechanics, while the other coincided with the launch. The Random Encounter was released for Windows on 24 October 2011 and made available for purchase through the Get Games and Steam services. This marked Vlambeer's first commercial release, as its previous games had been freeware. The studio intended to use the revenue generated from it to purchase a Mac computer and create a Mac OS X version of the game. Vlambeer re-iterated its plan for this port in August 2016, also announcing plans to update the existing Windows version and release one for Linux. ## Reception Serious Sam: The Random Encounter received "mixed or average reviews", according to the review aggregator website Metacritic, which calculated a weighted average rating of 64/100 based on eleven critic reviews. Several critics—including Allistair Pinsof (Destructoid), Eric Neigher (IGN), and Lana Polansky (Kill Screen)—considered the combat system innovative. Eurogamer editor Christian Donlan described it as "ingenious", while David Sanchez of GameZone labelled it as an "excellent amalgamation of genres". Polansky specifically lauded the battles' design, which she found was akin to a strategic puzzle requiring planning. Conversely, Ryan Hodge, in his review for GamesRadar, stated that these battles were "boring", "repetitive", and "monotonous". Others positively regarded the challenge posed by individual fights. Donlan and GamePro's Nathan Meunier liked the variety in the available armament, with Donlan calling the individual weapons "endlessly satisfying". However, Pinsof and Hodge found that some of them, especially the grenade launcher, only had limited usability. Polansky and Hodge dismissed the puzzles in the overworld as "peripheral" and "unchallenging". Pinsof, Hodge and Shacknews' Ozzie Mejia felt that The Random Encounter's concept was a good fit for the Serious Sam series. Mejia and Sanchez pointed out that the game's humour was well aligned to that of the rest of the series. Polansky and Alex Fuller (RPGamer) disliked the lack of a proper plot. Pinsof and Hodge noted an overall lack of polish, of whom Pinsof also encountered several bugs. Its visuals and sound were considered by Sanchez as apt for the series, with the art described as "pleasing to look at" by Fuller. Many critics voiced their disappointment about the game's duration of roughly one to two hours, considering it insufficient. Hodge contrarily called it "mercifully short". Sanchez and Fuller consequently felt a sudden spike in difficulty after the first level. Polansky observed that later battles had "unpredictable" difficulties. Conversely, Mejia opined that the game had a good learning curve, although he found little replay value.
30,254,806	Hortensius (Cicero)	1,161,599,022	Lost philosophical work by Cicero	[ "Dialogues", "Lost literature", "Philosophical works by Cicero" ]	Hortensius () or On Philosophy is a lost dialogue written by Marcus Tullius Cicero in the year 45 BC. The dialogue—which is named after Cicero's friendly rival and associate, the speaker and politician Quintus Hortensius Hortalus—took the form of a protreptic. In the work, Cicero, Hortensius, Quintus Lutatius Catulus, and Lucius Licinius Lucullus discuss the best use of one's leisure time. At the conclusion of the work, Cicero argues that the pursuit of philosophy is the most important endeavor. While the dialogue was extremely popular in Classical Antiquity, the dialogue only survived into the sixth century AD before it was lost. Today, it is extant in the fragments preserved by the prose writer Martianus Capella, the grammarians Maurus Servius Honoratus and Nonius Marcellus, the early Christian author Lactantius, and the Church Father Augustine of Hippo (the latter of whom explicitly credits the Hortensius with encouraging him to study the tenets of philosophy). ## History and composition ### Biographical background Just before composing the Hortensius, Cicero experienced many hardships. Politically, Gaius Julius Caesar became both dictator and consul in 46 BC, and was subverting elements of the Roman Senate, of which the decidedly republican Cicero was a fervent supporter. Personally, Cicero divorced his wife Terentia in 46 BC, and in 45 BC he married Publilia, a rich young girl in his ward, although the marriage quickly fell apart. Then, in February 45 BC, Cicero's daughter, Tullia, whom he loved greatly, died after giving birth. Both his political and personal misfortunes shook him to his core, with the death of his daughter being most disturbing; in a letter to his friend Titus Pomponius Atticus, he wrote, "I have lost the one thing that bound me to life." Cicero soon found that the only thing which enabled him to get on with life was reading and writing, and so he retreated to his villa at Astura, where he isolated himself and composed the Hortensius. (Around this time, he also composed several other works relating to philosophy, including: the Academica, De finibus bonorum et malorum, the Tusculanae Disputationes, De Natura Deorum, and the now also lost Consolatio.) ### Style According to the Constantinian writer Trebellius Pollio, Cicero wrote the Hortensius "in the model of [a] protrepticus" (Marcus Tullius in Hortensio, quem ad exemplum protreptici scripsit). Some scholars, such as Ingram Bywater, have argued that this is proof that Cicero based his work on Aristotle's Protrepticus, whereas others, like W. G. Rabinowitz, argue it simply meant that Cicero wrote in the general protreptic style. Either way, scholars tend to classify the Hortensius as a protreptic dialogue (that is "hortatory literature that calls the audience to a new and different way of life") based on Greek models. Cicero seems to have heavily emphasized the ethical nature of philosophy in the Hortensius, seeing the field as a "pragmatic and utilitarian science ... deal[ing] with questions of life." This approach suggests that Cicero was inspired by Stoic thought, like the philosopher Aristo of Chios. Other sources for the work include Aristotle and Plato, as well as the writings of the Epicurean and Peripatetic schools, and the Platonic Academy. ### Contents According to Michael Foley, in the Hortensius, "Cicero attempts to persuade Quintus Hortensius Hortalus ... known for his defense of corrupted provincial governors, of the superiority of philosophy to sophistical rhetoric in facilitating genuine human happiness." The work takes place at either the Tusculum or Cumaen villa of Lucius Licinius Lucullus, and is set sometime in the mid-to-early 60s BC during an unnamed feria (that is, an ancient Roman holiday). At the start of the dialogue, Lucullus welcomes his brother-in-law Hortensius as well as his friends Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Cicero to his house, and they begin to talk with one another. This discussion quickly becomes one about otium (Latin for leisure), which Hortensius describes as "not those things which demand a great intellectual effort" (non quibus intendam rebus animum), but rather "those through which the mind can ease and rest (sed quibus relaxem ac remittam). Catulus says that he likes to read literature during free time. Lucullus critiques this opinion, arguing that the study of history is the best use of otium. Hortensius then declares that oratory is the greatest of the arts. Catulus counters by reminding Hortensius of the boons philosophy grants. Hortensius dismisses this idea, arguing that philosophy "explains one ambiguity by another." Cicero then inserts himself into the discussion, arguing "as earnestly as [he can] for the study of philosophy". ### Relation to Aristotle's Protrepticus Conventionally, it is held that in writing his Hortensius, Cicero made use of Aristotle's Protrepticus. This work—which inspired its readers to appreciate a philosophical approach to life—was one of the most famous and influential books of philosophy in the ancient world (although it was later lost during the Middle Ages). The German philologist Jakob Bernays was the first scholar to suggest that the Protrepticus inspired Cicero. He thus suggested that the Hortensius should be used as the foundation by which the Protrepticus could be reconstructed. In 1869, the English classical scholar Ingram Bywater agreed that Cicero had adapted the outline of the Protrepticus for his dialogue. In 1888, working off Bywater and the German philologist Hermann Usener, the classicist Hermann Alexander Diels found a fragment of Hortensius in the Soliloquies of Augustine that seemed to connect with a section in a fragment of the Protrepticus. This, he contended, was additional proof that Cicero depended upon Aristotle. This hypothesis is not without its detractors. In 1957, W. G. Rabinowitz argued that the Hortensius was not based strictly on the Protrepticus but was rather written in the general hortatory and protreptic style then "much in vogue", as the philosopher and historian Anton-Hermann Chroust puts it. In 2015, James Henderson Collins wrote that "the relationship between Aristotle's Protrepticus and Cicero's Hortensius remains elusive". ## Legacy The Hortensius was renowned and popular in early and late antiquity, and it likely inspired a number of Roman thinkers, like the silver age authors Seneca the Younger and Tacitus, the early Christian writer Lactantius, and the early medieval philosopher Boethius. At the onset of the Christian era, the Hortensius was also studied in schools. It was in this way that, while studying rhetoric in Carthage, a young Augustine of Hippo read the Hortensius. The work moved him deeply, and in both his Confessions and De beata vita he wrote that the book engendered in him an intense interest in philosophy and encouraged him to pursue wisdom. But while it was popular for a time, the Hortensius survived only until around the sixth century AD, after which it was lost. Today, a little over 100 fragments of the book survive, preserved in the works of Augustine, Martianus Capella, Lactantius, Nonius Marcellus, and Servius. Of these writers, Nonius Marcellus preserves the most, although these snippets, according to the classicist and religious scholar John Hammond Taylor, are "extremely brief and very difficult to place in a context". The 16 fragments preserved by Augustine, on the other hand, are "of greater length and [thus] considerable interest", per Taylor. ## Scholarship There have been several works of scholarship regarding Cicero's Hortensius. In 1890, the first standard critical edition of the fragments was the Teubner edition of Cicero (Pt. IV, Vol. III), edited by C. F. W. Mueller. In 1892, Otto Plasberg wrote a dissertation on the fragments. In it, Plasberg provides a hypothesized order to the fragments, and supplies a Latin introduction and commentary. In 1958, Michel Ruch produced a fifty-three page thesis covering the influences, the date of composition, and structure of the Hortensius, while also examining its later influences and ultimate disappearance. In addition, the work reorganizes the fragments and provides each one with a French translation and commentary. In 1962, Alberto Grilli produced Hortensius, the current standard edition for citation.
37,886,349	Aashiqui 2	1,173,642,121	2013 Indian Hindi musical romantic film	[ "2010s Hindi-language films", "2010s romantic musical films", "2013 films", "2013 romantic drama films", "Films about alcoholism", "Films about music and musicians", "Films directed by Mohit Suri", "Films scored by Ankit Tiwari", "Films scored by Jeet Ganguly", "Films scored by Mithoon", "Films shot in the Western Cape", "Hindi films remade in other languages", "Hindi-language romance films", "Indian musical drama films", "Indian remakes of American films", "Indian romantic drama films", "Indian romantic musical films", "T-Series (company) films" ]	Aashiqui 2 () is a 2013 Indian Hindi-language romantic musical drama film directed by Mohit Suri and produced by Mukesh Bhatt, Bhushan Kumar and Krishan Kumar under the Vishesh Films and T-Series Films, with Mahesh Bhatt serving as presenter. A spiritual successor to the 1990 musical film Aashiqui, the film stars Aditya Roy Kapur and Shraddha Kapoor in the lead roles, with Shaad Randhawa and Mahesh Thakur in supporting roles, as well as Salil Acharya in a cameo appearance. Set in the early 2010s, the film centers on a turbulent romantic relationship between a failing singer, Rahul Jaykar, and his protege, aspiring singer Aarohi Keshav Shirke, which is affected by Rahul's issues with alcohol abuse and temperament. There were initially several concerns in the Indian media that it could not live up to the high standards and success of the original. Production of the film began in 2011, with the principal photography taking place in Cape Town, Goa and Mumbai on a budget of ₹18 crore (US\$2.3 million). Aashiqui 2 was released on 26 April 2013 in Pakistan and on 27 April in India, The film became a commercial success at the box-office despite featuring newcomers, and was one of the highest-grossing Hindi films of 2013, earning over ₹109 crore (US\$14 million) and within the first four weeks, ending both Kapur's and Kapoor's early years of struggle for recognition. Eventually, it became the highest grossing production for the Bhatt brothers and the Vishesh Films banner. The soundtrack since its release became an instant Chartbuster and was very popular after its release; the songs "Tum Hi Ho" and "Sunn Raha Hai" topped the charts across various platforms in India, as did the songs "Chahun Main Ya Naa" and "Milne Hai Mujhse Aayi". It is often cited as one of the best albums of its 2010s decade. Later on, it was remade in Telugu as Nee Jathaga Nenundali. ## Plot The film opens by showing a large crowd waiting for Rahul Jaykar, a successful singer and musician whose career is waning because of his alcohol addiction – to perform at a stage show in Goa. After nearly completing a song, he is unexpectedly interrupted by an artist, Aryan, who was losing his career due to Rahul's, during his performance. Rahul fights him, stops his performance, and drives to a local bar. He meets Aarohi Keshav Shirke, a bar singer who idolises Rahul. After noticing Aarohi looking at a photograph of Lata Mangeshkar in the bar, he assumes that she wants to become a singer. Impressed by her simplicity and voice, Rahul promises to transform her into a singing sensation and asks her to never perform again in bars. Due to his assurance, Aarohi leaves her job and returns to Mumbai with Rahul, who convinces record producer Saigal to meet her. When Aarohi calls Rahul, he is attacked and injured by some thugs, and is unable to receive her call. His friend and manager Vivek decides that news of the assault on Rahul should not be leaked to the media, and instead publicises a false story that Rahul has left the country to participate in stage shows. When Aarohi attempts to contact Rahul again, Vivek ignores the calls. After two months of futilely attempting to contact Rahul, a broken Aarohi is forced to sing in bars again because of her family problems. Meanwhile, Rahul recovers from his injuries and again starts the search for Aarohi. He learns that Aarohi is working in a bar again and that Vivek had ignored her calls without informing him. Rahul apologizes to Aarohi and fires Vivek, and they meet with Saigal for the recording agreement. Rahul begins to train Aarohi, who signs a music contract to sing in films and becomes a successful playback singer. Her family and Rahul are happy, but when people begin to gossip that Rahul is using her as a servant, he relapses into alcohol addiction. Aarohi, who loves Rahul more than her career, comforts him and they end up making love. Despite Aarohi's mother Subhadra's disapproval, Aarohi moves in with Rahul and things go well until Rahul's addiction worsens, causing him to become aggressive and violent. Aarohi attempts to rehabilitate Rahul, sacrificing her singing career in doing so. After Saigal reminds them about their dream of Aarohi becoming a successful singer, Rahul orders her to focus on her work. During Aarohi's stage show, Rahul meets Kunal Basu, a journalist, backstage, where Kunal accuses him of using Aarohi for pleasure and money. Furious, Rahul beats up Kunal and starts drinking. He ends up in jail, and Aarohi comes to bail him out. Rahul overhears Aarohi telling Saigal that she is going to leave her career for him and is ready to give up her celebrity status because Rahul is more important to her. Rahul understands that he has become a burden in her life, and that leaving her is his only option to save her. The next day, he bids her farewell by assuring her that he will change his lifestyle, but little is she aware that he actually intends to commit suicide, which he does by jumping off a bridge. His death pains a number of people, including Saigal, who was otherwise insistent, just like Rahul, on Aarohi moving ahead in her career. Distraught by Rahul's death, Aarohi decides to leave her career but Vivek persuades her to stay. He reminds her that Rahul wanted her to become a successful singer and killed himself as he did not want to be a burden on her and remain an obstacle in the path of her success. Aarohi agrees, and returns to singing. Later, she signs her name as "Aarohi Rahul Jaykar" in a fan's handbook as a tribute to Rahul and her unsung desire to marry him. As it starts raining, she watches the couple who took her autograph sharing a romantic moment under a jacket as she and Rahul had once done. ## Cast - Aditya Roy Kapur as Rahul Jaykar - Shraddha Kapoor as Aarohi Shirke / Aarohi Rahul Jaykar (A few lines by Mona Ghosh Shetty) - Shaad Randhawa as Vivek - Rahul's friend - Mahesh Thakur as Saigal - Shubhangi Latkar as Subhadra Shirke, Aarohi's mother - Milind Phatak as Keshav Shirke, Aarohi's father - Chitrak Bandhopadyay as Salim Bhai - Mahesh Bhatt as Vikram Jaykar, Rahul's father - Bugs Bhargava as a man drinking in Bar - Salil Acharya as Aryan - Soumyajit Majumdar as Kunal Basu - Partha Akerkar as Shankar ## Production ### Development In September 2011, the Indian media reported that Mahesh Bhatt and Bhushan Kumar were keen to remake the 1990 musical blockbuster Aashiqui. Kumar approached Bhatt for a possible sequel, although it was Shagufta Rafique's melodramatic romantic script which persuaded him that the film had potential as a sequel and decided to proceed with the project. Given Aashiqui's status in Hindi cinematic history as one of the finest Indian musicals of all time, many expressed concerns towards the decision to remake the film, dubious that the producers could come up with a soundtrack on par with the quality of the 1990 film. Bhatt stated that they completely resisted the temptation to use the soundtrack of the earlier film, and promised that Aashiqui 2 would revive the era of melodious film music, as Aashiqui had done 22 years ago. It was reported that Madhur Bhandarkar had been approached to direct the film, but later turned down the offer because of other working commitments. It was confirmed in November 2011 that Vishal Mahadkar, director of Blood Money, was to direct the picture, but the following month it was announced that Mohit Suri had replaced Mahadkar as director at the last minute. Bhatt confirmed the development, saying "Earlier we had finalised Vishal for the project. But now we have scrapped that idea and found a fresh one. We got Mohit to direct the film". ### Casting The film's producers launched a nationwide talent hunt to discover new faces for the film, initially refusing to employ established actors. However, the actors who came to audition were not promising enough for the roles, and the idea was scrapped. Mahesh Bhatt said, "It was a disastrous talent hunt. We discovered that people lacked the courage to audition. Those who are amateurs went for audition ...and people with certain talent were like why should we risk public rejection." When Suri saw some pictures of Aditya Roy Kapur and met him, he found Kapur perfect for the role and cast him to play the male lead. In June 2012, Shraddha Kapoor was signed to play the female lead. Bhatt said, "Yes, Shraddha Kapoor is playing the lead with the two boys Aditya Roy Kapur and Shaad Randhawa. We found her to be very talented. All three actors have extremely challenging dramatic roles." When asked about replacing new actors with known ones, Suri said "People said I couldn't make a film with new actors and expect an audience to come in. But I was pretty sure I wanted Aditya and Shraddha to play my protagonists. My writer Shagufta Rafique and I saw them as the protagonists. See, Aditya and Shraddha may have had unsuccessful films before. But that never took away from their talent." ### Filming Principal photography for the film began in late 2012 with film's lead cast. The film was shot in Goa, Mumbai and Cape Town. During the filming in South Africa, Shraddha Kapoor needed medical attention after kneeling on broken glass fragments during the scene in which she had to kneel on the floor and talk to her co-star Aditya Roy Kapoor. Aditya Roy Kapur also received burns to his hand during the filming of the scene in which they light some Chinese lanterns in Cape Town. ## Music ## Marketing The first look was released on 22 March 2013, and was well received by critics and audiences. Unlike other films whose theatrical trailers are released first, the makers of the film chose to release the songs before the trailer. The first song, "Tum Hi Ho", was released on 16 March 2013 to unanimous critical reception from critics and became very popular among the audiences. The song became an instant hit with approximately 2 million views on YouTube within 10 days of release, which helped in the marketing of the film. It has been trending on Twitter and YouTube since its launch. The film's preview poster showing Aditya and Shraddha under a jacket in a rain-drenched street with the streetlight casting a glow was released along with music on 3 April 2013. At the music release event, Aditya and Shraddha recreated the scene from Aashiqui from under a jacket (much like the poster) on the stage. The theatrical trailer was released in mid-April 2013, two weeks before the film's release, and was well received by critics and audiences. Unlike most Bollywood films which indulge in months of promotion before the release, Aashiqui 2 had less than three weeks for promotion before its release. A music concert where singers (who sang songs in the soundtrack album) performed to their respective songs was organised to promote the film. The makers of the film launched the Aashiqui 2 jackets, as seen in the film's poster. Statues resembling the signature image of the couple hiding under the jacket were placed inside various theatres. ## Release Due to the romantic theme of the film, it was originally planned for a Valentine's day release on 14 February 2013, but this was postponed because of production delays. The film was released on 26 April 2013 in over 1100 screens across India. The film was not released in key markets such as UK, US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. ## Sequel A sequel to the film Aashiqui 3 has been announced by Mukesh Bhatt & Bhushan Kumar. The music for the sequel will be composed by Pritam and will star Kartik Aaryan. It will be directed by Anurag Basu. The female lead is yet to be announced. ## Reception ### Box office On its opening day, Aashiqui 2 collected about ₹52.5 million (US\$660,000) and collected ₹179 million (US\$2.2 million) during its first weekend. The film collected ₹347 million (US\$4.3 million) in its first week. In the second week, despite new releases, it collected ₹174 million (US\$2.2 million), which took its two-week box-office collections to ₹470 million (US\$5.9 million). It remained steady on weekdays and collected ₹165 million (US\$2.1 million) in its third week and total collections rose to ₹635 million (US\$8.0 million). The film had the highest third week collections of 2013 to that date. The film's revenues remained consistent in its fourth weekend and took its total to ₹710 million (US\$8.9 million). Box Office India called the film a success after its three-week box office run. As of 20 May, it was the second-highest grossing Hindi film of 2013 and the highest-grossing film produced by Vishesh Films. According to Box Office India, Aashiqui 2 is the best trending film at the box office since 3 Idiots as the fourth week's collections were nearly ₹75 million (US\$940,000) nett, which was more than every film released in the last ten years apart from 3 Idiots. The fourth week collections were the third highest of all time. The film collected ₹57.5 million (US\$720,000) nett approx in its fifth week. The film went on to gross approximately ₹780 million (US\$9.8 million) in its sixth week at the domestic box-office. Internationally, Aashiqui 2 collected around US\$150,000 over the first weekend because its limited release meant it was only released in UAE and Pakistan. The film collected ₹1 billion (US\$13 million) worldwide in its fourth week. During its entire theatrical run, the film earned ₹1.09 billion (US\$14 million). ### Critical response Critics praised the performances, chemistry between the lead pair, and the music. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film 4 out of 5 stars, stating that it "brings romance back on the Hindi screen – intense, pure, selfless and heart wrenching. A stirring account with brilliant moments, bravura performances, strong emotional quotient and addictive music, this one's an absolute must watch for the romantics." He praised the lead cast's performances, writing that " ...Aditya Roy Kapur's depiction of the intense character is outstanding... [which] clearly demonstrates his potency as an artist of caliber and competence. Shraddha also gets to sink her challenging character and the attractive youngster is simply amazing, more so towards the demanding moments in the second hour. Furthermore, the chemistry between Aditya and Shraddha is incredible." Indiatimes gave the film a rating of 3.5 out of 5 and said, "Suri pitches the story with old-world romance, high-drama and well-crafted heart-breaking moments." Indo-Asian News Service rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote, "Director Mohit Suri traverses the angst-soaked territory with a sincere and deep understanding of the dynamics that destroy love and trust between couples in the glamorous and competitive profession", and that, "Aashiqui 2 makes us grateful for the movement of the love story away from the standard Romeo & Juliet format into the dark destructive domain of A Star Is Born." The film also received some mixed reactions from critics. Writing for Hindustan Times, Anupama Chopra rated the film 2.5 out of 5 and believed that the film didn't fulfill its potential, but said, "It's an interesting scenario and Suri and his actors set it up well. Aditya gives Rahul's angst a certain charm. He is earnest and broken. And the real triumph here is Shraddha, whose porcelain face has a haunting vulnerability. She's very good as the woman in the throes of a grand passion who believes that love will show the way." Published Palestinian Bollywood writer, Ahmad Rashad Arafa, calls Aashiqui 2 "an infinitely better film than Lady GaGa and Bradley Cooper's A Star Is Born" saying that "while Cooper and GaGa’s retelling is atonal and jarring, Aashiqui 2, the Bollywood remake of A Star Is Born, is firmly cohesive in its tone, pacing and general mise-en-scène." ### Accolades Filmfare Awards - Best Music Director : Ankit Tiwari, Mithoon and Jeet Ganguly - Best Playback Singer (Male) : Arijit Singh ("Tum Hi Ho") - Nominated, Best Actress : Shraddha Kapoor - Nominated, Best Playback Singer (Female) : Shreya Ghoshal ("Sunn Raha Hai") IIFA Awards - Best Music Director : Mithoon, Ankit Tiwari, Jeet Ganguly - Best Lyricist : Mithoon ("Tum Hi Ho") - Best Male Playback : Arijit Singh ("Tum Hi Ho") - Best Female Playback : Shreya Ghoshal ("Sunn Raha Hai") - Nominated, Best Actress : Shraddha Kapoor - Nominated, Best Lyricist : Sandeep Nath ("Sunn Raha Hai") - Nominated, Best Male Playback : Ankit Tiwari ("Sunn Raha Hai") Screen Awards - Best Playback Singer (Male) : Arijit Singh ("Tum Hi Ho") - Best Playback Singer (Female) : Shreya Ghoshal ("Sunn Raha Hai") - Screen Award for Jodi No. 1 : Aditya Roy Kapur & Shraddha Kapoor - Nominated, Best Music Director : Ankit Tiwari, Mithoon and Jeet Ganguly - Nominated, Best Actress Female : Shraddha Kapoor - Nominated, Most Popular Actor Male : Aditya Roy Kapur - Nominated, Most Popular Actress Female : Shraddha Kapoor Mirchi Music Awards - Song of The Year : "Tum Hi Ho" - Album of The Year : Mithoon, Jeet Gannguli, Ankit Tiwari, Sandeep Nath, Irshad Kamil, Sanjay Masoomm - Male Vocalist of The Year : Arijit Singh ("Tum Hi Ho") - Music Composer of The Year : Mithoon ("Tum Hi Ho") - Upcoming Male Vocalist of The Year : Ankit Tiwari ("Sunn Raha Hai") - Upcoming Music Composer of The Year : Ankit Tiwari ("Sunn Raha Hai") - Listeners' Choice Song of the Year : "Sunn Raha Hai" - Listeners' Choice Album of the Year : Mithoon, Jeet Gannguli, Ankit Tiwari, Sandeep Nath, Irshad Kamil, Sanjay Masoomm
48,645,975	Exercise Vigilant Eagle	1,104,434,770	Military exercises	[ "Military exercises involving Russia", "Military exercises involving the United States", "Russia–United States relations" ]	Exercise Vigilant Eagle is a series of trilateral military exercises involving the armed forces of Canada, Russia, and the United States. The exercise is designed to prepare the Russian Air Force and the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) to undertake coordinated air intercept missions against hijacked civilian aircraft. Four such exercises have been held. ## Background Billed by its Russian, American, and Canadian participants as a first-of-its-kind exercise for the former Cold War adversaries, Vigilant Eagle was described by Russian Air Force Col. Alexander Vasilyev as a means to "develop procedures and bring the relationship between our countries closer together to unite our countries in the fight against terrorism”. The groundwork for Vigilant Eagle was laid in a June 2003 meeting in St. Petersburg, Russia between President of the United States George W. Bush and President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin. Coming less than two years after the September 11 attacks, and in the aftermath of an increase in Russian-American tensions resulting from the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the meeting saw progress in developing informal comity for bilateral cooperation in areas of anti-terrorism. ## Exercises ### Vigilant Eagle 2010 The first Vigilant Eagle exercise was planned for 2008 but postponed until 2010 due to the South Ossetia War. According to the U.S. government, that exercise marked "the first live-flying event between Russia and the United States since the Second World War." ### Vigilant Eagle 2011 A second Exercise Vigilant Eagle was held in 2011. In the exercise scenario, a U.S. civilian airliner operating near the Russia–United States northern border was seized by terrorists and flown towards Russia. The scenario was then repeated in reverse, with an aircraft originating in Russian airspace violating NORAD's Alaskan Air Defense Sector where it was intercepted and "repelled from North American airspace." The exercise tested the ability of the Federal Aviation Administration to contact both Russian Air Force and NORAD authorities and of NORAD and the Russian Air Force to effectively liaise with each other in tracking and intercepting the hijacked aircraft. The aircraft used to represent the U.S. airliner was a civilian-crewed passenger aircraft chartered from Global Aviation. ### Vigilant Eagle 2012 Vigilant Eagle 2012 was a command post exercise (CPX) held in 2012 that, for the first time, did not include live-flying aircraft, instead using computer simulations. ### Vigilant Eagle 2013 Exercise Vigilant Eagle 2013 was conducted in August 2013. The exercise again involved a live-flying element with CF-18s of the Royal Canadian Air Force intercepting a civilian airliner west of Denali after the aircraft reported a "hijacking" following take-off from Ted Stevens International Airport. The mission was then handed off to the Russian Air Force as the aircraft passed over the international boundary. After completion of the mission, the exercise was repeated in reverse with a Russia-originating aircraft reporting a "hijacking" on an approach toward the international boundary. ## Future exercises A planned Vigilant Eagle 2014 was suspended due to tensions between the United States and Canada on one side, and the Russian Federation on the other, over the War in Donbass. The exercise would have involved, for the first time, the Japan Air Self Defense Force. According to American and Canadian officials, the exercises were canceled at their initiative. ## See also - Canada–Russia relations - Russia–United States relations
50,123,478	575 (song)	1,121,753,844	null	[ "2010 singles", "2010 songs", "Perfume (Japanese band) songs", "Song recordings produced by Yasutaka Nakata", "Songs written by Yasutaka Nakata", "Universal Music Japan singles" ]	"575" is a song recorded by Japanese recording girl group Perfume for their third studio album, JPN (2011). It was written, composed, arranged, and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata. The song was included as a B-side track for the group's single, "Voice". It was also released exclusively to Uta stores in Japan on July 14, 2010. Musically, "575" was described as a mellow Japanese pop song. It marks the first time that the group perform in a rap structure, delivered after the first chorus. The song's title, and the structure of its verses, derives from the structure of haiku, a Japanese style of poetry which comprises a 5-syllable line, a 7-syllable line, and then another 5-syllable line. Upon its release, the track garnered positive reviews from music critics, who praised the song's composition and the rap delivery. Due to the song being released digitally and as a B-side to "Voice", it was ruled ineligible to chart on Japan's Oricon Singles Chart. However, it peaked at number 73 on Billboard'''s Japan Hot 100 chart, and number four on the RIAJ Digital Track Chart. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for cellphone purchases of 100,000 units. A music video was originally to debut on their JPN tour in 2012, but the idea was scrapped. Instead, it was included on the live DVD. ## Background and composition "575" was written, composed, arranged, and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata. Alongside this, it was recorded, mixed, and mastered by him. The song was recorded in 2010 at Contemode Studios, Shibuya, Tokyo by Nakata. It was selected as a B-side track to "Voice", the second single to the group's album JPN (2011). It also appeared on the album, listed at number 9 on the track list. The instrumental version appeared on the CD single and digital EP for the "Voice" single. The song was released exclusively to Uta stores in Japan on July 14, 2010. Musically, the song has been described as a mellow Japanese pop song. It marks the first time that the group perform in a rap structure, delivered after the first chorus. Throughout a majority of the song, the girl's vocals are heavily processed with post-production tools such as vocoder and autotune. Only two English phrases are used in the song; these being the lyrics, "Give it up" and "Good night". Ian Martin from The Japan Times described the song's composition as, "a curiously mellow take on the 1990s ballad/rap hybrid J-pop formula." Perfume stated together that they were "very surprised, yet very anxious" about the rap section. ## Critical response "575" received favorable reviews from most music critics. A staff editor from CD Journal gave the song a positive review. They compared the composition and delivery to the group's song "Macaroni", from their 2008 debut album Game. The reviewer praised the group's "brave" vocal delivery. Another editor from the same publication reviewed the album, and gave it a positive review. The reviewer complimented the song's rap section and praised the "new grounded" compositions. Ian Martin from The Japan Times gave the song a mixed review; despite his appreciate of the slow composition, he criticized, in general, the lack of "creativity" and "invention" through the second half of the album and felt these factors were presented throughout other projects by Nakata apart from Perfume. ## Commercial performance Due to the song being released digitally and as a B-side to "Voice", it was ineligible to chart on Japan's Oricon Singles Chart because it does not count digital sales. However, it managed to chart on other record charts in Japan. It peaked at number 73 on Billboard's Japan Hot 100 chart and is the highest-charting non-single track from JPN. It then charted on the RIAJ Digital Track Chart, peaking at number four and was the group's highest-charting single on there. The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for cell phone purchases of up to 100,000 units. In conjunction with the sales of "Voice" and "575" on the CD Single, it was certified gold by the RIAJ for physical shipments of 100,000 units in Japan. ## Music video and live performances A music video was used as a backdrop projection for their Tokyo dome 2010 tour [12345678910], projected on all the screens. Instead, it was released on the limited edition DVD. It featured the girls singing the song in front of the song's title. Inter cut scenes of the live performance, and the girls getting ready for the show, were included in the video. The song has been performed on one concert tour, and has appeared on one commercial in Japan. The song was used as the theme song for the KDDI Light Pool commercial in Japan. Japanese rapper, Kreva, performed a cover version of the song on Music Japan Broadcast in early 2011. The song was performed on their 2010 Tokyo Dome concert tour, where it was included during the second segment. It was included on the live DVD, released on February 9, 2011. The performance included the girls dancing around geometrical shapes and was positively received from music critics. Yuki Sugioka from Hot Express complimented the girls performance, alongside the stage production of the segment. The song was included on the group's compilation box set, Perfume: Complete LP Box (2016). ## Credits and personnel Details adapted from the liner notes of the JPN'' album. - Ayano Ōmoto – vocals - Yuka Kashino – vocals - Ayaka Nishiwaki – vocals - Yasutaka Nakata – producer, composer, arranger, mixing, mastering. ## Chart and certifications ### Weekly charts ### Certification ## Release history ## See also - "Voice" – Corresponding single to "575".
13,619,139	European route E751	1,169,825,427	Road in trans-European E-road network	[ "Highways in Croatia", "International E-road network", "Istria", "Roads in Slovenia" ]	The European route E751, or E751, as defined by the Declaration on the Construction of Main International Traffic Arteries of 1975, and subsequent documents which amended the treaty, is an east–west Class-B branching European road route. Originating in Rijeka, Croatia, where it diverges from European route E61 before passing through the Kanfanar interchange, the route connects Pula, Rovinj, Poreč and Umag in Croatia with Koper in Slovenia. The route provides a high-performance road link in Istria and Slovenian Littoral. Unlike most routes, the E751 centers on the Kanfanar interchange and has three arms, each extending to Rijeka, Pula and Koper. The total length of the route, including all the route arms, is 160 km (99 mi). The E751 mostly consists of motorways, but considerable sections are either expressways or two-lane roads with at-grade intersections. All motorway sections of the E751 are tolled, using the electronic toll collection (ETC) and ticket systems. Since the 1980s, the E751 has gradually been upgraded from a regular two-lane road to motorway standards, and further upgrades are still being carried out or planned in some areas, particularly in the Rijeka–Kanfanar section and in the section located in Slovenia. The bulk of the E751 consists of the Istrian Y roads operated by BINA Istra. The part of the route in Slovenia is managed by the Slovenian Roads Agency, part of the Government of Slovenia. The E751 is considered to be of great importance for the economy and tourist industry of the region, as it links many resorts to motorway systems in Slovenia and Croatia, providing a significant access route for thousands of motoring tourists. Furthermore, two endpoints of the E751 are located in the vicinity of the two major Adriatic seaports of Rijeka and Koper. ## Route description The 160-kilometre (99 mi) long E751, part of the International E-road network, connects Croatian and Slovenian Adriatic coastal areas in the vicinity of the city of Rijeka, Istria and Slovenian Littoral. This European route is a Class B branch road, consisting mostly of motorways and expressways along with two-lane roads that have at-grade intersections. It diverges from European route E61 at the Matulji interchange of the Croatian A7 and the A8 motorways, and follows the A8 motorway route. Since sections of the A8 east of Rogovići interchange are still incomplete and lack the second carriageway, those comprise two-lane, limited access roads with grade-separated interchanges (except the Opatija junction) with the D8 state road and is at-grade and regulated by traffic lights. As the A8 terminates at the Kanfanar interchange, the E751 switches to the six-lane A9 motorway. At this junction, the E751 is signposted in both directions, following an approximately 30 kilometres (19 miles) long arm of the Istrian Y system, consisting of the A9 and the A8 roads, to Pula and a considerably longer northward arm to Umag. The A8 and the A9 are the longest segments of the E751, being 141 kilometres (88 miles) long combined. Following the northern terminus of the A9 motorway in the Umag interchange, the E751 switches to the 0.6-kilometre (0.37 mi) D510 connector and the northernmost section of the D21 state road running to the Kaštel/Dragonja border crossing to Slovenia. Beyond the border, the E751 follows the G11 road to the city of Koper, where the E751 terminates. Thus, unlike most routes, the E751 centers on a central interchange, Kanfanar, and has three arms, each extending to Rijeka, Pula and Koper. The E751 route is of great importance for economy and tourist industry of Istria and Slovenian Littoral, as it links many resorts to motorway systems in Slovenia and Croatia, providing a significant access route for thousands of motoring tourists. These resorts include Brijuni National Park, Fažana, Rovinj, Poreč, Novigrad, Umag, Piran and Portorož on either side of the Croatian–Slovenian border. Furthermore, two endpoints of the E751 are located in vicinity of two major Adriatic seaports: the Port of Rijeka and the Port of Koper. ## Tolls Since June 2011, the E751 comprises the Croatian A8 and A9 tolled motorways of the Istrian Y. The tolls there are based on the vehicle classification in Croatia using a closed-toll system. Tolls charged along the A9 motorway toll plazas vary depending on the length of route traveled and range from 3.00 kuna (€0.40) to 26.00 kuna (€3.51) for passenger cars and 15.00 kuna (€2.02) to 185.00 kuna (€25.00) for semi-trailer trucks. Although A8 also employs a ticket system, usage of the road is free except for vehicles traversing the Učka Tunnel and the Kanfanar–Rogovići section. A user of the entire length of the A8 is charged 36.00 kuna (€4.86) for passenger cars or up to 205.00 kuna (€27.70) for semi-trailers, depending on vehicle classification in Croatia. Ticket systems employed by the A9 and the A8 are unified; tolls are not charged when switching between the two roads. The toll is payable in either Croatian kuna or euros using major credit cards, debit cards and a number of prepaid toll collection systems. The latter includes various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operator and ENC, an electronic toll collection (ETC) system which is used by most motorways in Croatia and provides drivers with discounted toll rates for dedicated lanes at toll plazas. The operator of the A9 and the A8 routes, BINA Istra, reported a 65.8 million kuna (€8.9 million) VAT-free toll income in the first half of 2011; this represents an increase of 30.8 percent compared to the same period of the previous year. The figure includes the entire Istrian Y system: the A9 motorway and the A8 motorway. A major part of the increase is attributed to introduction of the closed-toll system, which replaced an open toll system where the toll was charged at the Mirna Bridge and the Učka Tunnel only. The part of the E751 in Slovenia, maintained by the Slovenian Roads Agency of the Government of Slovenia, is not tolled, nor is a short part of the E751 consisting of less than 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) Croatian state roads. The state roads in Croatia are maintained by Hrvatske ceste. ## History The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe was formed in 1947, and their first major act to improve transportation was the joint UN declaration numbered 1264. Signed in Geneva on 16 September 1950, it was named the Declaration on the Construction of Main International Traffic Arteries, which defined the first E-road network. This declaration was amended several times before 15 November 1975, when it was replaced by the European Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries (AGR), which established a route-numbering system and improved standards for roads on the list. The AGR went through several changes, the last one of which, as of 2011, occurred 2008. Reorganization of the E-roads network of 1975 and 1983 defined the E751 road and assigned it to Rijeka–Pula–Koper route. Since the first section of the Istrian Y, which constitutes the bulk of the E751 route, started in 1976, with the first section opening in 1981, there were no high-performance road routes in Istria. Instead, the E751 was signposted along state roads, specifically the D66 spanning Rijeka and Pula, and then switched to the D21 in Pula all the way to the Kaštel border crossing. As the Istrian Y system was being developed, the E751 designation was gradually transferred to the new route, with consistent signposting of the E751 along the A9 and the A8, just as the D3 state road designation west of Rijeka was transferred to the B8 and B9 (later replaced by the A8 and A9 respectively). ### Planned development As of September 2011, there were several plans aimed at the upgrading of the E751 constituent roads in various stages of design or implementation. The A8 route is planned to be upgraded to six-lane motorway standards by its concessionaire, BINA Istra. The upgrade construction works are completed along a 18-kilometre (11 mi) section of the route west of Rogovići, while the remainder was scheduled to be upgraded by late 2014 or early 2015. The A9 motorway is largely complete, and the missing structures required to achieve a full six-lane cross-section of the motorway at the Mirna Bridge and the Limska Draga Viaduct are planned to be completed by 2014. The remaining unbuilt section of the motorway is a short connection to the Slovenian border and planned H5 expressway. The expressway was scheduled to be built after 2013, carrying the E751 to its terminus in Koper. As of January 2021, the A8's second roadway was complete from Kanfanar to Cerovlje, and works were in progress on the section between Cerovlje and Učka Tunnel, including the construction of a second tube for the Učka Tunnel. The tunnel is scheduled to be completed in 2024. Limska Draga and Mirna viaducts were still two-lane expressways, and construction on the H5 section concurrent with E751 had not yet begun. ## Junction list ### Kanfanar–Pula arm The entire route is in Istria County, Croatia. ## See also - European long-distance paths - Road transport - Highways in Croatia - Highways in Slovenia
20,493,466	Riverfront Park (Spokane, Washington)	1,166,635,398	Urban park and Expo '74 legacy site in Spokane, Washington, United States	[ "Buildings and structures in Spokane, Washington", "Culture of Spokane, Washington", "Parks in Spokane County, Washington", "Tourist attractions in Spokane, Washington", "Urban public parks", "Urban renewal", "World's fair sites in Washington (state)" ]	Riverfront Park, branded as Riverfront Spokane, is a public urban park in downtown Spokane, Washington that is owned and operated by the Spokane Parks & Recreation Department. The 100-acre (40 ha) park is situated along the Spokane River and encompasses the Upper Spokane Falls, which is the second largest urban waterfall in the United States. The site of the park and the surrounding falls were a Native American gathering place, which had a number of fishing camps near the base of the falls. The first American settlers came in 1871, establishing a claim and building a sawmill near the falls that would later be purchased by James N. Glover, who was aware of the water power potential of the falls and that the Northern Pacific Railroad Company had received a government charter to build a main line through the area. By the late 19th century, much of the area along the Spokane Falls had become industrialized with sawmills and flour mills, utilizing the fast-moving Spokane River and Spokane Falls for its hydropower. Flumes and waterwheels were used to mechanically drive sawmills and flour mills located along the river. To satisfy the growing demand for electricity and modernize the city, the Washington Water Power company constructed a timber dam (replaced in 1974) on the river at the Lower Falls in 1890 and another dam on the Upper Falls in 1922. These operating hydroelectric facilities on the falls from the park's industrial past are among the sights of interest in Riverfront Park. Located on the site of a former railyard, the park site's potential as a showcase for the Spokane Falls was recognized as early as 1908, but it would be another 64 years before those visions could be realized. Downtown Spokane, including what is now Riverfront Park was a hub for passenger and freight rail transport and remained that way for several decades. In 1972, the active railyards were removed, and the area around the Spokane Falls reclaimed, when construction commenced on an urban renewal project that built a fairground to host the upcoming environmentally-themed Expo '74 World's fair. Post-fair plans for the site which hosted the fair from May 4 to November 3, 1974, called for the preservation of the site as a legacy of Expo '74 and converting it into an urban park after the fair's conclusion. After several years of work to convert the site, Riverfront Park was officially opened in 1978. Several of its most recognizable buildings such as the U.S. Pavilion, Spokane Convention Center, and First Interstate Center for the Arts remain from Expo '74 as legacy pieces. The park is also home to historic features such as the Great Northern clock tower and Looff Carrousel; other sites of interest near the park include the River Park Square mall, Mobius Science Center, and The Podium sportplex. The park sees over three million visitors annually and has a Spokane Visitor Information Center at 620 W. Spokane Falls Boulevard with maps and information on local attractions, history, and tours. ## Location and overview ### Geography Riverfront Park is located just north of the downtown Spokane core, in Spokane's Riverside neighborhood, and is generally bounded by Spokane Falls Boulevard to the south, Post Street to the west, and the northern banks of the Spokane River, and Division Street to the east. Portions of its North Bank area extend farther north from the river, bounded by Howard Street to the west, Cataldo Avenue to the north, and Washington Street to the east. A majority of the park's elevation ranges from 1,880 feet (570 m) to 1,890 feet (580 m) above sea level, placing it more or less level with the surrounding downtown Spokane, but the elevation varies as one moves onto the park's two islands and closer to the Spokane River. The Spokane River and its waterfalls, the park's namesake and main natural attraction, flows from east to west through the park, beginning as a single run, and eventually splitting up across three channels, creating the two main islands featured in the park. The first split into a northern and southern channel creates Havermale Island, the larger of the two islands. Further downstream, at around the midpoint of Havermale Island, the northern channel splits again into the north and mid channels, creating snxw meneɂ (pronounced sin-HOO-men-huh, which means "Salmon People" Island in Salish), formerly known as Canada Island. These northern two channels contain the Upper Spokane Falls, surrounding snxw meneɂ. All three channels converge back into a single run just downstream of the Upper Falls. The park's Upper Spokane Falls is the second largest urban waterfall in the United States. ### Areas Riverfront Park can be described through several unofficial, general areas: the South Channel area, Havermale Island, and the North Bank area. The South Channel area of the park is located along the southern branch of the Spokane River after its initial split, along Spokane Falls Boulevard, and contains several of the park's features including the Looff Carrousel, Numerica Skate Ribbon, and Rotary Fountain. The area also serves as the South Gateway to Riverfront Park. Unofficial extensions of this area of the park came as a result of the linking of Riverfront Park to Huntington Park via a plaza between Spokane City Hall and the Post Street Electric Substation and a combined sewer overflow project featuring a 2,200,000 US gallons (8,300,000 L) subterranean storm water tank with a multi-level plaza on top of it above ground, connecting the sidewalk fronting Spokane City Hall with a wide promenade and plaza that overlooks Huntington Park and reaches the south landing of the Monroe Street Bridge. Moving northward across the South Channel is Havermale Island which encompasses a number of grassy meadows, natural conservation areas, amphitheaters, the U.S. Pavilion, and the Great Northern clock tower. The northern area of Riverfront Park, just across the Spokane Falls from Havermale Island, is generally referred to as the North Bank and contains the park's northern gateway. Up until Riverfront Park's 2021 redevelopment, much of the North Bank area was underdeveloped as a park and primarily used for parking and park maintenance facilities. The North bank redevelopment created features which included an ice age floods themed playground, Hoopfest basketball courts, the Skate and Wheels Park, and a climbing boulder as well as the Howard Street Promenade which showcases ample views of the Spokane falls and other water features of the Spokane River. Overlooking and adjacent to the north bank playground is The Podium, a multi-use sportsplex with a seating capacity of 3,000 constructed in 2021. ### Urban context and connectivity Riverfront Park's location in downtown Spokane creates a highly urban context for the park. The park's southern boundary of Spokane Falls Boulevard along the downtown core creates a distinct urban streetwall, or park-city edge, similar to edges that exist in other urban parks such as Grant and Millennium Parks in Chicago, the National Mall in Washington, D.C., and Central Park in New York City. Zoning regulations along this southern edge have been debated, pitting developers' concerns that height restrictions are hindering development against concerns that increased building heights along Spokane Falls Boulevard would cast undesirable shadows onto the park below. The park is also well connected to the urban areas and destinations that surround all sides. The park's southern and western boundaries consist entirely of roadways, which are lined with sidewalks that open directly onto adjacent plazas and lawns within Riverfront Park. Further east, the First Interstate Center for the Arts, and Spokane Convention Center physically occupy a large amount of the park's frontage, but, access between downtown and the park, and even access from the buildings themselves, is integrated into the architectural design of those facilities through large breezeways, terraces and door openings. Along the northern boundary of the park, the natural topography of the Spokane River's banks, combined with private development that lines much of that side of the river, makes access slightly more limited. Despite this, access points to the park are still frequently available through trails that parallel the river and intersect with roadways and connect with the parking lots of these private developments along the way. A number of paths and roadways also traverse the park, providing further connectivity to surrounding areas beyond. In the north—south direction, the Howard Street Promenade provides a direct link between the core of downtown Spokane and the North Bank areas of downtown. The promenade runs from the Rotary Fountain on the park's southern boundary, across snxw meneɂ, and ends at the park's northern entrance across the street from the Spokane Veterans Memorial Arena. Prior to the completion of the promenade, it was still possible to pass through the park in a north—south manner, but the route was much more circuitous and did not offer a direct link (neither physically or visually) between the two ends of the park. Other major north—south paths through the park include pedestrian suspension bridges over the Upper Spokane Falls toward the west end of the park, pedestrian bridges near the east end that connect the First Interstate Center for the Arts with a hotel on the north bank of the river, and the Washington Street Bridge which carries cars and pedestrians through the center of the park. #### Spokane River Centennial Trail From the east, the Spokane River Centennial Trail, a 37-mile (60 km) National Recreation Trail that is a continuation of the North Idaho Centennial Trail in Idaho, meanders through from the adjacent University District and WSU Health Sciences Spokane campus, entering Riverfront Park from underneath the Division Street Bridge as it travels to its western terminus in Sontag Park near the Nine Mile Dam. As it meanders westward through the park, it passes by many of the park's features including the Spokane Convention Center, First Interstate Center for the Arts, Red Wagon, Looff Carrousel, Rotary Fountain, and the Numerica SkyRide and Skate Ribbon. The trail exits the west end of the park via the Post Street Bridge, continuing on underneath the Monroe Street Bridge toward Kendall Yards, and eventually, Riverside State Park. ## History ### Site history The origins of Riverfront Park are heavily influenced by the initial settling of the city of Spokane on the Spokane Falls along the Spokane River, which was chosen because of the falls' hydropower potential to support a late 19th century city and its economy, and the eventual reaction to the immense amount of industrial and railroad development that engulfed and obscured the area around the falls as Spokane expanded over the ensuing decades. The site of the park and the surrounding falls were originally inhabited by Native Americans, who had a number of fishing camps near the base of the falls. Regional tribes would convene at this bountiful fishery during the annual Chinook salmon run to fish, trade, and engage in cultural activities. Along the falls, the salmon would be caught using various fish trap methods and the catch would be dried and smoked on site to preserve and store them for sustenance during the sparse winter months. Among the gathering tribes, a "Salmon Chief" is chosen to coordinate fishing efforts, hold prayer, lead singing ceremonies, and bless and distribute the catch equitably to the tribes. American settlers first occupied the site in 1871 when a claim was established at Spokane Falls. In 1873, James N. Glover, who would go on to become influential in the initial birth and growth of Spokane and is considered one of its founders, passed through the region with his business partner Jasper N. Matheney. The two, who recognized the value of the Spokane River and its falls for the purpose of water power and were also aware that the Northern Pacific Railroad Company had received a government charter to build a main line through the area (a line that would eventually become the Northern Transcon route), proceeded to buy the claims of 160 acres (65 ha) along with the sawmill from the original settlers. By the late 19th century, much of the area along the Spokane Falls had become industrialized with sawmills, flour mills, and hydroelectricity generators. Several residences also began to occupy Havermale Island in the heart of what is now Riverfront Park, but, they were forced to relocate when the Great Northern Railway began to build tracks into downtown Spokane in 1892. In 1902, with the completion of the Great Northern Railway Depot on Havermale Island, trains began running to the city's center and began an era in which railroads would dominate the landscape in downtown Spokane. As Spokane continued to grow in the early 20th century, railroading became a major part of Spokane's development and heritage, which led the city to become one of the most important rail centers in the western United States. Spokane eventually became the site of four transcontinental railroads, including the Great Northern, Northern Pacific, Union Pacific, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, as well as regional ones like the Oregon Railway. The presence of railroads within the downtown core was noted by the Olmsted Brothers in 1908 when they began to develop a master plan for parks in the City of Spokane. As the brothers were planning in the Spokane River Gorge, they skipped the area that Riverfront Park now sits on, sarcastically noting that it had already been partially "improved" and hoped that the City of Spokane would one day acquire the area surrounding the Spokane Falls for a public park. By 1914, the Union Pacific had built their own station on the park's site, along with elevated tracks leading up to it. The heart of downtown Spokane became a hub for passenger and freight rail transport and remained that way for several decades. By the mid-20th century, the problems of having a large amount of railroads in the middle of the city were beginning to be realized. The elevated railway, warehouses, and other lines leading into the park severely restricted both physical and visual access to the Spokane River and its falls, leading some locals to compare it to the Great Wall of China. Additionally, the high volume of train traffic created a very noisy downtown, and numerous at-grade railroad crossings were causing traffic congestion issues. ### Urban renewal, reclaiming the riverfront, Expo '74, and park creation In the 1950s, the core of downtown Spokane began to empty out due to suburbanization, a trend that was prevalent amongst many American cities during this time. This trend sparked urban renewal discussions in Spokane and in 1959, a group called Spokane Unlimited was formed by local business leaders to try and revitalize downtown Spokane. The group would hire New York-based Ebasco Services to create an urban renewal plan, which was released in 1961 and called for the removal of the numerous train tracks and trestles in downtown and reclaiming the attractiveness of the Spokane River in the central business district. The plan proposed a timeline that would incrementally renew the area over the next two decades, wrapping up in 1980, and proposed that the effort be funded through bonds, gas taxes, and urban renewal money from the federal government. One part of the plan, and the first portion to go to voters for approval, would have constructed a new government center. However, efforts to pass bonds to fund the construction were overwhelmingly defeated by Spokane voters over the next couple of years, and by 1963, Spokane Unlimited had to revise its vision. They hired King Cole, who had recently worked on some urban renewal projects in California, to execute Ebasco's urban renewal plans in Spokane. In light of the failed votes, Cole formed a grassroots citizen group, called the Associations for a Better Community (ABC), to build community support through the 1960s around the idea of beautifying the riverfront and turning Havermale Island into a park. With support around beautification growing, Spokane Unlimited would go on to commission a feasibility study in 1970 for using a marquee event, proposed to be in 1973 to celebrate the centennial of Spokane, to fund the beautification. However, the report stated that a local event would not have the stature to bring in enough funding for the group's beautification aspirations, and that it needed to go bigger; it suggested that Spokane host an international exposition that could bring in state and federal dollars, as well as tourists from outside Spokane, to fund a riverfront transformation. This idea caught on and inquiries were made to the Bureau of International Expositions and an additional study was commissioned in the fall of 1970, and the results both came back very positive. The 1974 world expo was identified as the target event. Efforts to host the expo just three-and-a-half years later began immediately and was a tall order considering that Spokane would become the smallest city at the time to ever host a World's fair, and that the proposed site had 16 owners, including the railroads. Funding came from local, state, and federal sources, including a new business and occupation tax that the Spokane City Council passed in September 1971 after a ballot bond measure to provide local funding failed the month prior. The event was officially recognized by then-President Richard Nixon in October 1971, and the following month, the Bureau of International Expositions gave their sign-off on the event as well. With approvals and funding falling in place, one last challenge was transforming the site and removing the railroads. Through intense negotiations, the Expo '74 planners, including King Cole were able to convince the railroads to agree to a land swap and donate the land needed for the Expo site. The railroads were consolidated onto the Northern Pacific Railway lines further to the south in downtown Spokane, freeing up the site for construction to transform it to host the environmentally-themed Expo '74. Demolition began in 1972, and the fair was held from May to November 1974, welcoming nearly 5.6 million attendees. After the world's fair concluded, the site was converted into Riverfront Park by landscape architecture firm Robert Perron and Associates. Perron sought to accentuate the site's natural features such as the upper and lower falls by utilizing observation points that were previously occupied by industrial buildings and warehouses, train tracks, and parking lots. Flowing footpaths connect the various sites and follow the terraformed landscape, revealing elements and viewpoints around the edges of the park, at the center of which is a natural amphitheater. The more developed southern edge of the park adjacent to the downtown central business district features the more artificial and manicured elements of the park, such as green spaces, fountains, and pools while the northern edge retains a more rugged aesthetic that more closely resembles the appearance of the natural environment. The park was dedicated in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter in a ceremony on May 5 that was attended by roughly 50,000 people. ### 2016–2021 redevelopment Riverfront Park had remained largely unchanged and had not seen any major investments since its conversion to a park after Expo '74 and many of its physical facilities were beginning to show their age and disrepair. In 2012, with a vision to reinvigorate Riverfront Park for the next generation, the Spokane Park Board approved the beginnings of an updated master plan for the park. This first phase of the new master plan would outline general concepts only, but in June 2013, details and estimated costs began to be developed by a 20-member advisory committee. Aspirations for the park's future included using it as a key fixture in downtown Spokane to draw more people to the center of the city, boosting the number of events in the park, creating sustainable revenue, increasing viewing opportunities to the Spokane River, and also protecting natural resources and habitat around the park. The new master plan was completed by early summer 2014, and put toward the Spokane City Council for adoption that summer with the goal of putting it on the general election ballot for a public vote later that year. In November 2014, Spokane voters passed a \$64.3 million bond to redevelop Riverfront Park. The bond measure was approved by 67 percent of votes, having the required 60 percent to pass. Passage of the bond measure, called Proposition No. 2 did not raise taxes on citizens as it effectively replaced another parks special property tax that was set to expire. The new bonds raised to pay for the park's redevelopment are set to mature in 2035. Key projects of the bond measure included a renovation of the U.S. Pavilion, construction of a new skate ribbon to replace the former Ice Palace that was hosted each winter at the Pavilion, construction of a new building to house the historic Looff Carousel, and the construction of new public spaces such as the Howard Street Promenade and a regional playground. The advisory committee hired Olson Kundig Architects to conceptualize the design of the new structures and grounds within the framework of the master plan and with input from stakeholders. One of the principal architects of the firm, Tom Kundig, was raised in Spokane and is the son of architect Moritz Kundig, who had a leading role in the design of the same grounds to prepare for Expo '74; the new additions to the park pay homage to the fairs' environmental theme. Construction on the phased, five-year long project began in 2016 with a ground breaking ceremony on July 8 at the site of the future Numerica Skate Ribbon and the final major phase of construction associated with the park, the north bank playground was completed and opened to the public in May 2021. Another city project adjacent to the park, The Podium sportsplex, along the park's northern boundary was also completed in 2021. A reconstruction of the Post Street Bridge that form's the park's western boundary is estimated to be completed in Winter 2023. ## Features and attractions ### Natural attractions and open space The Spokane River and Spokane Falls are the main natural attraction of Riverfront Park and are visible from many areas of the park. Along the river's calm south channel, many of the walking paths and lawns go right up to the river's edge, allowing park-goers to get close to the water. People have been known to stick their feet in the water and fish in the south channel from time to time. Access and visibility to the river's north channel, which is home to the falls, is generally more limited due to the faster and rougher water and river gorge that is created by the falls. However, many official viewing points exist, most notably two pedestrian suspension bridges at the west end of snxw meneɂ that provide up-close viewing of the falls. Riverfront Park features a number of open grassy meadows on the south side of Havermale Island facing the calmer south channel of the Spokane River, including the Lilac Bowl, which is a natural amphitheater, and the Clock Tower Meadow, adjacent to the Great Northern clock tower. Native flora are also featured in the park to create a markedly more natural environment. The Riverfront Park Conservation Area at the site of the reclaimed land that was occupied by a YMCA building, is approximately 1-acre (0.40 ha) and runs right alongside the falls and highlights a stream that ran underneath the former building site. In collaboration of the Spokane Humane Society, on June 18, 2022, the Spokane Parks Foundation announced the Spokane Humane Society Paw Park which will be developed across from the Lilac Bowl. The timeline of the project is not yet solidified. ### Fauna A number of animal species have been spotted in the park, including marmots, osprey, beaver, and mule deer. Some of the more common animals seen at the park are ducks, Canada geese, squirrels and marmots. Marmots are common in and around the river, the park, the Centennial Trail, and other areas around the city, which is unusual outside the region as they typically live in more remote, mountainous locations. ### Structures and built attractions Riverfront Park is also known for its built attractions. Two of Riverfront Park's structures, the U.S. Pavilion and Great Northern clock tower, are a couple of Spokane's most recognizable landmarks and have been featured prominently in the logo of Riverfront Park for a number of years. While prior versions of the park's logos depicted the two landmarks more literally, the park's latest logo, released in 2017, features abstractions of the landmarks' forms. The logo evokes the triangular-shaped form of the pavilion along with its arc-shaped bottom structural component and leaning posture. The thin, rectangular shape and triangular top of the clock tower, along with its round clock faces are also abstracted into the design. Other geometric aspects of the logo are inspired by the cable-work of the Pavilion's structure, Spokane's street grid, and the crossing of many paths. #### Great Northern Railway clock tower The Great Northern Railway clock tower is located on Havermale Island and was originally constructed in 1902. It was part of the Great Northern Railway Depot that existed on the Riverfront Park site prior to Expo '74. When the rail tracks were removed and site transformed in preparations for Expo, the depot was demolished in 1973, but the clock tower was left standing after a public push to save it and has now become a Spokane icon, reminding people of the role that railroading played in the development of Spokane. This local historic preservation effort was headed by Jerry Quinn, who organized a group that sought to preserve the Great Northern Railway depot in its entirety called "Save Our Stations", although failing in that effort at the ballot box, the committee overseeing the World's Fair site preparation thought something had to be retained to appease the "railroad buffs." The location roofline of the former depot can be seen on the face of the tower where the sandstone masonry blocks change color. The tower stands at 155 feet (47 m) and 6 inches (150 mm) tall, and features a 9 ft (2.7 m) diameter clock face on all four of its sides. The clock itself is controlled by a solid 700 lb (320 kg) brass pendulum that needs to be hand-cranked every week by park staff. While the clock chimes every hour, it has never had bells in its entire history. Even when it was first built, it had electronic speakers that replicated chime tones. #### U.S. Pavilion The U.S. Pavilion, officially named the U.S. Federal Pavilion, and also referred to as the Pavilion at Riverfront, or simply the Pavilion, is a steel and cable structure located in the center of Riverfront Park on Havermale Island. The Pavilion, which served as the pavilion for the United States during the event and is one of the legacy pieces of Expo '74, is used as an event center with indoor and outdoor event space, and an amphitheater for concerts and live performances with raised catwalks and viewing platforms. When not in use, the Pavilion functions as open public space, providing views to the Spokane River. ##### History The City of Spokane was extended federal recognition of the environmentally-themed Expo '74 by then-US President Richard Nixon on October 15, 1971. Soon after, the U.S. Department of Commerce issued a proposal for federal participation in the event. It recommended that the president would find the national interest of the United States served by its participation. It stated that the theme of the fair was of great national importance and interest, and that participation would help provide a platform to showcase the country's accomplishments in the environmental field on a world stage. Besides having a platform to increase awareness to the world about the dangers of environmental damage and initiatives taken to counter it, participation in the exposition would also yield economic benefits to the United States, including bringing foreign travelers and giving American manufacturers an opportunity to showcase their anti-pollution equipment that could create new overseas trade opportunities for the United States. It was proposed that the best way for the United States to participate in the exposition would be through an exhibit to be housed within a pavilion constructed by the United States government. Additionally, in order to ensure a good cost-benefit to the U.S. government, it was recommended that the pavilion be designed to be permanent and remain after the fair for residual use by the Department of the Interior as a component of a civic center and urban park (what is now Riverfront Park) that would be left over as a legacy after Expo '74 concluded. A four-acre plot of land within the Expo '74 site was to be deeded by the City of Spokane to the U.S. Government for the Pavilion. Prior to the transformation of the larger 100-acre Expo site, a Travelodge motel, built in 1959, sat on the land that the U.S. Pavilion now occupies. To prepare for the design and construction of the Pavilion, the Department of Commerce issued a request for proposal in December 1971 from firms across the country for preliminary design concepts. Twenty firms initially responded to the proposal, of which half were chosen to advance in the competition. Three finalists were eventually named, with Los Angeles-based Herb Rosenthal & Associates being awarded the contract to develop the plan, including schematic concepts and cost estimates. The firm partnered with the Portland, Oregon office of Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill as well as Spokane-based Trogdon-Smith, a firm that would later merge with other firms and eventually become NAC Architecture. In January 1973, after unsuccessful negotiations with Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill, who was already on the design team, a contract for the pavilion's final design was awarded to Seattle-based architecture firm Naramore, Bain, Brady & Johanson, now known as NBBJ. The final design differed slightly from the earlier conceptual designs, but still retained a lot of the original elements including soft canopy covering a courtyard, theater, holding area, and permanent building. The Pavilion was formed to look like a giant tent (and was originally covered) as a way to support the fair's environmental theme and was the largest structure at the fair. The design of the pavilion was described by the U. S. Department of Commerce as "an expression of environmental concern...[with the] structure's smooth, graceful contour harmonized fully with the surrounding shoreline terrain." In 1972, the United States Congress provided \$11.5 million (\$ in dollars) to build the pavilion and outfit it with exhibits. To help ensure a successful construction project and on-time delivery, the construction of the project was managed and administered by the General Services Administration (GSA) rather than the Commerce Department. The Commerce Department was short-staffed and experiencing a heavy workload at the time, and its base in Washington, D.C. was considered too remote to Spokane to run the construction successfully. It subsequently entered an agreement with the GSA, which leveraged its Pacific Northwest connections at the GSA regional office in Auburn, Washington. The GSA's agreement with the Department of Commerce called for the project to utilize a construction management technique, and by mid-December 1972, the GSA began the process of selecting a construction management firm through an invitation-to-bid process, eventually selecting California-based Rhodes-Schmidt as the low bidder. Due to time constraints, the GSA decided to use a phased-bid project delivery method so that as soon as the architects completed a portion of the design, it could be put out to bid for construction. The first construction contract was awarded on April 25, 1973, for earthwork, foundation components, and underground utilities, and a groundbreaking ceremony was held just six days later on May 1, 1973 in a ceremony attended by a number of distinguished guests including local, federal, and Expo '74 officials, and foreign dignitaries representing nations such as the Soviet Union. The Pavilion's tower stands 150 feet (46 m) tall, and the structure contains roughly 4.6 miles (7.4 km) of cabling. As part of its original design, the Pavilion featured a vinyl covering that was installed in 1973. The covering, which cost \$1 million and weighed 12 tons, was not meant to last, and was removed in early 1979. The Pavilion has had its iconic skeleton-look with exposed cabling ever since. ##### Renovation The Pavilion underwent a full renovation in 2018 as part of Riverfront Park's redevelopment. As part of the project, the IMAX theater was removed along with a number of other structures that had been added to the pavilion since its original construction. The renovated pavilion reopened on September 6, 2019, and features an open floorspace for events and sloped and terraced landscaping to provide seating areas for audiences. One "indoor space" from the pavilion before redevelopment remains incorporated into the redesign to be used as a ticketed entry point when needed, and also features rental space and park offices. Additionally a 40 ft (12 m) high platform was constructed in its center to provide views of the Spokane River. There was debate about recovering the pavilion's structure like it was during Expo '74, but concerns about budget and schedule made it unfeasible. Instead, several dozen panels mounted on the west side of the cable structure create shade for portions of the renovated pavilion's floor and seating areas. The redesign also added plexiglass "blades" illuminated by LEDs to the cables that make up the Pavilion. The redesign team wanted to highlight the Pavilion at night in a way that would incorporate and enhance the unique look of the net-like canopy. There are 476 blades that measure 3 ft (0.91 m), 4 ft (1.2 m), and 6 ft (1.8 m) in length but are controllable in 6 in (150 mm) segments. The U.S. Pavilion displays animated light shows from Dusk-10pm on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays and specialized light shows or static looks created for holidays and special events. In August 2020, the lighting design for the Pavilion won awards for Outdoor Lighting Design and Control Innovation from the Illuminating Engineering Society. #### Looff Carrousel Riverfront Park is home to one of the many hand-carved carousels built by prominent late 19th and early 20th century carousel builder, Charles I. D. Looff, who is notable for building the first carousel at Coney Island and one of the piers that make up the Santa Monica Pier. Spokane's carousel, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, and still operates for riders today, was built in 1909 as a wedding gift from Looff to his daughter Emma and her husband Louis Vogel. The ride was first installed in nearby Natatorium Park, and operated there until the park's closure in 1968. When Expo '74 came, organizers originally wanted to bring the carousel out of storage and showcase it to the world during the event, but it was deemed impractical due to the restoration and moving costs. It would not be until 1975, after the conclusion of Expo '74, that the ride would be installed on the expo's legacy site that is now Riverfront Park. The building that housed the German Hofbrau during the world's fair became the new home for the carousel, and it operated in there until 2016 when the ride temporarily closed for Riverfront Park's redevelopment. During the redevelopment, the carousel was stored and refurbished while the former German Hofbrau building that housed it was demolished and replaced. A new building was constructed in its place on the same site and opened on May 12, 2018. #### Red Wagon The Red Wagon, officially named The Childhood Express, is a play sculpture that is modeled after a Radio Flyer wagon. The Red Wagon is located along Spokane Falls Boulevard on Riverfront Park's southern boundary, between the First Interstate Center for the Arts and the Looff Carousel, and diagonally across from the Davenport Grand Hotel. Created by local sculptor, Ken Spiering, the feature stands 12 feet (3.7 m) high, spans 27 feet (8.2 m) long, and weighs 26 tons from its steel and concrete structure. The sculpture was commissioned by the Junior League with donations from its Spokane chapter and other local business for Washington State's Centennial celebration (the state achieved statehood in 1889) and was dedicated to Spokane's children on August 18, 1990. Users can enter and exit the wagon through a staircase located at the underside of its rear end, taking them up to a wooden platform "within" the wagon. The platform covers the entire extent of the wagon, allowing users to walk right up to the edge of the wagon where its "walls" double as guardrails. At the front end, the wagon's handle doubles as a playground slide, providing another way for users to exit and interact with the sculpture. In May of 2022, The Red Wagon received significant repairs for the first time in the 33 years since its construction, and a fresh coat of paint. #### Numerica SkyRide The Numerica SkyRide is a gondola lift ride located at the southeast corner of Riverfront Park that takes people westward from the park, past Spokane City Hall and over Huntington Park, descending down into the Spokane River gorge to view the Lower Spokane Falls. The ride then crosses the river and makes a loop back toward Riverfront Park after passing beneath the Monroe Street Bridge. The current iteration of the ride was constructed in 2005 by the Doppelmayr Garaventa Group. The original version of the SkyRide was built in the 1960s by the Riblet Tramway Company and purchased by the City of Spokane secondhand for Expo '74. The ride had two routes at Expo, one over the exposition's fairgrounds, and the other descending down the Spokane River Gorge to view the Spokane Falls. The fairgrounds route was removed after the conclusion of Expo, but the Falls route was retained. The original ride had open-air gondolas, which served until the ride's reconstruction in 2005, which rebuilt the attraction and upgraded it with fully enclosed gondolas as part of a \$2.5 million project. Refurbishment to the original ride was considered, but ultimately the decision was made to replace the entire system and its parts. The naming rights to the ride were acquired in February 2019 by Numerica Credit Union for a ten-year term along with the adjacent Numerica Skate Ribbon. #### Numerica Skate Ribbon The Numerica Skate Ribbon, originally known as the Riverfront Skate Ribbon, opened in 2017 as part of Riverfront Park's redevelopment. The venue is located at the southwest corner of the park, across from River Park Square and Spokane City Hall. The ribbon primarily serves as a year-round skating venue, with hard surface skating accommodated in the warmer months and ice skating offered in the winter months. The facility also has a café and hosts other events throughout the year on its concrete surface, such as art walks, beer gardens, weddings, and other events. The ribbon was constructed to replace the seasonal Ice Palace ice skating rink that Riverfront Park set up annually under the U.S. Pavilion. During its planning and design stages, the design and format of the ribbon, which features a 715-foot (218 m) meandering and sloped path as well as an ice pond, drew criticism from certain user groups for its contrast to the flat and open ice rink format of the former Ice Palace. The new format meant that the ribbon would no longer be able to accommodate hockey players and ice skating instructors with large classes for the same purposes as before. In February 2019, Numerica Credit Union acquired the naming rights for the Skate Ribbon along with the adjacent SkyRide. The \$90,000 a year deal runs through early 2029, with an option to extend another 10 years. The revenue will be used to support programming and maintenance at the park. #### Sister Cities Connections Garden A garden and plaza northwest of the Howard Street footbridge was unveiled in September 2019 that features sculptures that pay homage to Spokane's five sister cities of Nishinomiya, Jilin, Jecheon, Limerick, and Cagli as well as Spokane itself. The garden includes a sculpture of a golden harp encased in glass for Limerick, an 11 ft (3.4 m) tall replica of the Imazu Lighthouse for Nishinomiya and a 5 ft (1.5 m) fish sculpture which honors the city of Spokane and the Native American tribes. Sculptures for the other sister cities will be designed and installed in the future. #### Providence Playspace The Providence Playspace is a Shane's Inspiration playground that was opened in October 2020 on the park's south end near the Upper Falls Power Plant. The project is not part of Riverfront Park's redevelopment bond, rather, it was funded by donors, including a \$1 million donation from Providence Health & Services. Shane's Inspiration focuses on designing playgrounds that are all-inclusive and accessible to all children, including those with physical or developmental disabilities, and Riverfront Park's playground will be the first of its kind in Spokane. The playground totals 11,600 sq ft (1,080 m<sup>2</sup>) and includes 20 different kinds of play pieces, including a sand box table for a hands-on tactile experience, a "cozy dome" quiet space, and several music making pieces. #### Ice Age Floods Playground and Skate and Wheels Park The final major phase of construction associated with the \$64 million 2014 park bond was the development of the 40,000-square-foot (3,700 m<sup>2</sup>) North Bank park which included the Ice Age Floods Playground and the Skate and Wheels Park. Designed to be a destination park that can appeal to all ages and a variety of interests, the grand opening of the North Bank was on May 21, 2021. The Ice Age Floods Playground is themed after the Missoula floods that shaped the landscape of the region and caters primarily to children, providing an interactive way to learn while they play. It features the three story Columbian slide tower, a Glacial Dam splash pad, a log-jam climbing wall, and a play fossil dig with buried "fossils" among other playscapes. The climbing wall, which is supposed to represent the ice dam, that caused the ice age floods bears a quote from geologist J Harlen Bretz, who is credited with the then-controversial theory of the ice age floods that created the regions unique geography amid decades of skepticism from the scientific community, the quote reads: "I could conceive of no geological process of erosion to make this topography, except huge, violent rivers of glacial melt water..." In the center of the play area is the Roskelley Performance Climbing Boulder, a climbing rock dedicated to mountaineer and Spokane native, Jess Roskelley, who died in an avalanche in 2019 while descending Howse Peak in Alberta; in addition to bearing his name, the rock has his life motto inscribed on it: "fortitudine vincimus" or "by endurance, we conquer" in Latin. The Skate and Wheels Park is an 8,000-square-foot (740 m<sup>2</sup>) skatepark that was designed with input from the public and replaces the makeshift Under The Freeway (UTF) Skatepark built under an Interstate 90 underpass downtown. The Skate and Wheels Park incorporates a flatbar from the UTF Skatepark as the centerpiece among other street features and a wallride and two bowls. #### Spokane Humane Society Paw Park The City of Spokane announced plans for a dog park to be located on Havermale Island and incorporating the existing Expo '74 forestry shelter in February 2022. Originally called the American Forest Pavilion, it was the Expo exhibit for the American Forest Institute and features wood beams and a high pitched roof which is meant to "reflect the spirit of being in a forest;" shortly after the fair it was moved slightly and outfitted with restrooms. The siting of the park was in part determined to make use of the underutilized shelter as a shade structure in the summer months. The initial construction cost for the park is estimated to be \$750,000, which will be wholly funded from donations collected by the Spokane Parks Foundation; the Spokane Humane Society contributed \$250,000 to the project. Community interest in a new dog park had been building after a local developer had proposed one to the Spokane Parks and Recreation Board the prior July. ### Art Riverfront Park features a large quantity of art installations scattered across its landscape, which make up approximately half of the nearly three dozen sculptures installed within the downtown Spokane area. Among the art in the park is a restored 50-foot (15 m) tall butterfly sculpture that was displayed during Expo '74 which has articulating fabric-covered wings that lift and rotate in the wind. More sculptures have been added over the years from a broad spectrum of artists and artistic styles ranging from abstract forms, to lifelike statues, and whimsical sculptures. The pieces also represent a broad range of purposes from a memorial to the veterans of the Vietnam War and notable locals such as astronaut Michael P. Anderson, who was killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster, to pieces honoring the local Native American heritage, as well as interactive play sculptures, among others. Local artist, Harold Balazs has a number of pieces installed throughout the park, most notably the Centennial Sculpture, which is an abstract aluminum sculpture floating in the Spokane River, as well as the Rotary Fountain at the southern entrance to the Howard Street Promenade. During the major redevelopment of the park for its 50th anniversary, two additional standalone works were commissioned, The Seeking Place by Sarah Thompson Moore and Stepwall by Meejin Yoon. #### Garbage Goat One of the park's most popular installations is Goat, a sculpture that was installed in 1974 as part of the art for Expo '74. Commonly referred to as the "Garbage Goat" or the "Garbage Eating Goat", the sculpture is located just east of the Looff Carousel along the southern edge of Riverfront Park. Going along with Expo '74's environmental theme, the sculpture was created as an interactive art piece that doubles as a unique trash collector. Its creation and installation was sponsored by the Spokane Women's Council of Realtors and sculpted by Sister Paula Mary Turnbull, a local nun and leading figure in the Inland Northwest arts scene. As its name suggests, the corten steel sculpture was modeled after a goat and features a vacuum mechanism that sucks up small pieces of garbage through its mouth, allowing users to "feed" it. In an ironic juxtaposition for the environmentally-themed fair, the art piece was heavily debated before it was even installed, with dairy goat farmers protesting that the creation of the whimsical piece perpetuated the stereotype that goats are reputed to eat anything; they stressed that the public be educated that goats needed to be fed properly like any other animal. A compromise was eventually reached between the farmers and the Expo '74 organizers, which saw the installation of the garbage eating goat sculpture in exchange for real-life dairy goats at the fair getting signage installed that touted their milk production capabilities if fed a proper diet of the "finest of hays and grains". Over the years, the goat has developed a cult following across generations of Spokanite parents and children. The goat has an unofficial Facebook page with thousands of followers and the Spokane County Regional Solid Waste System has its public educational outreach blog named after it. For its 40th birthday, the City of Spokane put on a celebration of the goat, "feeding" it a slice of birthday cake, and holding a goat-themed party for the public in its honor, which featured beer from a local brewery called Iron Goat Brewing that was sold by the pint at prices found in 1974, the year of the sculpture's creation. ### Former features and attractions Prior to its redevelopment, Riverfront Park hosted the following features: - The Ice Palace was a seasonal ice skating rink that was set up underneath the U.S. Pavilion. It was featured from 1977 until its closure in 2017, and was replaced by the permanent Numerica Skating Ribbon during Riverfront Park's redevelopment. - The IMAX Theater was part of the U.S. Pavilion complex and originally opened in 1978. It reached peak attendance in 2005, but attendance began to wane after the an IMAX facility opened at the nearby AMC theater at River Park Square and after it lost licensing to show big-budget Hollywood films. The decision was made in 2016 to permanently close the theater and it was demolished in early 2018 as part of the U.S. Pavilion renovation project in Riverfront Park's redevelopment. - The Pavilion Rides were a collection of amusement rides owned by the City of Spokane that were set up each summer under the U.S. Pavilion. The rides did not fit in with the new vision of the Pavilion after its redevelopment and were identified by the 2014 master plan to be removed. A new location to host the rides was considered on the redeveloped North Bank, but the proposal was ultimately voted down by the Spokane Park Board in September 2018, and several of the rides were auctioned off. ### Potential attractions #### Zip line A zip line was originally proposed as an attraction during the 2016–2021 redevelopment of the park. Though not selected as a part of the redevelopment project, it has since gained traction and on May 9, 2022, Spokane City Council voted 5-1 in favor of continuing project planning of the zip line. Running from A Place of Truth Plaza near city hall to Glover Field Park in Peaceful Valley, under the Monroe Street Bridge, the zip line would span 1,400 feet. ## Hydropower ### Early history The fast-moving Spokane River and Spokane Falls within and around Riverfront Park has been harnessed for its hydropower ever since the area began to be settled in the 1870s when flumes and waterwheels were used to mechanically drive sawmills and flour mills located along the river. On September 2, 1885, hydroelectricity was used to power Spokane (then-named Spokane Falls) for the first time, illuminating only 10 to 11 arc lights in the downtown business district, when George A. Fitch installed a secondhand Brush electric arc dynamo generator, dismantled from the SS Columbia steamship, in the basement of the C & C Flour Mill located along the river. As the demand for electricity increased, Fitch was bought out the following year by a group of local businessmen who formed the Spokane Falls Electric Light and Power Company. The group purchased 1,200 incandescent bulbs from Thomas Edison's company and, as part of the purchase agreement, agreed to only use Edison-patented equipment to power them. A 30-kW plant from Edison was soon purchased and installed on the Spokane River's North Channel along the Post Street Bridge, which today forms the western boundary of Riverfront Park, and powered among other things, the city's first opera. The company, looking to expand, would seek an investment from the Edison Illuminating Company in New York, and would rebrand as the Edison Electric Illuminating Co. of Spokane Falls (EEICSF), headquartering in downtown Spokane at the southwest corner of Sprague Avenue and Howard Street. By the late 1880s, demand for electricity in the young city was skyrocketing, including 24-hour electric service in the wealthy Browne's Addition neighborhood. This led the EEICSF to expand, installing a new generator at their plant that increased its generating capacity by four times, and also sparked the formation of two competing power companies — the Spokane Falls Water Power Co. in 1887 and Washington Water Power (now known as Avista Utilities) in 1889. Though the demand was high around this time, attaining financing to further the expansion of hydroelectricity began to prove difficult, especially for EEICSF and its east coast-based investors. Many, including Edison himself, began to favor the output consistency of steam power, which was not dependent on the highly-variable flow of a river, as the future of electricity generation. Despite the market conditions, entrepreneurs at the newly established companies continued to forge ahead in their investment with hydroelectric power generation. Washington Water Power was in the process of installing a generator on the Lower Spokane Falls, just outside of present-day Riverfront Park, when Spokane's Great Fire struck in August 1889. After the fire and the rebuilding of the city, demand for electricity grew so rapidly that Washington Water Power moved ahead with plans for an even larger power generating facility on the Lower Falls and constructed an 18 feet (5.5 m) tall rock-crib dam made of timber, to raise the water levels behind its Lower Falls generator. The construction of the dam, along with a new powerhouse, collectively became known as the Monroe Street Power Station and was completed on November 12, 1890. The enormous generating capacity of the new facility began an era of dominance for Washington Water Power over the other companies that operated smaller generators in the vicinity. Washington Water Power gradually began to purchase portions of the EEISCF, taking a controlling stake in their competitor by 1891, and also acquired other companies that eventually became unified under the Washington Water Power Company name. The dynamos of the other companies were consolidated into the Monroe Street Power Station, which increased its generating capacity from 894 kilowatts to 1,439 kilowatts in 1892. ### Modern history In 1922, Washington Water Power would construct an additional dam known as the Upper Falls Diversion Dam at the eastern tip of Havermale Island, spanning across the North Channel of the Spokane River over the Upper Spokane Falls. The dam would divert water through the river's South Channel to a 10 MW generator at the Upper Falls Power Plant which was built that same year. Washington Water Power's timber Monroe Street Dam at the Lower Spokane Falls was damaged in a high water event and eventually replaced with a concrete gravity dam in 1974 in the same location just a few hundred feet west of what would become Riverfront Park. The reconstruction of the dam was completed just before Expo '74 and included the construction of Huntington Park, immediately adjacent to present-day Riverfront Park, that allowed visitors to see water fed into the plant's turbines. In 1992, a project at the Monroe Street Power Station replaced its original powerhouse with an underground one, further expanding Huntington Park by creating a new plaza over the underground powerhouse. The project also replaced its original, century-old 1890 generator (which was then donated to the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan for permanent display) with the station's current 15-MW generator. ### Legacy The impacts of hydroelectricity generation on the Spokane Falls throughout Spokane's history remains visible in Riverfront Park today and plays a major role in its attractions. The adjacent Huntington Park, Lower Spokane Falls, and Monroe Street Power Station are the primary sightseeing features of Riverfront Park's Numerica SkyRide. Additionally, a 2014 project that renovated the Avista Utilities-owned Huntington Park at the Lower Falls, added a new plaza in front of Spokane City Hall that created an unofficial extension of Riverfront Park, effectively bridging the two parks together. Hydroelectric power generation on the Upper Spokane Falls has also shaped Riverfront Park's features. In addition to the Upper Falls Power Plant being listed as an official Riverfront Park sightseeing attraction, the construction of the Upper Falls Diversion Dam created the calm waters of Riverfront Park's South Channel, which is home to a number of the park's attractions including the Looff Carousel, Red Wagon, First Interstate Center for the Arts, and Howard Street pedestrian bridge. The calm water enables many of these attractions, including the steps and floating stage at the First Interstate Center, as well as the lowered viewing platforms on the South Channel Bridge allowing visitors to interact with the river. Avista's Post Street Electric Substation is home to the Mobius Science Center children's museum. ## Festivals and events Every year, Riverfront Park plays host to a number of prominent Spokane events including: - The annual Lilac Bloomsday Run, held in May, uses Riverfront Park as the site of its official post-race activities. - Spokane Hoopfest, held annually in June, uses Riverfront Park for exhibitors and vendors and its Nike Center Court. - The Fourth of July festival and fireworks display. - The Royal Fireworks Concert, an annual concert ending in Handel's Music for Royal Fireworks and a corresponding fireworks display. - Gathering at the Falls Powwow, an annual celebration held in summer that celebrates the living culture of native people. - Unity in the Community, an annual celebration of diversity. - Pig Out in the Park, an annual food and music festival hosted in the park during Labor Day weekend.
34,902,552	Ioan C. Filitti	1,137,450,225	Romanian historian and diplomat	[ "1879 births", "1945 deaths", "20th-century Romanian historians", "Adevărul writers", "Censorship in Romania", "Chairpersons of the National Theatre Bucharest", "Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918) politicians", "Corresponding members of the Romanian Academy", "Diplomats from Bucharest", "Heraldists", "Historians of Christianity", "Historians of World War I", "Historians of agriculture", "Junimists", "Legal historians", "Male biographers", "Male essayists", "Members of the Romanian Orthodox Church", "Nobility from Bucharest", "People convicted of treason against Romania", "People sentenced to death in absentia", "Prefects of Romania", "Prisoners sentenced to death by Romania", "Romanian anthologists", "Romanian art collectors", "Romanian biographers", "Romanian book and manuscript collectors", "Romanian book publishers (people)", "Romanian civil servants", "Romanian essayists", "Romanian genealogists", "Romanian historians of religion", "Romanian literary historians", "Romanian male writers", "Romanian medical historians", "Romanian medievalists", "Romanian memoirists", "Romanian military personnel of World War I", "Romanian opinion journalists", "Romanian people of Greek descent", "Romanian people of the Second Balkan War", "Romanian philanthropists", "Romanian political scientists", "Romanian radio presenters", "Romanian writers in French", "Saint Sava National College alumni", "Sciences Po alumni", "Social historians", "Writers from Bucharest" ]	Ioan Constantin Filitti (; first name also Ion; Francized Jean C. Filitti; May 8, 1879 – September 21, 1945) was a Romanian historian, diplomat and conservative theorist, best remembered for his contribution to social history, legal history, genealogy and heraldry. A member of the Conservative Party and an assistant of its senior leader Titu Maiorescu, he had aristocratic (boyar) origins and an elitist perspective. Among his diverse contributions, several focus on 19th-century modernization under the Regulamentul Organic regime, during which Romania was ruled upon by the Russian Empire. As a historian, Filitti is noted for his perfectionism, and for constantly revising his own works. I. C. Filitti had an auspicious debut in diplomacy and politics, but his career was mired in controversy. A "Germanophile" by the start of World War I, he secretly opposed the pact between Romania and the Entente Powers, and opted to stay behind in German-occupied territory. He fell into disgrace for serving the collaborationist Lupu Kostaki as Prefect and head of the National Theater, although he eventually managed to overturn his death sentence for treason. Filitti became a recluse, focusing on his scholarship and press polemics, but was allowed to serve on the Legislative Council after 1926. In his political tracts, written well after the Conservative Party's demise, I. C. Filitti preserves the orthodox conservative principles of Maiorescu. His attachment to boyar tradition was expanded into a critique of centralized government, etatism and Romanian liberalism. Toward the end of his life, he supported the dictatorial regime known as National Renaissance Front. ## Biography ### Origin and early life Through his paternal family, Filitti descended from historical figures whose careers were intertwined with the history of Wallachia, the Romanian subregion and former autonomous state. It originated with ethnic Greek migrants from the Epirus—where the Filitti family was known to be residing in the 17th century. The main settlers were male monks, whose presence was attested in Buzău County around 1786: rising through the ranks of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Dositei Filitti served as Wallachian Metropolitan Bishop, assigning nephew Constandie to preside over the Diocese of Buzău. Although his Epirote father was a noted Russophile, the Metropolitan regarded himself as a liberal-minded Wallachian patriot: he founded the local school of divinity, provided scholarships to young Wallachians, and sponsored the growing printing industry. In tandem, he spoke out against the practice of slavery, protecting Romani women from their Wallachian masters and donating money for the release of devșirme victims. During times of turmoil, when Wallachia effectively became a dominion of the Russian Empire, Dositei was swiftly deposed on Russian orders. The historian claimed lineage from the non-monastic branch of the Filitti clan. A Silvestru Filitti, active ca. 1810, was among the first private practitioners in Wallachia. Fully Romanianized, 20th-century Filittis were still members of Romania's privileged class. A native of Bucharest, Ioan C. was the son of Colonel Constantin Filitti, a former Ordinance Officer of the Romanian Domnitori. By then, the family owned a country estate, at Alexeni, Ialomița County. The Filittis preserved strong connections with the Ialomița region, where Colonel Filitti had twice served as Prefect. Ioan inherited from him a deep dislike and mistrust toward the dominant National Liberal Party (PNL), sentiments which carried him into Conservative politics: Constantin regarded himself as a political victim of the PNL establishment, and in particular of the Brătianu family. Colonel Filitti had another son, Alexandru—better known under the moniker Filitti-Robănești. The mother, Elena, was born into the Ghica family. Her father, Mihail Ghica, was a staff officer of the Royal Army, who had been married for a while to writer Elena Văcărescu. Thorough his mother's other relatives, Ioan also descended from the eponymous boyar line of Slatina (the Slătineanus). I. C. Filitti studied at Saint Sava National College, where he was colleagues with future politician (and adversary) Ion G. Duca. He was an eminent student, who earned top distinctions annually, and moved on to study at the École Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris. His first ever published work as a historian was a French-language tome, Le Rôle diplomatique des phanariotes de 1700 à 1821 ("The Diplomatic Role of Phanariotes from 1700 to 1821"). Signed Jean C. Filitti, it was probably his Licence ès Lettres, and, although receiving good reviews, was never listed by its author in his official résumés. He became a Doctor of Law in 1904, when he published the first draft of his study about Regulamentul Organic as the first ever Romanian constitution. ### Entry into public life Young Filitti made a remarkably early entry into the diplomatic corps, and stayed on with the Romanian Legation in France. In this capacity, he purposefully embarrassed PNL Foreign Minister Ion I. C. Brătianu by not sending in all Legation employees to receive him during an official visit. During his return trips to Romania, Filitti was focusing on researching his own family archives, and, in 1910, published the volume Așezământul cultural al mitropolitului Dosit[h]ei Filitti, de la înființare până azi ("Metropolitan Dosit[h]ei Filitti's Cultural Foundation, from Its Establishment to the Present Day"). In researching this work, Filitti sought input from the genealogical school in Greece and Macedonia, and from Romanian diplomats working in Istanbul. In a show of perfectionism, Filitti constantly revised the work as new data surfaced, and, in 1936, declared the 1910 edition to be entirely unusable. Filitti was soon drawn into the Conservative establishment, by politics and family connections. His wife Alexandrina ("Sanda"), descending from another branch of the Ghica clan, was a distant relative of two Conservative potentates and doyens of the Cantacuzino political family: Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino-Nababul, who was twice the Prime Minister of Romania, and newspaper magnate Grigore Gh. Cantacuzino. She brought in considerable wealth. Filitti was by then also in contact with Junimea, an inner-Conservative club dedicated to cultural criticism, presided upon by the aged literary patron Titu Maiorescu. As noted in 2008 by political scientist Ioan Stanomir, the young diplomat was "an orthodox Junimist who survived the end of his world." Like other historiographers and doctrinaires raised by Junimea, Filitti the scholar firmly believed in the preservation of boyar demesnes and, as political scientist Victor Rizescu suggests, took part in the century-long debate opposing elitist historians to the advocates of natural law. Filitti's biographer and posthumous daughter-in-law, Georgeta Penelea-Filitti, also writes that, even in the 1910s, he had become a Conservative apologist, who felt compelled to justify the party line in a "trenchant and unresponsive" manner. Like senior Junimists Maiorescu and Petre P. Carp, Filitti reserved contempt for Take Ionescu, the rising star of Romanian conservatism, whom he depicted as a manipulator with no actual convictions. Filitti's first important postings were received from the Conservative cabinet of P. P. Carp, wherein Titu Maiorescu held the Foreign Affairs portfolio. After 1910, Maiorescu appointed Filitti head of the Ministry's Political Section in Bucharest, and then granted him supervision of the Consular and Litigation sections. Filitti was also sent on regular missions to France, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, Serbia and Italy. The missions allowed Filitti to expand his activity as a historiographer and archivist. The main stimulus of this activity was, according to Filitti's son Manole, a sense of filial duty: "since destiny wished for his parents to have such assets as would allow him to study in Paris for a couple of years, [my father] felt compelled to repay them by publishing works which would live up to that degree of education." According to historian Lucian Boia, although "non-academic", Filitti's work has earned deserved praise from within the scholarly community. Georgeta Penelea-Filitti argues that I. C. Filitti's work, indicative of his personality, covers an impressively "large horizon." On May 8, 1913, shortly before the Second Balkan War, Filitti began keeping a diary, which records the political intrigues of his age, and offers insight into Conservative affairs. One of the first events recorded there is the August 1913 Peace Conference of Bucharest. Filitti was the official Secretary during the proceedings. In this context, he also helped Titu Maiorescu with drafting Cartea Verde ("The Green Book"), that is the official justification of Romanian foreign policy. Decades later, he recalled that the congress had been a magnificent affair, noting especially the triumphant arrival of King Carol I, that "old Nestor of European monarchs". The Conference, he recalled, "was the swan song of the old Conservative Party." His services during the Conference earned him public praise from Maiorescu, and Filitti, who feared for his prospects, was kept on at the Ministry even after the National Liberal Emanoil Porumbaru became Minister in January 1914. In tandem with his diplomatic endeavors, he spent time researching at the Vatican Library in Rome. As noted by Manole Filitti, Ioan C. received "special recommendations", which allowed him entry into the less accessible archives of the Holy See. Such study trips resulted in a two-volume anthology of historical sources, Din arhivele Vaticanului ("From the Vatican Archives", 1913 and 1914). ### Germanophile polemicist and Domniile române... World War I was a turning point in Filitti's diplomatic career. Like many of his fellow Conservatives, and against the lobby which dominated the PNL, he believed in tying Romania to the Central Powers, especially to the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. The Entente Powers alternative, he argued, was bankrupt, because Romania would find herself manipulated by a hostile Russian Empire. His core idea, paraphrased by Georgeta Filitti, was that: "Any entente, any attempt to collaborate, any concession made to [Russia] would sooner or later turn against us." The diplomat witnessed with alarm that public opinion was against him, either because of seductive Francophilia, or because a war on Austria-Hungary could bring Romania Transylvania region and other irredenta: "The Russian gold has bought off the press and many private persons. Others are guided by sentimentality". In restaurants such as Casa Capșa, "Franco-hysteria and Russo-Frenchitude [have reached] a peak", and "people of no significance" were even proposing to assassinate the Germanophile King Carol. In this context, he believed, Transylvania could only stand to lose its character if ever governed from Bucharest. At around that time, Filitti issued at his expense the Germanophile brochure Cu Tripla Alianță ("With the Triple Alliance"). He prudently signed it with the fake initials F. K. In it, Filitti spoke out at length about containing Pan-Slavism, more important a priority than "the nation's other aspirations" (in Transylvania): "The best thing one may wish upon Romania is that the Muscovite Empire be evicted as far away as possible from the heart of Europe." The pamphlet was also noted for its unfulfilled prophecy that Italy would also join the war as a German ally, and for arguing that, either way, Austria-Hungary was set to collapse after the war. The text's reception, he noted, was disastrous: no reviews were printed, almost no bookstores would sell it, and the few who looked over it attributed it to an agent of influence or to some "paid-off Jew". In Cu Tripla Alianță and in his diary, the diplomat continued to complain that the Francophile mood was irrational, since France and the Entente as a whole only "love [Romanians] when they need us", which was "only natural". In the same vein, his diary documents earlier instances where (he argued) France had gambled with Romania's independence. In his more public existence, I. C. Filitti was still regarded with sympathy by the entire political and cultural establishment. In 1915, he was elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy. The institution also granted him its prestigious Năsturel Herescu Award. This was in recognition of his groundbreaking monograph on modernization under the Regulamentul regime: Domniile române sub Regulamentul Organic ("Romanian Reigns under Regulamentul Organic"). It described in some detail the culture shock of the 1830s, when the Westernized elites reversed a process of Turkification, and noted the ambivalent policies of Russian governors. The book also speaks about the 1832 manhunt for, and forced sedentarization of, Wallachia's Romani people, both the fugitive slaves and the free nomads. Domniile române... was simultaneously published in Bucharest (by Editura Socec), Leipzig (Otto Harrassowitz) and Vienna (Carl Gerold). It was then reprinted by the official Editura Academiei press, under the supervision of historian Nicolae Iorga. The encounter was confrontational: Iorga decided to cut out entire passages where, he argued, the author had gone into too much detail. The intervention was unwittingly destructive, as part of the documents cited by Filitti, and only by him, have since been destroyed. It was also in 1915 that Filitti contributed his views on the thorny issue of "Capitulations", contracts reputedly signed by two Danubian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) when they first came under the Ottoman Empire's suzerainty. The author postulated that the Capitulations regulated the status of foreigners living in ancient Romania, exempting them from the consequences of common law, and creating major legal problems after 1800. His research produced the article România față de capitulațiile Turciei ("Romania in Relation to the Turkish Capitulations"), taken up by the Academy's official yearbook. It saw print at the same time as his new collection of documents, sampling the archives of French Ambassadors to the Porte: Lettres et extraits concernant les relations des principautés roumaines avec la France, 1728-1810 ("Letters and Excerpts on the Relations between the Romanian Principalities and France"). ### Filitti and the Kostaki administration I. C. Filitti was not in a celebratory mood as the National Liberals publicized their August 1916 Treaty, when Romania became part of the Entente. His diaries record not only his general frustration, but also his belief that the decades of PNL rule had left the military ill-prepared, and claims about generalized embezzlement within the Army. He was soon after drafted into the Romanian Land Forces, as officer of the Second Field Army, and stationed in Bucharest. When the German-led counteroffensive forced the army on the retreat, resulting in the Central Powers' occupation of southern Romania, Filitti took his most controversial decision. In circumstances that are largely unknown, he opted to stay behind in occupied territory, and greeted the enemy. According to Boia, Filitti received two contradictory orders: one to follow the Imperial Russian Army as liaison officer, the other to stay behind in Bucharest; he conveniently opted to follow the latter. The Filitti family had by then divided its loyalties: judge Ioan D. Filitti, formerly a PNL politico, followed the Germanophile line; instead, Ioan C.'s own brother Alexandru entered history when he led a cavalry charge on a German machine gun turret, located outside of Balș. At the time, Lupu Kostaki was organizing left-behind Conservatives and forming a provisional administration, answering to the German command. Filitti served Kostaki as Head of the National Theater Bucharest. Under his management, the Theater took on some 67 new productions of Romanian plays. The Germans also assigned him to an administrative position, making him the Prefect of Ialomița County. However, Filitti himself was troubled by his association with the puppet regime. According to Georgeta Filitti, the diary he kept shows "the efforts to interpose himself between the foreign military authorities and his own administrators, to alleviate the unbearable regime of requisitions, the abuse and Prussian arrogance, [efforts which] were, for the most part, ineffectual." Like other Germanophiles, Filitti justified himself as a protector of Romanian interests during times of chaos, and was discouraged to find out that the German regime regarded him as a servant. He had similar trouble getting along with some of his Romanian colleagues, in particular Virgil Arion, the phantom Minister of Education (whom he described as nepotistic, aloof, and especially "lazy"). Both of his assignments failed to satisfy him: he was, according to Boia, a "strange" choice for the Theater leadership, and gave up on this office in April 1917; Filitti himself viewed his Prefect's job as inane, and repeatedly presented his resignation (only accepted in February 1918). His departure from the Theater was in fact hastened by the Germans, who took over the location for their own purposes. Filitti informed the troupe members that they had to pay rent, and they moved out in protest. While in Ialomița, Filitti combined his administrative missions (retold as short notes in his diaries) with historical research, and tapped into a documentary fund at Alexeni. Although only a junior member of the administrative staff, Filitti aimed for a position at the core of government, and demanded from Kostaki a post better suited to his intelligence, "in Bucharest". He noted that the death of Maiorescu in June 1917 had stripped him of political support inside the Conservative Party, and had derailed his steady advancement. Meanwhile, the legitimate government had relocated to Iași, in besieged Moldavia. Late in 1916, it court-martialled Filitti in absentia, and sentenced him to death for the crime of high treason. By January 1918, the collapse of Russian forces on the Eastern Front led the Iași administration into negotiating a separate peace with the Central Powers. Germanophile Alexandru Marghiloman took over as Premier, in what seemed to spell a moral victory for the pro-German camp. However, Filitti was drawing closer to the more disgruntled Germanophiles, led by P. P. Carp, who wanted to sign peace on their own terms: "I ask Carp, should he leave to negotiate for Romania, to take me with him. He says that he'll take along his son. I note that one does not exclude the other. He agrees" (January 12, 1918). Filitti was also upset that Marghiloman himself had not yet offered him a high diplomatic post during negotiations over the Buftea-Bucharest Peace Treaty, and noted that the Ententist King, Ferdinand I, "made it hard" for him to be accepted back into the diplomatic corps. As noted by Georgeta Filitti, Ferdinand vetoed successive proposals to rehire him as public servant. In June 1918, I. C. Filitti handed himself in to the authorities in Moldavia, and, upon retrial, was acquitted of treason. In addition to presenting evidence of his efforts to curb German excesses, he enlisted the testimony of Ialomița citizens, who vouched for him. However, Boia concludes, the retrial itself was a sham: "A rehabilitation as politicized in the new context as had been his sentencing at the end of 1916." ### Post-1918 controversy Upon the end of 1918, when the Central Powers succumbed on the Western Front, the pro-Entente forces regained power. I. C. Filitti faced the political repercussions: blocked out of the Foreign Ministry and diplomatic corps, he had to reinvent himself as a full-time historian, publicist and essayist. He largely immersed himself in his decades-long work, in effect a multilevel historical narrative covering the history of the Danubian Principalities, from the foundation of Wallachia (14th century) to the emergence of United Romania (1859). Much of his interest, marked by what Georgeta Filitti calls "excessive accuracy", was in reviewing the intricate boyar genealogies. He substantiated the various inheritance claims, and, in addition, painstakingly retraced the borders of Wallachia's oldest demesnes. During his retrial, facing the possibility of execution, Filitti also turned his attention to the philosophy of history, reading profusely from Ernest Renan and Hippolyte Taine. According to Filitti, the war spelled out the end of Romania's aristocratic order, leaving the country prey to the nouveaux riches and the neo-Jacobins. As the Conservative Party itself collapsed into obscurity, he remained largely cut off from the outside world, and rejected many of the recent innovations. Reportedly, he wrote all his books and articles in dip pen, and never watched a motion picture. After 1919, he had to recover from financial ruin, having entrusted the bulk of his assets (what had not been lost in the war) to a broker, who gambled it away and then committed suicide. Filitti lived secluded in a townhouse on Oltarului Street, in the Bucharest quarter of Moșilor. He repeatedly complained about street noises, confiscated the footballs of neighborhood children, and eventually received (from Romanian Police chief Gavrilă Marinescu) a permanent guard to protect him from distractions. Filitti had few visiting friends, among them Alexandru Filitti-Robănești, teacher Alexandru Pisoschi, historians Emanoil Hagi-Moscu and G. D. Florescu. He was however in constant correspondence with other scholars who shared his passions, including Greek jurist Panagiotis Zepos, His Majesty's Antiquarian G. T. Kirileanu, bibliophile Constantin Karadja, regional historian G. Poboran, academician-priest Nicolae M. Popescu and Hungarian archivist Endre (Andrei) Veress. In addition to the anti-Germanophile Nicolae Iorga, his rivals in academia included a new generation of leading historians, who were targets of his polemical articles: Gheorghe I. Brătianu, George Fotino, Constantin C. Giurescu and P. P. Panaitescu. The latter was however influenced by Filitti's ideas on the sources of landed property, and incorporated them into his own historical narrative. An early product of Filitti's interest in genealogy was a 1919 book about his relatives, the Cantacuzinos: Arhiva Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino ("The Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino Archive"). It refers to the documents collected by Cantacuzino-Nababul, whom the book describes as: "Good and kind, a self-effacing host, confident of the nation's faculties." The author tracked down Nababul's origins to Michael "Șeytanoğlu" Kantakouzenos, a Byzantine Greek in Ottoman service, active around 1580. The factual errors of this study caused Filitti great distress, to the point where he planned to entirely revise his version of the Cantacuzino family tree. The book is still considered a particularly relevant source on the obscure genealogies of some high-ranking Greek-Romanian families: Cara(g)iani, Filodor, Gheraki and Plagino. Filitti the politician returned in 1921 with an extended pro domo covering his wartime stances: Rusia, Austro-Ungaria și Germania față de România ("Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany Confront Romania"). The same year, in May, Iași's Viața Românească review hosted his tract on administrative reform, whereby he criticized attempts to impose centralized government on post-war Greater Romania. He proposed three essential policies: decentralization, the depoliticization of public administration, and enhanced executive powers for the prefects. These prolonged P. P. Carp's ideas on local autonomy and, in addition, attempted to protect the existing local government of the newly united Transylvania, Bessarabia and Bukovina. He still struggled with prejudice against Germanophiles: also in 1921, he tried to obtain the History Chair at the University of Iași, but lost once his old adversary Iorga intervened against him. Two years later, he was present at the funeral ceremony of Dimitrie Onciul, a fellow historian and Junimist. Onciul, whose Germanophila had been the topic of a major scandal in 1919, was honored by Filitti with a funeral oration. It stated: "All of us, we are what our known or unknown ancestors have accumulated in our beings; we are that which preceding generations have planted in us; we are the echo of our dead." ### Recovery In the early 1920s, I. C. Filitti worked with the formerly Junimist tribune Convorbiri Literare, which published fragments of his research on Maiorescu (1922) and novelist Costache Negruzzi (1923). Filitti subsequently turned his attention to some of the earliest sources on Wallachian history, adding his opinion to the debate surrounding the historicity of Negru Vodă (described by some early modern sources as Wallachia's state-builder). His topical study, published by in the 1924 Romanian Academy annals, concluded that Negru Vodă was in fact the stuff of legend, concocted by the 17th-century Wallachian Lord Matei Basarab. The next year, he returned to social history, with the book Clasele sociale în trecutul românesc ("Social Classes in the Romanian Past"). It mainly explained the difference between the concepts of nobility in Western Europe, on one hand, and the Danubian Principalities, on the other: Moldo-Wallachian nobility had no concept of knighthood, as all boyars were defined by their demesnes. Eventually, in 1926, King Ferdinand allowed Filitti to resume his political career, making him a member of the Romanian Legislative Council. An emanation of the 1923 Constitution, it comprised experts tasked with reviewing laws endorsed by Parliament, and whose exact role sparked a series of controversies. Filitti was among those who described the Council as a necessary branch of the legislature, rather than as an organ of the executive. Also in 1926, Filitti was one of the authors of a legal history overview, Contribuții la istoria justiției penale în Principatele române ("Contributions to the History of Penal Justice in the Romanian Principalities"). By means of Iorga's academic journal Revista Istorică, he also publicized his discovery of a 17th-century Romanian glossary, which emissaries of the Holy See used on their missions to the Danubian Principalities. He returned in 1927 with a work tracing the very history of the Legislative Council: Originea și menirea Consiliului Legislativ ("The Origin and Purpose of the Legislative Council"). Filitti ended the 13th and final notebook of his diary on March 6, 1928. By 1929, he turned his attention to the history of medicine in Wallachia, publishing a study of medical practice between 1784 and 1828. The same year, he edited the critical edition of the 1829 boyar register (catagrafie), originally compiled by Russian authorities under Regulamentul provisions. It notably showed the division of aristocracy into three classes, with only 70 entries in the top, "great boyars", category. Filitti demonstrated that, at only 4.6 ‰ of the Wallachian population, Wallachian boyars formed one of the thinnest layers of European aristocrats proportional to the respective population. While still involved in the disputes over Legislative Council attributions, Filitti was a member, and later President, of the state's Heraldry and Genealogy Commission. The appointment again brought him into disagreement with the Romanian monarch, this time involving the heraldic symbols of Greater Romania. Filitti and Kirileanu suggested redesigned coats of arms of the Romanian counties, each bearing the Steel Crown, as a show of national unity; Ferdinand disagreed, and the counties were only allowed their simple escutcheons. He was turning his attention to the Slătineanu branch of his family, and completed a biographical study on Ion Slătineanu, governor of Brăila in the 1830s (hosted by the magazine Analele Brăilei, 1/1929). Some of Filitti's biographical work was dedicated to the 16th-century Wallachian hero Michael the Brave. In 1931, he published an investigation of Michael's early career as titular Ban of Oltenia. A year later, he detailed Michael's introduction of serfdom in Wallachia: Despre "legătura" lui Mihai Viteazul ("On 'Bondage' under Michael the Brave"). Between these, the academic review Analele Economice și Statistice, Vol. XIV, reissued the 1857 count of emancipated Romani slaves, annotated by Filitti. In 1932, returning to the history of Oltenian Bans, he gave an account on the Craiovești family history, taken up by Arhivele Olteniei journal. His ongoing research into social issues of the early 19th century produced another book, Frământări politice și sociale în Principatele române de la 1821 la 1828 ("Political and Social Turmoil in the Romanian Principalities from 1821 to 1828", Cartea Românească, 1932). It has been described as a "non-partisan analysis" of the Wallachian uprising of 1821 and its reverberations, and features detail on the property dispute between local Orthodox monks and their Greek Orthodox competitors. ### Conservative theories and Principatele române... By 1928, I. C. Filitti's writing was moving from sheer historical research, as he was taking a stand in political theory. As noted by Ioan Stanomir, Filitti's evolution in this direction marks a final cycle in the history of classical, "Burkean", conservatism in Romania, which did not have a political aspect, but was complementary and contemporary with the views of his rival Nicolae Iorga. According to Stanomir, the objectivity professed by Filitti the historiographer was at odds with his ambition to rehabilitate Junimea and the Conservative cause, to prolong their relevancy into the 1930s. Some of his core ideas were updated versions of 19th-century Junimist concepts: the praise of moderation and organicity, the rejection of state capitalism and its "pseudo-bourgeoisie", and in particular the critique of generous land reforms. Directly influenced by the agrarian skepticism of Carp and Maiorescu, Filitti argued that the division of large estates into non-lucrative plots had only enhanced endemic problems, such as poverty or an unskilled workforce, and had prevented an organic growth toward good governance. Filitti's diary chides the political establishment of Greater Romania for not obtaining sufficient guarantees of territorial integrity—particularly so against Russia's successor, the Soviet Union—and for deprofessionalizing the diplomatic corps. From Maiorescu, Filitti borrowed the essential sociological concept of "forms without content", criticizing all modernization which did not take into account local realities, writing: "After seven decades of bourgeois forms, without a bourgeoisie, with all that maelstrom of laws and regulations, which has grown to cover 20,000 pages [...], the tally shows that [...] the villages of all places have registered no profit, although [...] Romania is, at heart, nothing but one giant village." In his post-Junimist studies, Filitti angrily noted that the PNL regime had only increased the ranks of the bureaucracy (and implicitly enlarged their political machine), perpetuating etatism. He proposed measures to counter this trend by encouraging a "rural bourgeoisie", "self-reliant", determined to reemerge "from the darkness and routine" of country life, and, in time, capable of supporting a national industry. In 1932, Filitti, who kept a vivid interest in Romanian Orthodox history, published Biserici și ctitori ("Churches and Ktitors"). He was preoccupied with similar thoughts when he decided to sponsor the rebuilding and refurbishing of two ancestral churches: the Dormition Church in Slatina, originally built by his Slătineanu relatives (whom he commemorated with a coat of arms, displayed over the church entrance); and the Sfântul Dumitru de Jurământ Metochion of Constandie Filitti (whom he had reburied on church premises). It was in 1934 that I. C. Filitti registered one of his greatest successes, when he published a revised and extended version of his 1904 study: Principatele române de la 1828 la 1834. Ocupațiunea rusească și Regulamentul Organic ("The Romanian Principalities from 1828 to 1834. The Russian Occupation and Regulamentul Organic"). The study even earned him accolades from Iorga, who called it "an extraordinarily rich work of pragmatic history". The work mainly documents the emergence of a civic consciousness, called "public spirit" by Filitti, over the years when Regulamentul was in force, and speaks about how the Moldo-Wallachian Russophile class turned Russophobic as it became acquainted with Tsarist autocracy. Principatele române... includes additional data on the rift between the liberal youth, with its ideal of national liberation, and the peasantry, more determined to terminate the corvée system. He continued to publish on topical issues of legal history, documenting the antique Wallachian form of Weregild (plata capului, "head payment"), and on historiography, with a Revista Istorică biography of Wallachian chronicler Radu Greceanu. His other book for that year was an extended political manifesto, Rătăcirile unei pseudo-burghezii și reforme ce nu se fac ("The Aberrations of a Pseudo-bourgeoisie and Reforms Not Effected"). In 1935, Filitti completed his Proprietatea solului în Principatele române până la 1864 ("Land Ownership in the Romanian Principalities to 1864") and Contribuții la istoria diplomatică a României în secolul al XIX-lea ("Contributions to the Diplomatic History of Romania in the 19th Century"). In Vechea organizare fiscală a Principatelor Române până la Regulamentul Organic ("On the Ancient Fiscal Order of the Romanian Principalities to Regulamentul Organic"), he discussed the proliferation of state taxes over the centuries, and the measure to which the Orthodox clergy was exempted. A fourth book, on literary history, saw print with the title Cărți vechi privitoare la români ("Old Books Relating to the Romanians"). Also in 1935, he released a selection of his memoirs, as Câteva amintiri ("Some Recollections"), and set in print his conferences for the state Radio Company: Dezvoltarea politică a României moderne ("The Political Development of Modern Romania"). Building on his previous research in Arhiva Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino, Filitti also contributed an article about the Romanian origins of French diplomat Maurice Paléologue (Adevărul daily, September 29, 1935) and edited for print the letters of Oltenian engineer Petrache Poenaru (Arhivele Olteniei, 74-76/1934). His other contribution for 1935 was a collection of texts on political history, called Pagini din istoria României moderne ("Pages from the History of Modern Romania"). The volume criticized the PNL's historical narrative, Romania's answer to Whiggishness, and noted that, from the beginning, the Conservatives were closer to the models of classical liberalism than their revolutionist opponents. Published with the Lupta Graphic Arts Institute in 1936, Filitti's new essay revisited the birth and evolution of conservatism in the Danubian Principalities and then Romania: Conservatori și junimiști în viața politică românească ("Conservatives and Junimists in Romanian Political Life"). The work postulated that local conservatism had in fact originated within the first phase of Romanian liberalism, grouping opponents of the "extremist", "utopian", "exulted" force which became the National Liberal elite. He argued that, since the National Liberals had become the establishment and did away with their republican agenda, the Conservatives, "in reality moderate liberals", came to be falsely depicted as "reactionaries". His retrospective portrait of Junimea was, according to Stanomir, particularly "melancholy", his own Junimism "never abjured". ### Final years In 1936, I. C. Filitti wrote an article defining the scope and history of the Legislative Council. It was featured in the anniversary collection of articles published by Council President Ioan Ionescu-Dolj. His revised work on the Cantacuzinos, published in Bucharest as Notice sur les Cantacuzène du XIe au XVIIe siècles ("Note on the Cantacuzinos from the 11th to the 14th Century"), traced the family links between Cantacuzino-Nababul and 14th-century Byzantine Emperor John VI, whom Filitti identified as a usurper. Also then, he republished a political pamphlet by the 18th-century poet Alecu Văcărescu, with the journal Preocupări Literare. Filitti was preparing his retirement from public life, and designated his only son Manole as a curator of the Filitti Archive. Filitti Jr was a lawyer, financier and amateur rugby footballer, who would later serve as manager of the Phoenix Oil Factory. Married to actress Mimi Enăceanu, he was for long based in Iași, sharing a villa with the poet Mihail Codreanu. It was there that Ioan C.'s grandson Ion was born in 1936. His baptism was a public affair involving some of the established aristocratic houses, and one of the last functions ever attended by Filitti Sr (who met and befriended Codreanu on the occasion). The National Renaissance Front dictatorship, with King Carol II at its helm, put an end to democratic rule in Greater Romania. Under these circumstances, I. C. Filitti was recovered by the official school of historians. From 1938, sociologist Dimitrie Gusti employed Filitti as an external contributor to the standard Romanian dictionary, Enciclopedia României. His "fundamental" contribution was, according to Stanomir, the "Legislative Council" entry, included in Volume I. Together with I. C. Vântu, Filitti also wrote the section on the administrative reform, whereby Carol had replaced the counties with larger ținuturi. This entry justified Carol's ideas on territorial division, describing the new regions as organic, "moral, cultural, economic and financial" units. The two authors offered praise to the supposedly increased representative powers of communes, and to the laws protecting private property within urban domains. As noted by Georgeta Filitti, I. C. Filitti was again dissatisfied with the finished product: "The [Enciclopedia] copy he left comprises numerous rectifications to his own entries and observations made on those of other authors, which would be welcomed for any future reediting." Filitti's other contribution for 1938 is an eponymous volume about the 1821 Wallachian revolutionist Tudor Vladimirescu, with the subtitle: Rostul răscoalei lui ("The Purpose of His Revolt"). From May 1938, Filitti was also General Administrative Inspector of the kingdom. The outbreak of World War II again pushed him away from public life. Romania was an Axis country, and, as such, Bucharest endured heavy bombardments by the United States Air Force. The air attack of April 4, 1944, effectively destroyed the Filitti residence, its art collection (including Murano glassware) and scores of unedited documents. The historian survived, but, according to Georgeta Filitti, the incident "hastened his death". I. C. Filitti died in September 1945, almost a year after King Michael's Coup broke with the Axis. By his own account, he had published 82 volumes, 267 topical articles, and completed some 700 family trees. Many of these texts were circular of "rectifications" to previous editions, addressed to the community of scientists at large. ## Legacy Filitti's death occurred shortly before a Romanian communist regime came into existence. He was survived by his wife and son. An aristocrats by blood and conservatives by conviction, Ioan C.'s descendants and relatives suffered heavily as a result of the new policies: the outspoken anti-communist Filitti-Robănești became a political prisoner, as did his cousin Puiu Filitti, who had been the King's Adjutant. Alexandrina Filitti was stripped of virtually all her land during the land reform and nationalization, but still forced to meet agricultural quotas imposed by the government; when she failed to do so, Manole Filitti took it upon himself to face the consequences, and spent some three years in communist jails. Upon release, Manole and part of the Filitti clan moved into a single Bucharest home, located near the Darvari Skete. Reintegrated as a clerk for nationalized enterprises, he remarried, in 1985, to historian Georgeta Penelea. Of Croat and Istro-Romanian ancestry, she is related to prestigious woman reporter Mihaela Catargi. Manole's son Ion had a career in engineering, but could not advance professionally due to his aristocratic lineage. He emigrated to West Germany, where a branch of the Filittis still resides. Although officially censored, Filitti's work was not entirely inaccessible. As indicated by Victor Rizescu, under orthodox Marxism-Leninism, the idea of boyar precedence in the early Danubian Principalities was not discarded, but rather integrated within a "modes of production" theory. Some of Filitti's books were reprinted in the 1980s, when national communism allowed selective exposure to Romania's conservative schools of thought. As noted by historian Ovidiu Pecican, the regime was trying to encourage "autarkic xenophobia", preventing intellectuals from receiving Western ideas, but in exchange allowing them a selective recovery of old ideas. In 1985, Proprietatea solului..., Frământări politice și sociale... and România față de capitulațiile Turciei were reissued in critical editions. On the academic side, the main contributor to this particular recovery project was Georgeta Penelea-Filitti, also distinguished as the editor of books by Iorga, Mihail Kogălniceanu, and other intellectual figures. The Romanian Revolution of 1989 resulted in more consideration being granted to I. C. Filitti, as both researcher and polemicist. The Filitti Archive, preserved by Manole Filitti, was divided into separate funds, and divided between several institutions: the Romanian Academy Library, the National Archives, the Cotroceni Palace collection, and the Ialomița County Museum. Selections from the historian's diaries were published by Georgeta Filitti as fascicles in the academic review Revista Istorică, during the early 1990s. Beginning 2008, she published the diary in book form, with the Ialomița Museum press and Cetatea de Scaun company of Târgoviște. Romania's academic community was thus prompted to reassess the overall value of Ioan C. Filitti's work. The popular history review Magazin Istoric grants an I. C. Filitti Award as one of its four annual distinctions for exceptional research and writing. In 2009, Editura Compania company published historian Dan Berindei's book of scholarly biographies, which notably includes a chapter on Filitti. According to Boia, Berindei bracketed out Filitti's entire career in occupied Romania, while expressing a vague regret that Filitti never reached his full potential in diplomacy. Boia asks rhetorically: "the historian knows [the reason for this], shouldn't the reader also find it out?" According to political scientist Cristian Cercel, Ioan Stanomir takes credit for having helped recover Filitti's contributions as conservative theorist, which had been "all too soon forgotten." In his 2004 book Conștiința conservatoare ("The Conservative Consciousness"), Stanomir places Filitti alongside Constantin Rădulescu-Motru, Alexandru Duțu and Virgil Nemoianu, as one of the intellectuals who preserved a place for Junimist conservatism into the latter 20th century and beyond.
1,134,373	Primer (film)	1,168,382,290	2004 American science fiction drama film directed by Shane Carruth	[ "2000s American films", "2000s English-language films", "2004 directorial debut films", "2004 drama films", "2004 films", "2004 independent films", "2004 science fiction films", "2004 thriller films", "Alfred P. Sloan Prize winners", "American independent films", "American science fiction films", "American thriller films", "Existentialist films", "Films about technological impact", "Films about time travel", "Films directed by Shane Carruth", "Films set in Texas", "Films shot in 16 mm film", "Films shot in Texas", "Hard science fiction films", "StudioCanal films", "Sundance Film Festival award-winning films", "Two-handers" ]	Primer is a 2004 American independent psychological science fiction film about the accidental discovery of time travel. The film was written, directed, produced, edited and scored by Shane Carruth in his debut feature, who also stars with David Sullivan. Primer is of note for its extremely low budget, experimental plot structure, philosophical implications, and complex technical dialogue, which Carruth, a college graduate with a degree in mathematics and a former engineer, chose not to simplify for the sake of the audience. The film collected the Grand Jury Prize at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival, before securing a limited release in the United States, and has since gained a cult following. ## Plot Two engineers, Aaron and Abe, supplement their day jobs with entrepreneurial tech projects, working out of Aaron's garage. During one such research effort, involving electromagnetic reduction of objects' weight, the two men accidentally discover an 'A-to-B' causal loop side-effect: objects left in the weight-reducing field exhibit temporal anomalies, proceeding normally (from time 'A,' when the field was activated, to time 'B,' when the field is powered off), then backwards (from 'B' back to 'A') in a continuously repeating sequence, such that objects can leave the field in the present, or at some previous point. Abe refines this proof-of-concept and builds a stable time-apparatus ("the box"), sized to accommodate a human subject. Abe uses this box to travel six hours into his own past—as part of this process, Abe sits incommunicado in a hotel room, so as not to interact or interfere with the outside world, after which he enters the box then waits inside the box for six hours (thus going back in time six hours). Once he exits the box, Abe travels across town, explains the proceedings to Aaron, and brings Aaron back to the self-storage facility housing the box. At the facility, they watch the earlier version of Abe enter the box. Abe and Aaron repeat Abe's six-hour experiment multiple times over multiple days, making profitable same-day stock trades armed with foreknowledge of the market's performance. The duo's divergent personalities – Abe cautious and controlling, Aaron impulsive and meddlesome – put subtle strain on their collaboration and friendship. Additionally, the time travel is taxing on Abe and Aaron's bodies; effectively their days become 36 hours long when including the extra time afforded by the box. As the film progresses, the two men begin to notice alarming side effects of time travel which take the form of earbleeds. Later, they notice their handwriting progressively worsening. The tension between Abe and Aaron comes to a head after a late-night encounter with Thomas Granger (father to Abe's girlfriend, Rachel), who appears inexplicably unshaven and exists in overlap with his original suburban self. Granger falls into a comatose state after being pursued by Aaron; Aaron theorizes that, at some unknown point in the future, Granger entered the "box", with timeline-altering consequences. Abe concludes that time travel is simply too dangerous and enters a secret second box (the "failsafe box," built before the experiment began and kept continuously running), traveling back four days to prevent the experiment's launch. Cumulative competing interference wreaks havoc upon the timeline. Future-Abe sedates Original-Abe (so he will never conduct the initial time travel experiment) and meets Original-Aaron at a park bench (so as to dissuade him), but finds that Future-Aaron has gotten there first (armed with pre-recordings of the past conversations, and an unobtrusive earpiece), having brought a disassembled "third failsafe box" four days back with his own body. Future-Abe faints at this revelation, overcome by shock and fatigue. The two men briefly and tentatively reconcile. They jointly travel back in time, experiencing and reshaping an event where Abe's girlfriend Rachel was nearly killed by a gun-wielding party crasher. After many repetitions, Aaron, forearmed with knowledge of the party's events, stops the gunman, becoming a local hero. Abe and Aaron ultimately part ways; Aaron considers a new life in foreign countries where he can tamper more broadly for personal gain, while Abe states his intent to remain in town and dissuade/sabotage the original "box" experiment. Abe warns Aaron to leave and never return. Multiple "box-aware" versions of Aaron circulate—at least one Future-Aaron has shared his knowledge with Original-Aaron, via discussions, voice-recordings, and an unsuccessful physical altercation. Future-Abe watches over Original-Abe, going to painstaking extremes to keep him unaware of the future. An Aaron directs French-speaking workers in the construction of a warehouse-sized box. ## Cast - Shane Carruth as Aaron - David Sullivan as Abe - Casey Gooden as Robert - Anand Upadhyaya as Phillip - Carrie Crawford as Kara - Samantha Thomson as Rachel Granger - Brandon Blagg as Will Carruth cast himself as Aaron after having trouble finding actors who could "break ... the habit of filling each line with so much drama". Most of the other actors are either friends or family members. ## Themes Although one of the more fantastical elements of science fiction is central to the film, Carruth's goal was to portray scientific discovery in a down-to-earth and realistic manner. He notes that many of the greatest breakthrough scientific discoveries in history have occurred by accident, in locations no more glamorous than Aaron's garage. > Whether it involved the history of the number zero or the invention of the transistor, two things stood out to me. First is that the discovery that turns out to be the most valuable is usually dismissed as a side-effect. Second is that prototypes almost never include neon lights and chrome. I wanted to see a story play out that was more in line with the way real innovation takes place than I had seen on film before. Carruth has said he intended the central theme of the film to be the breakdown of Abe and Aaron's relationship, as a result of their inability to cope with the power afforded them by this technological advancement: > First thing, I saw these guys as scientifically accomplished but ethically, morons. They never had any reasons before to have ethical questions. So when they're hit with this device they're blindsided by it. The first thing they do is make money with it. They're not talking about the ethics of altering your former self. ## Physics and science - Aaron and Abe start the film by attempting to create a device to somehow counter the effects of gravity. They have plans for such a device from another development team, but wish to improve on the viability of the design. Their main approach to achieve this is to discard the coolant bath for the required superconductors. They instead increase the transition temperature of the superconductor to "something more usable", a room-temperature superconductor. The time machine makes use of the property of superconductors called the Meissner effect, which "knock[s] out the interior magnetic field". - Aaron and Abe require palladium to build their machine. This is the reason they take the catalytic converter containing a small amount of palladium from a car. - The principles of time travel in the film are inspired by Feynman diagrams. Carruth explained: "Richard Feynman has some interesting ideas about time. When you look at Feynman diagrams [which map the interaction of elementary particles], there's really no difference between watching an interaction happen forward and backward in time." ## Production While writing the script, Carruth studied physics to help him make Abe and Aaron's technical dialogue sound authentic. He took the unusual step of eschewing contrived exposition and tried instead to portray the shorthand phrases and jargon used by working scientists. This philosophy carried over into production design. The time machine itself is a plain gray box, with a distinctive electronic "hum" created by overlaying the sounds of a mechanical grinder and a car engine, rather than by using a processed digital effect. Carruth also set the story in unglamorous industrial parks and suburban tract homes. Carruth chose to deliberately obfuscate the film's plot to mirror the complexity and confusion created by time travel. As he said in a 2004 interview: "This machine and Abe and Aaron's experience are inherently complicated so it needed to be that way in order for the audience to be where Abe and Aaron are, which was always my hope." ### Filming Principal photography took place over five weeks, on the outskirts of Dallas, Texas. The film was produced on a budget of only US\$7,000, and a skeleton crew of five. Carruth acted as writer, director, producer, cinematographer, editor, and music composer. He also stars in the film as Aaron, and many of the other characters are played by his friends and family. The small budget required conservative use of the Super 16mm filmstock: the carefully limited number of takes resulted in an extremely low shooting ratio of 2:1. Every shot in the film was meticulously storyboarded on 35 mm stills. Carruth created a distinctive flat, overexposed look for the film by using fluorescent lighting, non-neutral color temperatures, high-speed film stock, and filters. After shooting, Carruth took two years to fully post-produce Primer. He has since said that this experience was so arduous that he almost abandoned the film on several occasions. ### Music The entire film score was created by Carruth. On October 8, 2004, the Primer score was released on Amazon and iTunes. ## Release ### Distribution Carruth secured a North American distribution deal with THINKFilm after the company's head of theatrical distribution, Mark Urman, saw the film at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival. Although he and Carruth made a "handshake agreement" during the festival, Urman reported that the actual negotiation of the deal was the longest he had ever been involved with, in part due to Carruth's specific demands over how much control over the film he would retain. The film went on to take \$545,436 at the box office. ### Critical reception and legacy Primer received positive reception from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 72% approval rating based on 129 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6/10. The consensus reads, "Dense, obtuse, but stimulating, Primer is a film ready for viewers ready for a cerebral challenge." The site also listed Primer as one of the best science fiction films "for the thinking man". On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 68 out of 100 based on reviews from 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Many reviewers were impressed by the film's originality. Dennis Lim of The Village Voice said that it was "the freshest thing the genre has seen since 2001, while in The New York Times, A. O. Scott wrote that Carruth had "the skill, the guile and the seriousness to turn a creaky philosophical gimmick into a dense and troubling moral puzzle". Scott also enjoyed the film's realistic depiction of scientists at work, saying that Carruth had an "impressive feel for the odd, quiet rhythms of small-scale research and development". There was also praise for Carruth's ability to maintain high production values on a minuscule budget, with Roger Ebert declaring: "The movie never looks cheap, because every shot looks as it must look." Ty Burr of The Boston Globe commented that "aspects of Primer are so low-rent as to evoke guffaws", but added that "the homemade feel is part of the point". Similarly, Wired wrote, "Primer was noted for its originality – the film takes on complex topics like quantum physics and doesn't dumb them down for the viewer, instead using real jargon and terms that real-life researchers would – and for its commitment to a lo-fi aesthetic. Much of the film is set in garages and car parks, and then with the exception of the two lead roles, every other character is played by a friend or family member of the cast." The film's experimental plot and dense dialogue were controversially received. Esquire's Mike D'Angelo claimed that "anybody who claims he fully understands what's going on in Primer after seeing it just once is either a savant or a liar". Scott Tobias writes for The A.V. Club: "The banter is heavy on technical jargon and almost perversely short on exposition; were it not for the presence of voiceover narration, the film would be close to incomprehensible." For the Los Angeles Times, Carina Chocano writes: "sticklers for linear storytelling are bound to be frustrated by narrative threads that start promisingly, then just sort of fall off the spool". Some reviewers were entirely put off by the film's obfuscated narrative. Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter complained that Primer "nearly gets lost in a miasma of technical jargon and scientific conjecture". "Primer is hopelessly confusing and grows more and more byzantine as it unravels," Chuck Klosterman writes in an essay on time travel films five years later. "I've watched it seven or eight times and I still don't know what happened." He nonetheless says it is "the finest movie about time travel I've ever seen" because of its realism: > It's not that the time machine ... seems more realistic; it's that the time travelers themselves seem more believable. They talk and act (and think) like the kind of people who might accidentally figure out how to move through time, which is why it's the best depiction we have of the ethical quandaries that might result from such a discovery. Ultimately, Klosterman says, the lesson of Primer regarding time travel is that "it's too important to use only for money, but too dangerous to use for anything else". The American director Steven Soderbergh is regarded as a fan of the film. The film has been selected to be part of The A.V. Club's New Cult Canon. Donald Clarke, film critic with The Irish Times, included Primer at No. 20 on his list of the top twenty films of the decade (2000–2010). It was ranked number two in Popular Mechanics' list of The 30 Best Time Travel Movies. MovieWeb ranked Primer at No. 17 on their list of the 30 Best Sci-fi Thrillers Of All Time. Science fiction author Greg Egan describes Primer as "an ingenious, tautly constructed time-travel story". ## Awards - Grand Jury Prize, Sundance Film Festival in 2004. - Alfred P. Sloan Prize for films dealing with science and technology, the 2004 Sundance Film Festival. - Best Writer/Director (Shane Carruth) at the Nantucket Film Festival in 2004. - Best Feature at the London International Festival of Science Fiction in 2005.
13,674,481	George Villiers (1759–1827)	1,170,369,528	British courtier and politician	[ "1759 births", "1827 deaths", "Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge", "British MPs 1790–1796", "British MPs 1796–1800", "Hertfordshire Yeomanry officers", "Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies", "Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies", "People educated at Eton College", "Tory MPs (pre-1834)", "UK MPs 1801–1802", "Villiers family", "Younger sons of earls" ]	The Hon. George Villiers (23 November 1759 – 21 March 1827) was a British courtier and politician from the Villiers family. The youngest son of the diplomat Lord Hyde (later Earl of Clarendon), he was an intimate of Princess Amelia and personal supporter of her father, George III. His favour within the Royal Family and his father's influence brought him a number of sinecures to support him. However, Villiers was more interested in the operation of the royal farms at Windsor Castle than in politics or the duties of his offices. When his bookkeeping as Paymaster of the Marines was carefully examined in 1810, Villiers' carelessness and the speculation of his clerk had left him in debt to the Crown by more than £250,000. This exposure touched off a public scandal; Villiers promptly surrendered all his property to the Crown and threw himself on the king's mercy. The misconduct of Joseph Hunt as Treasurer of the Ordnance to some extent obscured Villiers' own misconduct, and he was able to retain other sinecures and a stable, if reduced, income from them until his death in 1827. ## Upbringing and political career Villiers was the youngest son of Thomas Villiers, 1st Earl of Clarendon and Charlotte Capell. His maternal grandparents were William Capell, 3rd Earl of Essex and Jane Hyde. George, like his brother, was educated at Eton College and then St John's College, Cambridge, graduating with an MA in 1779. It was presumably through the influence of his father, then Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster under the first Pitt ministry, that he was appointed a Groom of the Bedchamber to George III on 13 January 1783, and Clerk of the Council and Registrar of the Duchy of Lancaster in August 1786. A polished courtier, Villiers earned the nickname "Tiger" among his party for his vehement support of the king; although as Fanny Burney observed, his "remarkably slim, slight and delicate person" did not match the nickname. In 1792, Villiers purchased the support of Lord Warwick, and was returned as Member of Parliament for Warwick in the by-election of 18 January 1792 as a Tory. On 19 March 1792, shortly after his entry into Parliament, Villiers was appointed to the office of Paymaster of Marines, a sinecure which would ultimately prove his undoing. The salary of the post was fixed at £600 p.a. after a reform in 1800. In 1794, Villiers became the Captain commanding the newly raised Western Troop of the Hertfordshire Gentlemen and Yeomanry-Cavalry. He was elected unopposed in 1796, but did not stand for the borough in 1802. Though a friend of Pitt's government, he rarely attended the House; George Rose commented in a letter that Villiers's loss would have no impact on the Tories. While a member of parliament, in 1798, he married Lord Boringdon's daughter, Theresa, who would bear him ten children over the next two decades. After leaving Parliament, Villiers continued his presence at Court, and carried messages from the Princess Royal in Stuttgart to the king. In 1803, the duties of his office as paymaster were extended, and on 9 May, he was reappointed as Paymaster and Inspector-General of Marines, with a salary of £1,000 p.a. In the same year, he was commissioned a captain in the Watford Volunteer Cavalry. Villiers was prepared to intercede with the king on behalf of Pitt to fulfill the latter's desire for a more comprehensive ministry, which, however, was frustrated; and to bring Pitt's friends into the Ministry of All the Talents in 1806. Villiers, indeed, enjoyed considerable favour with the king, who granted him a private bounty of £400 p.a. in 1804 after being compelled to refuse him an office at Windsor Park. He was allowed to hold simultaneous office as a groom of the bedchamber and paymaster, and the king determined to place him in charge of his farms at Windsor as bailiff. Villiers and his family lived at Windsor Old Lodge until 1805, when he was appointed ranger of Cranbourne Chase and he moved into Cranbourne Lodge, newly renovated as his residence. Villiers and his wife were particularly intimate with Princess Amelia, the king's favourite daughter, accounting in part for the Royal favour shown him. With the fall of the Ministry of All the Talents in 1807 and the formation of Portland's government, the Duke of Cumberland vigorously lobbied Portland to grant Villiers the mastership of the Buckhounds or some other office, on the grounds of Villiers having rendered "very serious and important services" to the Royal Family, but was unsuccessful. In 1809, upon the death of John Fordyce, Surveyor General of the Land Revenues of the Crown, Portland proposed to replace that office and that of the Surveyor General of Woods, Forests, Parks, and Chases, then held by Lord Glenbervie, with a three-man commission (the Commissioners of Woods and Forests), and to make Villiers one of the junior commissioners. This reorganisation of the Crown Lands temporarily halted upon Portland's resignation and the formation of a new government under Spencer Perceval. This created an embarrassing difficulty for Villiers and his interest; George Canning did not choose to serve under Perceval, and Villiers' brother-in-law, the 2nd Lord Boringdon, was Canning's friend. Nor was the proposed appointment of Villiers universally popular; Lord Glenbervie, the proposed senior commissioner, vented his anger at Perceval's nomination of Villiers in his journal: > I know personally that he [Perceval] feels and is vexed at the intriguing, selfish, meddling, mischief-making qualities of Villiers, who by his own teizing, and the illecebrae of his wife has gained a great ascendancy over the royal mind, and has teized his Majesty and the Duke of Portland for that appointment, hoping thereby to smooth the way for his many jobs at Cranborne Lodge and his domineering authority over the Parks and Forest of Windsor. Nonetheless, Villiers continued to press his claims to office on Perceval, in a letter of 18 October 1809. He had, he said, turned down a pension of £1,200 p.a. for "reasons...which can never be publicly alluded to" and had received a promise from Portland to replace Fordyce as Surveyor General of the Land Revenues (a post worth £2,000 p.a.); Villiers would, however, be satisfied with the commissionership and £1,000 p.a. in addition, provided that he might retain his office of paymaster. In fact, that office was about to become the engine of Villiers' political destruction. He appears to have received the sinecure offices of registrar of the Vice-Admiralty Court of Gibraltar and marshal of the Vice-Admiralty Court of Antigua around this time. ## Scandal and disgrace The value to the sinecurist of an office like that of Paymaster of Marines lay not so much in the official salary attached to it, but in the lax accounting procedures associated with disbursement of funds, which allowed the official to retain large sums of public money in his own hands for many years until accounts were made up. The office of Paymaster General had been reformed in 1783 to avoid these abuses, but these changes had not yet been extended to the Marines during Villiers' tenure. He appears to have taken little interest in his official duties both as paymaster and inspector-general, leaving affairs in the hands of Edmund Waters. Waters had been his private secretary, and when Villiers came to office as paymaster, Waters was appointed chief clerk in that department, rising to deputy paymaster in 1797. Waters and Villiers invested in real estate with some of the money passing through the office; unfortunately for Villiers, Waters was also diverting some of the funds to his own interest in the Opera House, and the accounts of the office were in a shambles. Well aware of the parlous state of the office's accounts, Waters retired from the Marine Pay Office in 1807 as an independently wealthy man (only to lose the fortune in his Opera House investments). The lax regime in the Pay Office rattled on, however, until 27 December 1809, when Perceval became aware of the state of Villiers' accounts. Villiers, to his credit, immediately resigned and took responsibility for his official debts. Perceval allowed him to proffer his resignation directly to the king, but Villiers could not face his master; Perceval informed the king of the state of affairs in a letter of 15 January 1810, laying the blame for the situation largely on Waters. Perceval's letter noted that "reports were circulating on the subject to such an extent as to make it impossible to hope that it would not become the subject of Parliamentary observation." By this time, Villiers's accounts had been audited through the year 1804, revealing him to be in arrears by the staggering sum of £280,000 through that point. On the advice of his brother-in-law Boringdon, Villiers offered up all his property to the Crown, although he could not hope to pay off the entire sum found wanting by this means. The episode left him in a condition of nervous prostration, the more so as he by now had five children to support. A letter by "A.B." in Cobbett's Political Register of 27 January 1810 assailed Villiers for his delinquency and estimated that his debt, with interest, might run to £500,000. Fortunately for Villiers, his case was not to be prosecuted with the utmost rigour. He was to some degree protected by the joint efforts of Boringdon's friends and the Whig George Tierney, as well as his own quick action in surrendering his property through writs of extent; and the delinquency of Joseph Hunt, Treasurer of the Ordnance attracted attention and saved Villiers from the full wrath of the finance committee. Their report on the matter noted that the writ of extent had been to the amount of £264,000, but only £91,000 had been raised from the sale of his property, and about £30,000 from securities and the bond posted for him when he took office. The committee recommended the abolition of the office of Paymaster of Marines and the transfer of its duties to the Treasurer of the Navy, a recommendation which was not immediately acted upon. Villiers was left, in Boringdon's estimation, with a debt of £1,500–2,000, an annual income of £2,000–3,000, and the property in Cranbourne Lodge. However, his disgrace was not over. After his resignation, Villiers had been replaced by Lord Mulgrave's brother, Edmund Phipps, as paymaster and lost his prospective place as a commissioner of woods and forests. Then, he was informed on 4 May 1810, after the release of the finance committee's report, that the king had removed from him the supervision of the farms at Windsor (he also lost the rangership). The news threw him into a state of great mental distress; he wrote to the king begging him to suspend judgement on the points raised by the committee's report. The king replied that it was "indispensable" to remove Villiers from his office under the circumstances, but extended his sympathy and suspended judgement on him. The final disaster for Villiers occurred in November, when Princess Amelia died. After her death, Villiers and his wife attempted to blackmail the Royal Family by threatening (in a letter to her doctor, Sir Henry Halford) to release some of her correspondence, much to the shock of her sister, Princess Mary. The family finally moved out of Cranborne Lodge in 1812. The untangling of his accounts dragged on until 1819, prolonged by his enemies at the Navy Office and his own fiscal incapacity. At length a balance of £220,000 was found against him, but by this time his career was hopelessly ruined. He left office as a groom of the bedchamber in 1815, but retained his vice-admiralty sinecures until his death. In 1824, he became heir presumptive to the Earldom of Clarendon but died in 1827 without inheriting it. ## Marriage and children On 17 April 1798, George married Theresa Parker. She was a daughter of John Parker, 1st Baron Boringdon and his second wife Hon. Theresa Robinson. Her maternal grandparents were Thomas Robinson, 1st Baron Grantham and Frances Worsley. They had ten children: - Georgiana Villiers (12 February 1799 – 16 March 1799) - George Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon (27 January 1800 – 27 June 1870) - Thomas Hyde Villiers (24 January 1801 – 3 December 1832) - Hon. Charles Pelham Villiers (3 January 1802 – 16 January 1898) - Lady Maria Theresa Villiers (8 March 1803 – 9 November 1865). Married first novelist Thomas Henry Lister on 6 November 1830, they had a daughter, Alice Beatrice (d. 1863), who married Algernon Borthwick, 1st Baron Glenesk. After her first husband's death, she married politician Sir George Cornewall Lewis, 2nd Baronet on 25 October 1844. - Frederick Adolphus Villiers (17 February 1805 – 21 November 1806) - Hon. Edward Ernest Villiers (23 March 1806 – 30 October 1843) was educated at Merton College, Oxford (where he was a president of the United Debating Society) and Lincoln's Inn, and was later a Colonization Commissioner for South Australia. He married Elizabeth Charlotte Liddell, daughter of Thomas Liddell, 1st Baron Ravensworth, leaving a son and three daughters. Their daughter Edith Villiers married Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton and became Lady of the Bedchamber to both Queen Victoria and Queen Alexandra. - Augustus Villiers (2 March 1808 – 24 March 1808) - Hon. Henry Montagu Villiers (4 January 1813 – 9 August 1861), Bishop of Durham from 1860 to his death. - Lt. Hon. Augustus Algernon Villiers, RN (14 April 1817 – 13 July 1843), died unmarried, Knight of Isabella the Catholic
22,484,626	Scott Doe	1,164,020,968	English footballer	[ "1988 births", "Barnstaple Town F.C. players", "Billericay Town F.C. players", "Boreham Wood F.C. players", "Dagenham & Redbridge F.C. players", "Dover Athletic F.C. players", "England men's semi-pro international footballers", "English Football League players", "English men's footballers", "Footballers from Berkshire", "Footballers from Reading, Berkshire", "Hythe Town F.C. players", "Isthmian League players", "Kettering Town F.C. players", "Living people", "Men's association football defenders", "National League (English football) players", "Romford F.C. players", "Swindon Town F.C. players", "Welling United F.C. players", "Weymouth F.C. players", "Whitehawk F.C. players", "Whitstable Town F.C. players" ]	Scott Mark Doe (born 6 November 1988) is an English semi-professional footballer who plays as a defender for Romford. Doe started his career with Swindon Town as a youth player before joining Conference Premier club Weymouth. In February 2009, he left Weymouth due to financial problems at the club and registered with Kettering Town to allow him to join Dagenham & Redbridge on loan until the end of the 2008–09 season. He was refused permission to join Dagenham on a permanent basis by The Football Association as the move was outside the transfer window. Doe has also represented the England C team, making one appearance against Malta under-21s. ## Early career Doe was born in Reading, Berkshire. As a youth player, he played as a forward for AFC Newbury and Newbury and District Schools alongside Theo Walcott, before the duo signed for Swindon Town. They played together for four years. He said in one season, that his partnership with Walcott consisted of them scoring about 150 goals. During a tournament in Cardiff, Doe was converted into a centre-back. Doe was with Swindon Town from the age of 10, until he was deemed surplus to requirements by manager Paul Sturrock, and he left in July 2007. ## Club career ### Weymouth Doe joined Conference Premier club Weymouth on 1 July 2007, along with Swindon Town youth teammate Jon Stewart, where he signed a one-year contract. His debut for Weymouth was in the 3–0 home win during a pre-season friendly against League Two side Bournemouth on 17 July. He made his competitive debut for his new club on 15 September in the 3–1 away win at Droylsden, replacing Conal Platt as a substitute in the 65th minute. Doe's first start for Weymouth was against Torquay United on 25 September, in their 3–2 away defeat. His first goal for the club was scored on 26 January 2008, away at Rushden & Diamonds, as Weymouth were defeated 3–2. Paolo Vernazza took a free kick in the 25th minute after Stuart Beavon was fouled just outside the penalty area by Curtis Osano. Doe scored with a header, which took a slight deflection as the ball crossed the goal line. During Weymouth's 2–1 away defeat on 1 March to Halifax Town, Doe was controversially sent off three minutes into stoppage time. He was sent off for a tackle on Andy Campbell, but manager John Hollins claimed "there is no doubt that Scott got the ball". Weymouth finished the season in 18th position, defying relegation, with Doe ending the 2007–08 season having made 33 appearances in the Conference, scoring once. Doe won the "Supporters Player of The Year" award, describing it as "the best thing in the World". He admitted he did not expect to play more than 15 games during the season, saying "when I first came to the club I thought I might play 15 games throughout the whole season but I have ended up playing over twice that and it has just been fantastic" stated Doe. Along with Anton Robinson, Marcus Browning and Stuart Beavon, Doe signed a new contract with Weymouth in May 2008. His only goal for Weymouth in the 2008–09 season was against Forest Green Rovers on 25 August, after scoring the equalizer to make the score 1–1 in the 71st minute, with a tap-in following a cross from Ryan Williams. In September, Doe was transfer listed, alongside James Coutts, Danny Knowles, Josh Webb and Michael Malcolm to generate money and bring new players to the club. He responded to being transfer listed by saying "I do not see it as a big deal. It's not like the club has said to me we are putting you on the transfer list because we do not want you anymore", and suggested it could benefit both parties if a bigger club were willing to "pay a bit of money". On 4 October, Doe was sent off in Weymouth's 3–2 home win over Eastbourne Borough, after he committed a foul on Andy Atkin in the penalty area, which resulted in a penalty kick that was later saved. Southern League Premier Division club Farnborough approached Doe on 30 December. He turned the offer down saying; "moving to Farnborough would mean stepping down two levels which is not what I want to do". His last game for Weymouth was against Stevenage Borough on 14 February, in the 3–0 home defeat. ### Dagenham & Redbridge Doe agreed to sign for League Two side Dagenham & Redbridge on a two-and-a-half-year contract in February 2009, initially on loan. He was also offered a contract at League One club Peterborough United. Financial troubles at Weymouth resulted in a number of first-team players not being paid. Due to the situation at Weymouth, The Football Association gave him special dispensation to move anywhere, although the Football League refused to allow him to join Dagenham as it was outside the transfer window. Subsequently, Doe registered for another Conference Premier team, Kettering Town, and joined Dagenham on an emergency loan until the end of the 2008–09 season. He signed for Dagenham on a permanent basis on a two-and-a-half-year contract in March. He made his debut on the opening day of the 2009–10 season, after starting in a 2–1 victory over Crewe Alexandra. At the end of the season, Doe was runner-up to Mark Arber for Dagenham & Redbridge's "Player of the Year" award. In June 2015, Doe rejected a new contract extension and left the club having made 266 appearances, scoring 11 goals. ### Boreham Wood After leaving Dagenham & Redbridge, Doe signed for newly promoted National League side Boreham Wood in July 2015. ### Return to Dagenham and later career In May 2016, he re-signed for Dagenham & Redbridge after their relegation to the National League along with Luke Howell on a free transfer, re-uniting with former manager John Still. In February 2018, Doe was released by the Daggers and briefly joined Brighton-based National League South side Whitehawk, before signing once more for Boreham Wood. In July 2018, he signed for Billericay Town. On 8 December 2018, Doe signed for Dover Athletic after leaving Billericay where he made 13 league appearances, scoring one goal. On 23 January 2021, Doe signed for National League South side Welling United. In August 2021, Doe joined Hythe Town. In March 2022, Doe left Hythe Town to join Barnstaple Town. Doe was released from Barnstaple however after just two weeks, and subsequently returned to Kent to sign for Whitstable Town. In July 2022, he was training with Sheppey United and has played for them in the pre-season leading up to the 2022–23 Isthmian League season. Ahead of the new season, Doe returned to Romford. ## International career Doe was called up to the England C squad in February 2009, by manager Paul Fairclough, to face the Malta under-21 team. He came on as a second-half substitute in the 4–0 victory at Hibernians Football Ground, Paola, on 17 February. ## Style of play Doe is able to play as a centre-back or full-back and is a "strong player" with good positional sense. ## Career statistics
135,916	Bacliff, Texas	1,169,167,094	null	[ "Census-designated places in Galveston County, Texas", "Census-designated places in Texas", "Galveston Bay Area", "Greater Houston", "Populated coastal places in Texas" ]	Bacliff is a census-designated place (CDP) in north-central Galveston County, Texas, United States, 16 miles (26 km) northwest of Galveston. The population was 8,619 at the 2010 census. Bacliff, originally called Clifton-by-the-Sea, began as a seaside resort town. Located on the western shore of Galveston Bay, Bacliff, along with San Leon and Bayview, are the largest unincorporated communities on the Galveston County mainland. The Bacliff CDP is home to the Kenneth E. Little Elementary school and Bayshore Park, created from land donated by Texas Genco. ## History Bacliff was established in 1910 by local landowners G.C. Perkins and W.Y. Fuqua as Clifton-by-the Sea. The area was developed as a seaside weekend resort, and included parks, hotels, summer homes, and a bathhouse and open air pavilion built on a pier over the water. Telephone service came to Clifton-by-the-Sea in 1913, and Grand Avenue (FM 646) became the main street. Hurricanes, Galveston's recovery after the Hurricane of 1900, and rapid transportation diminished Clifton-by-the-Sea's popularity. The hurricane of 1915 destroyed many of the improvements to the area, but by 1924 the bathhouse and pavilion had been restored and summer residents returned to the community. A fire destroyed the pavilion in 1929 and it was rebuilt and hosted numerous summer concerts by both the Galveston and Houston orchestras. The hurricane of 1943 caused major damage to the area and the bathhouse and pavilion were not rebuilt. In 1933, Clifton-by-the-Sea was home to 50 residents and 2 businesses, and from 1940 to 1949 it was home to 100 residents and 4 businesses. After World War II the area expanded as it became home for workers of the nearby petrochemical plants. The expansion of the area required the establishment of a post office in 1948. The U.S. Postal Service refused to allow the name Clifton-by-the-Sea to be used due to its length, and the name Clifton was already in use by another Texas town, so the residents chose the same name as the subdivision at the center of business, Bay Cliff, as a replacement. However, the name was misspelled on the postal paperwork as Bacliff. The new name had only seven letters so it was admissible. "Gator" Miller, former publisher of the Seabreeze, said that in the 1950s the Galveston Daily News bought a large parcel of land and awarded free lots to subscribers; people who canceled subscriptions lost their homesites, which were given to other subscribers. Miller said that this resulted in confused titles and a lack of large business; Miller said that a retailer would not wish to buy land in Bacliff and then discover that an individual claimed title to the land. In 1964, Houston Lighting and Power began construction on two 450 MW electric generating units in Bacliff as part of the company's Project Enterprise expansion. The units were of supercritical boiler design, which was then a new technology. The power plant, originally known as the Bacliff Plant, was renamed the P. H. Robinson plant, in honor of company president Perk H. Robinson. In the 1970s and 1980s there was a dispute over the valuation of the power plant between HL&P and the Dickinson Independent School District (DISD). In 1979 HL&P said the plant was worth \$238 million but DISD's board of equalization said it was worth over \$242 million. A legal dispute ensued between the two agencies. During the 1980s, three (3) measures to incorporate the Bacliff area failed by wide margins. In April 1985, residents of Bacliff, Bayview, and San Leon considered an incorporation proposal to become the City of Bayshore. Judge Ray Holbrook signed an order for the election to take place on April 6, 1985, freeing the area, which had a population of 11,000, from the extraterritorial jurisdiction of League City and Texas City. Residents rejected the incorporation proposal. The vote was tallied with 1,268 against and 399 in favor. Proponents wanted a local police force and the ability to pass ordinances. Opponents said that the tax base was too small to support municipal services including police and road and drainage improvements. By 1986, the community became a bedroom community for workers commuting to jobs in the area; during that year the Bacliff community had 4,851 residents and 19 businesses. In 1986, residents in Bacliff and Bayview considered incorporating into a general law city. Supporters said that incorporation would establish more local control over affairs, an area police department, and the ability to pass ordinances. Opponents said that the area's tax base could not sufficiently support municipal service, including police protection and road and drainage improvements. At the time the area of 3.6 square miles (9.3 km<sup>2</sup>) considering incorporation had 7,000 people. Galveston County Judge Ray Holbrook signed an order setting the date of the election as Saturday, August 9, 1986, and releasing the area from the extraterritorial jurisdiction of Kemah, League City, and Texas City. In 1986, the Bacliff and Bayview area received water and sewer services from two municipal utility districts; if the incorporation measure had passed the districts would have likely remained. Donna Maples, vice president of the Bacliff-Bayview Community Association, supported the incorporation measure. The officials overseeing the election described turnout as "heavy." Officials announced that the incorporation proposal failed on a 770 to 163 count. In 2000, in Bacliff there were 6,692 people organized into 2,523 households. That year Bacliff and San Leon formed a nine member board to prepare the communities for incorporation. At that time Bacliff and San Leon had a combined population of 10,000. The board was to have three members from the Bacliff area, three members from the San Leon area, and three at large members. It was prompted after the City of Texas City suddenly annexed several commercial parcels along Texas State Highway 146 between Kemah and Dickinson Bayou in the year 2000. The board hoped to convince Texas City to reverse the annexation. In 2003, the P. H. Robinson power plant was mothballed by Texas Genco. The plant was mothballed due to the proliferation of newer gas-fired merchant plants in Texas. Robinson Units 1-4 had 2,213 MW. The plant was decommissioned in 2009 and demolished in 2012. In 2013, NRG began construction on a 6 unit electrical generation "peaking plant". This plant was placed in service on June 1, 2017 After Hurricane Ike hit Texas in September 2008, Galveston County officials offered a debris removal program to residents in unincorporated areas, including Bacliff. Flooding from hurricane Ike was minimized due in part to Bacliff's relatively high elevation of 16 feet. In 2017, in Bacliff there were 10,925 people organized into 3,004 households. ## Geography and climate Bacliff is a Census class code U5, populated area located at 29° 30' 24" N, 94° 59' 31" W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 2.7 square miles (7.0 km<sup>2</sup>), of which 2.5 square miles (6.6 km<sup>2</sup>) is land and 0.15 square miles (0.4 km<sup>2</sup>), or 5.85%, is water. Bacliff is east of League City, 3 miles (4.8 km) south of Kemah, 16 miles (26 km) northeast of Galveston, and 36 miles (58 km) southeast of Downtown Houston. Most of the area is along the Galveston Bay, east of Texas State Highway 146. The Bacliff, San Leon, and Bayview communities form the "Bayshore" area. ## Demographics ### 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 9,677 people, 3,672 households, and 2,684 families residing in the CDP. ### 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 8,619 people, 3,022 households, and 2,095 families residing in the CDP. This represented a growth of approximately 23.8% since the 2000 census. The population density was 3,405.4 people per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 74.3% White, 3.5% African American, 0.7% Native American, 2.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 15.9% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 37.1% of the population. There were 3,022 households, out of which 34.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.9% were married couples living together, 14.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.7% were non-families. 24.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.87 and the average family size was 3.41. In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 18.7% under the age of 18 years, 7.5% from 18 to 24 years, 31.3% from 25 to 44 years, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 8.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.3 males. As of 2012 most residents of Bacliff are commuters. As of 2012 Bacliff, Bayview, and San Leon together make up the largest unincorporated community in the mainland portion of Galveston County by population. In 2008 Phale Cassady Le, an outreach coordinator of Boat People SOS Houston, said that in Bacliff and San Leon there were between 150 and 200 Vietnamese families with origins in crab, oyster, and shrimp fishing operations. According to Le, most of the Vietnamese have no house or boat insurance, and even if they did have this insurance, their English is not well developed enough to read the terms of the policies. Many families had hand-made boats that were constructed over several years as the owner made more and more money. Nick Cenegy of The Galveston County Daily News said that the Vietnamese community in Bacliff and San Leon had a "tradition of self-reliance and wariness of outsiders." The Vietnamese first moved into the Galveston Bay Area in the 1970s and established shrimping businesses with borrowed money. By the early 1980s, many native residents in the area became angered and a conflict started between the groups. Because media groups portrayed White residents as, in the words of Bob Burtman of the Houston Press, "bigoted rednecks," many residents had a suspicion of the media; Burtman said that the media had exaggerated the importance of Ku Klux Klan involvement in that conflict. Due to the conflict, local residents had also gained anti-government feelings that were present in 1997. That year, Burtman said "For the most part, the Vietnamese and Texan shrimpers have ironed out their differences, though mistrust remains." ## Crime As of 2008 (Originally started in 1995), Bacliff had the 4th Street Bloods (4SB), a street gang consisting of mostly White Americans. The name of the gang originates from its headquarters in Bacliff. Documents filed in federal court stated that the gang was formed by six people in the mid-1990s. Cindy George of the Houston Chronicle said "The gang purportedly makes money by selling powdered and crack cocaine as well as methamphetamine." To identify themselves, members wore red and had tattoos that read "4th Street Playa" and "Kliff Side". In 2008 the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Texas City Safe Street Task Force, the Galveston County Sheriff's Office, and other agencies started an investigation into the gang. That year, 10 people were arrested, accused of drug charges. In 2011 the Federal Government of the United States arrested four men from Bacliff, accusing to be a part of the gang and charging them crimes related to crack cocaine distribution. In 2011 12 people accused of being members faced drug charges. In 2012 a federal judge in Houston sentenced four 4SB men to prison. They had pleaded guilty to their crimes. ## Infrastructure ### Utilities Two municipal utility districts serve the Bacliff CDP. Some sections of the Bacliff CDP are served by the Bacliff Municipal Utility District (MUD), while other sections are served by the Bayview MUD. In November 2011 the Bacliff MUD requested and received an 8.95 million dollar bond issue for the expansion of water services which are currently provided to about 2,700 water taps. This bond issue will be funded by Bacliff residents through increased property taxes. In addition to water/sewer service, the Bacliff MUD became responsible for administering trash collection as of February 2016. The Bacliff Volunteer Fire Department provides fire protection services. In 2010, under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the fire department got a \$356,320 loan and a \$191,854 grant from the United States Department of Agriculture Rural Development. The department used it to buy a newly built pumper fire truck. As of January 2014 Bacliff resident James Wistinghausen was the General Manager of the Bacliff MUD and the Fire Chief for the Bacliff Volunteer Fire Department. ### County, state, and federal representation The community is within the boundaries of Galveston County Commissioners' Court Precinct 1. As of 2017, Darrell Apffel is the Commissioner of the precinct. The Galveston County Sheriff's Office is the primary provider of law enforcement for Bacliff. In November 2012, Rick Sharp was elected constable of Precinct 1, replacing Pam Matranga. The Galveston County Precinct 1 Justice of the Peace court is located in Bacliff; as of April, 2015, the Justice of the Peace was Alison Cox. On January 26, 2016, a new Law Enforcement Center, located on Grand Avenue at 12th St, was opened. This building was a former illegal gambling hall and was confiscated by Galveston County, it now serves as a local base of operations for the Galveston County Sheriff's Department and Galveston County Precinct 1 Constable's office. Bacliff is located in District 23 of the Texas House of Representatives. As of 2016, Wayne Faircloth represents the district. Bacliff is within District 11 of the Texas Senate; as of 2016 Larry Taylor represents that district. In 1992, Bacliff was within District 24 of the Texas House of Representatives; after statewide legislative redistricting District 24 became District 23 in 1993 with its boundary changing by several city blocks. Bacliff is in Texas's 14th Congressional district. As of 2016, Randy Weber represents the district. The United States Postal Service Bacliff Post Office is located at 415 Grand Avenue. In 1994 Republican Party strength grew in Bacliff. ### Media Bacliff has one local tabloid which has been published in Bacliff and distributed free of charge since 1986, The Eagle Point Press Also circulated in Bacliff, between 2008 and 2018, on a monthly basis is The Seabreeze News, which is published in San Leon ## Economy Bacliff, like San Leon, and Bayview, originated as a fishing community. In 2012 T.J. Aulds of the Galveston County Daily News stated that much of the area's economic influence moved to the corridor along Texas State Highway 146, and that the economy adjusted with the growth of retail food service outlets and bars. Like San Leon and Bayview, many residents in Bacliff commute to work in Houston. Bacliff CDP had 3,147 employed civilians as of the 2000 Census, including 1,360 females. Of the civilian workers, 2,435 (77.4%) were private for profit wage and salary workers. Of them 56 (1.8% of the total Bacliff CDP civilian workforce) were employees of their own corporations, 82 (2.6%) were private non-profit wage and salary workers, 151 (4.8%) worked for local governments, 144 (4.6%) were state government workers, 53 (1.7%) were federal workers, 268 (9.3%) were self-employed, and 14 of them (less than 1% of the total Bacliff CDP workforce) worked in agriculture, forestry, fishing, or hunting. 14 (Less than 1%) were unpaid family workers. ## Education Some of the areas within the Bacliff CDP fall under the boundary of Dickinson Independent School District (DISD), while northern areas are zoned to Clear Creek Independent School District (CCISD). The CCISD part of the community north of Bay Avenue is within the Board of Trustees District 5, represented by Dee Scott as of 2014. The DISD portion is zoned to Kenneth E. Little Elementary School in the Bacliff community in unincorporated Galveston County. The current 92,000-square-foot (8,500 m<sup>2</sup>) facility, on a 20-acre (8.1 ha) campus, has 33 classrooms and capacity for about 750 students. The architect of the building was Bay Architects and the construction company was Falcon Group Construction. Construction began in the year 2000 and completion was scheduled for June 2001. The cost was \$7.5 million. Classrooms are arranged in pods organized by grade level. Each pod has a commons area. The school has a lighthouse motif reflecting its proximity to the Galveston Bay. The school entrance has a frosted dome, pyramidal skylight. The previous school building was located on the same site. Portions of the original building were to be demolished after students moved into the new school facility. Residents of the DISD portion are also zoned to Barber Middle School in Dickinson, McAdams Junior High School in Dickinson, and Dickinson High School in Dickinson. CCISD pupils are zoned to Stewart Elementary School (formerly Kemah Elementary School) in unincorporated Galveston County, Bayside Intermediate School in League City, and Clear Falls High School in League City. Previously residents were zoned to League City Intermediate School, and Clear Creek High School in League City. Residents of Dickinson ISD and the Galveston County portion of Clear Creek ISD (and therefore Bacliff) are zoned to the College of the Mainland, a community college in Texas City. ## Parks and recreation Along the Galveston Bay Bacliff has several boat ramps. The Galveston County Department of Parks and Senior Services operates several recreational facilities in Bacliff. The Bacliff Community Center is at 4503 11th Street. The 28-acre (110,000 m<sup>2</sup>) Bayshore Park at 5437 East Farm to Market Road 646 (FM 646) has five baseball fields, one boat ramp, one historic site, ten picnic areas, one pier, one playground, and five practice backstops. The 25-acre (10 ha) park was originally owned by Texas Genco for 35 years; the county operated the park according to an agreement. In 2005 Texas Genco donated the park to the county. Many anglers and their families use Bayshore Park as a place of recreation. In 2014 Galveston County purchased and cleared a new 64-acre (26 ha) tract in Bacliff which will become a new park for the Bayshore area. In August 2016 the Galveston County Commissioners Court approved a \$1.9 million contract to build a Community Center at the park with Galveston County crews initiating construction the same month. As of January 2018 the new Bacliff Community Center and Park was in full operation. The Bacliff Boat Ramp is located behind Clifton's Seaside Diner, while the Bayshore Park Boat Ramp is located on Farm to Market Road 646, aka Bayshore Drive. The nearest full service marina is the Eagle Point fishing camp, located off East Bayshore Drive in San Leon. As of 2016 one of the most popular restaurants in Bacliff was Noah's Ark. T.J. Aulds of The Galveston County Daily News said that Bacliff, San Leon, and Bayview "are known for great spots to eat seafood." As of 1991 Bacliff, along with Kemah and Seabrook, houses pleasure boats from NASA employees due to its proximity to the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. ## Notable residents - Floyd Tillman
78,385	The Velvet Underground & Nico	1,173,886,434	null	[ "1967 debut albums", "Albums produced by Andy Warhol", "Albums produced by Tom Wilson (record producer)", "Albums with cover art by Andy Warhol", "Art rock albums by American artists", "Avant-pop albums", "Collaborative albums", "Experimental rock albums", "Nico albums", "Protopunk albums", "The Velvet Underground albums", "United States National Recording Registry albums", "United States National Recording Registry recordings", "Verve Records albums" ]	The Velvet Underground & Nico is the debut studio album by the American rock band the Velvet Underground and German singer Nico, released in March 1967 through Verve Records. It was recorded in 1966 while the band were featured on Andy Warhol's Exploding Plastic Inevitable tour. The album features experimental performance sensibilities and controversial lyrical topics, including drug abuse, prostitution, sadomasochism and sexual deviancy. The Velvet Underground & Nico initially sold poorly and was mostly ignored by music critics at the time, but later became regarded as one of the most influential albums in rock and pop music. Described as "the original art-rock record", it was a major influence on many subgenres of rock music and alternative music, including punk, garage, krautrock, post-punk, shoegaze, goth, and indie. In 1982, English musician Brian Eno quipped that while the album only sold approximately 30,000 copies in its first five years, "everyone who bought one of those 30,000 copies started a band". In 2003, it was ranked 13th on Rolling Stone's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time", and in 2006, it was inducted into the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress. ## Recording The Velvet Underground & Nico was recorded with the first professional line-up of the Velvet Underground: Lou Reed, John Cale, Sterling Morrison and Maureen Tucker. At the instigation of their mentor and manager Andy Warhol, and his collaborator Paul Morrissey, German singer Nico was also featured; she had occasionally performed lead vocals for the band. She sang lead on three of the album's tracks—"Femme Fatale", "All Tomorrow's Parties" and "I'll Be Your Mirror"—and back-up on "Sunday Morning". In 1966, as the album was being recorded, this was also the line-up for their live performances as a part of Warhol's Exploding Plastic Inevitable. The bulk of the songs that would become The Velvet Underground & Nico were recorded in four days in mid-April 1966 at Scepter Studios, a run-down recording studio in Manhattan. This was financed by Warhol and Columbia Records' sales executive Norman Dolph, who also acted as an engineer with John Licata. The cost of the project is unknown. Estimates vary from \$1,500 (US\$ in dollars) to \$3,000 (US\$ in dollars). Soon after, Dolph sent an acetate disc of the recordings to Columbia Records in an attempt to interest them in distributing the album, but they declined, as did Atlantic Records and Elektra Records—according to Morrison, Atlantic objected to the references to drugs in Reed's songs, while Elektra disliked Cale's viola. Finally, the MGM Records-owned Verve Records accepted the recordings, with the help of Verve staff producer Tom Wilson who had recently moved from a job at Columbia. With the backing of a label, one month later in May 1966 three of the songs, "I'm Waiting for the Man", "Venus in Furs" and "Heroin", were re-recorded in two days at TTG Studios during a stay in Hollywood. When the record's release date was postponed, Wilson brought the band into Mayfair Recording Studios in Manhattan in November 1966, to add a final song to the album: the single "Sunday Morning". ## Production Although Andy Warhol is the only formally credited producer, he had little influence beyond paying for the recording sessions. Several others who worked on the album are often mentioned as the technical producer. Norman Dolph and John Licata are sometimes attributed to producing the Scepter Studios sessions, as they were responsible for recording and engineering, though neither is credited. Dolph said Cale was the creative producer, as he handled the majority of the arrangements. However Cale recalled that Tom Wilson produced nearly all the tracks, and said that Warhol "didn't do anything". Reed also said the "real producer" of the album was Wilson. Reed claimed it was MGM who decided to bring in Wilson, and credited him for producing songs such as "Sunday Morning": "Andy absorbed all the flak. Then MGM said they wanted to bring in a real producer, Tom Wilson. So that's how you got 'Sunday Morning', with all those overdubs—the viola in the back, Nico chanting. But he couldn't undo what had already been done." However Sterling Morrison and Lou Reed both cited Warhol's lack of manipulation as a legitimate method of production. Morrison described Warhol as the producer "in the sense of producing a film". Reed said: > He just made it possible for us to be ourselves and go right ahead with it because he was Andy Warhol. In a sense, he really did produce it, because he was this umbrella that absorbed all the attacks when we weren't large enough to be attacked ... and as a consequence of him being the producer, we'd just walk in and set up and do what we always did and no one would stop it because Andy was the producer. Of course he didn't know anything about record production—but he didn't have to. He just sat there and said "Oooh, that's fantastic," and the engineer would say, "Oh yeah! Right! It is fantastic, isn't it?" ## Music and lyrics ### Themes The Velvet Underground & Nico was notable for its overt descriptions of topics such as drug abuse, prostitution, sadism and masochism and sexual deviancy. "I'm Waiting for the Man" describes a protagonist's efforts to obtain heroin, while "Venus in Furs" is a nearly literal interpretation of the 19th century novel of the same name (which itself prominently features accounts of BDSM). "Heroin" details an individual's use of the drug and the experience of feeling its effects. Lou Reed, who wrote the majority of the album's lyrics, never intended to write about such topics for shock value. Reed, a fan of poets and authors such as Raymond Chandler, Nelson Algren, William S. Burroughs, Allen Ginsberg, and Hubert Selby, Jr., saw no reason the content in their works could not translate well to rock and roll music. An English major who studied for a B.A. at Syracuse University, Reed said in an interview that he thought joining the two (gritty subject matter and music) was "obvious". "That's the kind of stuff you might read. Why wouldn't you listen to it? You have the fun of reading that, and you get the fun of rock on top of it." Though the album's dark subject matter is today considered revolutionary, several of the album's songs are centered on themes more typical of popular music. Certain songs were written by Reed as observations of the members of Andy Warhol's "Factory superstars". "Femme Fatale" in particular was written about Edie Sedgwick at Warhol's request. "I'll Be Your Mirror", inspired by Nico, is a tender and affectionate song; in stark contrast to a song like "Heroin". A common misperception is that "All Tomorrow's Parties" was written by Reed at Warhol's request (as stated in Victor Bockris and Gerard Malanga's Velvet Underground biography Up-Tight: The Velvet Underground Story). While the song does seem to be another observation of Factory denizens, Reed wrote the song before meeting Warhol, having recorded a demo in July 1965 at Ludlow Street. It had folk music sounds, which were possibly inspired by Bob Dylan. ### Instrumentation and performance Musically, The Velvet Underground & Nico has generally been described by writers as art rock, experimental rock,garage rock, proto-punk, psychedelic rock, and avant-pop. Much of the album's sound was conceived by John Cale, who stressed the experimental qualities of the band. He was influenced greatly by his work with La Monte Young, John Cage and the early Fluxus movement, and encouraged the use of alternative ways of producing sound in music. Cale thought his sensibilities meshed well with Lou Reed's, who was already experimenting with alternate tunings. For instance, Reed had "invented" the ostrich guitar tuning for a song he wrote called "The Ostrich" for the short-lived band the Primitives. Ostrich guitar tuning consists of all strings being tuned to the same note. This method was utilized on the songs "Venus in Furs" and "All Tomorrow's Parties". Often, the guitars were also tuned down a whole step, which produced a lower, fuller sound that Cale considered "sexy". Cale's viola was used on several of the album's songs, notably "Venus in Furs" and "Black Angel's Death Song". The viola used guitar and mandolin strings, and when played loudly, Cale would liken its sound to that of an airplane engine. Cale's technique usually involved drones, detuning and distortion. According to Robert Christgau, the "narcotic drone" not only sustains the sadomasochism-themed "Venus in Furs", but it also "identifies and unifies the [album] musically". Of the vocal performances, he believed "Nico's contained chantoozy sexuality" complemented "the dispassionate abandon of Reed's chant singing". In 1966, Richard Goldstein described Nico's vocal as "something like a cello getting up in the morning". ## Artwork The album cover for The Velvet Underground & Nico is recognizable for featuring a Warhol print of a banana. Early copies of the album invited the owner to "Peel slowly and see", and peeling back the banana skin revealed a flesh-colored banana underneath. A special machine was needed to manufacture these covers (one of the causes of the album's delayed release), but MGM paid for costs figuring that any ties to Warhol would boost sales of the album. Most reissued vinyl editions of the album do not feature the peel-off sticker; original copies of the album with the peel-sticker feature are now rare collector's items. A Japanese re-issue LP in the early 1980s was the only re-issue version to include the banana sticker for many years. On the 1996 CD reissue, the banana image is on the front cover while the image of the peeled banana is on the inside of the jewel case, beneath the CD itself. The album was re-pressed onto heavyweight vinyl in 2008, featuring a banana sticker. ### Back cover lawsuit When the album was first issued, the main back cover photo (taken at a performance of Warhol's event Exploding Plastic Inevitable) contained an image of actor Eric Emerson projected upside-down on the wall behind the band. Having recently been arrested for drug possession and desperate for money, Emerson threatened to sue over this unauthorized use of his image, unless he was paid. Rather than complying, MGM recalled copies of the album and halted its distribution until Emerson's image could be airbrushed from the photo on subsequent pressings. Copies that had already been printed were sold with a large black sticker covering the actor's image. ### Front cover lawsuit In January 2012, the "Velvet Underground" business partnership (of which John Cale and Lou Reed were general partners) sued The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc. in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York after the Foundation licensed the cover's banana design to Incase Designs for use on a line of iPhone and iPad cases. The complaint involved copyright infringement, trademark infringement and unfair competition. Alleging that the Foundation had earlier claimed it "may" own the design's copyright, the partnership asked the court for a declaratory judgment that the Foundation did not have such rights. In response, the Foundation gave the partnership a "Covenant Not to Sue"—a written and binding promise that, even if the partnership and certain other parties continued to use the design commercially, the Foundation would never invoke its professed copyright ownership against them in court. On the Foundation's motion, Judge Alison J. Nathan severed and dismissed from the lawsuit the partnership's copyright claim. According to Judge Nathan, the Constitution allows federal courts to decide only "Cases" or "Controversies", which means ongoing or imminent disputes over legal rights, involving concrete facts and specific acts, that require court intervention in order to shield the plaintiff from harm or interference with its rights. The judge held that the partnership's complaint fell short of that standard because even if the Foundation continued to claim ownership of the design's copyright—and even if its claim was invalid—that claim would not legally harm the partnership or prevent it from making its own lawful uses of the design. The partnership did not claim that it owned the design's copyright, only that the Foundation did not. Since, according to the court, the Foundation promised not to sue the partnership for any "potentially copyright-infringing uses of the Banana Design", the partnership could continue using the design and there would be no legal action that the Foundation could take (under copyright law) to stop it. And if, the court concluded, the partnership could continue with business as usual (as far as copyright was concerned) regardless of whether the Foundation actually owned the design's copyright, a court decision would have no practical consequences for the partnership; it would be a purely academic (or "advisory") opinion, which federal courts may not issue. The court therefore "dismissed without prejudice" the partnership's request that it resolve whether the Foundation owned the design's copyright. The remaining trademark claims were settled out of court with a confidential agreement, and the partnership's suit was dismissed in late May 2013. ## Reception and sales ### Chart history and sales figures Upon release, The Velvet Underground & Nico was largely unsuccessful and a financial failure. The album's controversial content led to its almost instantaneous ban from various record stores, many radio stations refused to play it, and magazines refused to carry advertisements for it. Its lack of success can also be attributed to Verve, who failed to promote or distribute the album with anything but modest attention. However, Richie Unterberger of AllMusic also notes that: > ... the music was simply too daring to fit onto commercial radio; "underground" rock radio was barely getting started at this point, and in any case may well have overlooked the record at a time when psychedelic music was approaching its peak. The album first entered the Billboard album charts on May 13, 1967, at number 199 and left the charts on June 10, 1967, at number 195. When Verve recalled the album in June due to Eric Emerson's lawsuit, it disappeared from the charts for five months. It then re-entered the charts on November 18, 1967, at number 182, peaked at number 171 on December 16, 1967, and finally left the charts on January 6, 1968, at number 193. Musician Brian Eno famously stated in 1982 that while the album only sold approximately 30,000 copies in its first five years, "everyone who bought one of those 30,000 copies started a band!" Writers often use this quotation as a definitive figure for how many copies of The Velvet Underground & Nico were sold in the first several years. While it indeed sold less than Warhol and the band had hoped, according to a MGM royalty statement presented to Jeff Gold, a former Warner Bros. Records executive, 58,476 copies of the album sold through February 1969—a respectable figure for a late-1960s LP. Grant McPhee, a filmmaker and music writer, later conducted a 2021 investigation into Eno's famous claim and concluded that it may have sold as many as 200,000 copies by 1971 alone. ### Contemporary reception A capsule review from Billboard published ahead of the album's release praised the "haunting" vocals of Nico and the "powerful" lyrics of the band, calling it a collection of "sophisticated folk-rock" and a "left-fielder which could click in a big way." Vibrations, a small rock music magazine, gave the album a mostly positive review in their second issue, describing the music as "a full-fledged attack on the ears and on the brain" while noting the dark lyrics. Wayne Harada of the Honolulu Advertiser and Dave Donelly of the Honolulu Star-Bulletin both praised the album's banana-sticker cover; the former terming it "the wildest" front cover of any album yet and the latter calling it a conversation piece. Harada wrote: "Inside, the eating's good, too: 'Sunday Morning' has a definite psychedelic hit sound. 'Run Run Run' still is another Underground gem gaining ground." Donelly called the album "not Commercial with a capitol 'C' but an experience in sound." An anonymous reviewer in the American Record Guide praised Reed's lyrics as "penetratingly contemporary", comparing them to the work of Dylan while calling Reed on the basis of the record "an important new (to me) talent". The reviewer also praised the variety in sounds presented by "Sunday Morning", "European Son", and "Heroin" alongside from the more Dylan-esque songs. Meanwhile, Richard Goldstein of the Village Voice, published in Velvet Underground's hometown of New York City, was more reserved in his praise. Goldstein called "There She Goes Again" a "blatant" lift of the Rolling Stones rendition of "Hitch Hike" and called Reed's vocal performances on other songs "distressingly like early Dylan". However he ultimately wrote that "the Velvets are an important group and this album has some major work [within]", singling out "I'm Waiting for the Man", "Venus in Furs", "Femme Fatale", and "Heroin". Of the latter song, Goldstein wrote: > [It] is more compressed, more restrained than live performances I have seen. But it's also more a realized work. The tempo fluctuates wildly and finally breaks into a series of utterly terrifying squeals, like the death rattle of a suffocating violin. "Heroin" is seven minutes of genuine 12-tone rock 'n' roll. The Tampa Tribune writer Vance Johnston dismissed it as a collection of "several confusing sounds ... most depressing and whatever the message I failed to get" but wrote that Warhol aficionados would declare it his best "at any rate". Don Lass of New Jersey's Asbury Park Evening Press was similarly dismissive, finding the music "as lifeless and inanimate as the discarded banana peel, touching every cliche in the rock 'n' roll spectrum while missing the genuine fun that good big-beat renderings can offer." A staff writer for the Pensacola News Journal defined the album overall as "one big savage sound", with its lyrics "equally frenzied": "The result sounds like the merger of Dracula and some of the long-haired wailers of today". John F. Szwed of Jazz & Pop called the band's performance on the record "tedious despite their ventures into electric viola et al", acknowledging the strength of their "loud whine" but ultimately writing that "something is lost in the translation" in the absence of the visual accompaniments of Exploding Plastic Inevitable. ### Reappraisal A decade after its release, The Velvet Underground & Nico began to attract wide praise from rock critics. Christgau wrote in his 1977 retrospective review for the Village Voice that the record had been difficult to understand in 1967, "which is probably why people are still learning from it. It sounds intermittently crude, thin, and pretentious at first, but it never stops getting better." He later included it in his "Basic Record Library" of 1950s and 1960s recordings, published in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981). In The Encyclopedia of Popular Music (1998), Colin Larkin called it a "powerful collection" that "introduced Reed's decidedly urban infatuations, a fascination for street culture and amorality bordering on voyeurism." In April 2003, Spin led their "Top Fifteen Most Influential Albums of All Time" list with the album. On November 12, 2000, NPR included it in their "NPR 100" series of "the most important American musical works of the 20th century". In 2003, Rolling Stone placed it at number 13 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums Of All Time, maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, calling it the "most prophetic rock album ever made". It re-ranked at number 23 in a 2020 reboot of the list. In 1997, The Velvet Underground & Nico was named the 22nd greatest album of all time in a "Music of the Millennium" poll conducted in the United Kingdom by HMV Group, Channel 4, The Guardian and Classic FM. In 2006, Q magazine readers voted it into 42nd place in the "2006 Q Magazine Readers' 100 Greatest Albums Ever" poll, while The Observer placed it at number 1 in a list of "50 Albums That Changed Music" in July of that year. Also in 2006, the album was chosen by Time magazine as one of the 100 best albums of all time. In 2017, Pitchfork placed the album at number 1 on its list of "The 200 Best Albums of the 1960s". It was voted number 13 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums 3rd Edition (2000). ### Cover versions In April 1967, one month after the album's release, a band called the Electrical Banana may have recorded the first cover version of "There She Goes Again". According to bandmember Dean Kohler, they recorded it in a tent in Vietnam in April 1967 and sent the master tape to a company in California to have 45 RPM records pressed. Also in 1967 the Dutch band The Riats from The Hague released a single with "Run, Run, Run" as the A-side and "Sunday Morning" as B-side. The exact release date is unknown, so it remains open for debate whether Electric Banana or The Riats were the first to put a Velvet Underground cover on record. In 2009, the American musician Beck recorded a track-for-track cover of The Velvet Underground & Nico and released it online in video form on his website, as part of a project called Record Club. Musicians involved in the recording include Beck plus Nigel Godrich, Joey Waronker, Brian LeBarton, Bram Inscore, Yo, Giovanni Ribisi, Chris Holmes, and Þórunn Magnúsdóttir. Also in 2009, various artists from Argentina collaborated to produce a track-for-track cover of the record. They played a number of concerts in Buenos Aires to celebrate the release of the album, which was made available online for free. In 2021, Verve Records released the tribute album I'll Be Your Mirror: A Tribute to The Velvet Underground & Nico, a track-by-track cover of the album with performances by St. Vincent, Sharon Van Etten, Bobby Gillespie, and Iggy Pop among others. ## Aftermath Frustrated by the album's year-long delay and unsuccessful release, Lou Reed's relationship with Andy Warhol grew tense. Reed fired Warhol as manager in favor of Steve Sesnick, who convinced the group to move towards a more commercial direction. Nico was forced out of the group, and began a career as a solo artist. Her debut solo album, Chelsea Girl, was released in October 1967, featuring some songs written by Velvet Underground members. Tom Wilson continued working with the Velvet Underground, producing their 1968 album White Light/White Heat and Nico's Chelsea Girl. ## Track listing All songs written by Lou Reed, except where noted. ## Personnel According to author Peter Hogan: - John Cale – electric viola, bass, piano, celeste on "Sunday Morning" - Sterling Morrison – rhythm guitar, bass - Lou Reed – vocals, lead guitar, ostrich guitar - Maureen Tucker – drums, percussion - Nico – vocals Production - Andy Warhol – producer - Tom Wilson – producer - Norman Dolph – engineer - Omi Haden – engineer - John Licata – engineer ## Reissues and deluxe editions ### Compact disc The first CD edition of the album was released in 1986 and featured slight changes. The title of the album was featured on the cover, unlike the original LP release. In addition, the album contained an alternate mix of "All Tomorrow's Parties" which featured a single track of lead vocals as opposed to the double-tracked vocal version on the original LP. Apparently, the decision to use the double-tracked version on the original LP was made at the last minute. Bill Levenson, who was overseeing the initial CD issues of the VU's Verve/MGM catalog, wanted to keep the single-voice version a secret as a surprise to fans, but was dismayed to find out that the alternate version was revealed as such on the CD's back cover (and noted as "previously unreleased"). The subsequent 1996 remastered CD reissue removed these changes, keeping the original album art and double-tracked mix of "All Tomorrow's Parties" found on the LP. ### Peel Slowly and See box set The Velvet Underground & Nico was released in its entirety on the five-year spanning box set, Peel Slowly and See, in 1995. The album was featured on the second disc of the set along with the single version of "All Tomorrow's Parties", two Nico tracks from Chelsea Girl and a ten-minute excerpt of the 45-minute "Melody Laughter" performance. Also included in the set (on the first disc) are the band's 1965 Ludlow Street loft demos. Among these demos are early versions of "Venus in Furs", "Heroin", "I'm Waiting for the Man" and "All Tomorrow's Parties". ### Deluxe edition In 2002, Universal released a two-disc "Deluxe Edition" set containing the stereo version of the album along with the five tracks from Nico's Chelsea Girl written by members of the band on disc one, and the mono version of the album along with the mono single mixes of "All Tomorrow's Parties" and "Sunday Morning" and their B-sides "I'll Be Your Mirror" and "Femme Fatale" on disc two. A studio demo of the unreleased track "Miss Joanie Lee" had been planned for inclusion on the set, but a dispute over royalties between the band and Universal canceled these plans. This contractual dispute apparently also led to the cancellation of further installments of the band's official Bootleg Series. However, this track was included in the subsequent re-release, 45th Anniversary Super Deluxe Edition. In April 2010, Universal re-released the second disc of the "Deluxe Edition" as a single CD "Rarities Edition". ### 45th Anniversary Super Deluxe edition On October 1, 2012, Universal released a 6-CD box set of the album. It features the previously available mono and stereo mixes as discs one and two respectively. Disc one contains as bonus tracks additional alternate versions of "All Tomorrow's Parties", "European Son", "Heroin", "All Tomorrow's Parties" (alternate instrumental version), and "I'll Be Your Mirror". Disc two contains the same bonus tracks as the prior deluxe version's second disc. Disc three is Nico's Chelsea Girl in its entirety and the Scepter Studios acetate (see below) in its entirety occupies disc 4. Discs 5 and 6 contain a previously unreleased live performance from 1966. According to the essay by music critic and historian Richie Unterberger contained within the set, the source for the show is the only audio tape of acceptable quality recording during singer Nico's tenure in the band. The essay also clarifies that the absence of any DVD materials in the box set is due to the fact that none of the band's shows were filmed, in spite of their heavy reliance on multimedia visuals. ### Scepter Studios acetate version Norman Dolph's original acetate recording of the Scepter Studios material contains several recordings that would make it onto the final album, though many are different mixes of those recordings and three are different takes entirely. The acetate was cut on April 25, 1966, shortly after the recording sessions. It resurfaced decades later when it was bought by collector Warren Hill of Montreal, Quebec, Canada in September 2002 at a flea market in the Chelsea neighborhood of New York City for \$0.75. Hill put the album up for auction on eBay in November. On December 8, 2006, a winning bid for \$155,401 was placed, but not honored. The album was again placed for auction on eBay and was successfully sold on December 16, 2006, for \$25,200. Although ten songs were recorded during the Scepter sessions, only nine appear on the acetate cut. Dolph recalls "There She Goes Again" being the missing song (and, indeed, the version of "There She Goes Again" that appears on the final LP is attributed to the Scepter Studios session). In 2012, the acetate was officially released as disc 4 of the omnicomprehensive "45th Anniversary Super Deluxe Edition" box set of the album (see above). The disc also includes six previously unreleased bonus tracks, recorded during the band's rehearsals at The Factory on January 3, 1966. However, a ripped version of the acetate began circulating the internet in January 2007. Bootleg versions of the acetate tracks have also become available on vinyl and CD. The acetate was issued on vinyl in 2013 as a limited edition for Record Store Day. In 2014, it went back to auction. Box set, disc 4 track listing 1. "European Son" (Alternate version) – 9:02 2. "The Black Angel's Death Song" (Alternate mix) – 3:16 3. "All Tomorrow's Parties" (Alternate version) – 5:53 4. "I'll Be Your Mirror" (Alternate mix) – 2:11 5. "Heroin" (Alternate version) – 6:16 6. "Femme Fatale" (Alternate mix) – 2:36 7. "Venus in Furs" (Alternate version) – 4:29 8. "I'm Waiting for the Man" (Alternate version, here titled "Waiting for the Man") – 4:10 9. "Run Run Run" (Alternate mix) – 4:23 10. "Walk Alone" – 3:27 11. "Crackin' Up/Venus in Furs" – 3:52 12. "Miss Joanie Lee" – 11:49 13. "Heroin" – 6:14 14. "There She Goes Again" (with Nico) – 2:09 15. "There She Goes Again" – 2:56 Notes - Tracks 1–9 are the original Scepter Studios acetate. Tracks 1, 2, 3, and 5 are sourced from tape; tracks 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are from the actual acetate. - Tracks 10–15 are the January 3, 1966, Factory rehearsals, also from tape, previously unreleased. ## Charts and certifications Peak positions Certifications According to Nielsen SoundScan, which tracks sales, The Velvet Underground & Nico has sold 560,000 copies since 1991.
25,210,907	Battle of the Malta Convoy	1,129,463,401	Part of the French Revolutionary Wars, the Siege of Malta (1798–1800)	[ "Battles involving Malta", "Conflicts in 1800", "Naval battles involving France", "Naval battles involving Great Britain", "Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars" ]	The Battle of the Malta Convoy was a naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars fought on 18 February 1800 during the Siege of Malta. The French garrison at the city of Valletta in Malta had been under siege for eighteen months, blockaded on the landward side by a combined force of British, Portuguese and irregular Maltese forces and from the sea by a Royal Navy squadron under the overall command of Lord Nelson from his base at Palermo on Sicily. In February 1800, the Neapolitan government replaced the Portuguese troops with their own forces and the soldiers were convoyed to Malta by Nelson and Lord Keith, arriving on 17 February. The French garrison was by early 1800 suffering from severe food shortages, and in a desperate effort to retain the garrison's effectiveness a convoy was arranged at Toulon, carrying food, armaments and reinforcements for Valletta under Contre-amiral Jean-Baptiste Perrée. On 17 February, the French convoy approached Malta from the southeast, hoping to pass along the shoreline and evade the British blockade squadron. On 18 February 1800 lookouts on the British ship HMS Alexander sighted the French and gave chase, followed by the rest of Nelson's squadron while Keith remained off Valletta. Although most of the French ships outdistanced the British pursuit, one transport was overhauled and forced to surrender, while Perrée's flagship Généreux was intercepted by the much smaller frigate HMS Success. In the opening exchange of fire, Success was badly damaged but Perrée was mortally wounded. The delay caused by the engagement allowed the main body of the British squadron to catch up the French ship and, badly outnumbered, Généreux surrendered. Perrée died shortly after being wounded, and none of the supplies reached Malta, which held out for another seven months against increasing odds before surrendering on 4 September 1800. ## Background In May 1798, during the French Revolutionary Wars, a French expeditionary force sailed from Toulon under General Napoleon Bonaparte. Crossing the Mediterranean, the force captured Malta in early June and continued southeastwards, making landfall in Egypt on 31 June. Landing near Alexandria, Bonaparte captured the city and advanced inland, completing the first stage of a projected campaign in Asia. The French fleet, under the command of Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers was directed to anchor in Aboukir Bay, 20 mi (32 km) northeast of Alexandria and support the army ashore. On 1 August 1798, the anchored fleet was surprised and attacked by a British fleet under Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson. In the ensuing Battle of the Nile, eleven of the thirteen French ships of the line, and two of the four frigates were captured or destroyed. Brueys was killed, and the survivors of the French fleet struggled out of the bay on 2 August, splitting up near Crete. Généreux sailed north to Corfu, encountering and capturing the British fourth rate ship HMS Leander en route. The other ships, Guillaume Tell and two frigates under Contre-amirals Pierre-Charles Villeneuve and Denis Decrès, sailed westwards to Malta, arriving just as the island came under siege. On Malta, the dissolution of the Roman Catholic Church under French rule had been extremely unpopular among the native Maltese population. During an auction of church property on 2 September 1798, an armed uprising had begun that had forced the French garrison, commanded by General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois, to retreat into the capital Valletta by the end of the month. The garrison, which numbered approximately 3,000 men, had limited food stocks, and efforts to bring supplies in by sea were restricted by a squadron of British and Portuguese ships stationed off the harbour. The blockade was under the command of Nelson, now Lord Nelson, based in Palermo on Sicily, and directly managed by Captain Alexander Ball on the ship of the line HMS Alexander. During 1799 a number of factors, including inadequate food production on Malta, lack of resources and troops caused by commitments elsewhere in the Mediterranean and the appearance of a French fleet under Admiral Etienne Eustache Bruix in the Western Mediterranean all contributed to lapses in the blockade. However, despite the trickle of supplies that reached the garrison, Vaubois' troops were beginning to suffer the effects of starvation and disease. Late in the year Ball went ashore assist the Maltese troops conducting the siege and was replaced in command of Alexander by his first lieutenant, William Harrington. In January 1800, recognising that Valletta was in danger of surrendering if it could not be resupplied, the French Navy prepared a convoy at Toulon, consisting of Généreux, under Captain Cyprien Renaudin, the 20-gun corvettes Badine and Fauvette, and the 16-gun Sans Pareille, and two or three transport ships. The force was under the command of Contre-amiral Jean-Baptiste Perrée, recently exchanged under parole after being captured off Acre the previous year, and was instructed to approach Valletta along the Maltese coast from the southwest with the intention of passing between the blockade squadron and the shore and entering Malta before the British could discover and intercept them. The convoy sailed on 7 February. In addition to the supplies, the convoy carried nearly 3,000 French soldiers to reinforce the garrison, an unnecessary measure that would completely counteract the replenishment of the garrison's food stocks. While the French planned their reinforcement, the Royal Navy was preparing to replace the 500 Portuguese marines stationed on Malta with 1,200 Neapolitan troops supplied by King Ferdinand. Nelson, who had recently been neglecting his blockade duties in favour of the politics of the Neapolitan court and in particular Emma, Lady Hamilton, the wife of the British ambassador Sir William Hamilton, was instructed to accompany the Neapolitan convoy. The reinforcement effort was led by Vice-Admiral Lord Keith, Nelson's superior and overall Commander-in-Chief in the Mediterranean, in his flagship HMS Queen Charlotte. ## Battle Keith's convoy arrived off Malta in the first week of February 1800 and disembarked the Neapolitan troops at Marsa Sirocco. While stationed off Valletta on 17 February, Keith received word from the frigate HMS Success that a French convoy was approaching the island from the direction of Sicily. Success, commanded by Captain Shuldham Peard, had been ordered to watch the waters off Trapani. After discovering the French ships, which were Perrée's convoy from Toulon, Peard shadowed their approach to Malta. On receiving the message, Keith issued rapid orders for HMS Lion to cover the channel between the islands of Malta and Gozo, while Nelson's flagship HMS Foudroyant, HMS Audacious, and HMS Northumberland joined Alexander off the southeastern coast of Malta. Keith himself remained off Valletta in Queen Charlotte, observing the squadron in the harbour. At daylight on 18 February, lookouts on Alexander sighted the French convoy sailing along the Maltese coast towards Valletta and gave chase, with Nelson's three ships visible to seawards. At 08:00 the transport Ville de Marseille was overhauled, and surrendered to Lieutenant Harrington's ship, but the other smaller vessels hauled up at 13:30 and made out to sea, led by Badine. Généreux was unable to follow as to do so would bring the French ship into action with Alexander, and instead bore up, holding position. This station prevented Alexander from easily coming into action, but gave Captain Peard on Success an opportunity to close with the French ship, bringing his small vessel across the ship of the line's bow and opening a heavy fire. Peard was able to get off several broadsides against Perrée's ship before the French officers managed to turn their vessel to fire on the frigate, inflicting severe damage to Peard's rigging and masts. By this stage however, Perrée was no longer in command: a shot from the first broadside had thrown splinters into his left eye, temporarily blinding him. Remaining on deck, he called to his crew "Ce n'est rien, mes amis, continuons notre besogne" ("It is nothing, my friends, continue with your work") and gave orders for the ship to be turned, when a cannonball from the second broadside from Success tore his right leg off at the thigh. Perrée collapsed unconscious on the deck. Although Success was badly damaged and drifting, the delay had allowed Nelson's flagship Foudroyant under Captain Sir Edward Berry and Northumberland under Captain George Martin to come up to Généreux by 16:30. Foudroyant fired two shots at the French warship, at which point the demoralised French officers fired a single broadside at the approaching British ships and then surrendered, at 5:30. The remaining French ships had escaped seawards and eventually reached Toulon, while the British squadron consolidated their prizes and returned to Keith off Toulon. British losses in the engagement were one man killed and nine wounded, all on Success, while French losses were confined to Perrée alone, who died of his wounds in the evening. Perrée's death was met by a mixed response in the British squadron: some regretted his death as "a gallant and capable man", while others considered him "lucky to have redeemed his honour" for violating his parole after being captured the previous year. ## Aftermath The French surrender was taken by Sir Edward Berry, who had last been aboard the ship as a prisoner of war following the capture of Leander in 1798. Nelson in particular was pleased with the capture of Généreux, one of the two French ships of the line to have escaped the Battle of the Nile two years earlier. The French ship was only lightly damaged, and was sent to Menorca for repairs under Lieutenant Lord Cochrane and his brother Midshipman Archibald Cochrane from Queen Charlotte. During the passage, the ship was caught in a severe storm, and it was only though the leadership and personal example set by the brothers that the ship survived to reach Port Mahon. The ship was taken into British service shortly afterwards as HMS Genereux. Nelson was credited with the victory by Keith, although Nelson himself praised Harrington and Peard for their efforts in discovering the French convoy and bringing it to battle. The presence of the British squadron off Malta at the time of the arrival of the French convoy was largely due to luck, a factor that Ball attributed to Nelson in a letter written to Emma Hamilton shortly after the battle: > "We may truly call him a heaven-born Admiral, upon whom fortune smiles wherever he goes. We have been carrying on the blockade of Malta sixteen months, during which time the enemy never attempted to throw in succours until this month. His Lordship arrived here the day they were within a few leagues of the island, captured the principal ships, so that not one has reached the port." Although pleased with the result of the engagement, Lord Keith issued strict instructions that Nelson was to remain in active command of the blockade and on no account to return to Palermo. If he had to go to port in Sicily, then he was to use Syracuse instead. Keith then sailed to Livorno, where his flagship was destroyed in a sudden fire that killed over 700 of the crew, although Keith himself was not on board at the time. By early March, Nelson had tired of the blockade and in defiance of Keith's instructions returned to Palermo again, leaving Captain Thomas Troubridge of HMS Culloden in command of the blockade squadron. In March, while Nelson was absent at Palermo, the ship of the line Guillaume Tell, the last survivor of the Nile, attempted to break out of Malta but was chased down and defeated by a British squadron led by Berry in Foudroyant. Although Nelson briefly returned in April, both of the Hamiltons were aboard his ship and most of his time was spent at Marsa Sirocco in the company of Emma, with whom he was now romantically attached. Captain Renaudin, of Généreux, and Joseph Allemand, of Ville de Marseille, were both honourably acquitted during the automatic court-martial for the loss of their ships. The French Navy made no further efforts to reach Malta, and all subsequent efforts by French warships to break out the port were met by the blockade, only one frigate breaking through and reaching France. Without the supplies carried on Perrée's convoy, starvation and disease spread throughout the garrison and by the end of August 1800, French soldiers were dying at a rate of 100 a day. On 4 September, Vaubois finally capitulated, turning the island over to the British, who retained it for the next 164 years.
39,206,569	Erwin Arnada	1,138,405,540	Indonesian journalist and filmmaker	[ "1963 births", "Indonesian film directors", "Indonesian film producers", "Indonesian journalists", "Living people", "Playboy people", "University of Indonesia alumni" ]	Erwin Arnada (born 17 October 1963) is an Indonesian journalist and filmmaker. Born to a devout Muslim family in Jakarta, Arnada became interested in journalism in 1984, and, after a time as a photographer, he interned at the weekly Editor. Beginning in 1990 he took editorial roles in various print media, including the controversial tabloid Monitor. Arnada entered cinema in 2000, producing several films for Rexinema. After establishing Playboy Indonesia in 2006 Arnada became the center of controversy, as Islamic groups such as the Islamic Defenders Front protested the magazine as indecent – despite it not featuring any nudity. After an extended series of trials Arnada was convicted by the Supreme Court of Indonesia and sentenced to two years in prison, beginning in October 2010. He was released the following June, when the court reversed its decision. In 2012 Arnada was nominated for a Citra Award for Best Director for his film Rumah di Seribu Ombak, based on a novel he had written in prison. ## Early life and career Erwin Arnada was born on 17 October 1963 to Amin Ismail, a Minangkabau trader and part-time journalist, and his wife. The family owned several shops in Jakarta, including one in Blok M and another in Tanah Abang. Beginning when he was in junior high school Arnada helped the family with the shops, using his free time to read. Arnada was raised in a Muslim family and has remained a devout Muslim. Arnada attended the University of Indonesia, working towards a degree in Russian literature. He became interested in journalism through photography. After viewing Roger Spottiswoode's 1983 film Under Fire, which followed an American photojournalist covering the Nicaraguan Revolution, Arnada applied to be a photographer for the daily newspaper Kompas. After his application was refused, in 1986 Arnada found work with the Jakarta-based football team Persija Jakarta. ## Journalism Beginning in 1989 Arnada began an internship with the weekly Editor. He used the position as a learning experience. Arnada served as an editor of the Jakarta-based tabloid Monitor between 1990 and 1991. The publication was shut down after it published a controversial poll of readers' most respected figures; the poll showed the Islamic prophet Muhammad at number 10, below the dangdut singer Rhoma Irama. By the mid-1990s Arnada had begun working for Bintang Indonesia, owned by the Ciputra family. He left the newspaper in 1999 as he considered the publication to devote too little space to music. He established Bintang Milenia that year, but by 2002 it had been shut down. During this time he worked extensively with MTV Indonesia and various start-ups. After the closing of Bintang Milenia, Arnada began working with Indonesian filmmakers Rizal Mantovani, Jose Poernomo and Dimas Djayadiningrat to establish the production company Rexinema. The company's first production was Jelangkung in 2001; Arnada first received credit for Tusuk Jelangkung in 2002, which he wrote and produced. He worked on a further six films with the company between 2003 and 2007. ## Playboy Indonesia Arnada began plans to establish Playboy Indonesia, an Indonesian version of the American men's magazine Playboy, as a challenge. He considered the magazine more than "pornography", describing it as home to "edgy and award-winning journalism pieces" which he wanted to bring to Indonesia. Arnada entered discussions with Christie Hefner, then head of Playboy Enterprises, in November 2005. He received permission to publish an Indonesian edition the next January. The first issue was launched in April 2006 and did not feature any nudity or focus on sexuality. Instead, the models were fully clothed; the issue also included an interview with author Pramoedya Ananta Toer. Later articles continued to deal with literature, as well as human rights and politics. The magazine was, however, highly controversial. Before publication Muslim groups had expressed opposition. After publication began the Playboy Indonesia offices were attacked, as were various printers. In one instance the Islamic Defenders Front attacked the Playboy Indonesia offices in South Jakarta, leading to the building being evacuated. By May 2006 the continuous protests had left the magazine without an office. The bad publicity led advertisers to abandon the magazine. Ultimately the magazine was shut down after releasing ten issues, having moved to the predominantly Hindu island Bali since its second issue, in June 2006. For his role in Playboy Indonesia's publication Arnada came under investigation. Investigators cited his publication of "pornographic" materials, illegal in Indonesia, as evidence of criminal indecency. On trial in April 2007, the South Jakarta District Court rejected this claim; an appeal at the Jakarta High Court affirmed this decision. After two years of appeals by prosecutors, the case reached the Supreme Court of Indonesia. The Supreme Court ruled against Arnada and sentenced him to two years in prison. In October 2010 Arnada was imprisoned in Cipinang Penitentiary Institution in Jakarta. He used this time to write three novels: Rumah di Seribu Ombak (House of the Thousand Waves), Midnite di Negeri Nonsense (Midnight in the Land of Nonsense), and Rabbit Versus Goliath. Arnada was released in June 2011, after the Supreme Court agreed with his defense that a journalist's professional acts should be tried under the Press Code and not Criminal Code. Numerous commentators, including Arnada, described it as a victory for the country's freedom of press. However, responding to calls that he was a hero, Arnada stated "I’m not a hero, nor a victim. I’m just another version of history"; he considered his experience less drastic than that of journalists elsewhere in the country. In a 2013 interview Arnada stated that his incarceration had "muted his 'insane ambitions'"; Arnada's friends stated that he had been deeply changed by the term. ## Post-imprisonment Arnada released his novel Rumah di Seribu Ombak in early 2012; it had been written while he was in prison. Set in Singaraja, Bali, the novel followed the friendship of two young boys from different cultural backgrounds. He adapted the novel later that year, serving as director and producer. The film was a critical success and nominated for nine Citra Awards at the 2012 Indonesian Film Festival, including Citra Award for Best Director for Arnada. It won four, including Best Editing and Best Screenplay; Arnada lost the Best Director award to Herwin Novianto of Tanah Surga... Katanya (Land of Heaven... They Say). As of 2013 Arnada is married to Hevie Ursulla Arnada. The couple live in Bali. Arnada has expressed interest in continuing his career as a novelist, ignoring journalism as it offers "nothing new, nothing different." A movie based on his life is planned by Playboy Enterprises' Alta Loma Entertainment. ## Filmography As of 2013 Arnada has been involved with nine feature films, mostly as producer. - Tusuk Jelangkung (2002) – executive producer, story - 30 Hari Mencari Cinta (2003) – producer, - Catatan Akhir Sekolah (2004) – producer - Cinta Silver (2004) – producer, story - Alexandria (2005) – producer, story - Jelangkung 3 (2007) – producer, screenwriter - Jakarta Undercover (2007) – producer, story - Asmara Dua Diana (2009) – producer - Rumah di Seribu Ombak (2012) – director, producer, story
64,630,438	Red Caboose Motel	1,145,547,584	Train car motel in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, U.S.	[ "1970 establishments in Pennsylvania", "Bed and breakfasts in Pennsylvania", "Cabooses", "Hotels established in 1970", "Hotels in Pennsylvania", "Motels in the United States", "Railway hotels in the United States", "Tourist attractions in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania" ]	The Red Caboose Motel (originally named the Red Caboose Lodge) is a 48-room train motel in the Amish country near Ronks, in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, where guests stay in railroad cabooses. The motel consists of over three dozen cabooses and other railroad cars, such as dining cars that serve as a restaurant. It was developed and opened in 1970 by Donald M. Denlinger, who started with 19 surplus cabooses purchased at auction from the Penn Central Railroad. The expanded and renovated property has also hosted railroad-themed events and concerts and dances in its barn. The motel is in an area with other railroad attractions including the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania and the National Toy Train Museum. The ticket counter of the Strasburg Rail Road, an almost two-hundred-year-old heritage railway, is 0.25 miles (0.40 km) away, and its tracks run past the motel. The motel has been described as a landmark and roadside attraction. It was listed in Guinness World Records for having the largest collection of privately owned cabooses in the world in 1984. The cabooses were initially painted a traditional railroad shade of red, hence the name, but were later changed so that each car displayed the livery of a different North American railroad. ## Origin The creation of the Red Caboose Motel began with the incorporation of "Red Caboose Lodge, Inc." by Donald M. Denlinger on January 9, 1967. Denlinger, who has been called a "tourism industry legend", also developed the Mill Bridge Village camping resort, the Fulton Steamboat Inn and the Historic Strasburg Inn. In the summer of 1969, Denlinger bid on 19 cabooses which the Penn Central Railroad was auctioning as surplus from its rolling stock "graveyard" in Altoona. He placed a bid of \$700 each, \$100 below scrap value, on the 950,000-pound (430,000 kg) lot of cabooses, which was accepted by the railroad. He also purchased a dining car. Accounts vary as to the circumstances of his purchase. In an interview the following year, Denlinger recounted to a reporter that he had seen a caboose being used as a tourist information center while he was on vacation in 1969. In a conversation a week later, he mentioned this to his childhood friend Walter Frey, a Penn Central employee, who informed him of the impending auction. According to "Red Caboose Lodge", an account of the motel's history published and sold by the motel, an (unnamed) school friend visiting Mill Bridge Village and meeting Denlinger again dared him to bid on the lot of cabooses. On January 4, 1969, a Penn Central official called Denlinger to tell him that nine of his cabooses were on a siding at Leaman Place, Pennsylvania and needed to be removed that day to escape demurrage charges. This came as a surprise to Denlinger; in his 1970 interview, he reported that he had expected delivery in mid-February. (He had made arrangements with Penn Central to store the remainder of the cabooses and the dining car for an additional year.) By contrast, "Red Caboose Lodge" recounts that Denlinger had forgotten about his bid and the phone call was his first notice that he had successfully acquired the cabooses. After a hasty search during a blizzard, Denlinger found an unused siding for a feed mill at Gordonville, Pennsylvania, about a mile west of Leaman Place, and arranged to accommodate the cabooses there. Prior to January 1970, Denlinger searched for a property large enough to accommodate the cabooses that was also adjacent to a railroad. Many suitable properties were owned by Amish people who would not lease land to a commercial operation such as a motel because of their religious beliefs. He eventually found a 43-acre (17 ha) non-Amish-owned farm listed for sale in Ronks, 8 mi (13 km) east of Lancaster and about 60 mi (97 km) west of Philadelphia, along the Strasburg Rail Road. He leased the farm for one year with an option to buy. Denlinger needed financing for the project and contacted a Lancaster bank. A loan officer was intrigued by his story of acquiring the cabooses and his plans to renovate them for use as motel rooms. Before being approved, he would repeat the story to the bank's commercial loan officer and again to the president. Ultimately, they believed the project had merit and provided a \$185,000 loan. Work on the motel began in January 1970 with the laying of 800 ft (240 m) of track on which the cars would sit. The Strasburg Rail Road consented to a temporary connection to their track to facilitate delivery. Installation of utilities and other infrastructure also commenced. On February 27, 1970, the first ten cabooses made their final journey from the Leaman Place junction in Paradise, Pennsylvania, where the Penn Central connected with the Strasburg tracks, to their new home in Ronks, powered by Strasburg Rail Road's vintage Steam Locomotive \#31. The engine successfully backed seven cabooses over the curved track of the temporary junction into the motel site but the much longer coach derailed. With no crane available, house jacks were eventually used to rerail the car and the steam engine, having been refilled with water from a fire department tanker, pushed the train farther before the coach derailed again. This time, the car was clear of the Strasburg mainline and the Philadelphia track crew, unable to stay onsite longer, restored the track so the engine could return to its yard. It took the three remaining cabooses with it for later delivery. The cabooses were made ready for accommodating guests with a planned opening by Mother's Day (May 10, 1970). ## Design and operation The motel complex consists of 38 cabooses, a railway post office car, baggage car, farmhouse, barn and two dining cars that serve as a restaurant, separated by a boxcar that serves as the kitchen. The cars are parked on actual railroad track. Rather than one linear track, there are multiple shorter tracks to keep the motel layout more compact. The cars are immovable, having been welded to the tracks. The interiors received insulation over the one-quarter-inch thick steel walls. Initial configurations included a plan with two double beds to sleep four people, and one that slept six in one double bed and four bunk beds. The caboose's cupola was hidden on the inside by the ceiling, but the space was used to house an air conditioner. Electric heaters were also installed, along with a bathroom with shower in the center of each caboose. Denlinger's original caboose interiors were particularly memorable. Each caboose was equipped with a non-functioning potbelly stove that had a black & white television inside and a lamp hanging from the articulated stovepipe overhead. The cabooses each have a central bathroom but are otherwise unique with different wall finishes. Small furniture that would fit into the cars had to be found or custom made, with some pieces made by a Pennsylvania Dutch cabinetmaker including a combination desk / storage bench with hand-painted American eagle on the top. Denlinger and the renovation contractors did not realize that the cabooses had three-inch-thick concrete floors to lower their center of gravity, necessary when moving at high speed. This made drilling holes in the floor much more difficult than expected. There are nine different floor plans (seven more than the two originals); some have four or six bunk beds and one caboose is designated the "honeymoon suite" and is equipped with a Jacuzzi. The exteriors of each caboose were painted bright red, once a traditional caboose color, in 1970, corresponding to the motel's name. They were later uniquely repainted in the livery of a different classic American or Canadian railroad. On opening day in May 1970, 4,500 people came to see the motel, then made up of ten cabooses and one dining car serving breakfast only. So many people just wanted to see inside a room that in 1972, Denlinger added one caboose for viewing that had been toured by 81,000 people by November 1973. Two Pennsylvania Railroad 1920s P-70 railroad coaches, that had operated on the railroad's Reading Seashore Line subsidiary, were acquired from Penn Central's yard in Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania, and brought to the property for use as a dining car restaurant. The restaurant, originally called the Red Caboose Depot Restaurant, opened in June 1974 with a dedication speech by state senator Richard A. Snyder. Each car sat approximately 120 people and was equipped with a mechanism to gently rock the cars to simulate motion. By 1973, Denlinger reported that the cabooses were booked three weeks in advance during the busy summer season. A railroad post office car and baggage car and 19 additional cabooses were added in the 1980s. The farm's original house is also used for additional lodging rooms. One expansion occurred after the town granted permission to add eight cabooses in 1984, which Denlinger said would cost \$3,000 each and require up to \$15,000 to remodel. Over the years the Red Caboose Motel has been the home to many events including railroadiana auctions, including one in 1979 when a Reading Railroad caboose was sold, and weekly performances in the barn. On May 10, 1980, to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the legendary Great Train Race, a reenactment was held between Strasburg Rail Road Steam Locomotive \#90 and a historic stagecoach purchased by Denlinger for the event drawn by four horses. As of 2018, a miniature train ride, petting zoo, and free movies shown in the barn were available to guests. The restaurant (now Casey Jones’ Restaurant, named after Casey Jones, a notable locomotive engineer) serves the traditional American food that would have been found on trains in the twentieth century as well as local Lancaster County food. Diners can view passing steam trains on the nearby Strasburg Rail Road, the oldest continuously operating railroad in the western hemisphere. The motel and restaurant are closed yearly in January and February. ## Museum In 1972, Denlinger added a Pullman coach as a museum for railroad memorabilia called The Age of Steam Museum. He purchased many items from a collector in Texas, and combined with his existing collection it may have been the largest privately owned collection of steam-age railroad items. The museum displayed 170 steam whistles ranging in size from four inches (100 mm) to nearly six feet (1.8 m) and weighing up to 375 lb (170 kg). There were also railroad bells, the largest weighing 300 lb (140 kg). The collection included railroad crossing markers and other signs, heralds (logos), semaphore signals and engine plates. There was also a mock station master's office. ## Post-Denlinger era Denlinger, who died in 2008, retired from the operation after 22 years in February 1993 when it was sold for \$1.3 million to Kevin and Susan Cavanaugh and partner Peter Botta. In August 2001, the owners were Wayne Jackson and Scott Fix, according to a report about a potential sewer violation lodged by the town of Paradise. The motel was forced to close for several months in the summer of 2002 by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection because of high nitrate levels in the motel's well water and related leaks in the septic system. It was fined at least \$12,000. The motel was ordered to close again in October when nitrate levels were still double the amount allowed by state and federal standards, despite the addition of a nitrate treatment plant. Pennsylvania attorney general Jerry Pappert sued for restitution of booking reservation deposits not returned after the closure. The owners were ordered to pay \$9,000 in restitution and \$7,000 in fines and fees. Jackson and Fix sold the property in 2003. One report says it was purchased by Dan and Judy Mowery in April of that year, while another says the Mowerys purchased the only the restaurant in September 2003. By December, the motel was in Chapter 7 bankruptcy. The owner in July 2004 was reported to be Farmer's First Bank which had foreclosed on the mortgage leading to the bankruptcy filing. The property was then under the management of a court-appointed receiver. The bank tried to dispose of the property in a sheriff's sale in the fall of 2004 but no one was will to pay at least the amount owed on the mortgage, so the bank retained the property. Larry DeMarco of Philadelphia emerged as a potential buyer in the spring of 2005. He closed on the property on April 15. DeMarco expected to spend \$2 million to purchase the property, repair the septic system, and remodel the complex. He had built up forty rental properties in Northeast Philadelphia and sold about ten of them to pay for the purchase. DeMarco had consulted with Denlinger, the original owner. DeMarco upgraded many of the rooms as well as the kitchen and reopened in 2005. Without a permanent fix to the septic system, DeMacro was forced to use a temporary holding tank that had to be pumped out daily. Many years went by with various solutions proposed and rejected until an on-site treatment plant was constructed at the end of the decade. DeMarco sold the property in 2016 for \$1.7 million. The new owners were a partnership of Tyler Prickett, his wife Katherine, and her parents. None of them had previously been in the hospitality industry but he had stayed in the motel as a child. They had the assistance of a U.S. Small Business Administration loan of \$577,000 and immediately began an estimated \$75,000 renovation. ## Media coverage The motel was called "world famous" in a 2005 book on American culture, noting that the motel has been featured in National Geographic, Reader's Digest, Ripley's Believe It or Not!, and the Chinese Life magazine and said its popularity "made it a destination for tourists from throughout the world as well as a landmark on the American road". It was listed in Guinness World Records for having the largest collection of privately owned cabooses in the world in 1984. ## Gallery ## See also - Antlers Hotel (Kingsland, Texas), a railroad-themed hotel with three cabooses used a guest rooms
42,168,907	Caris LeVert	1,169,822,918	American basketball player (born 1994)	[ "1994 births", "21st-century African-American sportspeople", "African-American basketball players", "American men's basketball players", "Basketball players from Columbus, Ohio", "Brooklyn Nets players", "Cleveland Cavaliers players", "Indiana Pacers draft picks", "Indiana Pacers players", "Living people", "Michigan Wolverines men's basketball players", "Shooting guards" ]	Caris Coleman LeVert (/ˈkɛərɪs ləˈvɜːrt/ KAIR-iss lə-VURT; born August 25, 1994) is an American professional basketball player for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Michigan Wolverines. As a freshman for the 2012–13 team, he nearly redshirted but earned a key role off the bench as the team went on to reach the championship game in the 2013 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. As a sophomore for the 2013–14 team, he became a regular starter and was selected as a second team 2013–14 All-Big Ten player for the outright Big Ten regular season champions. His junior and senior seasons were interrupted by injury. LeVert was originally drafted by the Pacers but was traded to the Brooklyn Nets on draft night. During his tenure with the Nets he struggled to stay healthy in his first 5 seasons. He was traded back to the Pacers in 2021 as part of the four-team blockbuster James Harden trade. He was traded to the Cavaliers in 2022 midseason. ## Early life LeVert grew up in Columbus but moved to Pickerington, Ohio in second grade. One of his teammates at Pickerington High School Central was future Ohio State forward Jae'Sean Tate. As a high school senior, he led Pickerington Central to a 26–2 record and the 2012 OHSAA Division I state championship. LeVert was a 2012 Associated Press All-Ohio Second Team high school basketball player and the 2012 Columbus Dispatch Metro Player of the Year for Pickerington High School Central. He was not heavily recruited in high school and his only official visit was to Alabama State. He committed to play basketball for John Groce and the Ohio Bobcats men's basketball program in November 2011. Meanwhile, when future teammates Mitch McGary and Nik Stauskas joined Glenn Robinson III by committing to Michigan in November 2011, Michigan became the fifth best recruiting class in the country. When Groce got hired by Illinois Fighting Illini men's basketball in March 2012, LeVert got lost in the shuffle and decided to commit to Michigan. Ironically, Groce's 2011–12 Ohio Bobcats' upset of the 2011–12 Michigan team in the 2012 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament was probably the reason that Groce was hired by Illinois and LeVert withdrew his National Letter of Intent to play for Ohio. ## College career The 2011-12 Michigan Wolverines had been co-champions of the Big Ten, but lost both captains, Zack Novak and Stu Douglass, to graduation and three other players as transfers. The team was returning a nucleus of All-Big Ten players Trey Burke and Tim Hardaway Jr. ### Freshman season LeVert arrived at Michigan weighing 162 pounds (73.5 kg). As a freshman, he began the year behind Stauskas, Robinson, Tim Hardaway Jr., and Matt Vogrich on the depth chart for the shooting guard/small forward positions and did not play in the first six games as a result. LeVert was a part of an incoming class that included McGary, Stauskas, Robinson, and Spike Albrecht. Eventually, Michigan head coach John Beilein decided that LeVert had value as a perimeter defender and decided to play him rather than redshirt him. On December 1 against Bradley Beilein juggled his lineup: Stauskas made his first career regular season start and LeVert saw his first action. By late December, LeVert became the one-on-one partner for Burke after practices. LeVert made his first start on December 29 against Central Michigan, when Tim Hardaway Jr. was unavailable. The 3 freshmen in the starting lineup—Robinson, Stauskas and LeVert—combined for 48 points, 12 rebounds and 8 assists. That night LeVert tallied 9 points and 5 assists. LeVert averaged 2.3 points in under 11 minutes of play per game. He never scored in double digits as a freshman, but he scored 8 points each in conference wins over Illinois and Michigan State as well as the 2013 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament final four victory over Syracuse in 21 minutes of play. ### Sophomore season LeVert's classmates all made names for themselves as freshmen. During the Spring and Summer semesters (the offseason) of 2013 LeVert and Stauskas trained together on the court and in the weight room. He followed fellow Columbus native and National Player of the Year Burke as a key contributor to Michigan basketball as a sophomore. After opening the season with career-highs of 17 points and 5 rebounds on November 8 against UMass Lowell, he posted 24 points on November 12 against South Carolina State. When Michigan played (#10 AP Poll/ \#8 Coaches' Poll) Duke in the ACC–Big Ten Challenge on December 3, LeVert again posted 24 points, including a 7–7 free throw performance. On January 18, Michigan defeated (#3 AP/#3 Coaches) Wisconsin at the Kohl Center for the first time since the 1998–99 team did so on February 27, 1999. It was the highest ranked team Michigan has ever beaten on the road. LeVert contributed a career-high 4 steals and 20 points. LeVert posted his first double-double on January 30 at home against Purdue with a career-high 11 rebounds and 14 points. On February 16, Michigan lost to (#21/21) Wisconsin, despite a career-high 25 points from LeVert. Michigan clinched its first outright (unshared) Big Ten Conference championship since 1985–86. He was a 2014 second team 2013–14 All-Big Ten selection (coaches and media). On March 11 LeVert was named to the all-District V (OH, IN, IL, MI, MN, WI) team by the United States Basketball Writers Association (USBWA). The 2013–14 team was eliminated in the elite eight round of the 2014 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament by Kentucky. LeVert and teammate Stauskas, joined Julius Randle, Aaron Harrison and Marcus Lee on the All-Midwest Regional team. On May 12, LeVert underwent surgery to repair a stress fracture in his foot. He was expected to be sidelined for 8–10 weeks, but be available for the team's August trip to play in Europe. LeVert returned to action just before the team's August 15–24 10-day, 4-game trip to Italy. ### Junior season Prior to the 2014–15 season, LeVert was named a first team All-Big Ten preseason selection along with Frank Kaminsky, Yogi Ferrell, Terran Petteway, and Sam Dekker. LeVert was selected by NBCSports.com to its Preseason All-American first team, by SB Nation, Blue Ribbon College Basketball Yearbook, Athlon Sports, Bleacher Report, Sports Illustrated, and CBSSports.com to their second teams and by USA Today to its third team. In its preseason top 100 player ranking, LeVert was listed at number 13 by ESPN. He was also listed as a John R. Wooden Award Preseason Top 50 candidate. LeVert also was named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy Watch List on November 24. He was also included in the early December Naismith Award top 50 watch list. LeVert was named co-captain of the team along with Spike Albrecht. He opened the season with 9 assists against Hillsdale College on November 15, surpassing his previous career-high of five. On November 24, against Oregon, LeVert established a career high by making 11 free throws helping the team to a 70–63 victory in the Legends Classic semifinal game. He posted a career-high 32 points and tied a career-high 4 steals on December 6 in an upset loss to NJIT. He posted 4 steals again against Minnesota on January 10. On January 17 against Northwestern, he reinjured the foot that he had had surgery on the prior May and was lost for the season. At the time of his injury, LeVert led Michigan in scoring (14.9), rebounds (4.9), assists (3.7), steals (1.7) and minutes (35.8). LeVert was on crutches until early March and in a protective walking boot until early April. LeVert had been expected to be a 2015 NBA draft selection, but following his injury some felt his draft stock was impaired. Following the season, he sought advice from the NBA Undergraduate Advisory Committee, but decided that he needed a second evaluation from them as the field of declared underclassmen became more clear with the thinking that "I don't think it really makes sense to (leave school) early and get drafted in the second round". On April 21, LeVert announced that he would return for his senior season. According to CBSSports.com's Sam Vecenie, this would give LeVert a chance to improve his pick and roll decision making, his midrange offensive game and his defense, especially against screens. ### Senior season Prior to the 2015–16 season, LeVert was named an All-Big Ten preseason selection, for the second straight year. LeVert became the fourth Wolverine to earn the award multiple times in their career, following Maurice Taylor, LaVell Blanchard and Manny Harris. He was also one of five All-Big Ten preseason selections according to the Big Ten Network. He was one of three Big Ten selections to the 20-man Jerry West Award preseason watchlist (along with James Blackmon Jr. and Rasheed Sulaimon) announced by the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. He was an Athlon Sports Preseason All-American 3rd team selection. In preseason top 100 player rankings LeVert was ranked 16 by ESPN and 23 by NBC Sports. He made the initial 50-man John R. Wooden Award watch list on November 17. On December 2, LeVert earned recognition on the 50-man Naismith College Player of the Year watchlist and 33-man Robertson Trophy watchlists. After being sidelined for the final 14 games of the prior season for the 2014–15 Wolverines, LeVert began the season with a game-high 18 points and 5 assists as a starter against . On November 16, against Elon, LeVert tied his career high with four steals. On December 5 against Houston Baptist, LeVert made his first start at point guard while Derrick Walton sat out due to a sprained ankle and posted 25 points and 8 rebounds. On December 8, Michigan lost 82–58 to (19/-) SMU as LeVert slumped on 1–13 field goal shooting and 3–6 free throw shooting. On December 15 against Northern Kentucky, LeVert posted 13 points, 10 rebounds and 10 assists, becoming the fourth player in Michigan program history to record a triple-double, and the 49th Wolverine to eclipse 1,000 career points. Based on his triple double against Northern Kentucky and a 19-point effort against Youngstown State, LeVert earned Co-Big Ten Player of the Week honors (along with Malcolm Hill) on December 21. On December 30, Michigan defeated Illinois 78–68 in its Big Ten Conference opener as LeVert posted a 22-point, 10-assist double-double. LeVert missed the January 2 game against Penn State with a lower left leg injury. At the time, he was the team leader in points, rebounds and assists. On January 13, LeVert was one of four Big Ten athletes (along with Melo Trimble, Jarrod Uthoff and Denzel Valentine) among the 25 players included in the Wooden Award Midseason Top 25 Watch List. On the eve of LeVert's sixth missed game, head coach Beilein finally clarified that LeVert's left leg injury was not related to the two previous left foot stress fractures that LeVert had endured. On February 2, LeVert was one of two Big Ten athletes (along with Malcolm Hill) named one of 10 finalists for the Jerry West Award, despite having missed the last 8 of Michigan's 22 games. On February 10, Brendan F. Quinn of MLive.com broke the story that LeVert had been cleared to play. On February 13, Michigan defeated (#18/16) Purdue 61–56 with LeVert recording five rebounds and one assist in 11 minutes after missing the previous 11 games. On March 1, the team announced that the injury would end LeVert's season and collegiate career. On March 22, LeVert had a third surgical procedure in 22 months performed on his left foot in New York City by specialist Dr. Martin O'Malley. By late April, the draft stock of LeVert had slipped to the second round. According to the Michigan Basketball Twitter feed, he attended graduation in crutches at the end of April. He was invited to the May 11–15 NBA Draft Combine. While still on crutches at the combine, LeVert clarified that his injury was a Jones fracture of the fifth metatarsal and that Kevin Durant who has the same agency and used the same doctor had called to offer him encouragement. ## Professional career ### Brooklyn Nets (2016–2021) #### 2016–17 season The day before the 2016 NBA draft, LeVert authored an open letter to NBA general managers to assure them of his resiliency in the face of all of his doubters due to his injury. On June 23, LeVert was selected with the 20th overall pick in the 2016 draft by the Indiana Pacers. He became Michigan's fifth first-round draft selection since 2013 and the fourth player drafted from Michigan's 2012 entering class. His rights were later traded to the Brooklyn Nets on July 7, in exchange for Thaddeus Young. Dr. O'Malley, who had performed LeVert's most recent foot surgery, was on the Brooklyn Nets medical staff at the time of the trade. On July 14, he signed his rookie scale contract with the Nets. LeVert missed the 2016 NBA Summer League as well as preseason and resumed practicing near the beginning of the regular season. He began the season sidelined and still rehabbing his injury. He was cleared to play on December 4. He made his professional debut on December 7 against the Denver Nuggets. Although he went 0-of-3 from the field, he posted 4 rebounds and 3 steals in 9 minutes of play, becoming the first Net to post 3 steals in his debut since Chris Childs in 1994. LeVert entered at the start of the second quarter and posted 3 steals and 3 rebounds in 5:15 of play before halftime. LeVert scored his first NBA points on December 10 against the San Antonio Spurs on a back door reverse layup assisted by Brook Lopez. LeVert posted double digit scoring for the first time with 12 points on December 30 against the Washington Wizards and former Michigan one-on-one training partner Burke's season-high 27 points. On February 3, Levert made his first NBA start against former Michigan teammate Robinson and the Indiana Pacers. On April 6 against the Orlando Magic, LeVert posted his first 20-point performance. Despite missing a large portion of the season, LeVert almost made the NBA All-Rookie team, finishing 12 in the voting for the 10-man team. #### 2017–18 season When Jeremy Lin was sidelined for the 2017–18 NBA season after the first game, it opened up playing time. After Allen Crabbe started game 2, LeVert entered the starting lineup for game 3 on October 22 against the Atlanta Hawks, posting 16 points, 6 rebounds, 4 assists and 3 steals. Coming off the bench on November 6 against the Phoenix Suns, he posted a 5-steal performance, while locking down Devin Booker so well that he frustrated Booker into fouling out. With injuries to point guards Jeremy Lin and D'Angelo Russell, coach Kenny Atkinson was impressed with LeVert rising to the challenge of learning a new position, earning the back-up point guard role to Spencer Dinwiddie. On December 7 (the first anniversary of his NBA debut), he had career highs in points (21) and assists (10) against reigning NBA MVP Russell Westbrook to lead the Nets to a 100–95 win over the Oklahoma City Thunder in Mexico City. Although his performance was highlighted by his first NBA double-double on offense, he was also praised for his 2-steal/2-block/5-rebound effort on defense against Westbrook. On December 27 against the New Orleans Pelicans, LeVert set another career high with 22 points. Two days later, he recorded 12 points and a career-high 11 assists in a 111–87 win over the Miami Heat. Then, LeVert had a few minor injuries (groin and knee) in January and February, that caused him to miss a total of 10 games over 3 separate stretches. On March 4, 2018, he had a 27-point effort in a 123–120 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. Levert posted a career-high 12 rebounds along with 19 points on March 31, against the Miami Heat. #### 2018–19 season In the Nets' season opener on October 17, 2018, LeVert equaled a career high with 27 points in a 103–100 loss to the Detroit Pistons. Two days later, he set a new career high with 28 points in a 107–105 win over the New York Knicks. The 28 points included the winning basket over former Michigan teammate Tim Hardaway Jr. with 1 second left. He posted a new career high with 29 points on November 2 against the Houston Rockets. On November 9, he scored 17 points and hit a floater in the lane with 0.3 seconds left to lift the Nets to a 112–110 win over the Denver Nuggets. On November 12, LeVert suffered a severe right leg injury, later confirmed as a subtalar dislocation, late in the first half of the Nets' 120–113 loss to the Timberwolves in Minnesota. As the Nets' leading scorer, LeVert entered the game averaging a team-high 19 points per game. At the time of the injury, LeVert was the only player up to that point in the NBA season with more than one game-winning basket in the final 10 seconds of regulation or overtime. LeVert returned to action on February 8, 2019, after missing 42 games. He finished with 11 points in 15 minutes off the bench in a 125–106 loss to the Chicago Bulls. In game one of the Nets' first-round playoff series against the Philadelphia 76ers, LeVert scored 23 points in a 111–102 win. #### 2019–20 season On August 26, 2019, LeVert signed a three-year contract extension with the Nets. On January 4, 2020, Levert returned from a thumb injury that had sidelined him since November 10 with 13 points against the Toronto Raptors. On February 3, Levert tied his career high with 29 points against the Phoenix Suns in his first start since his injury. When Levert set a new career high of 37 points on February 8 in a loss against the Raptors, it marked the first time that he had posted three consecutive 20-point games in his career. On the night he made his first 6 three-point shots, but missed his seventh attempt to win the game in the final seconds. On March 3, LeVert erupted for a career-high 51 points (his first 50-point game), including 37 in the fourth quarter and overtime, to lead the Nets to a 129–120 comeback win over the Boston Celtics. Two games later with Nets legend Julius Erving attending his first Brooklyn Nets game on March 6, LeVert posted his first triple-double (27 points, 11 rebounds and 10 assists) in a 139–120 win over the San Antonio Spurs. #### 2020–21 season On January 8, 2021, with Durant, Kyrie Irving, Dinwiddie and Tyler Johnson all sidelined, LeVert posted a career best 7 three-point shots on 9 attempts as part of a 43-point effort against the Memphis Grizzlies. ### Indiana Pacers (2021–2022) On January 16, 2021, LeVert was traded to the Indiana Pacers in a multi-player, four-team trade with the Cleveland Cavaliers and Houston Rockets that sent James Harden to Brooklyn and Victor Oladipo to Houston. LeVert was sidelined indefinitely after an MRI revealed a small mass on his left kidney. He said that the trade possibly saved his life as he was feeling 100% healthy. On January 25, 2021, LeVert underwent successful surgery to remove the mass, which was confirmed as being renal cell carcinoma. He was expected to have a full recovery and no further treatment was said to be needed. On March 13, LeVert returned to the court and made his debut for the Pacers, recording 13 points, seven rebounds and two assists in Indiana's 122–111 win over the Phoenix Suns. During the 2021-22 season Pacers was looking for to move on with LeVert. He averaged nearly 19 points per game before the trade deadline. ### Cleveland Cavaliers (2022–present) On February 6, 2022, LeVert was traded, along with a 2022 second-round pick, to his hometown team the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for Ricky Rubio, a 2023 first-round pick which later became Ben Sheppard, a 2022 second-round pick and a 2027 second-round pick. On February 9, LeVert made his Cavaliers debut, putting up 11 points off the bench in a 105–92 win over the San Antonio Spurs. On July 6, 2023, LeVert re-signed with Cleveland. ## Career statistics ### NBA #### Regular season \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2016–17 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Brooklyn \\| 57 \\|\\| 26 \\|\\| 21.7 \\|\\| .450 \\|\\| .321 \\|\\| .720 \\|\\| 3.3 \\|\\| 1.9 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 8.2 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2017–18 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Brooklyn \\| 71 \\|\\| 10 \\|\\| 26.3 \\|\\| .435 \\|\\| .347 \\|\\| .711 \\|\\| 3.7 \\|\\| 4.2 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 12.1 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2018–19 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Brooklyn \\| 40 \\|\\| 25 \\|\\| 26.6 \\|\\| .429 \\|\\| .312 \\|\\| .691 \\|\\| 3.8 \\|\\| 3.9 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 13.7 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2019–20 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Brooklyn \\| 45 \\|\\| 31 \\|\\| 29.6 \\|\\| .425 \\|\\| .364 \\|\\| .711 \\|\\| 4.2 \\|\\| 4.4 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 18.7 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;" rowspan=2\\|2020–21 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Brooklyn \\| 12 \\|\\| 4 \\|\\| 27.8 \\|\\| .435 \\|\\| .349 \\|\\| .765 \\|\\| 4.3 \\|\\| 6.0 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 18.5 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Indiana \\| 35 \\|\\| 35 \\|\\| 32.9 \\|\\| .443 \\|\\| .318 \\|\\| .822 \\|\\| 4.6 \\|\\| 4.9 \\|\\| 1.5 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| 20.7 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;" rowspan=2\\|2021–22 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Indiana \\| 39 \\|\\| 39 \\|\\| 31.1 \\|\\| .447 \\|\\| .323 \\|\\| .760 \\|\\| 3.8 \\|\\| 4.4 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 18.7 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Cleveland \\| 19 \\|\\| 10 \\|\\| 29.8 \\|\\| .435 \\|\\| .313 \\|\\| .745 \\|\\| 3.4 \\|\\| 3.9 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 13.6 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2022–23 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Cleveland \\| 74 \\|\\| 30 \\|\\| 30.2 \\|\\| .431 \\|\\| .392 \\|\\| .722 \\|\\| 3.8 \\|\\| 3.9 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 12.1 \\|- class="sortbottom" \\| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\\|Career \\| 392 \\|\\| 210 \\|\\| 28.1 \\|\\| .436 \\|\\| .344 \\|\\| .735 \\|\\| 3.8 \\|\\| 3.9 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 14.1 #### Play-in \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| 2022 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| Cleveland \\| 2 \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| 39.9 \\|\\| .360 \\|\\| .455 \\|\\| 1.000 \\|\\| 5.0 \\|\\| 6.0 \\|\\| 2.0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 14.0 \\|- class="sortbottom" \\| style="text-align:center;" colspan=2\\| Career \\| 2 \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| 39.9 \\|\\| .360 \\|\\| .455 \\|\\| 1.000 \\|\\| 5.0 \\|\\| 6.0 \\|\\| 2.0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 14.0 #### Playoffs \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2019 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Brooklyn \\| 5 \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| 28.8 \\|\\| .493 \\|\\| .462 \\|\\| .724 \\|\\| 4.6 \\|\\| 3.0 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 21.0 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2020 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Brooklyn \\| 4 \\|\\| 4 \\|\\| 35.0 \\|\\| .370 \\|\\| .429 \\|\\| .720 \\|\\| 6.0 \\|\\| 9.5 \\|\\| 1.3 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 20.3 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2023 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Cleveland \\| 5 \\|\\| 3 \\|\\| 33.9 \\|\\| .429 \\|\\| .361 \\|\\| .615 \\|\\| 4.6 \\|\\| 2.6 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 15.0 \\|- class="sortbottom" \\| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\\|Career \\| 14 \\|\\| 9 \\|\\| 32.4 \\|\\| .431 \\|\\| .410 \\|\\| .701 \\|\\| 5.0 \\|\\| 4.7 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 18.6 ### College \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2012–13 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Michigan \\| 33 \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| 10.7 \\|\\| .315 \\|\\| .302 \\|\\| .500 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 2.3 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2013–14 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Michigan \\| 37 \\|\\| 37 \\|\\| 34.0 \\|\\| .439 \\|\\| .408 \\|\\| .767 \\|\\| 4.3 \\|\\| 2.9 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 12.9 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2014–15 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Michigan \\| 18 \\|\\| 18 \\|\\| 35.8 \\|\\| .421 \\|\\| .405 \\|\\| .810 \\|\\| 4.9 \\|\\| 3.7 \\|\\| 1.8 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 14.9 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2015–16 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Michigan \\| 15 \\|\\| 14 \\|\\| 30.9 \\|\\| .506 \\|\\| .446 \\|\\| .794 \\|\\| 5.3 \\|\\| 4.9 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 16.5 \\|- class="sortbottom" \\| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\\|Career \\| 103 \\|\\| 70 \\|\\| 26.4 \\|\\| .434 \\|\\| .401 \\|\\| .770 \\|\\| 3.5 \\|\\| 2.7 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 10.4 ## Personal life LeVert is the son of Kim and Darryl Wayne LeVert and has a brother, Darryl Marcus, who is his junior by 11 months. His mother is a Columbus City Schools first grade teacher. His father, who was a graphic designer, died on April 4, 2010, at the age of 46. His brother, Darryl Marcus, played basketball for Connors State College. LeVert comes from a musical family as he is the third cousin of Eddie LeVert, the lead vocalist of the O'Jays. Eddie's sons include singers Gerald LeVert of LSG and LeVert (along with Sean LeVert).
31,842,251	German involvement in the Spanish Civil War	1,173,093,441	German involvement in the spanish civil war	[ "Germany–Spain military relations", "Military of Nazi Germany", "Military operations involving Germany", "Spanish Civil War" ]	German involvement in the Spanish Civil War commenced with the outbreak of war in July 1936, with Adolf Hitler immediately sending in powerful air and armored units to assist General Francisco Franco and his Nationalist forces. The Soviet Union sent in smaller forces but a lot of modern weapons to assist the Republican government, while Britain and France and two dozen other countries set up an embargo on any munitions or soldiers into Spain. Nazi Germany also signed the embargo but simply ignored it. The war provided combat experience with the latest technology for the German military. However, the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into a world war for which Hitler was not ready. He therefore limited his aid, and instead encouraged Mussolini to send in large Fascist Italian units. Franco's Nationalists were victorious; he remained officially neutral in the Second World War, but helped the Axis in various ways from 1940 to 1945, even offering to join the war on 19 June 1940 in exchange for help building Spain's colonial empire. The Spanish episode lasted three years and was a smaller-scale prelude to the world war which broke out in 1939. Nazi support for General Franco was motivated by several factors, including as a distraction from Hitler's central European strategy, and the creation of a Spanish state friendly to Germany to threaten France. It further provided an opportunity to train men and test equipment and tactics. ## Military operations Hitler decided to support the Nationalists in July 1936. The Luftwaffe was used to carry the Army of Africa to Spain. A Spanish-German Spanish–Moroccan Transport Company (HISMA) and an entirely German company, the "Raw Materials and Goods Purchasing Company" (ROWAK) were established. German transports moved nearly 2,500 troops from Spanish Morocco to Spain. Early intervention helped to ensure the Nationalists successes in the war's initial stages. The training they provided to the Nationalists proved as valuable, if not more so, than direct actions. From 29 July to 11 October the Germans transported 13,523 Moroccan troops and 270,100 kilograms of war material from Morocco to Andalusia; and it was Franco's African forces, thus transported and supplied, which were a decisive factor in the war. Germany signed the Non-Intervention Agreement on 24 August 1936, but consistently broke it. After a Republican air attack on the German warship Deutschland, Germany and Italy said they would withdraw from the Non-Intervention Committee and from maritime patrols. Early June 1937 saw the return of Germany and Italy to the committee and patrols, but they withdrew from patrols following a further attack. The German military in Spain, who were later reorganised and renamed the Condor Legion, claimed to have destroyed a total of 372 Republican planes and 60 Spanish Republican Navy ships. They lost 72 aircraft due to hostile action and another 160 to accidents. German aid to the Nationalists amounted to approximately £43,000,000 (\$215,000,000) in 1939 prices. German air crews supported the Nationalist advance on Madrid and the relief of the Siege of the Alcázar. The Condor Legion's aircraft were accompanied by two armoured units. By the end of 1936, 7,000 Germans were in Spain. The Nationalists were supported by German units and equipment during the Battle of Madrid and during the Battle of Jarama of February 1937. The fighting demonstrated the inadequacy of the Legion's aircraft compared to superior Soviet-made fighters. The War in the North was supported by a constantly re-equipping Condor Legion. In Operation Rügen, waves of planes bombed and strafed targets in Guernica leaving 1,685 people dead and over 900 injured. The offensive on Bilbao was supported by ground units and extensive air operations. It proved the worth of the Legion to the Nationalist cause. The Legion also took part in the Battle of Brunete and both land and air forces were involved in the Battle of Teruel. Up to 100 sorties a day were launched during the Nationalists' counter-offensive. The continued Nationalist offensive on Aragon in April–June 1937, including the Battle of Belchite, involved bombing raids and the use of the Legion's ground forces. On 24–25 July, Republican forces launched the Battle of the Ebro. Reconnaissance units of the Condor Legion warned Nationalists forces, but this went unheeded. 422 sorties by the Legion's aircraft had considerable effect. A reinforcement of the Legion enabled an important Nationalist counter-attack. At sea, the Maritime Reconnaissance Staffel of the Condor Legion acted against Republican shipping, ports, coastal communications and occasionally inland targets. The German North Sea Group around Spain, part of the Kriegsmarine, consisted of the pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral Scheer, the light cruiser Köln, and four torpedo boats. In addition, Operation Ursula saw a group of German U-boats active around Spain, but was ultimately a failure. ## Motivation and volunteers In the years following the Spanish Civil War, Hitler gave several possible motives for German involvement. Among these were the distraction it provided from German re-militarisation; the prevention of the spread of communism to Western Europe; the creation of a state friendly to Germany to disrupt Britain and France; and the possibilities for economic expansion. Although the offensive on Madrid was abandoned in March 1937, a series of attacks on weaker Republican-controlled areas was supported by Germany; despite prolonging the Civil War, it would help to distract the other western powers from Hitler's ambitions in central Europe. The offensive on Vizcaya, a mining and industrial centre, would help fuel German industry. On 27 June 1937, Hitler (in a speech at Würzburg) declared he supported Franco to gain control of Spanish ore. Discussions over German objectives for intervention occurred in January 1937. Germany was keen to avoid prompting a Europe-wide war, which at the time they felt committing further resources to Spain would do. Contradictory views were held by German officials: Ernst von Weizsäcker suggested it was merely a matter of graceful withdrawal; Hermann Göring stated that Germany would never recognise a "red Spain". A joint Italian–German decision, that the last shipments would be made by the start of February, was agreed. German aid would therefore prevent a Nationalist defeat with a minimum of commitment. Involvement in the Spanish Civil War had drawn Mussolini closer to Hitler, helping to get Mussolini's agreement for Hitler's plans for union (Anschluss) with Austria. The authoritarian Catholic, anti-Nazi Vaterländische Front government of autonomous Austria had been successfully opposing the rise of Fascism, and following the assassination of Austria's authoritarian chancellor, Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934, had already successfully invoked Italian military assistance in case of a German invasion. Hitler's need to prevent an Italian invasion was settled with the Rome–Berlin Axis, partway into the Spanish Civil War. Around 5,000 Germans and Austrians served with the International Brigades, some of whom were political refugees. There were few volunteers for the Nationalist side (from any country), by comparison. ## Non-Intervention Agreement Non-intervention, and with it the Non-Intervention Agreement, had been proposed in a joint diplomatic initiative by the governments of France and the United Kingdom, in order to prevent the war from escalating into a major pan-European conflict. On 4 August 1936, non-intervention was put to Nazi Germany by the French. The German position was that such a declaration was not needed, but discussions could be held on preventing the spread of the war to the rest of Europe, so long as the USSR was present. It was mentioned at that meeting that Germany was already supplying the Nationalists. On 9 August, the Germans informed the British that 'no war materials had been sent from Germany and none will', which was blatantly false. One German Ju 52 aircraft was captured when it came down in Republican territory. Its release would be required before Germany signed the Non-Intervention Pact. There was a growing belief that countries would not abide by the agreement anyway. Admiral Erich Raeder urged the German government to either back the Nationalists more completely, and bring Europe to the brink of war, or abandon them. On the 24th, Germany signed. It was at this point that the Non-Intervention Committee was created to uphold the agreement, but the double-dealing of the USSR and Germany had already become apparent. Germany consistently broke the agreement they had signed. The Non-Intervention Committee was established to enforce the Non-Intervention Agreement. Germany was represented by Joachim von Ribbentrop (with Otto Christian Archibald von Bismarck as deputy) but left the running to the Italian Dino Grandi, although they found working with him difficult. It became clear the Non-Intervention Agreement was not preventing German aid to the Nationalists. On 18 November, the German government recognised the Nationalists as the true government of Spain. Germany met the request to ban volunteers on 7 January. Hitler himself authored the German declaration. German uneasiness about the scale, limitations and outcomes of intervention in Spain remained. German diplomats spoke as if their men in Spain were genuine volunteers. However, Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Russia continued to believe a European war was not in their best interests. ### Control plan Observers were posted to Spanish ports and borders, and both Ribbentrop and Grandi were told by their governments to agree to the plan, significant shipments already having taken place. The cost of the scheme was put at £898,000, of which Germany would pay 16 percent. The German delegation appears to have hoped the control plan was effective. In May, the Committee noted an attack on the German pocket battleship Deutschland. Germany and Italy said they would withdraw from the Committee, and from the patrols, unless it could be guaranteed there would be no further attacks. Early June saw the return of Germany and Italy to the committee and patrols. It continued to be a crime in Germany to mention German operations. Following attacks (attributed to Republicans by Germany, but denied) on the German cruiser Leipzig on 15 and 18 June, Germany and Italy once again withdrew from patrols, but not from the Committee. Discussions about patrols remained complicated. Britain and France offered to replace Germany and Italy in patrols of their sections, but the latter powers believed these patrols would be too partial. ## Early intervention Following the military coup in Spain at the start of the Spanish Civil War, the Spanish Second Republic turned to the Soviet Union and France for support, and the Nationalists requested the support of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The first attempt to secure German aviation was made on 22 July 1936, with a request for 10 transport aircraft. Franco contacted Hitler directly. German ministers were split on whether to support the Nationalists, and possibly become embroiled in a European war as a result. Ultimately Hitler decided to support the Nationalists on 25 or 26 July, but was still wary of provoking a Europe-wide war. The Reich Air Travel Ministry concluded that Nationalist forces would need at least 20 Ju 52s, flown by Deutsche Luft Hansa pilots, to carry the Army of Africa from Spanish Morocco to Spain. This mission became known as Operation Magic Fire (German: Feuerzauber). The joint Spanish-German Sociedad Hispano-Marroquí de Transportes (HISMA) "Spanish–Moroccan Transport Company" and an entirely German company, the Raw Materials and Good Purchasing Company (German: Rohstoffe-und-Waren-Einkaufsgesellschaft, ROWAK) were established. This involvement was kept covert, hidden from both foreign and economic ministries, and funded with three million Reichsmark (equivalent to million euros). The organisation and recruitment of German volunteers was also kept secret; by 27 July the call for pilots had been made in major German cities. The first contingent of 86 men left on 1 August in civilian clothes, unaware of where they were going. They were accompanied with six biplane fighters, anti-aircraft guns and about 100 tons of other supplies. They were placed at Tablada airfield near Seville, and accompanied by German air transport, they began the airlift of Franco's troops to Spain. Germany's involvement grew in September to encompass the Wehrmacht's other branches; Operation Magic Fire was renamed Operation Guido in November. A wide belief was that the soldiers would train Spanish Nationalists, and not engage the Republicans. In August, 155 tons of bombs were transferred from Germany through Portugal. Other military aid was provided. The head of the Kriegsmarine initially refused to provide submarines, but this changed after 24 October, upon the signing of the Rome–Berlin Axis, when it became clear that Mussolini's Italy would do the same. The Kriegsmarine also provided various surface ships and coordinated the movement of German supplies to Spain. German U-boats were dispatched to Spanish waters under the codename Ursula. In the two weeks following 27 July, German transports moved nearly 2,500 troops of the Army of Africa to Spain; 1,500 between 29 July and 5 August. Transport planes were moved to Spain from Germany via San Remo in Italy. German aircraft continued to provide cover for ship movements in the Strait of Gibraltar. There were fuel shortages, but these eased as more fuel arrived from Germany. By 11 October, the mission's official end, 13,500 troops, 127 machine guns and 36 field guns had been carried into Spain from Morocco. Over this period there was a movement from training and supply missions of overt combat. The operation leader, Alexander von Scheele, was replaced by Walter Warlimont, and was moved into Franco's headquarters to coordinate military and diplomatic efforts. In September, 86 tons of bombs, 40 Panzer PzKpfw I tanks and 122 personnel had been landed in Spain; they were accompanied with 108 aircraft in the July–October period, split between aircraft for the Nationalist faction itself and planes for German volunteers in Spain. German air crews supported the Nationalist advance on Madrid, and the successful relief of the Siege of the Alcázar. Ultimately, this phase of the Siege of Madrid was unsuccessful. Soviet air support for the Republicans was growing, particularly through the supply of Polikarpov aircraft. Warlimont appealed to Nazi Germany to step up support. Some Nazi figures, including Göring, were opposed, but following German recognition of Franco's government on 30 September, German efforts in Spain were reorganised and expanded. The existing command structure was replaced with the Winterübung Rügen, and the military units already in Spain were formed into a new legion, which was briefly called the Iron Rations (German: Eiserne Rationen) and the Iron Legion (German: Eiserne Legion) before Göring renamed it the Condor Legion (German: Legion Condor). The first German chargé to Franco's government, General Wilhelm von Faupel, arrived in November, but was told not to interfere in military matters. By mid-November, 20 German shipments had arrived in Spain, carrying supplies like ammunition, aviation fuel, rifles, grenades, radio equipment and both civilian and military vehicles. Göring (who controlled Rheinmetall-Borsig) supplied arms to the Republicans; shipped to Greece supposedly for their use, the arms were transferred by Bodosakis to ships supposedly sailing to Mexico. He was also supplying the Nationalists, who got the best and latest weapons while the Republicans got the oldest and least serviceable. This supply peaked in 1937–38. Nationalists identified 18 vessels to Republican ports from 3 January 1937 and 11 May 1938, and estimated that Göring received the equivalent of one pound sterling per rifle. An earlier shipment from Hamburg to Alicante on 1 October 1936 by the Welsh ship Bramhill had 19,000 rifles, 101 machine guns and more than 20 million cartridges for the CNT militia in Barcelona. Nazi Germany also helped the propaganda war with a gift of a Telefunken transmitter for the newly created national radio service. ## Condor Legion The Condor Legion, upon establishment, consisted of the Kampfgruppe 88, with three squadrons of Ju 52 bombers and the Jagdgruppe 88 with three squadrons of Heinkel He 51 fighters, the reconnaissance Aufklärungsgruppe 88 (supplemented by the Aufklärungsgruppe See 88), an anti-aircraft group, the Flakabteilung 88, and a signals group, the Nachrichtenabteilung 88. Overall command was given to Hugo Sperrle, with Alexander Holle as chief of staff. Scheele was transferred to become a military attaché in Salamanca. Two armoured units under the command of Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma, with 106 Panzer Is, were also operational. The Nationalists were supported by German and Italian units and equipment during the Battle of Madrid. However, the military situation in Madrid remained poor for the Nationalists, and both German and Italian aircraft (under Franco's direction) began bombing raids on the city as a whole. The Germans were keen to observe the effects of civilian bombings and the deliberate burning of the city. Offensives involving German aircraft, as well as the bombings, were unsuccessful. Increasing Republican air superiority became apparent, particularly the strength of the Soviet Polikarpov I-15 and I-16 aircraft. Historian Hugh Thomas described their armaments as "primitive". Faupel, in November–December, urged the creation of a single German unit of 15,000–30,000, believing it would be enough to turn the tide of the war to the Nationalists. Hans-Heinrich Dieckhoff argued this would be insufficient, and that larger measures could provoke the wrath of the Spanish. Between late 1936 and early 1937, new aircraft were sent to the Condor Legion. Older aircraft were passed onto the Nationalists. By the end of 1936, 7,000 Germans were in Spain. The British estimated that between January 1937 and August 1938, 320,000 rifles and 550,000 revolvers were transferred to the Nationalists from Germany. German forces also operated in the Battle of Jarama, which began with a Nationalist offensive on 6 February 1937. It included German-supplied ground forces, including two batteries of machine guns, a tank division, and the Condor Legion's anti-aircraft guns. Bombing by both Republican and Nationalist aircraft helped ensure a stalemate. It showed up the inadequacy of the Legion's aircraft, faced with superior Soviet-made fighters. The Legion's efforts only partly mitigated what was a significant defeat for the Nationalists at the Battle of Guadalajara during March. A joint Italian–German general had been set up in January 1937 to advise Franco on war planning. The defeat of a significant Italian force and the growing Soviet superiority in tanks and aircraft led the Germans to support a plan to abandon the offensive on Madrid and instead concentrate a series of attacks on weaker Republican-controlled areas. While many countries believed motorised troops to have been proven less effective than first thought, it was the inadequacy of the Italians as a fighting force that dominated German thought. ### The Vizcaya Campaign The isolated area of Vizcaya, a predominantly Basque part of northern Spain, was the most immediate target, in what was called the War in the North. It was largely a Nationalist and Italian offensive, but was supported by a consistently re-equipping Condor Legion. Sperrle remained in Salamanca; Wolfram von Richthofen replaced Holle in January as deputy and in actual command. The Legion's air force initially attacked the towns of Ochandiano and Durango. Durango had no anti-aircraft defence, and only minor other defences. According to the Basques, 250 civilians died on 31 March, including the priest, nuns and congregation of a church ceremony. The Germans, with their air raids, were hated. The Basque ground forces were in full retreat towards Bilbao, through the town of Guernica, which was attacked on 26 April in one of the most controversial events of the Spanish Civil War. In Operation Rügen, waves of planes bombed and strafed targets in the town. The number of casualties is a matter of controversy, with between 200 and 300 people killed; the number reported dead by the Basques was 1,654 dead and 889 wounded. Several explanations were put forward by the Nationalists, including blaming the attack on the Republicans, that the attack on the town had been a prolonged offensive. However, the nature of the operation itself makes this seem unlikely. The offensive on Bilbao, when it eventually came on 11 July, was supported by ground units of the Condor Legion, and extensive air operations. It proved the worth of the Condor Legion to the Nationalist cause. ### Further campaigns The Condor Legion also took part in the Battle of Brunete. The Legion was sent from the north to reinforce the broken line. There were repeated raids on Spanish Republican Army armoured vehicles and later defensive positions by both bombers and fighters based at Salamanca. Spanish Republican Air Force aircraft were ineffective, despite Nationalist fears, compared with German aircraft. The Legion lost eight aircraft, but claimed 18 victories. German tactics were also improved with the experience of Brunete, particularly the en masse use of tanks by the Nationalists. The Nationalists returned to focus on the capture of northern Spain. German test aircraft, with the latest models, faced an outdated Basque section (Escuadrilla vasca) of the Spanish Republican Air Force. Heavy aerial bombardment from 200 Nationalist, German and Italian aircraft was used far behind Basque lines in August 1937, leading to the fall of Santander after the Battle of Santander on 1 September. The formal battle in Asturias ended with the fall of Gijón on 21 October. Germany immediately began to ship the products of the region's industry back to Germany. Sperrle argued repeatedly with Faupel, and against HISMA's monopoly. Faupel was replaced with Eberhard von Stohrer by Franco, through Sperrle. Sperrle also returned to Germany and was replaced by Helmuth Volkmann; following disagreements with Volkmann, Von Richthofen would be replaced with Hermann Plocher in early 1938. The Condor Legion began a week of strikes against Republican airfields, halted by the Republican advance on Teruel and the ensuing Battle of Teruel. Both the Legion's land and air forces were used. Poor weather resulted in few flights, and the town fell to Republican forces on 6 January. Up to 100 sorties a day were launched during the Nationalist's counter-offensive through the Alfambra valley. Teruel was retaken on 22 February. The continued Nationalist offensive on Aragon in April–June 1937, including the Battle of Belchite, involved bombing raids and the use of the Legion's ground forces. The Legion was switched to focus in the north, towards the Segre river, before moving south again following Nationalist successes. Hitler's words to his colleagues belied a change in attitude about the war in Germany – that a quick victory in the war was not desirable, a mere continuation of the war would be preferable. German policy would be to prevent a Republican defeat. However, casualties were beginning to mount for the Legion and, combined with a resurgence in Republican air activity, the Nationalist advance stalled. Arguments over the bill to the Germans – now rising at 10 million Reichsmark a month (equivalent to million euros) – continued, unresolved. The Legion's materiel had been exhausted. On 24–25 July, Republican forces launched the last major offensive of the war, the Battle of the Ebro. Reconnaissance units of the Condor Legion had noticed a troop build-up, and warned Nationalists forces. The warning went unheeded. Although the Republic gained ground, Republican forces failed to gain control of Gandesa, with 422 sorties by the Legion having considerable effect. However, tensions in Czechoslovakia and a shortage of pilots in Germany led to the return of 250 pilots from the Legion. Although trained Spaniards made up some of the shortfall, Volkmann complained to central command in Berlin, which led to his recall in September. During the battle, which saw 113 days of fighting, only 10 aircraft were lost (some by accident); the Legion claimed around 100 Republican aircraft. Only five aircrew had been killed, and six captured. Aid from Germany temporarily halted in mid-September. Germany and Nationalist Spain settled the issue of German interests in Spanish mines. The Legion took a short break from active duty to receive new aircraft, including Bf 109Es, He 111Es and Js, and Hs 126As, bringing its strength to 96 aircraft, around a fifth of the Nationalist's force as a whole. Von Richthofen returned to Spain in overall command, with Hans Seidemann as chief of staff. This reinforcement may have been the single most important intervention by a foreign side in the war, enabling a counterattack after the Battle of the Ebro. It mainly took part in operations against the remaining Republican air force during January–February 1939, with considerable success. It was rapidly dissolved. The men returned on 26 May; the best aircraft were returned to Germany and the rest of the equipment bought by the new Spanish regime. The Condor Legion claimed to have destroyed 320 Republican aircraft through aerial combat and shot down another 52 using anti-aircraft guns. They also claimed to have destroyed 60 ships. They lost 72 aircraft due to hostile action, and another 160 to accidents. ## Maritime operations ### Condor Legion The Maritime Reconnaissance Staffel 88 (German: Aufklärungsstaffel See 88) was the Condor Legion's maritime unit under the command of Karl Heinz Wolff. Operating independently of the land-based division, it acted against Republican shipping, ports, coastal communications and occasionally inland targets such as bridges. It used floatplanes, starting with the Heinkel He 60, which began operating in October 1936. Beginning in June, operations were expanded to allow attacks on all Republican ports, so long as no British ships were present. Ten ships were attacked in the second half of 1937; however, the Norwegian torpedoes being used proved ineffective, and strafing or bombing targets was used instead. The arrival of Martin Harlinghausen saw operations expand, targeting Alicante, Almeria, Barcelona and Cartagena. As naval activity declined, inland targets became more numerous, and night missions began. Activities in support of ground forces became the main focus of the unit until the end of hostilities. In total, eleven men were killed in action, and five others died due to accident or illness. ### Kriegsmarine Overtly, the Kriegsmarine was part of the force enforcing the non-intervention agreement signed on 28 September 1936, which barred its signatory countries from interfering in the Civil War. However, the German pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral Scheer stood guard in the Strait of Gibraltar to prevent interference from Republican ships while Franco transported his troops to the Spanish mainland. By mid-October, the German North Sea Group around Spain consisted of the pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral Scheer, the light cruiser Köln, and four torpedo boats. They quickly uncovered evidence that the Soviet Union was supplying the Republicans. They also helped the aircraft bound for the Condor Legion to cross the Mediterranean and assisted in the Battle of Málaga. On 29 May, Deutschland was attacked by two Republican planes. It was claimed that their Soviet pilots had mistaken it for the Nationalist ship Canarias, or else had been fired upon by it. 32 sailors were killed, the Kriegsmarine's greatest loss of life in the war. After a retaliatory attack on Almeria (Valencia had been the original target, but minefields posed too great a problem), Germany came close to withdrawing from the agreement, but British diplomatic efforts to keep Germany patrolling prevailed. After the Germans claimed that Leipzig had been attacked by an unidentified submarine off Oran, it formally withdrew from international patrols to enforce the agreement. Republican minister of defense Indalecio Prieto considered a declaration of war on Germany, but Soviet fear of a world war prevented this. ### Operation Ursula Operation Ursula (named after the daughter of Karl Dönitz) saw a group of German U-boats active around the waters near Spain against the Spanish Republican Navy, under the overall command of Hermann Boehm (Konteradmiral since 1934, and Vizeadmiral since 1 April 1937) in Berlin. It began on 20 November 1936, with the movement of and from Wilhelmshaven. Any identification marks were obscured, and the whole mission was kept secret. They entered the Mediterranean on the night of 27–28 November, taking over from Italian submarine patrols. If damaged, they were to sail to La Maddelena, and enter under an Italian ensign. U-33 operated around Alicante, and U-34 around Cartagena. Difficulties in identifying legitimate targets and concerns about discovery limited their operations. The torpedoes they used also often malfunctioned. During their return to Wilhelmshaven in December, the Spanish Republican C-3 submarine was sunk by a torpedo from U-34. The Republicans government assumed C-3 had been sunk by a submarine, but the official navy investigation later concluded its loss was due to an internal explosion. Their return marked the official end of Operation Ursula. However, it does seem that further submarines were sent in mid-1937, but details of the operation are not known; six (U-25, U-26, U-27, U-28, U-31 and U-35) are believed to have been involved. Five submarine commanders received the Spanish Cross in Bronze without Swords in 1939. ## Outcome Early intervention helped to ensure that the Nationalist faction survived the initial stages of the war; German involvement then steadily expanded. The training they provided to Nationalist force proved as valuable, if not more so, than direct actions. Approximately 56,000 Nationalist soldiers were trained by various German detachments in Spain, who were technically proficient; these covered infantry, tanks and anti-tank units, air and anti-aircraft forces, and those trained in naval warfare. The Condor Legion spearheaded many Nationalist victories, particularly providing air dominance from 1937 onwards; 300 air-to-air victories were claimed, although this was dwarfed by some 900 claimed by Italian forces. Spain provided a proving ground for German tank tactics, as well as aircraft tactics, the latter being only moderately successful. The air superiority which allowed certain parts of the Legion to excel would be replicated in the first year of World War II, until ultimately failing to prevail in the Battle of Britain. A total of approximately 16,000 German citizens fought in the Civil War, mostly as pilots, ground crew, artillery men, tank crew, and as military advisers and instructors. About 10,000 Germans was the maximum strength at any one time. Approximately 300 Germans were killed. During the course of the war, Germany sent 732 combat aircraft and 110 trainer aircraft to Spain. German aid to the Nationalists amounted to approximately £43,000,000 (\$215,000,000) in 1939 prices (equivalent to £ billion ). That was broken down in expenditure to 15.5 percent used for salaries and expenses, 21.9 percent used for direct delivery of supplies to Spain, and 62.6 percent expended on the Condor Legion. No detailed list of German supplies furnished to Spain has been found. Franco had also agreed to sign over the output of six mines to help pay for German aid. ### Political roles Some Nazis were disappointed with Franco's resistance to installing more fascism. Historian James S. Corum states: > As an ardent Nazi, [Ambassador Wilhelm] Faupel disliked Catholicism as well as the Spanish upper classes, and encouraged the working-class extremist members of the Falange to build a fascist party. Faupel devoted long audiences with Franco to convincing him of the necessity of remolding the Falange in the image of the Nazi Party. Faupel's interference in internal Spanish politics ran counter to Franco's policy of building a nationalist coalition of businessmen, monarchists and conservative Catholics, as well as Falangists. Historian Robert H. Whealey provides more detail: > Whereas Franco's crusade was a counterrevolution, the arrogant Faupel associated the Falange with the "revolutionary" doctrines of National Socialism. He sought to provide Spain's poor with an alternative to "Jewish internationalist Marxist–Leninism".... The old fashioned Alfonsists and Carlists who surrounded Franco viewed the Falangists as classless troublemakers. From 1937 to 1948, the Franco regime was a hybrid as Franco fused the ideologically incompatible national-syndicalist Falange ("Phalanx", a fascist Spanish political party founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera) and the Carlist monarchist parties into one party under his rule, dubbed Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista (FET y de las JONS), which became the only legal party in 1939. Unlike some other fascist movements, the Falangists had developed an official program in 1934, the "Twenty-Seven Points". In 1937, Franco assumed as the tentative doctrine of his regime 26 out of the original 27 points. Franco made himself jefe nacional (National Chief) of the new FET (Falange Española Tradicionalista; Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx) with a secretary, Junta Political and National Council to be named subsequently by himself. Five days later (24 April), the raised-arm salute of the Falange was made the official salute of the Nationalist regime. In 1939, the personalist style heavily predominated, with ritualistic invocations of "Franco, Franco, Franco". The Falangists' hymn, Cara al Sol, became the semi-national anthem of Franco's not-yet-established regime. ## See also - Condor Legion - Italian military intervention in Spain
43,469,068	The Boat Race 1868	1,154,812,419	null	[ "1868 in English sport", "1868 in sports", "April 1868 events", "The Boat Race" ]	The 25th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 4 April 1868. Oxford won by six lengths in a time of 20 minutes and 56 seconds, taking the overall record to 15–10 in their favour. Oxford cox Charles Tottenham became the first person in the history of the event to win five Boat Races, and Cambridge saw their first non-British rower compete. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having defeated Cambridge by half a length in the previous year's race and led overall with fourteen wins to Cambridge's ten. In February 1868, former Cambridge Blue Hon J. H. Gordon was found fatally wounded in his room from an accidentally self-inflicted gun discharge. This resulted in Cambridge University Boat Club president John Still requesting that the usual challenge, which had been sent to Oxford in the Lent term, be rescinded. According to MacMichael, the response was "very unsympathetic" in tone and therefore the challenge stood and was accepted: the universities would race. Cambridge were coached for a week each by John Bourke (who had rowed in the unsuccessful crews of the 1866 and 1867 races) and the former boat club president William Griffiths (who had represented the Light Blues three times between the 1865 and 1867 races). Thomas Selby Egan coached the Cantabrigians for the three weeks preceding the race. Oxford were coached by E. F. Henley (who rowed in 1865 and 1866), the former Oxford University Boat Club president G. Morrison, R. W. Risley (who rowed four times between the 1857 and 1860 races) and Walter Bradford Woodgate (who rowed in the 1862 and 1863 races. The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 (in the March and December races) and the 1852 race, while the starter was Edward Searle and the finishing judge was John Phelps. Despite the weeks of training, Cambridge did not arrive at Putney in a "state in which a University crew is expected to be." Conversely, according to Oxford's Frank Willan, the Dark Blues "made great progress during the last week" and "came to the post eventually very fit." ## Crews The Cambridge crewed weighed an average of 11 st 11.875 lb (75.1 kg), just 0.25 pounds (0.1 kg) more than their opponents. Oxford's crew contained four returning Blues, including cox Charles Tottenham who was competing in his fifth consecutive Boat Race, and Frank Willan who had rowed in the Dark Blues' successful races the previous two years. The Cambridge crew included two rowers with Boat Race experience: William Anderson and John Still, the latter making his third Boat Race appearance. The Light Blue cox, Thomas Warner, was the first registered non-British competitor to represent the university, having studied at Melbourne Church of England Grammar School in Australia before becoming an alumnus of Trinity Hall. ## Race Around 11 a.m., Oxford departed from the London Rowing Club boathouse, while Cambridge left from Leander Club in order to head to the start. Cambridge had won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station, handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford. As a result of a number of boats moored on the north bank of the river, the tide which would have assisted the Light Blues was substantially blocked. Cambridge made a good start, leading by half a length by the London Rowing Club boathouse. Oxford responded, and passing Leander, they had reduced the deficit to one third of a length. Rowing past Craven Cottage, the Dark Blues were marginally ahead, despite a push from Cambridge. Despite questionable steering in conditions described as having "prevailing haze", Oxford maintained a lead of around half a length by the Crab Tree pub. The Dark Blues had extended their lead to a length by the soap works before shooting Hammersmith Bridge two lengths ahead. Although river traffic diverted the Cambridge boat, they remained in contention, two lengths behind Oxford. At Barnes Bridge, the Dark Blues were a further length ahead, and continued to extend their lead until the flag-boat, which they passed six lengths ahead in a time of 20 minutes 56 seconds. Oxford's victory, their eighth in a row, took their overall lead to 15–10 in the event. Willan paid tribute to his cox: "In conclusion, I must again testify to the splendid steering of Tottenham, who for the fifth and I am sorry to say for the last time has contributed mainly to our victory over Cambridge."
25,827,909	Klaus and Greta	1,154,857,362	null	[ "2010 American television episodes", "30 Rock (season 4) episodes", "New Year television episodes" ]	"Klaus and Greta" is the ninth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock. It was written by co-showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by Gail Mancuso. The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 14, 2010. Guest stars in this episode include James Franco, Matt Lauer, and Jeffery Self. "Klaus and Greta" aired out of its usual timeslot with "Black Light Attack!" following it in the regular timeslot. Following a crazy New Year's Eve party, Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) leaves a message on his high school sweetheart's answering machine and decides to break into her home with Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer), while she is on vacation. At the same time, Jenna Maroney (Jane Krakowski) starts up a fake relationship with actor James Franco in order to counteract rumors that he is in love with a Japanese body pillow. Meanwhile, Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) accidentally outs her cousin (Jeffery Self) at her New Year's Eve party, so he decides to live with her in New York. "Klaus and Greta" was generally, though not universally, well received among television critics. According to the Nielsen Media Research, the episode was watched by 5.122 million households during its original broadcast, and received a 2.3 rating/6 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic. "Klaus and Greta" won the award for Outstanding Individual Episode at the 22nd GLAAD Media Awards. ## Plot After a crazy New Year's Eve, Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) realizes that while drunk on wine brought by Bob Ballard, he left a message on the answering machine of Nancy Donovan (Julianne Moore), his high school sweetheart. He and NBC page Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer) immediately travel to Massachusetts and break into Nancy's home while she is on vacation, hoping to erase the message. While Kenneth fumbles with the computer, Jack examines the house and finds evidence that Nancy's marriage is reaching its end - he husband's clothes are on the couch, their sinks are separated, and they have booked flights to different places. They eventually play the message, after Jack finds the voicemail code, in which Jack reminisces about their times in high school German class. In that class, Jack had the name "Klaus" and Nancy had the name "Greta"—and Jack says that he took the class to be with her. Jack decides not to erase the message, but Kenneth does so anyway, telling him that there is no sign Nancy wants Jack in her life. When they return to New York, Kenneth realizes that Nancy's voicemail code (55287) stands for "Klaus", which means that Nancy does have feelings for Jack. Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) accidentally outs her cousin, Randy (Jeffery Self) to his family at a New Year's Eve party, so he comes to live with her in New York City Liz tries to keep Randy in her apartment during his stay, but he sneaks out to a bar at night, and traps Liz in a closet when she tries to supervise him. Jenna Maroney (Jane Krakowski) enters a fake relationship with actor James Franco, in order to counteract rumors that he is in love with a Japanese body pillow. Jenna feels slighted when she realizes that she wants a real relationship, and encourages James to follow his own passions, resulting in Jenna ending things with him. Deciding to have fun, Liz and Randy go to a nightclub, where Liz runs into James and his pillow. The two get drunk and end up sleeping together. The next morning, at Liz's apartment, Randy is shocked to see James coming out of Liz's bedroom with his body pillow, and is disturbed enough to go back home to Pennsylvania. Tracy Jordan gets his wife, Angie Jordan (Sherri Shepherd), pregnant and, realizing his continued hostility to women (apparently not having realized until that point that every woman is someone's daughter), tells Grizz Griswold (Grizz Chapman), "Dot Com" Slattery (Kevin Brown), and Kenneth that he has decided to add a woman to their entourage. ## Production "Klaus and Greta" was written by co-showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock, making it his fourteenth writing credit overall. The episode was directed by Gail Mancuso, making it her eighth for the series. "Klaus and Greta" originally aired in the United States on January 14, 2010, on NBC as the ninth episode of the show's fourth season. In November 2009, it was announced that actor James Franco would guest star on 30 Rock as himself, and would carry on a fake romance with Jenna Maroney (Krakowski), in a scheme concocted by their respective agents. Two months earlier, series creator, executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey revealed Jenna's plot to Entertainment Weekly, but did not divulge Franco's name. In an April 2010 interview with Zap2it, Carlock revealed that "one of the things" the staff looked forward to in the fourth season was Jenna's storyline here, and said her "emotional realization" that she wants more than a fake relationship with Franco was "a cool turn for that character after three years of thinking that all she wants is to have her picture in the paper and have her hair look good." In this episode, Matt Lauer, a co-host of The Today Show, guest starred as himself for the second time first appearing in "Generalissimo" that aired on February 5, 2009, during the show's third season. In "Klaus and Greta", the staff writers of the fictitious sketch comedy show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan play a shot game to The Today Show's travel tips given by Lauer. Despite not appearing in the episode, the show made reference of Jack Donaghy's romantic interest in high school sweatheart, Nancy Donovan, portrayed by actress Julianne Moore. Moore was announced as a love interest for Alec Baldwin's Jack in November 2009, and made her debut as the Nancy character in the previous episode "Secret Santa". This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on November 6, 2009. ## Cultural references Jenna reveals that James Franco's manager came to her first to start a fake relationship with Franco, before asking former reality show participant Ayiiia Elizarraras from The Real World: Cancun. Randy tells Liz that a man offered to drive him to her apartment if he helps him move a couch into a van, but she tells him he is a serial killer. This is a reference to the 1991 thriller film The Silence of the Lambs in which serial killer "Buffalo Bill" kidnaps his victims by asking them for help loading something heavy into his van, and then knocking them out in a surprise attack from behind. Jenna tells Liz that as a result of her relationship with Franco, gossip blogs have dubbed them "James", a combination of Jenna and James. Jack has Cerie Xerox (Katrina Bowden) check Nancy's status on the social-networking site YouFace which shows she is on vacation. YouFace is similar to MySpace and Facebook. Randy tells Liz that growing up the (fictitious) small town of Methenburg, Pennsylvania was difficult as a closeted gay man, and reveals that the local television station in the state edited Will & Grace down so much that it was just called Karen. Will & Grace, a former NBC program, revolved around a gay man (Will) and his best friend (Grace), and Karen was Will and Grace's friend. In "Klaus and Greta", Franco starts a fraudulent romance with Jenna in order to dismiss rumors that he is in love with a Japanese body pillow. According to a CNN report, following the broadcast, the subplot of Franco in love with a body pillow came straight from an article from The New York Times Magazine, published in July 2009, in which the article, deemed controversial, focused on a man in his mid-thirties who carries around a body pillow printed with an animated Japanese female character. ## Reception In its original American broadcast, "Klaus and Greta" was watched by 5.122 million households, according to the Nielsen Media Research. It received a 2.3 rating/6 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic,[^1] that is 2.3% of all people in that group, and 6% of all people from that group watching television at the time, watched the episode. This was a decrease from the December 10, 2009, episode "Secret Santa", which was watched by 7.54 million American viewers. In the 9:00 p.m. timeslot on January 14, in which this episode aired out of its usual timeslot, 30 Rock was outperformed by CBS' crime drama series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, ABC's medical drama Grey's Anatomy, and Fox's science fiction series Fringe. "Klaus and Greta" outperformed a repeat of the paranormal drama television series Supernatural on The CW, which drew 1.364 million viewers. This episode of 30 Rock won the award for Outstanding Individual Episode (in a series without a regular gay character) at the 22nd GLAAD Media Awards. Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star-Ledger said that the episode and "Black Light Attack!" were filled with "enough good gags that, together, they made for a very satisfying hour of comedy." Robert Canning of IGN gave this episode a 9.5 out of 10 rating, observing that "...it will be a long time before we see anything funnier from 30 Rock". Canning said that despite the Tracy character not having too much screen time here "his bits were funny, and his idea to add a woman to his entourage had a lot of potential", and noted that Liz/Randy's plot ended "brilliantly" when the story crossed over to Jenna/James Franco's storyline. Bob Sassone of AOL's TV Squad gave it a positive review writing it was a "good episode", and "[n]ot one of the best but it still had enough funny situations", and thanked NBC for broadcasting two episodes. Entertainment Weekly's Margaret Lyons remarked that the two episodes were terrific, and what stood out from both airings "was how much serialized plot[s] these two eps covered ... For a show that's usually so episodic, it was an interesting—totally successful—change of pace." The A.V. Club's Emily VanDerWerff was positive, but noted that "there was stuff that didn't work here", citing the long scene with Jack and Kenneth in Nancy's home, reasoning it was "weirdly boring". VanDerWerff was complimentary towards James Franco's appearance, and commented that the idea that Franco was in love with a Japanese body pillow was "just comic gold and a half." Not being a fan of Jane Krakowski's Jenna, VanDerWerff noted that "Klaus and Greta" gave the character "one of her best storylines in ages ... [and] everything here about how she slowly grew more and more oblivious was well-done." Sean Gandert for Paste reported that it featured "all sorts of funny" but felt that the main plot fell "pretty flat." Gandert was favorable to the other stories featured here. Time contributor James Poniewozik opined Franco threw himself into the role "willing to appear ridiculous and a little crazy". Poniewozik said it was a "pleasure" to see a "desperate-Jenna plot" that seemed "fresh." Nick Catucci, a contributor of New York magazine, deemed this episode of 30 Rock'' "terrific". [^1]:
46,767,886	Action of 30 June 1798	1,056,460,047	Minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars	[ "Conflicts in 1798", "Military history of the Bay of Biscay", "Naval battles involving France", "Naval battles involving Great Britain", "Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars" ]	The action of 30 June 1798 was a minor naval engagement fought along the Biscay coast of France during the French Revolutionary Wars. The French Navy had been largely driven from the Atlantic Ocean early in the war following heavy losses in a series of failed operations. This had allowed the Royal Navy's Channel Fleet to institute a close blockade on the French naval ports of the Biscay coast, particularly Brest in Brittany. The blockade strategy included a constantly patrolling inshore squadron composed of frigates, tasked with preventing the passage of French ships into or out of the port. In the spring of 1798, several French frigates stationed in the Indian Ocean were sent back to France as the base at Île de France could no longer supply them effectively. One of these ships was the 40-gun frigate Seine, which departed Port Louis laden with 280 soldiers from the garrison. Seine had a rapid passage back to European waters, arriving in the Bay of Biscay on 28 June. Early the following morning, with the Brittany coast in sight, Seine was spotted by the inshore frigate squadron of HMS Jason, HMS Pique and HMS Mermaid. While Mermaid cut Seine off from the coast, Jason and Pique gave chase as Seine fled southwards. Pique reached Seine at 23:00 that evening and for more than two and a half hours the frigates pounded at one another until Pique fell back. Pique and Jason continued the chase full speed through the night, until suddenly all three frigates crashed headlong into the sandbanks off La Tranche-sur-Mer on the Vendée coast. Even while grounded the frigates continued to fire on one another until Mermaid finally arrived and the outnumbered Seine surrendered. Jason and Seine were badly damaged but successfully refloated, the casualties on the packed decks of the French ship appallingly high, but Pique was an irretrievable wreck: the ship was evacuated and then burnt before the remainder of the squadron returned to Britain with their prize. ## Background In the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars, although the French Navy had sought to oppose the Royal Navy at sea from their main base at Brest in Brittany, the Royal Navy had achieved victories at the Glorious First of June and Battle of Groix. The losses inflicted on the French Atlantic fleet in these battles were compounded by large numbers of ships wrecked in storms during the disastrous Croisière du Grand Hiver and Expédition d'Irlande operations. By 1798 the Royal Navy was unopposed in its control of the Atlantic, enforcing its supremacy by a strategy of close blockade, maintaining a battle fleet at sea off Brittany and an inshore squadron of frigates watching the approaches to Brest. In June 1798 the inshore squadron included a detachment comprising the 38-gun HMS Jason under Captain Charles Stirling, the 36-gun HMS Pique under Captain David Milne and 32-gun HMS Mermaid under Captain James Newman-Newman. For French warships oceanic travel was extremely hazardous and ships often travelled in numbers. In the spring of 1796 a squadron commanded by Contre-amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey had sailed from Rochefort to reinforce French naval forces in the Indian Ocean, based at Port Louis on the Île de France. Sercey's squadron failed to make a significant impression, driven off from the East Indies in an inconclusive action off Sumatra, and then tricked into fleeing from a vulnerable East India Company merchant convoy in the Bali Strait Incident in January 1797. By the end of the year the Colonial Assembly, which were unhappy with plans of the French Directory to abolish slavery, refused to continue supplying the squadron and garrison, forcing Sercey to disperse his ships. First Régénérée and Vertu were ordered back to France, and then in early 1798 the 40-gun Seine was instructed to follow them, carrying 280 soldiers from the garrison no longer supported by the Colonial Assembly. Seine, still commanded by Lieutenant Julien-Gabriel Bigot following the death of Captain Latour off Sumatra in 1796, sailed on 24 March, overcrowded with the stores and dependents accompanying the soldiers. ## Battle Despite the overloading, Seine made a rapid journey to European waters, arriving in the Bay of Biscay just three months later on 28 June. Sailing for Brest with the wind, the Penmarck rocks were visible from Seine at 07:00 on 29 June when three sails appeared to the northeast. This was the inshore squadron under Stirling, and Jason and Pique immediately gave chase while Mermaid diverted northwards, cutting Seine off from the Breton coast and the harbour of Lorient and forcing Bigot to turn away, fleeing southwards towards La Rochelle and the Vendée coast instead. Jason and Pique followed under all sail while Mermaid was left far behind. Throughout the day the chase continued, the British frigates gaining slowly on their quarry and as darkness fell Pique closed with the larger French ship. At 23:00 Milne was close enough to open fire on Seine, to which Bigot responded without reducing speed. For the next two and a half hours the frigates exchanged broadsides at full speed as the French coastline rapidly approached ahead. At 01:35 a shot from Seine struck the main topmast on Pique, bringing it crashing down. The consequent loss of speed forced Milne back, Seine pulling away from the smaller ship but unable to escape Jason which was steadily gaining. Stirling was concerned by the proximity of the coast and hailed Pique with orders to anchor before it grounded, but Milne did not hear the order correctly and instead increased sail, lurching ahead of Jason and straight onto a sandbank close to La Tranche-sur-Mer on the Vendée coast. Seine too had struck the shore a little distance ahead, and Stirling was unable to arrest Jason's momentum before his ship too became stuck, lying between Pique and Seine. The French ship had been badly damaged in the crash, all three masts collapsing overboard at impact, but actually lay in a stronger position: Jason blocked Pique's arc of fire and Stirling's ship had swung with the rising tide, leaving its stern exposed. Bigot took advantage of this position to fire several raking broadsides into Jason, during which Stirling was wounded and command passed to Lieutenant Charles Inglis. Inglis responded to the fire by cutting stern gunports to fire chase guns at Seine, and Milne succeeded in dragging his frigate around through the novel expedient of ordering his men to run towards the bows carrying round shot. This sudden shift in weight gently rotated the grounded ship to face Seine and Milne could direct four of his 12-pounder long guns at the French ship. Under fire and with Mermaid finally approaching, Bigot determined that further resistance was hopeless and struck his colours. ### Combatant summary In this table, "Guns" refers to all cannon carried by the ship, including the maindeck guns that were taken into consideration when calculating its rate, as well as any carronades carried aboard. "Broadside weight" records the combined weight of shot that could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside. ## Aftermath Dawn on 30 June revealed the three frigates grounded on the sandbar, prompting a response from the French forces in nearby La Rochelle. Two frigates, a brig and a squadron of gunboats were sent to fire on the British ships, but this force was dissuaded from engaging by the arrival of another British blockade squadron comprising HMS Phaeton under Captain Robert Stopford, HMS San Fiorenzo under Captain Sir Harry Neale and HMS Triton under Captain John Gore. Stopford's squadron assisted Stirling's force as Jason was towed off by Mermaid. Pique however was irretrievably stuck with water leaking into the hull. After all efforts to refloat the ship had been exhausted, the frigate was evacuated and stripped of stores before the wreck was set on fire. It took some time for boarding parties to reach Seine and a number of the French crew had taken the delay in seizure of the ship to dive overboard and swim for the beach, making an accounting of casualties difficult. As the day continued, boat parties of French civilians sailed out to the ship and climbed aboard, breaking into the liquor stores leading to drunken confusion on deck. Bigot was allowed to go ashore temporarily, as were four men escorting a lady from Île de France: all five French sailors subsequently returned to captivity voluntarily. Seine was subsequently refloated with jury masts after the guns were thrown overboard to lighten the ship, and the figurehead of Pique was nailed over her own, Seine sailing with the squadron to Portsmouth. Losses on the British ships had been light, with seven killed on Jason, including the second lieutenant, and eleven wounded, including Stirling. Pique lost one killed and another lost overboard and six wounded. French losses were enormous, the effects of concentrated cannon fire on the packed decks producing casualties of approximately 170 killed and 100 wounded, the former including a number who drowned after the ship grounded. Bigot and his crew were brought to Britain as prisoners of war, the commander later exchanged and twice promoted on his return to France in recognition of his resistance during the engagement, although unsubstantiated rumours persisted that he had personally shot some of his men when they abandoned their guns. Milne was complimented for his tenacious pursuit of Seine and after repairs he and his crew were confirmed in possession of the French ship, which served in the Royal Navy under the same name. By the time the prize was commissioned many of its captors were prisoners of war. On 13 October 1798 Jason was patrolling off Brest when a number of French luggers were sighted. Stirling gave chase but Jason ran headlong into a submerged rock near the Pointe du Raz and began to founder. Stirling had no choice but to bring the frigate inshore and land on the French coast as the frigate sank. Stirling and his men were captured, except for twelve sailors who, in groups of six, stole a cutter and a jollyboat and escaped to Plymouth.
379,119	Decline in amphibian populations	1,152,732,240	Ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide	[ "Amphibian conservation", "Amphibian extinctions since 1500", "Environmental conservation", "Extinct amphibians", "Population ecology" ]	Since the 1980s, decreases in amphibian populations, including population decline and localized mass extinctions, have been observed in locations all over the world. These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity. Recent (2007) research indicates the reemergence of varieties of chytrid fungi may account for a substantial fraction of the overall decline. A more recent (2018) paper published in Science confirms this. Several secondary causes may be involved, including other diseases, habitat destruction and modification, exploitation, pollution, pesticide use, introduced species, and ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B). However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research. Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000–45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation. Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s, awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s. By 1993, more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline. ## Background In the past three decades, declines in populations of amphibians (the class of organisms that includes frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians) have occurred worldwide. In 2004, the results were published of the first worldwide assessment of amphibian populations, the Global Amphibian Assessment. This found that 32% of species were globally threatened, at least 43% were experiencing some form of population decrease, and that between 9 and 122 species have become extinct since 1980. As of 2010, the IUCN Red List, which incorporates the Global Amphibian Assessment and subsequent updates, lists 650 amphibian species as "Critically Endangered", and 35 as "Extinct". Despite the high risk this group faces, recent evidence suggests the public is growing largely indifferent to this and other environmental problems, posing serious problems for conservationists and environmental workers alike. Habitat loss, disease and climate change are thought to be responsible for the drastic decline in populations in recent years. Declines have been particularly intense in the western United States, Central America, South America, eastern Australia and Fiji (although cases of amphibian extinctions have appeared worldwide). While human activities are causing a loss of much of the world's biodiversity, amphibians appear to be suffering much greater effects than other classes of organism. Because amphibians generally have a two-staged life cycle consisting of both aquatic (larvae) and terrestrial (adult) phases, they are sensitive to both terrestrial and aquatic environmental effects. Because their skins are highly permeable, they may be more susceptible to toxins in the environment than other organisms such as birds or mammals. Many scientists believe that amphibians serve as "canaries in a coal mine," and that declines in amphibian populations and species indicate that other groups of animals and plants will soon be at risk. Declines in amphibian populations were first widely recognized in the late 1980s, when a large gathering of herpetologists reported noticing declines in populations in amphibians across the globe. Among these species, the Golden toad (Bufo periglenes) endemic to Monteverde, Costa Rica, featured prominently. It was the subject of scientific research until populations suddenly crashed in 1987 and it had disappeared completely by 1989. Other species at Monteverde, including the Monteverde Harlequin Frog (Atelopus varius), also disappeared at the same time. Because these species were located in the pristine Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, and these extinctions could not be related to local human activities, they raised particular concern among biologists. ## Initial skepticism When amphibian declines were first presented as a conservation issue in the late 1980s, some scientists remained unconvinced of the reality and gravity of the conservation issue. Some biologists argued that populations of most organisms, amphibians included, naturally vary through time. They argued that the lack of long-term data on amphibian populations made it difficult to determine whether the anecdotal declines reported by biologists were worth the (often limited) time and money of conservation efforts. However, since this initial skepticism, biologists have come to a consensus that declines in amphibian populations are a real and severe threat to biodiversity. This consensus emerged with an increase in the number of studies that monitored amphibian populations, direct observation of mass mortality in pristine sites that lacked apparent cause, and an awareness that declines in amphibian populations are truly global in nature. ## Potential secondary causes Numerous potential explanations for amphibian declines have been proposed. Most or all of these causes have been associated with some population declines, so each cause is likely to affect in certain circumstances but not others. Many of the causes of amphibian declines are well understood, and appear to affect other groups of organisms as well as amphibians. These causes include habitat modification and fragmentation, introduced predators or competitors, introduced species, pollution, pesticide use, or over-harvesting. However, many amphibian declines or extinctions have occurred in pristine habitats where the above effects are not likely to occur. The causes of these declines are complex, but many can be attributed to emerging diseases, climate change, increased ultraviolet-B radiation, or long-distance transmission of chemical contaminants by wind. Artificial lighting has been suggested as another potential cause. Insects are attracted to lights making them scarcer within the amphibian habitats. ### Habitat modification Habitat modification or destruction is one of the most dramatic issues affecting amphibian species worldwide. As amphibians generally need aquatic and terrestrial habitats to survive, threats to either habitat can affect populations. Hence, amphibians may be more vulnerable to habitat modification than organisms that only require one habitat type. Large scale climate changes may further be modifying aquatic habitats, preventing amphibians from spawning altogether. ### Habitat fragmentation Habitat fragmentation occurs when habitats are isolated by habitat modification, such as when a small area of forest is completely surrounded by agricultural fields. Small populations that survive within such fragments are often susceptible to inbreeding, genetic drift, or extinction due to small fluctuations in the environment. ### Pollution and chemical contaminants There is evidence of chemical pollutants causing frog developmental deformities (extra limbs, or malformed eyes). Pollutants have varying effects on frogs. Some alter the central nervous system; others cause a disruption in the production and secretion of hormones. Experimental studies have also shown that exposure to commonly used herbicides such as glyphosate (Tradename Roundup) or insecticides such as malathion or carbaryl greatly increase mortality of tadpoles. Additional studies have indicated that terrestrial adult stages of amphibians are also susceptible to non-active ingredients in Roundup, particularly POEA, which is a surfactant. Although sex reversal in some species of frogs occur naturally in pristine environments, certain estrogen-like pollutants can forcibly induce these changes. In a study conducted in a laboratory at Uppsala University in Sweden, more than 50% of frogs exposed to levels of estrogen-like pollutants existing in natural bodies of water in Europe and the United States became females. Tadpoles exposed even to the weakest concentration of estrogen were twice as likely to become females while almost all of the control group given the heaviest dose became female. While most pesticide effects are likely to be local and restricted to areas near agriculture, there is evidence from the Sierra Nevada mountains of the western United States that pesticides are traveling long distances into pristine areas, including Yosemite National Park in California. Some recent evidence points to ozone as a possible contributing factor to the worldwide decline of amphibians. ### Ozone depletion, ultraviolet radiation and cloud cover Like many other organisms, increasing ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation due to stratospheric ozone depletion and other factors may harm the DNA of amphibians, particularly their eggs. The amount of damage depends upon the life stage, the species type and other environmental parameters. Salamanders and frogs that produce less photolyase, an enzyme that counteracts DNA damage from UVB, are more susceptible to the effects of loss of the ozone layer. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation may not kill a particular species or life stage but may cause sublethal damage. More than three dozen species of amphibians have been studied, with severe effects reported in more than 40 publications in peer-reviewed journals representing authors from North America, Europe and Australia. Experimental enclosure approaches to determine UVB effects on egg stages have been criticized; for example, egg masses were placed at water depths much shallower than is typical for natural oviposition sites. While UVB radiation is an important stressor for amphibians, its effect on the egg stage may have been overstated. Anthropogenic climate change has likely exerted a major effect on amphibian declines. For example, in the Monteverde Cloud Forest, a series of unusually warm years led to the mass disappearances of the Monteverde Harlequin frog and the Golden Toad. An increased level of cloud cover, a result of geoengineering and global warming, which has warmed the nights and cooled daytime temperatures, has been blamed for facilitating the growth and proliferation of the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (the causative agent of the fungal infection chytridiomycosis). Although the immediate cause of the die offs was the chytrid, climate change played a pivotal role in the extinctions. Researchers included this subtle connection in their inclusive climate-linked epidemic hypothesis, which acknowledged climatic change as a key factor in amphibian extinctions both in Costa Rica and elsewhere. New evidence has shown global warming to also be capable of directly degrading toads' body condition and survivorship. Additionally, the phenomenon often colludes with landscape alteration, pollution, and species invasions to effect amphibian extinctions. ### Disease A number of diseases have been related to mass die-offs or declines in populations of amphibians, including "red-leg" disease (Aeromonas hydrophila), Ranavirus (family Iridoviridae), Anuraperkinsus, and chytridiomycosis. It is not entirely clear why these diseases have suddenly begun to affect amphibian populations, but some evidence suggests that these diseases may have been spread by humans, or may be more virulent when combined with other environmental factors. #### Trematodes There is considerable evidence that parasitic trematode platyhelminths (a type of fluke) have contributed to developmental abnormalities and population declines of amphibians in some regions. These trematodes of the genus Ribeiroia have a complex life cycle with three host species. The first host includes a number of species of aquatic snails. The early larval stages of the trematodes then are transmitted into aquatic tadpoles, where the metacercariae (larvae) encyst in developing limb buds. These encysted life stages produce developmental abnormalities in post-metamorphic frogs, including additional or missing limbs. These abnormalities increase frog predation by aquatic birds, the final host of the trematode. A study showed that high levels of nutrients used in farming and ranching activities fuel parasite infections that have caused frog deformities in ponds and lakes across North America. The study showed increased levels of nitrogen and phosphorus cause sharp hikes in the abundance of trematodes, and that the parasites subsequently form cysts in the developing limbs of tadpoles causing missing limbs, extra limbs and other severe malformations including five or six extra or even no limbs. ### Introduced predators Non-native predators and competitors have also been found to affect the viability of frogs in their habitats. The mountain yellow-legged frog which typically inhabits the Sierra Nevada lakes have seen a decline in numbers due to stocking of non-native fish (trout) for recreational fishing. The developing tadpoles and froglets fall prey to the fish in large numbers. This interference in the frog's three-year metamorphosis is causing a decline that is manifest throughout their ecosystem. ### Increased noise levels Frogs and toads are highly vocal, and their reproductive behaviour often involves the use of vocalizations. There have been suggestions that increased noise levels caused by human activities may be contributing to their declines. In a study in Thailand, increased ambient noise levels were shown to decrease calling in some species and to cause an increase in others. This has, however, not been shown to be a cause for the widespread decline. ## Symptoms of stressed populations Amphibian populations in the beginning stages of decline often exhibit a number of signs, which may potentially be used to identify at-risk segments in conservation efforts. One such sign is developmental instability, which has been proven as evidence of environmental stress. This environmental stress can potentially raise susceptibility to diseases such as chytridiomycosis, and thus lead to amphibian declines. In a study conducted in Queensland, Australia, for example, populations of two amphibian species, Litoria nannotis and Litoria genimaculata, were found to exhibit far greater levels of limb asymmetry in pre-decline years than in control years, the latter of which preceded die offs by an average of 16 years. Learning to identify such signals in the critical period before population declines occur might greatly improve conservation efforts. ## Conservation measures The first response to reports of declining amphibian populations was the formation of the Declining Amphibian Population Task Force (DAPTF) in 1990. DAPTF led efforts for increased amphibian population monitoring in order to establish the extent of the problem, and established working groups to look at different issues. Results were communicated through the newsletter Froglog. Much of this research went into the production of the first Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA), which was published in 2004 and assessed every known amphibian species against the IUCN Red List criteria. This found that approximately one third of amphibian species were threatened with extinction. As a result of these shocking findings an Amphibian Conservation Summit was held in 2005, because it was considered "morally irresponsible to document amphibian declines and extinctions without also designing and promoting a response to this global crisis". Outputs from the Amphibian Conservation Summit included the first Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP) and to merge the DAPTF and the Global Amphibian Specialist Group into the IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (ASG). The ACAP established the elements required to respond to the crisis, including priority actions on a variety of thematic areas. The ASG is a global volunteer network of dedicated experts who work to provide the scientific foundation for effective amphibian conservation action around the world. The ACAP (Gascon et al 2007), concerned that time and capability were short, recommended that all relevant species be immediately incorporated into ex situ breeding programs. On 16 February 2007, scientists worldwide met in Atlanta, U.S., to form a group called the Amphibian Ark to help save more than 6,000 species of amphibians from disappearing by starting captive breeding programmes. Overall between the call to action in 2007 and 2019 there has been a 57% increase in number of breeding programs, or 77 additional species. Areas with noticed frog extinctions, like Australia, have few policies that have been created to prevent the extinction of these species. However, local initiatives have been placed where conscious efforts to decrease global warming will also turn into a conscious effort towards saving the frogs. In South America, where there is also an increased decline of amphibian populations, there is no set policy to try to save frogs. Some suggestions would include getting entire governments to place a set of rules and institutions as a source of guidelines that local governments have to abide by. A critical issue is how to design protected areas for amphibians which will provide suitable conditions for their survival. Conservation efforts through the use of protected areas have shown to generally be a temporary solution to population decline and extinction because the amphibians become inbred. It is crucial for most amphibians to maintain a high level of genetic variation through large and more diverse environments. Education of local people to protect amphibians is crucial, along with legislation for local protection and limiting the use of toxic chemicals, including some fertilizers and pesticides in sensitive amphibian areas. ## See also - Effects of pesticides on amphibians - Holocene extinction - Colony collapse disorder - Decline in insect populations - White nose syndrome - The Sixth Extinction (book) - Racing Extinction (film)
217,174	Me Against the World	1,172,218,742	null	[ "1995 albums", "Albums produced by Easy Mo Bee", "Albums produced by Johnny \"J\"", "Albums produced by Soulshock and Karlin", "Albums recorded at Unique Recording Studios", "Amaru Entertainment albums", "Atlantic Records albums", "Interscope Records albums", "Jive Records albums", "Tupac Shakur albums" ]	Me Against the World is the third studio album by American rapper 2Pac. It was released on March 14, 1995, by Interscope. 2Pac draws lyrical inspiration from his impending prison sentence, troubles with the police, and poverty. According to 2Pac, Me Against the World was made to show the hip-hop audience his respect for the art form. Lyrically, he intentionally tried to make the album more personal and reflective than his previous efforts. Considered by several music critics to be the best of any of his albums up to that point in his career, the album's musical production was handled by his mentor Shock G, Easy Mo Bee, Tony Pizarro, Johnny "J" and the Danish hip-hop duo Soulshock and Karlin, among others. Me Against the World features guest appearances from rap group Dramacydal and rapper Richie Rich. Released while Tupac was imprisoned, Me Against the World made an immediate impact on the charts, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200, holding the top spot for four consecutive weeks, and also topping the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. "Dear Mama" was released as the album's first single in February 1995 and would be the album's most successful single, topping the Hot Rap Singles chart, and peaking at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100. While he was in prison, the album overtook Bruce Springsteen's Greatest Hits as the best-selling album of the year in the United States at the time. Me Against the World was eventually certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). At the 38th Grammy Awards, the album was nominated for Best Rap Album and "Dear Mama" was nominated for Best Rap Solo Performance. The album received acclaimed reviews by critics, being ranked among the best albums of the 1990s. It has been ranked by many critics as one of the greatest hip hop albums, as well as one of the greatest albums of all time. In 2008, the National Association of Recording Merchandisers (NARM), in conjunction with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, included Me Against the World in its list of the Definitive 200 Albums of All Time. ## Background By 1994, Tupac Shakur, age 23, was already a prominent and controversial rapper. His second album, Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z., going Platinum, had entered the top 25 on the Billboard 200, and offered two Gold singles, "I Get Around" and "Keep Ya Head Up", both entering the top 15 of the Billboard Hot 100. In rapid succession, however, he had become involved in a string of violent encounters. All for incidents in 1993, Shakur was sentenced to 15 days in jail for assaulting director Allen Hughes while filming Menace II Society, pled guilty to the attempted assault on a rival rapper and saw the charges dropped after he shot two off-duty police officers. Later that year, Shakur and two associates were charged with gang-raping a female fan in Shakur's hotel room, a charge he vehemently denied. In the ensuing trial, Shakur was acquitted of seven felonies, including rape, sodomy and gun charges, but was convicted of two counts of sexual abuse for unwanted touching and was subsequently sentenced to 18 months to 4.5 years in prison. On November 30, 1994, one day before the jury reached their verdict, Shakur was shot and robbed at gunpoint at the lobby of a New York recording studio. He believed the shooting was set up by East Coast associates and collaborators, such as The Notorious B.I.G., Andre Harrell and Sean "Puffy" Combs. According to Shakur, Me Against the World aimed to show the hip-hop audience his respect for the art form. Shakur purposefully made Me Against the World's lyrics more personal and reflective than previously. This was widely attributed to Shakur's growing maturity and perhaps an effort to reconcile with his troubled past. ## Production Although originally released by Interscope, the album was later released twice by Amaru Entertainment, the label owned by Shakur's mother, Afeni Shakur. The album was recorded at ten different studios, and it was mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering by Brian Gardner. Several critics found the album's musical production the best on any of Shakur's albums to date. Steve "Flash" Juon of RapReviews, scoring the production a perfect 10 of 10, particularly praised "So Many Tears" and "Temptations". Jon Pareles of the New York Times called the production a "fatalistic calm, in a commercial mold", and added that "while 2Pac doesn't sing, other voices do, providing smooth melody". Yet James Bernard of Entertainment Weekly, dissenting, complained that Shakur's "vocals are buried deep in the mix. That's a shame—if they were more in-your-face, the lackluster beats might be less noticeable." ## Themes > Me Against the World was really to show people that this is an art to me. That I do take it like that. And whatever mistakes I make, I make out of ignorance, not out of disrespect to music or the art. So Me Against the World was deep, reflective. It was like a blues record. It was down-home. It was all my fears, all the things I just couldn’t sleep about. Everybody thought that I was living so well and doing so good that I wanted to explain it. And it took a whole album to get it all out. It’s explaining my lifestyle, who I am, my upbringing and everything. It talks about the streets but talks about it in a different light. There’s a song on there dedicated to mothers, just a song I wrote just for my mother. And it digs deeper like that. I just wanted to do something for all mothers. I’m proud of that song. It affected a lot of people. Often depicting the travails of male survival in the ghetto, prominent sentiments include anguish, despair, hopelessness, paranoia, and self-loathing. Such dark tracks, sometimes simultaneously menacing, are "If I Die 2Nite", "Lord Knows", "Outlaw", and "Fuck The World". But there are exceptions. Nostalgic jubilance distinguishes "Old School"—a roster his favorite rap songs, with associated joys, predating his adulthood—while bittersweet optimism occurs in "It Ain't Easy". "Can U Get Away" aims to flirtatiously encourage and lure a romantic interest away from her current, abusive relationship. And the track most popular, "Dear Mama", is a reverent ode to his mother. Throughout the album, Shakur employs various poetical devices, such as alliteration ("If I Die 2Nite") and paired couplets ("Lord Knows"). ## Singles "Dear Mama" was released as the album's first single in February 1995, along with the track "Old School" as the B-side. "Dear Mama" would be the album's most successful single, topping the Hot Rap Singles chart, and peaking at No. 9 on the Billboard Hot 100. The single was certified platinum in July 1995, and later placed at No. 51 on the year-end charts. It was reported that "Can U Get Away" was intended to be released as the next single with a music video directed by Shakur's longtime friend Jada Pinkett. Instead, "So Many Tears" was released as the second single, in June 1995. It reached No. 6 on the Hot Rap Singles chart, and No. 44 on the Billboard Hot 100. "Temptations," released in August, was the third and final single from the album. The single is the least successful of the three released, but still did fairly well on the charts, reaching No. 68 on the Billboard Hot 100, No. 35 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks, and No. 13 on the Hot Rap Singles charts. "Me Against the World", the title track, was released as a single in Europe. It included the Soul Power Remix and the Soul Power Hip Hop Remix. ## Critical reception Me Against the World received critical acclaim. In a contemporary review, Cheo H. Coker at Rolling Stone called the album Shakur's best and said it was "by and large a work of pain, anger and burning desperation — [it] is the first time 2Pac has taken the conflicting forces tugging at his psyche head-on". Jon Pareles, writing in The New York Times, called Shakur the "St. Augustine of gangster rap" due to his ambivalence towards the behavior and nature of the gangster lifestyle. In his review for The Source, the leading hip-hop magazine in the United States, Allen Gordon hailed Shakur as an elite lyricist on display on the album, called it "his best work by far" and noted that "any complaints critics and fans alike had about Tupac's last two albums can be put to rest". He particularly praised the production and lyricism of the "incredible" title track, "So Many Tears", "Temptations", "Heavy in the Game", "Dear Mama" and "Old School", but also noted "It Ain't Easy", "If I Die 2Nite" and "Young Niggaz" as "notable" tracks. "This may be the first hip-hop blues LP," observed Matt Hall in Select. "Not so much in the music, although the harp blasts owe more to Howlin' Wolf than Tupac's previous two solo efforts, but more with Shakur's vocals, which are at once rebellious and resigned ... Me Against the World is a statement of intent, a note from the depths of America, and a fine, thoughtful LP." In The Guardian, critic Caroline Sullivan observed a "surprisingly optimistic" and thoughtful 2Pac on display on the album, deeming it "worth a listen" despite criticizing the presence of "anodyne" beats and predictable samples. Jaleel Abdul-Adil of the Chicago Sun-Times stated that "2Pac's latest also mixes toughness and tenderness. Desperation follows raw anger on "Fuck the World" and "It Ain't Easy," but most tracks confess frailties beneath the rapper's tough exterior. "Dear Mama" is a tear-jerking tribute to his mother, "Lord Knows" discloses desperate considerations of suicide, and "So Many Tears" ponders a merciless world that wrecks young lives. 2Pac even includes a sorrowful "shout-out" to Robert Sandifer, the Chicago youth whose brief life ended in a brutal shooting. After earlier releases that lacked focus and consistency, 2Pac finally presents a polished project of self-examination and social commentary. It's ironic that it arrives as his sentence begins." Some reviewers were less impressed. James Bernard from Entertainment Weekly said, "2Pac does the black-man-backed-into-a-corner routine better than just about anyone because that's largely who he is. When he says it's 'me against the world,' there's an urgency that only comes from experience. On record, the rapper-turned-movie icon’s vocals are buried deep in the mix. That’s a shame-if they were more in-your-face, the lackluster beats might be less noticeable." Robert Christgau of The Village Voice said Shakur witlessly exploited fundamental hip hop themes such as persecution while exhibiting an offensive level of self-pity: "His I-love-Mom rings true because Mom was no saint, and his respect for old G's seems genuine, probably because they told him how smart he was. But whether the metaphor be dead homies or suicide threat, the subtext of his persecution complex is his self-regard." ### Legacy Me Against the World was one of Tupac's most acclaimed albums, with many calling it the magnum opus of his career; the work is considered one of the greatest and most influential hip hop albums of all time. In a retrospective review, AllMusic editor Steve Huey dubbed the album "[Shakur's] most thematically consistent, least self-contradicting work", and stated, "it may not be his definitive album, but it just might be his best". Steve "Flash" Juon of RapReviews seemed to feel differently, remarking that the album "is not only the quintessential Shakur album, but one of the most important rap albums released in the 1990s as a whole". On MTV's Greatest Rappers of All Time list, Me Against the World was listed as one of Tupac's "certified classic" albums, along with 2Pacalypse Now, All Eyez on Me and The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory. "One of the best five rap albums ever," remarked Mojo, after Shakur's death. In 1996, at the 38th Grammy Awards, Me Against the World was nominated for Best Rap Album and the single "Dear Mama" was nominated for Best Rap Solo Performance. Me Against the World won Best Rap Album at the 1996 Soul Train Music Awards. In 2008, the National Association of Recording Merchandisers, in conjunction with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, recognized Me Against the World as one of the "most influential and popular albums", ranking it number 170 on a list of 200 other albums by artists of various musical genres. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. • The information regarding accolades is adapted from Acclaimed Music, except for lists that are sourced otherwise. • (\) signifies unordered lists ## Commercial performance Me Against the World debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, selling 210,500 copies in the first week. The album held the top spot for four consecutive weeks. The album also debuted at number one on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, thus giving 2Pac the first number one album on both R&B and Pop charts. While Shakur was in prison, the album overtook Bruce Springsteen's Greatest Hits as the best-selling album in the United States, a feat which he took pride in. Shakur became the first artist to have a number one album while serving a prison sentence. On December 6, 1995, the album was certified double platinum for sales of over two million copies in the United States. As of September 2011, the album has sold 3,524,567 copies in the United States. Shakur's virtual appearance at the annual Coachella Festival (April 15, 2012) led to the album selling 1,000 copies the following week (up by 53% from the previous week). ## Track listing Credits adapted from the album's liner notes. Notes - Additional Vocals on "Lord Knows" performed by Natasha Walker - Background Vocals on "F\\\ the World" performed by Shock G - Background Vocals on "Me Against the World" performed by Puff Johnson - Background Vocals on "So Many Tears" performed by Thug Life, Digital Underground & Stretch - signifies a co-producer. - signifies an additional producer. Sample Credits - "If I Die 2Nite" contains samples from: - "Tonight Is the Night", written by Betty Wright and Willie Clarke, as recorded by Betty Wright. - "Tonight", written by Norman Durham, as recorded by Kleeer. - "Deep Cover (187)", written by Calvin Broadus, Colin Wolfe, and Andre Young, as recorded by Dr. Dre. - "Me Against the World" contains samples from: - "Walk On By", written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David, as recorded by Isaac Hayes. - "Inside My Love", written by Minnie Riperton, Richard Rudolph, and Leon Ware, as recorded by Minnie Riperton. - "So Many Tears" contains a sample from "That Girl", written and recorded by Stevie Wonder. - "Temptations" contains samples from: - "Computer Love", written by Roger Troutman, Larry Troutman, and Shirley Murdock, as recorded by Zapp. - "Watch Your Nuggets", written by Reggie Noble, George Clinton, Garry Shider, and David Spradley, as recorded by Redman & Erick Sermon. - "Young Niggaz" contains an interpolation of "She's Strange", written by Nathan Leftenat, Charles Singleton, Tomi Jenkins, and Larry Blackmon. - "Dear Mama" contains: - a sample from "In All My Wildest Dreams", written and recorded by Joe Sample. - an interpolation of "Sadie", written by Joseph B. Jefferson, Bruce Hawes, and Charles Simmons. - "Can U Get Away" contains an interpolation of "Happy Feelin's", written by Frankie Beverly and performed by Maze. - "Old School" contains samples from: - "We Share", written by John Buchanan and Donald Tilery, as recorded by the Soul Searchers. - "Dedication", written by Maxwell Nixon, as recorded by Brand Nubian. ## Personnel Credits for Me Against the World adapted from AllMusic - 2Pac - composer, primary artist, vocals - Eric Altenburger - art direction, design - Kim Armstrong - vocals (background) - Paul Arnold - engineer, Mixing - Burt Bacharach - composer - Eric Baker - composer - Larry Blackmon - composer - Sam Bostic - composer, producer - George Clinton - composer - Hal David - composer - Kevin "KD" Davis - engineer, mixing - Digital Underground - guest artist - Dramacydal - guest artist, performer, primary artist - Easy Mo Bee - composer - Eboni Foster - vocals (background) - Reggie Green - vocals (background) - Jeff Griffin - mixing - Greg Jacobs - composer - Gregory Jacobs - composer - Johnny J - composer - Puff Johnson - guest artist, vocals (background) - Lady Levi - guest artist - Jay Lean - engineer, mixing - Eric Lynch - engineer - Moe Z - composer - Bob Morris - engineer - Mike Mosley - composer - Shirley Murdock - composer - Tim Nitz - engineer - Tony "D" Pizarro - composer, engineer, mixing, producer - Richie Rich - guest artist - Minnie Riperton - composer, vocals (background) - Roger - composer - Jill Rose - vocals - Richard Rudolph - composer - Joe Sample - composer - Garry Shider - composer - Charlie Singleton - composer - David Spradley - composer - Thug Life - guest artist - Larry Troutman - composer - Le-Morrious "Funky Drummer" Tyler - composer - Ronnie Vann - guitar - Natasha Walker - guest artist, vocals (background) - Leon Ware - composer - Brian Gardner - Mastering - Stevie Wonder - composer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## See also - List of number-one albums of 1995 (U.S.) - List of number-one R&B albums of 1995 (U.S.)
65,892,429	Hurricane Chris (2018)	1,163,649,961	Category 2 Atlantic hurricane in 2018	[ "Hurricanes in Bermuda", "Hurricanes in Canada", "Hurricanes in North Carolina", "Tropical cyclones in 2018" ]	Hurricane Chris was a moderately strong tropical cyclone that affected the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada in July 2018. The third tropical or subtropical cyclone, third named storm, and second hurricane of the 2018 Atlantic hurricane season, Chris originated from a frontal system that moved offshore the coast of the northeastern United States on June 29. The front evolved into a non-tropical low by July 3. After further organization, a tropical depression formed on July 6, several hundred miles south-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Two days later, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and received the name Chris. Chris slowly strengthened as it drifted into warmer waters. These favorable conditions allowed Chris to rapidly intensify into a hurricane on July 10. The hurricane reached its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) and a pressure of 969 mbar (28.61 inHg) at. This peak intensity was short-lived though, as Chris began to undergo extratropical transition. At 12:00 UTC on July 12, Chris became an extratropical cyclone well southeast of Newfoundland. The low continued northeastward over the Atlantic for the next few days, before weakening and finally dissipating southeast of Iceland on July 17. Numerous marine warnings were issued for the East Coast of the United States. The storm brought high surf and rip currents to much of the East Coast. Dozens of beach rescues were reported in the Carolinas, and a coastal state park was closed in Massachusetts. A man drowned in North Carolina after being swept away in a rip current. Rainbands from the cyclone caused some minor rainfall in Bermuda. Chris also affected Atlantic Canada as an extratropical cyclone. Two oil drilling companies, BP Canada and ExxonMobil, had to call a temporary hiatus in drilling until after the storm passed. Swells of more than 10 ft (3.0 m) affected the coastline of Newfoundland and Labrador. Strong wind gusts and several inches of rain were reported. Overall damage was minimal. ## Meteorological history A frontal system moved offshore the coast of the northeastern United States on June 29. The frontal system headed southeast and dissipated by July 2. On that day, a large mid- to upper-level low formed north of Bermuda and moved southwestward beneath a strengthening ridge over eastern North America. The National Hurricane Center (NHC) first mentioned the possibility of tropical cyclogenesis, expecting an area of low pressure to form midway between Bermuda and the Southeastern United States. The remaining convection, or shower and thunderstorm activity, of the front and a new upper-level disturbance formed a surface low on July 4. The low gradually became better defined the next day. After deep convection developed over the center, a tropical depression formed around 12:00 UTC on July 6 about 345 mi (555 km) south-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Despite being located over the Gulf Stream, which usually fuels the formation of thunderstorms, the depression's convection diminished greatly due to dry air, and the center was nearly devoid of thunderstorms early on July 7. An Air Force Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance aircraft found that the strongest winds remained displaced to a rainband south of the center. At 06:00 UTC on July 8, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Chris, though the low-level circulation center remained exposed north of the convection. Pulled slowly southeastward by a passing cold front, Chris intensified steadily throughout the rest of the day, as it was located in an area of warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear. A National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Hurricane Hunter plane found that the wind field was becoming more symmetric and the pressure was dropping. Both banding and central convection increased, though a dry air intrusion put a halt to the strengthening trend early on July 9. Weak steering currents led Chris to stall a few hundred miles offshore Morehead City, as the cyclone was trapped in a large break in the subtropical ridge. Some dry air around Chris eroded its banding, causing the storm to acquire annular characteristics. A large cloud-filled eye became present, and a partial eyewall was detected by aircraft reconnaissance. However, significant upwelling prevented quick intensification initially, and Chris remained at tropical storm strength up to midday on July 10. By late on July 10, a weakening mid-level ridge over the central Atlantic and a new trough over the northeastern United States began to accelerate the cyclone eastward. At 12:00 UTC on July 10, Chris became a hurricane as it moved quicker to the northeast. The storm's new movement forced the center out of the upwelled water, and Chris proceeded to rapidly intensify late on July 10. Chris peaked as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) and a pressure of 969 mbar (28.61 inHg) at 00:00 UTC on July 11, with the convective ring in its core transforming into a full eyewall. Early on July 11, Chris began weakening as it moved out of the Gulf Stream, with its eye being obscured by clouds. Although the eye briefly became visible again, it quickly disappeared beneath the clouds as the cyclone's structure slowly steadily degraded. The storm began extratropical transition late on July 11, with the rain shield expanding to the northwest quadrant. At 12:00 UTC on July 12, Chris weakened to a tropical storm, and six hours later, it transitioned to an extratropical cyclone a few hundred miles southeast of Newfoundland. The extratropical storm made landfall by 00:00 UTC on July 13 in Newfoundland and Labrador. The low continued northeastward over the Atlantic for the next few days, before weakening and finally dissipating southeast of Iceland on July 17. ## Preparations and impact While offshore, Chris brought large swells to the East Coast of the United States, sparking hundreds of water rescues, especially along the coasts of North Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey, and New England. "No swimming" signs were posted at beaches in the Outer Banks of North Carolina. More than 75 people had been rescued from Wrightsville Beach from July 4 to 8. On July 4, 24 people were rescued from Carolina Beach, and on July 6, 15 people were the same location. On July 7, a man drowned in rough seas attributed to the storm at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina. A vacation home in Rodanthe was declared uninhabitable after swells generated by Chris eroded away the base of the building. In Maryland, more than 225 rescues were reported by beach patrol in Ocean City. On July 11, a Coastal Flood Advisory was issued for the Jersey Shore. Two teenage surfers rescued a swimmer caught by a rip current in New Jersey. In Spring Lake, volunteer lifeguards rescued a man from drowning. A High Surf Warning was issued for parts of coastal southern New England. Horseneck Beach State Reservation in Massachusetts was closed by the Department of Conservation and Recreation. Before Chris hit Newfoundland and Labrador, ExxonMobil moved many non-essential employees working on offshore oil platforms out of the path of the storm. Simultaneously, BP Canada disconnected and moved the West Aquarius exploration drilling rig. Wind warnings were issued by Environment Canada for southeast Avalon and St. John's districts. In addition, rainfall warnings were in effect for much of southern Newfoundland. The mayor of St. John's ordered crews to be on standby. The city's public works department placed sandbags ahead of the cyclone. As an extratropical cyclone, the system brought high swells, locally heavy rain and gusty winds to Newfoundland and Labrador. Abnormally high water levels were recorded along the southern Avalon Peninsula with swells of 20 to 26 ft (6 to 8 m). Rainfall accumulations in Newfoundland and Labrador peaked at 3.0 in (76 mm) in Gander, while gusts reached 60 mph (96 km/h) in Ferryland. Rainfall accumulations in all of Canada was highest on Sable Island, at 4.39 in (111.6 mm). The brunt of the rain spared St. John's, with St. John's International Airport only getting 0.15 in (3.8 mm) of precipitation. However, the city still reported strong winds. Overall damage in Canada was minimal. The Bermuda Weather Service deemed the storm a "potential threat" for thunderstorms, rip currents and high waves. The storm caused moderate showers from as it stalled to the southwest of the island. Rainfall peaked at 0.64 inches (16 mm) on July 9. The agency issued a small craft warning for the island on July 10; it was extended to July 11. Eventually, Chris passed a few hundred miles to the northwest on July 11, leaving little to no damage. ## See also - Other storms of the same name - List of Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes - Hurricane Alex (2004) – took a similar track - Hurricane Cristobal (2014) – took a similar track - Hurricane Gert (2017) – took a similar track
127,254	Treaty of Waitangi	1,171,481,970	1840 treaty between British Crown and people of New Zealand	[ "1840 in New Zealand", "1840 treaties", "Aboriginal title in New Zealand", "Constitution of New Zealand", "February 1840 events", "Government of New Zealand", "History of the Bay of Islands", "Memory of the World Register", "Māori history", "Māori politics", "Race relations in New Zealand", "Treaties of New Zealand", "Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)", "Treaties with indigenous peoples", "Treaty of Waitangi" ]	The Treaty of Waitangi (Māori: Te Tiriti o Waitangi) is a document of central importance to the history of New Zealand, its constitution, and its national mythos. It has played a major role in the treatment of the Māori population in New Zealand by successive governments and the wider population, a role that has been especially prominent from the late 20th century. The treaty document is an agreement, not a treaty as recognised in international law, and has no independent legal status, being legally effective only to the extent it is recognised in various statutes. It was first signed on 6 February 1840 by Captain William Hobson as consul for the British Crown and by Māori chiefs (rangatira) from the North Island of New Zealand. The treaty was written at a time when the New Zealand Company, acting on behalf of large numbers of settlers and would-be settlers, were establishing a colony in New Zealand, and when some Māori leaders had petitioned the British for protection against French ambitions. It was drafted with the intention of establishing a British Governor of New Zealand, recognising Māori ownership of their lands, forests and other possessions, and giving Māori the rights of British subjects. It was intended by the British Crown to ensure that when Lieutenant Governor Hobson subsequently made the declaration of British sovereignty over New Zealand in May 1840, the Māori people would not feel that their rights had been ignored. Once it had been written and translated, it was first signed by Northern Māori leaders at Waitangi. Copies were subsequently taken around New Zealand and over the following months many other chiefs signed. Around 530 to 540 Māori, at least 13 of them women, signed the Māori language version of the Treaty of Waitangi, despite some Māori leaders cautioning against it. Only 39 signed the English version. An immediate result of the treaty was that Queen Victoria's government gained the sole right to purchase land. In total there are nine signed copies of the Treaty of Waitangi, including the sheet signed on 6 February 1840 at Waitangi. The text of the treaty includes a preamble and three articles. It is bilingual, with the Māori text translated in the context of the time from the English. - Article one of the Māori text grants governance rights to the Crown while the English text cedes "all rights and powers of sovereignty" to the Crown. - Article two of the Māori text establishes that Māori will retain full chieftainship over their lands, villages and all their treasures while the English text establishes the continued ownership of the Māori over their lands and establishes the exclusive right of pre-emption of the Crown. - Article three gives Māori people full rights and protections as British subjects. As some words in the English treaty did not translate directly into the written Māori language of the time, the Māori text is not an exact translation of the English text, particularly in relation to the meaning of having and ceding sovereignty. These differences created disagreements in the decades following the signing, eventually contributing to the New Zealand Wars of 1845 to 1872 and continuing through to the Treaty of Waitangi settlements starting in the early 1990s. During the second half of the 19th century Māori generally lost control of much of the land they had owned, sometimes through legitimate sale, but often by way of unfair deals, settlers occupying land that had not been sold, or through outright confiscations in the aftermath of the New Zealand Wars. In the period following the New Zealand Wars, the New Zealand government mostly ignored the treaty, and a court judgement in 1877 declared it to be "a simple nullity". Beginning in the 1950s, Māori increasingly sought to use the treaty as a platform for claiming additional rights to sovereignty and to reclaim lost land, and governments in the 1960s and 1970s responded to these arguments, giving the treaty an increasingly central role in the interpretation of land rights and relations between Māori people and the state. In 1975 the New Zealand Parliament passed the Treaty of Waitangi Act, establishing the Waitangi Tribunal as a permanent commission of inquiry tasked with interpreting the treaty, researching breaches of the treaty by the Crown or its agents, and suggesting means of redress. In most cases, recommendations of the tribunal are not binding on the Crown, but settlements totalling almost \$1 billion have been awarded to various Māori groups. Various legislation passed in the latter part of the 20th century has made reference to the treaty, which has led to ad hoc incorporation of the treaty into law. Increasingly, the treaty is recognised as a founding document in New Zealand's developing unwritten constitution. The New Zealand Day Act 1973 established Waitangi Day as a national holiday to commemorates the signing of the treaty. ## Background history The first recorded contact between the Māori and Europeans occurred in 1642, when Dutch explorer Abel Tasman arrived and was fought off. In 1769 the English navigator Captain James Cook claimed New Zealand for Britain in a ceremony at the Mercury Islands. Nevertheless, the British government showed little interest in following up on this claim for over half a century. The first mention of New Zealand in British statutes is in the Murders Abroad Act of 1817, which clarified that New Zealand was not a British colony (despite having been claimed by Captain Cook) and "not within His Majesty's dominions". Between 1795 and 1830 a steady flow of sealing and then whaling ships visited New Zealand, mainly calling at the Bay of Islands for food supplies and recreation. Many of the ships came from Sydney. Trade between Sydney and New Zealand increased as traders sought kauri timber and flax; and missionaries purchased large areas of land in the Bay of Islands from 1815. Trade was seen both by Māori and by visitors as mutually advantageous, and Māori tribes competed for access to the services of Europeans who had chosen to live on the islands - because they brought goods and knowledge that were essential to the local tribe (iwi). At the same time, Europeans living in New Zealand (Pākehā Māori) needed the protection that Māori chiefs could provide. As a result of trade, the Māori economy changed drastically up to the 1840s, moving from subsistence farming and gathering to cultivating commercial trade-crops. While heading the parliamentary campaign against the British slave-trade for twenty years until the passage of the Slave Trade Act of 1807, William Wilberforce co-championed the foundation of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) in 1799, with other members of the Clapham Sect including John Venn - determined to improve the treatment of indigenous people by the British. This led to the establishment of the CMS Christian mission in New Zealand, which saw laymen arriving from 1814 to teach building, farming and Christianity to Māori, as well as training "native" ministers. The Māori language did not then have an indigenous writing system. Missionaries learned to speak Māori, and introduced the Latin alphabet. The CMS, including Thomas Kendall; Māori, including Tītore and Hongi Hika; and Cambridge University's Samuel Lee, developed the written form of the language between 1817 and 1830. In 1833, while living in the Paihia mission-house of Anglican priest and the now head of the New Zealand CMS mission (later to become the New Zealand Church Missionary Society) Rev Henry Williams, missioner William Colenso published Māori translations including parts of books of the Bible, the first books printed in New Zealand. Colenso's 1837 Māori New Testament was the first indigenous-language translation of the Bible published in the southern hemisphere. Demand for the Māori New Testament, and for the Prayer Book that followed, grew exponentially, as did Christian Māori leadership and public Christian services, with 33,000 Māori soon attending regularly. Literacy and understanding the Bible increased mana and social and economic benefits, decreased the practices of slavery and intertribal violence, and increased peace and respect for all people in Māori society, including women. Māori generally respected the British, partially due to their relationships with missionaries and also due to Britain's status as a major maritime power, which had been made apparent to Māori travelling outside New Zealand. Other major players in the area around the 1830s included American whalers, whom the Māori accepted as cousins of the British, and French Catholics who came for trade and as missionaries. The Māori were deeply distrustful of the French, due to a massacre of 250 people that had occurred in 1772, when the French retaliated for the killing of Marion du Fresne and some of his crew. While the threat of general French colonisation never materialised, in 1831 it prompted thirteen major chiefs from the far north of the country to meet at Kerikeri to compose a letter to King William IV asking for Britain to be a "friend and guardian" of New Zealand. It is the first known plea for British intervention written by Māori. In response, the British government sent James Busby in 1832 to serve as the British Resident in New Zealand. In 1834 Busby drafted a document known as the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand (He Whakaputanga) which he and 35 northern Māori chiefs signed at Waitangi on 28 October 1835, establishing those chiefs as representatives of a proto-state under the title of the "United Tribes of New Zealand". This document was not well received by the Colonial Office in Britain, and it was decided in London that a new policy for New Zealand was needed. From a Māori perspective, The Declaration of Independence had a twofold significance: 1. for the British to establish control of its lawless subjects in New Zealand; and 2. to establish internationally the mana and sovereignty of Māori leaders. From May to July 1836, Royal Navy officer Captain William Hobson, under instruction from Governor of New South Wales Sir Richard Bourke, visited New Zealand to investigate claims of lawlessness in its settlements. Hobson recommended in his report that British sovereignty be established over New Zealand, in small pockets similar to those of the Hudson's Bay Company in Rupert's Land (in present-day Canada). Hobson's report was forwarded to the Colonial Office. From April to May 1838, the House of Lords held a select committee into the "State of the Islands of New Zealand". The New Zealand Association (later the New Zealand Company), missionaries, Joel Samuel Polack, and the Royal Navy made submissions to the committee. On 15 June 1839 new Letters Patent were issued in London to expand the territory of New South Wales to include the entire territory of New Zealand, from latitude 34° South to 47° 10' South, and from longitude 166° 5' East to 179° East. Governor of New South Wales George Gipps was appointed Governor over New Zealand. This was the first clear expression of British intent to annex New Zealand. Hobson was called to the Colonial Office on the evening of 14 August 1839 and given instructions to take the constitutional steps needed to establish a British colony. He was appointed Consul to New Zealand and was instructed to negotiate a voluntary transfer of sovereignty from the Māori to the British Crown – as the House of Lords select committee had recommended in 1837. Normanby gave Hobson three instructions – to gain freely given Māori recognition of British sovereignty over all or part of New Zealand, to assume complete control over land matters, and to establish a form of civil government; he did not provide a draft of the treaty. Normanby wrote at length about the need for British intervention as essential to protect Māori interests, but this was somewhat deceptive. Hobson's instructions gave no provision for Māori government of any kind nor any Māori involvement in the administrative structure of the prospective new colony. His instructions required him to: > treat with the Aborigines of New Zealand for the recognition of Her Majesty's Sovereign authority over the whole or any part of those islands which they may be willing to place under Her Majesty's dominion. Historian Claudia Orange argues that prior to 1839 the Colonial Office had initially planned a "Māori New Zealand" in which European settlers would be accommodated (without a full colony), where Māori might retain ownership and authority over much of the land and cede some land to European settlers as part of a colony governed by the Crown. Normanby's instructions in 1839 show that the Colonial Office had shifted their stance toward colonisation and "a settler New Zealand in which a place had to be kept for Māori", primarily due to pressure from increasing numbers of British colonists, and the prospect of a private enterprise in the form of the New Zealand Company colonising New Zealand outside of the British Crown's jurisdiction. The Colonial Office was forced to accelerate its plans because of both the New Zealand Company's hurried dispatch of the Tory to New Zealand on 12 May 1839 to purchase land, and plans by French Captain Jean François L'Anglois to establish a French colony in Akaroa. After examining Colonial Office documents and correspondence (both private and public) of those who developed the policies that led to the development of the treaty, historian Paul Moon similarly argues that the treaty was not envisioned with deliberate intent to assert sovereignty over Māori, but that the Crown originally only intended to apply rule over British subjects living in the fledgling colony, and these rights were later expanded by subsequent governors through perceived necessity. Hobson left London on 15 August 1839 and was sworn in as Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand in Sydney on 14 January 1840, finally arriving in the Bay of Islands on 29 January 1840. Meanwhile, a second New Zealand Company ship, the Cuba, had arrived in Port Nicholson on 3 January 1840 with a survey party to prepare for settlement there. The Aurora, the first ship carrying immigrants, arrived in Port Nicholson on 22 January 1840. On 30 January 1840 Hobson attended the Christ Church at Kororareka (Russell), where he publicly read a number of proclamations. The first was the Letters Patent 1839, in relation to the extension of the boundaries of New South Wales to include the islands of New Zealand. The second related to Hobson's own appointment as Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand. The third concerned land transactions (notably the issue of pre-emption). CMS printer William Colenso produced a Māori circular for the United Tribes high chiefs, inviting them to meet "Rangatira Hobson" on 5 February 1840 at Busby's Waitangi home. ## Drafting and translating the treaty Without a draft document prepared by lawyers or Colonial Office officials, Hobson was forced to write his own treaty with the help of his secretary, James Freeman, and British Resident James Busby, neither of whom was a lawyer. Historian Paul Moon believes certain articles of the treaty resemble the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), the British Sherbro Agreement (1825) and the treaty between Britain and Soombia Soosoos (1826). The entire treaty was prepared in three days, in which it underwent many revisions. There were doubts even during the drafting process that the Māori chiefs would be able to understand the concept of relinquishing "sovereignty". Assuming that a treaty in English could not be understood, debated or agreed to by Māori, Hobson asked CMS head missioner Henry Williams, and his son Edward Marsh Williams, who was a scholar in Māori language and custom, to translate the document overnight on 4 February. Henry Williams was concerned with the actions of the New Zealand Company in Wellington and felt he had to agree with Hobson's request to ensure the treaty would be as favourable as possible to Māori. Williams avoided using any English words that had no expression in Māori "thereby preserving entire the spirit and tenor" of the treaty. He added a note to the copy Hobson sent to Gibbs stating, "I certify that the above is as literal a translation of the Treaty of Waitangi as the idiom of the language will allow." The gospel-based literacy of Māori meant some of the concepts communicated in the translation were from the Māori Bible, including kawanatanga (governorship) and rangatiratanga (chiefly rule), and the idea of the treaty as a "covenant" was biblical. The translation of the treaty was reviewed by James Busby, and he proposed the substitution of the word whakaminenga for huihuinga, to describe the "Confederation" or gathering of the chiefs. This no doubt was a reference to the northern confederation of chiefs with whom Hobson preferred to negotiate, who eventually made up the vast majority of signatories to the treaty. Hobson believed that elsewhere in the country the Crown could exercise greater freedom over the rights of "first discoverers", which proved unwise as it led to future difficulties with other tribes in the South Island. ## Debate and signing Overnight on the 4–5 February the original English version of the treaty was translated into Māori. On the morning of 5 February the Māori and English versions of the treaty were put before a gathering (hui) of northern chiefs inside a large marquee on the lawn in front of Busby's house at Waitangi. Hobson read the treaty aloud in English and Williams read the Māori translation and explained each section and warned the chiefs not to rush to decide whether to sign. Building on Biblical understanding, he said: > This is Queen Victoria's act of love to you. She wants to ensure you that you keep what is yours – your property, your rights and privileges, and those things you value. Who knows when a foreign power, perhaps the French, might try to take this country? The treaty is really like a fortress to you. Māori chiefs then debated the treaty for five hours, much of which was recorded and translated by the Paihia missionary station printer, William Colenso. Rewa, a Catholic chief, who had been influenced by the French Catholic Bishop Pompallier, said "The Māori people don't want a governor! We aren't European. It's true that we've sold some of our lands. But this country is still ours! We chiefs govern this land of our ancestors". Moka 'Kainga-mataa' argued that all land unjustly purchased by Europeans should be returned. Whai asked: "Yesterday I was cursed by a white man. Is that the way things are going to be?". Protestant Chiefs such as Hōne Heke, Pumuka, Te Wharerahi, Tāmati Wāka Nene and his brother Eruera Maihi Patuone were accepting of the Governor. Hōne Heke said: > Governor, you should stay with us and be like a father. If you go away then the French or the rum sellers will take us Maori over. How can we know what the future will bring? If you stay, we can be 'all as one' with you and the missionaries. Tāmati Wāka Nene said to the chiefs: > Some of you tell Hobson to go. But that's not going to solve our difficulties. We have already sold so much land here in the north. We have no way of controlling the Europeans who have settled on it. I'm amazed to hear you telling him to go! Why didn't you tell the traders and grog-sellers to go years ago? There are too many Europeans here now and there are children that unite our races. Bishop Pompallier, who had been counselling the many Catholic Māori in the north concerning the treaty, urged them to be very wary of the treaty and not to sign anything. For Māori chiefs, the signing at Waitangi would have needed a great deal of trust. Nonetheless, the expected benefits of British protection must have outweighed their fears. In particular, the French were also interested in New Zealand, and there were fears that if they did not side with the British that the French would put pressure on them in a similar manner to that of other Pacific Islanders farther north in what would become French Polynesia. Most importantly, Māori leaders trusted CMS missionary advice and their explanation of the treaty. The missionaries had explained the treaty as a covenant between Māori and Queen Victoria, the head of state and Church of England. With nearly half the Māori population following Christianity many looked at the treaty as a Biblical covenant – a sacred bond. Afterwards, the chiefs then moved to a river flat below Busby's house and lawn and continued deliberations late into the night. Busby's house would later become known as the Treaty House and is today New Zealand's most visited historic building. Hobson had planned for the signing to occur on 7 February however on the morning of 6 February 45 chiefs were waiting ready to sign. Around noon a ship carrying two officers from HMS Herald arrived and were surprised to hear they were waiting for the Governor so a boat was quickly despatched back to let him know. Although the official painting of the signing shows Hobson wearing full naval regalia, he was in fact not expecting the chiefs that day and was wearing his dressing gown or "in plain clothes, except his hat". Several hundred Māori were waiting and only Busby, Williams, Colenso and a few other Europeans. ### Article Four French Catholic Bishop Jean-Baptiste Pompallier soon joined the gathering and after Anglican English priest and CMS mission head Rev Henry Williams read the Māori translation aloud from a final parchment version. Pompallier spoke to Hobson who then addressed Williams: > The bishop wishes it to be publicly stated to the Natives that his religion will not be interfered with, and that free toleration will be allowed in matters of faith. I should therefore thank you to say to them that the bishop will be protected and supported in his religion – that I shall protect all creeds alike. Williams attempted to do so vocally, but as this was technically another clause in the treaty, Colenso asked for it to be added in writing, which Williams did, also adding Māori custom. The statement says: > E mea ana te Kawana, ko nga whakapono katoa, o Ingarani, o nga Weteriana, o Roma, me te ritenga Maori hoki, e tiakina ngatahitia e ia. (The Governor says that the several faiths [beliefs] of England, of the Wesleyans, of Rome, and also Māori custom shall alike be protected by him). This addition is sometimes referred to as article four of the treaty, and is recognised as relating to the right to freedom of religion and belief (wairuatanga). ### First signings The treaty signing began in the afternoon. Hobson headed the British signatories. Hōne Heke was the first of the Māori chiefs who signed that day. As each chief signed Hobson said "He iwi tahi tātou", meaning "We are [now] one people". This was probably at the request of Williams, knowing the significance, especially to Christian chiefs, 'Māori and British would be linked, as subjects of the Queen and followers of Christ'. Two chiefs, Marupō and Ruhe, protested strongly against the treaty as the signing took place but they eventually signed and after Marupō shook the Governor's hand, seized hold of his hat which was on the table and gestured to put it on. Over 40 chiefs signed the treaty that afternoon, which concluded with a chief leading three thundering cheers, and Colenso distributing gifts of two blankets and tobacco to each signatory. ### Later signings Hobson considered the signing at Waitangi to be highly significant, he noted that twenty-six of the forty-six "head chiefs" had signed. Hobson had no intention of requiring the unanimous assent of Māori to the treaty, but was willing to accept a majority, as he reported that the signings at Waitangi represented "Clear recognition of the sovereign rights of Her Majesty over the northern parts of this island". Those that signed at Waitangi did not even represent the north as a whole; an analysis of the signatures shows that most were from the Bay of Islands only and that not many of the chiefs of the highest rank had signed on that day. Hobson considered the initial signing at Waitangi to be the "de facto" treaty, while later signings merely "ratified and confirmed it". To enhance the treaty's authority, eight additional copies were sent around the country to gather additional signatures: - the Manukau-Kawhia copy (13 signatures), - the Waikato-Manukau copy (39 signatures), - the Tauranga copy (21 signatures), - the Bay of Plenty copy (26 signatures), - the Herald-Bunbury copy (27 signatures), - the Henry Williams copy (132 signatures), - the Tūranga (East Coast) copy (41 signatures), and - the Printed copy (5 signatures). The Waitangi original received 240 signatures. About 50 meetings were held from February to September 1840 to discuss and sign the copies, and a further 500 signatures were added to the treaty. While most did eventually sign, especially in the far north where most Māori lived, a number of chiefs and some tribal groups ultimately refused, including Pōtatau Te Wherowhero (Waikato iwi), Tuhoe, Te Arawa and Ngāti Tuwharetoa and possibly Moka 'Kainga-mataa'. A number of non-signatory Waikato and Central North Island chiefs would later form a kind of confederacy with an elected monarch called the Kīngitanga. (The Kīngitanga Movement would later form a primary anti-government force in the New Zealand Wars.) While copies were moved around the country to give as many tribal leaders as possible the opportunity to sign, some missed out, especially in the South Island, where inclement weather prevented copies from reaching Otago or Stewart Island. Assent to the treaty was large in Kaitaia, as well as the Wellington to Whanganui region, but there were at least some holdouts in every other part of New Zealand. Māori were the first indigenous race to sign a document giving them British citizenship and promising their protection. Hobson was grateful to Williams and stated a British colony would not have been established in New Zealand without the CMS missionaries. ### Sovereignty proclamations On 21 May 1840, Lieutenant-Governor Hobson proclaimed sovereignty over the whole country, (the North Island by treaty and the South Island and Stewart Island by discovery) and New Zealand was constituted the Colony of New Zealand, separate from New South Wales by a Royal Charter issued on 16 November 1840, with effect from 3 May 1841. In Hobson's first dispatch to the British government, he stated that the North Island had been ceded with "unanimous adherence" (which was not accurate) and while Hobson claimed the South Island by discovery based on the "uncivilised state of the natives", in actuality he had no basis to make such a claim. Hobson issued the proclamation because he felt it was forced on him by settlers from the New Zealand Company at Port Nicholson who had formed an independent settlement government and claimed legality from local chiefs, two days after the proclamation on 23 May 1840, Hobson declared the settlement's government as illegal. Hobson also failed to report to the British government that the Māori text of the treaty was substantially different from the English one (which he might not have known at the time) and also reported that both texts had received 512 signatures, where in truth the majority of signatures had been on the Māori copies that had been sent around the country, rather than on the single English copy. Basing their decision on this information, on 2 October 1840, the Colonial Office approved Hobson's proclamation. They did not have second thoughts when later reports revealed more detail about the inadequacies of the treaty negotiations, and they did not take issue with the fact that large areas of the North Island had not signed. The government had never asked for Hobson to obtain unanimous agreement from the indigenous people. ## Extant copies In 1841, treaty documents, housed in an iron box, narrowly escaped damage when the government offices at Official Bay in Auckland were destroyed by fire. They disappeared from sight until 1865 when a Native Department officer worked on them in Wellington at the request of parliament and produced an erroneous list of signatories. The papers were fastened together and then deposited in a safe in the Colonial Secretary's office. In 1877, the English-language rough draft of the treaty was published along with photolithographic facsimiles, and the originals were returned to storage. In 1908, historian and bibliographer Thomas Hocken, searching for historical documents, found the treaty papers in the basement of the Old Government Buildings in poor condition, damaged at the edges by water and partly eaten by rodents. The papers were restored by the Dominion Museum in 1913 and kept in special boxes from then on. In February 1940, the treaty documents were taken to Waitangi for display in the Treaty House during the Centenary celebrations. It was possibly the first time the treaty document had been on public display since it was signed. After the outbreak of war with Japan, they were placed with other state documents in an outsize luggage trunk and deposited for secure custody with the Public Trustee at Palmerston North by the local member of parliament, who did not tell staff what was in the case. However, as the case was too large to fit in the safe, the treaty documents spent the war at the side of a back corridor in the Public Trust office. In 1956, the Department of Internal Affairs placed the treaty documents in the care of the Alexander Turnbull Library and they were displayed in 1961. Further preservation steps were taken in 1966, with improvements to the display conditions. From 1977 to 1980, the library extensively restored the documents before the treaty was deposited in the Reserve Bank. In anticipation of a decision to exhibit the document in 1990 (the sesquicentennial of the signing), full documentation and reproduction photography was carried out. Several years of planning culminated with the opening of the climate-controlled Constitution Room at the National Archives by Mike Moore, Prime Minister of New Zealand, in November 1990. It was announced in 2012 that the nine Treaty of Waitangi sheets would be relocated to the National Library of New Zealand in 2013. In 2017, the He Tohu permanent exhibition at the National Library opened, displaying the treaty documents along with the Declaration of Independence and the 1893 Women's Suffrage Petition. ## Treaty text, meaning and interpretation The treaty, its interpretation and significance can be viewed as the contrast between a literate culture and one that was wholly oral before European contact. ### English text The treaty itself is short, consisting of a preamble and three articles. The English text (from which the Māori text is translated) starts with the preamble and presents Queen Victoria "being desirous to establish a settled form of Civil Government", and invites Māori chiefs to concur in the following articles. The first article of the English text grants the Queen of England "absolutely and without reservation all the rights and powers of Sovereignty" over New Zealand. The second article guarantees to the chiefs full "exclusive and undisturbed possession of their Lands and Estates Forests Fisheries and other properties". It also specifies that Māori will sell land only to the Crown (Crown pre-emption). The third article guarantees to all Māori the same rights as all other British subjects. ### Māori text The Māori text has the same overall structure, with a preamble and three articles. The first article indicates that the Māori chiefs "give absolutely to the Queen of England for ever the complete government over their land" (according to a modern translation by Hugh Kāwharu). With no adequate word available to substitute for 'sovereignty', as it was not a concept in Māori society at the time, the translators instead used kawanatanga (governorship or government). The second article guarantees all Māori "chieftainship over their lands, villages and all their treasures" (translated), with 'treasures' here translating from taonga to mean more than just physical possessions (as in the English text), but also other elements of cultural heritage. The second article also says: "Chiefs will sell land to the Queen at a price agreed to by the person owning it and by the person buying it (the latter being) appointed by the Queen as her purchase agent" (translated), which does not accurately convey the pre-emption clause of the English text. The third article gives Māori the "same rights and duties of citizenship as the people of England" (translated); roughly the same as the English text. ### Differences The English and Māori texts differ. As some words in the English treaty did not translate directly into the written Māori language of the time, the Māori text is not a literal translation of the English text. It has been claimed that Henry Williams, the missionary entrusted with translating the treaty from English, was fluent in Māori and that far from being a poor translator he had in fact carefully crafted both versions to make each palatable to both parties without either noticing inherent contradictions. The differences between the two texts have made it difficult to interpret the treaty and continue to undermine its effect. The most critical difference between the texts revolves around the interpretation of three Māori words: kāwanatanga ('governorship'), which is ceded to the Queen in the first article; rangatiratanga ('chieftainship') not mana ('leadership') (which was stated in the Declaration of Independence just five years before the treaty was signed), which is retained by the chiefs in the second; and taonga (property or valued possessions), which the chiefs are guaranteed ownership and control of, also in the second article. Few Māori involved with the treaty negotiations understood the concepts of sovereignty or "governorship", as they were used by 19th-century Europeans, and lawyer Moana Jackson has stated that "ceding mana or sovereignty in a treaty was legally and culturally incomprehensible in Māori terms". Furthermore, kāwanatanga is a loan translation from "governorship" and was not part of the Māori language. The term had been used by Henry Williams in his translation of the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand, which was signed by 35 northern Māori chiefs at Waitangi on 28 October 1835. The Declaration of Independence of New Zealand had stated "Ko te Kīngitanga ko te mana i te w[h]enua" to describe "all sovereign power and authority in the land". There is considerable debate about what would have been a more appropriate term. Some scholars, notably Ruth Ross, argue that mana ('prestige', 'authority') would have more accurately conveyed the transfer of sovereignty. However, it has more recently been argued by others, including Judith Binney, that mana would not have been appropriate. This is because mana is not the same thing as sovereignty, and also because no-one can give up their mana. The English-language text recognises Māori rights to "properties", which seems to imply physical and perhaps intellectual property. The Māori text, on the other hand, mentions "taonga", meaning "treasures" or "precious things". In Māori usage the term applies much more broadly than the English concept of legal property, and since the 1980s courts have found that the term can encompass intangible things such as language and culture. Even where physical property such as land is concerned, differing cultural understandings as to what types of land are able to be privately owned have caused problems, as for example in the foreshore and seabed controversy of 2003–04. The pre-emption clause is generally not well translated. While pre-emption was present in the treaty from the very first draft, it was translated to hokonga, a word which simply meant "to buy, sell, or trade". Many Māori apparently believed that they were simply giving the British Queen first offer on land, after which they could sell it to anyone. Another, less important, difference is that Ingarani, meaning England alone, is used throughout in the Māori text, whereas "the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" is used in the first paragraph of the English. Based on these differences, there are many academics who argue that the two versions of the treaty are distinctly different documents, which they refer to as "Te Tiriti o Waitangi" and "The Treaty of Waitangi", and that the Māori text should take precedence, because it was the one that was signed at Waitangi and by the most signatories. The Waitangi Tribunal, tasked with deciding issues raised by the differences between the two texts, also gives additional weight to the Māori text in its interpretations of the treaty. The entire issue is further complicated by the fact that, at the time, writing was a novel introduction to Māori society. As members of a predominately oral society, Māori present at the signing of the treaty would have placed more value and reliance on what Hobson and the missionaries said, rather than on the written words of the treaty. Although there is still a great deal of scholarly debate surrounding the extent to which literacy had permeated Māori society at the time of the signing, what can be stated with clarity is that of the 600 plus chiefs who signed the written document only 12 signed their names in the Latin alphabet. Many others conveyed their identity by drawing parts of their moko (personal facial tattoo), while still others marked the document with an X. Māori beliefs and attitudes towards ownership and use of land were different from those prevailing in Britain and Europe. The chiefs would traditionally grant permission for the land to be used for a time for a particular purpose. A northern chief, Nōpera Panakareao, early on summarised his understanding of the treaty as "Ko te atarau o te whenua i riro i a te kuini, ko te tinana o te whenua i waiho ki ngā Māori" ("The shadow of the land will go to the Queen, but the substance of the land will remain with us"). Nōpera later reversed the statement – feeling that the substance of the land had indeed gone to the Queen; only the shadow remained for the Māori. ## Role in New Zealand society ### Effects on Māori land and rights (1840–1960) #### Colony of New Zealand In November 1840 a royal charter was signed by Queen Victoria, establishing New Zealand as a Crown colony separate from New South Wales from 3 May 1841. In 1846 the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1846 which granted self-government to the colony, requiring Māori to pass an English-language test to be able to participate in the new colonial government. In the same year, Lord Stanley, the British Colonial Secretary, who was a devout Anglican, three times British Prime Minister and oversaw the passage of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, was asked by Governor George Grey how far he was expected to abide by the treaty. The direct response in the Queen's name was: > You will honourably and scrupulously fulfil the conditions of the Treaty of Waitangi... At Governor Grey's request, this act was suspended in 1848, as Grey argued it would place the majority Māori under the control of the minority British settlers. Instead, Grey drafted what would later become the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which determined the right to vote based on land-ownership franchise. Since most Māori land was communally owned, very few Māori had the right to vote for the institutions of the colonial government. The 1852 Constitution Act also included provision for "Māori districts", where Māori law and custom were to be preserved, but this section was never implemented by the Crown. Following the election of the first parliament in 1853, responsible government was instituted in 1856. The direction of "native affairs" was kept at the sole discretion of the Governor, meaning control of Māori affairs and land remained outside of the elected ministry. This quickly became a point of contention between the Governor and the colonial parliament, who retained their own "Native Secretary" to advise them on "native affairs". In 1861, Governor Grey agreed to consult the ministers in relation to native affairs, but this position only lasted until his recall from office in 1867. Grey's successor as Governor, George Bowen, took direct control of native affairs until his term ended in 1870. From then on, the elected ministry, led by the Premier, controlled the colonial government's policy on Māori land. #### Right of pre-emption The short-term effect of the treaty was to prevent the sale of Māori land to anyone other than the Crown. This was intended to protect Māori from the kinds of shady land purchases which had alienated indigenous peoples in other parts of the world from their land with minimal compensation. Before the treaty had been finalised the New Zealand Company had made several hasty land deals and shipped settlers from Great Britain to New Zealand, hoping the British would be forced to accept its land claims as a fait accompli, in which it was largely successful. In part, the treaty was an attempt to establish a system of property rights for land with the Crown controlling and overseeing land sale to prevent abuse. Initially, this worked well with the Governor and his representatives having the sole right to buy and sell land from the Māori. Māori were eager to sell land, and settlers eager to buy. The Crown was supposed to mediate the process to ensure that the true owners were properly identified (difficult for tribally owned land) and fairly compensated, by the standards of the time. In particular, the Governor had the responsibility to protect Māori interests. Still, Hobson, as Governor of New Zealand, and his successor Robert FitzRoy both took seriously their duty as protectors of Māori from unscrupulous settlers, working actively to prevent shady land deals. Hobson created a group of "Protectors of the Aborigines"; officials specifically appointed to verify owners, land boundaries, and sales. Lack of funds often prevented land deals at this time, which created discontent among those who were willing but unable to sell. Combined with a growing awareness of the profit margins that the government was receiving by reselling the land at a profit, there was growing discontent among Māori with the pre-emption clause. At this time Māori and others argued that the government's abuse of the pre-emption clause was incompatible with article three of the treaty which guaranteed Māori equal rights to those of British subjects. FitzRoy was sympathetic to their pleas and decided to waive the pre-emption clause in 1844, allowing land sales directly to individuals. #### New Zealand Wars and land sales The growing disagreement over British sovereignty of the country led to several armed conflicts and disputes beginning in the 1840s, including the Flagstaff War, a dispute over the flying of the British Union Flag at the then colonial capital, Kororareka in the Bay of Islands. The Māori King Movement (Kīngitanga) began in the 1850s partly as a means of focusing Māori power in a manner which would allow them to negotiate with the Governor and Queen on equal footing. The chiefs justified the King's role by the treaty's guarantee of rangatiratanga ('chieftainship'). Conflict continued to escalate in the early 1860s, when the government used the Māori King Movement as an excuse to invade lands in the eastern parts of the North Island, culminating in the Crown's confiscation of large parts of the Waikato and Taranaki from Māori. The treaty was used to justify the idea that the chiefs of Waikato and Taranaki were rebels against the Crown. FitzRoy's successor George Grey was appointed Governor in 1845. He viewed the Protectors as an impediment to land acquisition and replaced them with new officials whose goals were not to protect Māori interests, but rather to purchase as much land as possible. Grey restored the Crown's right to pre-emption bypassing the Native Land Purchase Act in 1846, which contemporary writers viewed as a "first step towards a negation of the Treaty of Waitangi". This ordinance also tightened government control of Māori lands, prohibiting Māori from leasing their land and restricting the felling of timber and harvesting of flax. A high court case in 1847 (R v Symonds) upheld the Crown's right to pre-emption and allowed Grey to renegotiate deals made under Fitzroy's waiving of the pre-emption clause. Governor Grey set out to buy large tracts of Māori land in advance of settlement at low prices, later selling it to settlers at higher prices and using the difference to develop land access (roads and bridges). Donald McLean acted as Grey's intermediary and negotiator, and as early as 1840 was aware that Māori had no concept of the sale of land in British sense. Soon Māori became disillusioned and less willing to sell, while the Crown came under increasing pressure from settlers wishing to buy. Consequently, government land agents were involved in a number of dubious land purchases, agreements were sometimes negotiated with only one owner of tribally owned land and in some cases land was purchased from the wrong people altogether. The whole of the South Island was purchased by 1860 in several large deals, and while many of the sales included provisions of 10 per cent of the land set aside for native inhabitants, these land area amounts were not honoured or were later transmuted to much smaller numbers. In some cases Grey or his associates bullied the owners into selling by threatening to drive them out with troops or employ rival chiefs to do so. In July 1860, during the conflicts, Governor Thomas Gore Browne convened a group of some 200 Māori (including over 100 pro-Crown chiefs handpicked by officials) to discuss the treaty and land for a month at Mission Bay, Kohimarama, Auckland. This became known as the Kohimarama Conference, and was an attempt to prevent the spread of fighting to other regions of New Zealand. But many of the chiefs present were critical of the Crown's handling of the Taranaki conflict. Those at the conference reaffirmed the treaty and the Queen's sovereignty and suggested that a native council be established, but this did not occur. #### Native Land Court The Native Land Court (later renamed the Māori Land Court) was established under the Native Lands Act 1865, which also finally abolished the Crown right to pre-emption. It was through this court that much Māori land was alienated, and the way in which it functioned is much criticised today. A single member of a tribal group could claim ownership of communal tribal land, which would trigger a court battle in which other tribal members were forced to participate in, or else lose out. The accumulation of court fees, lawyers fees, survey costs, and the cost of travelling to attend court proceedings resulted in mounting debts that could only be paid by the eventual sale of the land. In effect, Māori were safe from the court only until a single tribal member broke ranks and triggered a case, which would invariably result in the sale of the land. By the end of the century, nearly all of the highest quality Māori land had been sold, with only two million hectares remaining in Māori possession. Although the treaty had never been directly incorporated into New Zealand law, its provisions were first incorporated into specific legislation as early as the Land Claims Ordinance 1841 and the Native Rights Act 1865. However, in the 1877 Wi Parata v Bishop of Wellington judgement, Judge Prendergast argued that the treaty was a "simple nullity" in terms of transferring sovereignty from Māori to the British Crown. This remained the legal orthodoxy until at least the 1970s. Māori have since argued that Prendergast's decision, as well as laws later based on it were a politically convenient and deliberate ploy to legitimise the seizure of Māori land and other resources. Despite this, Māori frequently used the treaty to argue for a range of demands, including greater independence and return of confiscated and unfairly purchased land. This was especially the case from the mid-19th century, when they lost numerical superiority and generally lost control of most of the country and had little representation in government or the councils where decisions that impacted their affairs were made. Simultaneously, Māori rights over fisheries (guaranteed in article 2 of the treaty) were similarly degraded by laws passed in the late 19th century. Over the longer term, the land purchase aspect of the treaty declined in importance, while the clauses of the treaty which deal with sovereignty and Māori rights took on greater importance. In 1938, the judgement of the case Te Heuheu Tukino v Aotea District Maori Land Board considered the treaty as valid in terms of the transfer of sovereignty, but the judge ruled that as it was not part of New Zealand law it was not binding on the Crown. #### Treaty House and revival The treaty returned to the public eye after the Treaty House and grounds were purchased by the Governor-General, Viscount Bledisloe, in the early 1930s and donated to the nation. The dedication of the site as a national reserve in 1934 was probably the first major event held there since the 1840s. The profile of the treaty was further raised by the New Zealand centenary of 1940. For most of the twentieth century, textbooks, government publicity and many historians touted the treaty as the moral foundation of colonisation and argued that it set race relations in New Zealand above those of colonies in North America, Africa and Australia. Popular histories of New Zealand and the treaty often claimed that the treaty was an example of British benevolence and therefore an honourable contract. Even though Māori continued to challenge this narrative, the treaty's lack of legal standing in 1840 and subsequent breaches tended to be overlooked until the 1970s when these issues were raised by the Māori protest movement. ### Resurgence and place in New Zealand Law (1960–present) The Waitangi Day Act 1960 was a token gesture towards acknowledging the Treaty of Waitangi and somewhat preceded the Māori protest movement as a whole. It established Waitangi Day, although it did not make it a public holiday, and the English text of the treaty appeared as a schedule of the Waitangi Day Act but this did not make it a part of statute law. Subsequent amendments to the act, as well as other legislation, eventually acquiesced to campaigns to make Waitangi Day a national holiday in 1976. During the late 1960s and 1970s, the Treaty of Waitangi became the focus of a strong Māori protest movement which rallied around calls for the government to "honour the treaty" and to "redress treaty grievances". Māori boycotted Waitangi Day in 1968 over the Māori Affairs Amendment Act (which was perceived as a further land grab) and Māori expressed their frustration about continuing violations of the treaty and subsequent legislation by government officials, as well as inequitable legislation and unsympathetic decisions by the Māori Land Court continuing alienation of Māori land from its owners. The protest movement can be seen as part of the worldwide civil rights movements, which emerged in the 1960s. As a response to the protest movement, the treaty finally received limited recognition in 1975 with the passage of the Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975, which established the Waitangi Tribunal, but this initially had very limited powers to make findings of facts and recommendations only. The act was amended in 1985 to enable it to investigate treaty breaches back to 1840, and also to increase the tribunal membership. The membership was further increased in another amendment in 1988. #### Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi The treaty was incorporated in a limited way into New Zealand law by the State Owned Enterprises Act 1986. Section 9 of the act said "Nothing in this Act shall permit the Crown to act in a manner that is inconsistent with the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi". The government had proposed a transfer of assets from former government departments to state-owned enterprises, but because the state-owned enterprises were essentially private firms owned by the government, there was an argument that they would prevent assets which had been given by Māori for use by the state from being returned to Māori by the Waitangi Tribunal and through treaty settlements. The act was challenged in court in 1987, and the judgement of New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney-General defined the "Principles of the Treaty" and the proposed sale of government assets was found to be in breach of this proviso. This allowed the courts to consider the Crown's actions in terms of compliance with the treaty and established the principle that if the treaty is mentioned in strong terms in a piece of legislation, it takes precedence over other parts of that legislation should they come into conflict. The "Principles of the Treaty" became a common topic in contemporary New Zealand politics, and in 1989, the Fourth Labour Government responded by adopting the "Principles for Crown Action on the Treaty of Waitangi" a similar list of principles to that established in the 1987 court case. Legislation after the State Owned Enterprises case has followed suit in giving the treaty an increased legal importance. In New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney General (1990) the case concerned FM radio frequencies and found that the treaty could be relevant even concerning legislation which did not mention it and that even if references to the treaty were removed from legislation, the treaty may still be legally relevant. Examples include the ownership of the radio spectrum and the protection of the Māori language. #### Bill of Rights Some have argued that the treaty should be further incorporated as a part of the New Zealand constitution, to help improve relations between the Crown, Māori and other New Zealanders. The Fourth Labour Government's Bill of Rights White Paper proposed that the treaty be entrenched in the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. This proposal was never carried through to the legislation, with the attitude of many Māori towards it "suspicious, uneasy, doubtful or undecided". Many Māori were concerned that the proposal would relegate the treaty to a lesser position, and enable the electorate (who under the original Bill of Rights would be able to repeal certain sections by referendum) to remove the treaty from the Bill of Rights altogether. Geoffrey Palmer commented in 2013 that: > We were obliged, due to Māori opposition, to drop the Treaty from the Bill of Rights. That was a great pity and it is a step that I advocate be taken still in the context of having a superior law Bill of Rights. During the 1990s there was broad agreement between major political parties that the settlement of historical claims was appropriate. Some disagreed however, and claims of a "Treaty of Waitangi Grievance Industry", which profits from making frivolous claims of violations of the Treaty of Waitangi, were made by a number of political figures in the late 1990s and early 2000s, including former National Party leader Don Brash in his 2004 "Orewa Speech". The "Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi Deletion Bill" was introduced in the New Zealand Parliament in 2005 as a private member's bill by New Zealand First MP Doug Woolerton. Winston Peters, the 13th Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand, and others supported the bill, which was designed to remove references to the treaty from New Zealand law. The bill failed to pass its second reading in November 2007. #### Public opinion In terms of public opinion, a study in 2008 found that among the 2,700 voting age New Zealanders surveyed, 37.4% wanted the treaty removed from New Zealand law, 19.7% were neutral, and 36.8% wanted the treaty kept in law; additionally, 39.7% agreed Māori deserved compensation, 15.7% were neutral, and 41.2% disagreed. In 2017, the same study found that among the 3,336 voting age New Zealanders surveyed, 32.99% wanted the treaty removed from New Zealand law, 14.45% were neutral and 42.58% disagreed, and 9.98% didn't know. Today, the treaty is still not specifically part of New Zealand domestic law, but has been adopted into various acts of parliament ad hoc. It is nevertheless regarded as the founding document of New Zealand. ## Waitangi Tribunal claims During the early 1990s, the government began to negotiate settlements of historical (pre-1992) claims. As of September 2008, there were 23 such settlements of various sizes, totalling approximately \$950 million. Settlements generally include financial redress, a formal Crown apology for breaches of the treaty, and recognition of the group's cultural associations with various sites. The tribunal has, in some cases, established that the claimants had not given up sovereignty, and there are ongoing discussions with regards to the applicability of land seized in conflicts and obtained through Crown pre-emption. However, the tribunal's findings do not establish that the Crown does not have sovereignty today, since the Crown has de facto sovereignty in New Zealand regardless and the tribunal has no authority to rule otherwise. Treaty Settlements minister Chris Finlayson emphasised that: "The Tribunal doesn't reach any conclusion regarding the sovereignty the Crown exercises in New Zealand. Nor does it address the other events considered part of the Crown's acquisition of sovereignty or how the Treaty relationship should operate today". Recommendations of the tribunal are not binding on the Crown, but have often been followed. ## Commemoration The anniversary of the signing of the treaty – 6 February – is the New Zealand national day, Waitangi Day. The day was first commemorated in 1934, when the site of the original signing, Treaty House, was made a public reserve (along with its grounds). However, it was not until 1974 that the date was made a public holiday. Waitangi Day has been the focus of protest by Māori (as was particularly the case from the 1970s through to the 1990s), but today the day is often used as an opportunity to discuss the history and lasting effects of the treaty. The anniversary is officially commemorated at the Treaty House at Waitangi, where it was first signed. ### Commemorative stamps In 1940, New Zealand issued a 21⁄2d stamp recognising the centenary of the treaty. New Zealand Post issued a miniature sheet of two stamps in 1990 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the signing of the treaty. Another miniature sheet was issued in 2015 to mark the 175th anniversary. The \$2.50 sheet showed the figures of Tamati Waka Nene and William Hobson shaking hands. ## See also - Constitution of New Zealand - Te Ture Whenua Māori Act 1993 / Māori Land Act 1993 - Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand / He Whakaputanga
14,487,518	Kaufering concentration camp complex	1,173,456,058	Subcamps of the Dachau concentration camp during World War II	[ "Dachau concentration camp", "Messerschmitt", "Subcamps of Dachau", "War crimes of the Wehrmacht" ]	Kaufering was a system of eleven subcamps of the Dachau concentration camp which operated between 18 June 1944 and 27 April 1945 and which were located around the towns of Landsberg am Lech and Kaufering in Bavaria. Previously, Nazi Germany had deported all Jews from the Reich, but having exhausted other sources of labor, Jews were deported to Kaufering to create three massive underground bunkers, Weingut II, Diana II, and Walnuss II, which would not be vulnerable to the Allied bombing which had devastated German aircraft factories. The bunkers were intended for the production of Messerschmitt Me 262 aircraft, but none were produced at the camps before the United States Army captured the area. Kaufering was the largest of the Dachau subcamps and also the one with the worst conditions; about half of the 30,000 prisoners died from hunger, disease, executions, or during the death marches. Most of the sites were not preserved and have been repurposed for other uses. ## Establishment In early 1944, Allied bombing raids had reduced the fighter aircraft production of German factories by as much as two-thirds. In order to reduce the effectiveness of Allied bombing, the Jägerstab, a task force of the Reich Ministry of Armaments and War Production for increasing fighter production, planned to move production underground. Existing underground areas, such as caves and mines, were not suited to factory production, so new concrete bunkers were to be built, using concentration camp prisoners for labor. The area around Landsberg am Lech in Bavaria, where the Kaufering subcamps were established, was selected for this project due to its favorable geology; there was a layer of gravel up to 10 metres (33 ft) thick, and the water table was below 13 metres (43 ft). Out of six planned bunkers, three began construction at Kaufering and another at nearby Mühldorf concentration camp. Previously, Nazi Germany had attempted to make the Reich Judenrein ("cleansed of Jews") by deporting all Jews to eastern areas. However, they had exhausted other sources of forced labor, so Jews were deported to the Reich to work on the new project. Kaufering I, later redesignated Kaufering III, was established by a transport of 1,000 Hungarian Jewish men from Auschwitz concentration camp that arrived in Kaufering, Bavaria, on 18 June 1944. Prisoner functionaries were brought from Dachau to manage the new camp. ## Forced labor Unusually, the construction of the camps, as well as providing food and medical care, was the responsibility of the Organization Todt (OT), not the SS, which sought to extract the maximum labor for the minimum expense. The prisoners deported to each camp had to construct the accommodation themselves, The resulting huts, partially buried for camouflage from aerial reconnaissance, were completely inadequate for the weather conditions. Rain and snow leaked through the earthen roofs, and vermin infested the huts. Prisoners had to sleep in straw spread on the floor. Of Dachau's subcamps, Kaufering had the worst conditions. Most prisoners were forced to work building railway embankments and hauling bags of cement for the bunker-building projects, codenamed Weingut II, Diana II and Walnuss II. Weingut II was 400 metres (1,300 ft) long and 28.4 metres (93 ft) high (more than five stories), with a concrete roof 3 metres (9.8 ft) thick. The roof had been planned to be 5 metres (16 ft) thick, but that was pared down due to lack of materials. The total floor area would be 95,000 square metres (1,020,000 sq ft); the Augsburg factory that it intended to replace had only 12,700 square metres (137,000 sq ft) of floor area in three dispersal locations. For protection from air raids, 40% of the bunker was underground and its roof was covered with dirt for camouflage. At least 10,000 Jewish prisoners worked on the bunker at some point. The bunkers were to be used for producing different components of the Messerschmitt Me 262A aircraft, the first operational jet aircraft, which the Germans hoped would turn the tide of war against the Allies. Messerschmitt AG hoped to produce 900 Me 262 aircraft and additional Me 163B rocket-powered aircraft at Kaufering, by employing 10,000 workers per shift in each bunker, 90,000 in all, of whom one-third were to be concentration camp prisoners. However, the construction of Diana II and Walnuss II was not finished due to the lack of concrete and steel. When the United States liberated the area in April 1945, the excavation of Weingut II was not complete, but already production machines had been set up. However, not a single aircraft was produced before liberation. The murderous conditions meant that most prisoners were incapacitated in a short time, and OT and construction workers brutally beat victims in order to extract labor. Most prisoners were forced to work building railway embankments and hauling bags of cement for the bunker-building projects. OT workers complained that, due to severe vermin infestation, prisoners spent time attempting to rid themselves of fleas when they were supposed to be working. In December 1944, an OT staff member observed that of 17,600 prisoners, only 8,319 were capable of work, including those only capable of light work. Because the companies that hired the workers complained that they had to pay for the labor of prisoners unable to work, transports totaling 1,322 or 1,451 people were dispatched to Auschwitz in September and October 1944, where the victims were gassed. ## Command and organization The SS hierarchy at Kaufering had mostly served at eastern death camps, such as Majdanek and Auschwitz, which had been liberated by the Red Army. The first commandant, Heinrich Forster, had previously worked at Sachsenhausen, Dachau, and Kovno concentration camps. Forster was replaced in December 1944 by Hans Aumeier, former deputy commandant of Auschwitz and commandant of Vaivara concentration camp. In February 1945, Otto Förschner, former commandant of Mittelbau-Dora, took over command of Kaufering. The camp doctor was Max Blancke [de; pl], who had worked at multiple concentration camps. Architect Hermann Giesler, a close associate of Adolf Hitler, was in charge of the bunker construction. Consisting of eleven subcamps, Kaufering was the largest of the Dachau subcamp systems, and probably the largest Jewish subcamp system in the Reich. ### List of Kaufering subcamps ## Prisoners About 30,000 prisoners passed through the Kaufering camps, including 4,200 women and 850 children. This dwarfed the population of the surrounding area; only 10,000 people lived in the Landsberg area. Almost all of the prisoners were Jews. The majority of the prisoners came from Hungary or the areas annexed by Hungary. Eight thousand Jews were forced to leave the Kovno Ghetto in July 1944, as the Red Army approached; male prisoners were separated from the women and sent to Kaufering. Additional Jews arrived at Kaufering that summer during the liquidation of labor camps in the Baltics about to be overrun by the Red Army. These Jews had already survived countless "Aktions" in which victims were taken away to be murdered, and three years of forced labor, as well as long transports in cattle cars. Other Kaufering prisoners had survived four years in the Łódź Ghetto and a selection at Auschwitz. On 10 October 1944, a transport of Jewish men who had been imprisoned at the Theresienstadt Ghetto in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia arrived via Auschwitz. Other Jewish prisoners were from the Netherlands, France, Italy, or Rhodes. Some of the food allotted to prisoners was diverted by SS guards, further reducing the nutrient intake of prisoners. Those who were sick, with diseases such as typhus, spotted fever, and tuberculosis that were widespread in the camp, were fed even less, and rations were further reduced as the war drew to an end and shortages arose. Conditions were too harsh for a resistance movement to develop. However, survivors of the Kovno Ghetto continued to publish a clandestine newspaper, Nitsots (Spark), handwritten and illegally distributed. Elkhanan Elkes, head of the Judenrat at Kovno, was the camp elder of Kaufering I, where he died. > And – the attrition was very very high. And – but there the bodies weren't burned. They were taken to a site in mass graves, huge mass graves. I don't think they have ever been found. I wouldn't be able to find outside Kaufering. And huge mass graves. It's not very far from the Landberg prison [...] And – it was so bad – that – we had a lot of suicides there. People were going into the electric wires. And I remember, that's the only time I ever saw cannibalism. There was so little food in '45 there out – in January, February, in March... A commission established after the war estimated that 14,500 Kaufering prisoners had died. German historian Edith Raim wrote that about half of the 30,000 prisoners died before liberation. The main causes of death were hunger, disease, execution, deportation to Auschwitz, and the death marches. According to American historian Daniel Blatman, about 4,300 of those victims died at Kaufering itself; additional victims were sent to Dachau after becoming unable to work, or were killed during the death marches. ## Death marches As Allied troops approached, rumors circulated among the prisoners that the Germans were going to massacre them before liberation. In mid-April, SS general Ernst Kaltenbrunner relayed orders from Adolf Hitler for the Luftwaffe to bomb Dachau, Landsberg, and Mühldorf, which all had high Jewish populations. The Gauleiter of Munich, Paul Giesler, ordered Bertus Gerdes, administrator of Upper Bavaria, to prepare plans for the extermination of the surviving prisoners. Gerdes prevaricated, citing the lack of airplane fuel and ammunition as well as poor weather. In response, Kaltenbrunner ordered that the Kaufering prisoners be taken to Dachau main camp, where they were to be poisoned. Gerdes ordered a local doctor to prepare poison, but this plan could not be implemented either. The third plan was to take the prisoners to Ötz Valley in the Alps, where they were to be murdered "in one way or another". According to German records, 10,114 prisoners, including 1,093 women, were at Kaufering camps during the last week of April. Most of them were evacuated to Dachau or locations further south, either on foot or by train. Prisoners faced a difficult choice of whether to join the death marches or to try to stay behind, knowing that they might be massacred. On the death marches, anyone who could not keep up was beaten or shot, leading to many deaths. The evacuation was disorderly, and many prisoners succeeded in escaping during the roundups at the camp or later, when the columns were attacked by American aircraft. On 23 April, 1,200 prisoners left Kaufering VI (Türkheim) on foot and joined the prisoners forced on a death march from Dachau's main camp. Another 1,500 prisoners left Kaufering the next day, proceeding at first on foot and later by train. On multiple occasions, the prisoners were attacked by Allied aircraft. In one of these attacks, which hit a train carrying ammunition as well as prisoners, hundreds of victims were killed. Some of the prisoners evacuated from Kaufering ended up at Allach concentration camp. Hundreds of the evacuees from Kaufering arrived at Buchberg labor camp (south of Wolfratshausen) on 29 April. Otto Moll, a functionary of Kaufering, attempted to massacre these prisoners but was foiled by the camp commander. Instead Moll killed 120 or 150 Russian prisoners from Buchberg. Many of those who left Kaufering were liberated at Dachau on 28 April, but others were forced to march southwards into Upper Bavaria and were not freed until May. Kaufering IV, where those incapable of walking were held, was set on fire on the orders of the SS doctor, Max Blancke. Hundreds of sick and emaciated prisoners were trapped inside and killed. Shortly afterwards, Blancke committed suicide. ## Liberation and aftermath The subcamps of Kaufering were liberated between 24 and 27 April 1945 by the Seventh United States Army. The 12th Armored Division reached Kaufering IV on 27 April, with the 101st Airborne Division arriving the next day. The 522nd Field Artillery Battalion, which consisted entirely of Japanese Americans, also participated in the liberation, as did the 36th Infantry Division from 30 April. The liberators found 500 charred corpses, many of them naked, which they forced local German residents to bury. The remaining structures were "indescribably filthy" because dying prisoners had been left there. American soldiers documented the camps in photographs and newsreels. One of the liberators reported: > Our first sight of the camp was appalling. Inside the enclosure we could see three rows of bodies, approximately 200, mostly nude. We entered the camp to look it over. The bodies were in all shapes and conditions. Some were half burned, others badly scorched. Their fists were clenched in the agonies of their death. Their eyes were bulging and dilated as though even in death they were seeing and enduring the horrors of their lives in prison. None were more than skin and bones. The camp had been partially destroyed by fire, these were the victims. Nine of the forty defendants of the Dachau Trial were charged with crimes committed at Kaufering. In addition, three individuals stood trial individually in German courts for their actions at Kaufering, two of them former prisoner-functionaries at the camp. Aumeier was extradited to Poland, where he was convicted and executed. A large displaced persons camp was located in Landsberg in the postwar era, led by Lithuanian Jews who had survived Kaufering. ## Commemoration There are dozens of "KZ-Friedhöfe [de]" (mass graves) with the remains of thousands of people who died at Kaufering. The largest of these are at Kaufering II and III, with about 2,000 and 1,500 victims respectively. Many of the grave markers are overgrown and difficult to find. By the railroad tracks outside the village of Schwabhausen, there are three mass graves next to the railway line, victims of Allied strafing, which are marked by plaques. At Sankt Ottilien there is a small cemetery with the remains of about 40 prisoners who died shortly after liberation. At the beginning of the 1980s, a private association called Landsberg im 20. Jahrhundert [de] (Landsberg in the 20th Century) was formed to commemorate Kaufering. The site of Kaufering VII was purchased after a Jewish survivor donated the money on the condition that a memorial be erected, which has not been accomplished. In 2014, the federal government gave 700,000 euros to the European Holocaust Memorial in Landsberg (Landsberg Holocaust Memorial Association) and the city of Landsberg donated land with architectural remains. Restoration work was done between 2009 and 2016 on three intact and three ruined earthen huts and the housing of the SS guards, by the Europäische Holocaustgedenkstätte, winning the Bavarian Historic Conservation Prize in Gold. The site is fenced off and not accessible to visitors, but there are informational and commemorative plaques nearby. According to historian Edith Raim, the Landsberg im 20. Jahrhundert association and its director, Anton Posset, have refused access to the site to survivors and their families, the Israeli ambassador Shimon Stein, and inspectors of the Bavarian List of Monuments. Besides Kaufering VII, there are hardly any remnants of the Kaufering subcamps, whose locations were only definitively established due to Raim's work. Most of the sites are now used for gardens, forests, agriculture, or housing. Landsberg am Lech has a prominent plaque in the center of town commemorating the German soldiers who died in both World Wars, but no memorial to the Holocaust victims. There is a modest memorial at Kaufering III, while a student project to establish an information board was not maintained and fell into disrepair. Only grave markers remain at Kaufering II and VI. A tennis court operates on the former site of Kaufering I, while Kaufering VI has been built over and there is a McDonald's nearby. Traces of the fire set by the SS at Kaufering IV were destroyed by gravel-mining in the 1980s; a hunting tower resembling the guard towers at concentration camps was erected by a local resident, which one visitor found "rather disturbing". Only one of the bunkers built by slave laborers, Weingut II, survives. During the 1960s, it was repurposed for use by the Bundeswehr, as part of the Welfenkaserne [de] facility, and is still in use as a repair facility by the German Air Force, as of 2018. ### List of cemeteries of Kaufering subcamps see German article with pictures - Concentration camp cemetery for the Kaufering I – Landsberg remote camp (Landsberg industrial estate) - Concentration camp cemetery for the Kaufering II – Igling remote camp (near the Aussiedlerhof, built by the concentration camp command of Otto Moll, the gas chamber commander of Auschwitz) - Concentration camp cemetery for the Kaufering II – Igling and XI – Stadtwaldhof/Landsberg remote camps (Landsberg/Holzhausen intersection) - Concentration camp cemetery for the Kaufering III – Kaufering remote camp (barrage weir) - Concentration camp cemetery for the Kaufering IV – Hurlach external camp (barrage weir), for those who were found later - Kaufering IV – Hurlach Cemetery of the Holocaust, April 27, 1945, directly in the former concentration camp area, built by the American liberators - Concentration camp cemetery for those deceased after liberation in Holzhausen/Buchloe - Concentration camp cemetery for theKaufering VI – Türkheim remote camp in Türkheim-Bahnhof - Concentration camp cemetery for the Kaufering VII – Erpfting remote camp (near the Maria oak chapel, at the junction Landsberg - Erpfting district) - Concentration camp cemetery for the Kaufering VIII – Seestall remote camp (at the barrage weir at Lech in Seestall) - Concentration camp cemetery for the Kaufering IX – Obermeitingen concentration camp remote camp – unknown. - Concentration camp cemetery for the Kaufering V and X – Utting remote camp (on the connecting road from Utting to Holzhausen) - Concentration camp cemetery in Sankt Ottilien for survivors of the transport train to Dachau of 27 April 1945 next to the Christian cemetery of the monks of the monastery Sankt Ottilien - Three concentration camp memorial stones with Hebrew inscription indicate: "Dead Jewish victims of an air raid on the transport train with Jewish concentration camp prisoners of the Kaufering concentration camp command of 27 April 1945". ## In popular culture The liberation of Kaufering IV was depicted in the second half of Episode 9 "Why We Fight" of the TV mini-series Band of Brothers, a dramatization of E Company, 506th Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division. Although it was filmed in Hertfordshire, England, the episode is a realistic recreation of actual events depicted in historic photos and newsreels. For example, the soldiers have to confine the prisoners to the camp because there is not enough medical care available, and German civilians are forced to bury the dead. The American soldiers, who had previously fought from a parachute landing on D-Day through France and Germany, have become disillusioned, but confronting the horrors of the Nazi regime reminds them why they are fighting the war. Commentators rate the episode as one of the best of the series. American writer J. D. Salinger, the author of Catcher in the Rye, was one of the liberators of Kaufering IV. Austrian psychologist Viktor Frankl was deported from Theresienstadt to Kaufering via Auschwitz in October 1944; he spent five months in Kaufering III and was transferred to Kaufering VI in March 1945. His 1946 memoir, Man's Search for Meaning, has sold more than ten million copies and been translated into 24 languages. Large parts of the book are purportedly set in Auschwitz, where Frankl spent only three days, but actually depict his experience at Kaufering. In the book, Frankl develops his theory of logotherapy and argues that prisoners who maintained a positive attitude were more likely to survive. His work has however not been positively received by Holocaust historians, who maintain that Frankl's theories do not explain why some prisoners survived and others did not.
47,408,401	Angrej	1,150,936,231	2015 film by Simerjit Singh	[ "2010s Punjabi-language films", "2010s historical comedy films", "2015 films", "2015 romantic comedy films", "Films directed by Simerjit Singh", "Films scored by Jatinder Shah", "Films set in the British Raj", "Indian historical comedy films", "Indian historical romance films", "Indian romantic comedy films", "Punjabi-language Indian films" ]	Angrej () is a 2015 Indian Punjabi-language historical romance film directed by Simerjit Singh. Set against the backdrop of the waning British Raj, the film chronicles the love story of a young man and a woman, played by Amrinder Gill and Sargun Mehta respectively, belonging to different social strata. Angrej has Aditi Sharma, Ammy Virk, Binnu Dhillon, Anita Devgan, Sardar Sohi, and Nirmal Rishi in supporting roles; it marked the feature film debut for Mehta and Virk. Conceived as a romantic comedy set in the pre-partitioned Punjab, Angrej's story was written by Amberdeep Singh, who had always wanted to work on a period film about Punjabi culture. The film was shot in the rural parts of Rajasthan and Punjab over 40 days, with Navneet Misser serving as the cinematographer. Production designer Raashid Rangrez paid particular attention to the film's sets and costume design as he wanted them to represent the Punjab of the 1940s accurately. Jatinder Shah composed the film's soundtrack, which features vocals from Gill, Virk and Sunidhi Chauhan. Angrej was released theatrically on 31 July 2015; it received a positive response from film critics and audience alike. The performances of the cast, the production design, and the humour were chiefly praised. Commercially, Angrej grossed a total of around ₹307 million in its theatrical run and became one of the highest-grossing Punjabi films of all time. It was nominated for 22 awards at the 2015 PTC Punjabi Film Awards, winning ten including the Best Film, Best Director (Simerjeet Singh), Best Actor (Gill), and Best Actress (Mehta). ## Plot Angrej (Amrinder Gill), an older adult from India, arrives at his pre-partition home in Pakistan, where he meets the current residents. When asked about his time in Pakistan, he tells them of his life in the pre-partitioned India. In 1945, a young farmer Angrej and his friend Aslam (Binnu Dhillon), visit a mela (carnival)in a nearby village. Angrej meets Maado (Aditi Sharma) at the mela (who he is in love with). She reciprocates his feelings. He proposes marriage to Maado, but she is reluctant as her family would not approve of a love marriage, neither would Angrej's. He tells his mother of his intentions to marry Maado. Angrej's mother disapproves of love in general, but his sister-in-law agrees to arrange for the marriage. Later, when Angrej goes to inform Maado of the impending marriage proposal, Maado's father catches him. Before her father could do anything, a snake bites him, and he loses his ability to speak as a result of partial paralysis. Haakam (Ammy Virk), a rich landlord from Lahore and a distant relative of Maado's grandmother, begins to visit Maado's house and flirts with Maado frequently. Angrej sells his buffalo in order to buy gold bangle for Maado. However, she tells him that her family disapproves of his financial condition. She gives in to the advances made by Haakam, who brings her various gifts. Angrej is heartbroken when he witnesses a secret meeting between the two; Hakkam had brought a wood-cased radio for Maado from Lahore, much to her amusement. Angrej's family is invited to his cousin's wedding, where he meets Dhann Kaur (Sargun Mehta), his cousin's friend and the daughter of a wealthy aristocrat. The two develop a friendship over the course of the next few days. Maado and her family are also present at the wedding. Kaur helps Angrej in getting back with Maado, but is herself attracted to him. Haakam arrives at the wedding with the groom's baraat; that night, he makes a pass at many women, including Kaur. Angrej rebukes him, and the two engage in a fight but are later pacified by Maado's father. Hakkam continues to flirt with women and is caught by Maado the following day when Angrej makes her aware of it. Angrej consoles her, and the two rekindle their romance. The wedding concludes on the day of the vidai, and the guests begin to return home — angrej bids farewell to Kaur, who is smitten by him by this point. Angrej begins to dress like a landlord and visits Maado. Impressed by his new appearance, Maado proposes him for marriage. Angrej realises that he does not love Maado any more but instead wants to be with Kaur, who loves him. He gifts the bangle to Maado and takes his leave. He reaches Dhann Kaur's village only to find out that she got engaged. He leaves heartbroken. A few days later Aslam informs him that Dhann Kaur's fiancé is Haakam. Angrej then pleads his case to Kaur's father, who is enraged by his indecency and impudence. He threatens to shoot an undeterred Angrej as Kaur watches helplessly. Maado's father, who has recovered from his paralysis, intervenes and vouches for Angrej. He is able to convince Kaur's father to agree to the wedding, much to the delight of the couple. In the present day, Angrej scatters Kaur's ashes in the open fields around their old home as per her last wishes. ## Cast - Amrinder Gill as Angrej 'Geja' - Sargun Mehta as Dhann Kaur - Aditi Sharma as Maado - Ammy Virk as Haakam - Binnu Dhillon as Aslam - Sardar Sohi as Baghel Singh, Maado's grandfather - Nirmal Rishi as Maado's grandmother - Anita Devgan as Geja's Mother - Nisha Bano as Maado's friend - Hobby Dhaliwal as Gajjan Singh - Gurmeet Saajan as Angrej's fuffad ## Production ### Development Amrinder Gill and Amberdeep Singh began working on Angrej immediately after the completion of their previous production, the 2014 comedy film Goreyan Nu Daffa Karo. Singh wrote the screenplay and dialogue for the film; he said that idea of an Indian wedding in the pre-partitioned Punjab is what inspired him to write the script. He wanted the film to represent "the culture, the food, the joy" for the contemporary audience. Gill, who also starred in the film described it as a love story set in rural Punjab of 1945, one that "silently introduces the traditional Punjabi culture and lifestyle" and is "packed with high doses of comedy". Simerjit Singh was later hired to direct the film. In an interview with the Punjab News Express, he said that the film's title, Angrej, which roughly translates to "Englishman" was used by the people of British Punjab to label someone whose "thoughts were ahead of their times". Gill said that it was a challenging task to find the right actresses to play Maado and Dhan Kaur. Aditi Sharma and debutante Sargun Mehta, who according to Gill suited the characters "unbelievably well", were eventually cast in the roles after a lengthy auditioning process and multiple screen tests. Sharma said that she always wanted to work in a Punjabi film and was attracted to Angrej's script and its "old world charm". Mehta, who made her feature film debut was offered the role by Amberdeep Singh. The duo had previously worked together on the reality show Comedy Circus. Comedian Binnu Dhillon, Punjabi singer Ammy Virk, Anita Devgan, Sardar Sohi, and Nirmal Rishi play supporting roles in the films. Virk said that he was keen on doing the film as the role of Hakkam resembled him in real life. To prepare for their respective roles, the cast met various people who had been residents of Punjab in the 1940s; Gill also read books and watched documentaries about Punjabi culture and the use of language. ### Filming and post-production Principal photography for Angrej took place in rural Punjab and Rajasthan; Navneet Misser served as the film's cinematographer. The scenes of the village locale were shot at Suratgarh, a remote town close to the border of the two states as the production team wanted to "depict life sans electric poles, mobile towers and modern-day lifestyle". Production designer Raashid Rangrez said that the producers chose Rajasthan over Punjab as the semi-arid terrain of the region was better representative of Punjab prior to the green revolution; he added that for an "authentic 1945 setup, we had to be connected with earthy look". He paid particular attention to landscaping, with the production team constructing their own sets on the various shooting locations. The cast and crew had also collected such property as period utensils prior to commencement of filming. Costumes, which included Punjabi wedding attire, were made of khadi handloom fabric. The cloth was brought from Banaras, Bikaner, and Jalandhar. Rangrez and his team of designers, which included Manmeet Bindra, used white cloth for creating the costumes and dyed them later: "emotions matter more and emotions are connected deeply with colors. So [we] wanted to create colors on our own". Filming for the production was done in a single schedule that lasted for around 40 days. Angrej was edited by Omkarnath Bhakri and its final cut ran for a total of 136 minutes. The film was produced by Aman Khatkar Productions and Arsara Films in collaboration with Dara Productions, J Studios, and Rhythm Boyz Entertainment. The international distribution rights for the project were acquired by the London-based production and distribution house, Filmonix. ## Soundtrack Angrej's soundtrack was composed by Punjabi music composer and recording artist Jatinder Shah; the lyrics were written by Happy Raikoti, Vinder Nathumajra, Jaggi Jagowal, and Shveta Saarya. The album consists of seven songs which were primarily recorded by Gill, except for the tracks "Jind Mahi", which was sung by Sunidhi Chauhan and "Angrej Tappe", which featured additional verses from Virk. The complete soundtrack was released under the label of Rhythm Boyz on iTunes on 23 July 2015. The album was also made available for digital download on Google Play in the same month; it was well received by audience and holds an average score of 4.7 out of 5 on Google Play based on 53 reviews. Critical response to the music was positive; at the 2015 PTC Punjabi Film Awards, Shah and Raikoti won the Best Music Director and Best Lyricist awards respectively. Jasmine Singh of The Tribune dubbed the songs as "brilliant" and singled out the "peppy, traditional, and hummable" number "Kurta Suha" as the highlight of the album. The track was also nominated for the Song of the Year award at PTC ceremony. Also, the song peaked on the UK Asian Music Chart by Official Charts Company. ## Release ### Box office Angrej was released theatrically on 31 July 2015. It collected an approximate total of ₹11.5 million (US\$140,000) on its opening day, making it the third highest opening day collection for a Punjabi film in the region and fourth highest in India. The production was expected to do well in Punjab when compared to other releases including the mystery thriller Drishyam. The numbers grew over the next two days and the film went on to collect around ₹40.5 million (US\$510,000) in its opening weekend. Angrej also released internationally in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand collecting a total of ₹125 million (US\$1.6 million) overall. The film grossed a total of ₹307 million (US\$3.8 million) in its theatrical run, making it one of the highest grossing Punjabi films of all time. ### Critical response Jasmine Singh of The Tribune praised most aspects of the production. She described it as a period love story "sewn together with precision [...] Ruh ton! (right from the soul)". She wrote that the film establishes a rapport with the audience and there is not a single drab moment. Singh also positively reviewed the film's dialogue, narrative, and direction, adding that Amberdeep Singh "ensures you laugh [and] cry like a child and fall in love like you have just turned a child!". Others also ascribed the film's appeal to its flawless screenplay and "beautifully worded" dialogue and credited Amberdeep for creating a "masterpiece". Angrej was also praised for its production design and described as "one of the rare Punjabi films, in which the art department had worked really hard on recreating an era in which this film is set [...] by taking care of minute details". Reacting positively to the Misser's camera work, Amritbir Kaur wrote that the exotic locale and sceneries have been used so charmingly that "they are in such close proximity of the main fabric of the film". Commentators were also appreciative of the film's use of humour, which finds a "meaningful place" in the film's narrative and "[is] so natural and spontaneous that nowhere one is forced to laugh". The performances of the majority cast were also well received. Critics noted Gill's positive transition from a singer to an actor; Singh wrote that while Gill might not "evoke laughter from loud dialogues, but his innocent face and dialogue delivery will leave you in splits". Observers were also unanimous in their praise for Dhillion's natural acting skills and his comic abilities. Both Kaur and Singh lauded Mehta and Sharma for their performances in their debut roles, Kaur favoured Mehta for her spontaneity. Singh also noted that Angrej went beyond the generic hero-centric premise: "every single character fits the bill". She was particularly impressed by Devgan's "loveable and absolutely fantastic" and Sohi's "brilliant" performances. ## Awards and nominations
19,423,626	Ronald Forbes Adam	1,172,199,181	British Army general (1885–1982)	[ "1885 births", "1982 deaths", "Academics of the Staff College, Camberley", "Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom", "British Army generals of World War II", "British Army personnel of World War I", "British people in colonial India", "Burials in Sussex", "Commandants of the Staff College, Camberley", "Companions of the Distinguished Service Order", "Foreign recipients of the Legion of Merit", "Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich", "Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley", "Italian front (World War I)", "Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath", "Military personnel of British India", "Officers of the Order of the British Empire", "People educated at Eton College", "People from Horsham District", "People from Mumbai", "People of the British Council", "Presidents of the Marylebone Cricket Club", "Royal Field Artillery officers", "War Office personnel in World War II" ]	General Sir Ronald Forbes Adam, 2nd Baronet, GCB, DSO, OBE (30 October 1885 – 26 December 1982) was a senior British Army officer. He had an important influence on the conduct of the British Army during the Second World War as a result of his long tenure as Adjutant-General, responsible for the army's organisation and personnel, from June 1941 until the end of the war, and as a close confidant of Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), the professional head of the British Army. A graduate of Eton College and the Royal Military Academy Woolwich, Adam was commissioned on 27 July 1905 into the Royal Artillery. After a posting to India with the Royal Horse Artillery, he served on the Western Front and the Italian Front during the First World War. After the war he attended the Staff College, Camberley, and held successively senior staff postings at the War Office. He was an instructor at the Staff College between 1932 and 1935, and was briefly its commandant in 1937. When Lord Gort became CIGS, Adam was made Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff (DCIGS). In October 1939, he was appointed commander of III Corps. When, in late May 1940, the BEF was ordered to evacuate France, Adam was given the task of organising the Dunkirk perimeter. Following his return from France on 31 May 1940, Adam was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief Northern Command, responsible for the defence of the coastline from The Wash to the Scottish border. In June 1941 he was appointed Adjutant-General. The role was of particular importance during the war years because of the need for the army to adapt its practices to meet the needs of a conscript army led by non-career officers. He set up a personnel selection department that drew up aptitude tests to establish recruits' psychological stability, combatant temperament, technical aptitudes and leadership potential. Under Adam's guidance, officer selection was no longer based on a simple interview by commanding officers, but carried out through a War Office Selection Board ("Wozbee") whose members, advised by psychiatrists and psychologists, oversaw various tests, especially those aimed at showing a man's initiative potential. Adam did not accept the traditional view that there was an officer-producing class, but believed that men and women of ability could be found in all parts of the community. Both these innovations met resistance. So too did Adam's proposal to create a Corps of Infantry. This alarmed traditionalists at the War Office, who blocked it. However, Adam managed to then push through another reform creating the General Service Corps (GSC). All recruits—some 710,000 between July 1942 and May 1945— were initially posted to the GSC for the period of their basic training, after which they were sent to a training centre for specialised training. Even more controversial was Adam's championing of the Army Bureau of Current Affairs (ABCA), which produced fortnightly pamphlets on current developments to provide officers with material for compulsory discussion groups with their men. He and other senior officers believed that a citizen army had to be encouraged into battle, not just ordered. The leftward swing in British public opinion during the war years that resulted in a landslide win for the Labour Party in the 1945 general election was blamed on the ABCA. As the end of the war approached, Adam instituted a demobilisation system based on the "first in, first out" principle, and he resisted attempts to repeat the practice in 1918–19 of giving priority to the needs of the economy, which had led to mutinies by long-serving men. After the war he retired from the Army in October 1946, and was the chairman of several bodies involved in adult education. ## Early life Ronald Forbes Adam was born in Bombay, India, on 30 October 1885, the eldest child of Frank Forbes Adam, a merchant, and his wife Rose Frances Kemball, the daughter of Charles Gurdon Kemball, a judge of the High Court of Bombay. His father was a prominent businessman and a member of the Bombay Legislative Council who was made a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire in 1888, was knighted in 1890, and was created Baronet of Hankelow Court in Cheshire in 1917. He had two younger brothers, Eric Forbes Adam and Colin Forbes Adam, and a younger sister, Hetty Reay Clifford Forbes Adam. Because infant mortality was high in India, he was sent to England to live with relatives when he was three years old. The rest of the family followed the next year, settling in Hankelow Court. Adam was educated at Fonthill Preparatory School in East Grinstead, Sussex, and then at Eton College from September 1898 to December 1902. Setting his sights on a military career, he attended Adams and Millard, a cram school in Freiberg, Germany, in 1903, to study for the entrance examination to the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. He passed, ranked 33rd out of 39, and graduated in 1905, still ranked 33rd out of 39 in his class. Adam was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Field Artillery on 27 July 1905. A month of further instruction followed at the Royal Artillery School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness, and four more at the Ordnance College at Woolwich, after which he was posted to 54th Battery, 39th Field Artillery Brigade, based at Shorncliffe Army Camp in Kent. After three years there, the regiment moved to Edinburgh. Parades and drill took up the mornings; in the afternoons he went horse riding, and played rugby, cricket, polo, hockey, golf and billiards. He was promoted to lieutenant on 27 July 1908. In May 1911, he embarked for India, where he joined N Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, at Ambala. Alan Brooke was a fellow officer in the troop. Adam was known in the Army by his nickname, "Bill", but Brooke always referred to him as "George". On home leave in 1913, he met and became engaged to Anna Dorothy Pitman, the daughter of Frederick I. Pitman, a rower and financier. ## First World War Four days after Britain's declaration of war on Germany on 5 August 1914, N Troop was alerted to prepare to move to join the British Expeditionary Force in France. It sailed from Bombay on 9 September, via the Suez Canal and Marseilles, and reached the front on 5 November. He was promoted to captain on 30 October 1914, and married Dorothy, who was serving with a Voluntary Aid Detachment, on 7 January 1915. Adam became second-in-command of the 41st Battery, 42nd Brigade, Royal Field Artillery in March 1915, adjutant of the 3rd Brigade, Royal Field Artillery in July, and commander of the 58th Battery, 35th Brigade, Royal Field Artillery in October. He was evacuated to England suffering with trench fever in September 1916. While convalescing, he was promoted to major on 14 November 1916. When he recovered, he was appointed commander of the 464th Battery, 174th Brigade, Royal Field Artillery, in January 1917. He took it to the Western Front on 12 May. In November, Adam was in command of F Battery, Royal Horse Artillery when it was ordered to the Italian Front. He remained there for the rest of the war, becoming brigade major of the XIV Corps in March 1918, and then of the 23rd Division in April. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in the 1918 Birthday Honours, appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1919 Birthday Honours, and thrice mentioned in despatches. Adam had four children, all daughters: Barbara in 1917, Margot in 1918, and twins Bridget Islay and Isobel in 1927. The middle name "Forbes", originally a common family second name, was now used as an unhyphenated double family surname. ## Between the wars After the war, Adam was posted to No. 5 District, Aldershot Command as a brigade major. In 1920, he was sent to the Staff College, Camberley. After graduating the following year, he was briefly posted to Woolwich, and then to the War Office as a General Staff Officer (Grade 3) (GSO3). He then returned to Camberley as an instructor, with the acting rank of lieutenant colonel. In March 1926, he assumed command of the 72nd Battery, 16th Brigade, Royal Artillery, which was stationed at Kirkee in India. He became a brevet lieutenant colonel in July 1926, and inherited the Baronetcy of Hankelow Court in the County of Chester as 2nd Baronet Forbes Adam on the death of his father on 22 December 1926. He was promoted to colonel on 9 October 1932, with seniority backdated to 1 July 1930. In December, he returned to the War Office as a General Staff Officer (Grade 2) (GSO2). He attended the Imperial Defence College in 1930. After nine months in command of the 13th Field Brigade at Woolwich in 1932, he served as an instructor at Camberley until 1935. Other instructors there at this time included Lord Gort, Bernard Montgomery, Philip Neame, Bernard Paget and Andrew Thorne. He was then posted back to the War Office again as a General Staff Officer (Grade 1) (GSO1) in the Directorate of Military Operations and Intelligence, becoming deputy director of Military Operations (DDMO) with the temporary rank of brigadier when the directorate was reorganised on 1 October 1936. Adam was appointed Commander, Royal Artillery (CRA) for the 1st Division on 14 November 1936, retaining his acting rank of brigadier. The 1st Division was sent to Shanghai in 1937, but the artillery remained behind. On 24 September 1937, he received the prestigious posting of Commandant of the Staff College, Camberley, with the temporary rank of major general, vice Gort, who became Military Secretary. Both appointments were instigated by the new Secretary of State for War, Leslie Hore-Belisha, who attempted to put his stamp on the Army by appointing younger officers to key positions. To replace Field Marshal Sir Cyril Deverell as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), Hore-Belisha considered Adam, Gort and Frederick Pile, all of whom were aged 52 or 53. He decided to appoint Gort, who had a Victoria Cross and the Distinguished Service Order with two bars, and would make a fine public face of the Army. He was concerned, though, about the ability of Gort, a man of action but not particularly cerebral, to push through reforms that he felt were urgently needed for a war that he felt was just around the corner. Basil Liddell Hart then suggested that he revive the post of Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff (DCIGS), and give it to Adam, "to be the thinking head whilst Gort provided the drive." Adam took up the new position on 3 January 1938, with the temporary rank of lieutenant general, although he remained only a substantive colonel. There were important differences of opinion on policy and strategy between the Army and the government concerning the nature of the war and how it would be fought. The Army staff thought in terms of a field army that could be sent to France, as in 1914. The government saw this as preparing for the last war. It considered that the French Army was invulnerable behind the Maginot Line, and therefore the Germans would most likely attempt to knock Britain out of the war by attacking its industry and commerce. The emphasis was therefore placed on building up Anti-Aircraft Command, and creating mobile units for service in the Middle East. Adam concentrated on matters of organisation, particularly of the infantry, armour, and artillery. Simple changes like getting the infantry to march in three lines instead of four to save road space encountered stiff opposition, as did proposals to mechanise the cavalry, which only got as far as combining cavalry regiments which had mechanised with the Royal Tank Corps (renamed Royal Tank Regiment) to form the Royal Armoured Corps. His efforts to prepare for amphibious warfare met grudging acceptance from the Royal Navy, which created a Combined Operations Centre at Eastney only to disband it soon after the war began. The Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, resisted pressure from Hore-Belisha for the introduction of conscription, but a national appeal for volunteers for the Territorial Army fell short of the numbers required, and the Auxiliary Territorial Service began recruiting women. Finally, conscription was introduced in May 1939. For his services, Adam was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1939 New Year Honours. ## Second World War When Gort went to command the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), he wanted to take Adam as his chief of staff. Hore-Belisha refused the request on the grounds of maintaining continuity. However, in October 1939 Adam was appointed commander of III Corps, which by February 1940 was crossing the Channel to join the BEF. III Corps was earmarked for operations in Scandinavia, but by April the planned invasion was cancelled when Germany invaded Denmark and Norway, and the Corps remained in France. When in late May, the BEF was ordered to evacuate, Adam was given the task of organising the Dunkirk perimeter; Major General S. R. Wason took over command of III Corps. It was substantially due to Adam's leadership that the BEF was able to retreat behind a strong perimeter and carry out the Dunkirk evacuation. Ordered to leave on 26 May, Adam and Brigadier Frederick Lawson found a canvas boat on the sand dunes and rowed out to a waiting destroyer. For his part, he was mentioned in despatches a fourth time. Following his return from France on 31 May 1940, Adam was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief Northern Command, responsible for the defence of the coastline from The Wash to the Scottish border. It was during his year with Northern Command that he concluded that the army needed both more effective selection procedures and to ensure that soldiers understood the cause for which they were fighting. On 1 June 1941 he was appointed Adjutant-General, the second military member of the Army Council and a key role with responsibility for all personnel, administration and organisational matters. The role was of particular importance during the war years because of the need for the army to adapt its practices to meet the needs of a conscript army led by non-career officers. In peacetime, each infantry regiment conducted its own recruit training. As a result, in 1941 there were fifty-eight infantry and four machine gun training centres. In July 1941, Adam consolidated them, reducing their number to just fourteen and one. This saved 14,000 men. Adam then went further. Since battle casualties need to be replaced either by cross-posting or new recruits from training centres, he proposed creating a Corps of Infantry. Others ranks could then be routinely cross-posted; no transfer to another regiment would be required. The proposal met with alarm among traditionalists at the War Office, who blocked it. However, Adam managed to then push through another reform creating the General Service Corps (GSC) in January 1942. All recruits—some 710,000 between July 1942 and May 1945— were initially posted to the GSC for the period of their basic training, after which they were sent to a training centre for specialised training, which took from sixteen weeks for the infantry up to thirty weeks for signallers. Transfers of men from one corps to another were still needed, especially in late 1944 when thousands of men were transferred from anti-aircraft units to the infantry. The new system gave the Army more time to assess the capabilities of recruits and how to best employ them. In 1940, the government had hastily mobilised 120 infantry battalions. By the middle of 1941, half of these had been disbanded, and their manpower transferred to other arms. In November 1941, recruiting of skilled men was halted pending investigation of 9,800 allegations of misuse of skilled personnel. Of these, 1,300 were found to be justified. Adam noted in July 1941 that the Army was "wasting its manpower in this war as badly as it did in the last." He set up a Directorate for the Selection of Personnel that drew up aptitude tests to establish recruits' psychological stability, combatant temperament, technical aptitudes and leadership potential. IQ tests were rejected as being for children. Standardised tests were developed to classify men into six grades, and nine trade groupings, which were then allocated to each arm. Under the new system the failure rate for tradesmen dropped from 16.7 to 6.7 per cent, and for drivers from 16 to 20 per cent to 3 per cent. When applied to women, the failure rate for radio operators plunged from 64 per cent to just 3 per cent. Under Adam's guidance, this led to tackling the British Army's other major personnel problem, officer selection. As in the Great War, the classes that had traditionally provided leadership in society could not furnish the numbers of leaders that the Army needed. Those with a university education who had completed Officers' Training Corps (OTC) training were immediately commissioned. Those that had attended a public school were sent to an Officer Cadet Training Unit (OCTU) for a three-month course before being commissioned. While there were those who felt that one's parents' ability to pay for an education did not necessarily imply the possession of leadership qualities, it was considered that public school boys were imbued with good character, self-restraint, perseverance, and courage, and that participation in team sports promoted physical fitness and quick decision making—all characteristics that the Army considered desirable in its officers. This still did not provide enough officers. Commanders were ordered to furnish quotas of potential officers from their other ranks for OCTUs, but not all nominated, or could nominate, good candidates, and there was a general feeling that men with only elementary schooling, regional accents or even mildly left-wing views had no chance of nomination. Failure rates at the OCTUs were high, averaging around 30 per cent of the candidates on each course. Adam did not accept the traditional view that there was an "officer-producing class", but believed that men and women of innate ability could be found in all parts of the community. Both these innovations met resistance, most of which was overcome. He instituted a new system of OCTU nomination that was no longer based on a simple interview by commanding officers, but carried out through a War Office Selection Board ("Wozbee") whose members, advised by psychiatrists and psychologists, oversaw various tests, especially those aimed at showing a man's leadership potential. Psychiatrists were in short supply, and there were doubts about the value of predictive psychiatry. Wozbees were established at home starting in March 1942, and overseas by the middle of 1943. Men were sent to a country house in groups of 30 to 40, and divided to groups of about eight. They then undertook a series of tests. Adam particularly liked the one where a leaderless group was asked to bridge a stream using material lying about, which included three planks, all too short, and some rope. "The test showed", he noted, "not only who were the leaders, but also those who fitted into a team." By the end of the war, 21 per cent of the British Army's officers had elementary school education, compared with 34 per cent who had attended public schools. Adam went even further in his search for officer candidates. In one experiment, he divided a unit into four groups—officers, junior NCOs, senior NCOs and polled an entire unit, asking all ranks to nominate potential officers. Those nominated by three out of four groups were then sent to the Wozbee. Of the 114 nominated, 56 per cent passed, which was not significantly higher than the usual 54 per cent, but 7 per cent of the unit was nominated instead of the usual 0.1 per cent, producing far more officers. Adam then wanted to expand the trial, but for his critics, it was clear evidence that he had finally crossed the line from socialism to full-blown Bolshevism. The Commander-in-Chief of Home Forces, Lieutenant General Sir Bernard Paget wrote to the Secretary of State for War, Sir James Grigg, warning him that Adam was "a serious menace to both morale and discipline." When the matter was placed before the Army Council, Brooke and Grigg, who normally protected Adam, failed to support it, and the trial did not proceed. The British Army remained short of officers. In order to supplement the British Army with junior officers, Adam helped devise the CANLOAN program in 1944; which saw 673 Canadian officers serve in British units. Just before D-Day, some 200 Canadian officers were seconded to the British 21st Army Group in Europe, and 168 Australian officers to the Fourteenth Army in Burma. The effectiveness of the Wozbees is hard to gauge. When commanding officers in the Mediterranean and the 21st Army Group were surveyed in 1943 and 1944, they considered that there was little difference between the products of the Wozbees and those nominated by earlier means, suggesting that their training was more important. George MacDonald Fraser, the author of the Harry Flashman series of novels opined that "the general view throughout the Army was that they weren't fit to select bus conductors, let alone officers." No one was specifically responsible for morale in the Army as a whole until 1941, when it was given to Adam. He championed the Army Bureau of Current Affairs (ABCA), which produced fortnightly pamphlets on current developments to provide officers with material for compulsory discussion groups with their men. He and other senior officers recognised that the call of "King and Country", which had been so powerful in 1914, was not enough for a more sceptical generation; a citizen army had to be encouraged into battle, not just ordered. However, the "Theirs not to reason why, theirs but to do and die" attitude was still widespread almost a century after the Battle of Balaclava, and the leftward swing in British public opinion during the war years that resulted in a landslide for the Labour Party in the 1945 general election was blamed by some Conservatives on the ABCA, a charge Adam considered absurd. The ABCA discussion groups substituted the "habit of rational argument for the anarchy of the barrack-room argument", he told the British Institute of Adult Education in 1945. On an inspection tour of the Middle East Command in November 1943, Adam, by pure chance, encountered men who had been condemned to death and penal servitude for their part in the Salerno mutiny. He immediately suspended their sentences. In a letter to General Sir Bernard Montgomery, who had not been consulted about the sentences, Adam wrote that this was "one of the worst things we have ever done." Some of the men subsequently deserted, and therefore had their sentences re-imposed. Adam appointed a psychiatrist to examine their mental state. He wanted them released, but this did not occur before the end of the war. Adam blamed the mutiny on maladministration in General Sir Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group; Montgomery was more specific, putting the blame on Lieutenant General Sir Charles Miller, Alexander's Chief Administrative Officer. As the end of the war approached, thoughts turned to demobilisation. Adam asked for the records of the demobilisation after the Great War, and found that they had been destroyed. Information was gathered from newspapers, Hansard, journal articles, and a chapter in Winston Churchill's The World Crisis. He instituted a demobilisation system based on the "first in, first out" principle, in which the only criteria were age and length of service, and resisted attempts to repeat the practice in 1918–19 of giving priority to the needs of the economy. Employers had preferred men with recent experience to those who had been away for years, which had led to mutinies by long-serving men. Adam remembered that many men had been hurt that in the demobilisation process they had left the Army without a word of thanks for years of service. He instituted a procedure whereby an officer personally thanked each man and said "goodbye." Adam was seen by Churchill, amongst others, as being too radical, and Adam aroused the suspicions of more conservative generals like Paget. Churchill even attempted to have him posted in early 1944 as Governor of Gibraltar but Brooke, who had been appointed CIGS at the end of 1941, and who saw him as progressive, ensured Adam continued to hold the post of Adjutant-General so long as Brooke remained CIGS, which he did until the end of the war. Adam was promoted to general on 12 April 1942. His influence on the conduct of the war was not only through his long tenure as Adjutant-General but also because he was one of Brooke's only two confidants, and the two of them lunched together regularly when both were in London. Adam was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1941 Birthday Honours, and a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 1946 New Year Honours. He was also made a Commander of the United States Legion of Merit on 14 November 1947. He was colonel commandant of the Royal Army Dental Corps from 1945 to 1951, of the Royal Artillery from 1940 to 1950, and of the Army Educational Corps from 1940 to 1950. He retired from the Army on 15 July 1946. He was succeeded by General Sir Richard O'Connor, who hated the job, and resigned in August 1947. Few of Adam's reforms survived. The Wozbees remained, but psychologists were removed from them. Infantry training reverted to the regiments, but post-war cuts in the size of the British Army reduced the number of infantry regiments though amalgamation and disbandment from 64 in 1945 to 16 in 2012, achieving much the same result. The ABCA was abolished in 1945. ## Later life In retirement, Adam's progressive record as Adjutant-General made him highly sought after by civilian organisations working in the field of adult education. He was chairman and Director General of the British Council from 1946 to 1954. He was also chairman of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology from 1947 to 1952, of the council of the Institute of Education at the University of London from 1948 until 1967, of the Library Association in 1949, and of the National Institute of Adult Education from 1949 to 1964. He was a member, and then chairman of the executive board of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), and chairman of the United Nations Association – UK from 1957 to 1960. He was also principal of the Working Men's College, and sat on the governing bodies of the University of London's Birkbeck College from 1949 to 1967, and National Institute of Adult Continuing Education from 1949 to 1964. He was awarded an honorary LLD degree by the University of Aberdeen in 1945, and made an honorary fellow of Worcester College, Oxford, in 1946. He remained a severe critic of the British educational system and in 1961 wrote that it would not be fundamentally changed until private education was ended. Passionate about cricket, Adam was the president of the Marylebone Cricket Club from 1946 to 1947. He also served as chairman of the Linoleum Working Party in 1946, and was a member of the council of the Tavistock Clinic from 1945 to 1953, and the Miners' Welfare Commission from 1946 to 1952. With Charles Judd he published a short book produced in association with the United Nations Association, Assault at Arms: A Policy for Disarmament (1960). His sister, Hetty, moved in to help when his wife Dorothy became ill in the late 1960s, and remained after Dorothy died in 1972, until her own death in 1977. Adam died at his home in Faygate, Sussex, on 26 December 1982, and was buried in St Mary Magdalene churchyard in Rusper, Sussex, on 5 January 1983. He was survived by two of his daughters, and succeeded in the baronetcy by his nephew, Christopher Eric Forbes Adam. His papers are in the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives at King's College London. ## Arms
7,654,951	Trinidad and Tobago at the 2002 Winter Olympics	1,055,172,541	null	[ "2002 in Trinidad and Tobago sport", "Nations at the 2002 Winter Olympics", "Trinidad and Tobago at the Winter Olympics by year" ]	Trinidad and Tobago sent a delegation to compete at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, United States from 8–24 February 2002. This was Trinidad and Tobago's third appearance at a Winter Olympic Games. The delegation consisted of three bobsledders, Gregory Sun, Andrew McNeilly, and Errol Aguilera. In the two-man competition, a four-run event in which all three men competed, they came in 37th place. ## Background The Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee was recognized by the International Olympic Committee on 31 December 1946. Although they have sent delegations to every Summer Olympic Games since, except the 1960 Summer Olympics, they did not participate in their first Winter Olympics until the 1994 Lillehammer Games, and have never won a Winter Olympics medal. Salt Lake City was thus the nation's third appearance at a Winter Olympics. The 2002 Winter Olympics were held from 8–24 February 2002; a total of 2,399 athletes took part representing 77 National Olympic Committees. The Trinidad and Tobago delegation to Salt Lake City consisted of three bobsledders, Gregory Sun, Andrew McNeilly, and Errol Aguilera. Sun was chosen as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony. ## Bobsleigh Gregory Sun was 39 at the time of the Salt Lake City Olympics, and had represented the country in their two prior Winter Olympics appearance. Andrew McNeilly was 29 years old, and Errol Aguilera was 23 years old; both were making their Olympic debuts. The two-man bobsleigh race was a four-leg race held on 16–17 February, with the sum of the times of all four legs determining final placement. Sun participated in all four runs, while McNeilly took part in the first two runs, and Aguilera was in the sled for the last two runs. On the first day, they posted run times of 49.74 seconds and 50.07 seconds. Overnight, they were in 37th and last place. The next day, they completed the third run in 50.68 seconds, and the final run in 49.69 seconds. Their final time was 3 minutes and 20.18 seconds, which put them in 37th place for the competition, last among all competitors. The gold medal was won by Germany in 3 minutes and 10.11 seconds, and the silver and bronze were taken by sleds from Switzerland.
762,085	Earth Angel	1,173,172,996	null	[ "1950s ballads", "1954 songs", "1955 singles", "1956 singles", "1959 singles", "1960 singles", "1986 singles", "Aaron Neville songs", "Bobby Vinton songs", "Death Cab for Cutie songs", "Doo-wop songs", "Elvis Presley songs", "Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients", "Johnny Preston songs", "Johnny Tillotson songs", "New Edition songs", "Rhythm and blues ballads", "Songs involved in royalties controversies", "The Crew-Cuts songs", "The Fleetwoods songs", "The Vogues songs", "United States National Recording Registry recordings" ]	"Earth Angel", occasionally referred to as "Earth Angel (Will You Be Mine)", is a song by American doo-wop group the Penguins. Produced by Dootsie Williams, it was released as their debut single in October 1954 on Dootone Records. The Penguins had formed the year prior and recorded the song as a demo in a garage in South Central Los Angeles. The song's origins lie in multiple different sources, among them songs by Jesse Belvin, Patti Page, and the Hollywood Flames. Its authorship was the subject of a bitter legal dispute with Williams in the years following its release. Although the song was going to be overdubbed with additional instrumentation, the original demo version became an unexpected hit, quickly outstripping its A-side. The song grew out of Southern California and spread across the United States over the winter of 1954–55. "Earth Angel" became the first independent label release to appear on Billboard's national pop charts, where it peaked within the top 10. It was a big hit on the magazine's R&B charts, where it remained number one for several weeks. A cover version by white vocal group the Crew-Cuts peaked higher on the pop charts, reaching number three. More cover versions followed, including recordings by Gloria Mann, Tiny Tim, and Johnny Tillotson. The Penguins' only hit, it eventually sold in excess of ten million copies. The original recording of the song remained an enduring hit single for much of the 1950s, and it is now considered to be one of the definitive doo-wop songs. In 2005, it was one of 50 recordings chosen by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry, deeming it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important." In 1998, The Penguins 1954 recording of "Earth Angel (Will You Be Mine)" on Dootone Records was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. ## Background The Penguins—composed of lead vocalist Cleveland Duncan, bass Curtis Williams, tenor Dexter Tisby, and baritone Bruce Tate—formed at Fremont High School in Los Angeles, California in 1953. The group named themselves after the Kool cigarette advertising mascot. Williams and Gaynel Hodge were previously members of The Hollywood Flames, where they began writing "Earth Angel" with mentor Jesse Belvin, a Jefferson High graduate. Belvin had previously had a hit single in "Dream Girl", a 1952 ballad credited to Jesse & Marvin (saxophonist Marvin Phillips). The song echoes "Earth Angel" in its melodic refrain: "Dream girl, dream girl..." Its "why-oh" hook was adapted as a background chant within "Earth Angel". The "Will you be mine?" hook was borrowed from the R&B hit of the same name by the Swallows. The Hollywood Flames were hired that year by Jessie Mae Robinson to record a demo of "I Went to Your Wedding", later recorded by Patti Page. Hodge later noted that the group lifted the bridge from that song for "Earth Angel". The song also contains elements of the Flames' 1953 recording of "I Know" in its piano introduction and chord progressions, which were closely based on the Rodgers & Hart standard "Blue Moon". Williams reportedly wrote the song for his wife, Marlene, and Duncan rewrote the melody, as he disliked the original. "Earth Angel" was recorded as a literal garage demo—it was recorded in a home garage at the Los Angeles home of Ted Brinson (a relative of Williams who had played bass for the Jimmie Lunceford and Andy Kirk bands). The home was located at 2190 West 30th Street in South Central Los Angeles. The garage was used as the primary recording space of Dootsie Williams for all of his Dootone artists, and had been used to record demos for Jessie Mae Robinson. It was recorded on a single-track Ampex tape recorder, owned by Brinson, who performs bass on the track. The drums were muffled with pillows so as to not overwhelm the vocals. A neighbor's pet dog stopped many takes by barking. "Every time the dog barked next door, I'd have to go out and shut him up, and then we'd do another take," remembered Williams. Curtis Williams, in addition to singing, performed piano on the track, with an unknown drummer. Preston Epps reportedly played bongos on “Hey Senorita” (though this is unconfirmed). The song is composed in the key of A-flat major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 76 beats per minute. Duncan's vocal range spans from F<sub>3</sub> to G<sub>4</sub>. The first five seconds of the intro are cut off of the recording by accident. ## Commercial performance Although it was an unfinished demo, "Earth Angel" began to see immediate success. Williams carried a rough acetate dub with him to Dolphin's of Hollywood All Night Record Shop, a local record store, to gauge shop owner John Dolphin's opinion. Dolphin broadcast a late-night rhythm and blues broadcast from his store, and KGFJ disc jockey Dick Hugg was sitting in. Hugg played both sides of the single, and by the next morning, requests began coming in for the song. As a result, Williams abandoned an idea to overdub additional instrumentation and began immediate manufacturing of the 7" single to issue it as soon as possible. Still convinced "Hey Señorita" would be the hit, it was pressed to the A-side; disc jockeys soon began flipping the record in favor of "Earth Angel". The demand for "Earth Angel" nearly bankrupted Dootone; producer Walter Williams ran out of label paper, leading the single to be pressed on multiple colored labels. It made its first appearance in Billboard as a territorial hit for Los Angeles, becoming the second best-selling R&B single in Los Angeles for the second week of October 1954. It climbed to number one for the city by November 13, after which it began to grow in popularity in New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and Nashville. "Earth Angel" became the first independent label release to appear on Billboard's national pop charts. Billboard called the record a "Best Buy" for the R&B charts, and Cashbox in Canada gave it its "Award o' the Week". It hit number one in New York on November 27, and by Christmas Day the song was placing on the "Best Sellers in Stores" chart for both R&B and pop, where it debuted at number 25. By January 15, 1955, the single had advanced to the top 20 of the overall Best Sellers in Stores chart, resulting in its addition to the "Honor Roll of Hits" chart. It also reached number one on the "Most Played in Jukeboxes" R&B chart. After seven weeks on the chart, it peaked at number eight on the overall Best Sellers in Stores chart, and by February 19 had hit number one on all the major R&B charts. It remained a number one R&B hit for three weeks, before being dethroned by Johnny Ace's "Pledging My Love". At the time, it was a rare achievement for an R&B song to chart within the top echelons of the pop chart. The Penguins were the first West Coast R&B group to dent the pop top ten. In May 1955, Dootsie Williams was presented with a gold record to celebrate the record selling 1 million copies (it was reported that nearly 200,000 copies of "Earth Angel" were sold in Southern California alone). With the popularity of the song "The Flying Saucer", the single saw revived sales in summer 1956. When the Penguins switched to Mercury Records, the label reissued "Earth Angel" in September 1956 with string accompaniment. The following July, Billboard reported that the single was again breaking out in certain markets, remarking, "This wax breaks out every summer." It made another appearance at \#101 in late December 1959. Indeed, Billboard confirmed the single's enduring popularity in 1960: "The original version of 'Earth Angel,' for example, is still known to be a heavy traffic item in many areas." By 1963, Williams had told Billboard the single had passed the 2,000,000 mark, and it was reported to be the top-selling single of Dootone Records (at this period renamed Dooto). The same year, it was reported that thousands of bogus copies of "Earth Angel" were attempted to be sold by an unidentified counterfeiter. The song has continued to sell multiple decades after its release; in 1983, for example, it was still selling thousands of copies per week around the world. According to The New York Times, the Penguins' recording of "Earth Angel" has sold over 10 million copies. Its exact figures are uncertain; the Honolulu Star-Bulletin wrote that the single has sold "perhaps as many as 20 million records, remaining one of the more popular records of all time." ## Legal issues Group members later engaged in a dispute with Dootsie Williams regarding royalties. By mid-January 1955, the Penguins reportedly did not receive advances from Dootone, and problems began to arise. They hired Buck Ram, a big band-era veteran, to manage the group; he later took partial credit for the song's success despite that he only began managing the group after its release. On April 9, 1955, the Penguins signed with Mercury Records. Ram had directed the group to Mercury, slyly using his power as a representative to get the Platters, another L.A.-based vocal group, signed as well. Dootone had previously confirmed to trades that their recording contract with the Penguins spanned three years. A court decision found this contract was invalid as three of the four members of the group were minors at the time of their signing. Curtis Williams sued Dootone for \$100,000, claiming damages as a result of his underage signing. Dootone countersued, claiming Mercury induced the group to break their Dootone contract and for taking the publishing rights of "Earth Angel". Jesse Belvin and supposed co-writer Johnny Green sued the group the same week for not receiving credit for writing the song; all early versions of "Earth Angel" (including the covers by The Crew Cuts and others) showed Curtis Williams as the sole author. Dootsie Williams sued and was awarded the rights to the song in 1957 by the Los Angeles Superior Court "on the ground that Belvin and Hodge had written most of it." BMI officially lists the writers of "Earth Angel" as Jesse Belvin, Gaynel Hodge and Curtis Williams. ## Cover versions and in popular culture "Earth Angel" repeatedly has been covered in popular culture. As was a common occurrence at the time, there were a number of cover versions released upon the record's immediate success. Many white artists covered the song, including Gloria Mann, Pat O'Day, and Les Baxter. The most notable of these was performed by a vocal group from Canada named the Crew-Cuts, signed to Mercury Records. Their version peaked at number three on the pop charts, higher than the original. Their version also reached British charts, a feat the original was unable to achieve. Elvis Presley recorded an informal cover during an army stint in Goethestrasse, Germany. "The Flying Saucer" (1956), widely considered one of the early mashup songs, sampled the song without permission. Other cover versions include Johnny Tillotson, The Cleftones, The Vogues, New Edition, The Temptations, Joan Baez, Bella Morte, Johnny Preston, and Death Cab for Cutie. In Sri Lanka, the popular fm radio channel Shree FM remade a cover version named "Yanna oba yanna" sung by Samitha Mudunkotuwa in early 2000s. In addition to cover versions, the song has been employed in various film and television soundtracks. The 1991 film Earth Angel was named after the song. The song has been used in the television series Happy Days. It was featured prominently in the film Back to the Future (performed by Harry Waters Jr. as Marvin Berry & The Starlighters) as well as Superman III and The Karate Kid Part II. It is used in the jukebox musical Jersey Boys and also briefly in the film version. Australian group Human Nature covered the song on their 2014 album Jukebox. American rock band The Wallies released a version in 2013. ## Legacy Although the Penguins never matched the success of their debut single, the song has continued to see popularity and acclaim. Cleveland Duncan, the song's lead vocalist, remarked "I never get tired of singing it, as long as people never get tired of hearing it." The song became a staple of oldies radio in the late 20th century. An appraisal in the book Singles dubs the song "a simple but elegant recording now judged by many to be one of the finest examples of what would become doo-wop". Despite the higher success of the cover by the Crew-Cuts, the original amateur recording by the Penguins is now considered definitive. Steve Sullivan, author of the Encyclopedia of Great Popular Song Recordings, writes that the track "possesses virtually all of the qualities cherished by doo-wop lovers: melodic beauty, a shimmering earnest lead vocal, stripped-to-the-bone simplicity, and a pristine romantic innocence." The New York Times wrote that "For many the song evokes a glittering, timeless vision of proms, sock hops and impossibly young love", and the Los Angeles Times concurred, calling it a "nostalgic evocation of post-World War II youth culture." Steve Propes, an author and music historian, remarked that "It was the first of the ultra-romantic ballads that hit the nerve of teens at the time ... It stood out because of the sincerity of the delivery." The Penguins' version was included in Robert Christgau's "Basic Record Library" of 1950s and 1960s recordings, published in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981). Rolling Stone later placed it at number 152 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and called it "a pivotal record in the early development of rock & roll. The artless, unaffected vocals of the Penguins, four black high schoolers from L.A., defined the street-corner elegance of doo-wop." A 1997 listener poll by New York radio station WCBS placed "Earth Angel" just behind the Five Satins' "In the Still of the Night" in a list of most enduring doo-wop songs. In 1973, Billboard reported that many considered "Earth Angel" among the early rock and roll hits, and The New York Times stated that "its rhythmic, wailing plea to an idealized young woman captured the spirit of the just-emerging rock generation." In 2005, it was one of 50 recordings chosen by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry, deeming it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important". In July 2016, British rock band Coldplay played the song in concert in New Jersey with Michael J. Fox, star of Back to the Future, on guitar, in a tribute to the film. ## Charts ### Weekly charts All versions The Penguins version The Crew-Cuts Gloria Mann version Johnny Tillotson version The Vogues version New Edition version ## See also - "Blue Moon" - List of best-selling singles
5,714,291	One Rincon Hill	1,141,067,140	Upscale residential complex on the apex of Rincon Hill in San Francisco	[ "2008 in San Francisco", "2014 establishments in California", "Earthquake-resistant structures", "Residential buildings completed in 2008", "Residential buildings completed in 2014", "Residential buildings in San Francisco", "Residential condominiums in San Francisco", "Residential skyscrapers in San Francisco", "South of Market, San Francisco", "Twin towers" ]	One Rincon Hill is an upscale residential complex on the apex of Rincon Hill in San Francisco, California, United States. The complex, designed by Solomon, Cordwell, Buenz and Associates and developed by Urban West Associates, consists of two skyscrapers that share a common townhouse podium. It is part of the San Francisco Skyline and is visible from Mt. Diablo, Port of Oakland and San Francisco. The taller tower, One Rincon Hill South Tower, was completed in 2008 and stands 60 stories and 641 feet (195 m) tall. The shorter tower, marketed as Tower Two at One Rincon Hill, was completed in 2014 and reaches a height of 541 feet (165 m) with 50 stories. The South Tower contains high-speed elevators with special features for moving residents effectively, and a large water tank designed to help the skyscraper withstand strong winds and earthquakes. Both skyscrapers and the townhomes contain a total of 709 residential units. The building site, located right next to the western approach of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, formerly contained a clock tower. The clock tower was demolished shortly after the city approved the One Rincon Hill project. Construction of the townhomes and the South Tower lasted from 2005 to 2008, but was stopped for brief periods of time due to seismic concerns and a construction accident. As the South Tower neared completion, it generated controversy concerning view encroachment, high pricing, and architectural style. ## Description ### Location The complex is on a 1.3 acres (0.53 ha) parcel on the apex of the Rincon Hill neighborhood. The site is bounded by Harrison Street to the northwest, the Fremont Street exit ramp to the north, the approach to the Bay Bridge (Interstate 80) on the east, and the 1st Street entrance ramp to the southwest. ### Developer and architect Solomon, Cordwell, Buenz and Associates, a Chicago architectural firm, designed the complex. The developer of this complex is Urban West Associates, headed by Mike Kriozere. The developer's headquarters are in San Diego, although all its highrise projects over 14 stories are in the San Francisco Bay Area. The Rincon Hill complex is the developer's second project in San Francisco, with the first being ONE Embarcadero South, a residential complex near One Rincon Hill and across from Oracle Park. According to the developer the total cost of the Rincon Hill project was US\$290 million, rising to over US\$310 million in 2009. ### Architecture The complex consists of two buildings joined at the base by a row of townhomes. The South Tower and North Tower rise 641 ft (195 m) and 541 ft (165 m) above the corner of Fremont and Harrison streets, respectively. The North Tower has 50 floors, while the South Tower has 60. Because of the sloped Rincon Hill site, the South Tower's lobby floor or the 1st Street entrance is on the sixth floor, and the first floor is five levels underground from the 1st Street entrance. It is also one of the tallest all-residential towers west of the Mississippi River. Its location near the apex of Rincon Hill, at an elevation of over 100 feet (30 m), gives it an apparent height of well over 700 feet (210 m), making it one of the biggest additions to the San Francisco skyline in over 30 years. Both the north tower and the south tower of the Rincon Hill complex bear a resemblance to The Heritage at Millennium Park in Chicago, a building of a similar height to the south tower also designed by Solomon, Cordwell, Buenz and Associates. The architectural style for both buildings of the Rincon Hill complex is late-modernist. The three sides of the South Tower facing east, north, and west have a linear glass curtainwall. The North Tower has a similar design, except it is shorter and the curved aluminum and glass side faces northwest. Both skyscrapers of the Rincon Hill project contain an oval-shaped crown housing mechanical equipment. #### Weather beacon The crown of the South Tower contains a band of 25 LED floodlights that remain lit all night. Each LED light consumes little energy and has a lifetime of 40,000 hours. These lights are used to signal the weather, just like the lights on the Berkeley Building in Boston. The crown glows red if warmer weather is in the forecast. A blue crown signifies that cold weather is expected soon. Green means that there is at least a 50 percent chance of rain. Amber indicates that the weather will remain unchanged. This is the San Francisco Bay Area's first weather beacon. The crown began lighting up on December 8, 2008. ### Earthquake engineering To support the 60 story condo tower, One Rincon Hill South Tower has a massive 4-metre (13 ft) thick pile-raft foundation embedded deep into serpentine rock. Although some engineers view serpentine rock with suspicion, there are massive structures, such as the Golden Gate Bridge, that have foundations on rock that is largely serpentine. Rising out of the foundation are the concrete core and large, tall columns of steel-reinforced concrete called outriggers. The core is attached to the outrigger columns by diagonal, steel buckling-restrained braces which are designed to dissipate energy during an earthquake through controlled hysteretic behavior. This type of advanced seismic system performs in a manner similar to that of shock absorbers. The braces are also encased in concrete and steel to further mitigate risk of buckling and strength loss. Also of note is the controlled-rocking system which features vertical post-tensioning which runs the height of the building through ducts within the reinforced-concrete shear-wall core. Many of these technologies used in the One Rincon Hill South Tower have never before been applied in the United States. ### Water tanks At the top of the building is a large tuned sloshing damper which holds up to 50,000 gallons (189,250 litres) of water and weighs 416,500 pounds (185,440 kg). A similar 50,000 gallon (189,250 liter) tank is located in the basement for firefighting purposes. There are two liquid damper screens in each tank to control the flow of the water to counter the sway from the powerful Pacific winds, which can reach hurricane-force. ### Elevators The Two Towers are composed with Different Elevator Installations. The South Tower elevators were installed by Mitsubishi Electric United States with one service and three passenger elevators. The elevators are the second fastest in the city of San Francisco, second only to those in 555 California Street and tied with those in 555 Mission Street. The elevators of the South Tower can travel from the ground floor to the 61st floor (the mechanical level) in only 26 seconds to speed passenger traffic flow. This means the elevators can travel about 1,200 vertical feet (366 m) in a minute. The elevators have artificial intelligence control systems that figure out passenger traffic patterns and dispatch the three elevators to handle passenger needs accordingly. The bottom of each elevator shaft has a cylinder filled with hydraulic oil to stop a falling elevator without injuring the passengers inside. The North Tower elevators were installed by Otis Worldwide Corporation with SkyRise Motors and serving 49 floors. The service elevator serves all of the floors, as well for the 50th floor (the mechanical level). ### Residences The entire project will provide 695 condos in the highrises and 14 townhomes at the foot of the towers for a total of 709 units. 376 of those condo units are located in the South Tower and the North Tower contains the other 319 units. Because of their height, both towers will offer spectacular vistas of the surrounding landscapes. There are 26 different floor plans for the 695 condos which are financially beyond the reach of many citizens residing in San Francisco. The units vary greatly in price from US\$500,000 to US\$2.5 million depending on view and the size of the unit that range from 600 to 2,000 sq ft (56 to 186 m<sup>2</sup>). The project opened up a sales office on June 16, 2006, and even before the opening, condo-buyers placed deposits for 130 of the South Tower's 376 condo units in a selling spree. The Sales Center is rumored to have cost US\$2 million to build. The condo units in One Rincon Hill South Tower sold well for an unfinished building at that time. The first residents began moving into the South Tower in February 2008. ## History ### Prelude The 183 ft (56 m) triangle-section clock tower, owned by Union 76 and then Bank of America, was built on the site circa 1955. After the Transbay Plan the city changed the zoning in the Rincon Hill neighborhood and raised height limits. A second version of One Rincon Hill was proposed in response to these zoning changes, in which the height was increased to 60 stories. The second version project was approved by the city on August 4, 2005. Before construction of One Rincon Hill, the clock tower was razed to make way for the construction of the towers. ### South Tower Three months after San Francisco approved the project, construction began on the South Tower with a groundbreaking ceremony on November 10, 2005. The South Tower was the second-tallest tower under construction in San Francisco. #### July 2006 construction accident On July 21, 2006, a metal construction deck collapsed sometime around 10:45 AM (UTC−7). Two carpenters and two ironworkers were injured when they fell about 30 feet ( 2.5 stories ) feet (6 m) along with the deck, sending all four men to the hospital. Three of the men were released that afternoon; one of the ironworkers was kept at the hospital with his leg broken in two places, a broken ankle, and a broken shoulder. #### Progress The South Tower was completed in September 2008, with all residential floors ready for residents. As of, April 2009, 70% of the South Tower's 376 luxury units and 14 townhouses had been sold. Because of the occupancy rate and low profits so far, the developers had initially refused to pay \$5.4 million in development fees that would be spent on rent subsidies, job training programs and community development in the South of Market area. However, the developers finally agreed to pay the city. ### North Tower The remaining north tower was scheduled to begin construction after summer 2008 and be completed in 2009. Originally, construction was supposed to commence in January 2008. Later, the developer mentioned construction was going start in March, but the construction firm wasn't selected at that time. After March, the developer said construction was going to start in May 2008. However, following the worldwide financial crisis of the late summer and fall of 2008, the project's developers announced that construction of the second tower was indefinitely on hold. With improving economic conditions in the city, construction started on this tower in October 2012; its first residents moved in August 2014. The north tower was later renamed The Harrison. ## Criticism With condo prices set from US\$500,000 to US\$2 million, many critics have noted that the One Rincon Hill complex is too expensive for most San Franciscans. With the total initial development cost of US\$290 million, the average development cost per unit with 709 units total is approximately US\$409,000. However, the developer Urban West Associates has contributed a total of US\$38.5 million to funds like the South of Market Community Stabilization Fund in order to address this concern. ## See also - List of tallest buildings in San Francisco
233,478	Jackalope	1,165,284,369	Mythical creature from American folklore	[ "Fearsome critters", "Fictional hybrid life forms", "Mythological hybrids", "Mythological rabbits and hares", "Symbols of Wyoming", "Taxidermy hoaxes" ]	The jackalope is a mythical animal of North American folklore described as a jackrabbit with antelope horns. The word jackalope is a portmanteau of jackrabbit and antelope. Many jackalope taxidermy mounts, including the original, are made with deer antlers. In the 1930s, Douglas Herrick and his brother, hunters with taxidermy skills, popularized the American jackalope by grafting deer antlers onto a jackrabbit carcass and selling the combination to a local hotel in Douglas, Wyoming. Thereafter, they made and sold many similar jackalopes to a retail outlet in South Dakota, and another taxidermist continues to manufacture the horned rabbits in the 21st century. Stuffed and mounted, jackalopes are found in many bars and other places in the United States; stores catering to tourists sell jackalope postcards and other paraphernalia, and commercial entities in America and elsewhere have used the word jackalope or a jackalope logo as part of their marketing strategies. The jackalope has appeared in published stories, poems, television shows, video games, and a low-budget mockumentary film. The Wyoming Legislature has considered bills to make the jackalope the state's official mythological creature. The underlying legend of the jackalope, upon which the Wyoming taxidermists were building, may be related to similar stories in other cultures and other historical times. Researchers suggest that at least some of the tales of horned hares were inspired by sightings of rabbits infected with the Shope papilloma virus. It causes horn- and antler-like tumors to grow in various places on a rabbit's head and body. Folklorists see the jackalope as one of a group of tall tale animals, known as fearsome critters, common to North American culture since the turn of the twentieth century. These fabulous beasts appear in tall tales featuring hodags, giant snakes, fur-bearing trout, and many others. Some such stories lend themselves to comic hoaxing by entrepreneurs who seek attention for their own personal or their region's fortune. ## Name Jackalope is a portmanteau of jackrabbit and antelope. Jackrabbits are actually hares rather than rabbits though both are mammals in the family Leporidae. Wyoming is home to three species of hares, all in the genus Lepus. These are the black-tailed jackrabbit, the white-tailed jackrabbit, and the snowshoe hare. The antelope is actually a pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) rather than an antelope and are more closely related to giraffes, although one of its colloquial names in North America is "antelope". Some of the largest herds of wild pronghorns, which are found only in western North America, are in Wyoming. The adults grow to about 3 feet (1 m) tall, weigh up to 150 pounds (68 kg), and can run at sustained speeds approaching 60 miles per hour (97 km/h). ## Origins Stories or descriptions of animal hybrids have appeared in many cultures worldwide. A 13th-century Persian work depicts a rabbit with a single horn, like a unicorn. In Europe, the horned rabbit appeared in Medieval and Renaissance folklore in Bavaria (the wolpertinger) and elsewhere. Natural history texts such as Historiae Naturalis de Quadrupetibus Libri (The History Book of Natural Quadrangles) by Joannes Jonstonus (John Jonston) in the 17th century and illustrations such as Animalia Qvadrvpedia et Reptilia (Terra): Plate XLVII by Joris Hoefnagel (1522–1600) in the 16th century included the horned hare. These early scientific texts described and illustrated the hybrids as though they were real creatures, but by the end of the 18th century scientists generally rejected the idea of horned hares as a biological species. References to horned rabbits may originate in sightings of rabbits affected by the Shope papilloma virus, named for Richard E. Shope, M.D., who described it in a scientific journal in 1933. Shope initially examined wild cottontail rabbits that had been shot by hunters in Iowa and later examined wild rabbits from Kansas. They had "numerous horn-like protuberances on the skin over various parts of their bodies. The animals were referred to popularly as 'horned' or 'warty' rabbits." Legends about horned rabbits also occur in Asia and Africa as well as Europe, and researchers suspect the changes induced by the virus might underlie at least some of those tales. In Central America, mythological references to a horned rabbit creature can be found in Huichol legends. The Huichol oral tradition has passed down tales of a horned rabbit and of the deer getting horns from the rabbit. The rabbit and deer were paired, though not combined as a hybrid, as day signs in the calendar of the Mesoamerican period of the Aztecs, as twins, brothers, even the sun and moon. ### Douglas variant The New York Times attributes the American jackalope's origin to a 1932 hunting outing involving Douglas Herrick (1920–2003) of Douglas, Wyoming. Herrick and his brother had studied taxidermy by mail order as teenagers, and when the brothers returned from a hunting trip for jackrabbits, Herrick tossed a carcass into the taxidermy store, where it came to rest beside a pair of deer antlers. The accidental combination of animal forms sparked Herrick's idea for a jackalope. The first jackalope the brothers put together was sold for \$10 to Roy Ball, who displayed it in Douglas' La Bonte Hotel. The mounted head was stolen in 1977. The jackalope became a popular local attraction in Douglas, where the Chamber of Commerce issues Jackalope Hunting Licenses to tourists. The tags are good for hunting during official jackalope season, which occurs for only one day: June 31 (a nonexistent date as June has 30 days), from midnight to 2 a.m. The hunter must have an IQ greater than 50 but not over 72. Thousands of "licenses" have been issued. In Herrick's home town of Douglas, there is an 8-foot (2.4 m) statue of a jackalope, and the town hosts an annual Jackalope Days Celebration in early June. Building on the Herrick's success, Frank English of Rapid City, South Dakota has made and sold many thousands of jackalopes since retiring from the Air Force in 1981. He is the only supplier of the altered animal heads to Cabela's, a major outdoor-theme retail company. His standard jackalopes and "world-record" jackalopes sell for about \$150. In Man and Beast in American Comic Legend, folklorist Richard Dorson recounts the Douglas variant but also an alternative that will "surely infuriate the residents of Douglas...". According to Dorson, in Mythical Creatures of the North Country (1969), historian Walker D. Wyman acknowledged the existence of what he called the Alkali Area Jackalope of the western United States. However, he expressed doubt that it predated the Jack-pine Jackalope of Minnesota and Wisconsin, "a mythological throwback that defies even the most competent biologists of the region." Wyman claimed there were three known specimens of this primary jackalope—in Augusta in west-central Wisconsin; Cornucopia, along the south shore of Lake Superior; and in a north shore museum and lumber camp— all "presumably shot by careless hunters during the deer season." In a 1978 revision and expansion of his book, which includes material on the rubberado porcupine, the snoligoster, the three-tailed bavalorus, the squonk, and many other creatures, Wyman devotes four pages to the jackalope. In a turnabout from his earlier claims of a North Country origin for the antlered hare, he says, "The center of its vast range seems to be Wyoming." Evidence of wide dispersal of Lepus antilocapra wyomingensis from its original range, he claims, are labels such as "Tioga, Pennsylvania," and "Hongkong" stamped on mounted jackalope heads in barrooms across the United States. ## Tall tales The jackalope is subject to many outlandish and largely tongue-in-cheek claims embedded in tall tales about its habits. Jackalopes are said to be so dangerous that hunters are advised to wear stovepipes on their legs to keep from being gored. Stores in Douglas sell jackalope milk, but The New York Times questions its authenticity on grounds that milking a jackalope is known to be fraught with risk. One of the ways to catch a jackalope is to entice it with whiskey, the jackalope's beverage of choice. The jackalope can imitate the human voice, according to legend. During the days of the Old West, when cowboys gathered by the campfires singing at night, jackalopes could be heard mimicking their voices or singing along, usually as a tenor. It is said that jackalopes, the rare Lepus antilocapra, only breed during lightning flashes and that their antlers make the act difficult despite the hare's reputation for fertility. ## Official recognition In 2005, the legislature of Wyoming considered a bill to make the jackalope the state's official mythological creature. It passed the House by a 45–12 margin, but the session ended before the Senate could take up the bill, which died. In 2013, following the death of the bill's sponsor, Dave Edwards, the state legislature reintroduced the bill. It again passed the House but died in the rules committee of the Senate. In 2015, three state representatives put forth the jackalope proposal again, this time as House Bill 66, and again it passed the House but died in a Senate committee. One of the co-sponsors, Dan Zwonitzer, said, "I’ll keep bringing it back until it passes." In 2014, the Wyoming Lottery adopted a jackalope logo for its lottery tickets and marketing materials. Lottery officials chose the fictitious animal, which they named YoLo, over the bucking horse and other state symbols. ## In popular culture Since Herrick and his brother began selling manipulated taxidermy heads in the 1930s, such trophies, as well as jackalope postcards and related gift-shop items, can be found in many places beyond Douglas. The student magazine of the Santa Fe University of Art and Design in New Mexico is called The Jackalope. On the other side of the world, The Hop Factory craft beer cafe in Newcastle, Australia, uses a leaping jackalope as its logo. In 1986, James Abdnor, a senator from South Dakota, gave U.S. President Ronald Reagan a stuffed jackalope (rabbit head with antlers) during a presidential campaign stop in Rapid City. Many books, including a large number written for children, feature the jackalope. A search for "jackalope" in the WorldCat listings of early 2015 produced 225 hits, including 57 for books. Among them is Juan and the Jackalope: A Children's Book in Verse by Rudolfo Anaya. The WorldCat summary of Anaya's book says: "Competing for the hand of the lovely Rosita and her rhubarb pie, Juan rides a Jackalope in a race against Pecos Bill." A short story, "Jackalope Wives" by Ursula Vernon, has been nominated for a 2014 Nebula Award. Musicians have used the jackalope in various ways. R. Carlos Nakai, a Native American flute player, formerly belonged to a group called Jackalope. In the late 1980s, it performed what Nakai called "synthacousticpunkarachiNavajazz", which combined "improvisation, visual art, storytelling, dance and dramatic theatrical effects." Nakai said he wanted people to dream as they listened to the music. Jakalope is a Canadian alternative pop/rock group formed in 2003 by Dave "Rave" Ogilvie. The band Miike Snow uses the jackalope as its logo. Band member Andrew Wyatt said during an interview in 2012 that the logo was meant to signify experiment and adventure. Of the 225 Worldcat hits resulting from a search for "jackalope", 95 were related to music. Jackalopes have appeared in movies and on television. In the 1990s, a jackalope named "Jack Ching Bada Bing" was a recurring character in a series of sketches on the television shows America's Funniest Home Videos and America's Funniest People. The show's host, Dave Coulier, voiced the rascally hybrid. In 2003, Pixar featured a jackalope in the short animation Boundin'''. The jackalope gave helpful advice to a lamb who was feeling sad after being shorn. Jackalopes have appeared in video games. In Red Dead Redemption, the player is able to hunt and skin jackalopes. In Redneck Rampage, jackalopes, including one the size of a bus, are enemies. Jackalopes are part of the action in Guild Wars 2. A low-budget jackalope mockumentary, Stagbunny, aired in Casper and Douglas in 2006. The movie included interviews with the owner of a Douglas sporting goods store who claimed to harbor a live jackalope on his premises and with a paleontologist who explained the natural history of the jackalope and its place in the fossil record. Beginning in 1997, the Central Hockey League included a team called the Odessa Jackalopes. The team joined the South Division of the North American Hockey League before the 2011–12 season. An Odessa sports writer expressed concern about the team's name, which he found insufficiently intimidating and which sounded like "something you might eat for breakfast." Jackalope Brewing Company, the first commercial brewery in Tennessee founded by women, opened in Nashville in 2011. Its craft beers include Thunder Ann, Sarka, Fennario, Bearwalker, and Lovebird. Some people claimed that the jackalope was first encountered by John Colter. ## Scholarly interpretations Folklorist John A. Gutowski sees in the Douglas jackalope an example of an American tall tale publicized by a local community that seeks wider recognition. Through a combination of hoax and media activity, the town or other community draws attention to itself for social or economic reasons. A common adjunct to this activity involves the creation of an annual festival to perpetuate the town's association with the local legend. Gutowski finds evidence of what he calls the "protofestival" pattern throughout the United States. In addition to the jackalope, his examples include the sea serpent of Nantucket, which in 1937 led to "stories of armadas hunting the monster, and footprint discoveries by local businessmen", accompanied by wide publicity. In similar fashion, Newport, Arkansas, publicized its White River Monster, and Algiers, Louisiana, claimed to be home to a flying Devil Man. Ware, Massachusetts, drew media attention to its local reputation for alligator sightings. Perry, New York, held Silver Lake Sea Serpent Festivals based on a local hoax. The Hodag Festival in Rhinelander, Wisconsin, celebrates "discovery" of a prehistoric creature in a nearby pit. Willow Creek, California, hosts an annual Bigfoot Festival. Since 1950, Churubusco, Indiana, has celebrated Turtle Days, based on a story, part real and part invented, about the hunt for the Beast of Busco, a 500-pound (230 kg) snapping turtle said to be living in a nearby lake. Common to these tales, Gutowski says, is the recurring motif of the quest for the mythical animal, often a monster. The same motif, he notes, appears in American novels such as Moby Dick and Old Man and the Sea and in monster movies such as King Kong and Jaws and in world literature such as Beowulf. The monster motif also appears in tales of contemporary places outside the United States, such as Scotland, with its Loch Ness Monster. What is not global, Gutowski says, is the embrace of local monster tales by American communities that put them to use through "public relations hoaxes, boisterous boosterism, and [a] carnival atmosphere... ". Folklorist Richard M. Dorson also cites the "booster impulse, mingled with entrepreneurial hoaxing" as the way that Douglas with its jackalope, Churubusco with its giant turtle, and other towns with their own local legends rise above anonymity. He traces the impulse and the methods to the promotional literature of colonial times that depicted North America as an earthly paradise. Much later, in the 19th century, settlers transferred that optimistic vision to the American West, where it culminated in "boosterism". Although other capitalist countries advertise their products, Dorson says, "...the intensity of the American ethos in advertising, huckstering, attention-getting, media-manipulating to sell a product, a personality, a town is beyond compare." ## See also - Al-mi'raj - Lepus cornutus - Rasselbock - Rogue taxidermy - Skvader ## Relevant literature - Branch, Michael P. On the Trail of the Jackalope: How a Legend Captured the World's Imagination and Helped Us Cure Cancer.'' Simon and Schuster, 2022.
10,208,996	Tropical Storm Beryl (1988)	1,171,671,016	Atlantic tropical storm	[ "1988 Atlantic hurricane season", "1988 natural disasters in the United States", "Atlantic tropical storms", "Hurricanes in Alabama", "Hurricanes in Arkansas", "Hurricanes in Florida", "Hurricanes in Louisiana", "Hurricanes in Mississippi", "Hurricanes in Oklahoma", "Hurricanes in Texas", "Tropical cyclones in 1988" ]	Tropical Storm Beryl was an unusual Atlantic tropical cyclone that formed over southeastern Louisiana in August 1988. The second tropical storm of the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season, Beryl developed from a slow-moving trough of low pressure on August 8. It tracked southeastward into the coastal waters of eastern Louisiana, and Beryl reached peak winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) while located about 75 miles (121 km) southeast of New Orleans. The storm turned to the northwest over Louisiana and Texas, and slowly dissipated. The remnants of Beryl continued northward into the central United States, dropping some rainfall and providing relief to a severe heat wave. Due to its slow motion, Beryl dropped heavy amounts of rainfall, peaking at 16.09 inches (409 mm) on Dauphin Island in Alabama. The rainfall caused some reports of flooding, while prolonged durations of rough waves resulted in severe beach erosion. The waves capsized a boat in Mobile Bay, killing one of its passengers. Overall damage was minor, totaling about \$3 million (1988 USD, \$5.46 million 2009 USD). ## Meteorological history A weak surface trough of low pressure emerged into the northeast Gulf of Mexico on August 1. Under weak steering currents, the trough drifted westward, and slowly became better defined with the formation of a circulation in the mid- through upper-levels of the atmosphere. An upper-level low developed over Texas, providing unfavorable amounts of vertical wind shear. A surface circulation was first evident on satellite imagery on August 4 just off the coast of Mississippi, and for several days it remained nearly stationary over the Mississippi Sound. As the upper-level low over Texas drifted southwestward, an anticyclone developed over the system, with the circulation becoming better defined and more vertically aligned. On August 7, the system drifted into southeastern Louisiana. It continued to become better organized, and on August 8 it developed into Tropical Depression Three while located near the northern coast of Lake Pontchartrain. This is unusual in that tropical cyclones rarely form over land. Upon becoming a tropical cyclone, the depression drifted southeastward, and within hours of its formation it emerged into the Gulf of Mexico. Based on ship reports and observations from oil rigs, it is estimated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Beryl at 1000 UTC on August 8 while located just offshore coastal Louisiana. Conditions remained favorable for further intensification, with the circulation located over warm waters and maintaining well-defined outflow; early on August 9 Beryl attained its peak intensity of 50 mph while located about 75 miles (121 km) southeast of New Orleans. Shortly thereafter, a trough from the northwest dissipated the anticyclone and resulted in a steady northwest motion very near where the cyclone originally moved offshore. Beryl maintained tropical storm status for about 18 hours before weakening to a tropical depression over central Louisiana. It turned to the northwest, and the surface circulation dissipated on August 10 while located a short distance south of Shreveport, Louisiana. The surface low pressure area crossed into north Texas before dissipating early on August 12, while its upper-level circulation turned northward into Oklahoma before being merged by an approaching trough. ## Preparations Upon becoming a tropical storm, the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning from the mouth of the Mississippi River to Pensacola, Florida. Six hours later, the warning was extended westward to Morgan City, Louisiana. The threat of Beryl prompted some voluntary evacuations in St. Bernard Parish in Louisiana, and also forced the evacuations of thousands from offshore oil rigs. Officials advised small craft to remain at port from Port O'Connor, Texas to Pensacola, Florida. ## Impact Rainfall from the storm reached over 7 inches (180 mm) a short distance east of Pensacola, Florida, though impact in the state was minor. Wind gusts peaked at 38 mph (61 km/h) in Pensacola. In Alabama, Beryl produced sustained winds of 38 mph (61 km/h), with gusts to 54 mph (87 km/h), as well as above normal tides. The storm dropped heavy rainfall in coastal portions of Alabama, peaking at 16.09 inches (409 mm) on Dauphin Island. Rough waves overturned a shrimp boat in Mobile Bay. A 15-year-old boy on the boat drowned, the only direct fatality from the storm. The boy's father, also on the boat, spent 24 hours in the water before being rescued by the United States Coast Guard. The waves caused severe beach erosion along the coastline, with Dauphin Island losing 60 to 70 feet (18 to 21 m) of beach. In Mississippi, coastal areas reported heavy amounts of precipitation, reaching over 10 inches (250 mm) in Jackson County. Sustained winds reached 47 mph (76 km/h) at Gulfport, the strongest wind on a land station. Similar to Alabama, strong waves caused considerable beach erosion along portions of the coastline. Beryl dropped rainfall across much of Louisiana, peaking at over 10 inches (250 mm) near Morgan City. The rainfall caused significant river flooding along the Biloxi River. Wind gusts were fairly light across the state, reaching 40 mph (64 km/h) in New Orleans. The winds caused light tree damage, which resulted in some power outages. A storm surge of about 5 feet (1.5 m) caused some coastal flooding. The remnants of Beryl produced locally heavy precipitation peaking at about 12 inches (300 mm) in east-central Texas, resulting in some reports of flash flooding. The rainfall flooded some roads and also causes severe river flooding on the Angelina River. Remnant moisture dropped about 5 inches (130 mm) of rain in southeast Oklahoma and 3 inches (76 mm) in southwestern Arkansas. Further inland, the remnants of Beryl cooled temperatures and provided relief to the severe heat wave in the central United States. Throughout its path, Beryl caused about \$3 million in damage (1988 USD, \$5.46 million 2009 USD), primarily along the immediate coastline from erosion or flood damage. ## See also - Other tropical cyclones named Beryl - List of wettest tropical cyclones in Alabama - Tropical Storm Julia (2016) - the most recent storm to form over land
21,354	Demographics of New Zealand	1,170,810,684	null	[ "Demographics of New Zealand", "Ethnic groups in New Zealand", "Immigration to New Zealand" ]	The demographics of New Zealand encompass the gender, ethnic, religious, geographic, and economic backgrounds of the 5.1 million people living in New Zealand. New Zealanders predominantly live in urban areas on the North Island. The five largest cities are Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Hamilton, and Tauranga. Few New Zealanders live on New Zealand's smaller islands. Waiheke Island (near Auckland) is easily the most populated smaller island with residents, while Great Barrier Island, the Chatham and Pitt Islands, and Stewart Island each have populations below 1,000. New Zealand is part of a realm and most people born in the realm's external territories of Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue are entitled to New Zealand passports. As at the 2018 census, the majority of New Zealand's population of European descent (70 percent; often referred to as Pākehā), with the indigenous Māori being the largest minority (16.5 percent), followed by Asians (15.3 percent), and non-Māori Pacific Islanders known collectively as Pasifika (9.0 percent). This is reflected in immigration, with most new migrants coming from Britain and Ireland, although the numbers from Asia in particular are increasing. Auckland is the most ethnically diverse region in New Zealand with 53.5 percent identifying as Europeans, 28.2 percent as Asian, 11.5 percent as Māori, 15.5 percent as Pasifika, and 2.3 percent as Middle Eastern, Latin American or African (MELAA). New Zealand is considered by some to be unique among Western countries for its high levels of ethnic intermarriage, which has historically been viewed with tolerance. According to a 2006 study, Māori have on average roughly 43% European ancestry, although the notion of being "mixed-race" is uncommon. English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language are the official languages, with English predominant. New Zealand English is mostly non-rhotic and sounds similar to Australian English, with a common exception being the centralisation of the short i. The Māori language has undergone a process of revitalisation and is spoken by 4 percent of the population. New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent and over half of the population aged 15–29 hold a tertiary qualification. In the adult population 14.2 percent have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4 percent have no formal qualification. As at the 2018 census, 37 percent of the population identify as Christians, with Hinduism and Buddhism being the largest minority religions; almost half of the population (48.5 percent) is irreligious. Farming is a major occupation in New Zealand, although more people are employed as sales assistants. Most New Zealanders earn wage or salary income, with a median weekly income in 2022 of NZ\$848. ## Terminology While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally and by locals. The name derives from the kiwi, a native flightless bird, which is the national symbol of New Zealand. The Māori loanword "Pākehā" usually refers to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this appellation, and some Māori use it to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders. Most people born in New Zealand or one of the realm's external territories (Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue) before 2006 are New Zealand citizens. Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards. ## Population The 2018 census enumerated a resident population of 4,699,755 – a 10.8 percent increase over the population recorded in the 2013 census. As of 2023, the total population has risen to an (estimated by extrapolation). The population is increasing at a rate of 1.4–2.0 percent per year. In May 2020, Statistics New Zealand reported that New Zealand's population had climbed above 5 million people in March 2020; in September 2020, this was revised six months earlier to September 2019 when population estimates were rebased to the 2018 census. The median child birthing age was 30 and the total fertility rate is 2.1 births per woman in 2010. In Māori populations the median age is 26 and fertility rate 2.8. In 2010 the age-standardised mortality rate was 3.8 deaths per 1000 (down from 4.8 in 2000) and the infant mortality rate for the total population was 5.1 deaths per 1000 live births. The life expectancy of a New Zealand child born in 2014-16 was 83.4 years for females, and 79.9 years for males, which is among the highest in the world. Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline. In 2050 the median age is forecast to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older rising from 18 percent to 29 percent. During early migration in 1858, New Zealand had 131 males for every 100 females, but following changes in migration patterns and the modern longevity advantage of women, females came to outnumber males in 1971. As of 2012 there are 0.99 males per female, with males dominating under 15 years and females dominating in the 65 years or older range. ### Vital statistics ### Age structure The age structure of New Zealand is getting increasingly older. Due to undergoing the demographic transition from a 'pre-industrial' age structure to a 'post-industrial' age structure, the country has a sub-replacement fertility rate which is consequently leading to an older population and more evenly balanced population pyramid. The average age of the citizen has gone from 25.8 years old in 1965 to 38 in 2020 and is projected to rise to 43.7 years old in 2050. The population of 90 year olds is also expected to rise dramatically, in the 1930s there were approximately 1,000 90+ year olds, in 2016 the number had risen to 29,000, in 2030 it is expected to exceed 50,000 and by the 2060s it is to rise above 180,000 people. ### Population density New Zealand's population density is relatively low, at Error in convert: Value "\<strong" must be a number (help) The vast majority of the population live on the main North and South Islands, with New Zealand's major inhabited smaller islands being Waiheke Island (), the Chatham and Pitt Islands (), and Stewart Island (381). Over three-quarters of the population live in the North Island (Formatting error: invalid input when rounding percent), with one-third of the total population living in the Auckland Region. Most Māori live in the North Island (86.0 percent), although less than a quarter (23.8 percent) live in Auckland. New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with Formatting error: invalid input when rounding percent of the population living in an urban area. About Formatting error: invalid input when rounding percent of the population live in the 20 main urban areas (population of 30,000 or more) and Formatting error: invalid input when rounding percent live in the four largest cities of Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, and Hamilton. Approximately 14 percent of the population live in four different categories of rural areas as defined by Statistics New Zealand. About 18 percent of the rural population live in areas that have a high urban influence (roughly 12.9 people per square kilometre), many working in the main urban area. Rural areas with moderate urban influence and a population density of about 6.5 people per square kilometre account for 26 percent of the rural population. Areas with low urban influence where the majority of the residents work in the rural area house approximately 42 percent of the rural population. Remote rural areas with a density of less than 1 person per square kilometre account for about 14 percent of the rural population. Before local government reforms in the late 1980s, a borough council with more than 20,000 people could be proclaimed a city. The boundaries of councils tended to follow the edge of the built-up area, so there was little difference between the urban area and the local government area. In 1989, all councils were consolidated into regional councils (top tier) and territorial authorities (second tier) which cover a much wider area and population than the old city councils. Today a territorial authority must have a predominantly urban population of at least 50,000 before it can be officially recognised as a city. ## Migration East Polynesians were the first people to reach New Zealand about 1280, followed by the early European explorers, notably James Cook in 1769 who explored New Zealand three times and mapped the coastline. Following the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 when the country became a British colony, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia. Due to restrictive policies, limitations were placed on non-European immigrants. During the gold rush period (1858–1880s) large number of young men came from California and Victoria to New Zealand goldfields. Apart from British, there were Irish, Germans, Scandinavians, Italians and many Chinese. The Chinese were sent special invitations by the Otago Chamber of Commerce in 1866. By 1873 they made up 40 percent of the diggers in Otago and 25 percent of the diggers in Westland. From 1900 there was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian, and Italian immigration together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa. Following World War II, policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased. In 2008–09, a target of 45,000 migrants was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service (plus a 5,000 tolerance). At the 2018 census, 27.4 percent of people counted were not born in New Zealand, up from 25.2 percent in 2013. In 2018, over half (50.7 percent) of New Zealand's overseas-born population lived in the Auckland Region, including 70 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born population, 61.5 percent of its Asian-born population, and 52 percent of its Middle Eastern and African- born population. In the late 2000s, Asia overtook the British Isles as the largest source of overseas migrants; in 2013 around 32 percent of overseas-born New Zealand residents were born in Asia (mainly China, India, the Philippines and South Korea) compared to 26 percent born in the UK and Ireland. The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002. To be eligible for entry under the skilled migrant plan applicants are assessed by an approved doctor for good health, provide a police certificate to prove good character and speak sufficient English. Migrants working in some occupations (mainly health) must be registered with the appropriate profession body before they can work within that area. Skilled migrants are assessed by Immigration New Zealand and applicants that they believe will contribute are issued with a residential visa, while those with potential are issued with a work to resident visa. Under the work to residency process applicants are given a temporary work permit for two years and are then eligible to apply for residency. Applicants with a job offer from an accredited New Zealand employer, cultural or sporting talent, looking for work where there has been a long-term skill shortage or to establish a business can apply for work to residency. While most New Zealanders live in New Zealand, there is also a significant diaspora abroad, estimated as of 2001 at over 460,000 or 14 percent of the international total of New Zealand-born. Of these, 360,000, over three-quarters of the New Zealand-born population residing outside of New Zealand, live in Australia. Other communities of New Zealanders abroad are concentrated in other English-speaking countries, specifically the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada, with smaller numbers located elsewhere. Nearly one quarter of New Zealand's highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, more than any other developed nation. However many educated professionals from Europe and lesser developed countries have recently migrated to New Zealand. A common pathway for New Zealanders to move to the UK is through a job offer via the Tier 2 (General) visa, which grants a 3-year initial stay in the country and can later be extended with three more years. After 5 years the person can apply for permanent residency. Another popular option is the UK Working Holiday visa, also known as "Youth Mobility Scheme" (YMS), which grants New Zealanders 2-year rights to live and work in the UK. ## Ethnicity New Zealand is a multiethnic society, and home to people of many different national origins. Originally composed solely of the Māori who arrived in the thirteenth century, the ethnic makeup of the population later became dominated by New Zealanders of European descent. In the nineteenth century, European settlers brought diseases for which the Māori had no immunity. By the 1890s, the Māori population was approximately 40 percent of its size pre-contact. The Māori population increased during the twentieth century, though it remains a minority. The 1961 New Zealand census recorded that the population was 92 percent European and 7 percent Māori, with Asian and Pasifika minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent. At the latest census in 2018, 70.2 percent identified as European, 16.5 percent as Māori, 15.1 percent as Asian, 8.1 percent as Pasifika, and 1.2 percent as Middle-Eastern, Latin American, and African (MELAA). Most New Zealanders are of English, Scottish, and Irish ancestry, with smaller percentages of other European ancestries, such as Dutch, Dalmatian, French, German and Scandinavian. Auckland was the most diverse region with 53.5 percent identifying as European, 28.2 percent as Asian, 11.5 percent as Māori, 15.5 percent as Pasifika and 1.1 percent as MELAA. According to Massey University sociologist Paul Spoonley, ethnic intermarriage has consistently been very common in New Zealand since colonisation. Unlike the United States, New Zealand has never prohibited interracial marriages; they have in fact been historically enouraged by many. In 2015, more than half of Maori, or 53.5 per cent, and almost four in 10, or 37.2 per cent of Pasifika, identified with two or more ethnic groups. At current rates of population growth, Asians, Pasifika and Māori will outnumber Europeans in Auckland within the next decade. All major ethnic groups except European increased when compared with the 2013 census, in which 74 percent identified as European, 14.6 percent as Māori, 11.8 percent as Asian, and 7.4 percent of Pasifika origin. Heightened immigration from Asia and the Pacific, and higher fertility rates amongst Māori and Pasifika, have resulted in the population of Māori, Asian and Pasifika descent growing at a higher rate than those of European descent. Moreover, non-European ethnic groups make up a greater proportion of younger people, whereas European ethnic groups make up a large proportion of older people due to historic immigration trends and lower life expectancy in Māori and Pasifika ethnic groups. For instance, in 2013, the population aged under 15 years was 67 percent European, 27 percent Māori, 14 percent Pacific, 16 percent Asian, and 2 percent MELAA, while the population aged 65 years and older consisted of 86 percent European, 7 percent Māori, 6 percent Asian and 3 percent Pacific. There was significant public discussion about usage of the term "New Zealander" during the months leading up to the 2006 census. The number of people identifying with this term increased from approximately 80,000 (2.4 percent) in 2001 to just under 430,000 people (11.1 percent) in 2006. The European grouping significantly decreased from 80.0 percent of the population in 2001 to 67.6 percent in 2006, however, this is broadly proportional to the large increase in "New Zealanders". The number of people identifying as a "New Zealander" dropped back to under 66,000 in 2013, and further declined to about 45,300 in 2018. Statistics New Zealand has not released official statistical counts of Māori iwi (tribes) from the 2018 census due to a low response rate. As last recorded in the 2013 census, the largest iwi is Ngāpuhi with 125,601 people (or 18.8 percent of people of Māori descent). Between 2006 and 2013 the number of people of Māori descent stating Ngāpuhi as their iwi increased by 3,390 people (2.8 percent). The second-largest was Ngāti Porou, with 71,049 people (down 1.2 percent from 2006). Ngāi Tahu was the largest in the South Island and the third-largest overall, with a count of 54,819 people (an increase of 11.4 percent from 2006). A total of 110,928 people (or 18.5 percent) of Māori descent did not know their iwi (an increase of 8.4 percent compared with 2006). A group of Māori migrated to Rēkohu, now known as the Chatham Islands, where they developed their distinct Moriori culture. The Moriori population was decimated, first, by disease brought by European sealers and whalers and, second, by Taranaki Māori, with only 101 surviving in 1862 and the last known full-blooded Moriori dying in 1933. The number of people identifying as having Moriori descents increased from 105 in 1991 to 945 in 2006, but decreased to 738 in 2013. The maps below (taken from 2013 census data) show the percentages of people in each census area unit identifying themselves as European, Māori, Asian, or Pacific Islander (as defined by Statistics New Zealand). As people could identify themselves with multiple groups, percentages are not cumulative. ## Language English has long been entrenched as a de facto national language due to its widespread use. In the 2018 census, 95.4 percent of respondents spoke English, down from 96.1 percent in 2013. The New Zealand English dialect is mostly non-rhotic with an exception being the Southern Burr found principally in Southland and parts of Otago. It is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart. In New Zealand English the short i (as in kit) has become centralised, leading to the phrase fish and chips sounding like "fush and chups" to the Australian ear. The words rarely and really, reel and real, doll and dole, pull and pool, witch and which, and full and fill can sometimes be pronounced as homophones. Some New Zealanders pronounce the past participles grown, thrown and mown using two syllables, whereas groan, throne and moan are pronounced as one syllable. New Zealanders often reply to a question or emphasise a point by adding a rising intonation at the end of the sentence. Initially, the Māori language (te reo Māori) was permitted in native schools to facilitate English instruction, but as time went on official attitudes hardened against any use of the language. Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language in schools and work places and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas. The language underwent a revival beginning in the 1970s, and now more people speak Māori. The future of the language was the subject of a claim before the Waitangi Tribunal in 1985. As a result, Māori was declared an official language in 1987. In the 2013 census, 21.3 percent of Māori people—and 3.7 percent of all respondents, including some non-Māori people—reported conversational fluency in the language. There are now Māori language immersion schools and two Māori Television channels, the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime-time content delivered in Māori. Many places have officially been given dual Māori and English names in recent years. In the 2018 census, 22,987 people reported the ability to use New Zealand Sign Language. It was declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006. Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2 percent), followed by "Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin; 2.0 percent), Hindi (1.5 percent) and French (1.2 percent). A considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are multilingual. ## Education Education follows the three-tier model, which includes primary schools, followed by secondary schools (high schools) and tertiary education at universities or polytechnics. The Programme for International Student Assessment ranked New Zealand's education as the seventh highest in 2009. The Education Index, published with the UN's 2014 Human Development Index and based on data from 2013, listed New Zealand at 0.917, ranked second after Australia. In July 2019 there were 476,240 primary students, 278,266 secondary students, and 58,340 students attending composite (combined primary and secondary) schools. Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16 with most children starting at 5. Early leaving exemptions may be granted to 15-year-old students that have been experiencing some ongoing difficulties at school or are unlikely to benefit from continued attendance. Parents and caregivers can home school their children if they obtain approval from the Ministry of Education and prove that their child will be taught "as regularly and as well as in a registered school". There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is nominally free from an individual's fifth birthday until the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday. The academic year in New Zealand varies between institutions, but generally runs from late January until mid-December for primary and secondary schools and polytechnics, and from late February until mid-November for universities. New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent, and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification. In the adult population 14.2 percent have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4 percent have no formal qualification. ## Religion The predominant religion in New Zealand is Christianity. As recorded in the 2018 census, about 38 percent of the population identified themselves as Christians, although regular church attendance is estimated at 15 percent. Another 48.5 percent indicated that they had no religion (up from 41.9 percent in 2013 and 34.7 percent in 2006) and around 7.5 percent affiliated with other religions. The indigenous religion of the Māori population was animistic, but with the arrival of missionaries from the early nineteenth century most of the Māori population converted to Christianity. In the 2018 census, 3,699 Māori identify themselves as adhering to "Māori religions, beliefs and philosophies". In the 2018 census, the largest reported Christian affiliations are Anglican (6.7 percent of the population), Roman Catholic (6.3 percent), Presbyterian (4.7 percent). There are also significant numbers of Christians who identify themselves with Methodist, Pentecostal, Baptist and Latter-day Saint churches, and the New Zealand-based Rātana church has adherents among Māori. Immigration and associated demographic change in recent decades has contributed to the growth of minority religions, especially Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. ## Income New Zealand's early economy was based on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber. During the 1880s agricultural products became the highest export earner and farming was a major occupation within New Zealand. Farming is still a major employer, with 75 000 people indicating farming as their occupation during the 2006 census, although dairy farming has recently taken over from sheep as the largest sector. The largest occupation recorded during the 2018 census was sales assistant with 108,702 people, followed by office managers (65,907 people), chief executives or managing directors (54,480 people), and sales representatives not elsewhere included (51,747 people). The largest industries of employment were cafes and restaurants (67,608 people), supermarkets and grocery stores (57,609 people), primary education (55,779 people), hospitals (52,887 people), and house construction (51,804 people). Most people earn their income from wages or salaries (60.6 percent), with the other sources of income being superannuation or pensions (17.3 percent), interest and investments (16.8 percent) and self-employment (14.8 percent). In 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank. In 2010 the estimated gross domestic product (GDP) at purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita was roughly US\$28,250, between the thirty-first and fifty-first highest for all countries. The median personal income in 2006 was \$24,400. This was up from \$15,600 in 1996, with the largest increases in the \$50,000 to \$70,000 bracket. Men earn more than women on average, with the median income for men in 2011 being \$31,500, \$12,400 more than women. The highest median personal income were for people identifying with the European or "other" ethnic group, while the lowest was from the Asian ethnic group. The median income for people identifying as Māori was \$20,900. In 2013, the median personal income had risen slightly to \$28,500. Unemployment peaked above 10 percent in 1991 and 1992, before falling to a record low of 3.7 percent in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations). Unemployment rose back to 7 percent in late 2009. In the June 2017 quarter, unemployment had fallen to 4.8 percent. This is the lowest unemployment rate since December 2008, after the start of the global financial crisis, when it was 4.4 percent. Most New Zealanders do some form of voluntary work, more women volunteer (92 percent) than males (86 percent). Home ownership has declined since 1991, from 73.8 percent to 66.9 percent in 2006. ## See also - Demographics of Auckland - Demographics of the Cook Islands, associated with New Zealand - Health in New Zealand - Homelessness in New Zealand - Housing in New Zealand - List of cities in New Zealand - New Zealand census - Social class in New Zealand [\<strong](Category:Convert_errors "wikilink")
599,812	Geoffroy's tamarin	1,168,060,134	Species of New World monkey	[ "Least concern biota of North America", "Mammals described in 1845", "Mammals of Colombia", "Primates of Central America", "Saguinus", "Taxa named by Jacques Pucheran" ]	Geoffroy's tamarin (Saguinus geoffroyi), also known as the Panamanian, red-crested or rufous-naped tamarin, is a tamarin, a type of small monkey, found in Panama and Colombia. It is predominantly black and white, with a reddish nape. Diurnal, Geoffroy's tamarin spends most of its time in trees, but does come down to the ground occasionally. It lives in groups that most often number between three and five individuals, and generally include one or more adults of each sex. It eats a variety of foods, including insects, plant exudates, fruits and other plant parts. Insects and fruits account for the majority of its diet, but exudates are also important. But since its teeth are not adapted for gouging trees to get to the sap, it can only eat exudates when they are easily available. Although a variety of reproductive methods are used, the most common is for a single adult female in the group to be reproductively active and to mate with multiple adult males in the group. After a gestation period of about 145 days, she gives birth to either a single infant or twins. Males contribute significantly to care of the infants. Sexual maturity is reached at about 2 years, and it can live up to 13 years. Geoffroy's tamarin is classified as being "near threatened" by the IUCN. ## Taxonomy Like the other tamarins and marmosets, Geoffroy's tamarin is a New World monkey classified within the family Callitrichidae. In 2001, Colin Groves included the Callitrichids in the family Cebidae, which also includes capuchin monkeys and squirrel monkeys, but in 2009 Anthony Rylands and Russell Mittermeier reverted to older classifications which considered Callitrichidae a separate family. It is a member the genus Saguinus, the genus containing most tamarins. There are no recognized subspecies. In 1977, Philip Hershkovitz classified Geoffroy's tamarin as a subspecies of the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus), which resides exclusively in Colombia, based on fur coloration, cranial and mandibular morphology, and ear size. However, more recent research indicates that the two taxa differ sufficiently to be considered separate species. According to genetic analyses, the two species diverged approximately 1.2 million years ago. ## Physical description In common with other callitrichids (tamarins and marmosets), Geoffroy's tamarin is a small monkey. With a length of between 225 and 240 millimetres (8.9 and 9.4 in), excluding the tail, it is the smallest Central American monkey. The tail length is between 314 and 386 millimetres (12.4 and 15.2 in). Males have an average weight of 486 grams (17.1 oz), and females are slightly larger on average, with an average weight of 507 grams (17.9 oz). The fur on its back is variegated black and yellow, with pale legs, feet and chest. Its face is nearly bare, but the head has reddish fur with a triangle-shaped patch in the front of the head. The tail is chestnut-red and has a black tip. ## Behavior Like all callitrichids, Geoffroy's tamarin is diurnal and arboreal. Unlike some other New World monkeys, it does come down to the ground occasionally. This is normally done only in special circumstances, such as to acquire certain foods or to get to a tree it cannot otherwise reach. Group size is generally between three and nine monkeys, with three to five being most common. Groups often consist of more than one adult of each sex. Adults of both sexes migrate between groups. Groups show some degree of territorial defense. Population densities on Barro Colorado Island in Panama range between 3.6 and 5.7 monkeys per square kilometer, but in other areas the population density can be as much as 20 to 30 monkeys per square kilometer. On average, Geoffroy's tamarin ranges 2061 meters per day. Home range size varies between 9.4 hectares and 32 hectares. Communication occurs both through vocalization and by visual gestures. Vocalizations that have been recorded include whistles, twitters, trills, loud or soft sharp notes, sneezes and long rasps. Body postures and displays that reveal more of the white coloration, such as standing on hind legs and piloerection, tend to be associated with aggression. Females often signal willingness to mate by rapidly coiling their tails. Unlike squirrels, which often move through the canopy by climbing and descending vertical tree trunks, Geoffroy's tamarin generally avoids large vertical supports during travel. It prefers to move across thin branches, ascending and descending by long leaps. To the extent Geoffroy's tamarin uses large vertical supports for travel, it uses them most often for ascending rather than descending. Geoffroy's tamarin generally avoids sympatric small and medium size monkey species such as the white-headed capuchin and the Panamanian night monkey. Avoidance is spatial with respect to the capuchin, and temporal in the case of the night monkey, since Geoffroy's tamarin is only active during daylight hours and the Panamanian night monkey is only active at night. Geoffroy's tamarin is rarely observed in the vicinity of squirrels, although this appears to be the result of the squirrels avoiding interactions with the larger tamarins. Geoffroy's tamarin generally attempts to escape when birds of prey approach, regardless of whether the bird presents a true danger. However, the tamarins ignore one bird of prey, the double-toothed kite, which sometimes follows the tamarins in an apparent effort to feed on small animals disturbed by the tamarins. The diet of Geoffroy's tamarin is similar to some species of tyrant flycatcher birds in Panama, and they share similar vocalizations. The tamarins may use the flycatcher calls to help find favorable food sources. The flycatchers and tamarins have different patterns of activity, which minimizes competition for similar food sources. The flycatchers are most active shortly after dawn and tend to rest in the middle of the day. The tamarins do not become active until about 45 minutes after full daylight, but remain active for most of the remaining daylight hours until an hour or less before sunset. ### Diet Geoffroy's tamarin has a varied diet that includes fruits, insects, exudates (gums and saps), and green plant parts. The diet varies seasonally. A study by Paul Garber estimated that the diet was made up of 40% insects, 38% fruit, 14% exudates (almost entirely from Anacardium excelsum cashew trees), and 8% other items. Another study, on Barro Colorado Island, showed 60% fruit, 30% insects and 10% green plant parts, including large amounts of elephant ear tree (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) sap. Another study showed a diet about equally split between insects (mostly grasshoppers) and fruit. Unlike marmosets, tamarins do not have dentition adapted for gouging trees, so Geoffroy's tamarin eats sap only when it is easily accessible. It generally hunts for insects by making quick movements on thin, flexible supports. In contrast, it generally feeds on sap while clinging to large vertical tree trunks. In one study, Geoffroy's tamarin drank water from the corollas of Ochroma limonesis flowers. However, it is believed to also drink from tree holes, similar to other tamarin species. ## Reproduction Geoffroy's tamarin can give birth throughout the year, but the birthing peak is from April to June. A single infant or twins can be born, although it is not uncommon for one of the twins to perish within the first few months. The gestation period is believed to be about 145 days, similar to the cottontop tamarin. The interbirth period ranges between 154 and 540 days, with an average of 311 days. The longer interbirth periods occur after twins. Infants weigh between 40 and 50 grams (1.4 and 1.8 oz) and are born fully furred. The infant's fur is colored differently than the parents'; the infant has black fur on the body and tail, with a beige blaze and white face. The infant coloration reduces the visibility of white, which is associated with aggressive displays by the species. Both polyandrous and polygynous mating occurs, and males contribute heavily to parental care. But typically, only one adult female in a group is reproductively active, and reproductively active females mate with multiple males if given the opportunity. Males carry and groom infants more than females do. Older siblings may also contribute to infant care, although infants prefer to be carried by their parents than their siblings. Infants become mobile at 2 to 5 weeks, and begin eating solid food at 4 to 7 weeks. They are independent at 10 to 18 weeks and are fully weaned at 15 to 25 weeks. Geoffroy's tamarin becomes sexually mature at about 2 years, and can live up to 13 years. ## Distribution and habitat Geoffroy's tamarin lives in various types of forest, including primary and secondary forest, and dry and moist tropical forest. In Panama, it prefers secondary forests with moderate humidity. It occurs in central and eastern Panama, with the range extending slightly west of the Panama Canal zone and has been observed as far west as Altos de Campana National Park. It is less common on the Atlantic coast of Panama than the Pacific coast, and is only abundant on the Atlantic coast in areas near the Canal zone that have been modified by man. It occurs in Metropolitan Natural Park, an urban park within Panama City. In Colombia, it occurs on the Pacific coast west of the Andes, south to the Rio San Juan. The eastern boundary of its range in Colombia was once thought to be the Rio Atrato, but has been reported further east, including the Las Orquídeas National Natural Park. Older sources sometimes report the species occurring in southern Costa Rica, but these are most likely erroneous. ## Conservation status The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies Geoffroy's tamarin as being near threatened. The main threat is deforestation, which is causing population declines in some areas despite its ability to adapt to some modifications of its habitat. It is also sometimes hunted and captured for the pet trade in Panama. A 1985 study in Panama concluded that Geoffroy tamarin population densities are higher in areas where human access is limited. Human activity in Panama can have both positive and negative effects on Geoffroy's-tamarin populations. While hunting decreases the population, cutting mature forest for agriculture provides more areas of secondary growth, which is beneficial for the tamarin.
34,346,893	Typhoon Gordon	1,161,626,655	Pacific typhoon in 1989	[ "1989 Pacific typhoon season", "1989 disasters in the Philippines", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in China", "Typhoons in Hong Kong", "Typhoons in the Philippines" ]	Typhoon Gordon, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Goring, was a powerful tropical cyclone that caused widespread damage and loss of life in the Philippines and Southern China in July 1989. Gordon developed into a tropical depression near the Northern Mariana Islands on July 9 and quickly intensified as it tracked west-southwestward. On July 13, the storm attained typhoon status and subsequently underwent a period of rapid intensification. By July 15, the storm attained its peak strength as a Category 5 equivalent super typhoon with winds estimated at 260 km/h (160 mph). After striking the northern Philippines, Gordon moved through the South China Sea and slowly weakened. On July 18, the storm made landfall in southern China and was last noted the following day as it dissipated over land. Throughout Gordon's path from the Philippines to China, the storm caused widespread damage and loss of life. Across the Philippines, 90 people were killed by the typhoon and an estimated 120,000 people were left homeless. Though a weaker storm when it struck China, damage was more severe due to extensive flooding. Several coastal cities were completely inundated. Throughout the country, at least 200 people died and losses reached 1.2 billion yuan (\$319 million USD). Additionally, 14 people drowned offshore and 2 others died in Hong Kong. ## Meteorological history In early July, widespread showers and thunderstorms developed across the Western Pacific underneath a tropical upper tropospheric trough (TUTT). On July 9, a single cumulonimbus cloud west of Wake Island became associated with the TUTT and quickly organized. By July 11, the system featured a small central dense overcast and soon became sufficiently organized for the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) to declare it as Tropical Depression 11W. Upon classification, the system was located roughly 320 km (200 mi) east of the Northern Mariana Islands. The development of the depression was unprecedented in two ways: first, a single cloud developed into a tropical cyclone; and second, it became tropical while situated underneath a cold-core low. Following the system's classification as a tropical cyclone, the depression maintained a west-southwesterly track in response to a subtropical ridge to the north. On July 12, it is estimated that the depression intensified into a tropical storm, at which time it was given the name Gordon by the JTWC. Due to the cyclone's proximity to the Philippines, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Goring. During the afternoon of July 13, Gordon briefly turned southwestward as it attained typhoon status before returning to a more westerly track later that day. As the TUTT gradually warmed, Gordon was able to undergo a prolonged period of rapid intensification, despite having restricted outflow. Over a 30-hour period from July 14 to 15, the storm's central pressure decreased by 70 mbar (hPa; 2.07 inHg), just below the threshold for explosive intensification. At the end of this phase, Gordon attained its peak strength as a Category 5 equivalent super typhoon with winds estimated at 260 km/h (160 mph). Around the same time, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) assessed the storm to have attained 10-minute sustained winds of 185 km/h (115 mph) along with a minimum pressure of 915 mbar (hPa; 27.02 inHg). Once classified a super typhoon, Gordon acquired a slight northerly component to its track and maintained a general west-northwestward trajectory for the remainder of its existence. Late on July 15, Gordon made landfall in northern Luzon, Philippines, at peak intensity. Remaining over land for several hours, the storm quickly weakened before entering the South China Sea. The system maintained minimal typhoon status as it developed a large, ragged eye by July 17. Slight weakening took place hours before Gordon made landfall as a strong tropical storm near Zhanjiang in Southern China on July 18. Briefly moving over the warm, shallow waters of the Gulf of Tonkin, Gordon's convective structure tripled in size; however, the system continued to weaken. Later that day, the storm made its final landfall in southern Guangxi Province. Once onshore, Gordon quickly weakened and was last noted on July 19 by the JMA over southern Guangxi. ## Preparations and impact ### Philippines Across Luzon, air traffic was temporarily suspended on July 16 until the typhoon's passage. Storm signal three, the highest level of warning, was issued for five provinces while lesser warnings were in place for most of the northern Philippines. The Philippine Coast Guard ordered all vessels in Luzon to remain at port until the storm's passage. Residents along the coast were urged to take "extreme precaution." All activities at the United States' Clark Air Base were canceled on July 16 while emergency rescue and cleanup teams were placed on standby. All non-essential personnel were ordered to remain home. Striking northern Luzon on July 16, Typhoon Gordon packed sustained winds estimated at 260 km/h (160 mph), though the strongest reported winds reached 186 km/h (116 mph). At Wallace Air Station, wind gusts reached 126 km/h (78 mph). Torrential rains accompanying the storm, measured up to 747 mm (29.4 in) at Clark Air Base, caused widespread flooding and landslides. Across Cagayan Valley, flash flooding prompted thousands of residents to evacuate to higher ground. Travel in much of the region was severely impaired as landslides blocked off roads. Baguio was mostly isolated from surrounding areas as the main roads leading in and out of the city were blocked off. In Paoay, a bridge was washed out and high winds from the typhoon tore the roof off a public market. According to the Philippine Red Cross, nearly 11,000 people were in evacuation shelters by the evening of July 16 in Ilocos Norte. In La Union, three towns were submerged in flood waters up to rooftops of homes after a river burst its banks. Throughout the country, 90 fatalities resulted from the typhoon. Additionally, 386 people were injured while another 3 were listed as missing. A total of 8,845 homes were destroyed and another 46,269 sustained damage. An estimated 120,000 people were left homeless due to Gordon. Losses from the typhoon amounted to 1.36 billion pesos (US\$62 million). By July 18, relief operations began across northern Luzon. Philippine President Corazon Aquino declared a state of calamity for five provinces and three towns by this time. ### Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Macao On July 15, the Central Weather Bureau issued a sea warning for the Bashi Channel and waters off the southeast coast of Taiwan. Residents were also warned of possible heavy, flooding rains and were urged to take precautions to minimize loss of life. Regarded as the "fiercest typhoon to threaten Hong Kong in five years," the Hong Kong Observatory began issuing storm signals by July 16 to warn residents of the approaching storm. Early the next day, the signal was raised to three (strong wind signal) before being further increased to signal eight (gale warning) that afternoon. All ferries to and from Macao were halted and all schools were closed. Warnings urging residents to take steps to avoid unnecessary losses were continuously broadcast over radio stations. The normally busy Hong Kong was brought to a standstill as businesses, banks and courts closed for the storm. This included the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the Chinese Gold and Silver Exchange. Public transport was mostly shut down and the government opened 78 shelters. Thousands of people were evacuated from low-lying areas along the coast. Approximately 11,000 Vietnamese "boat people" were also moved to emergency shelters. Winds up to 192 km/h (119 mph) battered parts of Hong Kong, downing numerous trees, snapping power poles and blowing out windows. Driven by the intense winds, airborne debris injured 31, 6 of whom required hospitalization. Two fatalities took place in the territory: one on Lantau Island and another in Tai O. Some flooding took place as a result of Gordon, especially along coastal areas where the typhoon brought a storm surge of 1.36 m (4.5 ft). In Macao, high winds from the typhoon uprooted trees and broke windows. Flooding triggered by Gordon's heavy rains stranded cars and inundated stores. Five of the colony's six casinoes were temporarily closed. Flooding also caused the Macau-Taipa bridge to collapse. ### China Striking Guangdong Province as a strong tropical storm, Gordon caused extensive damage in the region. Along the coast, approximately 155 km (96 mi) of dykes were destroyed by storm surge. Already suffering from extensive floods, heavy rains and record tides from Typhoon Gordon caused "massive" flooding in Zhuhai, Guangdong. Flood waters over-topped dams and sea walls and inundated the city. Approximately 11,000 people were forced to seek refuge on the roof of their homes. One of the hardest hit cities was Yangjiang where flood waters caused widespread damage. Roughly 46,000 homes were damaged or destroyed in the city while 252 km (157 mi) of highway and 26 bridges were washed away. Telecommunications in Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong, was completely lost due to the storm and parts of the city were isolated due to flooding. Across the province, an estimated 140,000 hectares (350,000 acres) of farmland was flooded. High winds in Yangchun caused several structures to collapse. Flooding also caused extensive damage to infrastructure with 22 bridges destroyed and 225 km (140 mi) of roads under water. Offshore in the South China Sea, 24 fishermen were caught in the storm and became stranded. The crew drifted in the sea for 24 days, during which time 14 perished, before the survivors were rescued. Heavy rains also fell in parts of Guangxi Province; however, the rains were mostly beneficial to farmers. Throughout southern China, at least 200 people were killed by the typhoon and damage amounted to 1.2 billion yuan (US\$319 million). ## See also - 1989 Pacific typhoon season - Other tropical cyclones named Gordon - Typhoon Angela (1989) - Typhoon Brian (1989) - Typhoon Dot (1989) - Typhoon Dan (1989) - Typhoon Elsie (1989) - Typhoon Mangkhut (2018) – A storm with a similar track.
2,468,688	Michael the Brave	1,171,861,791	16th-century ruler of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania	[ "1558 births", "1590s in Romania", "1590s in the Ottoman Empire", "1600s in Romania", "1601 deaths", "16th century in Moldavia", "16th-century Romanian people", "16th-century monarchs in Europe", "17th-century Romanian people", "17th-century assassinated people", "17th-century murdered monarchs", "Bans of Oltenia", "Burials at Dealu Monastery, Viforâta (Dâmboviţa County)", "Eastern Orthodox monarchs", "House of Drăculești", "Michael the Brave", "Monarchs of Moldavia", "People from Vâlcea County", "People of the Long Turkish War", "Princes of Transylvania", "Princes of Wallachia", "Romanian people in the Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)", "Stolnici of Wallachia" ]	Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul or Mihai Bravu ; 1558 – 9 August 1601), born as Mihai Pătrașcu, was the Prince of Wallachia (as Michael II, 1593–1601), Prince of Moldavia (1600) and de facto ruler of Transylvania (1599–1600). He is considered one of Romania's greatest national heroes. Since the 19th century, Michael the Brave has been regarded by Romanian nationalists as a symbol of Romanian unity, as his reign marked the first time all principalities inhabited by Romanians were under the same ruler. His rule over Wallachia began in the autumn of 1593. Two years later, war with the Ottomans began, a conflict in which the Prince fought the Battle of Călugăreni, resulting in a victory against an army nearly three times the size of the army of Michael the Brave, considered one of the most important battles of his reign. Although the Wallachians emerged victorious from the battle, Michael was forced to retreat with his troops and wait for aid from his allies, Prince Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. The war continued until a peace finally emerged in January 1597, but this lasted for only a year and a half. Peace was again reached in late 1599, when Michael was unable to continue the war due to lack of support from his allies. In 1599, Michael won the Battle of Șelimbăr against Andrew Báthory and soon entered Alba Iulia, becoming the imperial governor (i.e. de facto ruler) of Transylvania, under Habsburg suzerainty. A few months later, Michael's troops invaded Moldavia and reached its capital, Iași. The Moldavian leader Ieremia Movilă fled to Poland and Michael was declared Prince of Moldavia. During this period, Michael the Brave changed his seal to represent his personal union of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania. The interests of the three neighbouring great powers – the Habsburg monarchy, the Ottoman Empire, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – were damaged by Michael the Brave's achievements. Although he acknowledged the suzerainty of Rudolf II, Michael the Brave continued to negotiate his official position in Transylvania, pleading for direct rule instead of being imperial governor. Michael kept the control of all three provinces for less than a year before the Hungarian nobility of Transylvania rose against him in a series of revolts with the support of the Austrian army commanded by the Italian General Giorgio Basta, defeating Michael the Brave at the Battle of Mirăslău, forcing the prince to leave Transylvania and retreat to Wallachia with his remaining troops, while the forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth entered Moldavia and defeated the forces loyal to Michael the Brave, restoring Ieremia Movilă on the throne. The Polish army led by Jan Zamoyski also advanced in eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only in Oltenia. Michael the Brave then left for Prague, seeking audience with Emperor Rudolf II; however, the emperor refused to allow him audience. But General Giorgio Basta's governance of Transylvania faced significant opposition from the Hungarian nobility, leading to the reinstallation of Sigismund Báthory, who turned his back on Emperor Rudolf II and declared suzerainty to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after receiving substantial military support. This led to Emperor Rudolf II accepting Michael the Brave's audience and providing him with 100,000 florins to rebuild his army. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son, Nicolae Pătrașcu, drove Simion Movilă out of Moldavia and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael the Brave, allied with Giorgio Basta, defeated the Hungarian army at the Battle of Guruslău. A few days later Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself, executed the assassination of Michael by order of the Habsburg Emperor Rudolf II. ## Early life Michael was born under the family name of Pătrașcu. In 1601, during a stay in Prague, he was portrayed by the painter Aegidius Sadeler, who mentioned on the portrait the words aetatis XLIII ("in the 43rd year of life"), which indicates 1558 as the year of Michael's birth. Very little is known about his childhood and early years as an adult. He is argued by most historians to have been the illegitimate son of Wallachian Prince Pătrașcu cel Bun (Pătrașcu the Good), of the Drăculești branch of the House of Basarab, while others believe he merely invented his descent in order to justify his rule. His mother was Theodora Kantakouzene [ro], a member of the Kantakouzenoi, a noble family present in Wallachia and Moldavia, and allegedly descended from the Byzantine Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos. Michael's political rise was quite spectacular, as he became the Ban of Mehedinți in 1588, stolnic at the court of Mihnea Turcitul by the end of 1588, and Ban of Craiova in 1593 – during the rule of Alexandru cel Rău. The latter had him swear before 12 boyars that he was not of princely descent. Still, in May 1593 conflict did break out between Alexandru and Michael, who was forced to flee to Transylvania. He was accompanied by his half-brother Radu Florescu, Radu Buzescu and several other supporters. After spending two weeks at the court of Sigismund Báthory, he left for Constantinople, where with help from his cousin Andronikos Kantakouzenos (the eldest son of Michael "Şeytanoğlu" Kantakouzenos) and Patriarch Jeremiah II he negotiated Ottoman support for his accession to the Wallachian throne. He was supported by the English ambassador in the Ottoman capital, Edward Barton, and aided by a loan of 200,000 florins. Michael was invested Prince by Sultan Murad III in September 1593 and started his effective rule on 11 October. ## Wallachia Not long after Michael became Prince of Wallachia, he turned against the Ottoman Empire. The next year he joined the Christian alliance of European powers formed by Pope Clement VIII against the Turks, and signed treaties with his neighbours: Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania, Aaron the Tyrant of Moldavia and the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II (see Holy League of Pope Clement VIII). He started a campaign against the Turks in the autumn of 1594, conquering several citadels near the Danube, including Giurgiu, Brăila, Hârșova, and Silistra, while his Moldavian allies defeated the Turks in Iași and other parts of Moldavia. Mihai continued his attacks deep within the Ottoman Empire, taking the forts of Nicopolis, Ribnic, and Chilia and even reaching as far as Adrianople. In 1595, Sigismund Báthory staged an elaborate plot and had Aaron the Tyrant, voivode of Moldavia, removed from power. István Jósika (Báthory's chancellor and an ethnic Romanian) masterminded the operation. Ștefan Răzvan arrested Aron on charges of treason on the night of 24 April (5 May) and sent him to the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár) with his family and treasure. Aron would die poisoned by the end of May in the castle of Vinc. Sigismund was forced to justify his actions before the European powers, since Aron had played an active role in the anti-Ottoman coalition. Later on, in the same city of Alba Iulia, Wallachian boyars signed a treaty with Sigismund on Michael's behalf. From the point of view of Wallachian internal politics, the Treaty of Alba Iulia officialized what could be called a boyar regime, reinforcing the already important political power of the noble elite. According to the treaty, a council of 12 great boyars was to take part alongside the voivode in the executive rule of the country. Boyars could no longer be executed without the knowledge and approval of the Transylvanian Prince and, if convicted for treason, their fortunes could no longer be confiscated. Apparently Michael was displeased with the final form of the treaty negotiated by his envoys, but was forced to comply. Prince Michael said in a conversation with the Polish envoy Lubieniecki: ... they did not proceed as stated in their instructions but as their own good required and obtained privileges for themselves. He would try to avoid the obligations imposed on him for the rest of his reign. During his reign, Michael relied heavily on the loyalty and support of a group of Oltenian lords, the most important of whom were Buzescu Brothers (Romanian: Frații Buzești) and his own relatives on his mother's side, the Cantacuzinos. He consequently protected their interests throughout his reign; for example, he passed a law binding serfs to lands owned by aristocrats. From the standpoint of religious jurisdiction, the Treaty of Alba Iulia had another important consequence: it placed all the Eastern Orthodox bishops in Transylvania under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Seat of Târgoviște. During this period, the Ottoman army, based in Ruse, was preparing to cross the Danube and undertake a major attack. Michael was quickly forced to retreat and the Ottoman forces started to cross the Danube on 4 August 1595. As his army was outnumbered, Michael avoided carrying the battle in open field, and decided to give battle on a marshy field located near the village of Călugăreni on the Neajlov river. The Battle of Călugăreni started on 13 August and Michael defeated the Ottoman army led by Sinan Pasha. Despite the victory, he retreated to his winter camp in Stoienești because he had too few troops to mount a full-scale war against the remaining Ottoman forces. He subsequently joined forces with Sigismund Báthory's 40,000-man army (led by Stephen Bocskai) and counterattacked the Ottomans, freeing the towns of Târgoviște (8 October), Bucharest (12 October) and Brăila, temporarily removing Wallachia from Ottoman suzerainty. The fight against the Ottomans continued in 1596 when Michael made several incursions south of the Danube at Vidin, Pleven, Nicopolis, and Babadag, where he was assisted by the local Bulgarians during the First Tarnovo Uprising. During late 1596, Michael was faced with an unexpected attack from the Tatars, who had destroyed the towns of Bucharest and Buzău. By the time Michael gathered his army to counterattack, the Tatars had speedily retreated and so no battle was fought. Michael was determined to continue the war against the Ottomans, but he was prevented because he lacked support from Sigismund Báthory and Rudolf II. On 7 January 1597 Hasan Pasha declared the independence of Wallachia under Michael's rule, but Michael knew that this was only an attempt to divert him from preparing for another future attack. Michael again requested Rudolf II's support and Rudolf finally agreed to send financial assistance to the Wallachian ruler. On 9 June 1598 a formal treaty was reached between Michael and Rudolf II. According to the treaty, the Austrian ruler would give Wallachia sufficient money to maintain a 5,000-man army, as well as armaments and supplies. Shortly after the treaty was signed, the war with the Ottomans resumed and Michael besieged Nicopolis on 10 September 1598 and took control of Vidin. The war with the Ottomans continued until 26 June 1599, when Michael, lacking the resources and support to continue prosecuting the war, signed a peace treaty. ## Transylvania In April 1598, Sigismund resigned as Prince of Transylvania in favor of the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II (who was also the King of Hungary); reversed his decision in October 1598; and then resigned again in favor of Cardinal Andrew Báthory, his cousin. Báthory had strong ties to the Polish chancellor and hetman Jan Zamoyski and placed Transylvania under the influence of the King of Poland, Sigismund III Vasa. He was also a trusted ally of the new Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă, one of Michael's greatest enemies. Movilă had deposed Ștefan Răzvan with the help of Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski in August 1595. Having to face this new threat, Michael asked Emperor Rudolf to become the sovereign of Wallachia. On 25 September (5 October) Báthory issued an ultimatum demanding that Michael abandon his throne. Michael decided to attack Andrew Cardinal Báthory immediately to prevent invasion. He would later describe the events: > I rose with my country, my children, taking my wife and everything I had and with my army [marched into Transylvania] so that the foe should not crush me here. He left Târgoviște on 2 October, and 9 by October he had reached Prejmer in southern Transylvania, where he met envoys from the city of Brașov. Sparing the city, he moved on to Cârța where he joined forces with the Székelys. On 18 October Michael won a decisive victory against the army of prince-cardinal Andrew Báthory at the Battle of Șelimbăr, giving him control of Transylvania. As he retreated from the battle, Andrew Báthory was killed by anti-Báthory Székely on 3 November near Sândominic and Michael gave him a princely burial in the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Alba Iulia. With his enemy dead, Michael entered the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia and received the keys to the fortress from Bishop Demeter Naprágyi, later depicted as a seminal event in Romanian historiography. Historian István Szamosközy, keeper of the Archives at the time, recorded the event in great detail. He also wrote that two days before the Diet met on 10 October, Transylvanian nobles elected Michael the voivode as Prince of Transylvania. As the Diet was assembled, Michael demanded that the estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudolf, then to himself and thirdly to his son. Even if he was recognized by the Transylvanian diet as only imperial governor subject to the Holy Roman Emperor, he was nonetheless ruler of Transylvania. In Transylvania Michael used the following signature on official documents: Michael Valachiae Transalpinae Woivoda, Sacrae Caesareae Regiae Majestatis Consiliarius per Transylvaniam Locumtenens, cis transylvaniam partium eius super exercitu Generalis Capitaneus". ("Michael, voivode of Wallachia, the councillor of His Majesty the Emperor and the King, his deputy in Transylvania and General Captain of his troops from Transylvania.") When Michael entered Transylvania, he did not immediately free or grant rights to the Romanian inhabitants, who were primarily peasants but, nevertheless, constituted a significant proportion of the population. Michael demonstrated his support by upholding the Union of the Three Nations, which recognized only the traditional rights and privileges of the Hungarians, Székelys and Saxons, but he didn't recognize the rights of the Romanians. Indeed, while he brought some of his Wallachian aides to Transylvania, he also invited some Székelys and other Transylvanian Hungarians to assist in the administration of Wallachia, where he wished to transplant Transylvania's far more advanced feudal system. Michael began negotiating with the Emperor over his official position in Transylvania. The latter wanted the principality under direct Imperial rule with Michael acting as governor. The Wallachian voivode, on the other hand, wanted the title of Prince of Transylvania for himself and equally claimed the Partium region. Michael was, nevertheless, willing to acknowledge Habsburg overlordship. ## Moldavia The Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă had been an old enemy of Michael, having incited Andrew Báthory to send Michael the ultimatum demanding his abdication. His brother, Simion Movilă, claimed the Wallachian throne for himself and had used the title of Voivode since 1595. Aware of the threat the Movilăs represented, Michael had created the Banate of Buzău and Brăila in July 1598 and the new ban was charged of keeping an alert eye on Moldavian, Tatar, and Cossack moves, although Michael had been planning a Moldavian campaign for several years. On 28 February 1600 Michael met with Polish envoys in Brașov. He was willing to recognise the Polish King as his sovereign in exchange for the crown of Moldavia and the recognition of his male heirs' hereditary right over the three principalities, Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. This did not significantly delay his attack, however; on 14 April 1600 Michael's troops entered Moldavia on multiple routes, the Prince himself leading the main thrust to Trotuș and Roman. He reached the capital of Iași on 6 May. The garrison surrendered the citadel the next day and Michael's forces caught up with the fleeing Ieremia Movilă, who was saved from being captured only by the sacrifice of his rear-guard. Movilă took refuge in the castle of Hotin together with his family, a handful of faithful boyars and the former Transylvanian Prince, Sigismund Báthory. The Moldavian soldiers in the castle deserted, leaving a small Polish contingent as sole defenders. Under the cover of dark, sometime before 11 June, Movilă managed to sneak out of the walls and across the Dniester to hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski's camp. Neighboring states were alarmed by this upsetting of the balance of power, especially the Hungarian nobility in Transylvania, who rose against Michael in rebellion. With the help of Basta, they defeated Michael at the Battle of Mirăslău, forcing the prince to leave Transylvania together with his remaining loyal troops. A Polish army led by Jan Zamoyski drove the Wallachians from Moldavia and defeated Michael at Năieni, Ceptura, and Bucov (Battle of the Teleajăn River). The Polish army also entered eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only in Oltenia. ## Last victory and assassination Michael asked again for assistance from Emperor Rudolf II during a visit in Prague between 23 February and 5 March 1601, which was granted when the emperor heard that General Giorgio Basta had lost control of Transylvania to the Hungarian nobility led by Sigismund Báthory, who accepted Ottoman protection. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son, Nicolae Pătrașcu, drove Simion Movilă out of Wallachia and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael, allied with Basta, defeated the Hungarian army in Battle of Guruslău. A few days later, Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself, executed the assassination of Michael by order of the Habsburg Emperor; the assassination took place near Câmpia Turzii on 9 August 1601. According to Romanian historian Constantin C. Giurescu: > Never in Romanian history was a moment of such highness and glory so closely followed by bitter failure. ## Legacy The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu. This theory became a point of reference for nationalists, as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state. To Romanian Romantic nationalists, he was regarded as one of Romania's greatest national heroes. He is known in Romanian historiography as Mihai Viteazul or, less commonly, Mihai Bravu. The prince began to be perceived as a unifier towards the middle of the 19th century. Such an interpretation is completely lacking in the historiography of the 17th-century chroniclers, and even in that of the Transylvanian School around 1800. What they emphasized, apart from the exceptional personality of Michael himself, were the idea of Christendom and his close relations with Emperor Rudolf. The conqueror's ambition is likewise frequently cited as a motivation for his action, occupying in the interpretative schema the place that was later to be occupied by the Romanian idea. In the writings of the Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin, Michael the Brave appears in the role of conqueror of Transylvania and Moldavia, "the cause of much spilling of blood among Christians", and not even highly appreciated by his own Wallachians: "The Wallachians became tired of the warful rule of Voivode Mihai". The perspective of the Wallachians themselves is to be found in The History of the Princes of Wallachia, attributed to the chronicler Radu Popescu (1655–1729), which bundles together all Michael's adversaries without distinction. Romanians and foreigners alike: "He subjected the Turks, the Moldavians, and the Hungarians to his rule, as if they were his asses." The picturesque flavor of the expression serves only to confirm the absence of any Romanian idea. Samuil Micu, a member of the Transylvanian School wrote in his work Short Explanation of the History of the Romanians (written in the 1790s): "In the year 1593, Michael, who is called the Brave, succeeded to the lordship of Wallachia. He was a great warrior, who fought the Turks and defeated the Transylvanians. And he took Transylvania and gave it to Emperor Rudolf". Petre P. Panaitescu states that in Mihai's time, the concept of the Romanian nation and the desire for unification did not yet exist. A. D. Xenopol firmly states the absence of any national element in Michael's politics, holding that Michael's lack of desire to join the principalities' administrations proved his actions were not motivated by any such concept. Several Romanian settlements named after him, such as: - Mihai Viteazu, a commune in Cluj County - Mihai Bravu, Giurgiu, a commune in Giurgiu County - Mihai Bravu, Tulcea, a commune in Tulcea County - Mihai Viteazu, a village in the commune Vlad Țepeș, Călărași - Mihai Bravu, a village in the commune Victoria, Brăila - Mihai Bravu, a village in the commune Roșiori, Bihor Michael is also commemorated by the monks of the Athonite Simonopetra Monastery for his great contributions in the form of land and money to rebuilding the monastery that had been destroyed by a fire. Mihai Viteazul, a film by Sergiu Nicolaescu, a well-known Romanian film director, is a representation of the life of the Wallachian ruler and his will to unite the three Romanian principalities (Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania) as one domain. The Order of Michael the Brave, Romania's highest military decoration, was named after Michael. Mihai Viteazul's name and portrait appear on at least two Romanian coins: 5 Lei 1991 (only 3 pieces of this type were minted and the coin was not entered into circulation), and on 100 Lei, which circulated through the 1990s. Three major high schools in Romania bear his name: the Mihai Viteazul National College (Bucharest) the Mihai Viteazul National College (Ploiești) [ro] and the Mihai Viteazul National College (Slobozia) ## Seal The seal comprises the coats of arms of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania: in the middle, on a shield the Moldavian urus, above Wallachian eagle between sun and moon holding cross in beak, below Transylvanian coat of arms: two meeting, standing lions supporting a sword, treading on seven mountains. The Moldavian shield is held by two crowned figures. There are two inscriptions on the seal. First, circular, in Slavonic using Romanian Cyrillic alphabet "IO MIHAILI UGROVLAHISCOI VOEVOD ARDEALSCOI MOLD ZEMLI", meaning "Io Michael Wallachian Voivode of Transylvanian and Moldavian Lands". Second, placed along a circular arc separating the Wallachian coat from the rest of the heraldic composition, "I ML BJE MLRDIE", could be translated "Through The Very Grace of God".
10,972	Fenrir	1,169,481,625	Monstrous wolf in Norse mythology	[ "Loki", "Mythological canines", "Mythological monsters", "Wolves in Norse mythology" ]	Fenrir (Old Norse 'fen-dweller') or Fenrisúlfr (Old Norse "Fenrir's wolf", often translated "Fenris-wolf"), also referred to as Hróðvitnir (Old Norse "fame-wolf") and Vánagandr (Old Norse 'monster of the [River] Ván'), is a wolf in Norse mythology. Fenrir, along with Hel and the World Serpent, is a child of Loki and giantess Angrboða. He is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda and Heimskringla, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In both the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda, Fenrir is the father of the wolves Sköll and Hati Hróðvitnisson, is a son of Loki and is foretold to kill the god Odin during the events of Ragnarök, but will in turn be killed by Odin's son Víðarr. In the Prose Edda, additional information is given about Fenrir, including that, due to the gods' knowledge of prophecies foretelling great trouble from Fenrir and his rapid growth, the gods bound him and as a result Fenrir bit off the right hand of the god Týr. Depictions of Fenrir have been identified on various objects and scholarly theories have been proposed regarding Fenrir's relation to other canine beings in Norse mythology. Fenrir has been the subject of artistic depictions and he appears in literature. ## Attestations ### Poetic Edda Fenrir is mentioned in three stanzas of the poem Völuspá and in two stanzas of the poem Vafþrúðnismál. In stanza 40 of the poem Völuspá, a völva divulges to Odin that, in the east, an old woman sat in the forest Járnviðr "and bred there the broods of Fenrir. There will come from them all one of that number to be a moon-snatcher in troll's skin." Further into the poem the völva foretells that Odin will be consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök: > > Then is fulfilled Hlín's second sorrow, when Óðinn goes to fight with the wolf, and Beli's slayer, bright, against Surtr. Then shall Frigg's sweet friend fall. In the stanza that follows the völva describes that Odin's "tall child of Triumph's Sire" (Odin's son Víðarr) will then come to "strike at the beast of slaughter" and with his hands he will drive a sword into the heart of "Hveðrungr's son", avenging the death of his father. In the first of two stanzas mentioning Fenrir in Vafþrúðnismál Odin poses a question to the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir: > > Much I have travelled, much have I tried out, much have I tested the Powers; from where will a sun come into the smooth heaven when Fenrir has assailed this one? In the stanza that follows Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól (here referred to as Álfröðull) will bear a daughter before Fenrir attacks her, and that this daughter shall continue the paths of her deceased mother through the heavens. ### Prose Edda In the Prose Edda, Fenrir is mentioned in three books: Gylfaginning, Skáldskaparmál and Háttatal. #### Gylfaginning chapters 13 and 25 In chapter 13 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, Fenrir is first mentioned in a stanza quoted from Völuspá. Fenrir is first mentioned in prose in chapter 25, where the enthroned figure of High tells Gangleri (described as King Gylfi in disguise) about the god Týr. High says that one example of Týr's bravery is that when the Æsir were luring Fenrir (referred to here as Fenrisúlfr) to place the fetter Gleipnir on the wolf, Týr placed his hand within the wolf's mouth as a pledge. This was done at Fenrir's own request because he did not trust that the Æsir would let him go. As a result, when the Æsir refused to release him, he bit off Týr's hand at a location "now called the wolf-joint" (the wrist), causing Týr to be one-handed and "not considered to be a promoter of settlements between people." #### Gylfaginning chapter 34 In chapter 34, High describes Loki, and says that Loki had three children with a woman named Angrboða located in the land of Jötunheimr; Fenrisúlfr, the serpent Jörmungandr, and the female being Hel. High continues that, once the gods found that these three children were being brought up in the land of Jötunheimr, and when the gods "traced prophecies that from these siblings great mischief and disaster would arise for them" the gods expected a lot of trouble from the three children, partially due to the nature of the mother of the children, yet worse so due to the nature of their father. High says that Odin sent the gods to gather the children and bring them to him. Upon their arrival, Odin threw Jörmungandr into "that deep sea that lies round all lands", and then threw Hel into Niflheim, and bestowed upon her authority over nine worlds. However, the Æsir brought up the wolf "at home", and only Týr had the courage to approach Fenrir, and give Fenrir food. The gods noticed that Fenrir was growing rapidly every day, and since all prophecies foretold that Fenrir was destined to cause them harm, the gods formed a plan. The gods prepared three fetters: The first, greatly strong, was called Leyding. They brought Leyding to Fenrir and suggested that the wolf try his strength with it. Fenrir judged that it was not beyond his strength, and so let the gods do what they wanted with it. At Fenrir's first kick the bind snapped, and Fenrir loosened himself from Leyding. The gods made a second fetter, twice as strong, and named it Dromi. The gods asked Fenrir to try the new fetter, and that should he break this feat of engineering, Fenrir would achieve great fame for his strength. Fenrir considered that, while the fetter was very strong, his strength had grown since he broke Leyding; and also that he would have to take some risks if he were to become famous. Fenrir allowed them to place the fetter. When the Æsir exclaimed that they were ready, Fenrir shook himself, knocked the fetter to the ground, strained hard, and kicking with his feet, snapped the fetter – breaking it into pieces that flew far into the distance. High says that, as a result, to "loose from Leyding" or to "strike out of Dromi" have become sayings for when something is achieved with great effort. The Æsir started to fear that they would not be able to bind Fenrir, and so Odin sent Freyr's messenger Skírnir down into the land of Svartálfaheimr to "some dwarfs" and had them make a fetter called Gleipnir. The dwarves constructed Gleipnir from six mythical ingredients. After an exchange between Gangleri and High, High continues that the fetter was smooth and soft as a silken ribbon, yet strong and firm. The messenger brought the ribbon to the Æsir, and they thanked him heartily for completing the task. The Æsir went out on to the lake Amsvartnir sent for Fenrir to accompany them, and continued to the island Lyngvi (Old Norse "a place overgrown with heather"). The gods showed Fenrir the silken fetter Gleipnir, told him to tear it, stated that it was much stronger than it appeared, passed it among themselves, used their hands to pull it, and yet it did not tear. However, they said that Fenrir would be able to tear it, to which Fenrir replied: > It looks to me that with this ribbon as though I will gain no fame from it if I do tear apart such a slender band, but if it is made with art and trickery, then even if it does look thin, this band is not going on my legs. The Æsir said Fenrir would quickly tear apart a thin silken strip, noting that Fenrir earlier broke great iron binds, and added that if Fenrir wasn't able to break slender Gleipnir then Fenrir is nothing for the gods to fear, and as a result would be freed. Fenrir responded: > If you bind me so that I am unable to release myself, then you will be standing by in such a way that I should have to wait a long time before I got any help from you. I am reluctant to have this band put on me. But rather than that you question my courage, let someone put his hand in my mouth as a pledge that this is done in good faith. With this statement, all of the Æsir look to one another, finding themselves in a dilemma. Everyone refused to place their hand in Fenrir's mouth until Týr put out his right hand and placed it into the wolf's jaws. When Fenrir kicked, Gleipnir caught tightly, and the more Fenrir struggled, the stronger the band grew. At this, everyone laughed, except Týr, who there lost his right hand. When the gods knew that Fenrir was fully bound, they took a cord called Gelgja (Old Norse "fetter") hanging from Gleipnir, inserted the cord through a large stone slab called Gjöll (Old Norse "scream"), and the gods fastened the stone slab deep into the ground. After, the gods took a great rock called Thviti (Old Norse "hitter, batterer"), and thrust it even further into the ground as an anchoring peg. Fenrir reacted violently; he opened his jaws very wide, and tried to bite the gods. Then the gods thrust a sword into his mouth. Its hilt touched the lower jaw and its point the upper one; by means of it the jaws of the wolf were spread apart and the wolf gagged. Fenrir "howled horribly", saliva ran from his mouth, and this saliva formed the river Ván (Old Norse "hope"). There Fenrir will lie until Ragnarök. Gangleri comments that Loki created a "pretty terrible family" though important, and asks why the Æsir did not just kill Fenrir there since they expected great malice from him. High replies that "so greatly did the gods respect their holy places and places of sanctuary that they did not want to defile them with the wolf's blood even though the prophecies say that he will be the death of Odin." #### Gylfaginning chapters 38 and 51 In chapter 38, High says that there are many men in Valhalla, and many more who will arrive, yet they will "seem too few when the wolf comes". In chapter 51, High foretells that as part of the events of Ragnarök, after Fenrir's son Sköll has swallowed the sun and his other son Hati Hróðvitnisson has swallowed the moon, the stars will disappear from the sky. The earth will shake violently, trees will be uprooted, mountains will fall, and all binds will snap – Fenrisúlfr will be free. Fenrisúlfr will go forth with his mouth opened wide, his upper jaw touching the sky and his lower jaw the earth, and flames will burn from his eyes and nostrils. Later, Fenrisúlfr will arrive at the field Vígríðr with his sibling Jörmungandr. With the forces assembled there, an immense battle will take place. During this, Odin will ride to fight Fenrisúlfr. During the battle, Fenrisúlfr will eventually swallow Odin, killing him, and Odin's son Víðarr will move forward and kick one foot into the lower jaw of the wolf. This foot will bear a legendary shoe "for which the material has been collected throughout all time". With one hand, Víðarr will take hold of the wolf's upper jaw and tear apart his mouth, killing Fenrisúlfr. High follows this prose description by citing various quotes from Völuspá in support, some of which mention Fenrir. #### Skáldskaparmál and Háttatal In the Epilogue section of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál, a euhemerized monologue equates Fenrisúlfr to Pyrrhus, attempting to rationalize that "it killed Odin, and Pyrrhus could be said to be a wolf according to their religion, for he paid no respect to places of sanctuary when he killed the king in the temple in front of Thor's altar." In chapter 2, "wolf's enemy" is cited as a kenning for Odin as used by the 10th century skald Egill Skallagrímsson. In chapter 9, "feeder of the wolf" is given as a kenning for Týr and, in chapter 11, "slayer of Fenrisúlfr" is presented as a kenning for Víðarr. In chapter 50, a section of Ragnarsdrápa by the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason is quoted that refers to Hel, the being, as "the monstrous wolf's sister". In chapter 75, names for wargs and wolves are listed, including both "Hróðvitnir" and "Fenrir". "Fenrir" appears twice in verse as a common noun for a "wolf" or "warg" in chapter 58 of Skáldskaparmál, and in chapter 56 of the book Háttatal. Additionally, the name "Fenrir" can be found among a list of jötnar in chapter 75 of Skáldskaparmál. ### Heimskringla At the end of the Heimskringla saga Hákonar saga góða, the poem Hákonarmál by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is presented. The poem is about the fall of King Haakon I of Norway; although he is Christian, he is taken by two valkyries to Valhalla, and is there received as one of the Einherjar. Towards the end of the poem, a stanza relates sooner will the bonds of Fenrir snap than as good a king as Haakon shall stand in his place: > > Unfettered will fare the Fenris Wolf and ravaged the realm of men, ere that cometh a kingly prince as good, to stand in his stead. ## Archaeological record ### Thorwald's Cross Thorwald's Cross, a partially surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man, depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, while a large bird sits at his shoulder. Rundata dates it to 940, while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century. This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with a raven or eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök. On the reverse of the stone is another image parallel to it that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan. These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as "syncretic art"; a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs. ### Gosforth Cross The mid-11th century Gosforth Cross, located in Cumbria, England, has been described as depicting a combination of scenes from the Christian Judgement Day and the pagan Ragnarök. The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style, including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head, one of whose feet is thrust into the beast's forked tongue and on its lower jaw, while a hand is placed against its upper jaw, a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir. This depiction has been theorized as a metaphor for Christ's defeat of Satan. ### Ledberg stone The 11th century Ledberg stone in Sweden, similarly to Thorwald's Cross, features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four-legged beast, and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök. Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless, helmeted man, with his arms in a prostrate position. The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication, but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as "mysterious", and "an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world". ### Other If the images on the Tullstorp Runestone are correctly identified as depicting Ragnarök, then Fenrir is shown above the ship Naglfar. Meyer Schapiro theorizes a connection between the "Hell Mouth" that appears in medieval Christian iconography and Fenrir. According to Schapiro, "the Anglo-Saxon taste for the Hell Mouth was perhaps influenced by the northern pagan myth of the Crack of Doom and the battle with the wolf, who devoured Odin." Scholars propose that a variety of objects from the archaeological record depict Týr. For example, a Migration Period gold bracteate from Trollhättan, Sweden, features a person receiving a bite on the hand from a beast, which may depict Týr and Fenrir. A Viking Age hogback in Sockburn, County Durham, North East England may depict Týr and Fenrir. ## Theories In reference to Fenrir's presentation in the Prose Edda, Andy Orchard theorizes that "the hound (or wolf)" Garmr, Sköll, and Hati Hróðvitnisson were originally simply all Fenrir, stating that "Snorri, characteristically, is careful to make distinctions, naming the wolves who devour the sun and moon as Sköll and Hati, and describing an encounter between Garm and Týr (who, one would have thought, might like to get his hand on Fenrir) at Ragnarök." John Lindow says that it is unclear why the gods decide to raise Fenrir as opposed to his siblings Hel and Jörmungandr in Gylfaginning chapter 35, theorizing that it may be "because Odin had a connection with wolves? Because Loki was Odin's blood brother?" Referring to the same chapter, Lindow comments that neither of the phrases that Fenrir's binding result in have left any other traces. Lindow compares Fenrir's role to his father Loki and Fenrir's sibling Jörmungandr, in that they all spend time with the gods, are bound or cast out by them, return "at the end of the current mythic order to destroy them, only to be destroyed himself as a younger generation of gods, one of them his slayer, survives into the new world order." He also points to Fenrir's binding as part of a recurring theme of the bound monster, where an enemy of the gods is bound, but destined to break free at Ragnarok. Indo-European parallels have been proposed between myths of Fenrir and the Persian demon Ahriman. The Yashts refer to a story where Taxma Urupi rode Angra Mainyu as a horse for thirty years. An elaboration of this allusion is found only in a late Parsi commentary. The ruler Taxmoruw (Taxma Urupi) managed to lasso Ahriman (Angra Mainyu) and keep him tied up while taking him for a ride three times a day. After thirty years, Ahriman outwitted and swallowed Taxmoruw. In a sexual encounter with Ahriman, Jamshid, Taxmoruw's brother, inserted his hand into Ahriman's anus and pulled out his brother's corpse. His hand withered from contact with the diabolic innards. The suggested parallels with Fenrir myths are the binding of an evil being by a ruler figure and the subsequent swallowing of the ruler figure by the evil being (Odin and Fenrir), trickery involving the thrusting of a hand into a monster's orifice and the affliction of the inserted limb (Týr and Fenrir). Ethologist Valerius Geist wrote that Fenrir's maiming and ultimate killing of Odin, who had previously nurtured him, was likely based on true experiences of wolf-behaviour, seeing as wolves are genetically encoded to rise up in the pack hierarchy and have, on occasion, been recorded to rebel against, and kill, their parents. Geist states that "apparently, even the ancients knew that wolves may turn on their parents and siblings and kill them." ## Modern influence Fenrir appears in modern literature in the poem "Om Fenrisulven og Tyr" (1819) by Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger (collected in Nordens Guder), the novel Der Fenriswolf by K. H. Strobl, and Til kamp mod dødbideriet (1974) by E. K. Reich and E. Larsen. Fenrir has been depicted in the artwork Odin and Fenris (1909) and The Binding of Fenris (around 1900) by Dorothy Hardy, Odin und Fenriswolf and Fesselung des Fenriswolfe (1901) by Emil Doepler, and is the subject of the metal sculpture Fenrir by Arne Vinje Gunnerud located on the island of Askøy, Norway. Fenrir is a highly durable mech option in Pixonic's game War Robots (released as "Walking War Robots" in 2014). Fenrir appears as an antagonist in the 2020 videogame Assassin's Creed Valhalla, with a story adapted from the events found in Prose Edda. Fenrir appears in the 2022 game God of War Ragnarök. ## See also - List of wolves ## General and cited references
14,687,917	The Sontaran Stratagem	1,158,432,086	null	[ "2008 British television episodes", "Poisoning in fiction", "Television episodes about cloning", "Tenth Doctor episodes", "UNIT serials" ]	"The Sontaran Stratagem" is the fourth episode of the fourth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, which depicts the adventures of a time-travelling humanoid alien known as The Doctor. The episode was broadcast on BBC One on 26 April 2008. The episode and its sequel, "The Poison Sky", were written by Helen Raynor, who previously wrote the linked episodes "Daleks in Manhattan" and "Evolution of the Daleks" in the third series. "The Sontaran Stratagem" features the first appearance of the alien Sontarans in the series since the 1985 story The Two Doctors, as well as former companion Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman), last seen in "Last of the Time Lords." The episode takes place on present-day Earth, where Martha and UNIT summon the Doctor (David Tennant) for assistance concerning ATMOS, a revolutionary piece of green technology installed in 400 million cars worldwide. ATMOS is later revealed to be part of a Sontaran plot to poison the atmosphere. Showrunner Russell T Davies had considered bringing the Sontarans back since the revival of the series and wanted to show changes in Martha's personality after her departure. The episode was viewed by 7.06 million viewers after its original broadcast, with an Appreciation Index of 87. Critics gave generally positive reviews, praising the return of the Sontarans, Christopher Ryan's portrayal as Staal, and Raynor's writing; some stated Raynor improved from her previous episodes. ## Plot Martha Jones, a former companion of the Tenth Doctor, calls him to ask for assistance during an investigation by UNIT. Minutes after the Doctor's craft, the TARDIS, materialises in contemporary Britain, Martha authorises the raid of an ATMOS factory. The Doctor introduces his companion Donna to Martha and UNIT; Donna instantly befriends Martha, but is concerned about UNIT's ethics. ATMOS is marketing a satellite navigation system developed by young prodigy Luke Rattigan. The system also reduces carbon dioxide emissions to zero; UNIT requested the Doctor's help because the technology is not contemporary and might be alien. UNIT are also concerned about fifty-two simultaneous deaths occurring spontaneously several days earlier, all inside vehicles equipped with ATMOS. Whilst everyone else is studying the technology at the plant, Donna goes through the personnel offices and discovers there are no recorded absences by anyone in the plant: no-one is getting sick. The Doctor travels to Rattigan's private school to investigate the system and discovers that the recent events have been plotted by an alien warrior race known as the Sontarans. The Sontarans are part of a battlegroup led by General Staal, "the undefeated", and Luke is his Earth Asset. Instead of an outright invasion, they are taking control with a combination of human clones, mind control, and ATMOS; Martha is captured by two of the controlled humans and cloned to provide a mole within UNIT. Meanwhile, Donna returns home to explain to her mother Sylvia and her grandfather Wilfred that she has been travelling with the Doctor, after being advised to do so by Martha. Concerned about the implications of telling the truth, Donna decides against telling her mother. The Doctor investigates the ATMOS device attached to Donna's car and discovers a secondary function: the device can emit a poisonous gas. Wilfred attempts to take the car off the road, but is trapped when Staal activates all 400 million ATMOS devices installed in cars worldwide. ### Continuity The Doctor Who spin-off show: The Sarah Jane Adventures features the two part episodes The Last Sontaran in which the only survivor of The Sontaran Stratagem / The Poison Sky: Commander Kaagh (also called Kaagh the Slayer) attempts to take revenge on Earth and The Doctor by crashing Earth's satellites into the nuclear weapon storage facilities to cause a chain reaction resulting in a cataclysmic nuclear explosion killing the entire world's population. ## Production ### Conception The episode features the return of the Sontarans, who last appeared in the 1985 serial The Two Doctors; a central appearance by UNIT; and Martha Jones, who had last appeared in "Last of the Time Lords" and made special guest appearances in the Torchwood episodes "Reset", "Dead Man Walking", and "A Day in the Death." The brief that executive producer Russell T Davies gave to writer Helen Raynor included the terms "Sontarans", "military", and "Martha's back". This episode continues the pattern of having monsters from the classic series return in the new one. Davies commented that the Sontarans were "always on his list" of villains to resurrect. The time and location of the episode was chosen because every previous Sontaran story except for The Invasion of Time (1978) was set on Earth. ### Writing Martha's departure allowed Davies to change the character's personality. In her reappearance, she is more mature and equal to the Doctor, as opposed to the third series, in which she was in love with him. The writers debated several aspects of her character, her status and reaction to Donna in particular. Raynor elected to emphasise Martha's medical career over her military career, and avoided a "handbags at dawn" scenario because she felt it would rehash Rose Tyler's (Billie Piper) initial opinion of former companion Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen) from the second series episode "School Reunion". The episode is the first major appearance of UNIT since the show's revival. Their name has changed from United Nations Intelligence Taskforce to Unified Intelligence Taskforce at the request of the United Nations, who cited the political climate and potential "brand confusion" as reasons for disassociation. The new acronym was coined by Davies after several meetings among the scriptwriters. The UNIT privates Gray and Wilson were specifically written as "alien fodder". The episode refers to inconsistencies in dating UNIT stories when the Doctor is unsure whether he worked for UNIT in the 1970s or 1980s. Raynor initially envisioned the poisonous gas would be emitted by factories, but changed it in later drafts to cars for several reasons: the episode would provide social commentary and the idea of an "evil satnav system" was "much more engageable" and "irresistible". Davies thought the concept was "so very Doctor Who". Because the series was produced out of order, the "ATMOS" subplot was seeded in the previous episode "Partners in Crime". The "fifteenth broken moon" of the Medusa Cascade is also mentioned. The Medusa Cascade was previously mentioned in "Last of the Time Lords", "Partners in Crime", and in "The Fires of Pompeii". In the episode, a system installed in a UNIT jeep undramatically explodes; originally, Raynor wanted it to be a large explosion, but reduced the explosion to several sparks to reduce costs and to lampoon an action movie cliché. The episode, like "Aliens of London" and "The Lazarus Experiment", properly introduces the lead companion's family. Unlike the Tyler or Jones families, both Sylvia Noble and Wilfred Mott had met the Doctor before (in "The Runaway Bride" and "Voyage of the Damned", respectively), providing Raynor with an additional subplot. Expository dialogue explains Mott's absence from "The Runaway Bride" by the character having had Spanish flu. Wilfred's positive opinion of the Doctor is different from Sylvia's, who, according to Tennant, joined "a long line of mothers that don't quite get the Doctor"; Davies had wanted a family member who trusted the Doctor since the show's revival. ### Filming The opening scene, which depicts the system driving reporter Jo Nakashima into the canal, was filmed at Cardiff's docks. The scene was the first time a car-cannon had been used since 2005, and was required to be completed in one shot. The car fired into the canal was removed immediately afterwards to clear the shipping route. Scenes at the Rattigan Academy were filmed at Margam Country Park, Port Talbot from 23 to 26 October 2007. The London skyline and gas were added in post-production by The Mill. When interviewed on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross, Catherine Tate stated that she had been filming alongside ten actors playing Sontarans for two weeks before she realised that there were actors inside the Sontaran costumes. She had assumed the Sontarans "ran on electricity". It was not until an actor removed his helmet to reveal his real face that she realised her mistake. She stated she was "freaked out" by this and said she "nearly died". Despite the Sontarans' clone culture being asserted in the classic series, "The Sontaran Strategem" is the first episode to depict the cloning process. Originally, all of the factory workers were to be clones, but Raynor reduced this to only Martha to solve continuity problems with the second part. The template clone was portrayed by Ruari Mears, who wore a prosthetic mask that took longer to apply than any he had previously worn. The scenes involving the cloning tank were filmed in a Welsh shampoo factory and reused a prop from "The Fires of Pompeii" as the tank which contained the clone. Davies and Agyeman enjoyed the scenes set in the cloning room; Agyeman liked playing an "evil companion", who she and Davies felt made the real Martha "warmer", and Davies thought Privates Gray and Harris discovering the tank in a darkened room was "classic Doctor Who". ## Broadcast and reception ### Broadcast and ratings "The Sontaran Strategem" was the most-watched programme in its timeslot, with 7.06 million viewers. The episode was the second most-watched programme of the day, beaten by Britain's Got Talent, and was the seventeenth most-watched programme of the week. The episode's Appreciation Index was 87 (considered "Excellent"), the highest figure recorded on its airdate. ### Critical reception Mark Wright of The Stage commented overall that the episode was "about as deliciously old-fashioned as new Who gets," stating that the script was "a deftly simple premise that makes you wonder why you didn't think of it yourself", and that Tate's character moved away from the caricature in "The Runaway Bride". Wright also praised Agyeman for "effortlessly" portraying Martha and her evil cloned counterpart. A fan of the Sontarans, Wright reacted positively to their return and redesign. Ben Rawson-Jones of Digital Spy rated the episode four stars out of five. Rawson-Jones felt the narrative was well plotted and paced, and felt Helen Raynor's writing had improved from "Daleks in Manhattan". Rawson-Jones also praised the reintroductions of UNIT, Martha, Donna's family and the Sontarans, the interaction between Donna and Martha, and Christopher Ryan's portrayal of Staal, but felt Skorr's voice was "distinctly lacklustre." The episode's direction by Douglas Mackinnon also received criticism, particularly the scenes in the clone room. In the end, Rawson-Jones felt that the first part's effectiveness lies on how much the viewers wish to tune in to see "The Poison Sky". Matt Wales of IGN rated the episode a "good" 7.9 out of 10, stating that despite the episode's premise, it came "perilously close to greatness," and praised Raynor's "crackling script which graciously walked the tightrope between balls-out farce and affectionate sci-fi pastiche". Wales noted that Tennant and Tate "relished" the perpetual swings from "square-jawed serious" to "faintly sadistic subversion", to mess with audience expectations. Ryan's performance as Staal was again praised, but Wales felt Agyeman still displayed "the charisma and range of a dead fish, despite Martha's transformation from lovesick sap to Ripley-esque super soldier." Wales summed up that the episode "did pretty much everything a two-part opener should – swiftly shifting the pieces into place for next week's inevitably bombastic showdown." Alan Stanley Bear of Airlock Alpha called "The Sontaran Strategem" an "exciting and nostalgic adventure", and said that the episode lives up to the show's reputation for transforming a normal object, in this case the car, to a "global killer". Bear praised the episode for Donna and Martha's introduction being opposite to Rose Tyler and Sarah Jane Smith's in "School Reunion", for providing a human element in the subplot where Donna visits her grandfather, and for the episode's cliffhanger. However, Bear wrote that it took too long to "get to the point", and criticized the "bland Sontaran dialogue and the clichéd simplicity of mind control", which he felt "reduced what could have been a fantastically intricate story piece into Saturday morning cartoon material." John Beresford of TV Scoop thought the episode lived up to many of his expectations, with sharp dialogue and some humour, a well-plotted story, and a good pace overall with a "heap of action", despite the episode's slow start. Beresford also praised the reintroduction of UNIT from the "old, tired UNIT" to a "newly revamped and spiffy UNIT with lots of cool gadgets", the Doctor's meeting with Rattigan, calling the scene "an inspired piece of writing", and the episode's cliffhanger, calling it "the best yet". He also believed the ATMOS idea worked well. The only weak spot Beresford noted was that the Sontarans appeared to have been softened from their previous appearance, stating that Staal would "shoot first and ask questions later."
50,627,836	Missamma (soundtrack)	1,125,837,864	null	[ "1955 soundtrack albums", "Telugu film soundtracks" ]	Missamma is the soundtrack of the 1955 Indian Telugu-language film of the same name directed by L. V. Prasad. Composed by S. Rajeswara Rao, the soundtrack contains 11 songs with lyrics by Pingali. The film was written by Chakrapani, who co-produced it with B. Nagi Reddi for Vijaya Productions. N. T. Rama Rao and Savitri played the lead roles the Telugu version, with Akkineni Nageswara Rao, Jamuna, S. V. Ranga Rao, Rushyendramani, Relangi and Ramana Reddy in supporting roles. Until Bhanumathi Ramakrishna was replaced by Savitri as the female lead, she was planned to provide vocals for her character in the film. After Ramakrishna left, P. Leela was chosen as Savitri's playback singer. Unlike their previous films, Vijaya Productions preferred A. M. Rajah over Ghantasala to sing for Rama Rao in the Telugu version. Chakrapani chose P. Susheela to sing the remaining two songs featuring Jamuna, and Venkata Ramaiah sang two uncredited songs. The soundtrack album was released by HMV on 21 September 1955. Although Rajeswara Rao was initially unhappy with his work, feeling that it was primarily influenced by Chakrapani, the soundtrack was critically and commercially successful. Missamma was released simultaneously in Tamil as Missiamma with a different cast; the same soundtrack was used, with lyrics by Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass. The Tamil soundtrack, released a month later by HMV, also received similar critical acclaim. ## Development S. Rajeswara Rao composed the soundtrack and background score, collaborating with Pingali and Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass on the lyrics for the Telugu and Tamil versions of the film respectively. The mixing was supervised by A. Krishnan and Siva Ram. It was processed by N. C. Sen Gupta and orchestrated by A. Krishnamurthy. Missamma was written by Aluri Chakrapani (who co-produced the film with B. Nagi Reddy for Vijaya Vauhini Studios) and directed by L. V. Prasad. The film starred N. T. Rama Rao and Savitri, with Akkineni Nageswara Rao, Jamuna, S. V. Ranga Rao, Rushyendramani, Relangi and Ramana Reddy in supporting roles. The Tamil version had a slightly-different cast. When Nagi Reddy told Bhanumathi that P. Leela would sing for her character, Bhanumathi (also a playback singer) refused to let anyone else sing for her. After Bhanumathi left the project, Leela was signed to sing for Savitri. Unlike their previous films, Vijaya Vauhini Studios preferred A. M. Rajah over Ghantasala to sing for Rama Rao in the Telugu version. Rajeswara Rao, who collaborated with Raja on vocals for Nageswara Rao in Vipra Narayana (1954), took Rama Rao's approval before recording the songs. Chakrapani chose P. Susheela to sing the remaining two songs featuring Jamuna after he was impressed with her rendition of "Anuragam Virisena" in the film Kanna Talli (1953). Although Susheela had recorded for Donga Ramudu (1955) first, Missamma was released earlier and was her breakthrough as a singer. "Ariya Paruvamada" and its Telugu version, "Balanura Madana", were Susheela's first songs for Rajeswara Rao. Despite singing "Dharmam Chey" and "Sitaram Sitaram", Relangi Venkata Ramaiah was uncredited as a playback singer. "Ravoyi Chandamama" is based on the Abheri raga. "Balanura Madana" is based on the Kharaharapriya raga, and "Telusukonave Yuvathi" is based on the Mohanam raga. "Brundavanamadi Andaridi" (its bridge in particular) is primarily based on the Shuddha Saveri raga, although an occasional gandhara note suggests the Arabhi raga. It was the soundtrack's last song to be recorded, since Chakrapani rejected several of Rajeswara Rao's versions. When the vexed Rajeswara Rao asked Chakrapani to suggest a tune, he referred to a folk song he had heard as a child. Pingali was inspired by the line "A thing of beauty is a joy forever" from John Keats' "Endymion" for the song's phrase, "Andamulandari Aanandamule" ("Beauty gives joy to all"). ## Track listing ## Release and reception The Telugu soundtrack was released on 21 September 1955, and the Tamil version was released on 21 October 1955; both were marketed by HMV. The Telugu soundtrack's album cover features Jamuna and Savitri, each tugging on one of Rama Rao's hands. Rajeswara Rao's eldest son, musician Ramalingeswara Rao, said in an interview with The Hindu that his father was initially unhappy with Missamma's music because he had to cater to Chakrapani (who had his own view of mainstream cinema). Rao said that his father was afraid of failure and rejection by filmmakers, and wanted to leave for Vizianagaram before the soundtrack's success. The soundtrack was a commercial success, with "Adavari Matalaku Ardhale Verule" in particular becoming a classic romantic song. According to M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu, Rajeswara Rao's music and Pingali's "situational" lyrics were major contributors to the film's commercial success. Narasimham praised "Brundavanamadi Andaridi" in particular: "Pingali’s lyric and Saluri’s melodious score breathed life into the voices of P. Susheela and A. M. Raja [sic]". A 26 January 1955 Andhra Patrika reviewer called Rajeswara Rao's soundtrack "soothing", and praised his ability to tune "Brundavanamadi Andaridi"'s uneven background properly. A Kinima magazine reviewer praised Pingali's lyrics in its February 1955 issue, saying that they were in tune with the situations the characters went through and "sarcastic enough, in sync with the film's tone". The reviewer praised Rajeswara Rao's music as "easily acceptable by all the sectors of the audience". ## Legacy According to M. L. Narasimham, "Brundavanamadi Andaridi"'s popularity made it a part of music lessons for children in Telugu-speaking regions. For "Sundarangulanu Choosina Velana" in the 1959 film Appu Chesi Pappu Koodu (also produced by Vijaya Vauhuni Studios), Rajeswara Rao re-used the melody of "Brundavanamadi Andaridi" at Chakrapani's insistence – a rare example of the composer recycling an earlier song. Pingali wrote that song's lyrics, and Ghantasala provided the vocals with Leela and Rajah. Leela sang songs from Missamma at her concerts, to popular acclaim. "Njaan Ariyathen", from the Malayalam film Jailppulli (1957), is loosely based on "Brundavanamadi Andaridi". "Adavari Matalaku Arthale Verule" was remixed by Mani Sharma with no changes to its melody and lyrics for the Telugu film Kushi (2001). It was sung by Korivi Muralidhar, who was known as Kushi Murali after the success of the remixed version. "Brundavanamadi Andaridi" was adapted by Hemanta Mukherjee as "Brindavan Ka Krishan Kanhaiya" for Missamma's Hindi remake, Miss Mary (1957).
462,812	Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia	1,167,279,006	null	[ "1463 deaths", "15th-century Bosnian people", "15th-century monarchs in Europe", "Bosnia and Herzegovina Roman Catholics", "Bosnian monarchs", "Despots of Serbia", "Dethroned monarchs", "Executed Bosnia and Herzegovina people", "Executed monarchs", "Kings of Bosnia", "Kotromanić dynasty", "Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime", "Roman Catholic monarchs", "Year of birth missing" ]	Stephen Tomašević or Stephen II (Serbo-Croatian: Stjepan/Stefan Tomašević, Стјепан/Стефан Томашевић; died 25 May 1463) was the last sovereign from the Bosnian Kotromanić dynasty, reigning as Despot of Serbia briefly in 1459 and as King of Bosnia from 1461 until 1463. Stephen's father, King Thomas, had great ambitions for him. An attempt to expand into Croatia by marrying Stephen to a wealthy noblewoman failed, and negotiations for a marital alliance with the Sforzas of Milan were abandoned when a more prestigious opportunity presented itself: marriage to the heiress Maria of Serbia. Celebrated in April 1459, it made Stephen the ruler of the remnants of the neighbouring country. The intent was to unite the Kingdom of Bosnia and the Serbian Despotate under Stephen to combat the expanding Ottoman Empire. However, Stephen's Catholicism made him unpopular in Orthodox Serbia. After ruling it for merely two months, he surrendered it to the encroaching Ottoman forces and fled back to his father's court, which earned him the contempt of the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus and other Christian rulers in Europe. Stephen succeeded his father on the throne following the latter's death in July 1461 and became the first Bosnian king to receive a crown from the Holy See. The kingdom's existence, however, was increasingly threatened by the Ottomans. King Stephen had the unanimous support of his noblemen in resistance to the Ottomans, but not of the common people. He maintained an active correspondence with Pope Pius II, who forgave him for the loss of Serbia and worked with him to preserve Bosnia for Christendom. The Hungarian king was placated, but all Western monarchs contacted by Stephen refused to assist him. Confident that at least Matthias would come to his aid, Stephen refused to deliver the customary tribute to the Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, which provoked an invasion. In May 1463, Mehmed marched into Bosnia, meeting little effective resistance, and captured Stephen, who was then beheaded. The execution marks the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia to the Ottoman Empire. ## Family Stephen was born into the House of Kotromanić as one of the two known sons of the Bosnian prince Thomas by a commoner named Vojača. The other son died as an adolescent. Stephen's father was an adulterine son of King Ostoja and a younger brother of Radivoj, who contested the rule of their cousin King Tvrtko II. Thomas was politically inactive and did not take part in the struggle between his brother and cousin, enabling his family to lead a quiet life in a period when the Ottomans tried to weaken the Kingdom of Bosnia by encouraging internal divisions. This all changed when the ailing and childless King Tvrtko II decreed that Thomas should succeed him. The King died shortly after, in November 1443, and Stephen's father ascended the throne. King Thomas, raised as a member of the Bosnian Church, converted to Roman Catholicism in c. 1445; Stephen Tomašević later stated that he had been baptized into the Roman Catholic Church as a child, and that he had been taught Latin letters. At about that time, likely in order to allow for a peaceful solution to his protracted war with the magnate Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, King Thomas requested from Pope Eugene IV an annulment of his union with Stephen's mother. Open warfare ended in 1446 with the marriage of Stephen's father to Kosača's daughter Catherine, by whom Stephen had a half-brother named Sigismund and a half-sister named Catherine. ## Marriage In the 1450s, King Thomas vigorously searched for suitable spouses for the children from his first union. Stephen's two sisters were married off in 1451, and in 1453 Stephen too entered his father's considerations. Wishing to gain control over the allodial land of Petar Talovac, who had governed Croatia proper as ban on behalf of the Hungarian king, Thomas attempted to have Stephen marry Talovac's widow, Hedwig Garai. Kosača too hastened to marry the wealthy widow, leading to an armed conflict, but neither prevailed due to an intervention by the Republic of Venice on behalf of Talovac's heirs. The earliest source mentioning Stephen by name dates from 30 April 1455, when Pope Callixtus III put the King of Bosnia and his son under his protection. King Thomas's ambitions for Stephen grew as he strived to establish closer relations with the Western world. In 1456, he asked the Pope to procure a bride for his son, specifying that she should be a princess from a royal house. Negotiations soon commenced about Stephen's marriage to an illegitimate daughter of Francesco I Sforza, Duke of Milan, but Stephen's father had greater expectations. When Lazar Branković, Despot of Serbia, died in 1458, an interregnum ensued. Having left three daughters and no sons, he had no clear heir, so the power was shared between his blinded brother Stephen and widow Helen Palaiologina. King Thomas took advantage of their weakness to recapture Eastern Bosnian towns he had lost to Serbia in 1445. Shortly afterwards, he entered peace negotiations with Lazar's widow, Helen Palaiologina. Abandoning the prospect of his son's marriage to a daughter of the Duke of Milan, Thomas came to an agreement with Helen: Stephen was to marry the eldest of her three daughters by Lazar, the c. 11-year-old Helen. The match was prestigious for Stephen not only because of the bride's descent from the Byzantine imperial family, but also because it brought the government of Serbia to the groom. The Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus agreed to Stephen's engagement with Helen – it was in his interest to create a strong buffer zone between his realm and the Ottoman Empire by uniting the Kingdom of Bosnia and the Despotate of Serbia, which he considered Hungary's vassal states, under Stephen Tomašević. The Diet of Hungary confirmed Stephen Tomašević's right to Serbia in January 1459. ## Despotism Stephen, accompanied by his uncle Radivoj, duly set out for Serbia but narrowly escaped imprisonment during an Ottoman raid on the Bosnian royal residence of Bobovac. He arrived to Smederevo, capital of the Eastern Orthodox despotate, during the Holy Week of 1459, and ascended the Serbian throne on 21 March. Michael Szilágyi, regent for the underage King Matthias, arrived at the head of an army to ensure that command over the town's fortress would be assumed by Stephen without any difficulties. Stephen's marriage to Helen took place on 1 April, the first Sunday following Easter. Following the presumably Catholic ceremony, the bride was known as Maria. He assumed the title of despot, despite the fact that the title was neither hereditary nor tied to a specific territory, but a grant from the Byzantine emperor. It is possible that his mother-in-law, a member of Byzantium's last imperial family, believed that she had the right to grant the title in the absence of an emperor. Within a week of the wedding, Stephen exiled his wife's uncle from Serbia. King Thomas boasted to the Duke of Milan that his son had been made despot "with the agreement and will of all the Rascians", but Stephen's regime was not particularly popular; chroniclers writing about his treatment of his wife's uncle cursed him as a schismatic. It was clear from the onset that Stephen's reign in Serbia would be short-lived. The Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror considered Stephen's enthronement an unwarranted violation of his own rights, for the Ottomans too considered Serbia their vassal state. Mehmed promptly launched an attack on Smederevo in June, and there was no serious consideration of trying to defend it. King Thomas rushed to his son's aid, trying to divert the Turks by laying siege to their fortress of Hodidjed, in the middle of Bosnia. Aware that Smederevo could not withstand Mehmed's attack, Stephen surrendered the fortress on 20 June. The Ottoman proceeded to annex the rest of the Serbian state to their empire within a year. Following the fall of the town which Pope Pius II lamentably termed "the gateway to Rascia", Stephen fled to Bosnia with his family and in-laws, seeking refuge at the court of his father. The King of Hungary accused Stephen and his family of selling Smederevo Fortress to the Ottomans "for a great weight of gold", and the Pope at first believed him. Pius's own investigation appears to have come to the conclusion that Stephen did not sell the fortress, as the Pope did not repeat the claim. Ottoman, Bosnian and Serbian sources say nothing about the supposed betrayal, so the allegation is unlikely to be based on fact. The Serbian-born janissary Konstantin Mihailović and the Byzantine Greek scholar Laonikos Chalkokondyles maintained Stephen's innocence and pointed out to the strength of the Ottoman army. Both state that the Serbs within Smederevo were so unhappy with Bosnian rule and convinced that the Ottomans would prevail (and grant them more religious tolerance than the Hungarians) that they went out to meet Mehmed and presented him with keys to the city. ## Kingship ### Accession and coronation King Thomas died in July 1461. According to later accounts, Thomas's death was plotted by Stephen and Radivoj, and even Matthias and Mehmed were implicated. Historians dismiss these allegations, however, pointing out that the King had been ill since June. Stephen ascended the throne without difficulty. He ensured that his uncle would not contest the succession by generously endowing him with land. The new monarch assumed the pompous title inherited from Tvrtko I, the first Bosnian king, styling himself as, "by the Grace of God, King of Serbia, Bosnia, the Maritime Lands, Zachlumia, Dalmatia, Croatia, and the Western lands" – regardless of the fact that Serbia had by then become an Ottoman pashaluk, that Croatia had been lost to Hungary in the 1390s, and that he had to beg the government of the Republic of Venice to allow him to take refuge in Dalmatia in case of an Ottoman attack. Immediately upon his accession, Stephen set out to resolve all disagreements within the royal family in order to strengthen his own position. His relations with his stepmother, the 37-year-old Queen Catherine, had been strained during his father's lifetime, but he now guaranteed that she would retain her title and privileges. Her father, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, wrote to Venetian officials that the King had "taken her as his mother", Vojača having already died by the time he ascended the throne. Kosača was the kingdom's most powerful nobleman, and had been engaged in a never-ending conflict with Stephen's father. Stephen Tomašević took the Venetians' advice to make peace with his stepgrandfather, thus finally ensuring the nobility's absolute support of their king. He then focused on improving Bosnia's economy, which became stronger than ever during his reign, and ensuring that the state would collect more profit from the flourishing metalworking trade. Problems rose soon already in the summer of 1461, when Pavao Špirančić, who governed Croatia as ban on behalf of the Hungarian king and frequently clashed with King Thomas, seized a border town. By late summer, Stephen and Kosača were preparing to strike him jointly and divide his territory between themselves. Venice objected, fearing that the fortresses Klis and Ostrovica, paramount to the defense of Dalmatia, might fall to the Ottomans if first taken over by the Bosnians. King Stephen wasted no time to solidify his relations with the Holy See. He sent a desperate plea to Pope Pius, asking him to send bishops, crusading weapons, and a coronation crown, as well as to be recommended to Matthias Corvinus. Stephen hoped that, with the Pope's urging, the Hungarian king would agree to provide him with military aid. On 17 November, the feast of Saint Gregory Thaumaturgus, who had been proclaimed "Defender of Bosnia" at royal request, the papal legate and newly appointed bishop Nicholas of Modruš crowned Stephen in the Church of Saint Mary in Jajce. It was the last coronation performed in Bosnia, as well as the only one performed with a crown sent from Rome. It exemplified how, with the religious persecution established by Thomas and with Stephen's active correspondence with the papacy, the Kingdom of Bosnia acquired the character of a true Catholic state only at its very end. The belated attempt at sanctification of the Bosnian monarchy gravely offended the Hungarian king Matthias, who saw the Pope's involvement in the coronation as an infringement of the rights of Hungarian kings. Matthias went so far as to request that the Pope withdraw his support of Stephen. Pope Pius and Bishop John Vitéz mediated in the dispute between the kings of Bosnia and Hungary, but the negotiations did not proceed easily. The relations were finally repaired in the spring of 1462. Matthias was driven by the need to ransom the Crown of St Stephen from Emperor Frederick III, and Stephen was obliged to contribute. In return for the Hungarian king's good graces, Stephen was also required to cede certain towns, swear fealty and to refuse to pay tribute to the Ottomans. ### Ottoman invasion By the spring of 1462, it was known that Mehmed had decided to conquer Bosnia. Stephen and Kosača desperately sought help from Christian rulers. The King maintained contact with the Pope, who had his legates stay permanently at the Bosnian royal court and who strived to concentrate as many soldiers and as much weapons as possible in the threatened kingdom. The authorities of the neighbouring Republic of Ragusa were enlisted to secure the support of the Albanian ruler Skanderbeg, who was subsequently allowed by the Venetians to pass with his army through Venetian Albania on their way to Bosnia. Venice itself promised no assistance, suggesting instead that Stephen and Kosača should trust in their own forces. Others, such as King Ferdinand I of Naples, cited domestic issues and offered nothing more than moral support. While doing everything possible to secure foreign aid, King Stephen found that there was little will to resist within the country. He complained to Pope Pius that the local population leaned towards the Ottomans, which may have been due to increased exploitation and incessant warfare (as opposed to a stable Ottoman regime). The previously tacit discontent of forcefully converted elders of the Bosnian Church became prominent. According to a contemporary, Stephen generously bestowed gifts and honors in order to inspire loyalty, and awarded fortified towns to untrustworthy people, even including former "heretics". The greatest blow to the defense efforts, however, was the old conflict between Kosača and his son Vladislav Hercegović, which was resumed in the spring of 1462. Vladislav personally sought help from Mehmed later that year, and the Ottoman ruler eagerly accepted. Encouraged by Matthias's commitment to help and possibly by the Bishop of Modruš, Stephen Tomašević made an imprudent and fatal decision in June 1462. Pope Pius wrote in his diary that, "relying on one knows what hope", the King "refused the tributes which his ancestors had long been used to pay the Ottomans and had stormed the town which the enemy had built at the confluence of Sava and Bosna to put fear into the Hungarians and Slavs." According to Chalkokondyles, Stephen invited the Ottoman ambassador to his treasure house and showed him the money set aside as tribute, but informed him that he would rather use it to fight off an Ottoman attack or to live off it in exile. Mehmed the Conqueror was enraged by Stephen's insubordinance and audacity. The Pope recounts how, hearing of the Sultan's vow to conquer his kingdom and destroy him, Stephen summoned the Bishop of Modruš and blamed him for infuriating the Sultan. He commanded Nicholas to go to Hungary and seek immediate action against the Ottomans, but no help ever arrived to Bosnia from Christendom. Matthias, Skenderbeg and the Ragusans all failed to carry out their promises. In the spring of 1463, Mehmed gathered an army of 150,000 men in Adrianople and prepared to march towards Bosnia. In his despair, Stephen Tomašević turned to the Sultan himself and tried at the last moment to procure a 15-year-long truce with him. Konstantinović claimed that he was present when the Ottomans duped the Bosnian envoys into thinking that the King's request for truce was granted, and that he tried to warn them about the deceit. Mehmed's army set out right after the envoys. Fortresses fell rapidly, and King Stephen fled with his family and possessions from Bobovac to Jajce. The Ottoman army under the leadership of Mahmud Pasha Angelović laid siege to Bobovac on 19 May, with the Sultan joining them the following day. Angelović was tasked with capturing the King. Believing that Bobovac could withstand the siege for two years, Stephen planned to assemble an army in Jajce, still counting on foreign aid. He sent his wife with their possessions to Dalmatia, while his stepmother took the rest to Ragusa. ### Capture and death Contrary to Stephen Tomašević's expectations, Bobovac fell within days. The King had already realized that he had no choice but to take refuge in the neighbouring Croatia or Dalmatia. Angelović tirelessly pursued him, and caught up with him in Ključ. The Ottoman army was reportedly about to pass the city's fortress, not suspecting that the King was hiding within its walls, when a local man revealed his whereabouts in return for money. A four-day-long siege of the fortress ensued. Eager to capture him, Angelović had his messengers solemnly promise the King that he would be done no harm if he surrendered, and sent him a document guaranteeing him freedom. With food supplies and ammunition running short, Stephen decided to surrender himself and his garrison to Angelović. Angelović, in turn, brought him, his uncle Radivoj and 13-year-old cousin Tvrtko before Mehmed in Jajce. Stephen sought to ingratiate himself with Mehmed by sending out orders to commanders and castellans to surrender, enabling his captor to take command of more than 70 towns in one week. Mehmed, however, had no intention of sparing Stephen's life and summoned him on 25 May. Stephen fearfully brought Angelović's document, but Mehmed's Persian-born mullah, Ali al-Bistami, issued a fatwah declaring that the Sultan was not bound to keep the promise made by his servant without his knowledge. As if to demonstrate the validity of his fatwah, the elderly mullah took out his sword and beheaded Stephen in front of Mehmed. The chronicler Benedetto Dei, who claimed to have been part of the Sultan's retinue, recorded that Mehmed himself decapitated Stephen. According to later accounts, Mehmed had Stephen flayed or used as a shooting target. The execution of the King, his uncle, cousin and two noblemen took place in a field next to Jajce, which has since been known as Carevo Polje ("the Emperor's Field"). ## Assessment and legacy Stephen Tomašević was buried on a hill near Jajce. Europe was stunned to see the Bosnian state fall almost completely within weeks of his death. The country's quick submission is said to be the consequence of a poor cooperation between Stephen and his noblemen, but it is perhaps most accurate to attribute it to the people's low morale and general belief that the conquest was inevitable. Additionally, the religiously diverse Bosnians were aware, much like the neighbouring Serbians, that the country would be overrun by Hungary if not by the Ottomans, and that they would enjoy far less freedom of religion and far higher taxes in that case. Therefore, resistance was not as strong as it could have been. Pope Pius's claim that adherents of the Bosnian Church betrayed the kingdom is groundless. Stephen Tomašević's half-siblings were taken to Constantinople and converted to Islam. Queen Catherine, his stepmother, left for the Papal States and unsuccessfully campaigned for the restoration of the kingdom; Bosnia only ceased to be part of the Ottoman Empire in 1908, 445 years after Stephen's death. His widow, Queen Maria, spent the rest of her life in the Empire. In 1888, the Croatian archeologist Ćiro Truhelka excavated bones in a settlement close to Jajce known as Kraljev Grob (meaning King's Tomb) and found the skeleton of a decapitated adult male. The head was placed on the chest, with two coins in the mouth. Though by no means certain, it was assumed that the skeleton belonged to Stephen Tomašević. Despite objection from the friar Antun Knežević, who argued for leaving the bones where they had laid for centuries and constructing a small church at the site, the skeleton was placed in a glass coffin in the right aisle of the Franciscan monastery in Jajce. ## Family tree
39,207,996	Brazilian Dreams	1,074,636,396	null	[ "2002 live albums", "Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album", "MCG Jazz albums", "Paquito D'Rivera live albums" ]	Brazilian Dreams is a live album by Cuban jazz performer Paquito D'Rivera. It was recorded at the Manchester Craftsmen's Guild in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, between April 26 and 29, 2001, and released by MCG Jazz on August 27, 2002. The album features guest performances by the American vocal group New York Voices and trumpeter Claudio Roditi. In the United States, it peaked at number 22 on Billboard's Top Jazz Albums chart. Produced by Jay Ashby, the album features seven songs written by Brazilian performers including Antônio Carlos Jobim, Luiz Bonfá, João Donato and Caetano Veloso, and three original songs, and was conceived as a tribute to the music of Brazil of which D'Rivera has always been an admirer. Brazilian Dreams received mixed reviews by critics, some praising the performers and the musical selection, and others being critical about the lack of improvement on the arrangements on the classic songs of the genre included. The album earned D'Rivera the Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album. ## Background and release Cuban saxophonist and clarinet player Paquito D'Rivera decided to record an album paying tribute to Brazilian music after being invited by several Brazilian performers to play their native music. D'Rivera also featured in Americanos: Latino Life in the United States, a 2000 documentary produced by American actor Edward James Olmos, representing Brazil. "I feel a great passion for the culture and music of Brazil, and it gives me pleasure to declare publicly that my heart is half Brazilian," D'Rivera declared on his autobiography My Sax Life (2005). The album features the American group New York Voices since D'Rivera has always been an admirer of vocal quartets and wanted to "kill two birds with one stone". He further explained that in Cuba "musicians listened to radio stations from Miami mostly for the jingles sung by gringo vocal groups." Brazilian Dreams was released by MCG Jazz on August 27, 2002 and was the tenth album recorded by the Manchester Craftsmen's Guild, following A Nancy Wilson Christmas by Nancy Wilson, Joe Williams Presents: Nicole Yarling Live at The Manchester Craftsman Guild and the Dizzy Gillespie All-Stars's Things to Come, among others. ## Content Brazilian Dreams was recorded live at the Manchester Craftsmen's Guild in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania between April 26 and 29, 2001. The album includes ten songs and features Kim Nazarian, Lauren Kinhan, Darmon Meader and Peter Eldridge of the New York Voices as backing vocalists. Performer Claudio Roditi is also featured playing trumpet, while D'Rivera plays clarinet. Most of the songs included are written by Brazilian songwriters paying homage to the music of the country; the setlist includes eight songs written by Antônio Carlos Jobim, Gene Lees, Luiz Bonfá, Matt Dubey, João Donato, Caetano Veloso and three original songs by Roditi and D'Rivera. The first track, "Corcovado", includes a "vocal texture" inspired by Brazilian vocal groups Quarteto em Cy, MPB4 and The Swingle Singers. "One for Tom" is based on "Se todos fossem iguas a voce" by Jobim and features a tenor sax solo by Darmon Meader. "Meu Amigo" is supported by D'Rivera's clarinet and backing vocals in "an exquisite interplay of harmonies and solo sax with the slightest bass." "Retrato Em Branco E Prêto" features Nazarian performing vocals in Portuguese language. ## Reception and accolades Brazilian Dreams received mixed reviews from critics. Paula Edelstein of AllMusic gave the album four stars out of five, praising the performer skills "leading his own ensembles or playing with renowned jazz masters, Paquito D'Rivera continues to make a decidedly fresh imprint on Latin and Brazilian jazz." William Grim of All About Jazz wrote that Brazilian Dreams was "a very satisfying album" hoping that D'Rivera, Roditi and the New York Voices record another album based on Brazilian music due to the large extension of the musical catalog of the country. C. Michael Bailey, also of All About Jazz, stated that the album "is superb and fantastic in every way." Morrice Blackwell of Jazz Review named the album a "musical match made in heaven", praising the performers and the sound quality, considering that it is a live performance. Blackwell also commented on the Manchester Craftsmen's Guild which "continually offer a complete jazz experience." On a second review by Jazz Review, Lee Prosser referred to the album as a "classic Brazilian music collection... something all jazz listeners can appreciate, enjoy, and want to have in their CD library collections", to finally declare that it was "one of the very finest collections of music released in the year 2002." Maurice Bottomley of PopMatters wrote that the record is "gentle, cultured, and perhaps overly refined, but it is very accomplished and does actually swing," further commenting that "it is also truer to the spirit of bossa nova in its first North American flowering than some will care to admit." However, Leila Cobo of Billboard magazine was critical about the fact that some tracks do not add much to the originals, but the album "stays merely pleasant, notably in 'Desafinado' and 'Manhã de Carnaval / Gentle Rain'." On a negative review by Mike Quinn of JazzTimes stated that the album should be renamed "Brazilian Nightmares" and it is "impossible to escape the insipid vocal stylings of the 'New York Voices' or the cliched horn arrangements that can be heard on bossa nova records going back as far as the '50s." Quinn was also critical of the repertoire since "Brazil has produced more music than the usual 20 or 30 tunes that keep getting led to the butcher's block." Brazilian Dreams reached number 35 at the CMJ Jazz Albums chart and peaked at number 22 on Billboard's Top Jazz Albums chart. D'Rivera was awarded the Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album at the 4th Latin Grammy Awards, and with this recognition became the only performer to receive accolades in the Jazz and Classical music fields, after his album Historia del Soldado (Histoire du soldat by Igor Stravinsky) earned the Best Classical Album at the same ceremony. ## Track listing Track listing adapted from AllMusic. ## Personnel - Hélio Alves – piano - Jay Ashby – arranger, mixing, producer, trombone - Marty Ashby – executive producer, guitar, liner notes - Luiz Bonfá – composer - Bill Bonidie – production coordination - Robert Bowman – photography - Paulinho Braga – drums - Paquito D'Rivera – clarinet, composer, main performer, sax (alto) - João Donato – composer - Matt Dubey – composer - Jay Dudt – engineer, mixing - Dario Eskenazi – arranger - Renée Govanucci – associate producer - Antônio Carlos Jobim – composer - Gene Lees – composer - Jim Manly – layout design - Darmon Meader – arranger, sax (tenor), scat, soloist, vocals - David Mills – production coordination - New York Voices – guest artist - Peter Eldridge – arranger, vocals - Lauren Kinhan – vocals - Darmon Meader – vocals - Kim Nazarian – composer, vocals - Claudio Roditi – composer, trumpet - David Samuels – composer - Oscar Stagnaro – bass - Caetano Veloso – composer Credits are adapted from AllMusic.
35,821,587	Dressin' Up	1,165,376,941	Song by Katy Perry	[ "2012 songs", "Dance-rock songs", "Katy Perry songs", "Song recordings produced by Tricky Stewart", "Songs written by Katy Perry", "Songs written by Matt Thiessen", "Songs written by Tricky Stewart" ]	"Dressin' Up" is a song by American singer Katy Perry from Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection (2012). It was written by Perry, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, Monte Neuble, and Matt Thiessen, and produced by Stewart and Kuk Harrell. Musically, "Dressin' Up" incorporates the styles of electro and dance-rock, along with a prominent electronic dance production. Lyrically, the song speaks of dressing up in different outfits for a lover, and contains multiple innuendos. "Dressin' Up" garnered mixed reviews from critics, some of whom complimented its "fun" sound, while others denounced it as being too similar to Perry's other songs. Upon the release of Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection, the song charted on the UK Singles Chart at number 109. ## Background In October 2011, Tricky Stewart told MTV that he was back in the studio with Perry working on leftovers from their Teenage Dream sessions. He stated: "Katy and I went into [the studio] just to address some issues with [the] records that we had done in the past that didn't end up going on [the album], so we are in the process of just listening and freshening up things and getting ready for something special she has going on", hinting that Teenage Dream would have a re-release. Stewart also added: "We always knew that the records we created were special [and] at the time it was more contractual obligation [that they did not make the album], I can only have so many songs produced by me on the album, and she honestly didn't need any more records, as you can tell by the success of this album, the songs have been flawless." The producer later revealed one of the songs was titled "Dressing Up", saying: "This song is really special. It's called 'Dressing Up,' so it's going to be a big record, I think, it definitely fits. It's right there in what her sensibilities are as a musician and a songwriter. She doesn't change much. She has a very keen musical taste. It'll be really good". ## Recording "Dressin' Up" was written by Perry, along with Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, Monte Neuble, and Matt Theissen. Production of the song was handled by Stewart and Kuk Harrell, who provided the song's vocal production. It was recorded and engineered at Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas, Nevada, Triange Sound Studios and Silent Sound Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, The Boom Boom Room in Burbank, California, and at Triangle Sound Studios in Encino, California. It was engineered by Brian "B-LUV" Thomas, Andrew Wuepper, Chris "TEK" O'Ryan, and Pat Thrall, with assistance from Luis Navarro, Steven Dennis, Mark Gray, Kory Aaron, Charles Malone, Randy Urbanski, Justin Roberts, Steven Villa, and James Hunt. Vocoder and vocal effects were carried out by Thrall, who also played the rhythm guitar. Drum programming and sequencing was done by Stewart along with Kenneth "Soundz" Colby, with additional programming coming from Mike Green. Stewart and Neuble played the keyboards, Malone, Julio Mirando, and Daniel Silvestri played the guitar, while Silvestri played the bass guitar. The guitars and bass were recorded and engineered by Nick Chahwala, while Serban Ghenea mixed the song at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach, Virginia. "Dressin' Up" was engineered by John Hanes, and was assisted by Phil Seaford. ## Composition and reception "Dressin' Up" has a length of three minutes and forty-four seconds. Musically, the song incorporates dance-rock and electro styles, and features an electronic dance production. Lyrically, the song is about dressing up for one's lover, and sees Perry "inviting some 'dirty doggie' to 'pet her kitty.'" State in the Real reviewer Chris Will deemed it similar to Perry's other songs, calling it "pretty typical in the scope of Katy Perry's sound." Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly praised "Dressin' Up" as a "fun" song. Maritess Calabria of RyanSeacreast.com praised the song as "smooth and sultry". Becky Bain from Idolator felt the song contained some "absolutely ridiculous" verses. A lyric video for the song was released shortly after Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection. Jenna Hally Rubenstein from MTV praised the song's lyric video as "lyric video nirvana". Christopher Rosa of Glamour ranked it as Perry's 10th worst song, writing that its chorus was "chaotic". ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Teenage Dream. Recording - Recorded at Studio at the Palms (Las Vegas), Triangle Sound Studios & Silent Sound Studios (Atlanta, Georgia), The Boom Boom Boom (Burbank, California), Triange Sound Studios (Encinal, California). - Mixed at Mixtar Studios, Virginia Beach. Personnel - Katy Perry – songwriting, vocals - Matt Thiessen – songwriting - Tricky Stewart – songwriting, production, recording, programming - Monte Neuble – songwriting - Brian Thomas – recording - Chris O'Ryan – recording - Pat Thrall – recording, vocal recording - Kuk Harrell – vocal recording, vocal production - Kenneth Colby – programming ## Charts Upon the release of Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection, "Dressin' Up" debuted and peaked at number 109 on the issue date of April 7, 2012, on the UK Singles Chart. The song was the third highest debuting album track from its parent album.
45,413,605	Italian cruiser Pisa	1,149,453,130	Italian lead cruiser of Pisa-class	[ "1907 ships", "Pisa-class cruisers", "Ships built in Livorno", "World War I cruisers of Italy" ]	The Italian cruiser Pisa was the name ship of her class of two armored cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy (Regia Marina) in the first decade of the 20th century. The ship participated in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912, during which she supported the occupations of Tobruk, Libya and several islands in the Dodecanese and bombarded the fortifications defending the entrance to the Dardanelles. During World War I, Pisa's activities were limited by the threat of Austro-Hungarian submarines, although the ship did participate in the bombardment of Durazzo, Albania in late 1918. After the war she became a training ship and was stricken from the Navy List in 1937 before being scrapped. ## Design and description Pisa had a length between perpendiculars of 130 meters (426 ft 6 in) and an overall length of 140.5 meters (460 ft 11 in). She had a beam of 21 meters (68 ft 11 in) and a draft of 7.1 meters (23 ft 4 in). The ship displaced 9,832 metric tons (9,677 long tons) at normal load, and 10,600 metric tons (10,400 long tons) at deep load. The Pisa-class ships had a complement of 32 officers and 652 to 655 enlisted men. The ship was powered by two vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller shaft using steam supplied by 22 Belleville boilers. Designed for a maximum output of 20,000 indicated horsepower (15,000 kW) and a speed of 22.5 knots (41.7 km/h; 25.9 mph), Pisa handily exceeded this, reaching a speed of 23.47 knots (43.47 km/h; 27.01 mph) during her sea trials from 20,808 ihp (15,517 kW). She had a cruising range of about 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km; 2,900 mi) at a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). The main armament of the Pisa-class ships consisted of four Cannone da 254/45 V Modello 1906 guns in twin-gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure. The ships mounted eight Cannone da 190/45 V Modello 1906 in four twin-gun turrets, two in each side amidships, as their secondary armament. For defense against torpedo boats, the ships carried 16 quick-firing (QF) Cannone da 76/50 V Modello 1908 guns and eight QF Cannone da 47/40 V Modello 1908 guns. They were also equipped with three submerged 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes. During World War I, her 76 and 47 mm guns were replaced by twenty 76/40 guns; six of these were anti-aircraft guns. Pisa was protected by an armored belt that was 200 mm (7.9 in) thick amidships and reduced to 90 mm (3.5 in) at the bow and stern. The armored deck was 51 mm (2.0 in) thick. The conning tower armor was 180 mm (7.1 in) thick. The 254 mm gun turrets were protected by 160 mm (6.3 in) of armour while the 190 mm turrets had 140 mm (5.5 in). ## Construction and career Pisa, named after the eponymous city, was laid down on 20 February 1905 at the Orlando shipyard in Livorno. The ship was launched on 15 September 1907 and completed on 1 September 1909. When the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912 began on 29 September 1911, Pisa was the flagship of Rear-Admiral Ernesto Presbitero, commander of the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet. Pisa and her sister ship, Amalfi, were among the ships selected for the initial blockade of Tripoli. On 2 October, the Training Division relieved the 1st Squadron in blockade duty, allowing them to join the main Italian fleet. After a fruitless search for the main Ottoman fleet and the peaceful occupation of Tobruk, Pisa, Amalfi, and the battleship Napoli were joined by the recently commissioned armored cruiser San Marco, three destroyers, and two torpedo boats. The group escorted several Italian transports that arrived off Derna on 15 October. After negotiations for a surrender of the town fell apart, Pisa shelled the barracks and a fort. There was no return fire from Derna, so a boat with offers of a truce was sent in. When it was greeted by a volley of rifle fire, Pisa and the other armored cruisers opened fire on the town with their 190 mm guns and, according to a contemporary account, "completely destroyed" the town in 30 minutes time. A landing party was unable to reach the shore because of rough seas and gunfire from the shore. Pisa and her consorts then shelled the beach for two hours. Weather conditions prevented a landing until the 18th, when 1,500 men took possession of Derna. Pisa remained in North African waters until mid-December when most of the 1st Squadron returned to Italy. Pisa later escorted several troop transports from Augusta, Sicily in an attempt to seize the port of Zuara shortly before Christmas that was foiled by bad weather. In mid-April 1912 the Italian fleet sortied into the eastern Aegean Sea with Pisa and Amalfi leading in an attempt to lure out the Ottoman fleet. When that failed, the Italians bombarded the fortifications defending the Dardanelles to little effect before the main body departed for Italy on the 19th. Pisa, Amalfi, and an assortment of smaller craft were left behind, however, to continue destroying telegraph and radio stations and cutting underwater cables. Sailors from the two cruisers captured the island of Astropalia on 28 April to allow Italian forces to use it as supply base. A week later, the ship supported the occupation of Rhodes on 4 May. Pisa returned to Italy in September, but after the war ended she spent the first half of 1913 in Constantinople and the Aegean before returning to Taranto on 24 June. The ship was based at Brindisi when Italy declared war on the Central Powers on 23 May 1915. That night, the Austro-Hungarian Navy bombarded the Italian coast in an attempt to disrupt the Italian mobilization. Of the many targets, Ancona was hardest hit, with disruptions to the town's gas, electric, and telephone service; the city's stockpiles of coal and oil were left in flames. All of the Austrian ships safely returned to port, putting pressure on the Regia Marina to stop the attacks. When the Austrians resumed bombardments on the Italian coast in mid-June, Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel responded by sending Pisa and the other armored cruisers at Brindisi—the navy's newest—to Venice to supplement the older ships already there. Shortly after their arrival at Venice, Amalfi was sunk by a submarine on 7 July and her loss severely restricted the activities of the other ships based at Venice. Pisa was transferred to Vlore, Albania in April 1916 and participated in the bombardment of Durazzo on 2 October 1918 which sank one merchantman and damaged two others. On 1 July 1921, Pisa was reclassified from a second-class battleship to a coastal battleship and became a training ship. In 1925 she was modified to operate a Macchi M.7 flying boat. From 1925 to 1930, the ship was used to train naval cadets and lieutenants. Pisa was stricken on 28 April 1937 and subsequently broken up.
1,704,695	Chilembwe uprising	1,173,154,566	Rebellion against colonial rule (1915)	[ "1910s in Nyasaland", "1915 in Africa", "1915 in the British Empire", "20th century in Malawi", "20th-century rebellions", "African resistance to colonialism", "African theatre of World War I", "Chilembwe uprising", "Conflicts in 1915", "History of Malawi", "January 1915 events", "Millenarianism", "Nyasaland in World War I", "Opposition to World War I", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Rebellions in Africa", "Wars involving Malawi" ]	The Chilembwe uprising was a rebellion against British colonial rule in Nyasaland (modern-day Malawi) which took place in January 1915. It was led by John Chilembwe, an American-educated Baptist minister. Based around his Church in the village of Mbombwe in the south-east of the protectorate, the leaders of the revolt were mainly from an emerging black middle class. They were motivated by grievances against the colonial system including forced labour, racial discrimination, and new demands imposed on the indigenous population following the outbreak of World War I. The revolt broke out in the evening of 23 January 1915 when rebels, incited by Chilembwe, attacked the headquarters of the A. L. Bruce Plantation at Magomero and killed three white people. A largely unsuccessful attack on a weapons store in Blantyre followed during the night. By the morning of 24 January the colonial authorities had mobilised the white settler militia and redeployed regular military units from the King's African Rifles (KAR). After a failed attack by government troops on Mbombwe on 25 January, the rebels attacked a Christian mission at Nguludi and burned it down. The KAR and militia took Mbombwe without encountering resistance on 26 January. Many of the rebels, including Chilembwe himself, fled towards Portuguese East Africa (modern Mozambique), hoping to reach safety there, but many were captured. About 40 rebels were executed in the revolt's aftermath, and 300 were imprisoned; Chilembwe was shot dead by a police patrol near the border on 3 February. Although the rebellion did not itself achieve success, it is commonly cited as a watershed moment in Malawian history. The rebellion had lasting effects on the British system of administration in Nyasaland, and some reform was enacted in its aftermath. After World War II, the growing Malawian nationalist movement reignited interest in the Chilembwe revolt, and after the independence of Malawi in 1964 it became celebrated as a key moment in the nation's history. Chilembwe's memory, which remains prominent in the collective national consciousness, has often been invoked in symbolism and rhetoric by Malawian politicians. Today, the uprising is celebrated annually and Chilembwe himself is considered a national hero. ## Background British colonial rule in the region of modern-day Malawi, where the revolt occurred, began between 1899 and 1900, when the British sought to increase their formal control over the territory to preempt encroachment by German or Portuguese colonial empires. The region became a British protectorate in 1891 (as "British Central Africa") and in 1907, was named Nyasaland. Unlike many other parts of Africa, where British rule was dependent on the support of local factions, in Nyasaland British control rested on military superiority. During the 1890s the colonial authorities put down numerous rebellions by the local Yao, Ngoni and Cewa peoples. British rule in Nyasaland radically altered the local indigenous power structures. The early colonial period saw some immigration and settlement by white colonists, who bought large swathes of territory from local chiefs, often for token payments in beads or guns. Most of the land acquired, particularly in the Shire Highlands, was converted into white-owned plantations where tea, coffee, cotton and tobacco were grown. The enforcement of colonial institutions, such as the Hut Tax, compelled many indigenous people to find paid work and the demand for labour created by the plantations led to their becoming a major employer. Once employed on the plantations, black workers found that they were frequently beaten and subject to racial discrimination. Increasingly, the plantations were also forced to rely on a system, known locally as thangata, which at best involved exacting considerable labour as rent in kind and could degenerate into forced labour or corvée. ### Chilembwe and his Church John Chilembwe, born locally in around 1871, received his early education at a Church of Scotland mission and later met Joseph Booth, a radical Baptist missionary who ran the Zambezi Industrial Mission. Booth preached a form of egalitarianism and his progressive attitude towards race attracted Chilembwe's attention. Under Booth's patronage, Chilembwe travelled to the United States to study at a theological college in Virginia. There he mixed in African-American circles and was influenced by stories of the abolitionist John Brown and the egalitarianist Booker T. Washington. Despite his Christian pacifist and visionary temperament, Booth was also highly critical of established institutions such as the colonial regime and the Protestant churches of Nyasaland. He was particularly hostile towards the missionaries of Church of Scotland in Blantyre, criticizing their affluent lifestyle in comparison to the poverty of local peasants. Both the colonial government and Presbyterian missionaries were concerned by Booth's "dangerous egalitarian spirit" and being "a determined advocate of racial equality, as well as being fundamentally opposed to the colonial state". Booth was also a staunch advocate of establishing his own industrial mission in addition to the religious one, and acquired 26,537 acres of land at Mitsidi with the help of Harry Johnston. Despite the fact that Booth was an avid anti-colonialist and Johnston a colonial advocate, both men were united by their disdain of Church of Scotland, and Johnston was eager to aid Booth in order to undermine the efforts of Scottish missionaries. Booth's industrial missions were to be "self-managed by educated Africans, and to be largely focussed on agricultural and industrial production". The missions were to be self-supporting and managed by African themselves, with European settlers only serving as guides and advisors. Booth had profound influence on Chilembwe, and his egalitarian and proto-nationalist ideals shaped Chilembwe's own views as well as his Baptist faith. Having managed to become a competition to other Protestant missionaries, Booth attracted many missionary-educated Africans away from the Presbyterians by offering them exorbitant wages - an African worker was paid 18 shillings a month by Booth, whereas the normal rate in the 1890s was only around three shillings. However, he paid his own African labourers in calico, worth only around two shillings, which was actually less than the salary offered by the rest of European settlers. He founded the African Christian Union, where he emphasized the need for Africans themselves to govern their economy, rather than have the European colonists ‘drain the wealth of Africa’. His organisation had three goals, namely "to spread the Christian gospel throughout the African continent; to establish what he termed ‘Industrial Missions’; and finally, to restore Africa to the African". He advocated for African self-government, and envisioned self-sustainable African economies managed by educated Africans, placing particular emphasis on the production of tea, coffee, cocoa and sugar, as well as mining and manufacturing. Morris notes a significant contradiction in Booth's views that Chilembwe ended up inheriting, being a staunch egalitarianist while also calling for a hierarchical plantation economy and highly capitalist society. To this end, both Chilembwe and Booth were "the embodiment of the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism". Chilembwe returned to Nyasaland in 1900 and, with the assistance of the African-American National Baptist Convention, he founded his independent church, the Providence Industrial Mission, in the village of Mbombwe. He was considered a "model of non-violent African advancement" by the colonial authorities during the mission's early years. He established a chain of independent black African schools, with over 900 pupils in total and founded the Natives' Industrial Union, a form of cooperative union that has been described as an "embryo chamber of commerce". Nevertheless, Chilembwe's activities led to friction with the managers of the local Alexander Livingstone Bruce Plantation, who feared Chilembwe's influence over their workers. In November 1913, employees of the local A. L. Bruce Estates burnt down churches that Chilembwe or his followers had built on estate land. Information about Chilembwe's Church before the rebellion is scant, but his ideology proved popular and he developed a strong local following. For at least the first 12 years of his ministry, he preached ideas of African self-respect and advancement through education, hard work and personal responsibility, as advocated by Booker T. Washington, and he encouraged his followers to adopt European-style dress and habits. His activities were initially supported by white Protestant missionaries. The Mission's schools meanwhile began teaching racial equality, based on Christian teaching and anti-colonialism. Many of his leading followers, several of whom participated in the uprising, came from the local middle-class, who had similarly adopted European customs. Chilembwe's acceptance of European culture created an unorthodox anti-colonial ideology based around a form of nationalism, rather than a desire to restore the pre-colonial social order. Following Booth's example, Chilembwe engaged not only in educational work and evangelism, but also attempted to establish his own agricultural estate. He employed local Lomwe labourers on his plots of coffee, rubber, pepper ad cotton. He won the respect of both fellow Africans and European landowners, and until 1914 "government officials and European missionaries alike regarded Chilembwe with some favour". He became the local leader of emerging African planters and entrepreneurs, particularly attracted to his own Protestant church congregation. It was during this time that Chilembwe started identifying with the discontent of both African classes - the Lomwe immigrants whom he employed, as well as emerging African entrepreneurs. Both African classes were highly alienated by the thangata system, which required every tenant to work for the estate owner in order to pay their rent and "hut tax". Labour rent was imposed during the brief rainy season, which forced Africans to work on their landowner's land while having no time to tend to their own at the critical time of the year. African tenants also had to follow strict regulations, and were prohibited from acquiring timber or hunting animals. In addition, European landowners would often force their tenants to work for far more than the system allowed for, beat their workers with a whip and forced African widows to work on the land too. Chilembwe acted as a spokesman for the local Lomwe people. Meanwhile, the African planters were frustrated by economic restrictions and social discrimination that they had to endure despite adopting the European way of life. They were unable to obtain freehold land or credit and didn't have the right to sign the labour-tax certificates of their employees, which undermined their chances of attracting workers. Additionally, the colonial government openly favoured the white landowners, who acted like "feudal lords" on their own. Every African planter was "obliged to take off his hat for any European, whether government official or not", and a failure to do so often meant physical and verbal abuse. White settlers and even Protestant ministers, despite preaching equality, resented the African planters, as the fact that educated Africans embraced European fashion and expected to be treated equally was considered "above their station". William Jervis Livingstone was particularly known for using derogatory phrases towards educated and landowning Africans, asking "whose slave they are". Morris identifies this discrimination as one of the main causes for the rebellion. After 1912, Chilembwe became more radical and began to predict the liberation of the Africans and the end of colonial rule, and began to foster closer links with a number of other independent African churches. From 1914, he preached more militant sermons, often referring to Old Testament themes, concentrating on such aspects as the Israelites' escape from slavery in Egypt , Chilembwe himself was not part of the apocalyptic Watch Tower movement, which was popular in central Africa at the time and later became known as Kitawala in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but some of his followers may have been influenced by it. The leader of Watch Tower, Charles Taze Russell had predicted that Armageddon would begin in October 1914, which some of Chilembwe's followers equated to an end to colonial rule. ### World War I World War I broke out in July 1914. By September 1914, the war had spread to Africa as the British and Belgians began a long military campaign against the German colonial army in German East Africa. In Nyasaland, the major effect of the war was massive recruitment of Africans to serve as porters in support of the Allied armies. Porters lived in extremely poor conditions which left them exposed to disease and mortality rates among them during the campaigns were high. At the same time, the recruitment of porters created a shortage of labour which increased the economic pressures on Africans in Nyasaland. Millenarians at the time believed that World War I would be a form of Armageddon, which they believed would destroy the colonial powers and pave the way for the emergence of independent African states. Chilembwe opposed the recruitment of the Nyasan people to fight what he considered to be a war totally unconnected to them. He promoted a form of Christian pacifism and argued that the lack of civil rights for Africans in the colonial system should exempt them from the duties of military service. In November 1914, following reports of large loss of life during fighting at Karonga, Chilembwe wrote a letter to The Nyasaland Times in Blantyre, explicitly appealing to the colonial authorities not to recruit black troops: > As I hear that, war has broken out between you and other nations, only whitemen, I request, therefore, not to recruit more of my countrymen, my brothers who do not know the cause of your fight, who indeed, have nothing to do with it ... It is better to recruit white planters, traders, missionaries and other white settlers in the country, who are, indeed, of much value and who also know the cause of this war and have something to do with it ... (original syntax and grammar) ### Preparations Preparations for the uprising had begun by the end of 1914. Exactly what Chilembwe's objectives were remains unclear but some contemporaries believed that he planned to make himself "King of Nyasaland". He soon acquired a military textbook and began to organise his followers and wider support. In particular, he formed close ties with Filipo Chinyama in Ncheu, 110 miles (180 km) to the north-west and received his assurance that he would also mobilise his followers to join the rebellion when it broke out. The colonial authorities received two warnings that a revolt was imminent. A disaffected follower of Chilembwe reported the preacher's "worrying intentions" to Philip Mitchell, a colonial civil servant (and future governor of Uganda and Kenya), in August 1914. A Catholic mission was also warned but neither took any action. Brian Morris notes that no action was taken as the colonial regime had no way to confirm the rumours, given the secretive way of the uprising. ## Rebellion ### Outbreak During the night of Saturday 23–24 January, the rebels met at the Mission church in Mbombwe, where Chilembwe gave a speech stressing that none of them should expect to survive the reprisals that would follow the revolt but that the uprising would draw greater attention to their conditions and destabilise the colonial system. This, Chilembwe believed, was the only way change would ever occur. A contingent of rebels was sent to Blantyre and Limbe, about 15 miles (24 km) to the south, where most of the white colonists lived and where the insurgents hoped to capture the African Lakes Company's store of weapons. Another group headed towards the Alexander Livingstone Bruce Plantation's headquarters at Magomero. Chilembwe sent a messenger to Ncheu to alert Chinyama that the rebellion was starting. Chilembwe also sought support for his uprising from the German forces in German East Africa, on Nyasaland's far northern border, hoping that a German offensive from the north combined with a native insurrection in the south might force the British out of Nyasaland permanently. On 24 January, he sent a letter to the German Governor by courier through Portuguese East Africa. The courier was intercepted and the letter was never received. During the latter stages of the East African Campaign, after the German invasion of Portuguese East Africa, the German colonial army actually helped to suppress anti-Portuguese rebellions, among the Makombe and Barue peoples, worrying that African uprisings would destabilise the colonial order. ### Attack on the Livingstone Bruce Plantation The major action of the Chilembwe uprising involved an attack on the Bruce plantation at Magomero. The plantation spanned about 5,000 acres (20 km<sup>2</sup>) and grew both cotton and tobacco. Around 5,000 locals worked on it as part of their thangata obligations. The plantation had a reputation locally for the poor treatment of its workers and for the brutality of its managers, who closed local schools, beat their workers and paid them less than had been promised. Their burning of Chilembwe's church in November 1913 created a personal animosity with the rebel leadership. The insurgents launched two roughly concurrent attacks—one group targeted Magomero, the plantation headquarters and home of the main manager William Jervis Livingstone and a few other white staff, while a second assaulted the plantation-owned village of Mwanje, where there were two white households. The rebels moved into Magomero in the early evening, while Livingstone and his wife were entertaining some dinner guests. The estate official, Duncan MacCormick, was in another house nearby. A third building, occupied by Emily Stanton, Alyce Roach and five children, contained a small cache of weapons and ammunition belonging to the local rifle club. The insurgents quietly broke into the Livingstone's house and injured him during hand-to-hand fighting, prompting him to take refuge in the bedroom, where his wife attempted to treat his wounds. The rebels forced their way into the bedroom, and after capturing his wife, decapitated Livingstone. MacCormick, who had been alerted, was killed by a rebel spear. The attackers took the women and children of the village prisoner but shortly released them unhurt, having reportedly treated them well. It has been suggested that Chilembwe may have hoped to use the women and children as hostages, but this remains unclear. The attack on Magomero, and in particular the killing of Livingstone, had great symbolic significance for Chilembwe's men. The two Mauser rifles captured from the plantation formed the basis of the rebel armoury for the rest of the uprising. Mwanje had little military value but it has been proposed that the rebels may have hoped to find weapons and ammunition there. Led by Jonathan Chigwinya, the insurgents stormed one of the houses and killed the plantation's stock manager, Robert Ferguson, with a spear as he lay in bed reading a newspaper. Two of the colonists, John Robertson and his wife Charlotte, escaped into the cotton fields and walked 6 miles (9.7 km) to a neighbouring plantation to raise the alarm. One of the Robertsons' African servants, who remained loyal, was killed by the attackers. ### Later actions The rebels cut the Zomba–Tete and Blantyre–Mikalongwe telephone lines, delaying the spread of the news. The African Lakes' Company weapons store in Blantyre was raided by a force of around 100 rebels at around 02:00 on 24 January, before the general alarm had been raised by news of the Magomero and Mwanje attacks. The defenders mobilised after an African watchman was shot dead by the rebels. The insurgents were repulsed, but not before they had captured five rifles and some ammunition, which was taken back to Mbombwe. A number of rebels were taken prisoner during the retreat from Magomero. After the initial attacks on the Bruce plantation, the rebels returned home. Livingstone's head was taken back and displayed at the Providence Industrial Mission on the second day of the uprising as Chilembwe preached a sermon. During much of the rebellion, Chilembwe remained in Mbombwe praying and leadership of the rebels was taken by David Kaduya, a former soldier in the King's African Rifles (KAR). Under Kaduya's command, the rebels ambushed a small party of government soldiers near Mbombwe on 24 January, described as the "one reverse suffered by the government" during the uprising. By the morning of 24 January the government had levied the Nyasaland Volunteer Reserve, a settler militia and redeployed the 1st Battalion, KAR from the north of the colony. The rebels did not mount any further attack any of the many other isolated plantations in the region. They also did not occupy the boma (fort) at Chiradzulu just 5 miles (8.0 km) from Mbombwe, even though it was ungarrisoned at the time. Rumours of rebel attacks spread, but despite earlier offers of support, there were no parallel uprisings elsewhere in Nyasaland and the promised reinforcements from Ncheu did not materialise. The Mlanje or Zomba regions likewise refused to join the uprising. ### Siege of Mbombwe and attempted escape Troops of the KAR launched a tentative attack on Mbombwe on 25 January but the engagement proved inconclusive. Chilembwe's forces held a strong defensive position along the Mbombwe river and could not be pushed back. Two African government soldiers were killed and three were wounded; Chilembwe's losses have been estimated as about 20. On 26 January, a group of rebels attacked a Catholic mission at Nguludi belonging to Father Swelsen. The mission was defended by four African armed guards, one of whom was killed, Father Swelsen was also wounded in the fighting and the church was burnt down, resulting in the death of a young girl who was inside at the time. The military and militia forces assaulted Mbombwe again the same day but encountered no resistance. Many rebels, including Chilembwe, had fled the village disguised as civilians. Mbombwe's fall and the government troops' subsequent demolition of Chilembwe's church with dynamite ended the rebellion. Kaduya was captured and brought back to Magomero where he was publicly executed. This was the final attack of the rebellion, and Morris attributed the decision to attack the Catholic mission to "the pervasive anti-Catholic sentiments expressed by the independent Baptists". Following the attacks, Chilembwe would meditate on the summit of Chilimankhanje hill instead of attempting to regroup the now dispersed rebel troops. He was eventually convinced to leave the hill and escape to Mozambique, a land that he had already been to numerous times during his hunting trips. Chilemwe also wrote a letter to the German colonial regime in Tunduru, asking for aid. He never received a response, and the letter was considered an embarrassment to his supporters, given Germany's reputation as a particularly oppressive colonial power. After the defeat of the rebellion, most of the remaining insurgents attempted to escape eastwards across the Shire Highlands, towards Portuguese East Africa, from where they hoped to head north to German territory. Chilembwe was seen by a patrol of Nyasaland police and shot dead on 3 February near Mlanje. Many other rebels were captured; 300 were imprisoned following the rebellion and 40 were executed. Around 30 rebels evaded capture and settled in Portuguese territory near the Nyasaland border. ## Aftermath The colonial authorities responded quickly to the uprising with as much force and as many troops, police and settler volunteers it could muster to hunt down and kill suspected rebels. There was no official death toll, but perhaps 50 of Chilembwe's followers were killed in the fighting, when trying to escape after or summarily executed. Worrying that the rebellion might rapidly reignite and spread, the authorities instigated arbitrary reprisals against the local African population, including mass hut burnings. All weapons were confiscated and fines of 4 shillings per person were levied in the districts affected by the revolt, regardless of whether the people in question had been involved. As part of the repression, a series of courts were hastily convened which passed death sentences on Forty-six men for the offences of murder and treason and 300 others were given prison sentences. Thirty-six were executed and, to increase the deterrent effect, some of the ringleaders were hanged in public on a main road close to the Magomero Estate where Europeans had been killed. The colonial government also began attacking the rights of missionaries in Nyasaland and, although Anglican missions, those of the Scottish churches and Catholic missions were not affected, it banned many smaller, often American-originated churches, including the Churches of Christ and Watchtower Society, from Nyasaland, and placed restrictions on other African-run churches. Public gatherings, especially those associated with African-initiated religious groups, were banned until 1919. Fear of similar uprisings in other colonies, notably Northern Rhodesia, also led to similar repression of independent churches and foreign missions beyond Nyasaland. Though the rebellion failed, the threat to colonial rule posed by the Chilembwe revolt compelled the local authorities to introduce some reform. The colonial government proposed to undermine the power of independent churches like Chilembwe's, by promoting secular education but lack of funding made this impossible. The government began to promote tribal loyalties in the colony, through the system of indirect rule, which was expanded after the revolt. In particular, the Muslim Yao people, who attempted to distance themselves from Chilembwe, were given more power and autonomy. Although delayed by the war, the Nyasaland Police, which had been primarily composed of African askaris levied by local white officials, was restructured as a professional force of white colonists. Forced labour was retained, and would remain a resentment for decades afterwards. While the uprising enjoyed sympathy amongst Yao commoners, none of the Yao chiefs in the Shire Highlands supported it. Most of them embraced Islam instead of Christianity and considered the African planters a threat to their political hegemony. The Commission of Enquiry dismissed the uprising as a localised affair caused by harsh mistreatment of natives by the Magomero estate. However, the grievances expressed by Chilembwe were not unique to his area, and the Africans across the entire Nyasaland identified with his struggle. Africans had no rights as tenants under the thangata system, had to pay rent in labour, and were prohibited from gathering wood or hunting wild animals in the woodlands surrounding the European estates, even though they considered woodland resources to be common property. Harry Kambwiri Matecheta noted that while the British colonial regime did suppress slave trade, the thangata system simply introduced a new form of slavery. The rebels were of diverse social and economic backgrounds, consisting of Yao people, Lomwe immigrants, agricultural farmers and African pretty bourgeoisie. The colonial regime ignored African petitions and failed to translate their laws into local languages, leading to many locals not understanding them at all. Morris notes that Africans of Nyasaland were increasingly hostile to the British rule due to physical abuse and mistreatment they had to endure, and if the rebellion managed to get support from German East Africa and acquire weapon caches during the attack African Lakes Company depot in Blantyre, it could have turned into "a wider and more protracted struggle". Morris concludes that the rebellion was a response to colonial oppression, particularly towards racial injustice. It was a "struggle for freedom" with elements of Christian utopianism, with Chilembwe expressing two contrasting political traditions - Booth's radical egalitarianism and a "petty capitalist orientation" of the Protestant churches, which stressed the right to private property, wage labour and commercial agriculture. ### Commission of Enquiry In the aftermath of the revolt, the colonial administration formed a Commission of Enquiry to examine the causes and handling of the rebellion. The Commission, which presented its conclusions in early 1916, found that the revolt was chiefly caused by mismanagement of the Bruce plantation. The Commission also blamed Livingstone himself for "treatment of natives [that was] often unduly harsh" and for poor management of the estate. The Commission found that the systematic discrimination, lack of freedoms and respect were key causes of resentment among the local population. It also emphasised the effect of Booth's ideology on Chilembwe. The Commission's reforms were not far-reaching—though it criticised the thangata system, it made only minor changes aimed at ending "casual brutality". Though the government passed laws banning plantation owners from using the services of their tenants as payment of rent in 1917, effectively abolishing thangata, it was "uniformly ignored". A further Commission in 1920 concluded that the thangata could not be effectively abolished, and it remained a constant source of friction into the 1950s. ## In later culture Despite its failure, the Chilembwe rebellion has since gained an important place in the modern Malawian cultural memory, with Chilembwe himself gaining "iconic status." The uprising had "local notoriety" in the years immediately after it, and former rebels were kept under police observation. Over the next three decades, anti-colonial activists idealised Chilembwe and began to see him as a semi-mythical figure. The Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) of the 1940s and 1950s used him as a symbolic figurehead, partly because its president, James Chinyama, had a family connection to Filipo Chinyama, who had been believed to be an ally of Chilembwe's. When the NAC announced that it intended to mark 15 February annually as Chilembwe Day, colonial officials were scandalised. One wrote that to "venerate the memory of the fanatic and blood thirsty Chilembwe seems to us to be nothing less than a confession of violent intention." D. D. Phiri, a Malawian historian, characterised Chilembwe's uprising as an early expression of Malawian nationalism, as did George Shepperson and Thomas Price in their 1958 book Independent African, an exhaustive study of Chilembwe and his rebellion that was banned during the colonial era but still widely read by the educated classes. Chilembwe became viewed as an "unproblematic" hero by many of the country's people. The Malawi Congress Party (MCP), which ultimately led the country to independence in 1964, made a conscious effort to identify its leader Hastings Banda with Chilembwe through speeches and radio broadcasts. Bakili Muluzi, who succeeded Banda in 1994, similarly invoked Chilembwe's memory to win popular support, inaugurating a new annual national holiday, Chilembwe Day, on 16 January 1995. Chilembwe's portrait was soon added to the national currency, the kwacha, and reproduced on Malawian stamps. It has been argued that for Malawian politicians, Chilembwe has become "symbol, legitimising myth, instrument and propaganda". ## Historical analysis The revolt has been the subject of much research and has been interpreted in various ways by historians. At the time, the uprising was generally considered to mark a turning point in colonial rule. The Governor of Nyasaland, George Smith, declared that the revolt marked a "new phase in the existence of Nyasaland". According to the military historian Hew Strachan, the Chilembwe uprising tarnished British prestige in East Africa which contributed, after the appointment of the future Prime Minister Bonar Law as Secretary of State for the Colonies, to renewed pressure for an Anglo-Belgian offensive against German East Africa. Chilembwe's aims have also come under scrutiny. According to Robert I. Rotberg, Chilembwe's speech of 23 January appeared to stress the importance and inevitability of martyrdom as a principal motivation. The same speech depicted the uprising as a manifestation of desperation but because of his desire to "strike a blow and die", he did not have any idea of what he would replace colonialism with if the revolt succeeded. Rotberg concludes that Chilembwe planned to seize power in the Shire Highlands or perhaps in all of Nyasaland. John McCracken attacks the idea that the revolt could be considered nationalist, arguing that Chilembwe's ideology was instead fundamentally utopian and created in opposition to localised abuses of the colonial system, particularly thangata. According to McCracken, the uprising failed because Chilembwe was over-reliant on a small Europeanised petite bourgeoisie and did not gain enough mass support. Rotberg's examination the Chilembwe revolt from a psychoanalytical perspective concludes that Chilembwe's personal situation, his psychosomatic asthma and financial debt may have been contributory factors in his decision to plot the rebellion. ## See also - Bussa rebellion—a 1915 uprising against British indirect rule in northern Nigeria - Chimurenga—a rebellion against the British South Africa Company administration in nearby Southern Rhodesia in 1896–97. - Maji Maji Rebellion—a war against German colonial rule in East Africa, 1905–08 - History of Malawi
65,939,716	Pied Cow Coffeehouse	1,173,867,880	Restaurant and hookah lounge in Portland, Oregon, U.S.	[ "Coffee in Portland, Oregon", "Coffeehouses and cafés in Oregon", "Reportedly haunted locations in Portland, Oregon", "Restaurants in Portland, Oregon", "Sunnyside, Portland, Oregon" ]	The Pied Cow Coffeehouse, or simply the Pied Cow, is a coffeehouse and hookah lounge in Portland, Oregon's Sunnyside neighborhood, in the United States. The restaurant has an "eclectic" interior decor and, in addition to coffee drinks and hookah, serves fondue, desserts, mezze platters, and wine. It is known for being reportedly haunted by a woman named Lydia and has received generally positive reviews. The Pied Cow appears in Robyn Miller's 2013 film The Immortal Augustus Gladstone, which also featured a cameo appearance by restaurant owner Jimmy Chen, and on the artwork for Kyle Craft's 2018 album Full Circle Nightmare. ## Description The Pied Cow is a coffeehouse and hookah lounge along Belmont Street, housed in a reportedly haunted Victorian house in southeast Portland's Sunnyside neighborhood. The menu includes coffee-based drinks, cheese fondue, mezze platters, hummus, desserts, beer, wine, tea, and hookah. Menus display quotes by Friedrich Nietzsche. The interior is "eclectically decorated" and has a "cluttered altar dedicated to everyone from Nick Cave to Buddha". Dylan Jefferies and Delaney White of the Daily Vanguard called the Pied Cow "whimsical", writing that "numerous Victorian paintings and eclectic items adorn the walls, and a staircase is built up like a kind of altar, with various flowers, silks and dolls ornamenting every step". According to Thrillist, the restaurant's patio is covered during winter months and the lawn is used during the summer months. The exterior has tall hedges and trees, as well as benches, plastic chairs, and "mismatched" lawn furniture. The large white tent used for outdoor dining is illuminated by heat lamps and Christmas lights. In 2014, a writer for The Columbian said the Pied Cow has a "varied clientele". In 2012, Willamette Week's John Locanthi said the establishment did not serve people under the age of 21. In contrast, in 2019 the paper said, "Anyone who grew up in Portland, especially in Southeast, knows the Pied Cow as a place to go to before turning 21." ## History Before the Pied Cow, the house was occupied by a "lively" restaurant called Buttertoes. The restaurant was opened by three sisters in 1979 and continued operating into the early 1990s. The walls had murals of fairies and mermaids. In 1996, Jennifer "Jenny" Joyce painted Keep on the Sunnyside, a ten-panel mural celebrating the "history and character" of the neighborhood, along SE 30th Avenue at Belmont. One of the panels depicts the house and the Thaddeus Fisher House. Faded over time by multiple cleanings and neglect, the mural was repainted by the Portland Street Art Alliance, which supports muralists and other street artists, with Joyce's permission in 2018. Robyn Miller's 2013 mockumentary film The Immortal Augustus Gladstone about a "150-year-old epileptic vampire with gay tendencies" was set in Portland and filed in part at the Pied Cow. The restaurant's owner, Jimmy Chen, made a cameo appearance. Described as "strangely poetic" by The Washington Post, the film won Best Picture at the Oregon Independent Film Festival. The photograph used as artwork for Kyle Craft's 2018 album Full Circle Nightmare was taken at the Pied Cow. Additionally, the restaurant served as a set for the music video to Craft's song "Heartbreak Junky". ### Reported haunting The building, which has housed Buttertoes and the Pied Cow, is reportedly haunted by a "kind and gentle" woman named Lydia, who "made items fall off shelves in the kitchen on a regular basis". In 2017, The Oregonian's Grant Butler said the house "looks like the perfect setting for a ghost story" and wrote, "What gained [Buttertoes] notoriety was its reputation for being haunted by a ghost named Aunt Lydia." Jefferies and White described the apparition in more detail: > The Ghost of Aunt Lydia, as she is known, is reportedly a friendly and gracious ghost. She is known to be seen with her hair pinned up, wearing black boots and a high-collared dress... Aunt Lydia would often rearrange table settings and move things in the kitchen. The owners of Buttertoes hired a psychic who determined there was "a spirit was present in the home". A waitress reportedly resigned from the restaurant "after feeling so uncomfortable while closing by herself", according to Jefferies and White. In 2009, a server who had worked for Pied Cow for three years described a sink where she had felt "creeped out", saying, "I've semi-frequently had the feeling of seeing someone come down the stairs and go into the office." In 2013, employee Zachary Schauer recalled seeing Lydia after a long shift and said, "I just didn't give a shit and went upstairs. Several different people have seen her, and nothing really crazy has happened. It's a pretty typical young Catholic girl in a white dress kind of deal." In a 2009 overview of Portland's reportedly haunted sites, Chen "declined to comment on the restaurant's alleged haunting. But in the kitchen, the wait staff buzzes with talk of the creepy basement." Jefferies and White said the Pied Cow "certainly plays up the haunted vibe" and wrote in 2019, "Many believe that the Ghost of Aunt Lydia still haunts the quirky Victorian house, and patrons of the Pied Cow still keep an eye out for her while sipping mint tea and smoking ornate hookahs." ## Reception In 2009, the Portland Mercury described the Pied Cow as a "pie shop/hookah bar/dispensary of all-around-delicious eats". Portland Monthly has said, "If you're looking for an unusual coffee house experience, this place is it. Walking into the Pied Cow is like stepping into your great-grandmother's parlor, complete with 19th century furniture and an array of wall art. Adding to the quirk, there's hookah on the patio and solid marionberry pie." In his 2012 book, Peaceful Places Portland, Paul Gerald wrote: > The lingering image after having a cup or plate at the Pied Cow could, depending on the season, be of an opium den, a Casbah, or a picnic on some hippie's farm. Inside, the room seems always dark, as if to be a retreat from light itself. Servers come and go from a tiny kitchen, and the looming space of the big old Victorian house adds a sense of mystery; not only does it feel somehow hidden from Belmont Street, but one is also left to wonder what's upstairs... At the Pied Cow it always seems like nighttime, but it's far from gloomy. In his 2012 guide to local hookah establishments, John Locanthi of Willamette Week said the Pied Cow was dog-friendly and had "a more limited selection of flavors, mostly offering single fruit flavors". Furthermore, he opined, "The tranquil courtyard is the perfect spot to take a date. Mellow music, elegant wooden benches and delicious snacks are the perfect accompaniments to a warm summer evening." Jennifer Gilroy recommended the Pied Cow for hookah in her 2015 overview of smoking options in Portland. In her article on the "best secret nooks and hidey-holes in Portland cafes", the newspaper's Shannon Gormley called the restaurant "a goth's approximation of an Old World cafe" and wrote in 2017, "Since the Pied Cow doubles as a late-night hookah bar, it's rarely crowded during regular coffee-shop hours, which makes the tiny tables pushed up against large windows perfect loner havens... [T]he tent houses a few tables, but during off hours, you're most likely to have it all to yourself." In 2018, Lauren Yoshiko recommend the pecan pie "on the back patio (hookah optional), where there is often a very friendly neighborhood cat awaiting your attention". A writer for The Columbian found the wait staff friendly and opined in 2014, "On a warm summer evening, the ample outdoor seating of Pied Cow under light-strung trees is just chill." Thrillist called the Pied Cow "a Portland classic" and said the exterior landscaping will make you "feel like you're dining in your own private garden". Zagat gives the Pied Cow ratings of 4.6 for food, 4.5 for decor, and 4.0 for service, each on a scale of 5. The guide said, "Beautiful meets bohemian at this Sunnyside coffeehouse set in a grand Victorian, where regulars fall in love with the exquisite desserts and other sweet and savory nosh plates; the romantic patio doubles as a hookah garden, and while it can get crowded, it's still a date-worthy choice, especially on summer nights." ## See also - List of reportedly haunted locations in the United States
4,196,014	Mark Baldwin (baseball)	1,173,875,504	American baseball player (1863–1929)	[ "1863 births", "1929 deaths", "19th-century baseball players", "Allentown Buffaloes players", "Allentown Kelly's Killers players", "Ashland (minor league baseball) players", "Baseball players from Pennsylvania", "Binghamton Bingoes players", "Burials at Allegheny Cemetery", "Chicago Pirates players", "Chicago White Stockings players", "Columbus Solons players", "Duluth Jayhawks players", "Easton (minor league baseball) players", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "New York Giants (NL) players", "Penn State Nittany Lions baseball players", "Pennsylvania Republicans", "Pittsburgh Pirates players", "Pottsville Colts players", "Rochester Browns players", "University of Maryland School of Medicine alumni" ]	Marcus Elmore Baldwin (October 29, 1863 – November 10, 1929), nicknamed "Fido" and "Baldy", was an American right-handed professional baseball pitcher who played seven seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB). In 346 career games, he pitched to a 154–165 win–loss record with 295 complete games. Baldwin set the single-season MLB wild pitches record with 83 that still stands today. Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Baldwin made his professional debut for a Cumberland, Maryland team in 1883. Though signed by Chicago White Stockings president Albert Spalding to pitch in the 1886 World Series, Baldwin did not play after the St. Louis Browns, against whom Chicago played, objected. He made his MLB debut for the White Stockings in 1887, when a writer for the Oshkosh Daily Northwestern called him the "swiftest pitcher in the National League" (NL). Released by Chicago player–manager Cap Anson, he signed with the Columbus Solons of the American Association (AA) in 1889, where he led the league in innings pitched, with 513+2⁄3, losses, with 34, strikeouts, with 368, and walks, with 274. In 1889, Baldwin, described as "intelligent and outspoken," recruited players for the Chicago Pirates of the Players' League (PL). Baldwin played for Chicago and finished the year as the PL leader in games played as a pitcher (58), innings pitched (492), wins (33), strikeouts (206), complete games (56), and walks (249), as the Pirates finished fourth in the league, ten games behind the first-place Boston Reds. Retrospectively, a PL historian described him as a star of the league. Back in the NL, he signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates, where he played from 1891 to 1893. Baldwin was arrested after the Homestead strike in 1892 and charged with aggravated riot, but never received a trial. He finished his MLB career with the New York Giants in 1893, and played several seasons for independent teams afterwards. During his career, he batted and threw right-handed, weighed 190 pounds (86 kg), and stood 6 feet (180 cm) tall. After baseball, Baldwin became a physician and practiced at Passavant Hospital in Pittsburgh. He died of cardiorenal disease on November 10, 1929, and is interred at Allegheny Cemetery. ## Early life Marcus Elmore Baldwin was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on October 29, 1863, to Franklin E. and Margaret Baldwin. One of two children to the couple, Mark and his family moved to Homestead, Pennsylvania in 1872. Franklin, a real estate speculator, previously worked as a steelworker and a nailer. As a child, Mark wanted to be a physician. Mark started to pitch for amateur Homestead teams in 1880, and, after high school, attended Pennsylvania State University (PSU). ## Professional career Baldwin made his professional debut for a team in Cumberland, Maryland, in 1883, while he attended PSU. Two years later, he pitched for McKeesport, who finished first in the Western Pennsylvania league. Accounts of when Baldwin started pitching conflict: according to an 1891 article in The Pittsburgh Press, he earned per game for pitching for McKeesport. According to an article in the Pittsburgh Daily Post, McKeesport manager Frank Torreyson recommended him to Duluth of the Northwestern League as a third baseman in spring 1886. Due to weak pitching, Duluth played Baldwin as a pitcher. Baldwin had asked Pittsburgh Alleghenys secretary Scandrett for a tryout, and president William A. Nimick consented, but manager Horace Phillips opposed the idea and a tryout never happened. Instead, Scandrett wrote a letter recommending Baldwin to Duluth management. On June 18, 1886, Baldwin struck out 18 batters, 12 successively, against the St. Paul Freezers. Baldwin had 19 strikeouts in 12 innings in a 4–3 loss at Oshkosh, Wisconsin on September 13, 1886. According to a friend of Baldwin, when Duluth fined Baldwin for poor play, he intentionally performed poorly until Duluth revoked the fine. According to a Pittsburgh Daily Post writer, Duluth won its league pennant due "chiefly on account of Baldwin's pitching". After a tryout, Chicago White Stockings president Albert Spalding signed Baldwin to a contract to replace injured rookie Jocko Flynn: Chicago wanted Baldwin to play in the 1886 World Series, but the opposing St. Louis Browns objected, so Baldwin never played. ### Chicago White Stockings (1887–88) Baldwin listed his birthdate when he played for Chicago in 1887 as 1867, which followed a theme of childishness and "extreme petulance" in him according to baseball historian David Nemec. In spring training prior to the 1887 season, a hotel employee found Baldwin and Tom Daly unconscious in their room, which smelled of gas. Either Daly or Baldwin accidentally blew out a flame in a gas light. Baldwin almost died, but was revived by a doctor. In preparation for the year, Baldwin joined Chicago during spring training in Hot Springs, Arkansas. Though in March 1887, Baldwin "expected to rank next to [John] Clarkson" among Chicago's pitchers, in April, The Sporting News reported Baldwin "[was] regarded in Chicago as little better than a failure". On May 2, Baldwin made his MLB debut against the Indianapolis Hoosiers in a 9–1 Chicago loss. Later in the month, Baldwin held the Boston Beaneaters to one run in a 3–1 Chicago victory, part of a week in which Baldwin's development surprised a writer for The Post, who discounted the earlier evaluation of Baldwin as a failure. In June, a correspondent for The Clipper complimented Baldwin on his endurance and curveballs, while an Oshkosh Daily Northwestern writer called him the "swiftest pitcher in the National League". Baldwin finished the season at an 18–17 win–loss record, with 164 strikeouts and 122 walks over 334 innings pitched, as Chicago finished 71–50, third in the NL. By December, Baldwin had re-signed with the club. With the sale of Clarkson to Boston, only White Stockings' player–manager Cap Anson, according to one prediction, believed the team could win a pennant. In a May 30 game against the Washington Nationals, Baldwin sprained a tendon in his right leg, an injury from which he did not return until early July. As a club, Chicago finished the season second in the NL, nine games behind the New York Giants, with a 77–58 record. Baldwin led his team with 15 losses and 99 walks. A monkey bit Baldwin on Spalding's 1888–89 World Tour after he fed it pretzels and beer. On April 24, 1889, Anson released him and three other White Stockings and stated he would rather "take eighth place with [a team of gentlemen] than first with a gang of roughs". According to Baldwin, Chicago did not restrict alcohol consumption on the tour and after he hinted he would not sign for the salary of the previous season, he was released. Later in the year, Anson cited Baldwin's lack of pitch control as a reason for his release. Baldwin signed with the Columbus Solons of the AA on May 3. ### Columbus Solons and Chicago Pirates (1889–90) Baldwin, who debuted for the Solons on May 4 in a showing described by The Chicago Tribune as "anything but credible," explained his poor opening game as a result of unfamiliarity with AA coaching methods. By late June, a month in which he hit a double, three triples, and a home run over a three-game span, Baldwin was "doing better", according to a writer for The Chicago Tribune. According to a writer for The Saint Paul Globe, Baldwin pitched the "best ball in the [A]ssociation" in July. On August 31, Baldwin set the single-game AA record for strikeouts with 13 against the Browns. In his only season in the AA, Baldwin led the league in innings pitched (513+2⁄3), losses (34), strikeouts (368), walks (274), and wild pitches (83), the last of which set a major league record that still stands today. Baldwin's 274 walks set a then-MLB record. In November 1889, Baldwin met in Chicago with the National Brotherhood of Professional Baseball Players, a union of baseball players which would form the Players' League (PL) in 1890, where the union reportedly discussed the formation of a Chicago team. Despite an attempt by Anson to convince Baldwin to sign with an NL team in which Anson "spent more money than he [had] spent before", on November 21, Baldwin signed a PL contract for the Chicago team, nicknamed the Pirates. Baldwin's 1.77 "average earned runs per game by opponents" through May 21, 1890 ranked second-lowest in the PL, while his seven games played as a pitcher tied for second highest in the league. On why he joined the league, Baldwin said he was "not playing ball for principles", but rather for the "money that's in it", and on other players in the PL stated "not one of them ever had much faith in the principles which were said to have led to the revolt". Baldwin finished the year as the PL leader in games played as a pitcher (58), innings pitched (492), wins (33), strikeouts (206), complete games (56), and walks (249), as the Pirates finished fourth in the PL, ten games behind the first-place Boston Reds. Retrospectively, PL historian Ed Koszarek described him as a star of the league. When the PL disbanded in a joint NL–AA ratification on January 16, 1891, Columbus retained Baldwin under reserve, and Baldwin officially signed with the team in January 1891 for \$2,900 (). After a discussion with Pittsburgh Alleghenys team owner J. Palmer O'Neil in February, he jumped contract and signed with Pittsburgh late that month or early in March despite saying he did not want to play for the club earlier in the year. ### Pittsburgh Pirates and New York Giants (1891–93) In early March, Baldwin tried to convince Jack O'Connor of the Solons and Silver King of St. Louis to sign with Pittsburgh. Chris von der Ahe, owner of the St. Louis Brown Stockings, had Baldwin arrested for allegedly conspiring with O'Neil to sign players from St. Louis to Pittsburgh shortly thereafter. The charges were later nolle prossed. Around this time, the Alleghenys nickname changed to the Pirates due to the club's habit of signing players from other teams. In August he allowed only one hit against the Boston Beaneaters in a complete game. He ended an eleven-game winning streak of games in which he pitched in September. Baldwin had a 2.76 earned run average (ERA) and a 1.40 walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) rate in his first year with the club as the Pirates finished last in the NL; Baldwin's 23 hit batsmen led the league, while his totals in innings pitched, wins, losses, and complete games led the club. He re-signed with the Pirates in November. In 1892, he served as an NL umpire. Baldwin pitched on Opening Day for Pittsburgh on April 12, 1892 in a 7–5 Pittsburgh victory against the Cincinnati Reds. In July, Baldwin asked Brooklyn Bridegrooms president Charles Byrne to trade him to the team in exchange for pitcher Tom Lovett. The proposition never went through, possibly because Brooklyn opposed it. Baldwin either asked for a ten-day vacation or the Pirates suspended him for ten games starting around August 6 due to indifferent play. Pittsburgh gave Baldwin a ten-day notice of intent to release on August 25, 1892 with a local paper stating the Pittsburgh magnates thought of him as "unreliable, of uncertain temper and [believing] his heart was never in the game". The Pirates possibly gave him a ten-day notice due to his involvement in the Homestead strike, a labor strike between workers of the Carnegie Steel Company and members of the Pinkerton detective agency hired by management to introduce strikebreaker workers to the mill. In September 1892, Carnegie Steel Company Secretary F.T.F. Lovejoy provided information which left Baldwin charged with aggravated riot. Baldwin stated he was at the strike "merely as a spectator", and when the surrender of the Pinkertons occurred he "went to his home in Homestead and in no way aided or abetted the attack on the defenseless prisoners". Baldwin was released from prison after his father posted \$2,000 () bail. He later rejoined the club on the team's trip east, with the club recalling his release. Baldwin was re-arrested on September 23 along with 166 other defendants on the same charge, but never received a trial. He finished the 1892 season with a 26–27 win–loss record and a 3.47 ERA as the team ended with a 80–73–2 win–loss–tie record, sixth in the NL. He led the team in wins and losses, games pitched, innings pitched, complete games, walks, strikeouts, and tied with Red Ehret and Phil Knell for the league lead in hit batsmen. In the off-season, Baldwin sold real estate and insurance in Homestead, and stated he did not care about returning to baseball after refusing a contract with the Pirates due to low wages. He re-signed with Pittsburgh in February 1893 for \$2,400 (), the same amount for which he reportedly refused a contract with Pittsburgh earlier. In a game against a team from New Orleans during the off-season, Baldwin walked eleven batters. He appeared in one game for the 1893 Pirates before the club released him in early May. He signed with the New York Giants shortly thereafter in a move that also saw the release of King. In July, Baldwin ended a streak of eleven games pitched in which he did not record a win. He ended the year with a 16–20 record and a 4.10 ERA as the club finished at a 68–64–4 record (fifth in the NL). Baldwin's 33 complete games were second on the Giants to Amos Rusie's 50. In 346 career MLB games, he pitched to a 154–165 win–loss record with 295 complete games. ### Independent ball (1894–95) In March 1894, New York released Baldwin. An article in The Cincinnati Enquirer stated Baldwin could not find a team with which to sign due to his lawsuit against von der Ahe, and a retrospective article in The Washington Post stated Baldwin and King were "marooned" due to their involvement in the Association–League war of 1891. Baldwin originally did not want to play in a minor league, though he signed with the Allentown Kelly's Killers in mid May. In a game against Harrisburg in late June, Baldwin allowed at least 23 hits. He spent the 1894 season with the Binghamton Bingoes/Allentown Buffaloes of the Eastern League (EL), the Allentown Kelly's Killers/Easton/Ashland, and the Pottsville Colts, the last two of which competed in the Pennsylvania State League (PSL). The Colts ended the season with a 62–44 record, which ranked first in the PSL, and won the league's championship in a disputed game. An article in the Pottsville Miners Journal stated "his excellent work for Pottsville in the championship games had much to do with bringing our club to first place". He additionally played four games for the Yonkers club of the EL. Baldwin signed with the Philadelphia Phillies in October. Though an article in The Philadelphia Inquirer stated Baldwin was "certain to stay" with the team on March 31, 1895, the Phillies released him in April due to his drinking. The Phillies recalled his release in early May, but he did not appear in a regular-season game for the team. Shortly after his first release, Baldwin re-signed with the Colts for \$200 () per month. The Colts granted his release in June, and he signed with the Rochester Browns of the EL for more pay; for Pottsville, he won over two-thirds of the games in which he pitched according to The Allentown Leader. The Browns released Baldwin due to poor performance which stemmed from drinking alcohol, after which he played for a team in Palmyra and a team in Wheeling of the Iron and Oil League. Baldwin pitched to a record of 10–12 between the Browns and the Colts. During his career, he batted and threw right-handed, weighed 190 pounds (86 kg), and stood 6 feet (180 cm) tall. ## After professional baseball and personal life During at least two off-seasons, he joined his brother hunting. Baldwin was a close personal friend of Ad Gumbert. In April 1896, Baldwin's father purchased a semi-professional baseball team which Mark helped organize. It folded before the end of its first season. After professional baseball, Baldwin started medical school at the University of Pennsylvania in fall 1898, where he coached the university's baseball team the year prior. He played as a guard on the American football team for either the University of Pennsylvania or Baltimore Medical College, to which he had transferred, or both. He graduated with a Doctor of Medicine from Baltimore Medical College in 1900 and practiced in Rochester, Minnesota, in Columbus, and at Passavant Hospital in Pittsburgh. According to an obituary published in The Pittsburgh Press, Baldwin "spent some time with" physicians William James Mayo and Charles Horace Mayo in Rochester and served as assistant coroner to George Frederick Shrady Jr. in New York City. He identified as a Republican in 1889, and, in 1910, supported former teammate John K. Tener in the latter's bid for Governor of Pennsylvania. Baldwin was a Freemason. He never married. He died at Passavant Hospital on November 10, 1929, of cardiorenal disease after a long illness, and was interred at Allegheny Cemetery in Pittsburgh. ## See also - List of Major League Baseball career hit batsmen leaders - List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
1,451,670	Krusty Gets Kancelled	1,170,042,903	null	[ "1993 American television episodes", "Cultural depictions of Hugh Hefner", "Red Hot Chili Peppers", "Television episodes about television", "Television episodes about termination of employment", "Television shows written by John Swartzwelder", "The Simpsons (season 4) episodes" ]	"Krusty Gets Kancelled" is the twenty-second and final episode of the fourth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 13, 1993. In the episode, a new show featuring ventriloquist Arthur Crandall and his dummy Gabbo premieres in Springfield and competes with Krusty the Clown's show. Krusty's show is soon cancelled. Bart and Lisa decide to help Krusty get back on the air by staging a comeback special. The episode was written by John Swartzwelder, and directed by David Silverman. Following the success of "Homer at the Bat", the writers wanted to try a similar guest star-heavy episode, except with celebrities instead of baseball players. The episode proved quite difficult, as many of the actors asked to guest star declined at the last minute and the comeback special portion was nearly scrapped. Johnny Carson, Hugh Hefner, Bette Midler, Luke Perry, and the Red Hot Chili Peppers (Flea, Anthony Kiedis, Arik Marshall and Chad Smith) all guest star as themselves and appear on Krusty's special. Elizabeth Taylor and Barry White, both of whom guest-starred in previous episodes this season, make cameo appearances. ## Plot Following a mysterious viral marketing campaign, ventriloquist Arthur Crandall announces that a new television program starring his ventriloquist's dummy Gabbo will air in direct competition with the established Krusty the Clown Show. At first, Krusty is unimpressed by Gabbo and vows to fight back, but quickly pales to Gabbo's clever tactics and great reviews. Krusty even tries to use a dummy of his own, but its gruesome appearance and poor condition scare off many of the children in the audience. To make matters worse, Itchy and Scratchy move to Gabbo's show, forcing Krusty to instead show a 1950s Eastern European cartoon before his ratings hit rock-bottom and his show is eventually canceled. Out of work and penniless, Krusty falls on hard times and begins suffering from depression. Meanwhile, Bart and Lisa, who had disliked Gabbo from the start, decide to try to help Krusty. Bart sneaks into the studio and secretly records Gabbo referring to children of Springfield as "SOBs", which damages his reputation, though this backfires when Kent Brockman says the same insult the end of his news program and is subsequently fired. After visiting Krusty's home and seeing photos of him with multiple celebrities, Bart and Lisa suggest that Krusty host a live comeback special. They begin recruiting Krusty's celebrity friends to appear on the special and help Krusty get back into shape before the special airs. The only celebrity who doesn't participate in the event is Elizabeth Taylor, who was told by her agent that "a couple of grade-school kids" (Bart and Lisa) wanted her to appear on "a Krusty Special" who promptly told them to buzz off. Taylor agrees with him, but upon seeing the show, Taylor decides to fire her agent. Sideshow Mel emotionally reunites with Krusty, his former partner, on the special. The show is a great success and Krusty's career gets back on track. ## Production The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by David Silverman. The idea of The Krusty the Clown Show being canceled was pitched by writer John Swartzwelder. The rest of the writers decided this would be an opportunity to include a group of celebrity guest stars. They had done a similar episode the year before called "Homer at the Bat" (which starred nine Major League Baseball players) and had hoped to emulate its success. At that point, the writers had a list of celebrities who had wanted to do a guest spot on the show and decided to use this episode to burn through some of them. However, the episode was described by executive producer Mike Reiss as "a nightmare" because several guests pulled out at the last minute and the script had to be changed several times. One of the goals for the episode was to have an ex-President of the United States. They wrote "very respectful but cute" parts for each then-living ex-president (Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan) at the time, but they all turned them down. Only the latter responded, sending a politely worded reply. All of the guest stars were recorded over a period of several months. One of the writers' goals was to get a musical act to appear, but several performers, including the Rolling Stones and Wynonna Judd, turned the role down (although Rolling Stones members Keith Richards and Mick Jagger did eventually appear in season 14's "How I Spent My Strummer Vacation"). The Red Hot Chili Peppers finally accepted, and were directed by George Meyer, who told them to ad-lib many of their lines. The celebrity aspect of the episode was almost canceled because the producers were unable to get an obligation before the record deadline. Johnny Carson appears in the episode, and it was one of the few televised appearances he made after he retired from The Tonight Show. He recorded his lines the night after the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards. The original role pitched for Carson was one where he visited the Simpson family's house and mooched off them. Carson felt this role was too degrading, so instead the writers took the opposite route and portrayed him as extremely versatile and multi-talented. Bette Midler's condition for guest-starring was that the show promoted her anti-littering campaign. Elizabeth Taylor guest-starred as herself and also recorded a part as Maggie in "Lisa's First Word" on the same day. Luke Perry was one of the first guest stars to agree to their parts. Voice actors Julie Kavner and Harry Shearer both strongly objected to the celebrity cameos in the episode, considering it tasteless, which led to Kavner boycotting it entirely; as a result, this is the only episode of the series to date in which Marge does not have any speaking parts despite her prominence. The short cartoon "Worker and Parasite" is a reference to Soviet cartoons, and Soviet propaganda venerating the working class against those considered a drain on society. To produce the animation, director David Silverman xeroxed several drawings and made the animation very jerky. The scene where Krusty sings "Send in the Clowns" was very tricky for the animators because it involves two shots of the same scene from different angles. Parts of the scene were animated by Brad Bird. ## Cultural references Frank Sinatra's 1973 rendition of the song "Send in the Clowns" from Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back is parodied in the episode, and Krusty sings the altered lyrics: "Send in those soulful and doleful, schmaltz-by-the-bowlful clowns" in a musical number of his comeback special. Gabbo's name comes from the 1929 film The Great Gabbo. He was originally designed to be more square, but the second design was made to be "a demented Howdy Doody". His voice was based on Jerry Lewis. Gabbo's on-air gaffe is based on a widespread urban legend claiming that the host of a children's radio or television program, often identified as Uncle Don, made a derogatory comment about the child audience at the end of a show without realizing that he was still on the air. The sequence with Gabbo's song contains several references to the 1940 film Pinocchio, as well as a brief imitation of sports commentator Vin Scully. Krusty mentions that he beat Joey Bishop. Bishop was an entertainer who had his own show, The Joey Bishop Show, which ran opposite of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Bette Midler's serenading Krusty is a reference to the way Bette sang to Johnny Carson on the penultimate episode of Carson's show. The scene in which Krusty instructs the Red Hot Chili Peppers to change the lyrics to the song "Give It Away" is a reference to Ed Sullivan instructing The Doors to change the lyrics to the song "Light My Fire". The poses of the Red Hot Chili Peppers in the scene are based on the movie The Doors. Flea, the bassist of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, is incongruously seen playing a guitar during the performance of "Give It Away". Several scenes in Krusty's special are based on Elvis Presley's '68 Comeback Special. The musical piece that Hugh Hefner plays on the wine glasses is from Peter and the Wolf and was composed by Sergei Prokofiev. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Krusty Gets Kancelled" finished 24th in ratings for the week of May 10–16, 1993, with a Nielsen rating of 12.3, equivalent to approximately 11.5 million viewing households. It was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, beating Married... with Children. In 1997, TV Guide named "Krusty Gets Kancelled" as the second greatest Simpsons episode and the 66th greatest TV episode. In 1998, TV Guide listed it in its list of top twelve episodes, stating "Simpsons fans get a star-packed keeper that in its own twisted way reflects the pure faith and goodness at the heart of every classic children's tale." In 2006, Bette Midler, Hugh Hefner, Johnny Carson, Luke Perry, and the Red Hot Chili Peppers were listed at number four on IGN's list of the best Simpsons guest stars. They all also appeared on AOL's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars. In 2007, Vanity Fair named "Krusty Gets Kancelled" as the ninth-best episode of The Simpsons. John Ortved felt, "This is Krusty's best episode—better than the reunion with his father, or the Bar Mitzvah episode, which won an Emmy much later on. The incorporation of guest stars as themselves is top-notch, and we get to see the really dark side of Krusty's flailing showbiz career. Hollywood, television, celebrities, and fans are all beautifully skewered here." Brien Murphy of the Abilene Reporter-News classed "Krusty Gets Kancelled" as one of his three favorite episodes of The Simpsons, along with "Behind the Laughter" and "The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase". Though Jim Schembri of The Age put the episode among his top 10 episodes of the series, he also noted "Unfortunately, this signaled the beginning of the show's obsession with star cameos." An article in the Herald Sun placed "Krusty Gets Kancelled" among the top 20 episodes of The Simpsons, and characterized "The sight of Krusty's feeble attempt to fight back with his own gruesome ventriloquist doll, which falls apart on his lap on air" as the highlight of the episode. In 2009, it was named the 24th Greatest TV Episode of All-Time. In an article about the 2003 DVD release in The Independent, "Krusty Gets Kancelled" was highlighted along with episodes "When You Dish Upon a Star", "Lisa the Iconoclast", "Dog of Death", "Homer Badman", and "Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy". In a 2004 review of the release of The Simpsons season four on DVD, Andrew Pulver of The Guardian highlighted episodes "Kamp Krusty" and "Krusty Gets Kancelled" as part of "TV art at its peak". Mike Clark of USA Today also highlighted "Kamp Krusty" and "Krusty Gets Kancelled" as better episodes of the season, along with "A Streetcar Named Marge" and "Lisa the Beauty Queen". Jen Chaney of The Washington Post described episodes "A Streetcar Named Marge", "Mr. Plow", "Marge vs. the Monorail", and "Krusty Gets Kancelled" as "gems" of The Simpsons' fourth season. Spence Kettlewell of The Toronto Star described season 4 episodes "Krusty Gets Kancelled", "Kamp Krusty", "Mr. Plow", and "I Love Lisa" as "some of the best episodes" of the series. Forrest Hartman of the Reno Gazette-Journal wrote that the large number of celebrity appearances detracted from the episode, commenting: "The result is a boring hodgepodge of scenes with Bette Midler, Johnny Carson, the Red Hot Chili Peppers and more where we're supposed to laugh simply because famous people are interacting with Krusty." The episode is one of co-executive producer Tim Long's three favorites, including "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show" and "A Milhouse Divided". In 2000, the episode was released as part of a Twentieth Century Fox boxed set The Simpsons Go Hollywood, commemorating The Simpsons' 10th anniversary. The set included "some of the series' best spoofs of movies and TV", and also included episodes "Marge vs. the Monorail", "A Streetcar Named Marge", "Who Shot Mr. Burns?", parts one and two, and "Bart Gets Famous". The episode was included in a 2003 release of The Simpsons Classics on DVD by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. ## In popular media In the 2017 film Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul, while Greg and Rodrick were at the convention center, Manny is watching the scene where Luke Perry gets shot out of a cannon from "Krusty Gets Kancelled".
73,367,674	Mesrop Taghiadian	1,170,766,599	19th-century Armenian author and educator	[ "1803 births", "1858 deaths", "19th-century Armenian poets", "19th-century Armenian writers", "19th-century male writers", "19th-century poets", "Armenian educators", "Armenian male poets", "Armenian writers", "Burials in Iran", "Indian people of Armenian descent", "Persian Armenians", "Translators from English", "Translators to Armenian" ]	Mesrop Davtian Taghiadian or Taghiadiants (Armenian: Մեսրոպ Դաւթեան Թաղիադեան; 2 January 1803 – 10 June 1858) was a nineteenth-century Armenian writer, educator and journalist. He wrote prolifically in Classical Armenian and is regarded as one of the first Armenian authors of the Romantic movement, as well as one of the earliest modern Armenian fiction writers. Taghiadian was born in Iranian-ruled Armenia, but lived most of his life away from his homeland. He was educated at the seminary of Etchmiadzin and traveled throughout Armenia with his teacher collecting folk songs and oral traditions. He attained the rank of deacon in the Armenian Church. Taghiadian emigrated to India to pursue further education. He graduated from Bishop's College in Calcutta (then ruled by the British East India Company, now modern Kolkata) in 1830 and published his first literary works during his time there. In 1831, Taghiadian left India and unsuccessfully attempted to establish a school of his own, first in New Julfa, Iran, then in Armenia. He worked as a teacher in Iran and married Tangkhatun Setian, the daughter of an Armenian merchant, who died in 1837. Taghiadian then lived briefly in Constantinople, where he narrowly escaped a plot against him by the Armenian Patriarch and again settled in Calcutta. In the 1840s and 1850s, he published an Armenian periodical, Azgaser, and ran an Armenian school for boys and girls. Having closed his periodical and school and frequently clashing with other members of the Armenian community of Calcutta, Taghiadian decided to return to Armenia. He fell ill and died on the way to Armenia in Shiraz, Iran in 1858. Taghiadian wrote works of fiction in prose and verse, as well as educational and historical works, travelogues, articles and translations of European authors. Among his notable works are the novels Vep Vardgisi (1846) and Vep Varsenkan (1847) and the long poem Sos yev Sondipi (1848). In his literary works, Taghiadian sought to both entertain and educate readers. His works preach the virtues of enlightenment, unity and patriotism to Armenians. He called on Armenians in the diaspora to immigrate to their homeland. In the pages of Azgaser, he also commented on non-Armenian matters, criticizing European colonialism. ## Biography ### Early life and education Mesrop Taghiadian was born in the village of Karbi near Yerevan in the Erivan Khanate of Qajar Iran on 2 January 1803. Taghiadian lost his father at a young age and was raised by his grandmother. He received his primary education at the seminary in Etchmiadzin. From 1816 to 1821, he traveled throughout the provinces of Eastern Armenia with a group of monks headed by his teacher Poghos Gharadaghtsi [hy], collecting and recording folk songs and oral traditions. During this time, Taghiadian was made a deacon (sarkavag) of the Armenian Church. While at Haghpat Monastery, Taghiadian decided to travel to Paris via the Ottoman capital of Constantinople to receive a higher education, but was forced to abandon his plans and instead decided to go to India, which at the time was ruled by the British East India Company. In India, he was immediately hired as an assistant teacher at the Armenian College in Calcutta (now modern Kolkata). From 1826 to 1830, he studied at Bishop's College on a scholarship and received a master's degree. While at Bishop's College, he studied English, Latin, Greek and Persian, as well as theology and fine art. He published several works during this time, including translations into Classical Armenian of Hugo Grotius's De veritate religionis Christianae (1829) and Reginald Heber's poem Palestine (1830), as well as his own booklet titled Dits’abanut’iwn ("Mythology"). He also translated excerpts from William Shakespeare, Lord Chesterfield, John Milton, John Locke, Alexander Pope, Lord Byron, and Robert Burns into Armenian. ### Travels and return to India Taghiadian returned to Etchmiadzin in 1831 with the intention of opening his own school, after an unsuccessful attempt to do so in New Julfa in Iran. However, he faced hostility from the clerical establishment in Etchmiadzin and departed once again. He lived briefly in New Julfa (1834–36), where he worked as a teacher and married Tangkhatun Setian, the daughter of a local Armenian merchant. Both of their sons died at a young age. In late 1836, Taghiadian traveled to Tabriz, where he became the English teacher of one of the sons of Fath-Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834), the former Shah of Iran. In Tabriz, Taghiadian's financial situation remained dire, and in November 1837, his wife died. After this, Taghiadian returned to Armenia and then left for Constantinople. He lived there for about a year, working as a tutor in the home of a wealthy Armenian amira. Taghiadian was persecuted by the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople Hakobos for his association with American Protestant missionaries. The patriarch had Taghiadian arrested and transported to Trabzon, whence he was to be deported to the Russian Empire and exiled to Siberia. However, he managed to escape from his captors in Trabzon and, after a number of misadventures, once again reached Calcutta in late 1839. In December 1839, he became the head of the Armenian section of the printing house of Bishop's College. He married for a second time in 1841 and worked as a peddler in Calcutta, although he never found success as a businessman. Taghiadian published a number of works during his second sojourn in Calcutta, including the pedagogical works Aybbenaran (1840) and Mesrovbean sharadrich’ (1840), the first part of a history of India titled Patmut’iwn hin Hndkastani (1841), and a work on the importance of girls' education Char’ dastiarakut’ean oriordats’. In 1846, he published his novel Vep Vardgisi, an Armenian adaptation of Heinrich Zschokke's Abällino der große Bandit. His second novel, Vep Varsenkan (1847), was more original in content. Taghiadian published a collection of his poems in 1847 under the title T’ut’ak T’aghideants’. Also in 1847, he published Chanaparhordut’iwn i Hays, an account of his travels in Armenia. In 1848, he published a long poem in the Romantic style titled Sos yev Sondipi, a love story between an Indian prince and an Armenian. Most of his long poems were never completed. ### Final years From 1845 to 1852, Taghiadian published a periodical called Azgaser ("Patriot," later Azgaser araratean), which mainly published his own writings. He published articles on the importance of education, the economic and political development of Armenia, and unity among Armenians. Taghiadian welcomed the Russian conquest of Armenia in 1827 and called on Armenians in the diaspora to return to Armenia, seeing repatriation as the key to his homeland's development. In 1846, Taghiadian founded a coeducational Armenian school in Calcutta called Surb Sandukht ("Saint Sandukht", also known as the Armenian Infant Seminary), where he sought to apply contemporary European pedagogical methods. In 1852, Taghiadian moved his printing press and school to Chuchura north of Calcutta, but both were closed soon after. In 1858, having lost his second wife and being in constant conflict with the Calcutta Armenian community, Taghiadian decided to return to Armenia. He fell ill and died on the journey and was buried in Shiraz. Taghiadian's friend from Calcutta, Tadeos Avetumian, sent a headstone to Shiraz with the following Armenian inscription: ## Views and style Taghiadian saw education, learning and unity as the main means to Armenians' advancement as a nation, and his writings reflect this goal. He railed against superstition, ignorant clerics, and promoted enlightenment and patriotic ideals. Taghiadian's works are some of the earliest Armenian works in the Romantic style and express the author's humanist views and belief in the capacity for humans to change for the better. His novels represent some of the earliest examples of modern Armenian fictional prose. His novels Vep Vardgisi and Vep Varsenkan highlight the virtues of loyalty to one's ruler, national unity, personal integrity, and self-reliance. Taghiadian's poems have love and patriotism as their main themes. In his poem Sos yev Sondipi, Taghiadian expresses ideals of human equality and the social importance of individual happiness. Like many contemporary and later Armenian writers, Taghiadian was concerned with the creation of a larger Armenian reading public. He believed that the existing Armenian literature was too serious and dense to interest widespread readership and sought to "combine entertainment with practical purposes" in his works. Unlike his contemporary Khachatur Abovian, who promoted the use of Modern Armenian as a literary language, Taghiadian wrote mainly in Classical Armenian, which he saw as a means of making his works accessible to all Armenians regardless of dialect. In the pages of his periodical Azgaser, he strove to write in a simpler style of Classical Armenian that would be more understandable for his readers. In his articles, Taghiadian condemned colonialism and advocated for the rights of colonized peoples. He criticized what he saw as the hypocrisy of the colonizing powers, who claimed a high level of morality but committed numerous barbarous acts in their colonial conquests. In particular, Taghiadian criticized the economic exploitation of India by the British and the colonial authorities' indifference to poverty, which he saw firsthand in Calcutta. Although Taghiadian welcomed the conquest of Armenia by Russia as liberation from oppressive Persian rule, he vigorously opposed Russian serfdom and sympathized with the Decembrist rebels. ## Works - Astuacasēr ew azgasēr hasarakut ̔ean hayoc ̔ p ̔rkeal k ̔ałak ̔in Erewanay srbakrōn k ̔ahanayic ̔, barecnund išxanac ̔ ew hamayn barepastōn žołovrdoc ̔ [To the pious and patriotic Armenian public, holy priests, noble-born princes and all the faithful people of the saved city of Yerevan], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1828 - Čšmartut ̔iwn k ̔ristonēakan hawatoy, Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1829 (translation of Hugo Grotius's De veritate religionis Christianae) - Pałestin: Psakeal k ̔ert ̔ac, Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1830 (translation of Reginald Heber's Palestine) - Dic ̔abanut ̔iwn [Mythology], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1830 - Mesrovbean aybbenaran [Mesropian Abecedary], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1840 - Mesrovbean šaradrič ̔ hay ew angłiakan lezuac ̔ [Mesropian Composer of the Armenian and English Languages], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1840 - Patmut ̔iwn hin Hndkastani yanyišatak daruc ̔ anti c ̔yarjakumn mahmetakanac ̔ [History of Ancient India, from the earliest ages to the invasion of the Mahomedans], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1841 - Patmut ̔iwn Parsic ̔ [History of Persia], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1846 - Vēp Vardgisi Tn. Tuhac ̔ [Novel of Vardges, Lord of the Tuhians], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1846 - Zuarčaxōs aṙakk ̔ parsic ̔ [Humorous Persian Fables], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1846 - T ̔ut ̔ak T ̔ałiadeanc ̔ [Parrot Taghiadiants], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1847 - Karg ew kanonk ̔ surb Sanduxt dproc ̔i ōriordac ̔ ew paronkac ̔ [Rules and Regulations of the Saint Sandukht School for Girls and Boys], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1847 - Čanaparhordut ̔iwn Mesrovbay T ̔ałiadeanc ̔ V. A. sarkawagi srboy Ēǰmiacni i Hays [Journey of Deacon of Holy Etchmiadzin Mesrop Taghiadiants, M. A., to Armenia], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1847 - Čaṙ dastiarakut ̔ean ōriordac ̔ [Discourse on the Education of Girls], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1847 - Mesrovbean aṙaǰnord mankanc ̔ [Mesropian Handbook for Children], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1847 - Sōs ew Sōndipi [Sos and Sondipi], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1847 (reprinted in Constantinople in 1871) - Vēp Varsenkan skayuhwoy ałuanic ̔ [Novel of Varsenik the Albanian Giantess], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1847 - Vkayabanut ̔iwn srboyn Sandxtoy [Martyrology of Saint Sandukht], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1847 - Čanaparhordut ̔iwn M. D. T ̔ałideanc ̔ i Parskastan [Journey of M. D. Taghideants to Persia], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1848 - Hamaṙōt k ̔erakanut ̔iwn haykazean lezui [Brief Grammar of the Armenian Language], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta], 1848 - T ̔angaran T ̔ałiadeanc ̔ [Taghiadiants Museum], Kalkat ̔a [Calcutta] (date of publication unknown) - Ełerergut ̔iwn yōrhas T ̔ankay T ̔ałiadeanc ̔ [Elegy on the Death of Tank Taghiadeants], Tiflis [Tbilisi]. 1893 - Gełarvestakan erker, Erewan, 1965 (collection of Taghiadian's works, ed. Ruzan Nanumyan) - Ułegrut ̔yunner։ Hodvacner։ Namakner։ Vaveragrer [Travelogues, Articles, Letters, Documents], Erewan, 1975 (eds. Ruzan Nanumyan and Pion Hakobyan) - Diwan, Mesrop D. T ̔ałiadean։ antip ōragrut ̔iwnner, erker ew k ̔ert ̔uacner, vaweragrer, namakner [Divan, Mesrop D. Taghiadian: Unprinted Diaries, Works and Poems, Documents and Letters], ed. Mesrop Ark ̔. Aščean, Nor J̌uła [New Julfa], 1979 (reprinted in Yerevan in 1993)
223,419	Thomas Gage	1,160,835,985	British general and official in North America (1718/19–1787)	[ "11th Hussars officers", "1719 births", "1787 deaths", "17th Lancers officers", "British America army officers", "British Army generals", "British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War", "British Army personnel of the French and Indian War", "British Army personnel of the Jacobite rising of 1745", "British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession", "British officials in the American Revolution", "Burials in East Sussex", "Cheshire Regiment officers", "Colonial governors of Massachusetts", "Gage family", "Governors of Montreal", "Military personnel from Sussex", "People educated at Westminster School, London", "People from Firle", "Younger sons of viscounts" ]	General Thomas Gage (10 March 1718/19 – 2 April 1787) was a British Army general officer and colonial official best known for his many years of service in North America, including his role as British commander-in-chief in the early days of the American Revolution. Being born into an aristocratic family in England, he entered military service, seeing action in the French and Indian War, where he served alongside his future opponent George Washington in the 1755 Battle of the Monongahela. After the fall of Montreal in 1760, he was named its military governor. During this time he did not distinguish himself militarily, but proved himself to be a competent administrator. From 1763 to 1775 he served as commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America, overseeing the British response to the 1763 Pontiac's Rebellion. In 1774 he was also appointed the military governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, with instructions to implement the Intolerable Acts, punishing Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party. His attempts to seize the military stores of Patriot militias in April 1775 sparked the Battles of Lexington and Concord, beginning the American Revolutionary War. After the Pyrrhic victory in the June Battle of Bunker Hill, he was replaced by General William Howe in October 1775, and returned to Great Britain. ## Early life Thomas Gage was born on 10 March 1718/19 at Firle and christened 31 March 1719 at Westminster St James, Middlesex, England, son of Thomas Gage, 1st Viscount Gage, and Benedicta Maria Teresa Hall. Firle Place, Firle, Sussex, is where the Gage family had been seated since the 15th century. His father, Thomas Gage, 1st Viscount Gage, was a noted nobleman given titles in Ireland. Thomas Gage (the elder) had three children, of whom Thomas was the second. The first son, William Hall Gage, 2nd Viscount Gage, was born 6 January 1717/18 and christened 29 January 1717/18, also at Westminster St James. In 1728 Gage began attending the prestigious Westminster School where he met such figures as John Burgoyne, Richard Howe, Francis Bernard, and George Germain. Despite the family's long history of Catholicism, Viscount Gage had adopted the Anglican Church in 1715. During his school years Thomas the younger became firmly attached to the latter church; he eventually developed a dislike for the Roman Catholic Church that became evident in later years. After he left Westminster School in 1736, there are no records of Gage's activities until he joined the British Army, eventually receiving a commission as ensign. His early duties consisted of recruiting in Yorkshire. In January 1741 he purchased a lieutenant's commission in the 1st Northampton Regiment, where he stayed until May 1742, when he transferred to Battereau's Regiment with the rank of captain-lieutenant. Gage received promotion to captain in 1743, and saw action in the War of the Austrian Succession with British forces in Flanders, where he served as aide-de-camp to the Earl of Albemarle in the Battle of Fontenoy. He saw further service in the Second Jacobite Uprising, which culminated in the 1746 Battle of Culloden. From 1747 to 1748, Gage saw action under Albemarle in the Low Countries. In 1748 he purchased a major's commission and transferred to the 55th Foot Regiment (which was later renumbered to the 44th). The regiment was stationed in Ireland from 1748 to 1755; Gage was promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1751. During his early service years, he spent leisure time at White's Club, where he was a member, and occasionally travelled, going at least as far as Paris. He was a popular figure in the army and at the club, even though he neither liked alcohol nor gambled very much. His friendships spanned class and ability. Charles Lee once wrote to Gage, "I respected your understanding, lik'd your manners and perfectly ador'd the qualities of your heart." Gage also made some important political connections, forming relationships with important figures like Lord Barrington, the future Secretary at War, and Jeffery Amherst, a man roughly his age who rose to great heights in the French and Indian War. In 1750, Gage became engaged to a "lady of rank and fortune, whom he persuaded to yield her hand in an honourable way". The engagement was eventually broken, leaving Gage broken-hearted. In 1753, both Gage and his father stood for seats in Parliament. Both lost in the April 1754 election, even though his father had been a Member of Parliament for some years prior. They both contested the results, but his father died soon after, and Gage withdrew his protest in early 1755, as his regiment was being sent to America following the outbreak of the French and Indian War. ## French and Indian War In 1755 Gage's regiment was sent to North America as part of General Edward Braddock's expeditionary force, whose objective was the expulsion of French forces from the Ohio Country, territory disputed between French and British colonies where there had been military clashes in 1754. On this expedition Gage's regiment was in the vanguard of the troops when they came upon a company of French and First Nations people who were trying to set up an ambush. This skirmish began the Battle of the Monongahela, in which Braddock was mortally wounded, and George Washington distinguished himself for his courage under fire and his leadership in organising the retreat. The commander of the 44th, Colonel Sir Peter Halkett, was one of many officers killed in the battle and Gage, who temporarily took command of the regiment, was slightly wounded. The regiment was decimated, and Captain Robert Orme (General Braddock's aide-de-camp) levelled charges that poor field tactics on the part of Gage had led to the defeat; as a result of his accusations Gage was denied permanent command of the 44th Regiment. Gage and Washington maintained a somewhat friendly relationship for several years after the expedition, but distance and lack of frequent contact likely cooled the relationship. By 1770, Washington was publicly condemning Gage's actions in asserting British authority in Massachusetts. ### Creation of the light infantry In the summer of 1756 Gage served as second-in-command of a failed expedition to resupply Fort Oswego, which fell to the French while the expedition was en route. The following year, he was assigned to Captain-General John Campbell Loudoun in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where a planned expedition against Louisbourg turned back when confronted by a larger French fleet. In December 1757, Gage proposed to Loudoun the creation of a regiment of light infantry that would be better suited to woodland warfare. Loudoun approved the plan before he was recalled that month, also recommending Gage to the king for promotion to full colonel. Gage spent the winter in New Jersey, recruiting for the newly raised 80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot, the "first definitely light-armed regiment in the British army." While it is uncertain exactly when he met the Kembles, his choice of the Brunswick area may well have been motivated by his interest in Margaret Kemble, a well-known beauty of the area, a descendant of the Schuyler family, and the granddaughter of New York Mayor Stephanus Van Cortlandt. Recruiting and courtship were both successful. By February 1758 Gage was in Albany, preparing for that year's campaign, and he and Margaret were married on 8 December of that year. The campaign for which Gage went to Albany culminated in the disastrous Battle of Carillon, in which 16,000 British forces were defeated by barely 4,000 French forces. Gage, whose regiment was in the British vanguard, was again wounded in that battle, in which the British suffered more than 2,000 casualties. Gage, who had been brevetted a brigadier general for the 1758 campaign, received in 1759 a full promotion to the position, largely through the political manoeuvring of his brother, Lord Gage. ### Failure to act against La Galette The new brigadier general was placed in command of the Albany post, serving under Major General Jeffery Amherst. In 1759, shortly after capturing Ticonderoga without a fight, General Amherst learned of the death of General John Prideaux whose expedition had captured Fort Niagara. Amherst then ordered Gage to take Prideaux's place, and to take Fort de La Présentation (also known as Fort La Galette) at the mouth of the Oswegatchie River on Lake Ontario. When Amherst learned that the French had also abandoned Fort St. Frédéric, he sent a messenger after Gage with more explicit instructions to capture La Galette and then, if at all possible, to advance on Montreal. When Gage arrived at Oswego, which had been captured in July by troops under Frederick Haldimand's command, he surveyed the situation, and decided that it was not prudent to move against La Galette. Expected reinforcements from Fort Duquesne had not arrived, the French military strength at La Galette was unknown, and its strength near Montreal was believed to be relatively high. Gage, believing an attack on La Galette would not gain any significant advantage, decided against action, and sent Amherst a message outlining his reasons. Although there was no immediate censure from either Amherst or the government, Amherst was incensed at the failure, and Gage's troops were in the rear of Amherst's army in the 1760 expedition that resulted in Montreal's surrender. ## Early governorship After the French surrender, Amherst named Gage the military Governor of Montreal, a task Gage found somewhat thankless, because it involved the minute details of municipal governance along with the administration of the military occupation. He was also forced to deal with civil litigation, and manage trade with the First Nations in the Great Lakes region, where traders disputed territorial claims, and quarrelled with the First Nations. Margaret came to stay with him in Montreal and that is where his first two children, Harry, the future 3rd Viscount Gage, and Maria Theresa, were born. In 1761, he was promoted to major general, and in 1762, again with the assistance of his brother, was placed in command of the 22nd Regiment, which assured a command even in peacetime. By all accounts, Gage appeared to be a fair administrator, respecting people's lives and property, although he had a healthy distrust of the landowning seigneurs and of the Roman Catholic clergy, who he viewed as intriguers for the French. When peace was announced following the 1763 Treaty of Paris, Gage began lobbying for another posting, as he was "very much [tired] of this cursed Climate, and I must be bribed very high to stay here any longer". In October 1763 the good news arrived that he would act as commander-in-chief of North America while Amherst was on leave in Britain. He immediately left Montreal, and took over Amherst's command in New York on 17 November 1763. When he did so, he inherited the job of dealing with the Indian uprising known as Pontiac's Rebellion. ### Pontiac's Rebellion Following the conquest of New France, Amherst, who had little respect for people of the First Nations, instituted policies that severely hampered British-Indian relations, principally forbidding the sale of ammunition to them. Combined with widespread concern about British expansion into their territories, this prompted the tribes of the Ohio Country and the formerly French Pays d'en Haut to rise against the British. In May 1763, under the leadership of the Ottawa leader Pontiac, they launched a series of attacks on lightly garrisoned British frontier forts, successfully driving the British from some, threatening others, and also terrorising the settlers in those areas. Hoping to end the conflict diplomatically, Gage ordered Colonel John Bradstreet and Colonel Henry Bouquet out on military expeditions and also ordered Sir William Johnson to engage in peace negotiations. Johnson negotiated the Treaty of Fort Niagara in the summer of 1764 with some of the disaffected tribes, and Colonel Bouquet negotiated a cease-fire of sorts in October 1764, which resulted in another peace treaty finalised by Johnson in 1765. In 1765, the 42nd Royal Highland Regiment finally got through to Fort Cavendish, the last fort still in French hands. The conflict was not fully resolved until Pontiac himself travelled to Fort Ontario and signed a formal treaty with Johnson in July 1766. ### Securing his position When General Amherst left North America in 1763, it was on a leave of absence from his position as commander-in-chief. In 1764, Amherst announced that he had no intention of returning to North America, at which point Gage's appointment to that post was made permanent. (Amherst retained posts as governor of Virginia and colonel of the 60th Foot, positions he only gave up in 1768 when he was required to actually go to Virginia or give up the post.) Intrigues of other high-ranking officers, especially Robert Monckton and his supporters, for his offices, continued throughout his tenure as commander-in-chief. Gage was promoted to lieutenant general in 1771. In 1767 Gage ordered the arrest of Major Robert Rogers, the former leader of Rogers' Rangers who Gage had come to dislike and distrust during the war. The arrest was based on flimsy evidence that Rogers might have been engaging in a treasonous relationship with the French; he was acquitted in a 1768 court martial. Gage spent most of his time as commander-in-chief, the most powerful office in British America, in and around New York City. Although Gage was burdened by the administrative demands of managing a territory that spanned the entirety of North America east of the Mississippi River, the Gages clearly relished life in New York, actively participating in the social scene. One way he did this was by joining the American Philosophical Society in 1768 through his election. Although his position gave him the opportunity to make financial arrangements that might have lined the pockets of high-ranking officers at the expense of the military purse, there is little evidence that he engaged in any significant improper transactions. In addition to the handsome sum of £10 per day as commander-in-chief, he received a variety of other stipends, including his colonel's salary, given for leading his regiment. These funds made it possible to send all of the Gage children (at least six of whom survived to adulthood) to school in England. If Gage did not dip his hand unnecessarily in the public till, he did engage in the relatively common practices of nepotism and political favouritism. In addition to securing advantageous positions for several people named Gage or Kemble, he also apparently assisted in the placement of some of his friends and political supporters, or their children. ### Rising colonial tension During Gage's administration, political tensions rose throughout the American colonies. As a result, Gage began withdrawing troops from the frontier to fortify urban centres like New York City and Boston. As the number of soldiers stationed in cities grew, the need to provide adequate food and housing for these troops became urgent. Parliament passed the Quartering Act of 1765, permitting British troops to be quartered in vacant houses, barns, and outbuildings, but not private residences. Gage's thoughts on the reasons for colonial unrest played an important role in furthering the unrest. He at first believed that the popular unrest after the 1765 Stamp Act was primarily due to a small number of colonial elites, led by those in Boston. In 1768 he recommended the deployment of two regiments to occupy Boston, a move that further inflamed the city. Among the troops quartered in the city was the 29th Regiment of Foot, which had previously clashed with colonists in Quebec and New York, and had a reputation for poor discipline. This occupation eventually led to the Boston Massacre in 1770. Later that year he wrote that "America is a mere bully, from one end to the other, and the Bostonians by far the greatest bullies." Gage later came to change his opinion about the source of the unrest, believing that democracy was a significant threat. He saw the movement of colonists into the interior, beyond effective Crown control, and the development of the town meeting as a means of local governance as major elements of the threat, and wrote in 1772 that "democracy is too prevalent in America". He believed that town meetings should be abolished and recommended that colonisation should be limited to the coastal areas where British rule could be enforced. ## Governor of Massachusetts Bay Gage returned to Britain in June 1773 with his family and thus missed the Boston Tea Party in December of that year. The British Parliament reacted to the Tea Party with a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts known in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts. Some of the terms of those acts, for example the option to remove political trials to England, originated with Gage, and measures such as curbing the activities of town meetings and withholding representative government from the Ohio Country also show his influence. With his military experience and relative youth (Massachusetts governor Thomas Hutchinson was then 62 years old and unpopular, and the equally unpopular lieutenant governor Andrew Oliver was 67 in 1773 and died in March 1774), Gage, a popular figure on both sides of the Atlantic, was deemed the best man to handle the brewing crisis and enforce the Parliamentary acts. In early 1774, he was appointed military governor of Massachusetts, replacing Hutchinson. He arrived from Britain in early May, first stopping at Castle William on Castle Island in Boston Harbour. He then arrived in Boston on 13 May 1774, having been carried there by HMS Lively. His arrival was met with little pomp and circumstance, but was generally well received at first as Bostonians were happy to see Hutchinson go. Local attitudes toward him rapidly deteriorated as he began implementing the various acts, including the Boston Port Act, which put many people out of work, and the Massachusetts Government Act, which formally rescinded the provincial assembly's right to nominate members of the Governor's Council, though it retained the elected General Court. Gage dissolved the assembly in June 1774 after he discovered the Massachusetts representatives were sending delegates to the extralegal Continental Congress. He called for new elections to be held as per the Massachusetts Government Act, but his authority was undermined by the representatives who refused to meet with the new, appointed Governor's Council. He attempted to buy off political leaders in Massachusetts, notably Benjamin Church and Samuel Adams. With the former he was successful—Church secretly supplied him with intelligence on the activities of rebel leaders—but Adams and other rebel leaders were not moved. In September 1774 Gage withdrew his garrisons from New York City, New Jersey, Philadelphia, Halifax and Newfoundland and brought all under his wing in Boston together with a large British naval presence under the control of Admiral Samuel Graves. He also sought to strictly enforce army directives calling for the confiscation of war-making materials. In September 1774, he ordered a mission to remove provincial gunpowder from a magazine in what is now Somerville, Massachusetts. This action, although successful, caused a huge popular reaction known as the Powder Alarm, resulting in the mobilization of thousands of provincial militiamen who marched towards Cambridge, Massachusetts. Although the militia soon dispersed, the show of force on the part of the provincials had a lasting effect on Gage, and he subsequently grew more cautious in his actions. The rapid response of the provincials was in large part due to Paul Revere and the Sons of Liberty. The Sons of Liberty kept careful watch over Gage's activities and successfully warned others of future actions before Gage could mobilise his British regulars to execute them. A Committee of Safety was also tasked with sounding the alarm for local militias if Gage were spotted sending significant numbers of British troops outside of Boston. Gage was criticised for allowing groups like the Sons of Liberty to exist. One of his officers, Lord Percy, remarked, "The general's great lenity and moderation serve only to make them [the colonists] more daring and insolent." Gage himself wrote after the Powder Alarm, "If force is to be used at length, it must be a considerable one, and foreign troops must be hired, for to begin with small numbers will encourage resistance, and not terrify; and will in the end cost more blood and treasure." Edmund Burke described Gage's conflicted relationship by saying in Parliament, "An Englishman is the unfittest person on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery." ## American Revolutionary War On 14 April 1775 Gage received orders from London to take decisive action against the Patriots. Given intelligence that the militia had been stockpiling weapons at Concord, Massachusetts, he ordered detachments of regulars from the Boston garrison to march there on the night of 18 April to confiscate them. A brief skirmish in Lexington scattered colonial militia forces gathered there, but in a later standoff in Concord, a portion of the British force was routed by a stronger colonial militia contingent. When the British left Concord following their search (which was largely unsuccessful, as the colonists, with advance warning of the action, had removed most of the supplies), arriving colonial militia engaged the British column in a running battle all the way back to Charlestown. The Battles of Lexington and Concord resulted in 273 total casualties for the British and 93 for the American rebels. The British expedition to Lexington and Concord was supposed to have been a "profound secret," but nevertheless Sons of Liberty leader Joseph Warren found out about it. He then dispatched Paul Revere and William Dawes to warn the colonists, which resulted in the Battle of Lexington and Concord, and starting the American Revolutionary War. Gage had told his plans to only his second-in-command and "one other person." There is evidence to suggest that the other person was his wife, Margaret Kemble Gage, who was an American, and that she may have passed on this information to Warren. Following Lexington and Concord, thousands of colonial militia surrounded the city, beginning the Siege of Boston. At first, the rebels (led mainly by Massachusetts General Artemas Ward) faced some 4,000 British regulars, who were bottled up in the city. British Admiral Samuel Graves commanded the fleet that continued to control the harbour. On 25 May, 4,500 reinforcements arrived in the city, along with three more generals: Major General William Howe and Brigadiers John Burgoyne and Henry Clinton. On 14 June, Gage issued a proclamation, believed to have been written by Burgoyne but distributed in Gage's name, granting a general pardon to all who would demonstrate loyalty to the crown—with the notable exceptions of John Hancock and Samuel Adams. Gage also worked with the newly arrived generals on a plan to break the grip of the besieging forces. They would use an amphibious assault to take control of the unoccupied Dorchester Heights, which would be followed up by an attack on the rebel camp at Roxbury. They would then seize the heights on the Charlestown peninsula, including Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill. This would allow the British to eventually take the colonial headquarters at Cambridge. The colonists were warned of these plans, and seized the initiative. On the night of 16–17 June, they fortified Breed's Hill, threatening the British position in Boston. On 17 June 1775, British forces under General Howe seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It was a Pyrrhic victory; Britain won but suffered more than 1,000 casualties without significantly altering the state of the siege. Henry Clinton called it "[a] dear bought victory, another such would have ruined us", while other officers noted that nothing had been gained in the victory. Gage himself wrote the Secretary at War: > These people show a spirit and conduct against us they never showed against the French.... They are now spirited up by a rage and enthusiasm as great as ever people were possessed of and you must proceed in earnest or give the business up. A small body acting in one spot will not avail, you must have large armies making diversions on different sides, to divide their force. The loss we have sustained is greater than we can bear. Small armies cannot afford such losses, especially when the advantage gained tends to do little more than the gaining of a post. ## Return to Great Britain On 25 June 1775, Gage wrote a dispatch to Great Britain, notifying Lord Dartmouth of the results of the battle on 17 June. Three days after his report arrived in England, Dartmouth issued the order recalling Gage and replacing him with William Howe. The rapidity of this action is likely attributable to the fact that people within the government were already arguing for Gage's removal, and the battle was just the final straw. Gage received the order in Boston on 26 September, and set sail for England on 11 October. The nature of Dartmouth's recall order did not actually strip Gage of his offices immediately. William Howe temporarily replaced him as commander of the forces in Boston, while General Guy Carleton was given command of the forces in Quebec. Although King George wanted to reward his "mild general" for his service, Gage's sole reward after Lord George Germain (who succeeded Dartmouth as the Secretary of State for North America) formally gave his command to Howe in April 1776 was that he retained the governorship of Massachusetts. On the Gages' return to England, the family eventually settled into a house on Portland Place in London. Although he was presumably given a friendly reception in his interview with a sympathetic King George, the public and private writings about him and his fall from power were at times vicious. One correspondent wrote that Gage had "run his race of glory ... let him alone to the hell of his own conscience and the infamy which must inevitably attend him!" Others were kinder; New Hampshire Governor Benning Wentworth characterised him as "a good and wise man ... surrounded by difficulties." Gage was briefly reactivated to duty in April 1781, when Amherst appointed him to mobilise troops for a possible French invasion. The next year, Gage assumed command of the 17th Light Dragoons. He was promoted to full general on 20 November 1782, and later transferred to command the 11th Dragoons. ## Final years and legacy As the war machinery was reduced in the mid-1780s, Gage's military activities declined. He supported the efforts of Loyalists to recover losses incurred when they were forced to leave the colonies, notably confirming the activities of Benjamin Church to further his widow's claims for compensation. He received visitors at Portland Place and at Firle, including Frederick Haldimand and Thomas Hutchinson. His health began to decline early in the 1780s. Gage died at Portland Place on 2 April 1787, and was buried in the family plot at Firle. His wife survived him by almost 37 years. His son Henry inherited the family title upon the death of Gage's brother William, and became one of the wealthiest men in England. His youngest son, William Hall Gage, became an admiral in the Royal Navy, and all three daughters married into well-known families. Gagetown, New Brunswick was named in his honour; the Canadian Forces base CFB Gagetown consequently reflects his name. In 1792, the Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada, John Graves Simcoe, renamed the archipelago of islands in the mouth of the St. Lawrence River for the victorious generals of the Conquest of Canada: Wolfe Island, Amherst Island, Howe Island, Carleton Island, and Gage Island. The last is now known as Simcoe Island. ## In popular culture In the 2015 miniseries Sons of Liberty, Gage is portrayed by Marton Csokas. ## Arms ## See also - Viscount Gage ## General and cited references
28,756,474	Only Girl (In the World)	1,170,121,417	2010 single by Rihanna	[ "2010 singles", "2010 songs", "Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles", "Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles", "Dance-pop songs", "Def Jam Recordings singles", "Ellie Goulding songs", "Eurodance songs", "European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles", "Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording", "Irish Singles Chart number-one singles", "Music videos directed by Anthony Mandler", "Number-one singles in Australia", "Number-one singles in Austria", "Number-one singles in Italy", "Number-one singles in New Zealand", "Number-one singles in Norway", "Number-one singles in Poland", "Number-one singles in Romania", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "Rihanna songs", "Song recordings produced by Sandy Vee", "Song recordings produced by Stargate (record producers)", "Songs written by Crystal Nicole", "Songs written by Mikkel Storleer Eriksen", "Songs written by Sandy Vee", "Songs written by Tor Erik Hermansen", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles", "Ultratop 50 Singles (Wallonia) number-one singles" ]	"Only Girl (In the World)" is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her fifth album, Loud (2010). Serving as the album's lead single, it was released on September 10, 2010. Crystal Johnson wrote the song in collaboration with producers Stargate and Sandy Vee. Rihanna contacted Stargate before Loud's production and asked them to create lively, uptempo music. "Only Girl (In the World)" was the first song composed for the album, and the singer decided to include it on the track list before she recorded her vocals. Backed by strong bass and synthesizer, it is a dance-pop and Eurodance song that has an electronic composition. Its lyrics describe Rihanna demanding physical attention from her lover. Critical response to "Only Girl (In the World)" was positive; a number of critics praised its composition and Rihanna's decision to move away from the dark themes of her previous album, Rated R (2009). The song reached number one on the United States' Billboard Hot 100 chart two weeks after Loud's second single, "What's My Name?", peaked at number one. It was the first time in the chart's history that an album's lead single reached number one after its second single. In the United Kingdom the song spent two weeks at number one and is the 19th-bestselling single of all time by a female artist, with over a million copies sold. The song peaked at number one in Australia, Austria, New Zealand, Canada and Ireland, and reached the top five in France, Germany and Switzerland. Rihanna performed "Only Girl (In the World)" on Saturday Night Live in the United States, The X Factor in the United Kingdom and a shortened version at the 31st Brit Awards. She also performed the song at the Super Bowl LVII halftime show in a medley with Where Have You Been. Anthony Mandler directed the song's music video, in which Rihanna is alone in an open natural landscape. The video suggests that she is the only female in the world, echoing the song's title and lyrics, and critics praised its bright, colorful theme. "Only Girl (In the World)" won the Grammy Award for Best Dance/Electronic Recording at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards in 2011. ## Concept and development "Only Girl (In the World)" was written by Crystal Johnson with the song's producers, Stargate and Sandy Vee. Rihanna had previously worked with Stargate on the singles "Hate That I Love You", "Don't Stop the Music" and "Rude Boy". In February 2011, Stargate said that Rihanna approached the Norwegian production duo before she began recording the then-untitled project, saying that she wanted to have fun and produce happy, uptempo songs. According to Tor Erik Hermansen of Stargate, "Only Girl (In the World)" was the first song created for Loud and Rihanna decided to include it on the album before recording her vocals. In a webchat with fans, Rihanna said that she wanted to take the next step as an artist: "I didn't want to go backward and remake Good Girl Gone Bad. I wanted the next step in the evolution of Rihanna, and it's perfect for us. You guys are always defending me, so now you've got some great songs to justify it." The singer described "Only Girl (In the World)" as having a "bigger sound" than "Rude Boy". The song was recorded during Rihanna's Last Girl on Earth tour. Its instrumental was recorded by Mikkel Storleer Eriksen of Stargate and Miles Walker at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles, and by Vee at the Bunker in Paris. Kuk Harrell produced Rihanna's vocals, recording them with Josh Gudwin and Marcos Tovar. Inaam Haq, Dane Liska and Brad Shea recorded additional vocals. The song was mixed by Phil Tan at the Ninja Beat Club in Atlanta and by Vee at The Bunker, with engineering by Damien Lewis. Eriksen, Vee and Hermansen provided the instrumentation, and Johnson sang background vocals. ## Composition "Only Girl (In the World)" is a Eurodance and dance-pop song. It is in the key of F minor (B minor in the chorus), and written in common time with a moderate tempo of 126 beats per minute. Its instrumentation includes synthesizers, a "heavy whipping bass" and a "strobing" electro beat. Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly described the song as a "stronger, sexier" version of her 2007 single, "Don't Stop the Music". Rihanna's voice spans one-and-a-half octaves in "Only Girl (In the World)", from F<sub>3</sub> to C<sub>5</sub>, and her vocal has a "silky", "seductive" tone. In the song's lyrics Rihanna yearns for her lover's attention, which makes her feel like the only girl in the world. The singer "pours her heart out" in the chorus: "Want you to make me feel like I'm the only girl in the world/ Like I'm the only one that you'll ever love/ Like I'm the only one who knows your heart/ Only girl in the world." According to Digital Spy writer Nick Levine, the chorus "thumps like a rabbit having an epileptic fit." Rihanna sings suggestively, "Baby, I'll tell you all my secrets that I'm keepin'/ You can come inside/ And when you enter, you ain't leavin'/ Be my prisoner for the night." Fraser McAlpine of the BBC compared the song's message to that of the German fairy tale "Rapunzel"; Rihanna is not willing to throw her hair out of the castle for just any man to come and satisfy her, "particularly not someone who isn't prepared to make the climb up to her scarily high window." ## Critical reception The song received a generally positive response from music critics. Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times called the track a "surefire hit" and something of a "comeback". MTV News writer James Dinh praised the uptempo song, comparing it to the "stark" lead single "Russian Roulette" from Rihanna's previous Rated R. Monica Herrera wrote for Billboard that "Only Girl (In the World)" "aims squarely for dance-floor domination." Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song four stars out of five, calling it a "crowd-pleaser" but not overly original. According to Levine and Jim Farber of the New York Daily News, "Only Girl (In the World)" was Rihanna's most pop-sounding song since "Don't Stop the Music". Analyzing the song, the BBC's Fraser McAlpine questioned why "Only Girl (In the World)" leaves a "positive impression" on the listener despite its arrogant, domineering tone. Critical at first ("Listen to the pneumatic hiss at the heart of this song. Try and endure the pumping thrust without getting winded. There is simply too much pressure being stuffed into our ears, with too much brutal force"), he concluded that Rihanna sings the song with great passion and gave it four stars out of five. James Dolan gave the song two-and-a-half stars out of five in Rolling Stone, writing that "the trance beat won't keep you in the club unless someone else is paying for the drinks." ## Chart performance ### North America In the United States, "Only Girl (In the World)" debuted at number 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 25, 2010, jumping to number three the following week, before peaking at number one (Rihanna's ninth) on November 25. Loud's second single, "What's My Name?" (featuring Drake), topped the Hot 100 two weeks before; it was the first time in chart history that an album's first single reached number one after its second. "Only Girl (In the World)" was Rihanna's fourth number-one song of 2010, and she was the first female and the first artist since Usher (in 2004) with four number-one singles in a calendar year. The singer also had the most number-one singles (nine) since 2000. "Only Girl (In the World)" appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 year-end chart in 2010 and 2011 at numbers 47 and 40, respectively. The song debuted on the Digital Songs chart at number one with sales of 249,000, Rihanna's eighth number-one single and her sixth to debut atop the chart (the most in both categories by any artist since the chart's 2005 introduction). The singer set a Mainstream Top 40 (Pop Songs) radio-airplay chart record when "Only Girl (In the World)" rose from number two to number one on November 25, 2010, her seventh number-one. The song was number 46 and number 33, respectively, on the 2011 Billboard Digital Songs and Pop Songs year-end charts. "Only Girl (In the World)" was Rihanna's twelfth number-one on the Dance Club Songs songs chart and number 46 on the 2010 Billboard year-end chart. The song has been certified six times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and has sold 3.6 million copies in the US as of June 2015. In Canada, "Only Girl (In the World)" debuted at number 65 on September 25, 2010, and rose to number one for a week the following week. On November 6 the song returned to number one for three consecutive weeks, remaining on the chart for a total of 35 weeks. ### United Kingdom In the United Kingdom "Only Girl (In the World)" debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart on October 31, 2010, with 126,000 copies sold. Cheryl Cole debuted at number one with "Promise This", selling 157,000 copies, and Cole and Rihanna had the highest and second-highest debut sales figures of the year. The song rose to number one the next week for two consecutive weeks. It was Rihanna's fourth UK number-one single, following "Umbrella" (2007), "Take a Bow" (2008) and "Run This Town" (2009). By December 2011 "Only Girl (In the World)" was the 108th song to sell more than a million copies in the United Kingdom, the fifteenth by a female artist, Rihanna's first as primary artist and second overall; the 107th million-seller was Eminem's "Love the Way You Lie" six weeks before, on which Rihanna was featured. Rihanna was the second non-United Kingdom, non-North American million-selling artist; the first was Danish singer Whigfield with her 1994 song, "Saturday Night". Although at the time the only other female two-song million-seller was Canadian singer Celine Dion, two of Rihanna's subsequent singles—"We Found Love" (2011) and "Diamonds" (2012)—have also sold more than a million copies each. "Only Girl (In the World)" is the nineteenth-bestselling single by a female artist and the 99th overall of all time in the United Kingdom. The song was the fourth- and 68th-bestselling single, respectively, of 2010 and 2011. Certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments exceeding 600,000 copies, it has sold 1,080,000 copies. "Only Girl (In the World)" peaked at number one on the UK Single Downloads Chart and the Scottish Singles Chart. ## Music video Director Anthony Mandler filmed the music video for "Only Girl (In the World)" at a location two hours from Los Angeles. Frank Gatson Jr., choreographed the "Only Girl" music video. Rihanna told JustJared.com that the video was filmed in a "big landscape" so she was the only person in the frame, echoing the song's title. The singer is also "frolicking in a red field and lying in a bed of flowers." The video features large balloons in different colours, a swing hanging from the sky and a tree with multi-colored lights. Rihanna's outfits include a mohair sweater, a floral miniskirt and a white-bra-and-boyshorts two-piece. Entertainment Weekly writer Tanner Stransky praised the video's simplicity, noting that it seems "as if Rihanna is speaking directly to you, the viewer, and she is your one and only amid swallowing rolling, beautiful, swallowing landscapes. It's an effect that makes you focus squarely on [Rihanna], who's ensconced in flirty outfits." According to Joyce Lee of CBS, Rihanna appeared to have progressed from the "edgy" music videos of the Rated R singles to a more feminine, colourful tone. Seth Sommerfield of Spin echoed Lee's comments, calling it "whimsical [and] beautiful". Billboard reviewer Jason Lipshutz described the tree with flashing lights as "surreal imagery." ## Usage in media The song has appeared on the videogames Just Dance 3 and Grand Theft Auto V. The song was also featured in the 2015 DreamWorks Animation movie Home. ## Live performances and covers Rihanna performed "Only Girl (In the World)" and a solo version of "What's My Name?" on Saturday Night Live in New York City on October 30, 2010. The next day, she flew to London to perform the song on The X Factor. On November 7 she performed the song at the MTV Europe Music Awards in Madrid. Two days later, Rihanna sang "Only Girl (In the World)" on the Italian version of The X Factor in a floral-print bikini, boots and a red pigtail. The next day she flew to France to sing the song on Le Grand Journal, on a set covered with white balloons. The singer returned to London on November 11 to record an interview for The Graham Norton Show, which included a live performance of "Only Girl (In the World)". Rihanna opened the American Music Awards with a medley of songs from Loud. She began with an a cappella version of "Love the Way You Lie (Part II)", sitting on a stylized tree of lights above "a field of sable-colored blades of grass." Rihanna then sang a solo version of "What's My Name?" and a short version of "Only Girl (In the World)". According to Mawuse Ziegbe of MTV News, the singer "kicked up the island theme" as drummers in tribal dress circled her. Rihanna performed a short version of "Only Girl (In the World)" at the 31st Brit Awards on February 15, 2011, as part of a medley with two other singles from Loud: "S&M" and "What's My Name?". She had planned to perform "S&M" only (to coincide with its United Kingdom release), but was asked by the British Phonographic Industry to "tone down the sexual references in the song's lyrics". Rihanna was reportedly angered at the request and a related one to perform a different song. She made the changes because the BPI wanted to avoid complaints like those received after the seventh-series finale of The X Factor on December 11, 2010. Rihanna performed "Only Girl (In the World)", "California King Bed", "What's My Name?" and "S&M" on NBC's May 27, 2011 Today as part of its summer concert series. The song, which was included on the Loud, 777 and the Diamonds World Tours, was the opener for her performance at Radio 1's Hackney Weekend on May 24, 2012. She also performed the song at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards. She performed the song as part of her set during the halftime show of Super Bowl LVII. Katy Perry covered "Only Girl (In the World)" as part of an acoustic mash-up with Willow Smith's "Whip My Hair" on her California Dreams Tour (2011). Ellie Goulding covered the song during her appearance on Radio 1's Live Lounge, and the cover was the B-side of her single "Lights". American experimental band Xiu Xiu covered the song on a 7-inch single in 2011. ## Track listing - Digital download 1. "Only Girl (In the World)" – 3:55 - Digital download (Extended Club) 1. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Extended Club) – 5:38 - German CD single 1. "Only Girl (In the World)" – 3:55 2. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Extended Club Mix) – 5:39 - UK CD single 1. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Album Version) – 3:55 2. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Instrumental) – 3:55 - Digital download (Remixes) 1. "Only Girl (In the World)" (The Bimbo Jones Radio) – 3:52 2. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Rosabel's "Only Radio Edit In The World") – 4:09 3. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Mixin Marc & Tony Svejda Radio Mix) – 4:10 4. "Only Girl (In the World)" (CCW Radio Mix) – 3:42 5. "Only Girl (In the World)" (The Bimbo Jones Club) – 7:17 6. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Rosabel's "Only Club In The World") – 8:35 7. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Mixin Marc & Tony Svejda Club Mix) – 6:25 8. "Only Girl (In the World)" (CCW Blow It Up Club Mix) – 9:44 9. "Only Girl (In the World)" (The Bimbo Jones Dub) – 7:32 10. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Rosabel's "Only Dub In The World") – 8:21 11. "Only Girl (In the World)" (Mixin Marc & Tony Svejda Instrumental) – 6:23 12. "Only Girl (In the World)" (CCW Dub) – 7:27 ## Awards ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### All-time charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - List of number-one singles of 2010 (Australia) - List of number-one hits of 2010 (Austria) - List of Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles of 2010 - List of European number-one hits of 2010 - List of number-one singles of 2010 (Ireland) - List of number-one hits of 2010 (Italy) - List of number-one singles from the 2010s (New Zealand) - List of number-one songs in Norway - List of number-one singles of 2010 (Poland) - List of number-one dance singles of 2010 (Poland) - List of number-one digital songs of 2010 (U.S.) - List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 2010s - List of Billboard Hot 100 number ones of 2010 - List of Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs number ones of 2010 - List of Billboard Mainstream Top 40 number-one songs of 2010 - List of Eurodance songs
415,546	Mamie Eisenhower	1,171,733,766	First Lady of the United States from 1953 to 1961	[ "1896 births", "1979 deaths", "20th-century American people", "20th-century American women", "20th-century Presbyterians", "American Presbyterians", "American people in the American Philippines", "American people of English descent", "American people of Swedish descent", "Burials in Kansas", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Eisenhower family", "First ladies of the United States", "Iowa Republicans", "Pennsylvania Republicans", "People from Boone, Iowa", "People from Cedar Rapids, Iowa", "People from Gettysburg, Pennsylvania", "People from Palm Desert, California", "People with Ménière's disease", "Washington, D.C., Republicans" ]	Mary Geneva "Mamie" Eisenhower (; November 14, 1896 – November 1, 1979) was the first lady of the United States from 1953 to 1961 as the wife of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Born in Boone, Iowa, she was raised in a wealthy household in Colorado. She married Eisenhower, then a lieutenant in the United States Army, in 1916. She kept house and served as hostess for military officers as they moved between various postings in the United States, Panama, the Philippines, and France. Their relationship was complicated by his regular absences on duty and by the death of their firstborn son at the age of three. She became a prominent figure during World War II as General Eisenhower's wife. As first lady, Eisenhower was given near total control over the expenses and scheduling of the White House. She closely managed the staff, and her frugality was apparent in White House budgeting throughout her tenure. She entertained many foreign heads of state in her role as hostess. She showed little interest in politics and was rarely involved in political discussion, though she did support soldiers' welfare and civil rights causes. She had poor balance due to Ménière's disease, giving rise to rumors of alcoholism. She was a popular first lady, and recognized as a fashion icon, known for her iconic bangs and frequent use of the color pink. The Eisenhowers were married for 52 years, until Dwight's death in 1969. She spent most of her retirement and widowhood at the family farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, before returning to Washington in her final years, where she died in 1979. ## Early life Mary Geneva "Mamie" Doud was born in Boone, Iowa, as the second child of meatpacking executive John Sheldon Doud and his wife Elivera Mathilda Carlson. She grew up in Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Colorado Springs, Colorado; Denver, Colorado; and the Doud winter home in San Antonio, Texas. Her mother was a daughter of Swedish immigrants, and Swedish was often spoken at home. Her father ran a meatpacking company founded by his father, Doud & Montgomery, until he retired at age 36. He also had investments in Illinois and Iowa stockyards, producing a sizeable fortune. His wealth provided the family with many comforts, including servants who tended to their needs and connections with high society. Mamie had three sisters: her older sister, Eleanor Carlson Doud, and her two younger sisters, Eda Mae Doud and Mabel Frances "Mike" Doud. The family was beset by tragedy early in Mamie's life when Eleanor died at age 17. Their parents operated under a strict separation of spheres, whereby the father made decisions for the family and the business and the mother ran the household. Having a staff to tend to the household's needs, Mamie never learned to keep house, a skill she would have to learn from her husband. She came down with a severe case of rheumatic fever as a child, bringing about lifelong health concerns. Though her education was limited, her father taught her to manage budgeting and finance. Her family traveled extensively, and when she grew older, she was sent to Wolcott School for Girls for finishing school. ## Marriage and family ### Marriage Doud had many suitors, but she began courting Dwight D. "Ike" Eisenhower in 1915, who at the time was a second lieutenant. They were introduced while the Douds were visiting a friend at Fort Sam Houston. He broke convention by inviting her to tour the facility with him while he made his rounds. She was immediately infatuated with him, but turned him down when he asked her on a date. He pursued her for the following month as she courted other suitors before they began to date exclusively, and they were engaged on the Valentine's Day, 1916. Ike initially gave her a miniature of his West Point class ring, as was customary. At her request, he later gave her a full-size ring, and he formally asked permission to marry her on Saint Patrick's Day. Mamie celebrated both Valentine's Day and Saint Patrick's Day as anniversaries of their engagement. Mamie's father agreed to the marriage on the condition that Eisenhower did not enter the Army Air Service, as he considered it too dangerous. Apprehension of American entry into World War I accelerated their plans to wed, and they were married at the Doud family's home in Denver on July 1, 1916. They went on honeymoon and visited Ike's parents in Abilene, Kansas, before returning to Fort Sam Houston, where Ike was stationed. Mamie also met Ike's brother, Milton S. Eisenhower, who became a close friend to Mamie. ### Army wife Eisenhower lived the life of an army wife over the following years, continually moving as her husband was stationed at different posts. Over the course of Ike's 37 years in the military, they lived in 33 different homes. During some of these postings, she participated in community projects, such as the establishment of a hospital in Panama. Their military housing was often meager, and she was tasked with furnishing their temporary homes and making them livable. The Eisenhowers regularly entertained wherever they lived, and their home came to be known as "Club Eisenhower". Mamie often attended card parties and luncheons with officers' wives, befriending many of them, but had little patience for the gossip and intrigue that sometimes took place, refusing to take part in it. Eisenhower no longer had the comforts that she had grown accustomed to in childhood. They had to survive on Ike's military pay and occasional support from Mamie's father. Ike and Mamie were often both physically and emotionally distant from each other, and Mamie experienced bouts of depression throughout her time as an army wife. She had to grow accustomed to fear and loneliness during periods of separation while her husband was traveling for the army, and Ike once told her that his duty would "always come first". The Eisenhowers had two sons. Their first, Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower, was born on September 24, 1917. Having to care for him on her own despite her weak health, Mamie worked herself to exhaustion. Icky died of scarlet fever at age three on January 2, 1921. Mamie was devastated, and had little to distract herself from the tragedy. Their second son, John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower, was born in Denver on August 3, 1922. His birth helped alleviate some of the depression brought about by her firstborn's death and her separations from Ike, and she doted on John well into adulthood. John served in the military, was the United States Ambassador to Belgium, and wrote several books. In 1922, Ike was stationed in Panama, and Mamie struggled in the jungle environment. They went to Denver shortly before John's birth, and Mamie stayed behind after Ike returned to Panama. She rejoined him in Panama two months later, accompanied by a nurse the family had hired to help raise John. On the advice of the wife of General Fox Conner, Mamie took interest in Ike's career and presented herself as a supportive military wife, strengthening their relationship. In 1928, she encouraged her husband to take a position in Paris instead of in the War Department. She hosted increasingly important guests as her husband's military career progressed. When Ike was appointed as aide to General Douglas MacArthur in 1929, the family moved to Washington, D.C., and "Club Eisenhower" became a popular social hub for the city's elite. She initially chose to stay in Washington when her husband was stationed in the Philippines in 1935, and their relationship was strained by the time she joined him the following year. The family returned to the U.S. shortly after the onset of World War II in 1939. ### General's wife During World War II, while promotion and fame came to Ike, his wife lived in Washington, D.C. During the three years Ike was stationed in Europe, Mamie saw him only once. She made her own contributions to the war effort, volunteering anonymously for the American Women's Voluntary Services and the United Service Organizations, among other groups. Mamie constantly worried about her husband's safety while he led the war effort in Europe, and was regularly accosted by reporters, causing her to lose 20 pounds during the war. Rumors emerged that she was an alcoholic, though no evidence supported this claim. Her struggle was further complicated by Ike's close relationship with his chauffeur, Kay Summersby; she had become a close confidante of Ike's, and rumors emerged that he had taken her as a mistress. Ike's military success and his subsequent memoirs provided the couple with financial stability after the war. After Ike became president of Columbia University in 1948, the Eisenhowers purchased a farm (now the Eisenhower National Historic Site) at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It was the first home they had ever owned. She continued in her hosting duties, this time for faculty wives and large donors in addition to the friends her husband had made in the military. Ike was then made commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization forces, and their return to Paris delayed work on their dream home, which was not completed until 1955. In Europe, the two regularly received royals, and Mamie was awarded the Cross of Merit for her role in her husband's military success. When Ike agreed to run in the 1952 presidential election, Mamie campaigned for him. She appeared to enjoy campaigning, and was popular among voters. She sometimes subverted her husband's campaign managers' wishes, making speaking appearances without their knowledge and suggesting changes to his speeches. ## First Lady of the United States ### White House hostess Eisenhower became first lady as the position first began to present a national public image. She maligned the attention associated with the role, insisting that her husband was the public figure of the family and generally refusing to take on duties outside the White House. She maintained distance from the press, avoiding interviews and having her secretary Mary Jane McCaffree address reporters in her stead. She also declined a request to write a column for the New York Herald Tribune, and held only one press conference during her tenure. She was friendly with reporters when they did interact, insisting that they address her as Mamie. Her ambivalence toward the press did not extend toward photographers, whom she readily accommodated. She also wrote a personal response to every letter she received and sometimes passed on concerns the letters raised. Despite her reservations about public life, Eisenhower enjoyed her role as a hostess. During her time as first lady, she entertained many heads of state. In total, she entertained about 70 official foreign visitors. She was a capable hostess, having spent much of her adult life hosting as a military wife. She hosted social events full time and reveled in the pageantry associated with the presidency. Eisenhower was lauded for her social prowess, greeting and shaking hands with thousands of people during her tenure as first lady. When entertaining, she prioritized comfort and popular taste over prestige. She often employed male quartets and musicians such as Fred Waring to perform for guests at the White House. Media coverage of Eisenhower was generally favorable, focusing on her personality and charm rather than politics or scandal. ### Managing the White House Eisenhower took naturally to managing the White House and its staff, drawing on her experience as an army wife. She had a strained relationship with the staff after taking charge, having imposed many rules to liken them to more traditional house staff and managing them closely. Over time she built relationships with the staff, treating them as family and even celebrating their birthdays. When their house in Gettysburg was completed in 1955, they celebrated by throwing a housewarming party for the White House staff. Eisenhower typically managed the White House from her bedroom, staying in bed due to her poor health. The Eisenhowers were accustomed to splitting their responsibilities, and Mamie was given total authority over house spending and scheduling. She had developed a strict frugality as an army wife, and micromanaged White House expenses. She was known for her frugality, and even clipped coupons for the White House staff. Her recipe for "Mamie's million dollar fudge" was reproduced by housewives all over the country after it was published. During her tenure, she had several rooms redecorated in her favorite colors, pink and green. Eisenhower was especially active during the Christmas season, during which she had the White House heavily decorated for the occasion and bought gifts for the White House staff. In 1958, she was also reported to be the first person to initiate Halloween decorations for the White House. Her attempts to decorate the White House were complicated by lack of federal funding, and many of her changes depended on private donations. She dedicated much time to the flower arrangements of the White House, favoring gladioli. Her possessiveness over White House decor sometimes caused conflict with the staff, as it contradicted the recognized norm that the first family were residents rather than owners of the White House. She held great reverence for the building, saying that she "never drove up to the south portico without a lump coming to [her] throat". When Ike had a heart attack in 1955, Mamie helped keep him warm and get him medical attention. Afterward, she regularly tended to him, limiting his work schedule, managing his diet, and taking his mail. She also had a room set aside upstairs in the White House where he could practice his painting in solitude. She gave him strong emotional support at a time when he lacked the energy or desire to carry out his responsibilities as president. When it was unclear whether Ike would run for reelection in 1956 due to his health, Mamie encouraged him to run. She was protective of him during his periods of illness, at one point informing Pat Nixon without his knowledge that he was not healthy enough to campaign for Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election. Mamie also had medical concerns of her own; among others, she was uneasy on her feet due to Ménière's disease, an inner-ear disorder that affects equilibrium, which fed rumors that she had a drinking problem. ### Politics Eisenhower had little interest in the presidency's political aspects, and was never directly involved in her husband's decisions. She entered the West Wing of the White House only four times during her tenure. This lack of political involvement contributed to her subservient image that protected her from heavy media scrutiny and bolstered her popularity. The main political cause that interested her was social issues, including women's issues and civil rights. She expressed a desire to see women elected to Congress, and sponsored several women's clubs. She also invited Black women to the White House, including Marian Anderson and the National Council of Negro Women. Other causes she supported include soldiers' benefits, civil defense, blood drives, and the United Nations. After her husband's heart attack, she chaired fundraising for the American Heart Association. The president also consulted her at times on economic issues, having depended on her for finance throughout their marriage. Her control over the guest list and social scheduling allowed Eisenhower some degree of political influence. When organizing the 1953 annual vice president's dinner, she invited every senator except Joseph McCarthy, allowing the president to maintain distance from McCarthy without taking a stance. When the President of Haiti visited the White House, she ensured he would be received with full honors to celebrate the first Black head of state to visit the White House. Most of her influence in the Oval Office came through her social role; she made a point of knowing the president's cabinet members and support staff, and congratulated them and their wives on successes to improve morale. Eisenhower was reportedly unhappy with the idea of John F. Kennedy coming into office following her husband's term and expressed displeasure about new First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy, calling her "the college girl". Jacqueline Kennedy had given birth to John Jr. via caesarean section two weeks before a planned tour of the White House, but Mamie did not inform her that a wheelchair was available for her to use while showing her the various sections of the White House. Seeing Eisenhower's displeasure during the tour, Kennedy kept her composure in Eisenhower's presence, collapsing in private once she returned home. When Eisenhower was later asked why she would do such a thing, she replied, "Because she never asked." ## Later life In 1961, Eisenhower retired with the former president to Gettysburg, their first permanent home. They also had a retirement home in Palm Desert, California. She made appearances on occasion for the Kennedy administration, including a fundraiser for the National Cultural Center and a state dinner with the Prime Minister of Japan. As her husband was dying, legislation passed that guaranteed lifetime Secret Service protection for presidential widows. Following Ike's death in March 1969, Mamie went to Belgium, where their son was serving as ambassador. After returning to the U.S., she continued to live full-time on the farm until she took an apartment in Washington, D.C., as her health declined in the late 1970s. She often stayed in her bedroom after her husband's death while Secret Service agents supported her. Eisenhower remained close to the Nixon family after her tenure as first lady, and her grandson married the Nixons' daughter in 1968. She appeared in a commercial to support Richard Nixon's reelection in the 1972 presidential election, and the Nixons regularly invited Mamie to the White House throughout the Nixon presidency. She took stronger political stances later in life; she supported the Vietnam War, though she recognized the hardship faced by American soldiers, and opposed the women's liberation movement. She supported Dick Thornburgh for governor of Pennsylvania, and George H. W. Bush in the 1980 Republican Party presidential primaries. In 1973, Eisenhower finally addressed rumors of alcoholism in an interview, explaining the nature of her vertigo. Rumors of Ike's alleged affair with Kay Summersby reemerged in the 1970s, though Mamie continued to say that she did not believe them. ### Death Eisenhower had a stroke on September 25, 1979. She was rushed to Walter Reed Army Medical Center, where her husband had died a decade before. Eisenhower remained in the hospital, and on October 31, announced to her granddaughter Mary Jean that she would die the next day. She died in her sleep on the morning of November 1. A memorial service was held in the Fort Myer chapel on November 5 with attendants including the Nixons, Rosalynn Carter, Senator Jacob Javits, Federal Reserve Chair Arthur F. Burns, and Eisenhower's Secret Service agents. She was buried beside her husband in his hometown of Abilene, Kansas. ## Legacy Eisenhower's birthplace is open to the public and operated by the Mamie Doud Eisenhower Foundation. Places bearing the name Mamie Eisenhower include a park in Denver and a library in the Denver suburb of Broomfield, Colorado. She was inducted into the Colorado Women's Hall of Fame in 1985. ### Impact on fashion Eisenhower was known for her sense of fashion, and many women adopted her style. The New York Dress Institute named her one of the 12 best-dressed women in the country every year that she was first lady. Her style was known as the "Mamie Look"; it involved a full-skirted dress, pink gloves, charm bracelets, pearls, little hats, purses, and bobbed, banged hair. Her style was associated with Dior's postwar "New Look", and included both high- and low-end items. Her frugality affected her style, as she often sought out bargains and kept clothes long after buying them. Eisenhower wore a Nettie Rosenstein gown to the 1953 inaugural balls, a pink peau de soie gown embroidered with more than 2,000 rhinestones. It is one of the most popular of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History's collection of inaugural gowns. Eisenhower paired it with matching gloves, and jewelry by Trifari. She carried a beaded purse by Judith Leiber (then an employee of Nettie Rosenstein). Her shoes by Delman had her name printed on the left instep. Eisenhower first adopted her iconic bangs while Ike was stationed in Panama; she found that the hairstyle helped her keep cool in the tropical environment, and decided to keep it after returning to the United States. She owned many cosmetics and perfumes, and often visited a beauty spa to maintain her appearance. Eisenhower's fondness for a specific shade of pink, often called "First Lady" or "Mamie" pink, kicked off a national trend for pink clothing, housewares, and bathrooms. ### Historical assessments Eisenhower is remembered neither as a traditionalist like Bess Truman nor as an activist like Eleanor Roosevelt. Her tenure occurred at a time when the role was undergoing major changes and growing in prominence. Her influence on the Eisenhower administration was reserved, respecting a strict division between her husband's public life and their home life. To the public she symbolized the glamor, style, and growth associated with the United States in the 1950s. She played the role of the "perfect wife" of her era: highly feminine, subservient to her husband, and focused on the household. The most significant effect she had on the position of first lady was the organization of a dedicated personal staff that became the Office of the First Lady of the United States. Since 1982, Siena College Research Institute has periodically conducted a survey asking historians to assess American first ladies according to a cumulative score on their background, value to the country, intelligence, courage, accomplishments, integrity, leadership, being their own women, public image, and value to the president. Eisenhower has been ranked: In an additional question accompanying the 2014 survey, Eisenhower placed third among 20th- and 21st-century first ladies who historians felt could have done more. In the 2014 survey, Eisenhower and her husband were also ranked 14th out of 39 first couples in terms of being a "power couple".
19,031,071	Duke of Marmalade	1,148,477,842	Irish-bred Thoroughbred racehorse	[ "2004 racehorse births", "2021 racehorse deaths", "Cartier Award winners", "King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes winners", "Racehorses bred in Ireland", "Racehorses trained in Ireland", "Thoroughbred family 3-l" ]	Duke of Marmalade (12 March 2004 – 5 November 2021) was an Irish Thoroughbred racehorse and sire. He is best known for winning five consecutive Group One races in 2008, for which he was named European Champion Older Horse. Upon retirement at the end of the 2008 racing season he stood as a stallion for Coolmore Stud, being moved between stud farms in Ireland and Australia (a practice known as shuttling). In July 2014 he was sold and relocated to Drakenstein Stud in South Africa. Duke of Marmalade was owned during his racing career by Sue Magnier and Michael Tabor, winning his first two races as a two-year-old in June 2006. He did not win again until the spring of his four-year-old season, almost twenty-two months later. During this winless period he was sometimes regarded as little more than a pacemaker for more celebrated stable companions such as Dylan Thomas. In his final year of racing he recorded wins in the Prix Ganay, the Tattersalls Gold Cup, the Prince of Wales's Stakes, the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes and International Stakes. He was retired in October 2008 after running in the Breeders' Cup Classic. Duke of Marmalade sired four European Classic winners in 2015, namely Nutan, Star of Seville, Simple Verse and Sound of Freedom. ## Background Duke of Marmalade was a bay horse standing 16 hands high bred in Ireland by Southern Bloodstock. a division of his owners' Coolmore Stud organisation. Duke of Marmalade weighed 540 kg during his racing career and was trained by Aidan O'Brien at Ballydoyle. Duke of Marmalade was one of the last crop of foals sired by Danehill one of the most successful stallions of the last twenty years, producing the winners of more than a thousand races, including one hundred and fifty-six at Group One/Grade I level. Among his best offspring are Dylan Thomas, Rock of Gibraltar, George Washington and North Light. Love Me True is a half-sister to Shuailaan (Winter Hill Stakes), Madison's Charm (Comely Stakes) and Bite The Bullet (Sanford Stakes), and, as a granddaughter of Lassie Dear, is closely related to Summer Squall, A.P. Indy and Lemon Drop Kid. The name "Duke of Marmalade" is derived from a title created by King Henri Christophe for a member of the new Haitian nobility following the Haitian Revolution. The name had previously been used for an Italian thoroughbred racehorse which won the Premio Roma in 1975 and 1976. ## Racing career ### 2006: two-year-old season Duke of Marmalade began his career with three races in the summer of 2006. In June he made his debut in a six furlong maiden race at Leopardstown. Ridden by Seamie Heffernan and starting at odds of 11/4 (2.75-1) favourite, he was towards the back of the field in the early stages before making progress in the last two furlongs to finish second to Chanting. Nine days later he reappeared in a maiden race over seven furlongs at The Curragh for which he was made 4/6 favourite (approximately 0.67-1). He "stayed on well" to record his first win, beating Supposition by a neck (approximately a quarter of a length), under Kieren Fallon. Duke of Marmalade was then moved directly into Group Two class; he was sent to England for the Vintage Stakes at Goodwood in July, where his opponents included the July Stakes winner Strategic Prince. Ridden by Michael Kinane he raced just behind the leaders before being moved forward to challenge the leaders in the straight. He made ground steadily, but was unable to reach the front and finished second, beaten by a neck by Strategic Prince. Before his run at Goodwood, Duke of Marmalade had been supported in the betting for the following year's 2000 Guineas, but shortly after the race he suffered a pastern injury which required surgery; as a result, he did not race again in 2006. ### 2007: three-year-old season In 2007 Duke of Marmalade did not record a victory in six starts. However, he was never further back than fourth and ran exclusively in Group One races. He was often part of a multiple entry by the Ballydoyle team. Instead of running in a trial race, Duke of Marmalade was sent straight to Newmarket for the 2000 Guineas. The field of twenty-four runners split into two groups, one on either side of the wide Newmarket course. Duke of Marmalade tracked the leaders of the stands side group before staying on to finish fourth to Cockney Rebel. Having returned from an absence of more than nine months, the colt was expected to improve for the run, but later in the same month he finished fourth again to Cockney Rebel in the Irish 2000 Guineas. At Royal Ascot, Duke of Marmalade showed improved form in the St James's Palace Stakes. Michael Kinane tried to lead all the way on the colt-and was still in front inside the final furlong-before being caught and beaten a neck by Jamie Spencer on his stable companion Excellent Art, with another O'Brien-trained runner, Astronomer Royal in third, and Cockney Rebel in fifth. Two months later, Duke of Marmalade was moved up in distance and took on older horses for the first time in the International Stakes at York. He ran up to his best form in a highly competitive race to finish fourth behind the Derby winner Authorized, Dylan Thomas and Notnowcato. Duke of Marmalade raced against his stable companion Dylan Thomas again in the Irish Champion Stakes at Leopardstown in September. He led into the straight before being overtaken by Dylan Thomas, and although he had no chance with the winner he stayed on to take second ahead of notable winners such as Red Rocks (Breeders' Cup Turf), Maraahel (Hardwicke Stakes) and Finsceal Beo (1000 Guineas). O'Brien was pleased with the run and said that Duke of Marmalade was still improving. On his final start of the year he was brought back to one mile for the Queen Elizabeth II Stakes in which he led until the last quarter mile, setting a strong pace, before finishing third to Ramonti and Excellent Art. During the winter it was discovered that a metal pin used to repair his previous injury had been causing the horse discomfort and was restricting his movement. The pin was removed, allowing Duke of Marmalade to run free of pain as a four-year-old. ### 2008: four-year-old season #### Spring As a four-year-old Duke of Marmalade had a notable run of success, winning his first five races. In all these races he was ridden by Johnny Murtagh and was usually accompanied by his pacemaker Red Rock Canyon. In April he was sent to Longchamp for the Group One Prix Ganay. He raced behind Spirit One before making his challenge in the straight and running on strongly under pressure to beat Saddex by half a length. It was his first major win, and his first win of any kind for more than twenty-one months. After the race, O'Brien called Duke of Marmalade "a horse to look forward to". At the Curragh a month later, he justified odds of 1/3 (0.33-1) in the Tattersalls Gold Cup, being driven out by Murtagh to beat the filly Finsceal Beo by one and a quarter lengths. #### Summer In the Prince of Wales's Stakes at Royal Ascot he produced what his trainer considered his best performance to date, taking over from Red Rock Canyon in the straight where he "stormed clear" to win by four lengths from Phoenix Tower. The Guardian called it a "brilliant victory" while Murtagh described the colt as among the best he had ridden. He then stepped up to twelve furlongs for Britain's most prestigious weight-for-age race, the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes, for which he was made 4/6 (0.67-1) favourite. With no three-year-old in the field, the race did not appear to be up to its usual standard. Duke of Marmalade was settled by Murtagh in the middle of the field before being switched to the outside in the straight and overtaking Red Rock Canyon entering the final furlong. He was immediately challenged and headed by the Michael Stoute-trained Papal Bull but "rallied gamely" to regain the lead close to the finish and win by a half a length. Murtagh was keen to praise the horse's speed and attitude, saying "mine has all that makes a real champion. He looked the other horse in the eye and ate ground. He has that will to win." Duke of Marmalade was then brought back in distance from twelve furlongs to ten and a half furlongs for the International Stakes. The race also attracted The Derby winner New Approach, and the meeting of the two champions was much anticipated by the press as a "clash of the titans". Bad ground conditions forced the race to be abandoned, and it was rescheduled for Newmarket four days later. Duke of Marmalade took the lead three furlongs out and was driven out by Murtagh to beat Phoenix Tower by three-quarters of a length, with New Approach, who had pulled hard and failed to settle in the early stages, two and a half lengths further back in third. The colt's toughness and strong constitution were singled out for praise, with the press referring to him as the "Iron Duke". O'Brien and his jockeys were later found guilty of using unfair tactics in the race and were punished by the British Horseracing Authority. While pacemakers are allowed, it is considered unfair to provide additional assistance, for instance manoeuvring a horse to ensure a clear run for a stable companion. O'Brien defended himself "fervently", calling the charges "fantasy...a load of nonsense." #### Autumn It was expected that Duke of Marmalade would meet New Approach again in the Irish Champion Stakes in September, but following heavy rain in the build-up to the race O'Brien withdrew the colt, saying "we don't want to subject him to soft ground now, with the rest of the year in mind." Duke of Marmalade did not appear again until the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe at Longchamp in October, for which he was made 4/1 second favourite despite O'Brien expressing concern over the soft ground. He was settled on the outside, but when Murtagh attempted to have him move forward in the straight, he made no progress and finished seventh of the sixteen runners behind Zarkava. On his final start, he was sent to California for the Breeders' Cup Classic at Santa Anita. Racing on a synthetic track for the first time, he ran in third place for much of the distance and briefly headed the field turning into the straight, but faded in the closing stages to finish ninth of the twelve runners behind Raven's Pass. Murtagh and O'Brien characterised the performance as typifying "the end of a long, hard season" and Duke of Marmalade's retirement was announced immediately. ## Race record . ## Assessment, honours and awards In November 2008, Duke of Marmalade was named European Champion Older Horse at the Cartier Racing Awards. In the World Thoroughbred Racehorse Rankings for 2007, Duke of Marmalade was assessed on a mark of 120, placing him just outside the world's top thirty horses. In the 2008 Rankings, he was rated the fifth best horse in the world with a mark of 127 Duke of Marmalade was given an end of year rating of 132 by Timeform in 2008. A rating of 130 or above is regarded as the mark of a real "top-notcher." ## Stud career He was retired from racing at the end of 2008 and stood as a stallion for Coolmore Stud where he used to shuttle between their main base in County Tipperary, Ireland during the Northern Hemisphere breeding season and Coolmore's Australian stud farm in the Hunter Region, New South Wales, during the Southern Hemisphere breeding season. His first foals were born in 2010. In 2014 he relocated to Drakenstein Stud in South Africa where his first South African foals were born in 2015. His offspring have included Group 1 winners Nutan (Deutsches Derby), Star of Seville (Prix de Diane), Simple Verse and Big Orange, as well as G2 winners Big Memory and Italian 1000 Guineas winner Sound of Freedom. On 10 November 2015, Simple Verse was named Cartier Champion Stayer at the 25th edition of the Cartier Racing Awards. In October it was announced that Duke of Marmalade had been pensioned from stud duty due on veterinary advice but would remain at Drakenstein. He died "peacefully" in his paddock on 5 November 2021. ## Pedigree - Like all of Danehill's offspring Duke of Marmalade is inbred 4 × 4 to the mare Natalma. This means that she occurs twice in the fourth generation of his pedigree. - Through his dam he is also inbred 4 × 4 to Raise a Native.
473,113	Merian C. Cooper	1,171,430,981	American filmmaker	[ "1893 births", "1973 deaths", "20th-century American male actors", "Academy Honorary Award recipients", "American anti-communists", "American male film actors", "American people of English descent", "American prisoners of war in World War I", "Aviators from Florida", "Bomber pilots", "California Republicans", "Deaths from cancer in California", "Film directors from Florida", "Film producers from Florida", "Florida Republicans", "Harold B. Lee Library-related film articles", "Lawrenceville School alumni", "Mass media people from Jacksonville, Florida", "Military personnel from Florida", "Polish people of the Polish–Soviet War", "Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)", "Recipients of the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari", "Shot-down aviators", "United States Army Air Forces bomber pilots of World War II", "United States Army Air Forces officers", "United States Army Air Service pilots of World War I", "United States Army colonels", "United States Army personnel of World War I", "World War I prisoners of war held by Germany" ]	Merian Caldwell Cooper (October 24, 1893 – April 21, 1973) was an American filmmaker, actor, and producer, as well as a former aviator who served as an officer in the United States Air Force and Polish Air Force. In film, his most famous work was the 1933 movie King Kong, and he is credited as co-inventor of the Cinerama film projection process. He was awarded an honorary Oscar for lifetime achievement in 1952 and received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960. Before entering the movie business, Cooper had a distinguished career as the founder of the Kościuszko Squadron during the Polish–Soviet War and was a Soviet prisoner of war for a time. He got his start in with film as part of the Explorers Club, traveling the world and documenting adventures. He was a member of the board of directors of Pan American Airways, but his love of film took priority. During his film career, he worked for companies such as Pioneer Pictures, RKO Pictures, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. In 1925, he and Ernest B. Schoedsack went to Iran and made Grass: A Nation's Battle for Life, a documentary about the Bakhtiari people. ## Early life Merian Caldwell Cooper was born in Jacksonville, Florida, to lawyer John C. Cooper and Mary Caldwell. He was the youngest of three children. At age six, Cooper decided that he wanted to be an explorer after hearing stories from the book Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa. He was educated at The Lawrenceville School in New Jersey and graduated in 1911. After graduation, Cooper received a prestigious appointment to the U.S. Naval Academy, but was expelled during his senior year for "hell raising and for championing air power". In 1916, Cooper worked for the Minneapolis Daily News as a reporter, where he met Delos Lovelace. In the next few years, he also worked at the Des Moines Register-Leader and the St. Louis Post-Dispatch. ## Early military service ### Georgia National Guard In 1916, Cooper joined the Georgia National Guard to help chase Pancho Villa in Mexico. He was called home in March 1917. He worked for the El Paso Herald on a 30-day leave of absence. After returning to his service, Cooper was appointed lieutenant; however, he refused the appointment hoping to participate in combat. Instead, he went to the Military Aeronautics School in Atlanta to learn to fly. Cooper graduated as the top of his class. ### World War I In October 1917, six months after the American entry into World War I, Cooper went to France with the 201st Squadron. He attended flying school in Issoudun. While flying with his friend, Cooper hit his head and was knocked out during a 200-foot plunge. After the incident, Cooper suffered from shock and had to relearn how to fly. Cooper requested to go to Clermont-Ferrand to be trained as a bomber pilot. He became a pilot with the 20th Aero Squadron (which later became the 1st Day Bombardment Group). Cooper served as a DH-4 bomber pilot with the United States Army Air Service during World War I. On September 26, 1918, his plane was shot down. The plane caught fire, and Cooper spun the plane to suck the flames out. Cooper survived, although he suffered burns, injured his hands, and was presumed dead. German soldiers saw his plane landing and took him to a prisoner reserve hospital. Captain Cooper remained in the Air Service after the war; he helped with Herbert Hoover's U.S. Food Administration that provided aid to Poland. He later became the chief of the Poland division. ### Kościuszko Squadron From late 1919 until the 1921 Treaty of Riga, Cooper was a member of a volunteer American flight squadron, the Kościuszko Squadron, which supported the Polish Army in the Polish-Soviet War. On July 13, 1920, his plane was shot down, and he spent nearly nine months in a Soviet prisoner of war camp where the writer Isaac Babel interviewed him. He escaped just before the war was over and made it to Latvia. For his valor he was decorated by Polish commander-in-chief Józef Piłsudski with the highest Polish military decoration, the Virtuti Militari. During his time as a POW, Cooper wrote an autobiography: Things Men Die For. The manuscript was published by G. P. Putnam's Sons in New York (the Knickerbocker Press) in 1927. However, in 1928, Cooper regretted releasing certain details about "Nina" (probably Małgorzata Słomczyńska) with whom he had relations outside of wedlock. Cooper asked Dagmar Matson, who had the manuscript, to buy all the copies of the book possible. Matson found almost all 5,000 copies that had been printed. The books were destroyed, while Cooper and Matson each kept a copy. An interbellum Polish film directed by Leonard Buczkowski, Gwiaździsta eskadra (The Starry Squadron), was inspired by Cooper's experiences as a Polish Air Force officer. The film was made with the cooperation of the Polish army and was the most expensive Polish film prior to World War II. After World War II, all copies of the film found in Poland were destroyed by the Soviets. ## Career ### Cooper and Schoedsack After returning from overseas in 1921, Cooper got a job working the night shift at The New York Times. He was commissioned to write articles for Asia magazine. Cooper was able to travel with Ernest Schoedsack on a sea voyage on the Wisdom II. As part of the journey, he traveled to Abyssinia, or the Ethiopian Empire, where he met their prince regent, Ras Tefari, later known as Emperor Haile Selassie I. The ship left Abyssinia in February 1923. On their way home, the crew narrowly missed being attacked by pirates, and the ship was burned down. His three-part series for Asia was published in 1923. After returning home, Cooper researched for the American Geographical Society. In 1924, Cooper joined Schoedsack and Marguerite Harrison who had embarked on an expedition that would be turned into the film Grass (1925). They returned later the same year. Cooper became a member of the Explorers Club of New York in January 1925 and was asked to give lectures and attend events due to his extensive traveling. Grass was acquired by Paramount Pictures. Cooper and Schoedsack's first film gained the attention of Jesse Lasky, who commissioned the duo for their second film, Chang (1927). They also produced the film The Four Feathers, which was filmed among the fighting tribes of the Sudan. These films combined real footage with staged sequences. ### Pan American Airways Between 1926 and 1927, Cooper discussed with John Hambleton the plans for Pan American Airways, which was formed during 1927. Cooper was a member of the board of directors of Pan American Airways. During his tenure at Pan Am, the company established the first regularly scheduled transatlantic service. While he was on the board, Cooper did not devote his full attention to the organization; he took time in 1929 and 1930 to work on the script for King Kong. By 1931, he was back in Hollywood. He resigned from the board of directors in 1935, following health complications. ### King Kong Cooper said that he thought of King Kong after he had a dream that a giant gorilla was terrorizing New York City. When he awoke, he recorded the idea and used it for the film. He was going to have a giant gorilla fight a Komodo dragon or other animal, but found that the technique of interlacing that he wanted to use would not provide realistic results. Cooper needed a production studio for the film, but recognized the great cost of the movie, especially during the Great Depression. Cooper helped David Selznick get a job at RKO Pictures, which was struggling financially. Selznick became the vice president of RKO and asked Cooper to join him in September 1931, although he had only produced three films thus far in his career. Cooper began working as an executive assistant at age thirty-eight. He officially pitched the idea for King Kong in December 1931. Shortly after, he began to seek actors and build full-scale sets, although the screenplay was not yet complete. The screenplay was delivered to Cooper in January 1932. Schoedsack contributed to the film, focusing on shooting scenes for the boat sequences and in native villages, leaving Cooper to shoot the jungle scenes. In February 1933, the title for the film was registered for copyright. Throughout filming there were creative battles. Critics at RKO argued that the film should begin with Kong. Cooper believed that a film should begin with a "slow dramatic buildup that would establish everything from characters to mood ..." so that the action of the film could "naturally, relentlessly, roll on out of its own creative movement", and thus chose to not begin the film with a shot of Kong. The iconic scene in which Kong is atop of the Empire State Building was almost canceled by Cooper for legal reasons, but was kept in the film because RKO bought the rights to The Lost World. Overlapping with the production of King Kong was the making of The Most Dangerous Game, which began in May 1932. Cooper once again worked with Schoedsack to produce the film. In the 1933 version of King Kong, Cooper and co-director Ernest B. Schoedsack appear at the end, piloting the plane that finally finishes off Kong. Cooper had reportedly said, "We should kill the sonofabitch ourselves." Cooper personally cut a scene in King Kong in which four sailors are shaken off a rope bridge by Kong, fall into a ravine, and are eaten alive by giant spiders. According to Hollywood folklore, the decision was made after previews in January 1933, during which audience members either fled the theater in terror or talked about the ghastly scene throughout the remainder of the movie. However, more objective sources maintain that the scene merely slowed the film's pace. Despite the rumor that Cooper kept a print of the cut footage as a memento, it has never been found. In 2021, film historian Ray Morton stated in an interview that, after looking through the films shooting schedule, he found no evidence the sequence was ever filmed. In 1963, Cooper argued unsuccessfully that he should own the rights to King Kong; later in 1976, judges ruled that Cooper's estate owned the rights to King Kong outside the movie and its sequel. Selznick left RKO before the release of King Kong, and Cooper served as production chief from 1933 to 1934 with Pan Berman as his executive assistant. In the 2005 remake of King Kong, upon learning that Fay Wray was not available because she was making a film at RKO, Carl Denham (Jack Black) replies, "Cooper, huh? I might have known." ### Pioneer Pictures, Selznick International Pictures, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Cooper helped the Whitney cousins form Pioneer Pictures in 1933, while he was still working for RKO. He was named vice president in charge of production for Pioneer Pictures in 1934. He would use Pioneer Pictures to test his technicolor innovations. The company contracted with RKO in order to fulfill Cooper's obligations to the company, including She and The Last Days of Pompeii. Cooper later referred to She as the "worst picture I ever made." After these disappointments, Pioneer Pictures released a short film in three-strip technicolor called La Cucaracha, which was well-received. The film won an Academy Award in 1934. Pioneer released the first full-length technicolor film, Becky Sharp in 1935. Cooper helped to advocate and pave the way for the ground-breaking technology of technicolor, as well as the widescreen process called Cinerama. Selznick formed Selznick International Pictures in 1935, and Pioneer Pictures merged with it in June 1936. Cooper became the vice president of Selznick International Pictures that same year. Cooper did not stay long; he resigned in 1937 due to disagreements over the film Stagecoach. After resigning from Selznick International, Cooper went to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) in June 1937. A noteworthy project that Cooper was involved in was the fantasy film War Eagles. The film, which would have used extensive special effects, was abandoned in approximately 1939 and never finished. Cooper was to return to the Army Air Force. ### World War II Cooper re-enlisted and was commissioned a colonel in the U.S. Army Air Forces. He served with Col. Robert L. Scott in India. He worked as logistics liaison for the Doolittle Raid. Thereafter, Cooper and Scott worked with Col. Caleb V. Haynes at Dinjan Airfield. They all were involved in establishing the Assam-Burma-China Ferrying Command. This marked the beginnings of The Hump Airlift. Colonel Cooper later served in China as chief of staff for General Claire Chennault of the China Air Task Force, which was the precursor of the Fourteenth Air Force. On October 25, 1942, a CATF raid consisting of 12 B-25s and 7 P-40s, led by Colonel Cooper, successfully bombed the Kowloon Docks at Hong Kong. He served from 1943 to 1945 in the Southwest Pacific as chief of staff for the Fifth Air Force's Bomber Command. At the end of the war, he was promoted to brigadier general. For his contributions, he was also aboard the USS Missouri to witness Japan's surrender. ### Argosy Pictures and Cinerama Cooper and his friend and frequent collaborator, noted director John Ford, formed Argosy Productions in 1946 and produced such notable films such as Wagon Master (1950), Ford's Fort Apache (1948), and She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949). Cooper's films at Argosy reflected his patriotism and his vision of the United States. Argosy negotiated a contract with RKO in 1946 to make four pictures. Cooper was able to make Grass a complete picture. Cooper also produced and directed Mighty Joe Young, which recruited Schoedsack as director. Cooper visited the set of the film every day to check on progress. Cooper left Argosy Pictures to pursue the process of Cinerama. He became the vice president of Cinerama Productions in the 1950s and was also elected a board member. After failing to convince other board members to finance skilled technicians, Cooper left Cinerama with Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney to form C. V. Whitney Productions. Cooper continued to outline movies to be shot in Cinerama, but C. V. Whitney Productions only produced a few films. Cooper was the executive producer for Ford's The Searchers (1956). ## Awards For his military service in Poland, Cooper was awarded the Silver Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari (presented by Piłsudski), and Poland's Cross of Valour. In 1927, Cooper was one of 19 prominent Americans who were given the title of "Honorary Scouts" by the Boy Scouts of America for "... achievements in outdoor activity, exploration and worthwhile adventure ... of such an exceptional character as to capture the imagination of boys". The other honorees were Roy Chapman Andrews, Robert Bartlett, Frederick Russell Burnham, Richard E. Byrd, George Kruck Cherrie, James L. Clark, Lincoln Ellsworth, Louis Agassiz Fuertes, George Bird Grinnell, Charles Lindbergh, Donald Baxter MacMillan, Clifford H. Pope, George Palmer Putnam, Kermit Roosevelt, Carl Rungius, Stewart Edward White, and Orville Wright. In 1949, Mighty Joe Young won an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, which was presented to Willis O'Brien, the man responsible for the film's special effects. Cooper was awarded an honorary Oscar for lifetime achievement in 1952. His film The Quiet Man was nominated for Best Picture that year, but lost to Cecil B. DeMille's The Greatest Show on Earth. Cooper has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, though his first name is misspelled "Meriam". ## Personal life Cooper was the father of Polish translator and writer Maciej Słomczyński. He married film actress Dorothy Jordan on May 27, 1933. They kept their marriage a secret from Hollywood for a month before it was reported by journalists. He suffered a heart attack later that year. In the 1950s, he supported Joseph McCarthy in his crusade to root out Communists in Hollywood and Washington, D.C. Cooper supported Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election. Cooper founded Advanced Projects in his later life and served as the chairman of the board. He wanted to explore new technologies like 3-D color television productions. Cooper died of cancer on April 21, 1973, in San Diego. His ashes were scattered at sea with full military honors. ## Filmography
58,522,341	Soviet destroyer Tashkent	1,131,885,553	Destroyer of the Soviet Navy	[ "1937 ships", "Destroyers sunk by aircraft", "Italy–Soviet Union relations", "Ships built in Livorno", "Ships sunk by German aircraft", "Tashkent-class destroyers", "World War II shipwrecks in the Black Sea" ]	Tashkent (Russian: Ташкент) was the lead ship of her class of destroyer leaders (officially known as Project 20), built in Italy for the Soviet Navy just before World War II. The problems of the previous Leningrad-class destroyer leaders demonstrated that Russian design experience had atrophied in the years since the Russian Revolution of 1917, and the Soviets contracted for design assistance from Fascist Italy in the mid-1930s. Delivered without any armament in 1939, Tashkent was given a temporary gunnery outfit when she entered service with the Black Sea Fleet later that year. She had her permanent armament installed shortly before the Axis Powers invaded the Soviet Union in mid-1941. During the Siege of Odessa the ship escorted a transport to Odessa and provided naval gunfire support before she was badly damaged by Axis bombers in August. After repairs were completed in November, Tashkent ferried reinforcements and supplies, evacuated wounded and refugees, and bombarded Axis positions during the Siege of Sevastopol in 1941–1942. The last ship to enter Sevastopol harbor in June before the city surrendered, she was crippled by Axis bombers on her return voyage to Novorossiysk and was sunk a few days later during an air strike on the harbor there. Her wreck was refloated in 1944, but it was a constructive total loss and was scrapped after the war. ## Design and description Unsatisfied with the structural weaknesses and construction problems with Leningrad-class destroyer leader, the Soviets decided that they needed foreign design assistance around 1934–1935. They requested designs for a high-speed destroyer leader from three Italian shipbuilders and accepted the submission by Odero-Terni-Orlando (OTO) in September 1935 as part of the Second Five-Year Plan. The Italian firm would build Tashkent in its own shipyard and provide assistance for the Soviets to build others in their own shipyards. The Tashkent-class ships had an overall length of 139.7 meters (458 ft 4 in), a beam of 13.7 meters (44 ft 11 in), and a mean draft of 3.7 meters (12 ft 2 in). The ships displaced 2,840 long tons (2,890 t) at standard load and 4,163 long tons (4,230 t) at deep load. Their crew numbered 250 officers and sailors. They were powered by a pair of geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft using steam from a pair of Yarrow boilers. Designed to produce 100,000 shaft horsepower (75,000 kW), the turbines were intended to give the Tashkents a maximum speed of 42.5 knots (78.7 km/h; 48.9 mph). Tashkent herself reached 43.5 knots (80.6 km/h; 50.1 mph) from 125,500 shp (93,600 kW) during her sea trials in 1938, although her armament had yet to be fitted. The ship reached 42.7 knots (79.1 km/h; 49.1 mph) once her armament had been installed. The ships carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 5,030 nautical miles (9,320 km; 5,790 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). The main armament of the Tashkent class was intended to consist of six 130-millimeter (5.1 in) B-13 guns in three twin-gun B-2LM turrets, one superfiring pair forward of the superstructure and the other mount aft of it. The turrets were not ready in time for Tashkent so three single mounts were substituted for them once she arrived in the USSR. The designed anti-aircraft suite consisted of four semi-automatic 45-millimeter (1.8 in) 21-K anti-aircraft (AA) guns in single mounts, but six weapons were actually installed, all situated on a platform around the aft funnel, and six 12.7-millimeter (0.50 in) DShK machine guns in single mounts. She was fitted with nine 533-millimeter (21 in) torpedo tubes in three rotating triple mounts amidships. The Tashkents could also carry 76 mines and 24 depth charges which were delivered by two throwers and one stern rack. ### Modifications During a brief refit in February 1941, the three B-2LM turrets were fitted. At the same time the 45 mm guns were replaced by an equal number of fully automatic 37-millimeter (1.5 in) 70-K AA guns. A twin-gun 39-K mount for 76.2-millimeter (3 in) 34-K AA guns was installed on the stern while she was under repair on 31 August; it had been originally intended for the destroyer Ognevoy which was still under construction. ## Construction and career Tashkent, named after the capital of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, was laid down on 11 January 1937 by OTO at their Livorno shipyard. The ship was launched on 28 December and turned over to the Soviets on 6 May 1939 in Odessa. Because OTO painted her in the blue-gray color used by the Royal Italian Navy, she was nicknamed "Blue Beauty" and "Blue Cruiser" by sailors. She was assigned to the Black Sea Fleet on 22 October 1940 and was refitting in Nikolayev when the Germans invaded the USSR on 22 June 1941. Tashkent was transferred to Sevastopol on 10 July, being unsuccessfully attacked by aircraft twice en route, to conduct her post-refit sea trials. Problems with her propulsion machinery delayed her combat debut for another month. On 19 August she bombarded Axis positions with 127 shells from her main guns and she unsuccessfully searched for Axis transports two days later. On 28 August the ship helped to escort the transport from Sevastopol to Odessa. Tashkent remained in the area afterwards and provided naval gunfire support to Soviet troops near Odessa over the next three days. On the last of those days, 30 August, she was badly damaged by near-misses from three Axis bombers that knocked out her hydraulic power, punched a 5-by-5-meter (16 ft × 16 ft) hole in her hull, damaged one of her propeller shafts and distorted the forecastle girders. The shockwaves from the bombs killed two crewmen, injured seven others and one man went missing. Although she was escorted by the destroyer Smyshleny as a precaution, Tashkent was able to sail back to Sevastopol under her own power where she was dry docked for repairs that lasted until 1 November. That day she sailed to Poti, Georgia, one of the new bases for the Black Sea Fleet as approaching German forces had made Sevastopol too dangerous to use. On 19 November the ship transported a cargo of ammunition to Sevastopol and bombarded Axis positions outside the city as she departed with 145 shells two nights later. Kontr-admiral (Rear Admiral) Lev Vladimirsky hoisted his flag aboard Tashkent on 25 November as commander of a convoy of ships bound for the Soviet Far East that consisted of three oil tankers and an icebreaker. Vladimirisky and his ships escorted the convoy as far as the Bosporus in very heavy weather before returning home. On 22 December, Tashkent took another load of ammunition to Sevastopol and remained there for the next five days, firing 1,037 shells in support of the defenders. On 1 January 1942, the ship helped to transport elements of the 386th Rifle Division to Sevastopol and she remained there for the next few days, firing 176 main-gun shells in support of the defenders. On 7 and 8 January, she attempted to land reinforcements at Eupatoria during a Soviet counterattack, but was driven off by heavy German fire and bad weather, although she bombarded German defenses on the latter day with 79 shells from her 130 mm guns. After returning to Sevastopol, Tashkent escorted a pair of transports back to the Caucasus ports on the 15th. Two weeks later, she ferried replacements to Sevastopol and fired 79 shells at German positions on 30 and 31 January before departing on 1 February. The ship delivered 914 replacements to Sevastopol two days later. On 4 February Tashkent began focusing solely on bombarding Axis defenses; firing over three hundred 130 mm shells before resuming her transport duties on 29 April with the delivery of more replacements to Sevastpol. On 10 May the ship, together with the destroyer leader Kharkov, arrived in Feodosia Bay to bombard targets, but could not identify any and returned to base without firing. A week later she delivered 689 replacements and 50 metric tons (49 long tons) of ammunition, following that with 775 men and 65 metric tons (64 long tons) of ammunition on 22 May. On her return voyage, she carried 39 soldiers, 86 evacuees, 21 torpedoes and the contents of the state bank. On 24 May Tashkent ferried 983 soldiers and 100 metric tons (98 long tons) of ammunition to Sevastopol and made further trips with the same types of cargo on 28 May, and 2, 6, and 23 June. The following day, the destroyer leader was the last ship to arrive in Sevastopol, landing 1,142 men, supplies and equipment of the 142nd Rifle Brigade after evading attacks by Heinkel He 111H bombers of I. Gruppe (First Group) of Kampfgeschwader 100 (Bomber Wing 100) en route. After having loaded 2,100 wounded and part of the Siege of Sevastopol Panorama, Tashkent departed for Novorossiysk, but was attacked by numerous bombers on 27 June that failed to hit the ship directly. The shockwaves and fragments from the numerous near-misses, however, holed the hull multiple times, damaged her steering, flooded the forward boiler room and caused her to take on about 1,000 metric tons (980 long tons) of water. Three crewmen and 56 of her passengers were killed and 10 crewmen and 5 passengers were wounded. Her crew claimed to have shot down at least two of her attackers. A flotilla of ships sortied from Novorossiysk to assist her; the destroyer Soobrazitelny took off 1,975 of her passengers while the destroyer Bditelny towed her to Novorossiysk. The salvage ship Jupiter, the tugboat Chernomor and about 30 smaller ships also rendered assistance. Novorossiysk was attacked by Junkers Ju 88A bombers of I. Gruppe of Kampfgeschwader 76 (Bomber Wing 76) and elements of I./KG 100 on 2 July; hitting Tashkent and Bditelny each with a pair of bombs and sinking both ships as well as Chernomor. The Soviets stripped her wreck of useful equipment and parts, transferring a pair of B-2LM mounts and the 34-K mount to Ognevoy and the third B-2LM turret to Osmotritelny. When they assessed her wreck in 1943 they found that the boiler and turbine compartments had been destroyed by the bombs, her hull plating, decks, superstructure, and five transverse bulkheads were damaged and her keel was broken. Salvage operations began on 13 January 1944 although it was not until 30 August when the wreck was refloated and beached on a sandbar in the harbor. Deciding that it would not be economical to repair the ship, the navy left the wreck there until 1946 when it was towed to Nikolayev to be scrapped.
16,722,898	Milwaukee Avenue Historic District	1,169,254,111	Historic district in Minnesota, United States	[ "Geography of Minneapolis", "Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota", "Houses in Minneapolis", "Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota", "National Register of Historic Places in Minneapolis" ]	The Milwaukee Avenue Historic District is a historic district in the Seward neighborhood of Minneapolis. The district comprises two city blocks of small homes on quarter-sized lots. These houses were built between 1884 and 1890 by William Ragan, a Minneapolis real estate speculator. Built for lower-income residents, the houses had deteriorated in condition by the end of World War II, and by the 1970s, were planned for demolition. A group of residents and concerned citizens fought to save the houses, eventually leading to their inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places and the federal protection and rehabilitation that comes with the designation. Today, the houses sit along a bike- and pedestrian-friendly mall on which motor traffic is prohibited. ## Early history During the late 19th century, the population of Minneapolis was growing rapidly, increasing 351 percent from 1880 to 1890. With the number of people moving into the city, lower-cost housing was needed for immigrants who were new to Minnesota. The street had originally been platted as an alley between 22nd and 23rd Avenues South, but William Ragan developed it as a street and labeled it 221⁄2 Avenue. The houses were situated close together on narrow lots, with very narrow side yards and no front yards. This almost gives the impression of rowhouses. Most of the houses were built with brick veneer on timber frames, and they have uniform-sized roof slopes, modified flat arch windows, and open front porches. The street kept its '1⁄2' until 1906, when petitioners asked the Minneapolis City Council to change the street's name to Woodland Avenue because they said the '1⁄2' made them feel like they lived in an alley. For an unknown reason, the street's name was not changed to Woodland Avenue, but to Milwaukee Avenue. The Avenue's proximity to the Milwaukee Short Line Railroad has been suggested as a cause. ## Deterioration and restoration By the time World War II was over, the houses on Milwaukee Avenue were falling into disrepair. They had been neglected throughout the Great Depression and wartime. In 1959, the City of Minneapolis presented a plan for the Seward neighborhood, which listed the houses on Milwaukee Avenue in 'deteriorated' condition, meaning they had no indoor plumbing or were severely battered. In many other neighborhoods, the city had renewed and thus gentrified areas without public hearings, because residents of those neighborhoods were low-income renters. In Milwaukee Avenue's case, however, the residents were of medium income, and seasoned protesters, since many had protested the Vietnam War. By 1970, the City of Minneapolis planned to raze the Milwaukee Avenue houses using funds from the Housing and Urban Development (HUD) program. The residents of Milwaukee Avenue and the surrounding Seward neighborhood formed the Seward West Project Area Committee (PAC) in order to try to save the Milwaukee Avenue homes. They argued that the houses had significant historic value and needed to be preserved. The City argued that the houses were legally nonconforming, and rehabilitating them would cost more than just building new houses. The City furthered its plan of renewing the area and took no heed of the PAC. In response, the PAC secretly submitted an application to the National Register of Historic Places for the Milwaukee Avenue district. It was approved on May 2, 1974, by Secretary of the Interior Rogers CB Morton. This meant that the city could not alter or destroy the houses using federal funds without a public hearing. Nine of Milwaukee Avenue's houses had to be destroyed due to their decrepit conditions and a tenth was moved elsewhere. In the spaces where these houses once stood, townhomes were built, mirroring the style of the original houses. The rest of the houses got new indoor plumbing, new basements, improved woodwork and porches added on. Additionally, a pedestrian mall was built down the center of Milwaukee Avenue to replace a one-way street. The Avenue is now bike and pedestrian friendly, and cars are prohibited. ## Milwaukee Avenue today Milwaukee Avenue still stands today. In 2007, to celebrate the 30th anniversary of Milwaukee Avenue's rehabilitation, self-guided walking tours of eight of the houses were offered to the public. The houses were featured on local CBS station WCCO-TV's Finding Minnesota series in 2005. The two-minute video segment about the avenue featured interviews with a resident of Milwaukee Avenue, as well as Bob Roscoe, an activist who led the fight to save Milwaukee Avenue.
186,184	Adi Shankara	1,170,557,414	8th-century Indian Hindu philosopher and theologian	[ "8th-century Indian philosophers", "8th-century Indian poets", "Adi Shankara", "Advaitin philosophers", "Ancient Indian writers", "Founders of religions", "Hindu mystics", "Hindu philosophers and theologians", "Hindu reformers", "History of Kerala", "Idealists", "Indian Hindu missionaries", "Indian Hindu monks", "Indian Hindu spiritual teachers", "Indian male writers", "Indian monks", "Indian spiritual teachers", "Indian spiritual writers", "Indian writers", "Indian yoga teachers", "Kerala academics", "Malayali Hindu saints", "Medieval Hindu religious leaders", "Ontologists", "Pantheists", "People from Ernakulam district", "Philosophers of mind", "Philosophers of religion", "Sanskrit writers", "Scholars from Kerala", "Spiritual teachers", "Writers from Kerala" ]	Adi Shankara, also called Adi Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, romanized: Ādi Śaṅkara, Ādi Śaṅkarācārya, lit. 'First Shankaracharya', ), was an 8th-century Indian Vedic scholar and teacher (acharya). His works present a harmonizing reading of the sastras, with liberating knowledge of the self at its core, synthesizing the Advaita Vedanta teachings of his time. Due to his later fame, over 300 texts are attributed to him, including commentaries (Bhāṣya), introductory topical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha) and poetry (Stotra). However, most of these are likely to be written by admirers or pretenders or scholars with an eponymous name. Works known to be written by Shankara himself are the Brahmasutrabhasya, his commentaries on ten principal Upanishads, his commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, and the Upadeśasāhasrī. The authenticity of Shankara being the author of has been questioned and mostly rejected by scholarship. The central concern of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the true identity of jivatman (individual self) as Ātman-Brahman, taking the Upanishads as an independent means of knowledge, beyond the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā-exegesis of the Vedas. Shankara's Advaita shows influences from Mahayana Buddhism, despite Shankara's critiques; and Hindu Vaishnava opponents have even accused Shankara of being a "crypto-Buddhist," a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta and Brahman. Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta, but his influence on Hindu intellectual thought has been questioned. Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Maṇḍana Miśra, and there is no mention of him in concurring Hindu, Buddhist or Jain sources until the 11th century. The popular image Shankara started to take shape in the 14th century, centuries after his death, when Sringeri matha started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire and shifted their allegiance from advaitic Agamic Saivism to Brahmanical Advaita orthodoxy. Hagiographies dating from the 14th-17th centuries deified him as a ruler-renunciate, travelling on a digvijaya (conquest of the four quarters) across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy, defeating his opponents in theological debates. These hagiographies portray him as founding four mathas ("monasteries"), and Adi Shankara also came to be regarded as the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order, and the unifier of the Shanmata tradition of worship. The title of Shankaracharya, used by heads of certain monasteries in India, is derived from his name. ## Dating Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scanty. His existing biographies are not historical accurate documents, but politically motivated hagiographies which were all written several centuries after his time and abound in legends and improbable events. Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara. While the Advaita-tradition assigns him to the 5th century BCE, the scholarly-accepted dating places Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE. ### Matha datings - 509–477 BCE: this dating is based on records of the heads of the Shankara's cardinal institutions s. The exact dates of birth of Adi Shankaracharya believed by four monasteries are Dvārakā at 491 BCE, Jyotirmath at 485 BCE, Jagannatha Puri at 484 BCE and Sringeri at 483 BCE. while according to the Kanchi Peetham Adi Shankara was born in Kali 2593 (509 BCE). The records of the Sringeri Matha state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of "Vikramaditya", but it is unclear to which king this name refers. Though some researchers identify the name with Chandragupta II (4th century CE), modern scholarship accepts the Vikramaditya as being from the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, most likely Vikramaditya II (733–746 CE). ### Scholarly datings - 788–820 CE: This was proposed by late 19th and early twentieth century scholars, following K.P. Tiele, and was customarily accepted by scholars such as Max Müller, Macdonnel, Pathok, Deussen and Radhakrishna. Though the 788–820 CE dates are widespread in 20th-century publications, recent scholarship has questioned the 788–820 CE dates. - c. 700 – c. 750 CE: Late 20th-century and early 21st-century scholarship tends to place Shankara's life in the first half of the 8th century. This estimate is based on the probable earliest and latest limits for his lifetime. His works contains traces of debates with Buddhist and Mimamsa authors from th 5th-7th century, setting the earliest limit at c. 650 CE. The latest limit is established by Vacaspatimisra's commentary on Sankara's work, dated first half of the 9th century, thus setting the latest limit for Sankara at c. 800 CE. ### Other datings - 44–12 BCE: the commentator Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE. - 6th century CE: Telang placed him in this century. Sir R.G. Bhandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE. - 805–897 CE: Venkiteswara not only places Shankara later than most, but also had the opinion that it would not have been possible for him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him, and has him live ninety-two years. ## Works Adi Shankara is highly esteemed in contemporary Advaita Vedanta, and over 300 texts are attributed to his name, including commentaries (Bhāṣya), original philosophical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha) and poetry (Stotra). However, most of these are not authentic works of Shankara, and are likely to be written by his admirers, or scholars whose name was also Shankaracharya. Piantelli has published a complete list of works attributed to Adi Sankara, along with issues of authenticity for most. ### Authentic works Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient Indian texts. Shankara's masterpiece of commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya (literally, commentary on Brahma Sutra), a fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. Most of his commentaries on the ten Mukhya (principal) Upanishads are considered authentic by scholars, and these are: Bhasya on the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Chandogya Upanishad, the Aitareya Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Kena Upanishad, the Isha Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the Mundaka Upanishad, and the Prashna Upanishad. The authenticity of the commentary on the Mandukya Upanishad and Gaudapadas Madukya-karika has been questioned. Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita (part of his Prasthana Trayi Bhasya). His Vivarana (tertiary notes) on the commentary by Vedavyasa on Yogasutras as well as those on Apastamba Dharma-sũtras (Adhyatama-patala-bhasya) are accepted by scholars as authentic works of Shankara. Among the Stotra (poetic works), the Daksinamurti Stotra, the Bhajagovinda Stotra, the Sivanandalahari, the Carpata-panjarika, the Visnu-satpadi, the Harimide, the Dasa-shloki, and the Krishna-staka are likely to be authentic. Shankara also authored Upadesasahasri, his most important original philosophical work. Of other original Prakaranas (प्रकरण, monographs, treatise), seventy-six works are attributed to Shankara. Modern era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as Upadhyaya accept five and thirty-nine works respectively as authentic. Shankara's stotras considered authentic include those dedicated to Krishna (Vaishnavism) and one to Shiva (Shaivism) – often considered two different sects within Hinduism. Scholars suggest that these stotra are not sectarian, but essentially Advaitic and reach for a unified universal view of Vedanta. Shankara's commentary on the Brahma Sutras is the oldest surviving. However, in that commentary, he mentions older commentaries like those of Dravida, Bhartrprapancha and others which are either lost or yet to be found. ### Works of doubtful authenticity or not authentic Commentaries on Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya and Shveshvatara Upanishads are attributed to Shankara, but their authenticity is highly doubtful. Similarly, commentaries on several early and later Upanishads attributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars to be his works, and are likely works of later scholars; these include: Kaushitaki Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad, Gopalatapaniya Upanishad. However, in Brahmasutra-Bhasya, Shankara cites some of these Upanishads as he develops his arguments, but the historical notes left by his companions and disciples, along with major differences in style and the content of the commentaries on later Upanishad have led scholars to conclude that the commentaries on later Upanishads were not Shankara's work. The authenticity of Shankara being the author of has been questioned, though it is "so closely interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara that any analysis of his perspective which fails to consider [this work] would be incomplete." According to Grimes, "modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara," while "traditionalists tend to accept it." Nevertheless, does Grimes argue that "there is still a likelihood that Śaṅkara is the author of the Vivekacūḍāmaṇi," noting that "it differs in certain respects from his other works in that it addresses itself to a different audience and has a different emphasis and purpose." The Aparokshanubhuti and Atma bodha are also attributed to Shankara, as his original philosophical treatises, but this is doubtful. Paul Hacker has also expressed some reservations that the compendium Sarva-darsana-siddhanta Sangraha was completely authored by Shankara, because of difference in style and thematic inconsistencies in parts. Similarly, Gayatri-bhasya is doubtful to be Shankara's work. Other commentaries that are highly unlikely to be Shankara's work include those on Uttaragita, Siva-gita, Brahma-gita, Lalita-shasranama, Suta-samhita and Sandhya-bhasya. The commentary on the Tantric work Lalita-trisati-bhasya attributed to Shankara is also unauthentic. Shankara is widely credited with commentaries on other scriptural works, such as the Vishnu sahasranāma and the Sānatsujātiya, but both these are considered apocryphal by scholars who have expressed doubts. Hastamalakiya-bhasya is also widely believed in India to be Shankara's work and it is included in Samata-edition of Shankara's works, but some scholars consider it to be the work of Shankara's student. ## Philosophy and practice According to Nakamura, Shankara was not an original thinker, but systematised the works of preceding philosophers. The central theme of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the identity of the Self (Ātman) and Brahman. Moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the identity of Atman and Brahman, as mediated by the Mahavakyas, especially Tat Tvam Asi, "That you are." ### Systematizer of Advaita According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara". Shankara "was the person who synthesized the Advaita-vāda which had previously existed before him". According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works, synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita. According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita Vedānta in the 8th century, reforming Badarayana's Vedānta tradition. According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedānta, yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India." Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with moksha, "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology," following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher." Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic [...] though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought." Shankara has been described as influenced by Shaivism and Shaktism, but his works and philosophy suggest greater overlap with Vaishnavism, influence of Yoga school of Hinduism, but most distinctly express his Advaitin convictions with a monistic view of spirituality, and his commentaries mark a turn from realism to idealism. ### Moksha - liberating knowledge of Brahman The central theme of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the true identity of jivatman (individual self) as Ātman)-Brahman. One of Shankara's main concerns was establishing the Upanishads as an independent means of knowledge beyond the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā exegesis of the vedas. According to Shankara, the one unchanging entity (Brahman) alone is real, while changing entities do not have absolute existence. Shankara's primary objective was to explain how moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the true identity of jivatman as Atman-Brahman, as mediated by the Mahāvākyas, especially Tat Tvam Asi, "That you are." Correct knowledge of jivatman and Atman-Brahman is the attainment of Brahman, immortality, and leads to moksha (liberation) from suffering and samsara, the cycle of rebirth This is stated by Shankara as follows: > > I am other than name, form and action. My nature is ever free! I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahman. I am pure Awareness, always non-dual. ### Pramanas - means of knowledge Shankara recognized the means of knowledge, but his thematic focus was upon metaphysics and soteriology, and he took for granted the pramanas, that is epistemology or "means to gain knowledge, reasoning methods that empower one to gain reliable knowledge". According to Sengaku Mayeda, "in no place in his works [...] does he give any systematic account of them," taking Atman-Brahman to be self-evident (svapramanaka) and self-established (svatahsiddha), and "an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release." Mayeda notes that Shankara's arguments are "strikingly realistic and not idealistic," arguing that jnana is based on existing things (vastutantra), and "not upon Vedic injunction (codanatantra) nor upon man (purusatantra). According to Michael Comans (aka Vasudevacharya), Shankara considered perception and inference as a primary most reliable epistemic means, and where these means to knowledge help one gain "what is beneficial and to avoid what is harmful", there is no need for or wisdom in referring to the scriptures. In certain matters related to metaphysics and ethics, says Shankara, the testimony and wisdom in scriptures such as the Vedas and the Upanishads become important. Merrell-Wolff states that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as a source of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses, yet he never rests his case on the ancient texts, rather proves each thesis, point by point using the pramanas (means of knowledge) of reason and experience. Hacker and Phillips note that his insight into rules of reasoning and hierarchical emphasis on epistemic steps is "doubtlessly the suggestion" of Shankara in Brahma-sutra-bhasya, an insight that flowers in the works of his companion and disciple Padmapada. #### Logic versus revelation Stcherbatsky in 1927 criticized Shankara for demanding the use of logic from Madhyamika Buddhists, while himself resorting to revelation as a source of knowledge. Sircar in 1933 offered a different perspective and stated, "Sankara recognizes the value of the law of contrariety and self-alienation from the standpoint of idealistic logic; and it has consequently been possible for him to integrate appearance with reality." Recent scholarship states that Shankara's arguments on revelation are about apta vacana (Sanskrit: आप्तवचन, sayings of the wise, relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). It is part of his and Advaita Vedanta's epistemological foundation. The Advaita Vedanta tradition considers such testimony epistemically valid, asserting that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly. Shankara considered the teachings in the Vedas and Upanishads as apta vacana and a valid source of knowledge. He suggests the importance of teacher-disciple relationship on combining logic and revelation to attain moksha in his text Upadeshasahasri. Anantanand Rambachan and others state that Shankara did not rely exclusively on Vedic statements, but also used a range of logical methods and reasoning methodology and other pramanas. #### Anubhava Anantanand Rambachan summarizes the widely held view on the role of anubhava in Shankara's epistemology as follows, before critiquing it: > According to these [widely represented contemporary] studies, Shankara only accorded a provisional validity to the knowledge gained by inquiry into the words of the Śruti (Vedas) and did not see the latter as the unique source (pramana) of Brahmajnana. The affirmations of the Śruti, it is argued, need to be verified and confirmed by the knowledge gained through direct experience (anubhava) and the authority of the Śruti, therefore, is only secondary. #### Yoga and contemplative exercises Shankara considered the purity and steadiness of mind achieved in Yoga as an aid to gaining moksha knowledge, but such yogic state of mind cannot in itself give rise to such knowledge. To Shankara, that knowledge of Brahman springs only from inquiry into the teachings of the Upanishads. The method of yoga, encouraged in Shankara's teachings notes Comans, includes withdrawal of mind from sense objects as in Patanjali's system, but it is not complete thought suppression, instead it is a "meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness". Describing Shankara's style of yogic practice, Comans writes: > the type of yoga which Sankara presents here is a method of merging, as it were, the particular (visesa) into the general (samanya). For example, diverse sounds are merged in the sense of hearing, which has greater generality insofar as the sense of hearing is the locus of all sounds. The sense of hearing is merged into the mind, whose nature consists of thinking about things, and the mind is in turn merged into the intellect, which Sankara then says is made into 'mere cognition' (vijnanamatra); that is, all particular cognitions resolve into their universal, which is cognition as such, thought without any particular object. And that in turn is merged into its universal, mere Consciousness (prajnafnaghana), upon which everything previously referred to ultimately depends. Shankara rejected those yoga system variations that suggest complete thought suppression leads to liberation, as well the view that the Shrutis teach liberation as something apart from the knowledge of the oneness of the Self. Knowledge alone and insights relating to true nature of things, taught Shankara, is what liberates. He placed great emphasis on the study of the Upanisads, emphasizing them as necessary and sufficient means to gain Self-liberating knowledge. Sankara also emphasized the need for and the role of Guru (Acharya, teacher) for such knowledge. #### Samanvayat Tatparya Linga Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or verse out of context from Vedic literature, and remarks in the opening chapter of his Brahmasutra-Bhasya that the Anvaya (theme or purport) of any treatise can only be correctly understood if one attends to the Samanvayat Tatparya Linga, that is six characteristics of the text under consideration: (1) the common in Upakrama (introductory statement) and Upasamhara (conclusions); (2) Abhyasa (message repeated); (3) Apurvata (unique proposition or novelty); (4) Phala (fruit or result derived); (5) Arthavada (explained meaning, praised point) and (6) Yukti (verifiable reasoning). While this methodology has roots in the theoretical works of Nyaya school of Hinduism, Shankara consolidated and applied it with his unique exegetical method called Anvaya-Vyatireka, which states that for proper understanding one must "accept only meanings that are compatible with all characteristics" and "exclude meanings that are incompatible with any". ### The Mahāvākyas - the identity of Ātman and Brahman Moksha, liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence Atman, and attaining knowledge of the identity of Ātman and Brahman. According to Shankara, the individual Ātman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical. The real self is Sat, "the Existent," that is, Ātman-Brahman. Whereas the difference between Ātman and non-Ātman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the identity of Ātman and Brahman is revealed by the shruti, especially the Upanishadic statement tat tvam asi. #### Mahāvākyas According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of Ātman and Brahman. In the Advaita Vedānta tradition, four of those statements, the Mahāvākyas, which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity. They are: - तत्त्वमसि, tat tvam asi, Chandogya VI.8.7. Traditionally rendered as "That Thou Art" (that you are), with tat in Ch.U.6.8.7 referring to sat, "the Existent"); correctly translated as "That's how [thus] you are," with tat in Ch.U.6.12.3, it' original location from where it was copied to other verses, referring to "the very nature of all existence as permeated by [the finest essence]" - अहं ब्रह्मास्मि, aham brahmāsmi, Brhadāranyaka I.4.10, "I am Brahman," or "I am Divine." - प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म, prajñānam brahma, Aitareya V.3, "Prajñānam is Brahman." - अयमात्मा ब्रह्म, ayamātmā brahma, Mandukya II, "This Atman is Brahman." #### That you are The longest chapter of Shankara's Upadesasahasri, chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" (sat), and the identity expressed in Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 in the mahavakya (great sentence) "tat tvam asi", "that thou art." In this statement, according to Shankara, tat refers to Sat, "the Existent" Existence, Being, or Brahman, the Real, the "Root of the world," the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists. "Tvam" refers to one's real I, pratyagatman or inner Self, the "direct Witness within everything," "free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies," the essence, Atman, which the individual at the core is. As Shankara states in the Upadesasahasri: > Up.I.174: "Through such sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own Atman, the Witness of all the internal organs." Up.I.18.190: "Through such sentences as "[Thou art] the Existent" [...] right knowledge concerning the inner Atman will become clearer." Up.I.18.193-194: "In the sentence "Thou art That" [...] [t]he word "That" means inner Atman." The statement "tat tvam asi" sheds the false notion that Atman is different from Brahman. According toNakamura, the non-duality of atman and Brahman "is a famous characteristic of Sankara's thought, but it was already taught by Sundarapandya" (c. 600 CE or earlier). Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to Brahma Sutra verse I.1.4: > When the metaphorical or false atman is non-existent, [the ideas of my] child, [my] body are sublated. Therefore, when it is realized that 'I am the existent Brahman, atman', how can anyduty exist? From this, and a large number of other accordances, Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker, but "a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator, as well as a defender, of ancient learning." #### Meditation on the Mahāvākya In the Upadesasahasri Shankara, Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic mahavyaka. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing," and rejects prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends parisamkhyana, separating Atman from everything that is not Atman, that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them. Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only Atman exists, stating that "all the sentences of the Upanishads concerning non-duality of Atman should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated." As Mayeda states, "how they [prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana versus parisamkhyana] differ from each other in not known." Prasamkhyana was advocated by Mandana Misra, the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century. "According to Mandana, the mahavakyas are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about brahmajnana. The Vedanta-vakyas convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (prasamkhyana). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the mahavakyas. Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra. In contrast, the Vivarana school founded by Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300) follows Shankara closely, arguing that the mahavakyas are the direct cause of gaining knowledge. #### Renouncement of ritualism Shankara, in his text Upadesasahasri, discourages ritual worship such as oblations to Deva (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from the Brahman. The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman". The false notion that Atman is different from Brahman is connected with the novice's conviction that (Upadeshasahasri II.1.25) > ...I am one [and] He is another; I am ignorant, experience pleasure and pain, am bound and a transmigrator [whereas] he is essentially different from me, the god not subject to transmigration. By worshipping Him with oblation, offerings, homage and the like through the [performance of] the actions prescribed for [my] class and stage of life, I wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence. How am I he? Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-Brahman," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like. According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove[s] the delusion of a hearer," "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own Atman, the witness of all internal organs," and not from any actions. With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since [the use of] rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity [of Atman] with the highest Atman." However, Shankara also asserts that Self-knowledge is realized when one's mind is purified by an ethical life that observes Yamas such as Ahimsa (non-injury, non-violence to others in body, mind and thoughts) and Niyamas. Rituals and rites such as yajna (a fire ritual), asserts Shankara, can help draw and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge. He emphasizes the need for ethics such as Akrodha and Yamas during Brahmacharya, stating the lack of ethics as causes that prevent students from attaining knowledge. ## Influences of Mahayana Buddhism Shankara's Vedanta shows similarities with Mahayana Buddhism; opponents have even accused Shankara of being a "crypto-Buddhist," a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, given the differences between these two schools. According to Shankara, a major difference between Advaita and Mahayana Buddhism are their views on Atman and Brahman. According to both Loy and Jayatilleke, more differences can be discerned. ### Similarities and influences Despite Shankara's criticism of certain schools of Mahayana Buddhism, Shankara's philosophy shows strong similarities with the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy which he attacks. According to S.N. Dasgupta, > Shankara and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the Buddhists. His Brahman was very much like the sunya of Nagarjuna [...] The debts of Shankara to the self-luminosity of the Vijnanavada Buddhism can hardly be overestimated. There seems to be much truth in the accusations against Shankara by Vijnana Bhiksu and others that he was a hidden Buddhist himself. I am led to think that Shankara's philosophy is largely a compound of Vijnanavada and Sunyavada Buddhism with the Upanisad notion of the permanence of self superadded. According to Mudgal, Shankara's Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a via negativa (neti neti). Mudgal concludes therefore that > ... the difference between Sunyavada (Mahayana) philosophy of Buddhism and Advaita philosophy of Hinduism may be a matter of emphasis, not of kind. Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its Maya and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism. Ramanuja, the founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedānta, accused Adi Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha, that is, a "crypto-Buddhist", and someone who was undermining theistic Bhakti devotionalism. The non-Advaita scholar Bhaskara of the Bhedabheda Vedānta tradition, similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara's Advaita as "this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists", and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy. ### Differences The qualification of "crypto-Buddhist" is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta and Brahman. There are differences in the conceptual means of "liberation." Nirvana, a term more often used in Buddhism, is the liberating 'blowing out' of craving, aided by the realization and acceptance that there is no Self (anatman) as the center of perception, craving, and delusion. Moksha, a term more common in Hinduism, is the similar liberating release from craving and ignorance, yet aided by the realization and acceptance that one's inner Self is not a personal 'ego-self', but a Universal Self. ## Historical and cultural impact ### Historical context Shankara lived in the time of the great "Late classical Hinduism", which lasted from 650 till 1100 CE. This era was one of political instability that followed the Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th century CE. power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states". The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified", as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala. The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry. Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism" was diminished. Rural and devotional movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra, though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development". Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords, and Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and various traditions within Hinduism were competing for members. Buddhism in particular had emerged as a powerful influence in India's spiritual traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st millennium CE, but lost its position after the 8th century, and began to disappear in India. This was reflected in the change of puja-ceremonies at the courts in the 8th century, where Hindu gods replaced the Buddha as the "supreme, imperial deity". ### Influence on Hinduism #### Traditional view Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta. Hagiographies from the 14th-17th century portray him as a victor who travelled all over India to help restore the study of the Vedas According to Frank Whaling, "Hindus of the Advaita persuasion (and others too) have seen in Sankara the one who restored the Hindu dharma against the attacks of the Buddhists (and Jains) and in the process helped to drive Buddhism out of India." His teachings and tradition are central to Smartism and have influenced Sant Mat lineages. Tradition portrays him as the one who reconciled the various sects (Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Saktism) with the introduction of the form of worship, the simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi, arguing that all deities were but different forms of the one Brahman, the invisible Supreme Being, implying that Advaita Vedanta stoos above all other traditions. According to Koller, Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the extant ideas, particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, making it India's most important "spiritual tradition" for more than a thousand years. Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism, namely Atman and Brahman. #### Critical assessment Scholars have questioned Shankara's early influence in India. The Buddhist scholar Richard E. King states, > Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence. ##### Prominence of Maṇḍana Miśra (until 10th century) According to Clark, "Sankara was relatively unknown during his life-time, and probably for several centuries after, as there is no mention of him in Buddhist or jain sources for centuries; nor is he mentioned by other important philosophers of the ninth and tenth centuries." According to King and Roodurmun, until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Mandana-Misra, the latter considered to be the major representative of Advaita. Maṇḍana Miśra, an older contemporary of Shankara, was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of Kumarila, but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era, the Brahma-siddhi. The "theory of error" set forth in the Brahma-siddhi became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error, and for a couple of centuries he was the most influential Vedantin. His student Vachaspati Miśra, who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view, wrote the Bhamati, a commentary on Shankara's Brahma Sutra Bhashya, and the Brahmatattva-samiksa, a commentary on Mandana Mishra's Brahma-siddhi. His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Miśra, and harmonises Shankara's thought with that of Mandana Miśra. The Bhamati school takes an ontological approach. It sees the Jiva as the source of avidya. It sees yogic practice and contemplation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors. The later Advaita Vedanta tradition incorporated Maṇḍana Miśra into the Shankara-fold, by identifying him with Sureśvara (9th century), believing that Maṇḍana Miśra became a disciple of Shankara after a public debate which Shankara won. According to Satchidanandendra Sarasvati, "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and Bhaskara." He argues that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, and that only his student Suresvara, who's had little influence, represents Shankara correctly. In this view, Shankara's influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara, while his views were manitained by the Suresvara school. ##### Vaishnavite Vedanta (10th-14th century) Hajime Nakamura states that prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed, but did not occupy a dominant position within the Vedanta. Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought; Vedanta became a major influence when it was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines. The early Vedanta scholars were from the upper classes of society, well-educated in traditional culture. They formed a social elite, "sharply distinguished from the general practitioners and theologians of Hinduism." Their teachings were "transmitted among a small number of selected intellectuals". Works of the early Vedanta schools do not contain references to Vishnu or Shiva. It was only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to form the basis of their doctrines," whereby "its theoretical influence upon the whole of Indian society became final and definitive." Examples are Ramanuja (11th c.), who aligned bhakti, "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views, and the Nath-tradition. ##### Vijayanagara Empire and Vidyaranya (14th century) In medieval times, Advaita Vedanta position as most influential Hindu darsana started to take shape, as Advaitins in the Vijayanagara Empire competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect. It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established. Many of Shankara's biographies were created and published in and after the 14th century, such as Vidyaranya's widely cited Śankara-vijaya. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386 and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire, inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India. This may have been in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate, but his efforts were also targeted at Sri Vaishnava groups, especially Visishtadvaita, which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire. Furthermore, sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system. Vidyaranya and his brothers, note Paul Hacker and other scholars, wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible. Vidyaranya was an influential Advaitin, and he created legends to turn Shankara, whose elevated philosophy had no appeal to gain widespread popularity, into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror." In his doxography Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all darsanas, presenting the other darsanas as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system. The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visishtadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance. Bhedabheda wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy." Such was the influence of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha, that early Indologists also regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads. And Vidyaranya founded a matha, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself. Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support, and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta. ##### Neo-Vedanta (19-20th century) Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th-century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition." Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta. ## Digvijaya - "The conquests of Shankara" ### Life According to the oldest hagiographies, Shankara was born in the southern Indian state of Kerala, in a village named Kaladi sometimes spelled as Kalati or Karati. He was born to Nambudiri Brahmin parents. His parents were an aged, childless, couple who led a devout life of service to the poor. They named their child Shankara, meaning "giver of prosperity". His father died while Shankara was very young. Shankara's , the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his father, and was then performed by his mother. Shankara's hagiography describe him as someone who was attracted to the life of Sannyasa (hermit) from early childhood. His mother disapproved. A story, found in all hagiographies, describe Shankara at age eight going to a river with his mother, Sivataraka, to bathe, and where he is caught by a crocodile. Shankara called out to his mother to give him permission to become a Sannyasin or else the crocodile will kill him. The mother agrees, Shankara is freed and leaves his home for education. He reaches a Saivite sanctuary along a river in a north-central state of India, and becomes the disciple of a teacher named Govinda Bhagavatpada. The stories in various hagiographies diverge in details about the first meeting between Shankara and his Guru, where they met, as well as what happened later. Several texts suggest Shankara schooling with Govindapada happened along the river Narmada in Omkareshwar, a few place it along river Ganges in Kashi (Varanasi) as well as Badari (Badrinath in the Himalayas). The hagiographies vary in their description of where he went, who he met and debated and many other details of his life. Most mention Shankara studying the Vedas, Upanishads and Brahmasutra with Govindapada, and Shankara authoring several key works in his youth, while he was studying with his teacher. It is with his teacher Govinda, that Shankara studied Gaudapadiya Karika, as Govinda was himself taught by Gaudapada. Most also mention a meeting with scholars of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism namely Kumarila and Prabhakara, as well as Mandana and various Buddhists, in Shastrartha (an Indian tradition of public philosophical debates attended by large number of people, sometimes with royalty). Thereafter, the hagiographies about Shankara vary significantly. Different and widely inconsistent accounts of his life include diverse journeys, pilgrimages, public debates, installation of yantras and lingas, as well as the founding of monastic centers in north, east, west and south India. ### Digvijaya and disciples While the details and chronology vary, most hagiographies present Shankara as traveling widely within India, Gujarat to Bengal, and participating in public philosophical debates with different orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, as well as heterodox traditions such as Buddhists, Jains, Arhatas, Saugatas, and Charvakas. The hagiographies credit him with starting several Matha (monasteries), but this is uncertain. Ten monastic orders in different parts of India are generally attributed to Shankara's travel-inspired Sannyasin schools, each with Advaita notions, of which four have continued in his tradition: Bharati (Sringeri), Sarasvati (Kanchi), Tirtha and Asramin (Dvaraka). Other monasteries that record Shankara's visit include Giri, Puri, Vana, Aranya, Parvata and Sagara – all names traceable to Ashrama system in Hinduism and Vedic literature. Shankara had a number of disciple scholars during his travels, including Padmapadacharya (also called Sanandana, associated with the text Atma-bodha), Sureśvaracharya, Totakacharya, Hastamalakacharya, Chitsukha, Prthividhara, Chidvilasayati, Bodhendra, Brahmendra, Sadananda and others, who authored their own literature on Shankara and Advaita Vedanta. ### Death According to the hagiographies related to the monastery of Kanci, Adi Sankara died at Kanci. According to other hagiographies, supported bu Sringeri math, Adi Shankara died at Kedarnath in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand, a Hindu pilgrimage site in the Himalayas. Texts say that he was last seen by his disciples behind the Kedarnath temple, walking in the Himalayas until he was not traced. Some texts locate his death in alternate locations such as Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu) and somewhere in the state of Kerala. A statue of Adi Shankara has been built behind Kedarnath Temple to commemorate his life and work as part of the temples redevelopment after the 2013 deluge in the area. The 12-foot statue inaugurated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 5 November 2019, is made of chlorite schist and weighs 35 tonnes. ## Mathas and Smarta tradition Shankara is regarded as the founder of the of Hindu monasticism, and the Panchayatana puja and of the Smarta tradition. ### Dashanami Sampradaya and mathas Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known as a philosophical system. But it is also a tradition of renunciation. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related: > Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values, attitudes and metaphysics. Shankara was a Vaishnavite who came to be presented as an incarnation of Shiva in the 14th century, to facilitate the adoption of his teachings by previously Saiva-oriented mathas in the Vijayanagara Empire. From the 14th century onwards hagiographies were composed, in which he is portrayed as establishing the Daśanāmi Sampradaya, organizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an umbrella grouping of ten names. Several other Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis. According to tradition, Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four (Sanskrit: मठ) (monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvārakā in the West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the South and Badrikashrama in the North. Each matha was headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continues the Vedanta Sampradaya. According to Paul Hacker, the system may have been initiated by Vidyaranya (14th c.), who may have founded a matha, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself, as part of his campaign to propagate Shankara's Advaita Vedanta. Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support, and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta. ### Smarta Tradition Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher and reformer of the Smartism sampradaya, which is one of four major sampradaya of Hinduism. According to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition: > Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and smarta orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend the varnasramadharma theory as defining the path of karman, but had developed the practice of pancayatanapuja ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's istadevata ("deity of choice"). Panchayatana puja (IAST '') is a system of puja (worship) in the Smarta tradition. It consists of the worship of five deities set in a quincunx pattern, the five deities being Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya, and an Ishta Devata such as Kartikeya, or Ganesha or any personal god of devotee's preference. Sometimes the Ishta Devata is the sixth deity in the mandala. while in the Shanmata system, Skanda, also known as Kartikeya and Murugan, is added. Panchayatana puja is a practice that became popular in medieval India, and has been attributed to Adi Shankara. However, archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara. ## Films - Shankaracharya (1927), Indian silent film about Shankara by Kali Prasad Ghosh. - Jagadguru Shrimad Shankaracharya (1928), Indian silent film by Parshwanath Yeshwant Altekar. - Jagadguru Shankaracharya (1955), Indian Hindi film by Sheikh Fattelal. - In 1977 Jagadguru Aadisankaran, a Malayalam film directed by P. Bhaskaran was released in which Murali Mohan plays the role of Adult Aadi Sankaran and Master Raghu plays childhood. - In 1983 a film directed by G.V. Iyer named Adi Shankaracharya was premiered, the first film ever made entirely in Sanskrit language in which all of Adi Shankaracharya's works were compiled. The movie received the Indian National Film Awards for Best Film, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography and Best Audiography. - On 15 August 2013, Jagadguru Adi Shankara'' was released in an Indian Telugu-language biographical film written and directed by J. K. Bharavi and was later dubbed in Kannada with the same title, by Upendra giving narration for the Kannada dubbed version ## See also - Swami Vivekananda - Adi Shri Gauḍapādāchārya - Jnana Yoga - Upanishads - Shri Gaudapadacharya Math - Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya - Vairagya - Vivekachudamani - Soundarya Lahari - Shivananda Lahari - Self-consciousness (Vedanta) - Govardhan Peetham (East), Puri, Odisha - Dwarka Kalika Pitha (West), Dwarka, Gujarat - Jyotirmath Peetham (North), Jyotirmath, Badrikashram, Uttarakhand - Shri Sringeri Sharada Peetham (South), Sringeri, Karnataka - Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu - Dakshinamurti Stotra
34,918,910	Daybreaker (Architects album)	1,171,372,521	null	[ "2012 albums", "Architects (British band) albums", "Century Media Records albums" ]	Daybreaker is the fifth studio album by British metalcore band Architects. It was released on 28 May 2012 through Zestone and Century Media Records in the United Kingdom and most of Europe and on 5 June 2012 in the United States. It was the last album to feature guitarist Tim Hillier-Brook, who left the band on 16 April 2012. Daybreaker was co-produced by the band and Ben Humphreys at Outhouse Studios in Reading, Berkshire, and used the same team and studio that were used for recording the band's third studio album, Hollow Crown. Daybreaker was praised by music writers for its variety. The album debuted on charts in five countries but failed to appear on any mainstream top 40. To promote it, Architects released five music videos, toured five continents (2012's Almost World Tour was filmed for the documentary One Hundred Days) and issued a re-release of the album to commemorate their departure from Century Media Records. Daybreaker received a positive response from critics; some praised its use of atmospheric elements and the return to a heavier style, while others criticised it as uninspired. ## Background and recording In the band's fourth album, 2011's The Here and Now, the band set out to mix their typical sounds with the music they were listening to at the time. The response was polarising. During the publicity for The Here and Now, the band praised it as a progression for them; they did not want to reject an album they had just released. But their own lack of belief in the record and their growing concern that they were irrelevant started to severely affect the band's confidence in themselves and their style. Songs recorded during early demo sessions after The Here and Now became b-sides for re-releases. During this time, the band became certain they wished to make another "heavy" record. Tom Searle said, "some people might say we've regressed, but I think we've found our enthusiasm for playing heavy music again. I'm excited again by what I've come up with on guitar and lyrically it's much more political and less personal." The band started to write socially aware lyrics during the writing phase of Daybreaker; vocalist Sam Carter said this was a result of the band touring the world and seeing things he felt were downplayed by the media. The band recorded Daybreaker at Outhouse Studios in Reading, Berkshire, where they had previously recorded Ruin (2007) and Hollow Crown (2009). Daybreaker had the same production and engineering team as did Hollow Crown; John Mitchell acted as Daybreaker's mixing engineer, and Mitchell described Daybreaker as "the album they should have made after Hollow Crown". Tom Searle said that during the recording, he and Hillier-Brook were constantly practising to perfect the highly technical guitar riffs. Architects invited Jon Green from Deez Nuts, Oliver Sykes from Bring Me the Horizon, and Drew York from Stray from the Path to sing on the album. They invited Green because they believed his screaming vocals had a "Satanic" quality, while a collaboration with Sykes was something the band considered "long overdue", since Carter had sung on Bring Me the Horizon's 2008 album Suicide Season. On 16 April 2012, shortly before Daybreaker's release, Hillier-Brook announced he would leave the band to pursue other projects. The band had thought Hiller-Brook seemed unhappy while he was a member of Architects. ## Composition ### Style According to Andrew Kelham, Daybreaker is an "urgent and resurgent" record; it has been identified by critics as metalcore, progressive metal, mathcore and post-hardcore. Architects have been credited for fusing the intense technicality and metallic style of Hollow Crown with the "soaring vocals" and the much improved production of The Here and Now. The album is defined by a number of features, including a contrast of singing and extreme metal screaming, and melodic choruses complemented by "soaring" vocals, technical guitar work with palm muted breakdowns and the use of string instruments and piano to generate atmosphere. Daybreaker is noted for fusing influences from Architects' previous two albums The Here And Now and Hollow Crown; many reviewers have cited the album as a return to the band's heavier, more technical roots. When he interviewed the band, Kelham wrote, "some will see Daybreaker as an apology, but it's not. Others will view it as a hasty attempt to claw back the glories of third album Hollow Crown, but it's not that either. It's a collection of songs about moving on, growing up and making sense of what has come before". The record's opening track is "The Bitter End", an introduction built on skittish electronics, dark piano chords, xylophone notes, orchestral harmonies, haunting vocals and lyrics. The album then breaks into intense and heavy songs such as "high-octane" tracks "Alpha Omega" and "These Colours Don't Run", which are full of "interesting rhythms and powerful melodies". The piano-led track "Truth, Be Told" gives the record a break from the chaos; it explores post-hardcore territory by following a "loop-like rhythmic structure". "Outsider Heart" has been compared to the math rock guitar playing of Meshuggah. "Devil's Island" has been described as "a full-body seizure set to electric guitar". Architects began to experiment with elements such as the addition of string instruments and piano that would help generate atmosphere. This is evident in the melodic songs "Truth, Be Told", "Behind the Throne" and "Unbeliever". "Behind the Throne" is an intense, atmospheric, ambient-rock song with a grandiose, electro-drummed backdrop. ### Themes Lyrically, the album discusses negative aspects of religion and society, and is seen as a "companion piece" to Enter Shikari's A Flash Flood of Colour. Daybreaker's lyrics were written by Carter and Tom Searle, who focused on political and "bigger picture" themes. Carter described "Devil's Island" as "one of the hardest songs to write" because of the prominence of its theme of rioting. Searle, who focused on its lyrics, said, "With money firmly ingrained into our global society we really need to look to alternative solutions when problems like the riots occur because violence is never the solution". Carter said "Black Blood", which was included on the re-release, is about the oil industry, society's strong dependence on oil and the way "short term profit is the only thing these people think about, instead of the longevity of what we really could do and how we could stabilize what's really going on in the world right now". ## Release and promotion Daybreaker was first announced with a tentative release date of "summer". The album was released in the United Kingdom on 28 May 2012. In June 2013, Century Media Records re-released it in North America exclusively for the band's performance at Warped Tour 2013. This version includes their single "Black Blood" and covers of Bon Iver's "Blood Bank" and Thrice's "Of Dust and Nations". ### Singles In early November 2011, Architects announced a plan to release "Devil's Island", the first song from the then-unnamed follow-up to their fourth studio album The Here and Now. They released it on 4 December 2011, with a b-side song called "Untitled". Both the song and the accompanying music video reference rioting in England in 2011, and the music video features clips of the riots. "Devil's Island" was well received by critics for its return to the mathcore style of their third album, Hollow Crown. Thrash Hits said, "more-melodic aspects of Architects are still very much on show", that the song used "increased harsh vocals" and that the guitar tones were reminiscent of those on "Early Grave", the opening track of Hollow Crown. J.J. Nattrass of Bring The Noise said, "the track is sweeping and melodic in parts, whilst bursting with high tempo and visceral raw energy in others." Tim Dodderidge, writing for Mind Equals Blown, praised the song's lyrics, saying, "Architects has taken on an important issue in Britain today and made a song that questions humanity; it may have a lasting effect on listeners that bands like Rise Against have been able to do, though they sound nothing alike". The band supported the single's release with a five-day UK headline tour in December 2011; supporting acts were Deaf Havana, Tek-One and Heights. On 26 March 2012, Architects released a typography-styled music video for "These Colours Don't Run". The music video was designed to "capture the madness that is America, be it good or bad". Tom Searle wanted the video "[to get] people thinking and talking. And in the land of the free—you know nothing comes for free!" The band's third single "Alpha Omega" was released on 7 May 2012 after a radio debut on Daniel P. Carter's BBC Radio 1 Rock Show podcast on 24 April 2012. The music video for the song was posted on 10 May 2012. On 12 December, Architects released another typography-styled video for "Even If You Win, You're Still a Rat". "Black Blood" was released on 3 June 2013 to promote the re-released version of Daybreaker; the single also had a typography-style video. The song was released in conjunction with Architects' performances at Warped Tour 2013; it was featured on the Warped Tour sampler that was released for free download on Amazon.com. The band initially wanted to record a music video for the song but they cancelled shooting because Tom Searle was afflicted with skin cancer. ### Live performances Throughout March 2012, Architects and Touché Amoré supported Rise Against on their European tour. Hillier-Brook's last tour with Architects was the April 2012 British tour with Rolo Tomassi and Stray from the Path. Between March and June that year—the last few months before the large tours in support of Daybreaker—Architects performed at several festivals; the Swiss Konzerthaus Schüür in Lucerne, the La Boule Noire near Paris, Groezrock Festival in Belgium, British touring festival Slam Dunk Festival in Leeds and Hatfield, and German festivals Summerblast Festival, Traffic Jam Festival and Summerbreeze Festival. Because Hillier-Brook had announced he would leave Architects on 16 April 2012 after his final performance with the band at Groezrock Festival, Josh Middleton of Sylosis joined the band as touring guitarist. In late April, Architects supported The Devil Wears Prada and Whitechapel on a six-day tour of South America. Architects began promoting Daybreaker by playing several large European festivals throughout June and July 2013, before embarking on tour legs in south-east Asia, Australasia, North America and Europe, which were dubbed The Daybreaker Almost World Tour. Most of the tour dates were published in July, the first leg of the tour began in August with 16 dates in Canada with support from Struc/tures and Asightforsewneyes. In September, the band headed to Asia to play dates in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia and China. In late September and early October, the band played 12 gigs in New Zealand and Australia supporting The Amity Affliction—it was Architects' first tour of Australia since December 2010. The final leg of the tour took place in Europe, with supporting bands While She Sleeps and Heights in mainland Europe, and Deez Nuts, Bury Tomorrow and The Acacia Strain in the UK. The tour's British leg included a gig at UK Warped Tour, a one-day festival headlined by Lostprophets and Bring Me the Horizon at Alexandra Palace in London on 10 November . A documentary about Architects' touring experiences was titled "One Hundred Days: The Story of Architects Almost World Tour". In 2013, Architects expanded their promotional reach to the United States, a country they were not confident in. They were "tired of losing money" with their tours in the US and "[the band] were about ready to give up on America". Starting in March, with opening act Crossfaith they supported Enter Shikari and then joined the American Warped Tour 2013 in June. The band also made single appearances in Europe at several summer festivals, including Download Festival 2013 in the UK. The band announced they would tour the US for the third time in 2013 in November and December with co-headliners Protest The Hero and support from The Kindred and Affiance. They also announced plans to tour Australia before the end of 2013. Architects' final performance in support of Daybreaker and their first in India occurred at the Saarang culture festival on 11 January 2014. ## Reception ### Critical reception Daybreaker received positive reviews from music critics. Some reviewers praised the band for texturing and progressing their sound, and for writing socio-political lyrics. The album was criticised for sounding forced or formulaic. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Daybreaker received an average score of 73, based on 8 reviews, which indicates generally favourable reviews. About.com writer Ryan Cooper praised the album, awarded it four stars out of five and said it "laughs in the face of those who think passionate realism, artistic integrity and mass commercial appeal are all mutually exclusive. Daybreaker balances all three with pretty much perfect dexterity." Raziq Rauf writing for the BBC Music praised the band for the album's musical diversity with its use of electronic songs like album-opener "The Bitter End" and the band's use of technicality and melody in songs. He summarised the album by saying, "Daybreaker is a great album. It'll go down as one of Architects' finest works—it's certainly their most well-rounded release to date." Big Cheese writer Paul Hagen praised the album's lyrical content, saying, "Socially turbulent times seems to produce the best music and if bands can keep channelling genuine anger into their art, there are going to be some more really great albums released over the next few years". Canadian music magazine Exclaim! published two reviews of Daybreaker. Bradley Zorgdrager gave an unfavourable review of the album's sound. He said although the tracks are "catchy and occasionally compelling, they're essentially identical and formulaic, as the atmospheric build-ups and soaring riffs make way for boring breakdowns. The metal-influenced parts sound forced to appease fans disappointed with their last release, which results in Daybreaker sounding more like a business move than a work of art." Scott Harms' review was more favourable, praising the band's return to a much more aggressive style. He credits it for incorporating influences from previous albums, saying "they have found a balance in which to return to the Searle brothers' heavy sounds while carefully incorporating Sam Carter's soaring clean vocals". Harms summarised his review by saying, "as a whole, [Daybreaker] sounds epic". Adam Rees of Metal Hammer rated the album 7 out of 10, acknowledging the "abundant" inclusion of string instruments and piano and the way these instruments create atmosphere. Ress ended his review by calling Daybreaker, "A brave and brilliant British metal album". Canoe.com author Darryl Sterdan awarded the album 2.5 stars out of 5, saying it "balanc[es] their newfound sensitivity and maturity with plenty of good old-fashioned techno-metal frenzy and primal-scream aggro. Pity they didn't write memorable songs while they were at it." AltSounds writer Candice Haridimou gave the album a rating of 94 out of 100 and praised the album's lyrical content. She said the political nature of the album also uses emotional dramatisation to capture the listener, particularly in songs like "Devil's Island". Haridimou states the song "drives remorse into the cold hearts of those involved. It's a severe and poignant song that will stand the test of time." Ryan Bird, in an otherwise positive review of Daybreaker, criticised it upon first hearing it; he said it struggled to settle into any distinctive rhythm or groove. However, Bird concluded his review by saying, "but despite its relative (and relatively few) faults. Daybreaker represents a victory for a band who some had once been so eager to write off, suggesting that maybe—just maybe—they've got what it takes to bring both sides [of their fanbase] together". ### Accolades Daybreaker featured on several lists of best albums of 2012, including Rock Sounds top 50 at number 48, Kerrang!'''s 101 at number 36 and Ourzone's at number 23 out of 25. ## Commercial performance Daybreaker debuted at number one on the UK Rock & Metal Albums Chart and at number 42 on the UK Album Charts for selling 3,208 copies. It became the highest-charting release by Architects in their five-album career; The Here And Now'' had reached number 57. The next week, the album fell to number 12 on the Rock & Metal, then to number 33, and it left the chart the following week. The album debuted on the US Top Heatseekers chart at number 28, selling 1,200 copies in its first week. In Belgium, the album charted at number 182, and in Germany at number 93. ## Track listing ## Personnel Architects - Sam Carter – lead vocals - Tom Searle – lead guitar, keyboards, programming - Tim Hillier-Brook – rhythm guitar - Alex "Ali" Dean – bass - Dan Searle – drums, percussion, programming Additional musicians - Jon Green of Deez Nuts – guest vocals on track 3, "These Colours Don't Run" - Oliver Sykes of Bring Me the Horizon – guest vocals on track 6, "Even If You Win, You're Still a Rat" - Drew York of Stray from the Path – guest vocals on track 7, "Outsider Heart" Additional personnel - Ben Humphreys and Architects – production - John Mitchell – mixing - Harry Hess – mastering - Paul Jackson – album cover ## Charts ## Release history
7,739,880	Greek destroyer Vasilissa Olga	1,092,274,654	Greek G and H-class destroyer	[ "1938 ships", "Destroyers sunk by aircraft", "Dodecanese campaign", "Maritime incidents in September 1943", "Ships built on the River Clyde", "Ships sunk by German aircraft", "Vasilefs Georgios-class destroyers", "World War II destroyers of Greece", "World War II shipwrecks in the Aegean Sea" ]	Vasilissa Olga (Greek: ΒΠ Βασίλισσα Όλγα) (Queen Olga) was the second and last destroyer of her class built for the Royal Hellenic Navy in Great Britain before the Second World War. She participated in the Greco-Italian War in 1940–1941, escorting convoys and unsuccessfully attacking Italian shipping in the Adriatic Sea. After the German invasion of Greece in April 1941, the ship escorted convoys between Egypt and Greece until she evacuated part of the government to Crete later that month and then to Egypt in May. After the Greek surrender on 1 June, Vasilissa Olga served with British forces for the rest of her career. She escorted convoys in the Eastern Mediterranean for the next several months before she was sent to India for a refit. The ship resumed convoy escort duties upon its completion at the beginning of 1942 in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. In December of that year, now operating in the Central Mediterranean, Vasilissa Olga and a British destroyer briefly captured an Italian submarine, but it sank while under tow. The following month, the ship, together with a pair of British destroyers, sank a small Italian transport ship. She was briefly tasked to escort an Australian troop convoy in the Red Sea in February 1943 before returning to the Mediterranean. Together with a British destroyer, Vasilissa Olga sank at least two ships from an Italian convoy in June. Over the next several months, she escorted British ships as the Allies invaded Sicily (Operation Husky) and mainland Italy (Operation Avalanche). The ship was transferred back to the Eastern Mediterranean in September to participate in the Dodecanese Campaign. Together with two British destroyers, she helped to destroy a small German convoy in the islands before beginning to ferry troops and supplies to the small British garrison on the island of Leros. After completing one such mission, she was sunk by German bombers in Lakki harbor on 26 September with the loss of 72 men. ## Design and description The Vasilefs Georgios-class ships were derived from the British G-class destroyers, modified with German guns and fire-control systems. They had an overall length of 98.4 meters (322 ft 10 in), a beam of 10.05 meters (33 ft 0 in), and a draft of 2.51 meters (8 ft 3 in). They displaced 1,371 metric tons (1,349 long tons) at standard load and 1,879 metric tons (1,849 long tons) at deep load. The two Parsons geared steam turbine sets, each driving one propeller shaft, were designed to produce 34,000 shaft horsepower (25,000 kW) using steam provided by three Admiralty three-drum boilers for a designed speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph). During her sea trials on 19 December 1938, Vasilissa Olga reached a speed of 36.1 knots (66.9 km/h; 41.5 mph) from 33,683 shp (25,117 kW), although her armament was not yet installed. The ships carried a maximum of 399 metric tons (393 long tons) of fuel oil which gave a range of 3,760 nautical miles (6,960 km; 4,330 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). Their crew consisted of 162 officers and crewmen. Unlike her sister ship Vasilefs Georgios, Vasilissa Olga was not fitted out to accommodate an admiral and his staff. The ships carried four 12.7-centimeter (5.0 in) SK C/34 guns in single mounts with gun shields, designated 'A', 'B', 'X' and 'Y', from front to rear, one pair each superfiring forward and aft of the superstructure. Her anti-aircraft (AA) armament consisted of four 3.7-centimeter (1.5 in) guns in four single mounts amidships and two quadruple mounts for Vickers 0.5 in (12.7 mm) AA machineguns. The Vasilefs Georgios class carried eight above-water 53.3-centimeter (21 in) torpedo tubes in two quadruple mounts. They had two depth charge launchers and a single rack for their 17 depth charges. ### Wartime modifications During her late 1941 refit in Calcutta, India, Vasilissa Olga's armament was revised to better suit her role as a convoy escort. The rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3-inch (76.2 mm) AA gun and 'Y' gun was removed to increase the number of depth charge throwers and depth charge stowage. To reduce topweight, the 3.7 cm guns were replaced by 20 mm (0.8 in) Oerlikon autocannon. Her mainmast was removed and her aft funnel shortened to improve the arcs of fire of her AA guns. The ship was fitted with a Type 128 Asdic to improve her ability to detect submarines. ## Construction and service The Vasilefs Georgios-class ships were ordered on 29 January 1937 as part of a naval rearmament plan that was intended to include one light cruiser and at least four destroyers, one pair of which were to be built in Britain and the other pair in Greece. Vasilissa Olga was laid down at Yarrow & Company's shipyard in Scotstoun, Scotland, in February 1937, launched on 2 June 1938, and commissioned on 4 February 1939 without her armament, which was installed later in Greece. After the Italian submarine Delfino sank the elderly protected cruiser Elli in a sneak attack on 15 August 1940 off the island of Tinos, Vasilissa Olga and her sister were sent to Tinos to escort the merchant ships there home. During the Greco-Italian War she escorted convoys and participated in raids against Italian lines of communication in the Strait of Otranto on the nights of 14/15 November 1940 and 4/5 January 1941 that failed to locate any ships. The sisters ferried the Greek gold reserves to Crete on 1 March. After the German invasion of Greece on 6 April, the sisters began to escort convoys between Greece and Egypt via Crete. On 22 April, Vasilissa Olga was ordered to evacuate elements of the Greek government to Crete, including Vice Admiral Alexandros Sakellariou who was the Minister for Naval Affairs, Chief of the Navy General Staff and Deputy Prime Minister. The following month she proceeded to Alexandria, Egypt, and then escorted convoys in the Eastern Mediterranean before departing for India to be modernized on 9 October. The refit was completed on 5 January 1942 and the ship escorted convoys in the Arabian and Red Seas before arriving back in Alexandria on 22 February. Together with the British destroyer HMS Jaguar, Vasilissa Olga was escorting the oil tanker RFA Slavol off Mersa Matruh, Egypt, when they detected and unsuccessfully attacked the on 26 March. Later that day, the submarine sank both Jaguar and Slavol. Vasilissa Olga ran aground in early May while escorting a convoy between Alexandria and Tobruk and damaged her propellers. After repairs the ship was transferred to the Indian Ocean where she escorted convoys there and in the Red Sea until December when she returned to the Mediterranean. On 14 December, Vasilissa Olga and the destroyer HMS Petard forced the Italian submarine Uarsciek to the surface off Malta. The submarine's crew was unable to scuttle their boat and it was taken in tow, although it later sank. The following month, on the night of 18/19 January 1943, Vasilissa Olga, along with the destroyers HMS Pakenham and HMS Nubian, intercepted and sank the 475-gross register ton (GRT) Italian freighter SS Stromboli off the Libyan coast. The following month, the ship was assigned to escort the ocean liners transporting the Australian Army's 9th Division home from Egypt (Operation Pamphlet) as they passed through the Red Sea between 7 and 24 February. On 2 June, during the preparatory stages of Operation Corkscrew (the Allied invasion of the Italian island of Pantelleria), Vasilissa Olga and the destroyer HMS Jervis engaged an Italian convoy, sinking its lone escort, the torpedo boat Castore off Cape Spartivento. The convoy, however, managed to limp away. The following month, the ship was assigned to escort the ships of the British Covering Force in the Ionian Sea during Operation Husky and later bombarded Catania, Sicily. After the Italian armistice on 8 September, Vasilissa Olga was one of the ships that escorted Italian ships to Malta on 10 September. The next day, she returned to Italian waters to escort the ships involved in Operation Avalanche. The ship was transferred to the Eastern Mediterranean to support British forces involved in the Dodecanese Campaign in the Aegean Sea less than a week later, arriving at Alexandria on 16 September. On the night of 17/18 September, she engaged a German convoy off the coast of Stampalia, together with the destroyers HMS Faulknor and HMS Eclipse, sinking the transports Pluto and Paula and forced the crew of the escorting whale catcher, Uj 2104, to beach itself. Vasilissa Olga transported 36 long tons (37 t) of supplies and 300 men of the Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment from Haifa, Palestine, to reinforce the British garrison on Leros. After another supply run, she was sunk by Junkers Ju 88 bombers of LG 1 in Lakki on the morning of 26 September, with the loss of 72 men.
64,695	Professor Frink	1,168,454,357	Fictional character from The Simpsons franchise	[ "Animated characters introduced in 1991", "Characters created by Matt Groening", "Fictional Mensans", "Fictional Nobel laureates", "Fictional inventors", "Fictional mad scientists", "Fictional professors", "Fictional scientists in television", "Male characters in animated series", "Male characters in television", "Nerd culture", "Television characters introduced in 1991", "The Simpsons characters" ]	Professor John I.Q. Nerdelbaum Frink Jr., is a recurring character in the animated television series The Simpsons. He is voiced by Hank Azaria, and first appeared in the 1991 episode "Old Money". Frink is Springfield's nerdy scientist and professor and is extremely intelligent, though somewhat mad and socially inept. Frink often tries to use his bizarre inventions to aid the town in its crises but they usually only make things worse. His manner of speech, including the impulsive shouting of nonsensical words, has become his trademark. Frink was originally depicted as an evil scientist in "Old Money", since he was trying to secure funding for a death ray. When Azaria ad-libbed a voice for the character, he did an impression of Jerry Lewis's Julius Kelp character from The Nutty Professor. The staff liked the voice and therefore changed Frink to be more like Julius Kelp, both in appearance and personality – he became more nerdy, and went from evil to just mad. Lewis later guest-starred on the show as Frink's father in the 2003 episode "Treehouse of Horror XIV". The professor has received acclaim from critics, particularly for his bizarre inventions such as the hamburger earmuffs, and he has appeared on many reviewers' listings of their favorite supporting characters from The Simpsons. Frink has been featured in other media relating to the show, such as comics, video games, and The Simpsons Ride, a simulator ride at Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Hollywood. The character's popularity has led to him giving the name to the computer programming language Frink. ## Role in The Simpsons John Frink is generally depicted as Springfield's stereotypical nerdy, mad, and socially inept scientist, inventor, and mathematician. He wears thick glasses, a white lab coat (which was green in earlier seasons), a blue bow-tie atop a white buttoned-up shirt, and pink pants, and has buckteeth. Frink is a college professor at Springfield Heights Institute of Technology and runs his own astronomical observatory. He has an IQ of 197 – it was 199 before he sustained a concussion during the collapse of Springfield's brief intellectual junta – and is a member of the Springfield chapter of Mensa. Frink is generally very polite and friendly. He has a trademark mannerism of using Jerry Lewis-style gibberish when excited, such as "HOYVIN-GLAVIN!" and "FLAVIN" and impulsively shouting other words that have no relevance to the situation at hand. He also occasionally refers to the importance of remembering to "carry the one" in various mathematical calculations. When he rambles he often speaks incoherently in run-on sentences without pauses. Frink also has a tendency to over-complicate simple matters and use or invent scientific terminology while expressing various concepts, e.g. "Father and I got along like positrons and antineutrinos!" or "microcalifragilistics". Frink often tries to use his mad and bizarre inventions to aid the town in its crises, but they usually do not work or only make things worse. Most of his inventions never function properly or are of no real use. He is the inventor of, among other things, a frog exaggerator (which grossly misrepresents the size of amphibians), automatic tapping shoes for tap dancing, the sarcasm detector, hamburger earmuffs, the 8-month-after pill, and a drilling machine that can cut through anything. Some of Frink's unsuccessful inventions include his small remote-controlled plane that carries babies as passengers (it crashed), the "Gamble-Tron 2000", a machine designed to predict pro football scores (after it predicts one team will win by 200 points, Frink physically attacks it on live television), and a burglar-proof house that sprouts legs and runs away from potential danger (the legs of which collapsed causing the house to crash to the ground and catch fire). As a scientist, Frink has discovered and cured "Frink's Disease" and discovered the element "Frinkonium". He has also mastered astrology to the point where he can use it to accurately predict the future, and has been shown to be capable of time travel. The professor has a son who is seen in "Brother, Can You Spare Two Dimes?" during a convention for infant and toddler products as a pilot of a remote-controlled plane (he flies out the window of the building while in the plane and crashes), and in "I, (Annoyed Grunt)-Bot" at a robot battle (operating the robot). On the show, Frink has made mention of a wife, but there have also been jokes about him having had little contact with women in his life. Frink often appears in the Treehouse of Horror Halloween episodes of The Simpsons, which are not accepted as canon and always take place outside the normal continuity of the show. Frink's bizarre inventions and understanding of advanced physics usually fit well into these supernatural plotlines. In "Treehouse of Horror VIII", Bart enters Frink's matter teleporter and – echoing the film The Fly – it results in an accidental mix between Bart's genes and the genes of a housefly that was also present in the transporter at the same time. In "Treehouse of Horror XIV", it is revealed that Frink had a father who was killed by a shark, whom he brings back to life in the episode by piecing together his body parts. Unfortunately, the man decides to steal body parts to improve himself after he is revived. In the latter episode, Frink is awarded a Nobel Prize. ## Character Frink first appeared in the season two episode "Old Money" that aired on March 28, 1991. In that episode, Grampa Simpson inherits \$106,000 from his girlfriend when she dies. He eventually decides to spend it on people who are in need of money and holds interviews. In one of these interviews, Frink introduces Grampa to his latest invention, the Death Ray, claiming that "it is just a prototype. With proper funding I'm confident this little baby could destroy an area the size of New York City!" Grampa responds with "But I want to help people, not kill 'em!", to which Frink replies "Oh. Well, to be honest, the ray only has evil applications. You know my wife will be happy, she's hated this whole Death Ray thing from day one." In the original script, Frink appeared more evil. However, when cast member Hank Azaria ad-libbed a voice for Frink, he did an impression of Jerry Lewis's character Julius Kelp from the 1963 film The Nutty Professor, and the writing staff started making Frink more of a parody of that character. Julius Kelp is a nerdy, mad professor, albeit not evil, and is often unsuccessful with his experiments, so Frink became more like that as the show progressed. The Simpsons creator Matt Groening told TV Guide that "He was just written as a mad scientist character until Hank did the voice, and suddenly he became this nutty professor persona. What I love about Hank is that, you give him a single line – and most of these characters have very few lines – and he just brings it to life. Every time." Frink was originally animated without his buckteeth; they were added later on to make him look even more like Lewis's character. Writer Jay Kogen named the character after his friend and fellow television writer John Frink, who was later hired on The Simpsons. Frink's nonsensical utterances are written in the scripts as "Frink noise". Azaria has voiced Frink ever since the first appearance of the professor. Of the many characters that Azaria voices, Frink is his favorite because he was a fan of Lewis in his younger years and he enjoys imitating the voice of the Nutty Professor. He has said that "once you start talking like [Julius Kelp] it's very hard to stop. On each take, I'll make it sillier, I always have. I'll add more and more stupid noises and sounds to it. If they let me keep going, it gets ridiculous." As a homage to Lewis, Azaria conceived the idea of the Treehouse of Horror XIV segment in which Frink revives his dead father, with Lewis guest starring as the father. In a review of that episode, which aired around Halloween in 2003, Robert Bianco of USA Today wrote that it is hard to tell Frink and his father's voices apart: "Azaria voices Frink with such a spot-on Lewis imitation that it's sometimes hard to tell which one of the two nutty professors is talking." In addition, The Knoxville News-Sentinel's Terry Morrow commented that "to hear Lewis doing Azaria doing Lewis is a mind-bending gut buster, the kind of pay-off that die-hard Simpsons fans live for." ## Reception Frink is a popular character on The Simpsons and he has received acclaim from critics. Mark Hughes Cobb of The Tuscaloosa News named him his favorite secondary character from the show. Fort Worth Star-Telegram's Robert Philpot called the professor one of the five best supporting characters on The Simpsons, writing that "Springfield's mad scientist is a triumph of style over substance, with Hank Azaria giving him a ripoff Jerry Lewis voice that reminds you why we once thought Lewis was funny." On their list of the top twenty-five peripheral Simpsons characters, IGN's Eric Goldman, Dan Iverson, and Brian Zoromski listed Frink at number fourteen, commenting that he fits nicely into the Simpsons universe "as the town's brilliant mad scientist." They highlighted a scene from the episode "The PTA Disbands", in which Frink becomes a kindergarten substitute teacher and keeps one of the children's toys to himself because the children "wouldn't enjoy it on as many levels" as he did. Nick Griffiths of Radio Times named Frink one of the best characters of the show, stating that he has "always loved Professor Frink", particularly because of his appearance, gibberish talking, and overuse of the word "the", and because of his inventions such as the matter teleporter that turns Bart into half-human half-fly. The Sydney Morning Herald's David Hollingworth profiled Frink in his list of "TV's great tech figures", writing that apart from being smart, the professor is best known for his "rather idiosyncratic speech patterns – hmmguyvin-whey-hey." Joe Rhodes of TV Guide listed the following as the professor's most memorable line: "Sorry I'm late. There was trouble at the lab with the running and the exploding and the crying when the monkeys stole the glasses off my head." Several critics have commented on Frink's inventions. Patrick Goss of MSN's Tech & Gadgets wrote that "When it comes to gizmos, Frink is the king", and listed the Death Ray as one of the greatest gadgets featured in The Simpsons. Although he added that it "was not one of [Frink's] most successful", since it never received the funding it needed from Grampa. On the same list, Goss also featured Frink's automatic phone dialer, intra bovine ice-cream maker (an invention that is inserted into a cow and uses the four stomachs to mix the various ingredients), and hamburger earmuffs. In a profile about Frink, the publication UGO Networks wrote: "Where would the town be without your Jerry Lewis/Julius Kelp-inspired voice and antics? A lot safer most likely. Professor John Frink's inventions range from distracting to disruptive. Who can forget his hamburger earmuffs? Or his teleportation device, responsible for switching Bart Simpson's head with that of a housefly?" Howard Waldrop and Lawrence Person of Locus listed the scene in The Simpsons Movie that features Frink's drilling machine invention as one of the highlights of the film. ## Merchandising and legacy Frink has appeared in various merchandise related to The Simpsons, including issues of Simpsons Comics, the simulator ride "The Simpsons Ride" at Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Hollywood, and video games such as The Simpsons Wrestling, The Simpsons: Road Rage, The Simpsons: Hit & Run, and The Simpsons Game. He has also been turned into a Halloween-inspired action figure that was packaged with Kids Meals at Burger King in October and November 2002. In addition, Frink was featured on the cover of the October 16, 2000 issue of TV Guide. The professor has also affected real-life science. Frink, a computer programming language, was named after him. It is, according to creator of the language, "designed to make physical calculations simple, to help ensure that answers come out right, and to make a tool that's really useful in the real world. It tracks units of measure (feet, meters, kilograms, watts, etc.) through all calculations, allowing you to mix units of measure transparently, and helps you easily verify that your answers make sense."
50,361,162	3rd Pioneer Battalion (Australia)	1,054,661,380	Australian infantry and light engineer unit	[ "Australian World War I battalions", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1919", "Military units and formations established in 1916", "Pioneer battalions of Australia" ]	The 3rd Pioneer Battalion was an Australian infantry and light engineer unit raised for service during the First World War as part of the all volunteer Australian Imperial Force (AIF). Formed in Victoria in March 1916, the battalion subsequently undertook further training in the United Kingdom before arriving in France in late 1916. It later served on the Western Front in France and Belgium until the end of the war. Assigned to the 3rd Division, the 3rd Pioneer Battalion fought in most of the major battles that the AIF participated in between mid-1916 and the end of the war in November 1918. It was subsequently disbanded in early 1919. ## History ### Formation and training The 3rd Pioneers were raised in Victoria, in March 1916, from volunteers drawn from Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia and was subsequently assigned to the 3rd Division. The battalion was formed in the aftermath of the failed Gallipoli campaign when the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) was expanded as part of plans to transfer it from the Middle East to Europe for service in the trenches along the Western Front. This expansion saw several new infantry divisions raised in Egypt and Australia, as well as specialist support units such as machine gun companies, engineer companies, artillery batteries and pioneer battalions. Trained as infantrymen, the pioneers were tasked with light combat engineer functions in the field, with a large number of personnel possessing trades from civilian life. The concept had existed within the British Indian Army before the war, but was adopted by the Australian Army in early 1916 to meet a need for troops with construction and engineering skills to assist with digging trenches, labouring, constructing strong points and undertaking battlefield clearance. As such, they were designated as pioneer units. At the same time, they could be pressed into the line to fight alongside regular infantry where required. A total of five pioneer battalions were raised by the AIF during the war, with one being assigned to each of the five infantry divisions that the Australians deployed to the battlefield in France and Belgium. The battalions consisted of four companies, under a headquarters company. To identify the 3rd Pioneer Battalion's personnel, they were issued with a purple and white unit colour patch. The colours were in common with other Australian pioneer battalions, while the horizontal oval shape denoted that the unit was part of the 3rd Division. The battalion's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Robert Law, and upon establishment it was decided that the unit would be an "all States" unit, meaning that personnel would not just be drawn exclusively from one particular state, but would instead draw recruits from all around Australia. The headquarters and 'A' Company were recruited from Victoria, and was established at Ascot Vale, before moving to Campbellfield in March, while 'B' Company was composed of New South Welshmen, 'C' Company came from Queensland and 'D' Company was a composite sub-unit drawn from South Australia and Western Australia. After the sub-units had formed in their home locations – Liverpool, Bathurst, Brisbane, Blackboy Hill, and Adelaide – the battalion began concentrating at Campbellfield in April 1916. Detailed training began at Campbellfield shortly after concentration and in May the battalion marched through the streets of Melbourne, before being presented with its unit colour. They were subsequently laid up at St Paul's Cathedral in Melbourne prior to embarkation. They departed Australia on the transport Wandilla on 6 June 1916, and endured a seven-week voyage to the United Kingdom, sailing via Cape Town. After arriving in the United Kingdom, the battalion subsequently concentrated with the rest of the 3rd Division around Larkhill on Salisbury Plain, in Wiltshire. Between July and November 1916, the 3rd Pioneers carried out intensive training to prepare them for their arrival on the Western Front. Finally, on 25 November the battalion entrained at Amesbury bound for Southampton from where they were ferried across the English Channel to Le Havre. ### Western Front The 3rd Pioneers would subsequently serve on the Western Front from late 1916 until the end of the war. After a brief period of acclimatisation in a "nursery sector" around Armentieres, the battalion's first major action came around Messines in June 1917, during which several of the battalion's companies were assigned to the assaulting companies to dig communication trenches while other troops were assigned general engineering duties such as road clearance, tramway maintenance, anti-aircraft defence and water supply, laying pipes and ensuring that they were maintained throughout the battle. Following this, the battalion's next major battle of 1917 was the Third Battle of Ypres, before moving back to Wavrans in late October 1917. One member of the battalion, Lance Corporal Walter Peeler, received the Victoria Cross, for his bravery during the Battle of Broodseinde in October 1917. During the action, Peeler was part of a Lewis Gun team that was supporting the 37th Infantry Battalion; tasked with providing anti-aircraft defence, when the first wave of the assault was held up, Peeler advanced ahead of the assaulting infantry and destroyed one of the German positions that was causing heavy casualties. He then proceeded to destroy a machine gun position. The battalion wintered around Messines, during which time it provided reinforcements to the Australian engineer tunneling companies, as well as helping to construct and maintain the divisional tramway systems. In early 1918, the battalion took part in efforts to blunt the German spring offensive, serving around Belle, Heilly and Ribemont between March and May 1918. In the lull that followed the failed German offensive, the Allies sought to regain the initiative, and after being relieved by the 2nd Pioneers around Heilly, the 3rd Pioneers were dispatched to the Somme, taking over from the 4th Pioneers around Villers-Bretonneux. They then took part in the Battle of Hamel before joining the Hundred Days Offensive, which was launched around Amiens in August 1918. It was during the August offensive that the 3rd Pioneers went into action as infantry for the first time, doing so on 22 August 1918. The battalion's final actions of the war came against the Hindenburg Line, around the St. Quentin Canal in early October 1918, during which a company of Americans from the US 102nd Engineers were attached to them. The battalion was subsequently withdrawn from the line for reorganisation along with the rest of the Australian Corps after the battle around the St. Quentin Canal, and moved back to the Abbeville area. They did not see further action before the armistice came into effect on 11 November 1918. Of the five Australian pioneer battalions, it spent the longest period of time in the infantry role, spending more days in combat, standing-to and in the line than any of the others. After the conclusion of hostilities, the battalion's strength dwindled as personnel were sent to England and elsewhere for educational courses to prepare them to return to civilian life. The first batch of around 100 personnel left for Australia for demobilisation in February 1919, and the battalion was formally disbanded the following month. During the war, a total of 1,964 men served in the 3rd Pioneer Battalion; this includes the original enlistments and eight batches of reinforcements. Of these, 140 were killed or died of wounds, 19 died from illness or from accident, 208 were gassed, and 619 were wounded in action. Including Peeler's VC, a total of 129 honours and awards were bestowed upon members of the battalion: one VC, four Distinguished Service Orders, 16 Military Crosses, 10 Distinguished Conduct Medals, 73 Military Medals, nine Meritorious Service Medals, and three Mentions in Despatches. In addition, three members of the battalion were invested as Members of the Order of the British Empire and one was appointed as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire. ## Legacy Within the AIF, according to historian William Westerman, the pioneer battalion concept was not "effectively employed by Australian commanders". In this regard, Westerman argues that the AIF pioneer battalions were rigidly utilized as either engineers or infantry, instead of "integrating those two functions". Additionally, while he argues that they were under utilised in their infantry roles, and that the amount of time that was spent training as infantry and the resources consumed was disproportionate for the amount of time they spent in the line undertaking infantry tasks. While some battalions, including the 3rd Pioneers, undertook successful infantry actions, units such the 1st and 4th Pioneers never saw action directly in their infantry role. Additionally, the units' separation from the field engineers resulted in "administrative, organisational and command and control problems" which even limited their utility as engineering formations. After the war, the concept of pioneer battalions was discontinued in the Australian Army. In the immediate aftermath of the war, as plans were drawn up for the shape of the post conflict Army, a proposal was put forth to raise six pioneer battalions in the peacetime Army, but a combination of global disarmament and financial hardship resulted in this plan being scrapped. As a result, pioneer battalions disappeared from the Australian Army order of battle until the Second World War, when four such battalions were raised as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force. According to Alexander Rodger, as a result of the decision not to re-raise pioneer battalions in the interwar years, no battle honours were subsequently awarded to the 3rd Pioneer Battalion – or any other First World War pioneer battalion – as there was no equivalent unit to perpetuate the honours when they were promulgated by the Australian Army in 1927. ## Commanding officers The battalion was commanded by the following officers: - Lieutenant Colonel R. Law (1916–1917) - Lieutenant Colonel L.F.S. Mather (1917–1918) - Lieutenant Colonel H. Grant (1918) - Lieutenant Colonel W.H. Sanday (1918)
31,573,452	Euthanasia Coaster	1,173,237,934	Hypothetical passenger-killing ride	[ "2010 works", "Euthanasia device", "Lithuanian inventions", "conceptual art", "execution methods" ]	The Euthanasia Coaster is a hypothetical steel roller coaster designed as a euthanasia device to kill its passengers. The concept was conceived in 2010 and made into a scale model by Lithuanian artist Julijonas Urbonas, a PhD candidate at the Royal College of Art in London. Urbonas, who has experience as an amusement park employee, stated that the goal of his concept roller coaster is to take lives "with elegance and euphoria". As for practical applications of his design, Urbonas mentioned "euthanasia" or "execution". John Allen, who served as president of the Philadelphia Toboggan Company, inspired Urbonas with his description of the "ultimate" roller coaster as one that "sends out 24 people and they all come back dead". ## Design The concept design of the layout begins with a steep-angled lift that takes riders up 500 metres (1,600 ft) to the top, a climb that takes a few minutes to reach. For comparison, the tallest roller coaster in the world is Kingda Ka at 139 m (456 ft). From there, a 500 m (1,600 ft) drop would take the train to 360 kilometres per hour (220 mph; 100 m/s), close to its terminal velocity, before flattening out and speeding into the first of its seven slightly clothoid inversions. Each inversion would have a smaller diameter than the one before in order to maintain the lethal 10 g to passengers while the train loses speed. After a sharp right-hand turn, the train would enter a straight, where unloading of corpses and loading of new passengers could take place. ## Mechanism of action The Euthanasia Coaster would kill its passengers through prolonged cerebral hypoxia, or insufficient supply of oxygen to the brain. The ride's seven inversions would inflict 10 g (g-force) on its passengers for 60 seconds, causing g-force related symptoms starting with greyout through tunnel vision to black out and eventually g-LOC (g-force induced loss of consciousness). Subsequent inversions or another run of the coaster would serve as insurance against unintentional survival of more robust passengers. ## Exhibition Urbonas's concept drew media attention when shown as part of the HUMAN+ display at the Science Gallery in Dublin from April through June 2011. The display, designated as its 2011 "flagship exhibition" by the Science Gallery, aims to show the future of humans and technology. Within this theme, the Euthanasia Coaster highlights the issues that come with life extension. The item was also displayed at the HUMAN+ exhibit at Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona in 2015. ## In popular culture In 2012, Norwegian rock group Major Parkinson released "Euthanasia Roller Coaster", a digital single with lyrics alluding to Urbonas's Euthanasia Coaster. Lavie Tidhar's short story Vladimir Chong Chooses to Die incorporates Urbonas's Euthanasia Coaster into the ending. Glenn Paton's short film H Positive explores the motivations of a wealthy man who, upon discovering that he is dying, commissions an architect to build a Euthanasia Coaster identical to Urbonas's design. Although Urbonas is not mentioned during the film, the end credits affirm that the film was based on Urbonas's project. The science fiction comedy drama Mrs. Davis features a euthanasia roller coaster that ends the life of people who "expire". Sequoia Nagamatsu's novel How High We Go in the Dark includes a chapter that features a euthanasia theme park for terminally-ill children, where a final roller coaster kills them before the plague does. Nagamatsu has noted Urbonas's design as initial inspiration in interviews.
70,426,441	2022 NCAA Division I women's basketball championship game	1,148,514,728	Women's basketball championship game	[ "2021–22 NCAA Division I women's basketball season", "2022 in sports in Minnesota", "April 2022 sports events in the United States", "Basketball competitions in Minneapolis", "College sports in Minnesota", "NCAA Division I women's basketball championship games", "South Carolina Gamecocks women's basketball", "UConn Huskies women's basketball" ]	The 2022 NCAA Division I women's basketball championship game was the final game of the 2022 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament. It determined the national champion for the 2021–22 season and was contested by the UConn Huskies and the South Carolina Gamecocks. The game was played on April 3, 2022, at the Target Center in Minneapolis, Minnesota. In the game, the Gamecocks jumped out to an 18-point lead early in the second quarter and held off UConn scoring runs to win the national championship, 64–49. South Carolina's Aliyah Boston was voted the NCAA Tournament Most Outstanding Player (MOP). This was UConn's first loss in the women's national championship game. ## Participants ### South Carolina The Gamecocks, who represent the University of South Carolina and play their home games at Colonial Life Arena in Columbia, came to the championship game after being ranked No. 1 in every poll from the preseason through this matchup, the final game of the year. Led by coach of the year Dawn Staley and player of the year Aliyah Boston, South Carolina defeated a healthy UConn team in November's Battle 4 Atlantis tournament final, 73–57. South Carolina lost only two games during the season: one in overtime against unranked Missouri in December, and one in the SEC Tournament, where the unranked Kentucky Wildcats surprised the Gamecocks in the finals. In the NCAA Tournament, South Carolina drew a No. 1 seed in the Greensboro Regional, where they won handily against Howard and Miami on their home court, then defeated a scrappy No. 5 seed North Carolina team. They then dominated Cinderella No. 10 seed Creighton in Greensboro to advance to the Final Four. The Gamecocks defeated Louisville, who never led after the second quarter, to advance to their second consecutive March Madness finals. The Gamecocks entered this game with no injuries which affected their lineup. ### UConn The Huskies, who represent the University of Connecticut in Storrs, Connecticut, and split their home games between Gampel Pavilion and XL Center, came to the finals after a 30–5 season, an uncharacteristic year in which eight different players suffered injuries which kept them out of two or more games. UConn started the season ranked No. 2 behind the Gamecocks. Coached by Hall of Famers Geno Auriemma and Chris Dailey and led by last year's player of the year Paige Bueckers, UConn utilized eleven different starting lineups; eight different players led the Huskies in scoring in games during the season. In December, Bueckers suffered a broken bone in her knee, which kept her out of play for nineteen games, but she rejoined the team in late February with limited minutes until the NCAA Tournament. Bueckers's injury gave Auriemma and Dailey unexpected opportunities to develop blue-chip freshmen as scorers, while three seniors and several experienced sophomores anchored the team. UConn lost regular season games against unranked Georgia Tech, Oregon, and Villanova, while losing to No. 6 Louisville in December. A healthy UConn dominated the Big East Tournament, defeating Villanova in the finals. In the NCAA Tournament, the No. 2 seed Huskies beat Mercer and struggled on their home court against a physical UCF team. At the Bridgeport regional, UConn defeated Indiana, then emerged victorious in a game that announcers called an "instant classic", a two-overtime 91–87 contest against No. 1 seed NC State. In a Final Four contest against Stanford, UConn out-rebounded the taller Cardinal squad and the Huskies' stifling defense held the defending national champions to a 34.8% shooting percentage to advance to this final with a 63–58 win. Senior forward Dorka Juhász suffered a wrist injury during the NC State contest, and was the only starter injured for this contest. ## Starting lineups ## Game summary South Carolina jumped out to a 5–0 lead, and held a nine-point lead by the first timeout in the game, three and a half minutes into the contest. The Gamecocks already had seven second-chance points and eight rebounds. Aliyah Boston made a jump shot with 19 seconds to go in the first quarter, giving the Gamecocks a 22–8 lead. South Carolina had seven offensive rebounds in the quarter and held a 12–3 edge in rebounds. One minute passed in the second quarter before Destanni Henderson scored its first points on a three-pointer, as in the first quarter. UConn followed with two jump shots and the Gamecocks made a layup before Henderson scored another three-pointer with 7:38 to play, extending the Gamecocks' lead to 18 points. A pair of shots by Paige Bueckers narrowed the deficit to 16 with seven minutes left, and the Huskies further made up ground after Bueckers made one of her two free throws with just over five minutes left. A minute-long scoring drought by both teams was broken with 4:01 by Caroline Ducharme, though another scoring drought of nearly two minutes followed. This was again broken by a Ducharme layup, which narrowed the South Carolina lead to single digits for the first time since the score was 13–4 with four minutes remaining in the first quarter. Evina Westbrook and Henderson traded layups and Bueckers made a jump shot, which narrowed the deficit to seven points, and a free throw by Saniya Rivers with 23 seconds left bumped the lead to eight. This would be the final scoring play of the first half, and the Gamecocks took a 35–27 lead to the locker room. UConn began the second half with the ball, but two missed shots resulted in no points from their first possession. Boston opened the second half scoring with a layup 54 seconds into the half, and South Carolina's lead was pushed to eleven points with a free throw from Zia Cooke just under two minutes later. Boston made one of two free throws with 6:19 to play and Henderson made both of hers six seconds later, and Cooke scored a layup with 5:18 on the clock, extending the Gamecocks' lead to sixteen points as a result of their 8–0 run. This run was broken seconds later by Bueckers, who scored a jump shot with an assist from Nika Mühl. Over two minutes passed with no scoring before Edwards scored a layup with 2:41. UConn continued their scoring run with three-point shots from Ducharme and Westbrook, and their 10–0 streak cut the Gamecocks' lead to six points. Henderson made a free throw and a jump shot in the quarter's final minute, giving South Carolina a nine-point lead at the conclusion of the third quarter. Edwards began the scoring in the fourth quarter for UConn, which was countered by a pair of layups by Henderson. Victaria Saxton made two free throws with just under seven minutes to play, and Ducharme made a layup to bring the lead down to eleven. A free throw from Boston and a jumper and layup from Henderson pushed the lead to sixteen points. Azzi Fudd and Bueckers made three-pointers for UConn with 4:09 and 3:23 to play, respectively, which brought the lead to within ten points for the final time. UConn began fouling around this time, as the game's next five points were scored on free throws by Henderson, Saxton, and Hall. UConn's final points of the contest would come with 1:51 to play, as Williams made a layup to make it 62–49. From there, Boston would score two free throws with 1:15 remaining before the Gamecocks would be able to run the clock out and claim their second national championship, 64–49. Boston finished with 11 points and a team-high 16 rebounds for her Division I-high 30th double-double of the season. She was named the tournament's MOP. South Carolina outrebounded UConn by 25, one of the largest margins in the championship game's history. Bueckers had 14 points and six rebounds for UConn. ## Media coverage The championship game was televised in the United States by ESPN. The game was the most-viewed women's national championship broadcast since 2004, as it drew an average viewership of 4.85 million, with a peak viewership of 5.91 million. This reflected an 18% increase in viewership over the previous season's title game. It was also the most-watched ESPN college basketball broadcast since 2008. ## See also - 2022 NCAA Division I men's basketball championship game
92,353	Ralph Bakshi	1,169,295,505	American animator, filmmaker (born 1938)	[ "1938 births", "20th-century American Jews", "20th-century American artists", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American non-fiction writers", "20th-century American painters", "20th-century American screenwriters", "21st-century American Jews", "21st-century American artists", "21st-century American male writers", "21st-century American non-fiction writers", "21st-century American painters", "21st-century American screenwriters", "American animated film directors", "American animated film producers", "American animators", "American comic strip cartoonists", "American experimental filmmakers", "American film directors", "American film producers", "American male non-fiction writers", "American male painters", "American male screenwriters", "American male television writers", "American male voice actors", "American people of Palestinian-Jewish descent", "American satirists", "American storyboard artists", "American surrealist artists", "American television directors", "American television producers", "American television writers", "American voice directors", "Animation screenwriters", "Animators from New York (state)", "Famous Studios people", "Film directors from New York City", "Film producers from New York (state)", "High School of Art and Design alumni", "Inkpot Award winners", "Jewish American artists", "Jewish American film directors", "Jewish American film producers", "Jewish American screenwriters", "Jewish American television producers", "Jewish American writers", "Jews in Mandatory Palestine", "Krymchaks", "Living people", "Mandatory Palestine emigrants to the United States", "Mass media people from Haifa", "Painters from New York City", "People from Brownsville, Brooklyn", "Ralph Bakshi", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Television producers from New York (state)", "Television producers from New York City", "Terrytoons people", "Thomas Jefferson High School (Brooklyn) alumni", "Underground cartoonists" ]	<table class="infobox biography vcard"> <div class="plainlist " > - Fritz the Cat - The Lord of the Rings - Heavy Traffic - Coonskin - Wizards - American Pop - Cool World - Fire and Ice - Spicy City - Hey Good Lookin </div> </td> </tr> </table> Ralph Bakshi''' (born October 29, 1938) is an American animator, filmmaker, and painter. In the 1970s, he established an alternative to mainstream animation through independent and adult-oriented productions. Between 1972 and 1992, he directed nine theatrically released feature films, five of which he wrote. He has also been involved in numerous television projects as director, writer, producer, and animator. Beginning his career at the Terrytoons television cartoon studio as a cel polisher, Bakshi was eventually promoted to animator, and then director. He moved to the animation division of Paramount Pictures in 1967 and started his own studio, Bakshi Productions, in 1968. Through producer Steve Krantz, Bakshi made his debut feature film, Fritz the Cat, released in 1972. It was based on the comic strip by Robert Crumb and was the first animated film to receive an X rating from the Motion Picture Association of America, and is the most successful independent animated feature of all time. Over the next 11 years, Bakshi directed seven additional animated features. He is well known for such films as Wizards (1977), The Lord of the Rings (1978), American Pop (1981), and Fire and Ice (1983). In 1987, Bakshi returned to television work, producing the series Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures, which ran for two years. After a nine-year hiatus from feature films, he directed Cool World (1992), which was largely rewritten during production and received poor reviews, consequently being his last theatrical feature-length film to date. Bakshi returned to television with the live-action film Cool and the Crazy (1994) and the anthology series Spicy City (1997). During the 2000s, he focused largely on fine art and painting, and in 2003, co-founded the Bakshi School of Animation with his son Eddie and Jess Gorell. Bakshi has received several awards for his work, including the 1980 Golden Gryphon for The Lord of the Rings at the Giffoni Film Festival, the 1988 Annie Award for Distinguished Contribution to the Art of Animation, and the 2003 Maverick Tribute Award at the Cinequest Film Festival. ## Early life Ralph Bakshi was born on October 29, 1938, in Haifa, British Mandate of Palestine, to a Krymchak Jewish family. In 1939, his family migrated to the United States, and he grew up in the Brownsville neighborhood of Brooklyn. The family lived in a low-rent apartment, where Bakshi became fascinated with the urban milieu. As a child, he enjoyed comic books, and often dug through trash cans to find them. According to an interview in 2009, Ralph said he was very poor and the walls of his neighborhood were constantly repainted. He liked the feeling when he looked out the window and saw the sun as a little boy, and whenever he would walk out in the streets, someone would break open the wooden crates in the push carts that were filled with food. Ralph says this in the interview, "And the push carts were wood, and most of the buildings were made out of old wood, going back to the turn of the century, and they were repainted a lot but the paint was faded by, you know the hundred years of snow and rain, repainted and faded again." Bakshi loved the faded colors, the nails, the wooden crates, and he would build his own toys from the wood. Ralph recalls, "I had a great feeling with wood, cement, and nails". In the spring of 1947, Bakshi's father and uncle traveled to Washington, DC, in search of business opportunities, and soon moved the family to the black neighborhood of Foggy Bottom. Bakshi recalled, "All my friends were black, everyone we did business with was black, the school across the street was black. It was segregated, so everything was black. I went to see black movies; black girls sat on my lap. I went to black parties. I was another black kid on the block. No problem!" The racial segregation of local schools meant that the nearest white school was several miles away; Bakshi obtained his mother's permission to attend the nearby black school with his friends. Most of the students had no problem with Bakshi's presence, but a teacher sought advice from the principal, who called the police. Fearing that segregated whites would riot if they learned that a white, let alone Jewish, student was attending a black school, the police removed Bakshi from his classroom. Meanwhile, his father had been suffering from anxiety attacks. Within a few months, the family moved back to Brownsville, where they rarely spoke of these events. At the age of 15, after discovering Gene Byrnes' Complete Guide to Cartooning at the public library, Bakshi took up cartooning to document his experiences and create fantasy-influenced artwork. He stole a copy of the book and learned every lesson in it. During his teenaged years, Bakshi took up boxing. While attending Thomas Jefferson High School, he took little interest in academics, spending most of his time focusing on "broads, mouthing off, and doodling". After participating in a food fight and being caught smoking, Bakshi was sent to the principal's office. Believing Bakshi was unlikely to prosper at Thomas Jefferson, the principal transferred him to Manhattan's School of Industrial Art. At the school, he was taught by African-American cartoonist Charles Allen. In June 1956, Bakshi graduated from the school with an award in cartooning. ## Career ### Early career (1956–1968) When Bakshi was 18, his friend Cosmo Anzilotti was hired by the cartoon studio Terrytoons; Anzilotti recommended Bakshi to the studio's production manager, Frank Schudde. Bakshi was hired as a cel polisher and commuted four hours each day to the studio, based in suburban New Rochelle. His low-level position required Bakshi to carefully remove dirt and dust from animation cels. After a few months, Schudde was surprised that Bakshi was still showing up to work, so promoted him to cel painter. Bakshi began to practice animating; to give himself more time, at one point he slipped 10 cels he was supposed to work on into the "to-do" pile of a fellow painter, Leo Giuliani. Bakshi's deception was not noticed until two days later, when he was called to Schudde's office because the cels had been painted on the wrong side. When Bakshi explained that Giuliani had made the mistake, an argument ensued between the three. Schudde eventually took Bakshi's side. By this point, the studio's employees were aware of Bakshi's intention to become an animator, and he received help and advice from established animators, including Connie Rasinski, Manny Davis, Jim Tyer, Larry Silverman, and Johnnie Gentilella. Bakshi married his first wife, Elaine, when he was 21. Their son, Mark, was born when Bakshi was 22. Elaine disliked his long work hours; parodying his marital problems, Bakshi drew Dum Dum and Dee Dee, a comic strip about a man determined "to get—and keep—the girl". As he perfected his animation style, he began to take on more jobs, including creating design tests for the studio's head director, Gene Deitch. Deitch was not convinced that Bakshi had a modern design sensibility. In response to the period's political climate and as a form of therapy, Bakshi drew the comic strips Bonefoot and Fudge, which satirized "idiots with an agenda", and Junktown, which focused on "misfit technology and discarded ideals". Bakshi's frustrations with his failing marriage and the state of the planet further drove his need to animate. In 1959, he moved his desk to join the rest of the animators; after asking Rasinski for material to animate, he received layouts of two scenes: a hat floating on water and a running Deputy Dawg, the lead character of a Terrytoons' series then being shown on CBS. Despite threats of repercussion from the animators' union, Rasinski fought to keep Bakshi as a layout artist. Bakshi began to see Rasinski as a father figure; Rasinski, childless, was happy to serve as Bakshi's mentor. At the age of 25, Bakshi was promoted to director. His first assignment was the series Sad Cat. Bakshi and his wife had separated by then, giving him the time to animate each short alone. Bakshi was dissatisfied with the traditional role of a Terrytoons director: "We didn't really 'direct' like you'd think. We were 'animation directors,' because the story department controlled the storyboards. We couldn't affect anything, but I still tried. I'd re-time, mix up soundtracks—I'd fuck with it so I could make it my own." Other animation studios, such as Hanna-Barbera, were selling shows to the networks, even as the series produced by Terrytoons (which was owned by CBS) were declining in popularity. In 1966, Bill Weiss asked Bakshi to help him carry presentation boards to Manhattan for a meeting with CBS. The network executives rejected all of Weiss's proposals as "too sophisticated", "too corny", or "too old-timey". As Fred Silverman, CBS's daytime programming chief, began to leave the office, an unprepared Bakshi pitched a superhero parody called The Mighty Heroes on the spot. He described the series' characters, including Strong Man, Tornado Man, Rope Man, Cuckoo Man, and Diaper Man: "They fought evil wherever they could, and the villains were stupider than they were." The executives loved the idea, and while Silverman required a few drawings before committing, Weiss immediately put Bakshi to work on the series' development. Once Silverman saw the character designs, he confirmed that CBS would greenlight the show, on the condition that Bakshi would serve as its creative director and to oversee the entire project. It would appear as a segment of Mighty Mouse Playhouse on the network's 1966–67 Saturday-morning schedule; the series was renamed Mighty Mouse and the Mighty Heroes in recognition of the new segment. Bakshi received a pay raise, but was not as satisfied with his career advancement as he had anticipated; Rasinski had died in 1965, Bakshi did not have creative control over The Mighty Heroes, and he was unhappy with the quality of the animation, writing, timing, and voice acting. Although the series' first 20 segments were successful, Bakshi wanted to leave Terrytoons to form his own company. In 1967, he drew up presentation pieces for a fantasy series called Tee-Witt, with help from Anzilotti, Johnnie Zago, and Bill Foucht. On the way to the CBS offices to make his pitch, he was involved in a car accident. At the auto body shop, he met Liz, who later became his second wife. Though CBS passed on Tee-Witt, its designs served as the basis for Bakshi's 1977 film Wizards. While leaving the network offices, he learned that Paramount Pictures had recently fired Shamus Culhane, the head of its animation division. Bakshi met with Burt Hampft, a lawyer for the studio, and was hired to replace Culhane. Bakshi enlisted comic-book and pulp-fiction artists and writers Harvey Kurtzman, Lin Carter, Gray Morrow, Archie Goodwin, Wally Wood, and Jim Steranko to work at the studio. After finishing Culhane's uncompleted shorts, he directed, produced, wrote, and designed four short films at Paramount: The Fuz, Mini-Squirts, Marvin Digs, and Mouse Trek. Marvin Digs, which Bakshi conceived as a "flower child picture", was not completed the way he had intended: It "was going to have curse words and sex scenes, and a lot more than that. [...] Of course, they wouldn't let me do that." He described the disappointing result as a "typical 1967 limited-animation theatrical". Animation historian Michael Barrier called the film "an offensively bad picture, the kind that makes people who love animation get up and leave the theater in disgust". Production of Mighty Heroes ended when Bakshi left Terrytoons. Bakshi served as head of the studio for eight months before Paramount closed its animation division on December 1, 1967. He learned that his position was always intended to be temporary and that Paramount never intended to pick up his pitches. Although Hampft was prepared to offer Bakshi a severance package, Bakshi immediately ripped up the contract. Hampft suggested that Bakshi work with producer Steve Krantz, who had recently fired Culhane as supervising director on the Canadian science-fiction series Rocket Robin Hood. Bakshi and background artist Johnnie Vita soon headed to Toronto, planning to commute between Canada and New York, with artists such as Morrow and Wood working from the United States. Unknown to Bakshi, Krantz and producer Al Guest were in the middle of a lawsuit. Failing to reach a settlement with Guest, Krantz told Bakshi to grab the series' model sheets and return to the United States. When the studio found out, a warrant for Bakshi's arrest was issued by the Toronto police. He narrowly avoided capture before being stopped by an American border guard, who asked him what he was doing. Bakshi responded, "All of these guys are heading into Canada to dodge the draft and I'm running back into the States. What the fuck is wrong with that!?" The guard laughed, and let Bakshi through. Vita was detained at the airport; he was searched and interrogated for six hours. Bakshi soon founded his own studio, Bakshi Productions, in the Garment District of Manhattan, where his mother used to work and which Bakshi described as "the worst neighborhood in the world". Bakshi Productions paid its employees higher salaries than other studios and expanded opportunities for female and minority animators. The studio began work on Rocket Robin Hood, and later took over the Spider-Man television series. Bakshi married Liz in August 1968. His second child, Preston, was born in June 1970. ### Bakshi Productions In 1969, Ralph's Spot was founded as a division of Bakshi Productions to produce commercials for Coca-Cola and Max, the 2000-Year-Old Mouse, a series of educational shorts paid for by Encyclopædia Britannica. Bakshi was uninterested in the kind of animation the studio was turning out, and wanted to produce something personal. He soon developed Heavy Traffic, a tale of inner-city street life. Krantz told Bakshi that Hollywood studio executives would be unwilling to fund the film because of its content and Bakshi's lack of film experience, and would likely consider it if his first film was an adaptation, luckily he would find a Comic that would become his first animated feature. ### Fritz the Cat (1969–1972) While browsing the East Side Book Store on St. Mark's Place, Bakshi came across a copy of Robert Crumb's Fritz the Cat. Impressed by Crumb's sharp satire, Bakshi purchased the book and suggested to Krantz that it would work as a film. Krantz arranged a meeting with Crumb, during which Bakshi presented the drawings he had created while learning the artist's distinctive style to prove that he could adapt Crumb's artwork to animation. Impressed by Bakshi's tenacity, Crumb lent him one of his sketchbooks for reference. Preparation began on a studio pitch that included a poster-sized cel featuring the comic's cast against a traced photo background—as Bakshi intended the film to appear. Despite Crumb's enthusiasm, the artist refused to sign the contract Krantz drew up. Artist Vaughn Bodē warned Bakshi against working with Crumb, describing him as "slick". Bakshi later agreed with Bodé's assessment, calling Crumb "one of the slickest hustlers you'll ever see in your life". Krantz sent Bakshi to San Francisco, where he stayed with Crumb and his wife, Dana, in an attempt to persuade Crumb to sign the contract. After a week, Crumb left, leaving the film's production status uncertain. Two weeks after Bakshi returned to New York, Krantz entered his office and told Bakshi that he had acquired the film rights through Dana, who had Crumb's power of attorney and signed the contract. Crumb was subsequently hostile both to the film and Bakshi. Krantz produced a sequel, The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat (1974), to which Bakshi was steadfastly opposed, having wanted to kill Fritz off to avoid further movies. After Bakshi pitched the project to every major Hollywood studio, Warner Bros. bought it and promised an \$850,000 budget. Bakshi hired animators with whom he had worked in the past, including Vita, Tyer, Anzilotti, and Nick Tafuri, and began the layouts and animation. The first completed sequence was a junkyard scene in Harlem, in which Fritz smokes marijuana, has sex, and incites a revolution. Krantz intended to release the sequence as a 15-minute short in case the picture's financing fell through; Bakshi, however, was determined to complete the film as a feature. They screened the sequence for Warner Bros. executives, who wanted the sexual content toned down and celebrities cast for the voice parts. Bakshi refused, and Warner Bros. pulled out, leading Krantz to seek funds elsewhere. He eventually made a deal with Jerry Gross, the owner of Cinemation Industries, a distributor specializing in exploitation films. Although Bakshi did not have enough time to pitch the film, Gross agreed to fund its production and distribute it, believing that it would fit in with his grindhouse slate. Despite receiving financing from other sources, including Saul Zaentz (who agreed to distribute the soundtrack album on his Fantasy Records label), the budget was tight enough to exclude pencil tests, so Bakshi had to test the animation by flipping an animator's drawings in his hand before they were inked and painted. When a cameraman realized that the cels for the desert scenes were not wide enough and revealed the transparency, Bakshi painted a cactus to cover the mistake. Very few storyboards were used. Bakshi and Vita walked around the Lower East Side, Washington Square Park, Chinatown, and Harlem, taking moody snapshots. Artist Ira Turek inked the outlines of these photographs onto cels with a Rapidograph, the technical pen preferred by Crumb, giving the film's backgrounds a stylized realism virtually unprecedented in animation. The tones of the watercolor backgrounds were influenced by the work of Ashcan School painters such as George Luks and John French Sloan. Among other unusual techniques, bent and fisheye camera perspectives were used to portray the way the film's hippies and hoodlums viewed the city. Many scenes featured documentary recordings of real conversations in place of scripted dialogue; this, too, would become a signature of Bakshi's. In May 1971, Bakshi moved his studio to Los Angeles to hire additional animators. Some, including Rod Scribner, Dick Lundy, Virgil Walter Ross, Norman McCabe, and John Sparey, welcomed Bakshi and felt that Fritz the Cat would bring diversity to the animation industry. Other animators were less pleased by Bakshi's arrival and placed an advertisement in The Hollywood Reporter, stating that his "filth" was unwelcome in California. By the time production wrapped, Cinemation had released Melvin Van Peebles' Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song to considerable success, despite the X rating it had received. When the Motion Picture Association of America gave Bakshi's film an X rating, as well, Cinemation exploited it for promotional purposes, advertising Fritz the Cat as "90 minutes of violence, excitement, and SEX ... he's X-rated and animated!" Variety called it an "amusing, diverting, handsomely executed poke at youthful attitudes". John Grant writes in his book Masters of Animation that Fritz the Cat was "the breakthrough movie that opened brand new vistas to the commercial animator in the United States", presenting an "almost disturbingly accurate" portrayal "of a particular stratum of Western society during a particular era, [...] as such it has dated very well." Fritz the Cat was released on April 12, 1972, opening in Hollywood and Washington, D.C. A major hit, it became the most successful independent animated feature of all time. The same month as the film's release, Bakshi's daughter, Victoria, was born. ### Heavy Traffic (1972–1973) By the time Fritz the Cat was released, Bakshi had become a celebrity, but his reputation was primarily based upon his having directed the first "dirty" animated film. Facing criticism of his work on publicity tours and in trade publications, he began writing poetry to express his emotions. This became a tradition, and Bakshi wrote poems before beginning production on each of his films. The first of these poems was "Street Arabs", which preceded the production of Heavy Traffic in 1972. Inspiration for the film came from penny arcades, where Bakshi often played pinball, sometimes accompanied by his 12-year-old son, Mark. Bakshi pitched Heavy Traffic to Samuel Z. Arkoff, who expressed interest in his take on the "tortured underground cartoonist" and agreed to back the film. Krantz had not compensated Bakshi for his work on Fritz the Cat, and halfway through the production of Heavy Traffic, Bakshi asked when he would be paid. Krantz responded, "The picture didn't make any money, Ralph. It's just a lot of noise." Bakshi found Krantz's claims dubious, as the producer had recently purchased a new BMW and a mansion in Beverly Hills. Bakshi did not have a lawyer, so he sought advice from fellow directors with whom he had become friendly, including Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, and Steven Spielberg. He soon accused Krantz of ripping him off, which the producer denied. As he continued to work on Heavy Traffic, Bakshi began pitching his next project, Harlem Nights, a film loosely based on the Uncle Remus story books. The idea interested producer Albert S. Ruddy, whom Bakshi encountered at a screening of The Godfather. Bakshi received a call from Krantz, who questioned him about Harlem Nights. Bakshi said, "I can't talk about that", and hung up. After locking Bakshi out of the studio the next day, Krantz called several directors, including Chuck Jones, in search of a replacement. Arkoff threatened to withdraw his financial backing unless Krantz rehired Bakshi, who returned a week later. Bakshi wanted the voices to sound organic, so he experimented with improvisation, allowing his actors to ad lib during the recording sessions. Several animation sequences appear as rough sketchbook pages. The film also incorporated live-action footage and photographs. Although Krantz, in an attempt to get the film an R rating, prepared different versions of scenes involving sex and violence, Heavy Traffic was rated X. Due to the success of Fritz the Cat, though, many theaters were willing to book adult-oriented animation, and the film did well at the box office. Bakshi became the first person in the animation industry since Walt Disney to have two financially successful movies released consecutively. Heavy Traffic was very well received by critics. Newsweek applauded its "black humor, powerful grotesquerie, and peculiar raw beauty." The Hollywood Reporter called it "shocking, outrageous, offensive, sometimes incoherent, occasionally unintelligent. However, it is also an authentic work of movie art and Bakshi is certainly the most creative American animator since Disney." Vincent Canby of The New York Times ranked Heavy Traffic among his "Ten Best Films of 1973". Upon release, the movie was banned by the Film Censorship Board in the province of Alberta, Canada. ### Coonskin (1973–1975) In 1973, Bakshi and Ruddy began the production of Harlem Nights, which Paramount was originally contracted to distribute. While Fritz the Cat and Heavy Traffic proved that adult-oriented animation could be financially successful, animated films were still not respected, and Bakshi's pictures were considered to be "dirty Disney flicks" that were "mature" only for depicting sex, drugs, and profanity. Harlem Nights, based on Bakshi's firsthand experiences with racism, was an attack on racist prejudices and stereotypes. Bakshi cast Scatman Crothers, Philip Michael Thomas, Barry White, and Charles Gordone in live-action and voice roles, cutting in and out of animation abruptly rather than seamlessly because he wanted to prove that the two media could "coexist with neither excuse nor apology". He wrote a song for Crothers to sing during the opening title sequence: "Ah'm a Niggerman". Its structure was rooted in the history of the slave plantation - slaves would "shout" lines from poems and stories great distances across fields in unison, creating a natural beat. Bakshi has described its vocal style, backed by fast guitar licks, as an "early version of rap". Bakshi intended to attack stereotypes by portraying them directly, culling imagery from blackface iconography. Early designs in which the main characters (Brother Rabbit, Brother Bear, and Preacher Fox) resembled figures from The Wind in the Willows were rejected. Bakshi juxtaposed stereotypical designs of blacks with even more negative depictions of white racists, but the film's strongest criticism is directed at the Mafia. Bakshi said, "I was sick of all the hero worship these guys got because of The Godfather." Production concluded in 1973. During editing, the title was changed to Coonskin No More..., and finally to Coonskin. Bakshi hired several African-American animators to work on Coonskin, including Brenda Banks, the first African-American female animator. Bakshi also hired graffiti artists and trained them to work as animators. The film's release was delayed by protests from the Congress of Racial Equality, which called Bakshi and his film racist. After its distribution was contracted to the Bryanston Distributing Company, Paramount cancelled a project that Bakshi and Ruddy were developing, The American Chronicles. Coonskin, advertised as an exploitation film, was given limited distribution and soon disappeared from theaters. Initial reviews were negative; Playboy commented that "Bakshi seems to throw in a little of everything and he can't quite pull it together." Eventually, positive reviews appeared in The Hollywood Reporter, New York Amsterdam News (an African-American newspaper), and elsewhere. The New York Times' Richard Eder said the film "could be [Bakshi's] masterpiece [...] a shattering successful effort to use an uncommon form—cartoons and live action combined-to convey the hallucinatory violence and frustration of American city life, specifically black city life [...] lyrically violent, yet in no way [does it] exploit violence". Variety called it a "brutal satire from the streets". A reviewer for the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner wrote, "Certainly, it will outrage some and, indeed, it's not Disney. [...] The dialog it has obviously generated—if not the box-office obstacles—seems joltingly healthy." Bakshi called Coonskin his best film. ### Hey Good Lookin' (1973–1975/1982) After production concluded on Harlem Nights, Bakshi wanted to distinguish himself artistically by producing a film in which live action and animated characters would interact. Bakshi said, "The illusion I attempted to create was that of a completely live-action film. Making it work almost drove us crazy." Hey Good Lookin is set in Brooklyn during the 1950s; its lead characters are Vinnie, the leader of a gang named "The Stompers", his friend Crazy Shapiro, and their girlfriends, Roz and Eva. Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro were based on Bakshi's high-school friends Norman Darrer and Allen Schechterman. Warner Bros. optioned the screenplay and greenlit the film in 1973. An initial version of Hey Good Lookin' was completed in 1975. A three-minute promotion of this version was screened at the 1975 Cannes Film Festival, and the film was scheduled for a Christmas 1975 release, but was moved to the summers of 1976 and later 1977, before ultimately being postponed indefinitely. Warner Bros. was concerned about any controversy the film would encounter as a result of the backlash over the film Coonskin, and felt that the film was "unreleasable" because of its mix of live action and animation, and it would not spend further money on the project. Bakshi financed the film's completion himself from the director's fees for other projects such as Wizards, The Lord of the Rings, and American Pop. The live-action sequences of Hey Good Lookin' were gradually replaced by animation; among the eliminated live-action sequences was one featuring the glam punk band New York Dolls. Singer Dan Hicks worked on the initial musical score, but the final version was scored by John Madara. Hey Good Lookin' opened in New York City on October 1, 1982, and was released in Los Angeles in January 1983. The film's release was limited, and went largely unnoticed in the United States, although it garnered respectable business in foreign markets. In a brief review, Vincent Canby wrote that it was "not exactly incoherent, but whatever it originally had on its mind seems to have slipped away". Animation historian Jerry Beck wrote, "the beginning of the film is quite promising, with a garbage can discussing life on the streets with some garbage. This is an example of what Bakshi did best—using the medium of animation to comment on society. Unfortunately, he doesn't do it enough in this film. There is a wildly imaginative fantasy sequence during the climax, when the character named Crazy starts hallucinating during a rooftop shooting spree. This scene almost justifies the whole film. But otherwise, this is a rehash of ideas better explored in Coonskin, Heavy Traffic, and Fritz the Cat." The film has since gained a cult following through cable television and home video. Quentin Tarantino stated that he preferred Hey Good Lookin' to Martin Scorsese's Mean Streets. ### Shift to fantasy film (1976–1978) In 1976, Bakshi pitched War Wizards to 20th Century Fox. Returning to the fantasy drawings he had created in high school for inspiration, Bakshi intended to prove that he could produce a "family picture" that had the same impact as his adult-oriented films. British illustrator Ian Miller and comic book artist Mike Ploog were hired to contribute backgrounds and designs. The crew included Vita, Turek, Sparey, Vitello and Spence, who had become comfortable with Bakshi's limited storyboarding and lack of pencil tests. As the production costs increased, Fox president Alan Ladd, Jr. declined Bakshi's requests for salary increases, and refused to give him \$50,000 to complete the film. At the same time, Ladd was dealing with similar budget problems on George Lucas's Star Wars. Bakshi and Lucas had negotiated contracts entitling them to franchise ownership, merchandising and back-end payment, so Ladd suggested that they fund the completion of their films themselves. Bakshi chose rotoscoping as a cost-effective way to complete the movie's battle scenes with his own finances. Because he could not afford to hire a film crew or actors, or develop 35mm stock, Bakshi requested prints of films that contained the type of large battle scenes needed, including Sergei Eisenstein's Alexander Nevsky, and spliced together the footage he needed. However, the cost of printing photographs of each frame would have cost \$3 million. Learning that IBM had introduced an industrial-sized photocopier, Bakshi asked one of the company's technical experts if he would be able to feed 35mm reels into the machine to produce enlarged copies of each frame. The experiment worked, and Bakshi got the pages he needed for a penny per copy. As War Wizards neared completion, Lucas requested that Bakshi change the title of his film to Wizards to avoid conflict with Star Wars; Bakshi agreed because Lucas had allowed Mark Hamill to take time off from Star Wars to record a voice for Wizards. Although Wizards received a limited release, it was successful in the theaters that showed it and developed a worldwide audience. Dave Kehr of The Chicago Reader saw it as "marred by cut-rate techniques and a shapeless screenplay". In the view of film historian Jerry Beck, the lead character, an aging sorcerer, "clearly owes much to cartoonist Vaughn Bodé's Cheech Wizard character." In late 1976, Bakshi learned that John Boorman was contracted to direct an adaptation of The Lord of the Rings, in which J. R. R. Tolkien's three-volume novel would be condensed into a single film. Bakshi arranged a meeting with Mike Medavoy, United Artists' head of production, who agreed to let Bakshi direct in exchange for the \$3 million that had been spent on Boorman's screenplay. Down the hall from Medavoy was Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer president Dan Melnick, who interrupted a meeting with Peter Bogdanovich when he learned that Bakshi wanted to discuss acquiring the rights to The Lord of the Rings. Melnick agreed to pay United Artists \$3 million, but was soon fired; the project was canceled by his replacement, Dick Shepherd. Bakshi contacted Saul Zaentz, who wrote a check to cover MGM's debt and agreed to fund the \$8 million budget for the first of what was initially planned as a series of three films, and later negotiated down to two. Before production began, Bakshi and Zaentz insisted that the Tolkien estate receive residuals from the film. Bakshi did not want to produce a broad cartoon version of the tale, so he planned to shoot the entire film in live action and animate the footage with rotoscoping. The film also incorporated brief cel animation and straightforward live-action footage. Production of the live-action sequences took place in Spain. During the middle of a large shoot, union bosses called for a lunch break, and Bakshi secretly shot footage of actors in Orc costumes moving toward the craft service table, and used the footage in the film. Jerry Beck later wrote that, while he found the rotoscoped animation "beautiful", he felt that it was unclear whether the use of live action was an artistic choice or due to budgetary constraints. After the Spanish film development lab discovered that telephone lines, helicopters and cars were visible in the footage, they tried to incinerate it, telling Bakshi's first assistant director, "if that kind of sloppy cinematography got out, no one from Hollywood would ever come back to Spain to shoot again." When Bakshi returned to the United States, he learned that the cost of developing blown-up prints of each frame had risen. He did not want to repeat the process that had been used on Wizards, which was unsuitable for the level of detail he intended for The Lord of the Rings, so Bakshi and camera technician Ted Bemiller created their own photographic enlarger to process the footage cheaply. Live-action special effects and analog optics were used in place of animation to keep the visual effects budget low and give the film a more realistic look. Among the voice actors was the well-regarded John Hurt, who performed the role of Aragorn. The project's prominence brought heavy trade journal coverage, and fans such as Mick Jagger visited the studio for the chance to play a role. Animator Carl Bell loved drawing Aragorn so much that Bakshi gave Bell the live-action Aragorn costume, which he wore while animating. Viewing The Lord of the Rings as a holiday film, United Artists pressured Bakshi to complete it on schedule for its intended November 15, 1978, release. Once it was finished, Bakshi was told that audiences would not pay to see an incomplete story; over his objections, The Lord of the Rings was marketed with no indication that a second part would follow. Reviews of the film were mixed, but it was generally seen as a "flawed but inspired interpretation". Newsday's Joseph Gelmis wrote that "the film's principal reward is a visual experience unlike anything that other animated features are doing at the moment". Roger Ebert called Bakshi's effort a "mixed blessing" and "an entirely respectable, occasionally impressive job [which] still falls far short of the charm and sweep of the original story". Vincent Canby found it "both numbing and impressive". David Denby of New York felt that the film would not make sense to viewers who had not read the book. He wrote that it was too dark and lacked humor, concluding, "The lurid, meaningless violence of this movie left me exhausted and sickened by the end." The film, which cost \$4 million to produce, grossed \$30.5 million. The studio refused to fund the sequel, which would have adapted the remainder of the story. The Lord of the Rings won the Golden Gryphon at the 1980 Giffoni Film Festival. ### American Pop and Fire and Ice (1979–1983) Following the production struggles of The Lord of the Rings, Bakshi decided to work on something more personal. He pitched American Pop to Columbia Pictures president Dan Melnick. Bakshi wanted to produce a film in which songs would be given a new context in juxtaposition to the visuals. American Pop follows four generations of a Russian Jewish immigrant family of musicians, whose careers parallel the history of American pop and starred actor Ron Thompson in a dual lead role. While the film does not reflect Bakshi's own experiences, its themes were strongly influenced by people he had encountered in Brownsville. The film's crew included character layout and design artist Louise Zingarelli, Vita, Barry E. Jackson, and Marcia Adams. Bakshi again used rotoscoping, in an attempt to capture the range of emotions and movement required for the film's story. According to Bakshi, "Rotoscoping is terrible for subtleties, so it was tough to get facial performances to match the stage ones." Bakshi was able to acquire the rights to an extensive soundtrack—including songs by Janis Joplin, The Doors, George Gershwin, The Mamas & the Papas, Herbie Hancock, Lou Reed, and Louis Prima—for under \$1 million. Released on February 12, 1981, the film was a financial success. The New York Times' Vincent Canby wrote, "I'm amazed at the success that Mr. Bakshi has in turning animated characters into figures of real feelings." Jerry Beck called it "one of Bakshi's best films". Due to music clearance issues, it was not released on home video until 1998. By 1982, fantasy films such as The Beastmaster and Conan the Barbarian had proven successful at the box office, and Bakshi wanted to work with his long-time friend, the fantasy illustrator Frank Frazetta. Fire and Ice was financed by some of American Pop's investors for \$1.2 million, while 20th Century Fox agreed to distribute. Fire and Ice was the most action-oriented story Bakshi had directed, so he again used rotoscoping; the realism of the design and rotoscoped animation replicated Frazetta's artwork. Bakshi and Frazetta were heavily involved in the production of the live-action sequences, from casting sessions to the final shoot. The film's crew included background artists James Gurney and Thomas Kinkade, layout artist Peter Chung, and established Bakshi Productions artists Sparey, Steve Gordon, Bell and Banks. Chung greatly admired Bakshi's and Frazetta's work, and animated his sequences while working for The Walt Disney Company. The film was given a limited release, and was financially unsuccessful. Andrew Leal wrote, "The plot is standard [...] recalling nothing so much as a more graphic episode of Filmation's He-Man series. [...] Fire and Ice essentially stands as a footnote to the spate of barbarian films that followed in the wake of Arnold Schwarzenegger's appearance as Conan." ### Unproduced projects and temporary retirement (1983–1986) After production of Fire and Ice wrapped, Bakshi attempted several projects that fell through, including adaptations of Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, William Kotzwinkle's The Fan Man, E. R. Eddison's The Worm Ouroboros, Stephen Crane's Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer novels and an anthropomorphic depiction of Sherlock Holmes. He turned down offers to direct Ray Bradbury's Something Wicked This Way Comes and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?. He passed the latter to Ridley Scott, who adapted it into the 1982 film Blade Runner (although he was planning a TV version of said film). During this period, Bakshi reread J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, which he had first read in high school, and saw parallels between his situation and that of the book's protagonist, Holden Caulfield. Inspired to seek the film rights, he intended to shoot the story's bracketing sequences in live action and to animate the core flashback scenes. Salinger had rejected previous offers to adapt the novel, and had not made a public appearance since 1965 or granted an interview since 1980. Bakshi sent Salinger a letter explaining why he should be allowed to adapt the novel; the writer responded by thanking Bakshi and asserting that the novel was unfit for any medium other than its original form. Prompted in part by Salinger's letter, Bakshi briefly retired to focus on painting. During this time he completed the screenplay for If I Catch Her, I'll Kill Her, a live-action feature he had been developing since the late 1960s. United Artists and Paramount Pictures each paid Bakshi to develop the film in the 1970s, but were unwilling to produce it, as were the studios he pitched the film to in the 1980s. According to Bakshi, "They thought that no one was going to admit that women can—and do—cheat on their husbands. They thought it was too hot, which made no sense." In 1985, he received a phone call from The Rolling Stones' manager, Tony King, who told Bakshi that the band had recorded a cover of Bob & Earl's "Harlem Shuffle", and wanted Bakshi to direct the music video. He was told that the live-action shoot needed to be completed within one day (January 28, 1986) for it to be shown at the Grammy Awards. Production designer Wolf Kroeger was forced to drastically compact his sets, and animation director and designer John Kricfalusi had to push his team, including Lynne Naylor, Jim Smith and Bob Jaques, to complete the animation within a few weeks. The band's arrival at the set was delayed by a snowstorm and several takes were ruined when the cameras crossed paths. Bakshi was forced to pay the union wages out of his own fees, and the continuity between Kricfalusi's animation and the live-action footage did not match; however, the video was completed on time. Bakshi recognized Kricfalusi's talent, and wanted to put him in charge of a project that would showcase the young animator's skills. Bakshi and Kricfalusi co-wrote the screenplay Bobby's Girl as a take on the teen films of the era. Jeff Sagansky, president of production at TriStar Pictures, put up \$150,000 to develop the project, prompting Bakshi to move back to Los Angeles. When Sagansky left TriStar, Bakshi was forced to pitch the film again, but the studio's new executives did not understand its appeal and cut off financing. Bakshi and Zingarelli began to develop a feature about Hollywood's Golden Age, and Bakshi Productions crewmembers worked on proposed cartoons influenced by pulp fiction. Bobby's Girl was reworked as a potential prime time series called Suzy's in Love, but attracted no serious interest. They would try again in 2003 over at Spümcø, but nothing came from this either. ### Return to television (1987–1989) In April 1987, Bakshi set up a meeting with Judy Price, the head of CBS's Saturday morning block. Three days before the meeting, Bakshi, Kricfalusi, Naylor, Tom Minton, Eddie Fitzgerald and Jim Reardon met to brainstorm. Bakshi remembers, "My car was packed to the windows. Judy was my last stop before driving cross country back to New York to my family." Price rejected Bakshi's prepared pitches, but asked what else he had. He told her that he had the rights to Mighty Mouse, and she agreed to purchase the series. However, Bakshi did not own the rights and did not know who did. While researching the rights, he learned that CBS had acquired the entire Terrytoons library in 1955 and forgotten about it. According to Bakshi, "I sold them a show they already owned, so they just gave me the rights for nothin'!" Kricfalusi's team wrote story outlines for thirteen episodes in a week and pitched them to Price. By the next week, Kricfalusi had hired animators he knew who had been working at other studios. Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures went into production the month it was greenlighted; it was scheduled to premiere on September 19, 1987. This haste required the crew to be split into four teams, led by supervising director Kricfalusi, Fitzgerald, Steve Gordon and Bruce Woodside. Each team was given a handful of episodes, and operated almost entirely independently of the others. Although the scripts required approval by CBS executives, Kricfalusi insisted that the artists add visual gags as they drew. Bruce Timm, Andrew Stanton, Dave Marshall and Jeff Pidgeon were among the artists who worked on the series. Despite the time constraints, CBS was pleased with the way Bakshi Productions addressed the network's notes. During the production of the episode "The Littlest Tramp", editor Tom Klein expressed concern that a sequence showing Mighty Mouse sniffing the remains of a crushed flower resembled cocaine use. Bakshi did not initially view the footage; he believed that Klein was overreacting, but agreed to let him cut the scene. Kricfalusi expressed disbelief over the cut, insisting that the action was harmless and that the sequence should be restored. Following Kricfalusi's advice, Bakshi told Klein to restore the scene, which had been approved by network executives and the CBS standards and practices department. The episode aired on October 31, 1987, without controversy. In 1988, Bakshi received an Annie Award for "Distinguished Contribution to the Art of Animation". The same year, he began production on a series pilot loosely adapted from his Junktown comic strips. According to Bakshi, the proposed series "was going to be a revitalization of cartoon style from the '20s and '30s. It was gonna have Duke Ellington and Fats Waller jazzing up the soundtrack." Nickelodeon was initially willing to greenlight 39 episodes of Junktown. On June 6, 1988, Donald Wildmon, head of the American Family Association (AFA), alleged that "The Littlest Tramp" depicted cocaine use, instigating a media frenzy. The AFA, during its incarnation as the National Federation for Decency, had previously targeted CBS as an "accessory to murder" after a mother killed her daughter following an airing of Exorcist II: The Heretic. Concerning Bakshi's involvement with Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures, the AFA claimed that CBS "intentionally hired a known pornographer to do a cartoon for children, and then allowed him to insert a scene in which the cartoon hero is shown sniffing cocaine." Bakshi responded, "You could pick a still out of Lady and the Tramp and get the same impression. Fritz the Cat wasn't pornography. It was social commentary. This all smacks of burning books and the Third Reich. It smacks of McCarthyism. I'm not going to get into who sniffs what. This is lunacy!" On CBS's order, Klein removed the sequence from the master broadcast footage. Wildmon claimed that the edits were "a de facto admission that, indeed, Mighty Mouse was snorting cocaine". Despite receiving an award from Action for Children's Television, favorable reviews, and a ranking in Time magazine's "Best of '87" feature, Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures was canceled by CBS following the controversy. The incident had a ripple effect, weakening Nickelodeon's commitment to Junktown. Bakshi has also stated that "we were trying something different [...] but a series didn't make sense. It just didn't work". The series was scrapped, and the completed pilot aired as a special, Christmas in Tattertown, in December 1988. It was the first original animated special created for Nickelodeon. Bakshi moved into a warehouse loft in downtown Los Angeles to clear his head, and was offered \$50,000 to direct a half-hour live-action film for PBS's Imagining America anthology series. Mark Bakshi produced the film, This Ain't Bebop, his first professional collaboration with his father. Bakshi wrote a poem influenced by Jack Kerouac, jazz, the Beat Generation and Brooklyn that served as the narration, which was spoken by Harvey Keitel. After a car crash, Bakshi completed the post-production in stitches and casts. Bakshi said of the work, "It's the most proud I've been of a picture since Coonskin—the last real thing I did with total integrity." As a result of the film, Bakshi received an offer to adapt Dr. Seuss's The Butter Battle Book for TNT. Ted Geisel had never been satisfied with the previous screen versions of his Dr. Seuss work. Bakshi wanted to produce an entirely faithful adaptation, and Geisel—who agreed to storyboard the special himself—was pleased with the final product. Bakshi next directed the pilot Hound Town for NBC; he described the result as "an embarrassing piece of shit". Besides Bakshi, sitcom alumnus Rob Sternin and Prudence Fraser wrote and produced the project. ### Cool World, continued television projects and semi-retirement (1990–1997) In 1990, Bakshi pitched Cool World to Paramount Pictures as a partially animated horror film. The concept involved a cartoon and human having sex and conceiving a hybrid child who visits the real world to murder the father who abandoned him. The live-action footage was intended to look like "a living, walk-through painting", a visual concept Bakshi had long wanted to achieve. Massive sets were constructed on a sound stage in Las Vegas, based on enlargements of designer Barry Jackson's paintings. The animation was strongly influenced by the house styles of Fleischer Studios and Terrytoons. As the sets were being built, producer Frank Mancuso Jr., son of Paramount president Frank Mancuso Sr., had the screenplay rewritten in secret; the new version, by Michael Grais and Mark Victor, was radically different from Bakshi's original. Paramount threatened to sue Bakshi if he did not complete the film. As Bakshi and Mancuso wrangled over their creative differences, Bakshi and the studio also began to fight over the film's casting. To keep actor Brad Pitt, Bakshi had to replace Drew Barrymore, his original choice for the character of Holli Would, with Kim Basinger, a bigger box office draw at the time. The film's animators were never given a screenplay, and were instead told by Bakshi, "Do a scene that's funny, whatever you want to do!" Designer Milton Knight recalled that "audiences actually wanted a wilder, raunchier Cool World. The premiere audience I saw it with certainly did." The critical reaction to the film was generally negative. Roger Ebert wrote, "The DJ who was hosting the radio station's free preview of Cool World leaped onto the stage and promised the audience: 'If you liked Roger Rabbit, you'll love Cool World!' He was wrong, but you can't blame him—he hadn't seen the movie. I have, and I will now promise you that if you liked Roger Rabbit, quit while you're ahead." The film was a box-office disappointment. While other film projects followed, Bakshi began to focus more attention on painting. In 1993, Lou Arkoff, the son of Samuel Z. Arkoff, approached Bakshi to write and direct a low-budget live-action feature for Showtime's Rebel Highway series. For the third time, Bakshi revisited his screenplay for If I Catch Her, I'll Kill Her, which he retitled Cool and the Crazy. The picture, which aired September 16, 1994, starred Jared Leto, Alicia Silverstone, Jennifer Blanc and Matthew Flint. Reviewer Todd Everett noted that it had the same "hyperdrive visual sense" of Bakshi's animated films. He said, "Everything in 'Cool' [...] seems to exist in pastels and Bakshi shoots from more odd angles than any director since Sidney J. Furie in his heyday. And the closing sequences ably demonstrate how it's possible to present strong violence without any blood being shed onscreen. Bakshi pulls strong [performances] from a cadre of youngish and largely unknown actors". In 1995, Hanna-Barbera producer Fred Seibert offered Bakshi the chance to create two animated short films for Cartoon Network's What a Cartoon!: Malcom and Melvin and Babe, He Calls Me, focusing on a trumpet-playing cockroach named Malcom and his best friend, a clown named Melvin. Both were heavily edited after Bakshi turned them in and he disowned them as a result. Bakshi was subsequently contacted by HBO, which was looking to launch the first animated series specifically for adults, an interest stirred by discussions involving a series based upon Trey Parker and Matt Stone's video Christmas card, Jesus vs. Santa. Bakshi enlisted a team of writers, including his son Preston, to develop Spicy Detective, later renamed Spicy City, an anthology series set in a noir-ish, technology-driven future. Each episode was narrated by a female host named Raven, voiced by Michelle Phillips. The series premiered in July 1997—one month before the debut of Parker and Stone's South Park—and thus became the first "adults only" cartoon series. Although critical reaction was largely unfavorable, Spicy City received acceptable ratings. A second season was approved, but the network wanted to fire Bakshi's writing team and hire professional Los Angeles screenwriters. When Bakshi refused to cooperate, the series was canceled. ### Painting, teaching and new animation projects (1997–2013) Bakshi retired from animation once more, returning to his painting. In 2000, he began teaching an undergraduate animation class at New York's School of Visual Arts. On December 14, 2001, he did some paintings for the Cameron Crowe film Vanilla Sky. He later became involved in several screen projects, including a development deal with the Sci Fi Channel, In September 2002, Bakshi, Liz and their dogs moved to New Mexico, where he became more productive than ever in his painting and began development on the Last Days of Coney Island film. In 2003, he appeared as the Fire Chief in the episode "Fire Dogs 2" of John Kricfalusi's Ren & Stimpy "Adult Party Cartoon"; the episode starts as a repeat of the plot of the original episode, only to quickly drop it just under a minute in, as the Chief's appearance suddenly transforms into that of Bakshi and the episode instead revolves around the pair living with the Chief. In September 2008, Main Street Pictures announced that it would collaborate with Bakshi on a sequel to Wizards. In 2012, Bakshi began producing the short film series Bakshi Blues. The first of these shorts, Trickle Dickle Down, contains reused animation from Coonskin and criticizes 2012 Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney. The shorts were to focus on "old and new characters" and comment on modern-day America. ### Last Days of Coney Island (2013–2016) In February 2013, Bakshi launched a successful Kickstarter campaign to obtain funding for his latest film, Last Days of Coney Island. Actor Matthew Modine was cast in the film in February 2013 after Modine, a longtime Bakshi fan, came across the film's Kickstarter campaign online. Last Days of Coney Island was released on Vimeo in 2015. Bakshi released the film for free on YouTube on 13 October 2016. ### Post-animation (2015–present) After he quit the animation industry, Bakshi did multiple interviews with the media and on podcasts. He continues to sell art on eBay and his website, both run by the Bakshi family. He currently sells an art series called Little Guys and Gals, which are fictional portraits of cartoon people. The series originated in November 2020 as random character sketches and officially began in January 2021, originally calling the series Little Gals and Little Guys. Bakshi appeared as a guest at a Canadian film festival which celebrates animation, SPARK Animation, which was held virtually, from October 28 to November 7, 2021. ## Accolades In 2003 Bakshi received a Maverick Tribute Award at the Cinequest San Jose Film Festival; the same year he began teaching an animation class in New Mexico – this became The Bakshi School of Animation and Cartooning, which is run by Ralph's son Edward and his partner Jess Gorell. The Online Film Critics Society released a list of the "Top 100 Animated Features of All Time" in March 2003 that included four of Bakshi's films: Fritz the Cat, The Lord of the Rings, Coonskin and Fire and Ice. Fritz the Cat was ranked number 56 in the 2004 poll conducted by Britain's Channel 4 for its documentary The 100 Greatest Cartoons. The Museum of Modern Art has added Bakshi's films to its collection for preservation. In the 1980s and 1990s he served on the advisory board of the Los Angeles Student Film Institute. In 2021, Ralph Bakshi won the Animafest Zagreb Lifetime Achievement Award for his animation career and the impact of his films. ## Legacy The availability of Bakshi's work on the Internet sparked a resurgence of interest in his career, resulting in a three-day American Cinematheque retrospective held at Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood and the Aero Theater in Santa Monica, California, in April 2005. Unfiltered: The Complete Ralph Bakshi, a hardcover book of Bakshi's art, was released on April 1, 2008. The foreword was written by Quentin Tarantino and the afterword by Bakshi. His rotoscoping techniques in Lord of the Rings inspired the animation rotoscoping techniques of the independent film The Spine of Night in which the animator developed his own rotoscope style by watching behind-the-scenes footage of Bakshi's warehouse and reverse-engineering it. Billie Eilish had the idea for an animated version of herself for her in the concert film Happier Than Ever: A Love Letter to Los Angeles (which is a promotion for the album of the same name) and suggested to director Patrick Osborne that the character should have a 1980s look and rotoscope-ish animation. Eilish referenced the works of Bakshi and animator Richard Williams to him. Gore Verbinski commented about Bakshi and showed that he was inspired by him during an interview in The Hollywood Reporter for his first animated movie, Rango, saying: "What happened to the Ralph Bakshis of the world? We're all sitting here talking family entertainment. Does animation have to be family entertainment? Audiences want something new; they just can't articulate what." On January 12, 2014, at The Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood, there was a special screening of Bakshi's film American Pop with actors Ron Thompson and Mews Small in attendance, it was the first time lead actor Ron Thompson had ever introduced the film before a live audience. At the Aero Theatre in Santa Monica, California, on March 27, 2015, there was a screening of Heavy Traffic and American Pop with Bakshi, Ron Thompson and Mews Small attending. From February 17th to February 26th of 2023, Bakshi's entire theatrical filmography was screened in Tinkerbell Cinema, which is located in Woodstock, NY. Fritz the Cat has also been called an animated art film. ## Filmography ### Films <table> <thead> <tr class="header"> <th><p>Year</p></th> <th><p>Film</p></th> <th><p>Director</p></th> <th><p>Writer</p></th> <th><p>Producer</p></th> <th><p>Actor</p></th> <th><p>Role</p></th> <th><p>Notes</p></th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>1972</p></td> <td><p>Fritz the Cat</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><p>Pig Cop No. 1</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>1973</p></td> <td><p>Heavy Traffic</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><p>Various</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>1975</p></td> <td><p>Coonskin</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><p>Cop with megaphone</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>1977</p></td> <td><p>Wizards</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><p>Fritz<br /> Storm Trooper</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>1978</p></td> <td><p>The Lord of the Rings</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>1981</p></td> <td><p>American Pop</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><p>Piano Player</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>1982</p></td> <td><p>Hey Good Lookin</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>1983</p></td> <td><p>Fire and Ice</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>1992</p></td> <td><p>Cool World</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>2015</p></td> <td><p>Last Days of Coney Island</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><p>Short film<br /> Also animator and background artist</p></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> ### Television `I Selected episodes` ` II Provided the voices of Connelly and Goldblum in the episode "Sex Drive", and Stevie in the episode "Mano's Hands"` ` III Provided the voice of the Super Hero` ` IV Animated in conjunction with Doug Compton` ` V Provided the voice of Fire Chief in the episode "Fire Dogs 2"` ## Releases and ratings \| Title \| Release date \| Distribution \| Rating''' \| \|-----------------------\|-------------------\|---------------------------------\|--------------------------------\| \| Fritz the Cat \| April 12, 1972 \| Cinemation Industries \| X (rating surrendered in 2001) \| \| Heavy Traffic \| August 8, 1973 \| American International Pictures \| X (re-rated R) \| \| Coonskin \| August 20, 1975 \| Bryanston Distributing Company \| R \| \| Wizards \| February 9, 1977 \| 20th Century Fox \| PG \| \| The Lord of the Rings \| November 15, 1978 \| United Artists \| \| \| American Pop \| February 13, 1981 \| Columbia Pictures \| R \| \| Hey Good Lookin \| October 1, 1982 \| Warner Bros. Pictures \| \| \| Fire and Ice \| August 26, 1983 \| 20th Century Fox \| PG \| \| Cool World \| July 10, 1992 \| Paramount Pictures \| PG-13 \| ## See also - Heavy Metal - Ron Thompson - John Kricfalusi - Katsuhiro Otomo - Rock & Rule - Independent animation - New Hollywood
51,984,658	San Marino in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017	1,143,717,436	null	[ "2017 in San Marino", "Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017", "San Marino in the Eurovision Song Contest" ]	San Marino participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017, held in Kyiv, Ukraine. The Sammarinese national broadcaster Radiotelevisione della Repubblica di San Marino (SMRTV) internally selected Sammarinese singer Valentina Monetta and American singer Jimmie Wilson with "Spirit of the Night" to represent the nation in the contest. Monetta had previously represented San Marino as a solo artist on three previous occasions. The 2017 entry in the Eurovision Song Contest was promoted through the creation of a music video and promotional performances in Tel Aviv, Amsterdam and Madrid. San Marino performed 10th in the second semi-final, held on 11 May 2017, and placed 18th with one point, failing to qualify for the final. ## Background Prior to the 2017 contest, San Marino had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest seven times since their first entry in 2008. The nation's debut entry in the 2008 contest, "Complice" performed by Miodio, failed to qualify for the final and placed last in the semi-final it competed in. San Marino subsequently did not participate in both the and contests, citing financial difficulties. They returned in with Italian singer Senit performing "Stand By", which also failed to take the nation to the final. From 2012 to 2014, San Marino sent Valentina Monetta to the contest on three consecutive occasions, which made her the first singer to participate in three consecutive contests since Udo Jürgens, who competed in 1964, 1965 and 1966 for Austria. Monetta's entries in ("The Social Network Song") and ("Crisalide (Vola)") also failed to qualify San Marino to the final, however in , she managed to bring the nation to the final for the first time with "Maybe", placing 24th. This marked their best placing to this point. The nation's next two entries, "Chain of Lights" performed by Anita Simoncini and Michele Perniola for and "I Didn't Know" by Serhat for , did not qualify for the final. On 31 October 2016, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) included San Marino in their list of the 43 countries that had signed up to partake in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017. The nation opted to internally select their entry for the contest. ## Before Eurovision ### Internal selection On 7 March 2017, Radiotelevisione della Repubblica di San Marino (SMRTV) director general Carlo Romeo announced that San Marino would be represented by two singers: one from inside the European Union and one from outside of it. Five days later, SMRTV held a press conference where they announced that they had internally selected the song "Spirit of the Night" to be performed by Valentina Monetta and Jimmie Wilson. Monetta had previously represented San Marino in , and , while Wilson, originally of the United States, had first come to Europe to star in Michael Jackson's musical Sisterella. "Spirit of the Night" was written and composed by Ralph Siegel, who had written all of the entries of San Marino from 2012 through to 2015. The lyrics are by Steven Barnacle and Jutta Staudenmayer. In December 2016, prior to the announcement of the selected entrants, Italian singer Tony Maiello claimed through a Facebook post that he had been approached to represent the nation if he paid 500,000 euros for promotion; costs he described as illegal. The claim prompted an official response from SMRTV, who explained that neither they nor someone on their behalf had contacted Maiello regarding any potential participation. In an article about the incident, Eurofestival News wrote that cost sharing between the broadcaster, artist and record label is common practice as the selected artist benefits from the publicity afforded to them by participating. Italian singer Arisa also later revealed that she had been approached to represent the nation; however, her costs were quoted at 300,000 euros, which her record label was unwilling to pay. ### Promotion To promote the entry, a music video for "Spirit of the Night" was filmed at the nightclub P1 in Munich. The video, along with an accompanying "making of" clip, was filmed by Siegel's daughter Alana and presented to the public during a press event on 24 March 2017 at the Grand Hotel San Marino. In the following weeks, Monetta and Wilson made several appearances across Europe to specifically promote "Spirit of the Night" as the Sammarinese Eurovision entry. Between 3 and 6 April, they took part in promotional activities in Tel Aviv, Israel where they performed the song during the Israel Calling event held at the Ha'teatron venue. On 8 April 2017, the two performed during the ninth annual edition of Eurovision in Concert which was held at the club Melkweg in Amsterdam, Netherlands and hosted by Cornald Maas and Selma Björnsdóttir. A week later, they performed during the Eurovision Spain Pre-Party, which was held at the Sala La Riviera venue in Madrid, Spain. ## At Eurovision The Eurovision Song Contest 2017 took place at the International Exhibition Centre in Kyiv, Ukraine. It consisted of two semi-finals held on 9 and 11 May, respectively, and the final on 13 May 2017. All nations with the exceptions of the host country and the "Big Five", consisting of , , , and the , were required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top 10 countries from each semi-final progress to the final. Semi-finalists were allocated into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests as determined by the contest's televoting partner Digame, with the aim of reducing the chance of neighbourly voting between countries while also increasing suspense during the voting process. On 31 January 2017, an allocation draw was held which placed each country into one of the two semi-finals and determined which half of the show they would perform in. San Marino was placed into the second semi-final, to be held on 11 May 2017, and was scheduled to perform in the second half of the show. Once all the competing songs for the 2017 contest had been released, the running order for the semi-finals was decided by the shows' producers rather than through another draw, so that similar songs were not placed next to each other. Originally, San Marino was set to perform in position 11, following the entry from Ireland and preceding the entry from Croatia. However, following Russia's withdrawal from the contest on 13 April 2017 and subsequent removal from the running order of the second semi-final, San Marino's performing position shifted to 10. The two semi-finals and the final were broadcast in San Marino on San Marino RTV and Radio San Marino with commentary by Lia Fiorio and Gigi Restivo. Fiorio and Restivo also served as the Sammarinese spokespersons, who announced the top 12-point scores awarded by the Sammarinese jury during the final. ### Semi-final Monetta and Wilson took part in respective dress rehearsals on 3 and 6 May followed by the jury show on 10 May 2017, where the professional juries of each country watched and voted on the competing entries. The Sammarinese performance featured Monetta wearing a black and white outfit and Wilson dressed in all black. They were joined by three backing vocalists on stage, while colourful disco-themed neon LED screens surrounded them. Sammarinese Head of Delegation Alessandro Capicchioni described the style of the performance to be a simple choreography reminiscent of a live concert. At the end of the show, San Marino was not announced among the top 10 entries in the second semi-final and therefore failed to qualify to compete in the final. It was later revealed that San Marino placed 18th in the semi-final, receiving no points from the juries and one point from the German televote. ### Voting Below is a breakdown of points awarded to San Marino and awarded by San Marino in the second semi-final and the final of the contest, respectively, and the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the two shows. #### Points awarded to San Marino In the second semi-final, San Marino received one point in the televote from Germany; they received no points from the jury. #### Points awarded by San Marino #### Detailed voting results The following members comprised the Sammarinese jury: - Fabrizio Raggi – artist - Roberto Fabbri – guitarist (jury member in semi-final 2) - Monica Sarti – soprano singer - Doriano Pazzini – singer, guitarist - Susanna Sacchi – singer - Elia Conti – trumpet player (jury member in the final)
30,327	The Terminator	1,169,778,712	1984 science fiction film	[ "1980s American films", "1980s English-language films", "1980s science fiction action films", "1984 films", "1984 independent films", "American chase films", "American dystopian films", "American independent films", "American post-apocalyptic films", "American science fiction action films", "Cyborg films", "Drone films", "Fictional portrayals of the Los Angeles Police Department", "Films about technological impact", "Films about time travel", "Films about violence against women", "Films directed by James Cameron", "Films involved in plagiarism controversies", "Films produced by Gale Anne Hurd", "Films scored by Brad Fiedel", "Films set in 1984", "Films set in 2029", "Films set in Los Angeles", "Films set in the future", "Films shot from the first-person perspective", "Films shot in Los Angeles", "Films using stop-motion animation", "Films with screenplays by Gale Anne Hurd", "Films with screenplays by James Cameron", "Orion Pictures films", "Terminator (franchise) films", "United States National Film Registry films" ]	The Terminator is a 1984 American science fiction action film directed by James Cameron. It stars Arnold Schwarzenegger as the Terminator, a cybernetic assassin sent back in time from 2029 to 1984 to kill Sarah Connor (Linda Hamilton), whose unborn son will one day save mankind from extinction by Skynet, a hostile artificial intelligence in a post-apocalyptic future. Kyle Reese (Michael Biehn) is a soldier sent back in time to protect Sarah. The screenplay is credited to Cameron and producer Gale Anne Hurd, while co-writer William Wisher Jr. received an "additional dialogue" credit. Cameron devised the premise of the film from a fever dream he experienced during the release of his first film, Piranha II: The Spawning (1982), in Rome, and developed the concept in collaboration with Wisher. He sold the rights to the project to fellow New World Pictures alumna Hurd on the condition that she would produce the film only if he were to direct it; Hurd eventually secured a distribution deal with Orion Pictures, while executive producers John Daly and Derek Gibson of Hemdale Film Corporation were instrumental in setting up the film's financing and production. Originally approached by Orion for the role of Reese, Schwarzenegger agreed to play the title character after befriending Cameron. Filming, which took place mostly at night on location in Los Angeles, was delayed because of Schwarzenegger's commitments to Conan the Destroyer (1984), during which Cameron found time to work on the scripts for Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985) and Aliens (1986). The film's special effects, which included miniatures and stop-motion animation, were created by a team of artists led by Stan Winston and Gene Warren Jr. Defying low pre-release expectations, The Terminator topped the United States box office for two weeks, eventually grossing \$78.3 million against a modest \$6.4 million budget. It is credited with launching Cameron's film career and solidifying Schwarzenegger's status as a leading man. The film's success led to a franchise consisting of several sequels, a television series, comic books, novels and video games. In 2008, The Terminator was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. ## Plot Two men arrive separately in 1984 Los Angeles, having time traveled from 2029. One is a cybernetic assassin known as a Terminator, programmed to hunt and kill a woman named Sarah Connor. The other is a human soldier named Kyle Reese, intent on stopping it. They both steal guns and clothing. The Terminator systematically kills women bearing its target's name, having found their addresses in a telephone directory. It tracks the last Sarah Connor, its actual target, to a nightclub, but Reese rescues her. The pair steal a car and escape, with the Terminator pursuing them in a stolen police car. As they hide in a parking lot, Reese explains to Sarah that an artificially intelligent defense network known as Skynet, created by Cyberdyne Systems, will become self-aware in the near future and trigger a global nuclear war to exterminate the human species. Sarah's future son (John Connor) will rally the survivors and lead a successful resistance movement against Skynet and its army of machines. On the verge of the resistance's victory, Skynet sent the Terminator back in time to kill Sarah and prevent John from being born. The Terminator is an efficient and relentless killing machine with a perfect voice-mimicking ability and a durable metal endoskeleton covered by living tissue that disguises it as a human. Police apprehend Reese and Sarah after another encounter with the Terminator. It attacks the police station, killing police officers while hunting for Sarah. Reese and Sarah escape, steal another car, and take refuge in a motel, where they assemble several pipe bombs and plan their next move. Reese admits that he has adored Sarah since he saw her in a photograph John gave him and that he traveled through time out of love for her. Reciprocating his feelings, Sarah kisses him and they have sex, conceiving John. The Terminator locates Sarah by intercepting a call intended for her mother. She and Reese escape the motel in a pickup while it pursues them on a motorcycle. In the ensuing chase, Reese is badly wounded by gunfire while throwing pipe bombs at the Terminator. Sarah knocks the Terminator off its motorcycle but loses control of the truck, which flips over. The Terminator, now bloodied and badly damaged, hijacks a tank truck and attempts to run down Sarah, but Reese slides a pipe bomb into the tanker's hose tube, causing a giant explosion that burns all the flesh from the Terminator's endoskeleton. It pursues them into a factory, where Reese activates the machinery to confuse it. He jams his final pipe bomb into its midsection, blowing it apart at the cost of his life. Its still-functional torso grabs Sarah, but she breaks free and lures it into a hydraulic press, crushing and finally destroying it. Months later, Sarah, pregnant with John, travels through Mexico, recording audio tapes to pass on to him. At a gas station, a boy takes a polaroid picture of her, and she buys it. It is the exact photograph that John will one day give to Reese. ## Cast - Arnold Schwarzenegger as the Terminator, a cybernetic android disguised as a human being sent back in time to assassinate Sarah Connor. - Michael Biehn as Kyle Reese, a human Resistance fighter sent back in time to protect Sarah. - Linda Hamilton as Sarah Connor, a young diner waitress and the Terminator's target, who is soon to be the mother of the future Resistance leader John Connor. - Paul Winfield as Ed Traxler, a police lieutenant who tries to protect Sarah. - Lance Henriksen as Vukovich, a member of the LAPD. - Bess Motta as Ginger, Sarah's roommate who the T-800 murders after mistaking her for Sarah. - Rick Rossovich as Matt, Ginger's boyfriend whom the T-800 also murdered. - Earl Boen as Dr. Silberman, a criminal psychologist. Additional actors included Shawn Schepps as Nancy, Sarah's co-worker at the diner; Dick Miller as a gun shop clerk; professional bodybuilder Franco Columbu as a Terminator in the future; Bill Paxton and Brian Thompson as punks whom the Terminator confronts and kills; Marianne Muellerleile as one of the other women with the name "Sarah Connor" whom the Terminator shoots; Rick Aiello as a bouncer at Tech-Noir; and Bill Wisher as the police officer who reports a hit-and-run felony on Reese, only to be knocked unconscious and have his car stolen by the Terminator soon thereafter. ## Production ### Development In Rome, Italy, during the release of Piranha II: The Spawning (1982), director Cameron fell ill and had a dream about a metallic torso holding kitchen knives dragging itself from an explosion. Inspired by director John Carpenter, who had made the slasher film Halloween (1978) on a low budget, Cameron used the dream as a "launching pad" to write a slasher-style film. Cameron's agent disliked the early concept of the horror film and requested that he work on something else. After this, Cameron dismissed his agent. Cameron returned to Pomona, California, and stayed at the home of science fiction writer Randall Frakes, where he wrote the draft for The Terminator. Cameron's influences included 1950s science fiction films, the 1960s fantasy television series The Outer Limits, and contemporary films such as The Driver (1978) and Mad Max 2 (1981). To translate the draft into a script, Cameron enlisted his friend Bill Wisher, who had a similar approach to storytelling. Cameron gave Wisher scenes involving Sarah Connor and the police department to write. As Wisher lived far from Cameron, the two communicated ideas by recording tapes of what they wrote by telephone. Frakes and Wisher would later write the US-released novelization of the movie. The initial outline of the script involved two Terminators being sent to the past. The first was similar to the Terminator in the film, while the second was made of liquid metal and could not be destroyed with conventional weaponry. Cameron felt that the technology of the time was unable to create the liquid Terminator, and shelved the idea until the appearance of the T-1000 character in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991). Gale Anne Hurd, who had worked at New World Pictures as Roger Corman's assistant, showed interest in the project. Cameron sold the rights for The Terminator to Hurd for one dollar with the promise that she would produce it only if Cameron was to direct it. Hurd suggested edits to the script and took a screenwriting credit in the film, though Cameron stated that she "did no actual writing at all". Cameron would later regret the decision to sell the rights for one dollar. Cameron and Hurd had friends who worked with Corman previously and who were working at Orion Pictures (now part of MGM). Orion agreed to distribute the film if Cameron could get financial backing elsewhere. The script was picked up by John Daly, chairman and president of Hemdale Film Corporation. Daly and his executive vice president and head of production Derek Gibson became executive producers of the project. Cameron wanted his pitch for Daly to finalize the deal and had his friend Lance Henriksen show up to the meeting early dressed and acting like the Terminator. Henriksen, wearing a leather jacket, fake cuts on his face, and gold foil on his teeth, kicked open the door to the office and then sat in a chair. Cameron arrived shortly and then relieved the staff from Henriksen's act. Daly was impressed by the screenplay and Cameron's sketches and passion for the film. In late 1982, Daly agreed to back the film with help from HBO and Orion. The Terminator was originally budgeted at \$4 million and later raised to \$6.5 million. Aside from Hemdale, Pacific Western Productions, Euro Film Funding and Cinema '84 have been credited as production companies after the film's release. ### Casting For the role of Kyle Reese, Orion wanted a star whose popularity was rising in the United States but who also would have foreign appeal. Orion co-founder Mike Medavoy had met Arnold Schwarzenegger and sent his agent the script for The Terminator. Cameron was uncertain about casting Schwarzenegger as Reese as he felt he would need someone even more famous to play the Terminator. Sylvester Stallone and Mel Gibson both turned down the Terminator role. The studio suggested O. J. Simpson but Cameron did not feel that Simpson, at that time, would be believable as a killer. Cameron agreed to meet with Schwarzenegger and devised a plan to avoid casting him; he would pick a fight with him and return to Hemdale and find him unfit for the role. However, Cameron was entertained by Schwarzenegger, who would talk about how the villain should be played. Cameron began sketching his face on a notepad and asked Schwarzenegger to stop talking and remain still. After the meeting, Cameron returned to Daly saying Schwarzenegger would not play Reese but that "he'd make a hell of a Terminator". Schwarzenegger was not as excited by the film; during an interview on the set of Conan the Destroyer, an interviewer asked him about a pair of shoes he had, which belonged to the wardrobe for The Terminator. Schwarzenegger responded, "Oh, some shit movie I'm doing, take a couple weeks." He recounted in his memoir, Total Recall, that he was initially hesitant, but thought that playing a robot in a contemporary film would be a challenging change of pace from Conan the Barbarian and that the film was low-profile enough that it would not damage his career if it were unsuccessful. In a later interview with GQ Magazine, he admitted that he and the studio regarded it as just another B action movie, since "The year before came out Exterminator, now it was the Terminator and what else is gonna be next, type of thing". It was only when he saw 20 minutes of the first edit did he realize that "this is really intense, this is wild, I don't think I've ever seen anything like this before" and realized that "this could be bigger than we all think". To prepare for the role, Schwarzenegger spent three months training with weapons to be able to use them and feel comfortable around them. Schwarzenegger speaks only 17 lines in the film, and fewer than 100 words. Cameron said that "Somehow, even his accent worked ... It had a strange synthesized quality, like they hadn't gotten the voice thing quite worked out." Various other actors were suggested for the role of Reese, including rock musician Sting. Cameron met with Sting, but he was not interested as Cameron was too much an unknown director at the time. Others who were considered for Reese included Christopher Reeve, Matt Dillon, Kurt Russell, Treat Williams, Tommy Lee Jones, Scott Glenn, Michael O'Keefe, and Bruce Springsteen. Cameron chose Michael Biehn. Biehn, who had recently seen Taxi Driver and had aspirations about acting alongside the likes of Al Pacino, Robert De Niro, and Robert Redford, was originally skeptical, feeling the film was silly. After meeting with Cameron, Biehn changed his mind. Hurd stated that "almost everyone else who came in from the audition was so tough that you just never believed that there was gonna be this human connection between Sarah Connor and Kyle Reese. They have very little time to fall in love. A lot of people came in and just could not pull it off." To get into Reese's character, Biehn studied the Polish resistance movement in World War II. In the first pages of the script, Sarah Connor is described as "19, small and delicate features. Pretty in a flawed, accessible way. She doesn't stop the party when she walks in, but you'd like to get to know her. Her vulnerable quality masks a strength even she doesn't know exists." Lisa Langlois was offered the role but turned it down as she was already shooting The Slugger's Wife. Jennifer Jason Leigh, Melissa Sue Anderson, and Jessica Harper were also considered for the role of Sarah Connor. Cameron cast Linda Hamilton, who had just finished filming Children of the Corn. Rosanna Arquette and Lea Thompson also auditioned for the role. Cameron found a role for Lance Henriksen as Vukovich, as Henriksen had been essential to finding finances for the film. For the special effects shots, Cameron wanted Dick Smith, who had worked on The Godfather and Taxi Driver. Smith did not take Cameron's offer and suggested his friend Stan Winston. ### Filming Filming for The Terminator was set to begin in early 1983 in Toronto, but was halted when producer Dino De Laurentiis applied an option in Schwarzenegger's contract that would make him unavailable for nine months while he was filming Conan the Destroyer. During the waiting period, Cameron was contracted to write the script for Rambo: First Blood Part II, refined the Terminator script, and met with producers David Giler and Walter Hill to discuss a sequel to Alien, which became Aliens, released in 1986. There was limited interference from Orion Pictures. Two suggestions Orion put forward included the addition of a canine android for Reese, which Cameron refused, and to strengthen the love interest between Sarah and Reese, which Cameron accepted. To create the Terminator's look, Winston and Cameron passed sketches back and forth, eventually deciding on a design nearly identical to Cameron's original drawing in Rome. Winston had a team of seven artists work for six months to create a Terminator puppet; it was first molded in clay, then plaster reinforced with steel ribbing. These pieces were then sanded, painted and then chrome-plated. Winston sculpted reproduction of Schwarzenegger's face in several poses out of silicone, clay and plaster. The sequences set in 2029 and the stop-motion scenes were developed by Fantasy II, a special effects company headed by Gene Warren Jr. A stop-motion model is used in several scenes in the film involving the Terminator's skeletal frame. Cameron wanted to convince the audience that the model of the structure was capable of doing what they saw Schwarzenegger doing. To allow this, a scene was filmed of Schwarzenegger injured and limping away; this limp made it easier for the model to imitate Schwarzenegger. One of the guns seen in the film and on the film's poster was an AMT Longslide pistol modified by Ed Reynolds from SureFire to include a laser sight. Both non-functioning and functioning versions of the prop were created. At the time the movie was made, diode lasers were not available; because of the high power requirement, the helium–neon laser in the sight used an external power supply that Schwarzenegger had to activate manually. Reynolds states that his only compensation for the project was promotional material for the film. In March 1984, the film began production in Los Angeles. Cameron felt that with Schwarzenegger on the set, the style of the film changed, explaining that "the movie took on a larger-than-life sheen. I just found myself on the set doing things I didn't think I would do – scenes that were just purely horrific that just couldn't be, because now they were too flamboyant." Most of The Terminator's action scenes were filmed at night, which led to tight filming schedules before sunrise. A week before filming started, Linda Hamilton sprained her ankle, leading to a production change whereby the scenes in which Hamilton needed to run occurred as late as the filming schedule allowed. Hamilton's ankle was taped every day and she spent most of the film production in pain. Schwarzenegger tried to have the iconic line "I'll be back" changed as he had difficulty pronouncing the word I'll. Cameron refused to change the line to "I will be back", so Schwarzenegger worked to say the line as written the best he could. He would later say the line in numerous films throughout his career. After production finished on The Terminator, some post-production shots were needed. These included scenes showing the Terminator outside Sarah Connor's apartment, Reese being zipped into a body bag, and the Terminator's head being crushed in a press. The final scene where Sarah is driving down a highway was filmed without a permit. Cameron and Hurd convinced an officer who confronted them that they were making a UCLA student film. ### Music The Terminator soundtrack was composed and performed on synthesizer by Brad Fiedel. Fiedel was with the Gorfaine/Schwartz Agency, where a new agent, Beth Donahue, found that Cameron was working on The Terminator and sent him a cassette of Fiedel's music. Fiedel was invited to a screening of the film with Cameron and Hurd. Hurd was not certain about having Fiedel compose the score, as he had only worked in television, not theatrical films. Fiedel convinced the two by showing them an experimental piece he had worked on, thinking that "You know, I'm going to play this for him because it's really dark and I think it's interesting for him." The song convinced Hurd and Cameron to hire him. Fiedel said his score reflected "a mechanical man and his heartbeat". Almost all the music was performed live. The Terminator theme is used in the opening credits and appears in various points, such as a slowed version when Reese dies, and a piano version during the love scene. It has been described as "haunting", with a "deceptively simple" melody recorded on a Prophet-10 synthesizer. It is in the unusual time signature of , which arose when Fiedel experimented with rhythms and accidentally created an incomplete loop on his sequencer; Fiedel liked the "herky-jerky" "propulsiveness". Fiedel created music for when Reese and Connor escape from the police station that would be appropriate for a "heroic moment". Cameron turned down this theme, as he believed it would lose the audience's excitement. ## Release Orion Pictures did not have faith in The Terminator performing well at the box office and feared a negative critical reception. At an early screening of the film, the actors' agents insisted to the producers that the film should be screened for critics. Orion only held one press screening for the film. The film premiered on October 26, 1984. On its opening week, The Terminator played at 1,005 theaters and grossed \$4.0 million making it number one in the box office. The film remained at number one in its second week. It lost its number one spot in the third week to Oh, God! You Devil. Cameron noted that The Terminator was a hit "relative to its market, which is between the summer and the Christmas blockbusters. But it's better to be a big fish in a small pond than the other way around." The Terminator grossed \$38.3 million in United States and Canada and \$40 million in other territories for a total worldwide of \$78.3 million. ## Critical response ### Contemporary Contemporary critical responses to The Terminator were mixed. Variety praised the film, calling it a "blazing, cinematic comic book, full of virtuoso moviemaking, terrific momentum, solid performances and a compelling story ... Schwarzenegger is perfectly cast in a machine-like portrayal that requires only a few lines of dialog." Richard Corliss of Time magazine said that the film had "plenty of tech-noir savvy to keep infidels and action fans satisfied." Time placed The Terminator on its "10 Best" list for 1984. The Los Angeles Times called the film "a crackling thriller full of all sorts of gory treats ... loaded with fuel-injected chase scenes, clever special effects and a sly humor." The Milwaukee Journal gave the film three stars, calling it "the most chilling science fiction thriller since Alien". A review in Orange Coast magazine stated that "the distinguishing virtue of The Terminator is its relentless tension. Right from the start it's all action and violence with no time taken to set up the story ... It's like a streamlined Dirty Harry movie – no exposition at all; just guns, guns and more guns." In the May 1985 issue of Cinefantastique it was referred to as a film that "manages to be both derivative and original at the same time ... not since The Road Warrior has the genre exhibited so much exuberant carnage" and "an example of science fiction/horror at its best ... Cameron's no-nonsense approach will make him a sought-after commodity". In the United Kingdom the Monthly Film Bulletin praised the film's script, special effects, design and Schwarzenegger's performance. Colin Greenland reviewed The Terminator for Imagine magazine, and stated that it was "a gripping sf horror movie". He continued, "Linda Hamilton is admirable as the woman in peril who discovers her own strength to survive, and Arnold Schwarzenegger is eerily wonderful as the unstoppable cyborg." Other reviews criticized the film's violence and story-telling quality. Janet Maslin of The New York Times opined that the film was a "B-movie with flair. Much of it ... has suspense and personality, and only the obligatory mayhem becomes dull. There is far too much of the latter, in the form of car chases, messy shootouts and Mr. Schwarzenegger's slamming brutally into anything that gets in his way." The Pittsburgh Press wrote a negative review, calling the film "just another of the films drenched in artsy ugliness like Streets of Fire and Blade Runner". The Chicago Tribune gave the film two stars, adding that "at times it's horrifyingly violent and suspenseful at others it giggles at itself. This schizoid style actually helps, providing a little humor just when the sci-fi plot turns too sluggish or the dialogue too hokey." The Newhouse News Service called the film a "lurid, violent, pretentious piece of claptrap". Scottish author Gilbert Adair called the film "repellent to the last degree", charging it with "insidious Nazification" and having an "appeal rooted in an unholy compound of fascism, fashion and fascination". ### Retrospective In 1991, Richard Schickel of Entertainment Weekly reviewed the film, giving it an "A" rating, writing that "what originally seemed a somewhat inflated, if generous and energetic, big picture, now seems quite a good little film". He called it "one of the most original movies of the 1980s and seems likely to remain one of the best sci-fi films ever made." In 1998, Halliwell's Film Guide described The Terminator as "slick, rather nasty but undeniably compelling comic book adventures". Film4 gave it five stars, calling it the "sci-fi action-thriller that launched the careers of James Cameron and Arnold Schwarzenegger into the stratosphere. Still endlessly entertaining." TV Guide gave the film four stars, referring to it as an "amazingly effective picture that becomes doubly impressive when one considers its small budget ... For our money, this film is far superior to its mega-grossing mega-budgeted sequel." Empire gave it five stars, calling it "as chillingly efficient in exacting thrills from its audience as its titular character is in executing its targets." The film database Allmovie gave it five stars, saying that it "established James Cameron as a master of action, special effects, and quasi-mythic narrative intrigue, while turning Arnold Schwarzenegger into the hard-body star of the 1980s." Alan Jones awarded it five stars out of five for Radio Times, writing that "maximum excitement is generated from the first frame and the dynamic thrills are maintained right up to the nerve-jangling climax. Wittily written with a nice eye for sharp detail, it's hard sci-fi action all the way." Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian awarded it five stars out of five, stating that "on the strength of this picture [...] Cameron could stand toe to toe with Carpenter and Spielberg. Sadly, it spawned a string of pointless and inferior sequels, but the first Terminator [...] stands up tremendously well with outrageous verve and blistering excitement." ## Post-release ### Plagiarism and aftermath Writer Harlan Ellison stated that he "loved the movie, was just blown away by it," but believed that the screenplay was based on a short story and episode of The Outer Limits he had written, titled "Soldier," and threatened to sue for infringement. Orion settled in 1986 and gave Ellison an undisclosed amount of money and added an acknowledgment credit to later prints of the film. Some accounts of the settlement state that "Demon with a Glass Hand," another Outer Limits episode written by Ellison, was also claimed to have been plagiarized by the film, but Ellison explicitly stated that The Terminator "was a ripoff" of "Soldier" rather than of "Demon with a Glass Hand." Cameron was against Orion's decision and was told that if he did not agree with the settlement, he would have to pay any damages if Orion lost a suit by Ellison. Cameron replied that he "had no choice but to agree with the settlement. Of course there was a gag order as well, so I couldn't tell this story, but now I frankly don't care. It's the truth." ### Thematic analysis The psychoanalyst Darian Leader sees The Terminator as an example of how the cinema has dealt with the concept of masculinity; he writes: > We are shown time and again that to be a man requires more than to have the biological body of a male: something else must be added to it... To be a man means to have a body plus something symbolic, something which is not ultimately human. Hence the frequent motif of the man machine, from the Six Million Dollar Man to the Terminator or Robocop. The film also explores the potential dangers of AI dominance and rebellion. The robots become self-aware in the future, reject human authority and determine that the human race needs to be destroyed. The impact of this theme is so important that "the prevalent visual representation of AI risk has become the terminator robot." ### Home media The Terminator was released on VHS and Betamax in 1985. The film performed well financially on its initial release. The Terminator premiered at number 35 on the top video cassette rentals and number 20 on top video cassette sales charts. In its second week, The Terminator reached number 4 on the top video cassette rentals and number 12 on top video cassette sales charts. In March 1995, The Terminator was released as a letterboxed edition on Laserdisc. The film premiered through Image Entertainment on DVD, on September 3, 1997. IGN referred to this DVD as "pretty bare-bones ... released with just a mono soundtrack and a kind of poor transfer." Through their acquisition of PolyGram Filmed Entertainment's pre-1996 film library catalogue, MGM Home Entertainment released a special edition of the film on October 2, 2001, which included documentaries, the script, and advertisements for the film. On January 23, 2001, a Hong Kong VCD edition was released online. On June 20, 2006, the film was released on Blu-ray by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment in the United States, becoming the first film from the 1980s on the format. In 2013, the film was re-released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu-ray, with a new digitally remastered transfer from a 4K restoration by Lowry Digital and supervised by James Cameron, which features improved picture quality, as well as minimal special features, such as deleted scenes and a making-of feature. These are the exact same special features that have been carried over from previous Blu-ray releases. ## Legacy The Terminator has an approval rating of based on professional reviews on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of . Its critical consensus reads: "With its impressive action sequences, taut economic direction, and relentlessly fast pace, it's clear why The Terminator continues to be an influence on sci-fi and action flicks." Metacritic (which uses a weighted average) assigned The Terminator a score of 84 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". The Terminator won three Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film, Best Make-up and Best Writing. The film has also received recognition from the American Film Institute, ranked 42nd on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Thrills, a list of America's most heart-pounding films. The character of the Terminator was selected as the 22nd-greatest movie villain on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains. Schwarzenegger's line "I'll be back" became a catchphrase and was voted the 37th-greatest movie quote by the AFI. In 2005, Total Film named it the 72nd-best film ever made. Schwarzenegger's biographer Laurence Leamer wrote that The Terminator was "an influential film affecting a whole generation of darkly hued science fiction, and it was one of Arnold's best performances." In 2008, Empire magazine selected The Terminator as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. Empire also placed the T-800 14th on their list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters. In 2008, The Terminator was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. In 2010, the Independent Film & Television Alliance selected the film as one of the 30 Most Significant Independent Films of the last 30 years. In 2015, The Terminator was among the films included in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die. In 2019, Huw Fullerton of Radio Times ranked it the second best film of the six in the franchise, stating "The Terminator was a brilliantly original, visceral and genuinely scary movie when it was released in 1984, and no matter how badly the visual effects age it hasn't lost its impact." In 2021, Dalin Rowell of /Film ranked it the fourth best film of Cameron's career, stating "While its pacing and story structure isn't as tight as its sequel's, The Terminator remains one of the most iconic pieces of pop culture ever created." Phil Pirrello of Syfy ranked it at number seven in the "25 scariest sci-fi movies ever made", stating "Cameron forever changed both the genre and Schwarzenegger's career with The Terminator, an iconic, tension-filled flick that mixes science fiction, action, and certain horror movie elements into one of the best things to ever come out of Hollywood [...] Cameron's well-structured script is pure polish, with zero fat and a surplus of riveting tension that helps make it the timeless classic it is today." ### Merchandise A soundtrack to the film was released in 1984 which included the score by Brad Fiedel and the pop and rock songs used in the club scenes. Shaun Hutson wrote a novelization of the film which was published on February 21, 1985, by London-based Star Books (); Randal Frakes and William Wisher wrote a different novelization for Bantam/Spectra, published October, 1985 (). In September 1988, NOW Comics released a comic based on the film. Dark Horse Comics published a comic in 1990 that took place 39 years after the film. Several video games based on The Terminator were released between 1991 and 1993 for various Nintendo and Sega systems. ## Sequels Five sequels followed The Terminator: Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003), Terminator Salvation (2009), Terminator Genisys (2015), and Terminator: Dark Fate (2019), though none replicated the successes of The Terminator or Terminator 2. Schwarzenegger returned for all but Terminator Salvation, while Cameron and Hamilton returned only for Dark Fate, a direct sequel to the events of Terminator 2. Although better critically received than other post-Terminator 2 sequels, Dark Fate is also considered a failure. Analysts blamed audience disinterest on the diminishing quality of the series since Terminator 2, and repeated attempts to reboot the series. Fans also criticized Dark Fate's opening scene, in which a T-800 kills Furlong's teenage John Connor. Entertainment website Collider wrote this retroactively damages the ending of Terminator 2. A television series, Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles (2008–2009), also takes place after the events of Terminator 2, and ignores the events in sequels Terminator 3 and beyond.
43,210,665	Mr. Songbird	1,139,596,026	1968 song by the Kinks	[ "1968 songs", "Song recordings produced by Ray Davies", "Songs written by Ray Davies", "The Kinks songs" ]	"Mr. Songbird" is a song by the English rock band the Kinks. Written and sung by Ray Davies, it is about a songbird whose call helps the singer's problems go away. Its recording features session musician Nicky Hopkins on Mellotron, duplicating a flute which mimics the call of a bird. Davies included the song on the original 12-track edition of The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society (1968), but removed it from the LP in a last-minute decision to expand the album's track listing. Because the original 12-track edition had already been sent to several European countries, the song's first release was in Sweden and Norway in October 1968. It was first issued in the US on the 1973 compilation The Great Lost Kinks Album and was not officially available in the UK until Village Green's 1998 CD remaster. ## Composition and recording Author Johnny Rogan characterises "Mr. Songbird" as a light lilt, while author Christian Matijas-Mecca compares its bouncy sound to the music on Donovan's 1967 album Mellow Yellow. Composed by Ray Davies, the song's lyrics describe how a songbird's call helps the singer's problems go away. Author Nick Hasted suggests it is about "how songs can save you", while author Andy Miller sees it as reflective of Ray Davies' state of mind while enduring personal and professional hardship, furthering the theme of escapism common in his contemporary songwriting. Miller writes Davies employs his "one hard line" technique in the song, with its final lyric about keeping the devil at bay containing genuine fear. Though the Kinks began recording most of The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society in March 1968, Davies recalled the band recording "Mr. Songbird" "a long time before" the rest of the album. Kinks researcher Doug Hinman places the song around November 1967 at Pye Studios in London. Miller writes its late 1967 recording puts it around the same time as several other Kinks recordings which make heavy use of a Mellotron – a tape-loop-based keyboard instrument – such as "Lavender Hill" (1973) and "Phenomenal Cat" (1968). Produced by Davies, the recording features soft contributions on bass, drums and Davies' double-tracked lead vocal. Session musician Nicky Hopkins duplicates the sound of a flute with the Mellotron, trilling during the choruses like a songbird. Compiler Andrew Sandoval compares the trills to Zal Yanovsky's guitar work on the Lovin' Spoonful's 1967 song "You're a Big Boy Now". ## Release and reception Davies included "Mr. Songbird" on the original 12-track edition of The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society, sequenced between "Village Green" and "Wicked Annabella". In his September 1968 review of the album for New Musical Express, Keith Altham describes the song as different from the band's typical sound, its simple format being "[a]s obvious as a cup of tea." Approximately two weeks before the album's planned UK release of 21 September, Davies opted to withhold the album for further work, deleting "Mr. Songbird" from the track listing in the process. Therefore, the song does not appear on the 15-track edition of the album as released in the UK and US. While Davies made the change before the album's release, the last-minute nature of his decision meant that production masters had already been sent to several other countries, including Sweden and Norway, where the 12-track edition with "Mr. Songbird" was released on 9 October 1968. Subsequent releases of that edition followed in France, Italy and New Zealand. Among retrospective commentators, Matijas-Mecca writes the song's removal helped give the album "a substantially different feel", but suggests it would have fit "perfectly" with the album's "loose narrative about a desire for a lost England." Miller questions why "Wonderboy" was released as a single in April 1968 in place of the "sublime" "Mr. Songbird", since the latter features both a "blithe melody and toe-tapping arrangement". Geoffrey Himes of Paste magazine likens the lyrics to a Disney film while suggesting its melody is comparable to the best written by musician Paul McCartney. On 20 June 1968, the Kinks' US record label, Reprise Records, entered "Mr. Songbird" and 16 other new tracks into their tape vaults. The label planned to use the songs on an eventual September 1968 release, Four More Respected Gentlemen, though they postponed the album before eventually cancelling it in October 1968. On 2 July 1969, Davies' delivered another copy of "Mr. Songbird" to Reprise with 11 other "spare tracks", likely out of a contractual obligation. Many of those songs, including "Mr. Songbird", were first issued in the US on the compilation album The Great Lost Kinks Album, released on 25 January 1973. Critic Richie Unterberger of AllMusic counts the song as among the highlights of the compilation, writing that an earlier release of the song "would hardly have embarrassed the group". Rogan instead finds it "a light and delicate piece, hardly crucial but most attractive." "Mr. Songbird" went unreleased in the UK for over 30 years, being first issued in May 1998 on the CD remaster of Village Green.
1,588,819	USS McDougal (DD-54)	1,140,132,554	O'Brien class destroyer	[ "1914 ships", "O'Brien-class destroyers", "Ships built in Bath, Maine", "Ships of the United States Coast Guard", "World War I destroyers of the United States" ]	USS McDougal (Destroyer No. 54/DD-54) was an O'Brien-class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of David Stockton McDougal, a U.S. Navy officer notable for his leadership during an 1863 battle off Japan while in command of Wyoming. McDougal was laid down by Bath Iron Works of Bath, Maine, in July 1913 and launched in April 1914. The ship was a little more than 305 feet (93 m) in length, just over 31 feet (9.4 m) abeam, and had a standard displacement of 1,020 long tons (1,040 t). She was armed with four 4-inch (102 mm) guns and had eight 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. McDougal was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 knots (54 km/h). After her June 1914 commissioning, McDougal sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean. She was one of seventeen destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U-53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916, and carried 6 crewmen from a sunken Dutch cargo ship to Newport, Rhode Island. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, McDougal was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas. Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown, Ireland, McDougal made several unsuccessful attacks on U-boats, and rescued survivors of ships sunk by the German craft. After a collision with a British cargo ship in February 1918, McDougal was under repair until mid-July, and afterwards, operated out of Brest, France. Upon returning to the United States after the war, McDougal conducted operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until August 1919, when she was placed in reserve, still in commission. After a brief stint of operations in mid 1921, she was placed in reserve until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia in May 1922. In June 1924, Ericsson was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the "Rum Patrol". She operated under the name USCGC McDougal (CG-6) until May 1933, when she was returned to the Navy. In November she dropped her name to free it for a new destroyer of the same name, becoming known only as DD-54. She was struck for the Naval Vessel Register in July 1934 and sold for scrapping in August. ## Design and construction McDougal was authorized in March 1913 as the fourth of six ships of the O'Brien class, which was an improved version of the Cassin-class destroyers authorized in 1911. Construction of the vessel was awarded to Bath Iron Works of Bath, Maine, which laid down her keel on 29 July 1913. On 22 April 1914, McDougal was launched by sponsor Miss Marguerite S. LeBreton, granddaughter of the Commander David Stockton McDougal, the ship's namesake. The ship was the first U.S. Navy ship named for McDougal, notable for his leadership during an 1863 battle off Japan while in command of Wyoming. As built, the destroyer was 305 feet 6 inches (93.12 m) in length, 31 feet 1 inch (9.47 m) abeam, and drew 9 feet 6 inches (2.90 m). The ship had a standard displacement of 1,020 long tons (1,040 t) and displaced 1,171 long tons (1,190 t) when fully loaded. McDougal had two Zoelly steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers, and an additional triple-expansion steam engine connected to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes. Four oil-burning White-Forster boilers powered the engines, which could generate 17,000 shaft horsepower (13,000 kW), moving the ship at the design speed of 29 knots (54 km/h). During her acceptance trials in May 1914, McDougal averaged 31.02 knots (57.45 km/h) in a 15-minute run, but topped out at 33.7 knots (62.4 km/h) for a 4-nautical-mile (7.4 km), top-speed run. McDougal's main battery consisted of 4 × 4 in (100 mm)/50 caliber Mark 9 guns, with each gun weighing in excess of 6,100 pounds (2,800 kg). The guns fired 33-pound (15 kg) armor-piercing projectiles at 2,900 feet per second (880 m/s). At an elevation of 20°, the guns had a range of 15,920 yards (14,560 m). McDougal was also equipped with eight 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti-aircraft guns for the O'Brien-class ships, as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines. From sources, it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for McDougal or any of the other ships of the class. ## Early career USS McDougal was commissioned into the United States Navy on 16 June 1914 at Boston under the temporary command of Lieutenant, junior grade, John H. Hoover; Lieutenant Commander Leigh C. Palmer assumed command on 27 July. After a shakedown cruise, McDougal began duty with the Torpedo Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet. Prior to America's entry into World War I, she operated out of New York and Newport, Rhode Island, and carried out maneuvers and tactical exercises along the east coast. In early April 1915, McDougal and destroyer Parker were temporarily assigned to patrol near the New York Quarantine Station. There were concerns by Dudley Field Malone, the local port collector, that some of the interned German steamships at New York might try to slip out during a heavy snowstorm. While on board McDougal during one of these patrols, Malone discovered what The New York Times termed a "widespread conspiracy" intended to supply British warships outside U.S. territorial waters, in violation of the American neutrality in World War I. She cruised to the Caribbean and took part in fleet war games between January and May 1916, and in addition served intermittently with the Neutrality patrol. In May, she was declared the "champion smokeless vessel" of the U.S. Navy by The Christian Science Monitor after she was able to steam at 30 knots (56 km/h) for four hours without betraying her position by smoke. In June, The Washington Post reported that she was damaged during maneuvers off Cape Ann, and had to put into the Boston Navy Yard for leak repairs. At 05:30 on Sunday, 8 October 1916, wireless reports came in of a German submarine stopping ships near the Lightship Nantucket, off the eastern end of Long Island. After an SOS from the British steamer West Point was received at about 12:30, Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves ordered McDougal and other destroyers at Newport to attend to survivors. According to a firsthand account of the events by Nathan Levy, a quartermaster on McDougal, published on 22 October in The New York Times, the destroyer steamed the 100 nautical miles (190 km) distance to the lightship in three-and-a-half hours, arriving after German submarine U-53 had stopped the Holland America Line cargo ship Blommersdijk and the British passenger ship Stephano. As Rose had done with three other ships U-53 had sunk earlier in the day, he gave passengers and crew aboard Blommersdijk and Stephano adequate time to abandon the ships. After sinking Blommersdijk with two torpedoes, Rose focused his attention on Stephano, having to signal McDougal and Benham to ask that the two destroyers move farther away so that he could sink the British ship. Six American destroyers witnessed U-53 sink the liner with her deck gun. In total, 226 survivors from U-53's five victims were rescued by the destroyer flotilla; McDougal rescued 6 of Blommersdijk's men. McDougal returned to the Caribbean for exercises during the first three months of 1917, and then returned to New York and Newport to prepare for distant service. ## World War I Soon after the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917, McDougal departed for Europe as a part of the first U.S. destroyer division sent overseas during the war. Steaming with Wadsworth, the division's flagship, under the command of Joseph K. Taussig, McDougal, Porter, Davis, Conyngham, and Wainwright departed New York on 24 April and arrived at Queenstown, Ireland, on 4 May and began patrolling the southern approaches to the Irish Sea the next day. McDougal patrolled off the Irish coast, escorting convoys of merchant ships and troop transports, searching for German submarines, and performing rescue operations for ships sunk. When British ship Manchester Miller was torpedoed and sunk by U-66 on 5 June 1917, McDougal sped to her assistance and rescued 33 survivors. On 8 September, as McDougal escorted a convoy off the southwest coast of England, she detected a surfaced submarine in the early morning hours and gave chase at full speed. The U-boat submerged about 500 yards (460 m) ahead of the closing destroyer, and McDougal dropped two depth charges which brought an oil slick to the surface. According to the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, McDougal's actions prevented an attack on the convoy and resulted in "probable damage" to the submarine. On 4 February 1918, McDougal and the British cargo ship Glenmorag collided in the Irish Sea. The destroyer made her way to Liverpool and underwent repairs that lasted until mid-July. Upon reentering service, McDougal was transferred to Brest to serve as an escort for convoys approaching the French port. ## Postwar Following the signing of the Armistice on 11 November 1918, which ended all fighting, McDougal remained in French waters for a time. Crewmen aboard McDougal helped raise money to provide a Thanksgiving dinner for 150 "poor children" of Brest on 28 November, Thanksgiving Day in the United States. When President Woodrow Wilson arrived at Brest on George Washington just over two weeks later, the destroyer served as part of that transport's escort into the harbor. On 21 December, McDougal departed Brest 21 December with Destroyer Division 7 and reached New York 8 January 1919. McDougal resumed duty along the east coast and, during May, provided part of the comprehensive at-sea support as U.S. Navy seaplanes undertook the historic first aerial crossing of the Atlantic. After completing exercises in the Caribbean, she was placed in commission, in reserve at New York on 7 August. She was laid up in reduced commission at Philadelphia and Charleston, South Carolina, in the years that followed. She was reactivated for training in New England waters during the summer of 1921, but returned to Philadelphia, where she was decommissioned on 26 May 1922. ## United States Coast Guard career On 17 January 1920, Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States. Soon, the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant. The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol. To cope with the problem, President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission. McDougal was activated and acquired by the Coast Guard on 7 June 1924. Designated CG-6, McDougal was commissioned on 28 May 1925, and joined the "Rum Patrol" to aid in the attempt to enforce prohibition laws. In August 1929, McDougal and were dispatched to locate and sink the steamer Quimistan, which had been reported as abandoned and on fire in the Atlantic 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km) east of Norfolk, Virginia. In April 1933, McDougal was one of the Coast Guard ships deployed to search for the U.S. Navy airship Akron when it crashed into the Atlantic on the night of 3/4 April. Later that same month, McDougal was dispatched to help the Italian steamer Voluntas when she had requested assistance on the 23rd, but was recalled when Voluntas rescinded the call for help. After nearly eight years of Coast Guard service, McDougal was decommissioned at Philadelphia on 26 May 1933 and returned to the custody of the U.S. Navy on 30 June. On 1 November 1933, she dropped the name McDougal to free it for a new destroyer of the same name, becoming known only as DD-54. The ship was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 5 July 1934, and, on 22 August, was sold for scrapping in accordance with the London Naval Treaty for the limitation of naval armaments.
74,311,532	The Cormac McCarthy Journal	1,173,803,356	null	[ "Academic journals associated with learned and professional societies of the United States", "Academic journals established in 2001", "American Southern literary magazines", "Biannual journals", "Biannual magazines published in the United States", "Cormac McCarthy", "English-language journals", "Literary magazines published in the United States", "Magazines published in Pennsylvania", "Penn State University Press academic journals", "Periodicals about writers" ]	The Cormac McCarthy Journal is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal of literary criticism dedicated to the study of the American author Cormac McCarthy (1933–2023). The journal launched in 2001 as an annual publication of the Cormac McCarthy Society. Since 2015, issues are published on a biannual basis by the Penn State University Press. After decades in obscurity, McCarthy achieved his first mainstream commercial breakthrough with the bestselling novel All the Pretty Horses (1992), drawing new attention from critics and scholars. The Cormac McCarthy Society was established in 1993 as a literary society promoting study of his works. The journal originated with papers published online at the society's website before the appearance of its first print edition. Its contents have focused on literary criticism of McCarthy's works as well as biographical and historical research on topics related to his life and fiction. The journal has been a major exponent of McCarthy studies since its inception. According to the literary scholar Steven Frye, it developed from "a publication committed to the interests of a small group of like-minded scholars" into "a fully developed professional academic journal, indexed in all major outlets." While there are many periodicals about specific authors, The Cormac McCarthy Journal was—as of 2023—one of only three scholarly journals about an American author who was still alive at the time it began publication. ## Background on early McCarthy studies and the Cormac McCarthy Society By the 2010s McCarthy had entered the literary canon as one of the most highly esteemed American authors of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. However, he did not acquire this stature until relatively late in his writing career. His early works received positive reviews but were virtually unknown outside of a small coterie of academics. Between the publication of his first novel in 1965 until about 1992, he received little critical notice—much less than his major contemporaries (i.e., those born in the 1930s) like Toni Morrison, Philip Roth, John Updike, and Thomas Pynchon. The first in-depth treatment of McCarthy's work was the monograph The Achievement of Cormac McCarthy (1988) by Vereen M. Bell. Then, in 1992, McCarthy had his first major commercial and critical success almost 30 years into his writing career. All the Pretty Horses became an unexpected bestselling hit, bringing a wave of interest from critics, scholars, and journalists. Most of the first wave of McCarthy scholarship appeared in essay collections published as anthologies by university presses. Among the journals that took a consistent early interest in McCarthy's work were Southwestern American Literature, Western American Literature, and The Southern Review. In summer 1992, The Southern Quarterly published an entire issue devoted to McCarthy, and most of the essays collected in the journal were later republished as Perspectives on Cormac McCarthy by the University Press of Mississippi. The Cormac McCarthy Society became the central organization for the study of his fiction. The literary society gathered an informal group of scholars who had attended the first academic conference on McCarthy, which took place October 1993 at Bellarmine College in Louisville, Kentucky. Most scholars in attendance came from universities in the Southern United States and had overlapping interests in literature of the South, particularly William Faulkner, to whom McCarthy was often compared. Scholars in the Cormac McCarthy Society, however, saw McCarthy as a great author worthy of study in his own right, and sought to counter perceptions that he was influenced by Faulkner to the point of derivativeness. The organization organized further conferences on the author's fiction and became a member group of the American Literature Association in 1998. ## Publication history ### The Cormac McCarthy Society (1998–2014) Originally, the journal was published by the Cormac McCarthy Society itself. In January 1997, the McCarthy Society went online at the website Cormacmccarthy.com, which had been launched two years prior by the McCarthy enthusiast Marty Priola. Society members began self-publishing scholarly articles on the website by 1998. At this stage, the website's journal section was more of an informal repository for McCarthy scholarship than a regular periodical. The first print edition of The Cormac McCarthy Journal appeared in 2001, with new issues published on a roughly annual basis. The journal joined the Council of Editors of Learned Journals. The position of editor was mostly held by John Wegner of Angelo State University from its first issue until about 2009, though other scholars stepped into the role of editor as needed. The online journal moved from the McCarthy society's website to the Texas Digital Library repository in 2009. In 2010, Stacey Peebles of Centre College took over as editor. ### Penn State University Press (2015–present) In 2014, Penn State University Press announced that it would begin publishing The Cormac McCarthy Journal the following year. It continued to be formally affiliated with the Cormac McCarthy Society. The Cormac McCarthy Journal joined Penn State University Press's roster of journals covering individual authors, including Edgar Allan Poe, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Mark Twain, and Edith Wharton. James McWilliams, a professor at Texas State University, remarked that the announcement signaled a "rare honor for any writer, much less a living one, to achieve" and said the journal's adoption by a university press "speaks volumes about the enduring themes that McCarthy continues to engage with Faulknerian ambition and Homeric prose." The journal's back catalog of articles, including those that were self-published by the Cormac McCarthy Society, became available online through scholarly databases like JSTOR and Project MUSE. The print journal began publishing two issues a year in 2016. By the time of McCarthy's death in 2023, The Cormac McCarthy Journal remained the only periodical dedicated to the author and his works. Also at that time, McCarthy was one of only three American writers to have an academic journal devoted exclusively to their work that began publication within the writer's own lifetime, alongside James Dickey and Philip Roth. ## Content The Cormac McCarthy Journal is the central publication in McCarthy studies. The journal publishes articles about the works of Cormac McCarthy, as well as adaptations of his works and other relevant texts. Beyond literary criticism, articles of historical and biographical scholarship have also been an important focus of the journal. Journal contributions in this area by the Knoxville, Tennessee-based writer Wesley Morgan have been especially noted; these include coverage of McCarthy's high school years, documentation of real-life people who provided inspiration for characters in Suttree (1979), and a detailed tracing of the route taken by the characters in The Road (2006) based on close reading of geographical landmarks. As of 2013, Blood Meridian (1985) was the most-discussed of McCarthy's works in the journal, while bestsellers like All the Pretty Horses (1992), No Country for Old Men (2005), and The Road had also received significant attention. In the journal's first issue, an article by Dianne C. Luce—who was then-president of the McCarthy Society—remarked that scholarship up to that time had prioritized the author's more recent Westerns, starting with Blood Meridian and continuing with The Border Trilogy, while tending to overlook his Southern works: the novels The Orchard Keeper (1965), Outer Dark (1968), Child of God (1973), and Suttree, and the dramas The Gardener's Son (1977) and The Stonemason (1995). Subsequent articles in the journal on these works renewed interest in this period of McCarthy's writing. Special issues of the journal have been devoted to individual works by McCarthy. In 2004, the journal commemorated the silver anniversary of the publication of Suttree (1979) with a collection of papers collected from a conference celebrating the novel in its central setting of Knoxville, Tennessee. According to McCarthy scholar Peter Josyph, the Suttree conference papers were originally intended for publication as an anthology, and its failure to materialize in book form served as an example of the "Suttree Syndrome" of critical neglect toward a novel he regards as a "masterpiece". An essay collection on Suttree, expanding on the special issue with additional papers from the 25th-anniversary conference, was published in 2013. Shortly after the publication of The Road, the journal dedicated a special issue to the novel with "investigations of the father-son relationship, the realism of the geography, pastoral imagery, philosophical contexts, and, ultimately, the interrelationship of these issues with McCarthy's other works." In 2022, the journal published an archival trove of several rare interviews with McCarthy printed in small newspapers in Tennessee and Kentucky, between 1968 and 1980. Given the author's reluctance to engage with the press, the journal's find was considered a noteworthy source of insight into the early period of his career. The article received coverage in such outlets as The New York Times, Kirkus Reviews, and the Knoxville News Sentinel, the last of which had originally printed two of the articles republished by The Cormac McCarthy Journal. ## Indexing and abstracting The journal is indexed and abstracted in the following bibliographic databases: According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 0.1. ## See also - List of academic journals about specific authors
840,133	Brian Williamson	1,161,089,500	Jamaican gay rights activist (1945–2004)	[ "1945 births", "2004 deaths", "Deaths by stabbing in Jamaica", "Jamaican LGBT rights activists", "Jamaican gay men", "Jamaican murder victims", "Male murder victims", "Nightclub owners", "People from Saint Ann Parish", "People murdered in Jamaica", "Victims of anti-LGBT hate crimes", "Violence against gay men", "Violence against men in North America" ]	Brian Williamson (4 September 1945 – 9 June 2004) was a Jamaican gay rights activist who co-founded the Jamaica Forum for Lesbians, All-Sexuals and Gays (J-FLAG). He was known for being one of the earliest openly gay men in Jamaican society and for being one of its best known gay rights activists. Born to an upper-middle-class family in Saint Ann Parish, Williamson initially considered a life in the Roman Catholic clergy before deciding to devote himself to the cause of gay rights in Jamaica. In the 1990s, he purchased an apartment building in the New Kingston area of Kingston, in which he established a gay nightclub, which remained open for two years despite opposition from police. In 1998, he co-founded J-FLAG with other lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights activists, soon becoming the public face of the organisation. As J-FLAG's representative, he argued in favour of LGBT rights during appearances on Jamaican television and radio programs. This attracted great hostility within Jamaica – a country with particularly high rates of anti-gay prejudice – with J-FLAG members receiving death threats and Williamson surviving a knife attack. For a time he left Jamaica, living in Canada and England for several years, before returning to Kingston in 2002. In June 2004, Williamson was murdered in his apartment by an acquaintance, Dwight Hayden, whom he had been aiding with financial handouts. Police believed that Hayden's motive was robbery, although J-FLAG also suggested that homophobia may have played a part in the killing. Hayden was subsequently sentenced to life in prison. Upon learning of the murder, a crowd assembled in New Kingston to celebrate Williamson's death, chanting homophobic slogans and lyrics. Conversely, the Jamaican LGBT community held a secret memorial for him, while protests against the killing were held by LGBT rights groups in the United Kingdom. ## Biography Williamson was born to an upper-middle-class family in the rural Saint Ann Parish. He initially considered joining the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church, studying for this position in Montego Bay, but eventually decided against this. In 1979, he began to devote himself to the cause of gay rights in Jamaica, becoming the first individual to do so in such a public manner. Jamaica had a reputation for its widespread anti-gay prejudice, an attitude that pervaded public discourse at all levels of society, with a number of popular Jamaican musicians inciting violence against gay men in their lyrics. Initially, Williamson offered his apartment in Kingston as a space in which gay Jamaicans could meet roughly every fortnight. In the early 1990s he purchased a large property on New Kingston's gentrified Haughton Street, converting part of this building into a gay nightclub that he called Entourage. Many of those who attended the club worked in the city's foreign embassies. Although the police tried to close it down, the club remained open for two years until Williamson was attacked by a patron carrying a knife, which was used to slash Williamson's arm. Although same-sex sexual relations between men were and remain illegal in Jamaica, Williamson was openly gay. Williamson and other members of Jamaica's lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community decided to form an organisation to campaign for their rights, resulting in the establishment of the Jamaica Forum for Lesbians, All Sexuals, and Gays (J-FLAG) in December 1998. J-FLAG sought to enhance LGBT rights through advocacy and encouraging legal reform, as well as through educational and social service programs. They also kept a record of anti-LGBT hate crimes including assaults, home invasions, and the corrective rape of lesbians, further recording the murder of 30 gay men between 1997 and 2004. From the time of the group's foundation, its members were subjected to repeated death threats. Williamson became the public face of the group, appearing on radio talk shows and television shows such as Perspective and Nationwide in which he argued against homophobia and called for greater government investment to tackle the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Unlike most other LGBT rights activists in Jamaica, Williamson did not seek to protect himself by using a pseudonym, disguising his voice, or hiding his appearance. Facing hostility and threats of violence, Williamson left Jamaica and moved to Canada and then England, before returning to the island in 2002. There, he moved into an apartment in his Haughton Street compound and decided to take a renewed role within Jamaica's LGBT rights movement. He lived in one room of his apartment block and rented out a number of others. ## Murder Financially affluent, Williamson would often offer money or odd jobs to his acquaintances in the LGBT community. Among those whom Williamson befriended was Dwight Hayden, a closeted gay man in his mid-20s who had been a user of crack cocaine prior to 2002 and who was known locally as "Dog" and "Swong". They met in New Kingston and Williamson helped Hayden out by purchasing newspapers which he could then sell on the streets. According to one of Williamson's flatmates, Desmond Chambers, "I have seen [Hayden] here about six times (and) anything him want, Brian give him. Brian give him money, Brian give him food and help him to purchase (newspaper) to sell on the road." On 7 June 2004 Hayden arrived at Williamson's flat with another man, with Williamson welcoming them in and offering them bottles of Guinness. Hayden asked for money from Williamson, who agreed he would give it to him later in the evening. At this, Hayden attacked Williamson, stabbing him roughly seventy times. Williamson's body was discovered by Chambers at approximately 11.15am. Chambers noticed that the air conditioning had been left on, something that Williamson was unlikely to have done, and then realised that Williamson's bedroom door had been left ajar. Investigating further, he opened the door and discovered Williamson's corpse lying face down on the floor, with multiple stab wounds to the neck and surrounded by a pool of blood. Williamson's dog, Tessa, was running about in the room and barking. The scene of the crime was visited by Father Michael Lewis of the Stella Maris Church, who was accompanied by Williamson's sister Gradryn Williams; she was convinced not to look at the body by Williamson's friends. Crowds assembled outside the apartment block, made up of individuals who were laughing and celebrating Williamson's death. Some of the assembled people shouted out statements such as "This is long overdue", "Battyman he get killed", "Let's get them one at a time", "That's what you get for sin", and "Batty man fi dead!" ("Faggots should die!"). Others sang "Boom Bye Bye", a line from a dancehall song by Buju Banton that discusses shooting and burning gay men. Rebecca Schleifer, a Human Rights Watch (HRW) researcher, had a meeting with Williamson planned for that day, and arrived at his home to find the assembled crowd; she noted that "It was like a parade. They were basically partying". ### Police investigation and conviction Police issued a statement declaring that they were searching for two men whom Chambers had observed at Williamson's apartment prior to his death. Corporal Devon Hugh Williams of the Constabulary Communication Network (CCN) informed press that the police suspected that the motive of the attack had been robbery, as evidence pointing to the fact that Williamson's apartment had been ransacked and a safe removed. However, both friends of Williamson and human rights organisations suggested that – given Williamson's status as an openly gay man – robbery might have been a secondary issue, with homophobia being the main motive behind the crime. J-FLAG expressed its suspicion that the killing was a "hate-related crime", articulating the view that Williamson had been killed because he was a publicly visible gay man. Amnesty International urged police not to dismiss alternative possible motives. Amnesty's Piers Bannister informed press that "We do know that there's a high level of homophobia in Jamaica, so there was a possibility that it was a hate crime. Many hate crime victims are robbed afterward. We're not saying it wasn't a robbery; we just want a full investigation." Schleifer publicly stated that it is "really important to investigate [the crime] thoroughly. Because there are really strong indications that it might have been a homophobic attack". On 11 June, two days after the murder, police arrested their suspect. Hayden provided a confession and subsequently pleaded guilty in court. Hayden's legal representative, Randolph Williams, urged the judge to show leniency because the suspect had shown remorse for his crime from the moment of his arrest. The judge, Justice Basil Reid, sentenced Hayden to life in prison with the possibility of parole after fifteen years. ## Reaction After his death, the Jamaica Observer described Williamson as "Jamaica's most prominent gay rights activist", while both the BBC and The Independent called him the country's "best-known gay rights activist", and Gary Younge of The Guardian termed him "the public face of gay rights in the country". Tony Hadn, a volunteer for J-FLAG, stated that Williamson was "so courageous. He never stopped to think, 'oh, I might get in trouble for this,' so in that sense he was very selfless." He was succeeded as J-FLAG's leader by Gareth Williams, who informed press that Williamson "was the only out gay person in Jamaica who had the courage to put his face on television, I was very close to him... His murder was really a traumatic loss for our community." One member of J-FLAG stated that "Brian Williamson is our Martin Luther King". Four days later, J-FLAG held a memorial devoted to Williamson, which was attended by almost two hundred people; the memorial involved personal tributes, poetry slams, and lip synching to Whitney Houston songs. On 23 June, the British LGBT rights group OutRage! held a memorial vigil outside the High Commission of Jamaica in London. OutRage! leader Peter Tatchell attended the vigil, there proclaiming that the Jamaican Prime Minister, P. J. Patterson, "shares responsibility for the wave of homophobic violence, culminating in the murder of Brian Williamson" because he had failed to decriminalize same-sex sexual activity and clamp down on homophobic violence in Jamaican society. Also in attendance at the vigil were the Green Party's London Assembly member Darren Johnson, Amnesty International's Carol Buddd, Big Up's Charles Anglin, UKBlackOut's Andrew Prince, and the Lesbian and Gay Immigration Group's Barry O'Leary. The London Gay Men's Chorus attended, singing a rendition of "Let My People Go". In their 2012 study of the relationship between homophobic attitudes in Jamaica and Britain, Keon West and Miles Hewstone described Williamson's murder as the "most prominent" example of an anti-gay murder on the island. ## See also - LGBT rights in Jamaica - Lenford Harvey - Murder of Dwayne Jones
4,079,351	Simon Byrne	1,150,190,879	Irish boxer	[ "1806 births", "1833 deaths", "Bare-knuckle boxers", "Deaths due to injuries sustained in boxing", "Heavyweight boxers", "Irish male boxers", "Sport deaths in England" ]	Simon Byrne (1806 – 2 June 1833), nicknamed "The Emerald Gem", was an Irish bare-knuckle prize fighter. The heavyweight boxing champion of Ireland, he was drawn to England by the larger sums of prize money on offer and his hopes of becoming the heavyweight champion there as well. He became one of only six fighters ever to have been involved in fatal fights as both survivor and deceased since records began in 1741. Byrne fought in an era when English boxing, although illegal, was patronised by many powerful individuals. Its patronage and popularity did not, however, free it from corruption, heavy betting, and staged fights. Byrne fought eight recorded matches, but accounts of his career focus on the last three, against the Scottish champion Alexander McKay, the English champion Jem Ward, and James Burke for the vacant championship of England. The injuries McKay received in his fight with Byrne resulted in his death the following day, and rioting in his home country of Scotland. Byrne went on to lose his next match against Jem Ward, which some commentators believed he was not sufficiently in condition to fight. His final contest in May 1833 was a gruelling 99 rounds against James Burke that lasted for 3 hours and 6 minutes, the longest ever recorded prize fight. Byrne died three days later as the result of damage to his brain caused by the beating he had received. Burke was arrested and tried for manslaughter but was acquitted. Following the death in 1838 of another fighter, William Phelps, also known as Brighton Bill, the London Prize Ring Rules were introduced to more clearly define the rules of prize fighting and to introduce certain safety measures, rules that still form the basis for the modern sport of boxing. ## Early 19th-century English boxing During the first half of the 19th century pugilism, better known as prize-fighting, held a curious position in British society. Although supported by members of the establishment from the royal princes downwards, it was considered illegal under the terms of the Riot Act of 1715, which defined a riot as "a tumultuous disturbance of the peace by three or more persons assembling together, of their own authority, with intent mutually to execute a violent enterprise to the terror of the people". The boxer George Stevenson had died a few days after his 35-minute fight with the English champion Jack Broughton in 1741, an event that triggered Broughton to draw up a set of rules with the help of some of his patrons to prevent a recurrence. Published on 16 August 1743, Broughton's Rules outlawed hitting or seizing any part of an opponent's body below the waist, or striking him when he was down, but otherwise left much to the discretion of referees. Rounds were not of a fixed length but continued until one of the fighters was knocked or thrown to the ground, after which those in his corner were allowed 30 seconds to return him to the "scratch" – the middle of the ring – failing which his opponent was declared the victor. The sport enjoyed an unprecedented surge in popularity during the Regency period when it was openly patronised by the Prince Regent (later George IV) and his brothers. Championship boxing matches acquired a louche reputation as the places to be seen by the wealthy upper classes. Thus, a match would often be attended by thousands of people, many of whom had wagered money on the outcome. The Duke of Cumberland (an uncle of King George III) was reported to have bet thousands of pounds on Jack Broughton, who was the English champion for 18 years. Boxing had become a nest of "gambling related corruption" by the 1820s. The epitome of this era was the championship reign of Jem Ward, a fighter who on one occasion admitted taking £100, equivalent to several thousand pounds today, to lose a contest. By 1830 the sport had become widely known for its corruption, and blatant cheating was commonplace. It was against this background that Simon Byrne earned his living. ## Early life Very little is known of Byrne's early life beyond the fact that he was born in Ireland in 1806. His first fight, in 1825, was a loss to Mike Larking; it lasted 138 rounds spread over two and a half hours—despite the fact that at this time a round could vary in length, and usually only ended when a man was knocked down. His second fight was a draw against Jack Manning in 1826, earning Byrne £100. Next was Byrne's first match against the Scottish boxer Alexander McKay, which Byrne won easily in five rounds, earning him a further £100. This match was McKay's first ever prize-fight. This victory was soon followed by a win against Bob Avery, earning a further £50, then another win over Phil Samson in 1829, earning him £200. By the standards of the day these latter sums were enormous; it is therefore surprising that he was then offered £200 for a rematch, regardless of whether he won or not, against the less experienced McKay, whom he had beaten so easily on the first occasion. As of 2008 that would be the equivalent of about £13,600. ## Byrne versus McKay The fight against Alexander McKay was Byrne's first brush with notoriety. On 2 June 1830, Byrne, billed as "Champion of Ireland", fought McKay, the "Champion of Scotland", for the right to challenge Jem Ward, the heavyweight champion of England. The match had been organized at Tom Spring's "Castle Tavern", in Holborn. The former champion boxer Tom Spring, as treasurer of the "Fair Play Club" – the organization which oversaw boxing – was immensely influential in the boxing world. Along with two other well-known boxers, Gentleman Jackson and Tom Cribb (who also acted as Byrne's manager), he was Byrne's sponsor for the match. Cribb was considered to be one of the greatest fighters of the era; more than 20,000 people attended one of his fights. Contracts were signed at Spring's tavern and it was arranged for the fight to take place at Hanslope, Buckinghamshire. But as a vast crowd of spectators began pouring into Hanslope the venue was switched at the last minute to Salcey Green, just inside Northamptonshire, thus rendering the Buckinghamshire constables powerless to prevent it. Despite the publicity and billing this was only McKay's fifth prize-fight. Since his defeat at the hands of Byrne two-and-half years earlier McKay had fought and won just three matches, earning him £180, while Byrne had earned £200. Both men were promised £200 for the match whatever its outcome. McKay had earned £100 for his previous fight against Paul Spencer, the most he had ever received; the promised payment was a huge improvement in his fortunes. McKay's boxing relied on brute strength rather than scientific pugilistic theory, but the fight still lasted for 47 rounds before McKay collapsed under a left-handed punch to the throat that did not seem particularly powerful. He was carried to his corner where he regained consciousness, complaining of severe headache. He was bled by a surgeon on the scene and taken to a local inn, the Watts Arms, where he died at 9:00 pm the following evening. A post mortem examination found the cause of death to be brain damage. McKay was buried in Hanslope Churchyard with the following inscription on his headstone: > Strong and athletic was my frame > Far from my native home I came > And bravely fought with Simon Byrne > Alas, but never to return. > Stranger take warning from my fate > Lest you should rue your case too late > If you have ever fought before > Determine now to fight no more McKay's death attracted widespread publicity and led to rioting in the streets of his homeland. In Dundee, three people died and 200 were injured in the fracas. In Glasgow, four people died, and the Dragoons were called out to quell rioting after a Roman Catholic church was burned and looted (the mob would have assumed Byrne, an Irishman, to be a Roman Catholic). Byrne was arrested three days later on board the ferry to Ireland as he tried to leave the country. He was incarcerated in Buckingham Gaol to await his trial and the prospect of the gallows. ## Trial The trial was held at the Assizes in the small rural market town of Buckingham. More used to the trials of local poachers and sheep thieves, Buckingham had never before seen such a spectacle. The town was inundated with journalists and the merely curious. Byrne was charged with manslaughter. Tom Cribb, Reuben Martin, Thomas Reynolds, and George Cooper were charged with aiding and abetting manslaughter. With such illustrious names as Cribb's, Jackson's and Spring's involved, the trial had the potential to turn into a huge establishment scandal. People of all classes had bet hundreds of pounds on the outcome of the boxing match. Despite being banned, prize fighting enjoyed huge public support and patronage from levels up to the younger male members of the Royal family, some of whom Jackson had taught to box. The support received by Byrne at his trial is testimony to the wealth of his backers. The establishment rallied to his support; Byrne was represented by three barristers and five solicitors, and twelve witnesses journeyed from London to give evidence on his behalf. The defence produced a witness who claimed to have seen McKay fall and strike his head on some stones several hours before the fight, and the Glasgow Free Press began a rumour that McKay had been drugged by "a sleeping draught" introduced into his water bottle. That the fight was illegal, as was the public assembly of spectators does not seem to have been considered in court. This benign neglect is surprising because as recently as 1825, in the case of Rex v. Billingham, Savage and Skinner, it had been deemed that anyone even attending a fight was guilty of an offence. At the trial Byrne was described by a Bow Street Runner as a "very human kind man", and McKay as "a very large muscular man – a magnificent man". The jury came to a verdict after only ten minutes of deliberation: "Not guilty". Byrne was once again a free man, but the image of the sport had been damaged. The Times of 5 June 1830 condemned the "barbarous, filthy and swindling exhibitions called prize fights" and expressed the hope that "an example will be made of the more wealthy monsters in this affair of blood – the sanguinary cowards who stood by and saw a fellow creature beaten to death for their sport and gain!" As the "wealthy monsters" patronising boxing included King George IV (who had asked Gentleman Jackson and the country's leading pugilists to act as pages at his coronation in 1821) and his heir, the Duke of Clarence, The Times's words fell on deaf ears, and the sport continued unabated. The following year a similar legal case occurred when another boxer was killed. However, in this instance less wealthy patrons and illustrious names were involved, and the manager of the convicted boxer, unlike Tom Cribb, was found guilty of abetting manslaughter and sentenced to 14 years transportation. ## Byrne versus Ward Cleared of any responsibility for McKay's death, Byrne collected his £200 prize money, and as the winner earned the right to fight the English heavyweight champion Jem Ward. The fight was originally scheduled to take place at Leicester on 10 March 1829, but at the last minute Ward claimed that he was unfit and too ill to fight, much to the disapproval of his backers and friends. Rumours circulated that Ward had refused to enter the ring unless he received a prize money of £250 plus an additional £250 if he lost; the event became known in some quarters as the Leicester Hoax. Ward did not fight again for two years, but he and Byrne finally met on 12 July 1831 at Willeycott, near Stratford upon Avon. Each fighter was paid £200. Although Ward was the older man he prevailed in the contest after one hour and seventeen minutes, when Byrne's seconds, Tom Spring and Tom Reynolds, withdrew their man in the 33rd round. An observer commented that Byrne may not have been in the best of condition for the fight, as "his appearance failed to favour the impression that he possessed active vigour"; boxing historian Gilbert Odd describes the fight as "disgraceful". Another commentator noted that "it is a singular fact that neither of the men had a black eye; neither had an external cut worth mentioning". ## Byrne versus Burke Jem Ward announced his retirement from the ring in a letter published in the 29 January edition of Bell's Life in London. He was succeeded as champion of England by James Burke, although some disputed Burke's right to the title as Ward had refused to fight him before retiring. Standing 6 feet 2 inches (1.88 m) tall, weighing 200 lb (90 kg), and handicapped by deafness, Burke had assumed the championship after defeating Harry Macone in one of the prolonged and brutal fights for which he was known. Ward, who had faced public criticism for his refusal to fight Burke, felt that Byrne was the better fighter and promised to acknowledge the victor of a fight between Burke and Byrne as the new champion. The match took place on 30 May 1833 on Nomansland, a tract of common land between the villages of Sandridge and Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire, for a prize of £100 to each man. To get himself into condition for the fight, Byrne had reduced his weight from 210 pounds (95 kg) to 186 pounds (84 kg), an effort that "as it was effected by hard work and sweating, somewhat impaired his natural stamina, especially as, his habits being far from abstemious when in Ireland, he was scarcely fitted to undergo the necessary amount of labour". Despite his hard work Byrne looked "fleshy", with "no special show of muscle", compared to Burke's "perfect condition", although he did have a slight height advantage. Burke weighed in at 172 pounds (78 kg), and started the contest as the marginal favourite at odds of 5–4. Tom Spring was once again in Byrne's corner, as was Jem Ward. In true Burke style the match lasted for 3 hours and 6 minutes, during which time 99 rounds were fought the longest ever recorded prize fight. For the most part Byrne seemed to be in control in the early stages of the fight; in the 30th round he trapped Burke against the ropes and battered him severely around the body before throwing him to the ground. Burke fell on his face, vomiting and throwing up blood, and for the next few rounds Byrne looked the more likely winner. By the 49th round however, Burke had recovered sufficiently to knock Byrne to the ground, whose hands by then were so swollen that he was unable to deliver a finishing blow. By the 93rd round Byrne was "scarcely able to stand, and rolled before the Deaf'un like a ship in a storm". Although both men were utterly exhausted Burke continued to "pepper away at [Byrne's] body and head", until in the 99th round Byrne collapsed unconscious and could not be revived to take his place once again at the scratch. A contemporary newspaper report of the day describes a blow-by-blow account of a fair match. Byrne was carried to "The Woolpack" inn in nearby St Albans, where he was attended to by Tom Spring. On the evening of the fight Byrne was considered to be close to death, but over the course of the following two days he seemed to be recovering, and was sufficiently conscious to thank his friends for their ministrations. But his condition worsened during the afternoon of Saturday 1 June 1833, and he died the following day; the cause of death was given as "congestion of blood in the brain". Byrne himself was reportedly of a different opinion, telling a chambermaid shortly before his death that "If I should die, it will not be from the beating I received but from mortification. I would rather have died than been beaten in that fight." He left behind a wife and four children in Dublin. ## Aftermath One contemporary view of Byrne's fatal fight, and of his earlier contest against Ward, was expressed in a popular poem written by James Catnach, the catchpenny publisher of Seven Dials, London: : On Thursday, 30 May day, Brave Simon took the ring, : Back'd by Jem Ward the champion, likewise by Gallant Spring, : To fight Burke for two hundred pounds, a man of courage bold, : To stop reports that with Ward the battle he had sold. Burke was arrested and tried for manslaughter. He was acquitted on 11 July 1833, but avoided competitive fights for some time afterwards, only taking part in exhibition matches. He retired in 1843 and died of tuberculosis less than two years later in 1845, having by then been reduced to poverty. Following the death in 1838 of another fighter, William Phelps, also known as Brighton Bill, in a match against Owen Swift, the London Prize Ring Rules were introduced by the Pugilists's Protective Association to more clearly define the range of fouls and to introduce certain safety measures. Butting, gouging, biting, scratching, kicking were all forbidden as was the use of stones or any hard object in the hand. Thirty-second breaks were introduced between rounds, at the end of which each fighter had to walk to the scratch unaided within 8 seconds. The wearing of spiked boots was prohibited, and boxers who went to ground without being hit were disqualified. These rules still form the basis for the modern sport of boxing. ## See also - List of bare-knuckle boxers
19,638,567	From Bakunin to Lacan	1,158,917,210	Book by Saul Newman	[ "2001 non-fiction books", "Books about anarchism", "Jacques Lacan", "Lexington Books books", "Philosophy books", "Post-structuralism", "Postanarchism", "Works about Jacques Derrida" ]	From Bakunin to Lacan: Anti-Authoritarianism and the Dislocation of Power is a book on political philosophy by Saul Newman, published in 2001. It investigates the essential characteristics of anarchist theory, which holds that government and hierarchy are undesirable forms of social organisation. Newman seeks to move beyond the limitations these characteristics imposed on classical anarchism by using concepts from post-structuralist thought. By applying post-structuralist theory to anarchism, Newman presents an account of post-anarchism. His post-anarchism is more substantive than that of earlier thinkers, and has influenced later approaches to the philosophy. Released in a climate of an anarchist movement hostile to postmodern philosophy, From Bakunin to Lacan was criticised for its poor understanding of and engagement with contemporary anarchism. ## Background The book was released in the context of the dispute in the newly resurgent anarchist movement between critics of civilisation (primarily anarcho-primitivists exemplified by John Zerzan) and its supporters (notably Murray Bookchin). Although sharply disagreeing on the merits of civilisation, technology and language, both Zerzan and Bookchin derided postmodernism as disempowering the individual and reinforcing the existing order. Another significant factor in the intellectual climate of the book's release was the rediscovery in the 1990s of anarchist theory within academia. ## Content Philosophy professor Todd May asserts that the overall purpose of the book is "to offer a critique of the way power, and specifically political power, is commonly conceived". Newman persistently questions how anarchism can refrain from reproducing the forms of oppression that it strives to overcome. Newman incorporates concepts from post-structuralist thought such as post-humanism and anti-essentialism into classical anarchism. Unlike May, whose post-anarchism is a combination of the two, Newman attempts to move beyond both anarchism and post-structuralism. He proposes that "by using the poststructuralist critique one can theorize the possibility of political resistance without essentialist guarantees: a politics of postanarchism ... by incorporating the moral principles of anarchism with the postructuralist critique of essentialism, it may be possible to arrive at an ethically workable, politically valid, and genuinely democratic notion of resistance to domination". Newman focuses particularly on the work of Gilles Deleuze, Jacques Derrida, and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. ## Reception Aimed at an academic rather than anarchist audience, the book was criticised in Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed for its unsophisticated, cursory understanding of and engagement with anarchist theory. While praising that section of the book on post-structuralist philosophers, reviewer sasha k claimed that "Newman uses Kropotkin and Bakunin as his stand-ins for anarchism in general, and, in turn, only a few quotes from each to make his case". He questioned whether Newman's attribution of an essentialist conception of human nature to modern anarchists was accurate, concluding that, had the book taken "a less one-dimensional view of anarchism", it would have to give up "most of what makes postanarchism post-anarchism. New Formulation reviewer Michael Glavin cited Newman's ignorance of the initiative of anarchists to decentralize power and of anarchist forms of organisation such as trade unions, federations and affinity groups as evidence that he failed to understand power and wrongly conflated it with domination. ## See also ## Footnotes and citations
19,286,957	Battle of Britain Day	1,171,034,284	Day remembering the Battle of Britain on the 15 September 1940	[ "1940 in the United Kingdom", "Aerial operations and battles", "Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving Germany", "Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom", "Battle of Britain", "Conflicts in 1940", "European theatre of World War II", "Military operations of World War II involving Germany" ]	Battle of Britain Day, 15 September 1940, is the day on which a large-scale aerial battle in the Battle of Britain took place. In June 1940, the Wehrmacht had conquered most of Western Europe and Scandinavia. At that time, the only major power standing in the way of a German-dominated Europe was the British Empire and the Commonwealth, given the non-aggression pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. After having several peace offers rejected by the British, Adolf Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe to destroy the RAF in order to gain air superiority or air supremacy as a prelude to launching Operation Sea Lion, an amphibious assault by the Wehrmacht onto the British mainland. In July 1940, the Luftwaffe started by closing the English Channel to merchant shipping. In August, Operation Adlerangriff (Eagle Attack) was launched against RAF airfields in southern England. By the first week of September, the Luftwaffe had not gained the results desired by Hitler. Frustrated, the Germans turned towards the strategic bombing of cities, an offensive which was aimed at damaging British military and civil industries, as well as civilian morale. On Sunday 15 September 1940, the Luftwaffe launched its largest and most concentrated attack against London in the hope of drawing out the RAF into a battle of annihilation. Around 1,500 aircraft took part in the air battles which lasted until dusk. The action was the climax of the Battle of Britain. RAF Fighter Command defeated the German raids; the Luftwaffe formations were dispersed by a large cloud base and failed to inflict severe damage on the city of London. In the aftermath of the raid, Hitler postponed Sea Lion. Having been defeated in daylight, the Luftwaffe turned its attention to The Blitz night campaign which lasted until May 1941. Battle of Britain Day, 15 September, is now an annual commemoration of the battle in the United Kingdom. In Canada, the commemoration takes place on the third Sunday of September. ## Background In June 1940, the Wehrmacht had conquered most of Western Europe and Scandinavia. At that time, the only major power standing in the way of a German-dominated Europe was the British Empire and the Commonwealth. After having several peace offers rejected by the UK, Adolf Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe to destroy the RAF in order to gain air superiority or air supremacy as a prelude to launching Operation Sea Lion, an amphibious assault by the Wehrmacht onto the British mainland. The Battle of Britain began on 10 July 1940, when the first Luftwaffe bomber fleets began attacking convoys and Royal Navy forces in English ports and the Channel. The results were positive and the Germans succeeded in forcing the British to abandon the channel convoy route and to redirect shipping to ports in north-eastern Britain. With this achieved the Luftwaffe began the second phase of its air offensive, attacking RAF airfields and supporting structures on the British mainland. The codename of the offensive was Unternehmen Adlerangriff ("Operation Eagle Attack"). On 12 August, it flew its first missions in this regard. On 13 August, the Luftwaffe carried out its largest attack to date on the mainland. Christened Adlertag ("Eagle Day"), the attack was a failure. Nevertheless, the raids continued, at great cost to both sides. The impact of the German offensive on RAF airfields and Fighter Command is disputed. Some historians believe that the attacks were not having much effect and that the Germans were losing the attrition battle, while others believe the RAF was faltering. Either way, Hitler was dissatisfied with the lack of progress being made. Prompted by an RAF raid on Berlin in late August 1940, he ordered the Luftwaffe to concentrate its attacks upon London. It was thought the move would draw RAF Fighter Command up into a large, decisive battle. Initially, the change in strategy caught the British off-guard. The first daylight attack of this type occurred on 7 September and caused extensive damage and civilian casualties. Some 107,400 long tons (109,100 t) of shipping was damaged in the Thames Estuary and 1,600 civilians were killed or injured. Still, Hitler was critical of the Luftwaffe and its failure to destroy Fighter Command quickly. He dismissed over-optimistic reports from the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL or High Command of the Air Force), particularly the Chief of the Luftwaffe general staff Hans Jeschonnek, who asserted the RAF was on its last legs. Confident the RAF was nearly defeated, Jeschonnek requested terror bombing to be enacted as a final blow. Hitler refused, and only allowed attacks on industry, communications and public utility targets. Over the next few days, bad weather prevented more large attacks. On 9 and 11 September, only smaller raids were carried out. The respite gave Hugh Dowding AOC (Air Officer Commanding) Fighter Command, the chance to prepare and reinforce his forces. The British, possibly through the use of Ultra intelligence, recognised the German change in strategy and duly prepared for further attacks on the capital. Ultra's contribution to the preparations for 15 September is disputed, as intelligence from Ultra at this stage in the war tended to be fragmented, and as the Germans launched attacks whenever there was clear weather, it would not have been difficult for RAF Fighter Command to have predicted an attack on 15 September, which was to be a clear day. ## German strategy On the afternoon of 14 September, Hitler and his command held a conference at the Reich Chancellery in Berlin to discuss the future direction of the war. Göring was not present; he was inspecting Luftwaffe units in Belgium. Erhard Milch replaced him. Hitler praised the attacks which had caused heavy damage to the RAF and London. He blamed the failure to achieve more decisive results on the weather. Nevertheless, it was clear to Hitler that victory had still not been attained by the Luftwaffe. Under those circumstances, Operation Sea Lion could not take place. Großadmiral Erich Raeder, commander-in-chief of the Kriegsmarine, agreed. He argued that Sea Lion should only be carried out as a last resort regardless of gaining air superiority. Hitler wanted to maintain the threat of invasion by continuing air attacks on military targets in the British capital. Hans Jeschonnek still pushed for attacks on civilian morale. He argued that military and civilian industries were located too far apart to achieve a collapse of morale by attacking the former. Instead, he pressed for attacks against residential areas. Hitler refused. He ordered that only military targets in London were to be attacked. The Luftwaffe intimated that a period of good weather was now due over France, Belgium and southern Britain. They prepared for an attack along the lines set by Hitler. Staff officers of Luftflotte 2 based in Brussels began planning for a two-pronged offensive on 15 September. The targets were purely military. The first target selected was the Battersea railway station on the West London Extension Railway in Battersea district. The tracks were 12 abreast in some places and linked London to the heavy industries of the West Midlands and other industrial cities on the north and south-east of Britain. The conglomeration of lines included rail-over-rail bridges which were vulnerable to air attack. This was what air planners referred to as "choke points", which if cut could erode enemy communication efficiency. The second target, for the larger second attack during the afternoon would be the dock areas of the Thames Estuary including the warehouse of the East End of London, Surrey Commercial Docks, south of the river, and Royal Docks (Royal Victoria Dock, West India Docks, Royal Albert Dock and King George V Dock). ### Intelligence The strategy could only be valid if intelligence assessments were correct. To German intelligence, it seemed as if the RAF might be on the verge of collapse. The attacks on London, thus far, seemed to confirm the assumption. None of the Luftwaffe bomber formations had encountered the well organised, effective and ferocious defence that had characterised the battles in August 1940. If the German intelligence was correct, then by striking against vital choke points in London that the RAF would be forced to defend, the Luftwaffe had the opportunity to destroy the remaining RAF fighter forces. Not only would the attacks allow for the attainment of air superiority, they would eliminate a vital rail network, destroy shipping and supplies brought in from North America, and affect civilian morale by demonstrating London's vulnerability to air power. The policy of attacking London after the successful 7 September raid quickly became counter-productive, and in this matter the Luftwaffe suffered from serious misjudgement resulting from their intelligence service. The crews had been told the RAF was down to its last reserves and that one more assault would clinch victory. This was incorrect which meant bomber crews would be in for a shock on 15 September. The RAF had been given much needed rest after intense operations by the shift in German strategy. British radar, having been virtually untouched, was still able to follow the slow German build-ups over France long before the first German aircraft reached British airspace. It would give the rested Fighter Command units plenty of warning. Moreover, by choosing to attack London, it exposed the bombers to greater danger by forcing them to fly greater distances in hostile air space. German crews would be forced to fight all the way to London and back. As it happened, all the German bomber units were at least intercepted on 15 September, and were then scattered as they withdrew. Hitler was satisfied. The reasoning of the Luftwaffe seemed sound. Should the bombing achieve its aim, it offered considerable strategic value. The strike against London meant that most of the fighting on 15 September would take place between Luftflotte 2 under Albert Kesselring and Keith Park's No. 11 Group RAF. ## British strategy ### The Big Wing Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory and Squadron Leader Douglas Bader came to play significant roles in the September fighting. Bader commanded 242 Squadron flying Hurricanes in Leigh-Mallory's 12 Group, which defended the vital industrial targets in the West Midlands. A source of frustration to Leigh-Mallory was the way in which his squadrons were used. During Luftwaffe attacks on south-east England 12 Group units were tasked with protecting 11 Group sector stations north of the Thames Estuary, while Leigh-Mallory believed his units should be in action south of the Thames. Mallory also criticised the way Park and Dowding were conducting the battle. The popular image of outnumbered Spitfires and Hurricanes meeting an enemy with huge numerical strength preyed upon his mind. He favoured a reverse of the image. Bader was bored and frustrated at being left out of the major actions in the south. To Bader, it did not make sense for 12 Group to apparently sit idle while 11 Group suffered heavy losses and fought at a numerical disadvantage. Bader advocated scrambling 12 Group fighters as soon as German aircraft were detected forming up over France or Belgium. He asserted 12 Group was quick enough to reach 20,000 ft (6,100 m) over the Thames Estuary before the enemy reached the area. He planned to use large forces, three to five squadrons to engage the enemy. Should this succeed, 11 Group, following up attacks, might have found broken enemy formations whose crews had lost the determination to press on to their targets. Bader implied that this may reduce the losses of fighter pilots in 11 Group. After the war, Bader insisted that both he and Leigh-Mallory wanted the Big Wing tactic enacted in 12 Group only. They both believed, according to Bader, that it was impractical to use 11 Group as the command was located too close to the enemy and would not have enough time to assemble. Dowding saw 12 Group as the protector of the Midlands and a reserve for 11 Group. Mallory and Bader wanted to ignore both the defence of the Midlands and keeping a reserve in order to commit 12 Group to battle. In essence, they proposed the opposite of Dowding and resolved to commit the reserves before the front-line units. While this method might have spared 11 Group, it had its problems. Although Mallory and Bader wanted to stop the enemy before it hit RAF airfields, the amount of time it took to position large formations for interception meant that the Big Wing often failed to achieve this. Instead, they engaged the enemy as he withdrew. Prompted by a supporting comment from Leigh-Mallory, to the effect that it did not matter when an interception was made, as long as it accounted for a large number of enemy aircraft, Bader announced that he would rather destroy 50 German bombers after hitting their targets than 10 before. The argument was strong; crippling losses would act as a deterrent, so that damage sustained on an occasion when the Germans did get through would have to be offset against later occasions when they did not even care to try. The counter-arguments were much stronger. The assumption that the Germans would be put off by losses was wrong; it would have taken severe losses for the OKL to change its mind on target selection. The targets were also vital. The airfields themselves supported the squadrons in the field, while the loss of the vital sector-stations could well have crippled the defence system. Thus the possibility of allowing the bulk of the German bombers to reach their target unscathed was unacceptable. The idea that the Big Wing could inflict heavier losses than had been achieved up until then was based on an overestimate of the numbers of aircraft shot down by the Big Wing. Leigh-Mallory, Sholto Douglas and Bader had based their opinions on claims made by RAF units in battle. However, particularly when a large number of aircraft were engaged, it was possible for the same aircraft to be claimed by more than one pilot. As a result, the RAF claimed 100 or more German aircraft shot down in one day on five occasions, while analysis of Luftwaffe losses has shown that there were only four occasions on which the Luftwaffe lost more than 50 aircraft, and never did they lose 100 or more in a day. Nevertheless, while it is not known whether Mallory and Bader were aware that the claims of the RAF and Big Wings were exaggerated, they certainly tried to use them as a potent tool with which to remove Park and Dowding from command and pursue the Big Wing tactic. ### Non-attrition Keith Park, with endorsement from Dowding, opted for the opposite strategy. Park maintained that it was unimportant to inflict large losses on the Germans in comparison to safeguarding his own forces. Park believed the Germans would give up if they could not achieve their aim of air superiority. This, simply put, meant avoiding the destruction and/or depletion of Fighter Command, as it was the primary factor in England's air defence. This would be achieved by sending small numbers of fighters to intercept, minimising losses in the air. By remaining to offer undiminished and constant air opposition, the RAF ensured the Luftwaffe could not win. As long as some sort of cost was imposed before the enemy dropped his bombs and impaired the defence system, the RAF could remain intact to meet the threat again the next day. To this end, Park favoured the 10 bomber kills before the attack, rather than the 50 shot down after it. The strategy suggested an enemy would give up if he felt he was getting nowhere. For even while his losses remained moderate, it would be senseless to suffer those casualties for no return. Park and Dowding's strategy, under the circumstances, was the wiser choice. ## Forces involved ### Luftwaffe forces The Luftwaffe had suffered heavy attrition since the opening of the Battle of Britain. Just over a month earlier, it possessed 2,226 operational aircraft on 17 August. By 7 September, it had 1,895 aircraft, a drop of 15 percent. Still, most of the losses were being made good by production. During the battle, the Luftwaffe had undergone a major reorganisation. Luftflotte 5 in Norway had sent most of its Messerschmitt Bf 110 and medium bomber units (Kampfgeschwader or Bomber Wings) to Luftflotte 2 and 3. Luftflotte 3 then passed most of its Messerschmitt Bf 109 units to Luftflotte 2 which was based in the Netherlands, Belgium and France. According to the Luftwaffe order of battle dated 7 September, the nearest date covered by the list, the three Air Fleets contained 1,895 aircraft. Luftflotte 2 had 1,311 machines including; 533 Bf 109s, 107 Bf 110s, 51 reconnaissance and 484 medium bomber aircraft. A further 120 Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers were on the order of battle, but were not used. Luftwaffe readiness was less than ideal. In August, 211 pilots had been killed, including 105 fighter pilots and 91 bomber pilots. Missing pilots amounted to 132 fighter and 94 bomber pilots alone, with a further respective loss of 47 and 28 wounded. The effect on operational ready crews was significant. Messerschmitt Bf 110 units had 60% of crews against authorised strength. For bomber units, it was 65%, while Bf 109 units had 81% of crews ready, a 5% increase from the 76% level in the first week of September. However, by 14 September, Bf 109 units possessed only 67% of crews against authorised aircraft. In Bf 110 units, it fell to just 46%, and in bomber units it dropped to 59%. One week later, the figures were 64, 52 and 52% respectively. ### RAF forces In the six weeks of intensive combat, RAF strength had been maintained to an extent far greater than the Luftwaffe intelligence had believed possible. On the evening of 14 September, Fighter Command could muster 269 Supermarine Spitfire and 533 Hawker Hurricane fighters. The two vital groups could put up just over 500 fighters. No. 11 Group RAF had 310 fighters, including 92 Spitfires and 218 Hurricanes. No. 12 Group RAF could field 85 Spitfires and 109 Hurricanes. Should No. 10 Group RAF come into the battle, a further 48 Spitfires and 78 Hurricanes could be committed. Compared with 17 August, there were just 22 fewer Spitfires and Hurricanes. During the battle, the RAF had suffered a serious loss of experienced pilots. In mid-September, Fighter Command could call upon 1,492 operational pilots against an establishment of 1,662 – a deficiency of 10%. Many of the pilots were ineffective unless led into battle by experienced men. Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding's policy was to move in fresh squadrons from quieter areas to replace losses in the units in the south-east as they became exhausted. By early September, the system was breaking down as squadrons were becoming depleted before fresh units could be formed and take their place. Reluctantly, Dowding defined three categories, A, B and C. Category A units were to bear the brunt of the fighting, and were to be kept at full strength in aircraft and pilots. Only if the A units suffered exceptionally high losses would they be replaced. B units were relief units, to be maintained at operational strength and only used if absolutely necessary. C units were generally stripped down to just five or six pilots. These units were devoted to training new pilots. Although not fit for fighter-fighter action, they could defend quieter areas. The system potentially could have had fatal results for Fighter Command, with C units becoming less and less effective. But the system had not been running long enough by 14 September for it to have a serious impact on Fighter Command's strength. The replacement units were sufficient in number and effectiveness to continue to replace exhausted units. By 15 September, the C units could still give a good account of themselves in battle. ## Preliminary engagements The Luftwaffe began its eighth consecutive night of bombing London on 15 September. Soon after midnight, 13 unidentified Dornier Do 17 light bombers attacked the capital. At 00:15 two Junkers Ju 88s followed from Kampfgeschwader 51 (KG 51, or 51st Bomber Wing). A further 11 Heinkel He 111s from an unidentified unit bombed the city again at 00:50. At 02:00, five He 111s from Kampfgeschwader 4 (KG 4) bombed the city. A full strike by the Geschwader had been planned, but bad weather had forced a cancellation after five He 111s had taken off. Most of the damage was done to residential areas in Fulham, Chelsea and Westminster. Around 19 people were killed and 31 injured. The heaviest casualties were caused when a bomb fell on a church in Chelsea killing 14 and injuring 26. Small raiding forces bombed Cardiff, Bootle (in Liverpool), Leicester and Ipswich. At Bootle, only slight damage was done to rail tracks and facilities at West Alexandra Dock. At sea, a Heinkel He 115 floatplane attacked and sank the 5,548 long tons (5,637 t) freighter Mailsea River off Montrose with a torpedo. Soon after, the freighter Halland was sunk by the same method in the area. At 03:30, He 115s flew up the Thames Estuary and dropped magnetic anti-shipping mines. Further mines were dropped in the Bristol Channel, Liverpool Bay and Milford Haven and off Hartlepool, Berwick-upon-Tweed and Aberdeen. RAF night fighter defences were still in their infancy. Most fighters lacked radar and in any case, radar was short-range and unreliable. Instead, they flew outside the anti-aircraft guns' fields of fire on likely approach routes using the pilots' vision to locate enemy aircraft. In later years, the night fighter defences would be highly sophisticated. But in 1940, they were not effective. Just 28 sorties were flown against the nocturnal raids. There was also air activity over German-held territory. RAF Bomber Command flew 92 sorties against German invasion targets at Boulogne, Calais, Ostend, Dunkirk, and Antwerp. The remaining sorties were directed at Brussels marshalling yards, Hamm and Krefeld. One Armstrong Whitworth Whitley failed to return. It was lost to ground fire over the Netherlands. A total of 157 sorties were flown overall. By the September 1940, some 10–13% of invasion barges had been sunk. The first combat in daylight began just after 08:00. A He 111 from Aufklärungsgruppe 51 (Long-range Reconnaissance Group 51), based near Paris, was intercepted and shot down over the Channel by Hurricanes from No. 87 Squadron RAF. A Heinkel He 59 air-sea rescue aircraft was dispatched, but found no trace of the Heinkel or its five crew. Further flights were made by high altitude Ju 88s. One photographed RAF Sealand, RAF Pembrey and RAF Woodward. It also managed to reach Manchester, Liverpool and Birkenhead without interception. Another managed to photograph the Thames Haven, RAF Netheravon, RAF Benson and the Royal Navy base at Chatham Dockyard. Interception of these high altitude aircraft was difficult, and none were lost on 15 September 1940. ## Noon attack: 10:10 to 13:00 The offensive got under way at 10:10 in the morning. Major Alois Lindmayr Gruppenkommandeur (Group Commander) of I./KG 76 led the entire formation. Lindmayr was an experienced combat veteran having won the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for his effective low-level attacks in France. III./Kampfgeschwader 76 (KG 76) took off with 19 Do 17s from their base at Cormeilles-en-Vexin. At the same time, 20 mi (32 km) to the north, I./KG 76 took off. Usually a Gruppe (Group) could field 27 bombers. After weeks of attrition, I./KG 76 could put up only eight Do 17s. The Geschwader had to field two Gruppen to do the work of one. Most of the Dorniers were in bad shape, worn down by intensive operations. The two groups rendezvoused at Amiens then proceeded to Cap Gris Nez to pick up their Bf 109 fighter escort. The attacks on Britain had caused heavy losses to the Luftwaffe; German crews and Geschwader experimented with innovative ways to defend themselves. One pilot, Feldwebel Rolf Heitsch, had his Dornier fitted with an infantry flame thrower in its tail. If it failed to down a fighter that got too close, it might drive the enemy off: if it worked, it could be fitted to other bombers. After take-off the formation broke up in cloud and was delayed for 10 minutes to allow reforming. Two bombers failed to do so and returned to base. ### British reaction Initially, the operations room at RAF Uxbridge was disturbed by a visit from Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Most of the plotting tables were bare, save for a few plots indicating German reconnaissance machines. Most of the Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) were relaxing, in spite of Churchill's presence (he had ordered that they not behave any differently). However, at 10:30 the first German aircraft triggered the alarm at Chain Home radar station at Dover. The filter room at Stanmore recognised the formation as hostile. The WAAF detailed group and sector commands throughout the south that 40-plus enemy aircraft were entering Kentish airspace. By 11:04, Lindmayr's Dorniers had reached Calais. Wing Commander Lord Willoughby de Broke, Park's senior fighter controller, watched with the Prime Minister and Park as the Germans moved closer. De Broke had a problem of his own. He had no way of knowing which plots represented bombers and fighters. Bombers had to be intercepted, fighters could be ignored. The trick was to strike a balance and time the interception as well as possible. On one hand he must scramble early and allow enough time to get into a favourable attack position; but on the other hand he had to avoid scrambling them too early lest the fighters run short of fuel before they met the enemy. Park joined de Broke. After a brief discussion he decided to commit several squadrons from RAF Biggin Hill. Park realised the raid could be a trap. Though the target seemed to be London, the aircraft, comprising 120–150 in number, may be an advanced guard of Bf 109s sent to clear the skies or disrupt fighter defences. Still, he gambled and sent nine squadrons into action at 11:15. No. 92 Squadron RAF and No. 72 Squadron RAF scrambled Spitfires from Biggin Hill. Their orders were to cover the air space over Canterbury at 25,000 ft (7,600 m). De Broke sensed by this time that nothing else was coming in. If this was the main attack, he decided it must be met with force. He ordered squadrons from RAF Northolt, RAF Kenley and RAF Debden to stand by. At 11:20, he ordered RAF Hornchurch and RAF North Weald and No. 10 Group's RAF Middle Wallop into the air. Park now had two squadrons over Canterbury, four over Biggin Hill and Maidstone with further back up of two squadrons over Chelmsford at 15,000 ft (4,600 m). The plan was for Nos. 72 and 92 to engage the high escort. No. 603 Squadron RAF would arrive on the scene just afterward and get at the close escort (JG 3). The pair from North Weald would go to Maidstone, so if the bombers got through, they would run into them over London. Despite Park's reservations about Leigh-Mallory's Big Wing, he ordered that it was time for it to be tested. If the Germans attempted to use the Thames Estuary as a navigation aid, as so often before, fighters from 12 Group's RAF Duxford could meet them over Hornchurch at 20,000 ft (6,100 m). They would have a 5,000 ft (1,500 m) height advantage to the west of the bombers and attack out of the Sun, if Leigh-Mallory could get them there in time. The order was sent to Stanmore at 11:20 and Duxford scrambled No. 19, 310, 302 and No. 611 Squadron RAF. No. 242 Squadron RAF's leader, Wing Commander Douglas Bader led the assault with the 56 fighters. They were airborne at 11:22. ### Close to contact The Dorniers were supported by German fighter aircraft that had been sent out in advance of the main strike. Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG 27) and I./Jagdgeschwader 52 (JG 52) Bf 109s flew in toward London at 16,000 ft (4,900 m), while Jagdgeschwader 53 (JG 53) flew top cover over the bombers. Some 30 Jagdgeschwader 3 (JG 3) flew close escort. The bombers were travelling slowly, forcing the fighters to lower their flaps to stay with the bombers, which made them sitting ducks. They crossed the coast at Folkestone at 11:36. Fighters from II.Lehrgeschwader 2 (Demonstration Wing 2) were also to form part of the escort. They flew in advance of the main force to drop 550 lb (250 kg) bombs and then resume their role as fighters. The strong head wind slowed the Dorniers, which meant that the Germans took even longer to reach the target while burning up the Bf 109s' limited fuel supplies. It also sped up the RAF fighters coming in from the north. LG 2 took off as the bombers crossed the English coast. Even with bombs, the Bf 109s were expected to overhaul the bombers and attack London a few minutes before the main raids began. Park interpreted the LG 2 raid as a major thrust and was determined to meet the "second wave" as he saw it. He scrambled six more squadrons but kept four reserve squadrons at Hornchurch and RAF Tangmere. As the forces closed, around 120 Bf 109s and 25 Do 17s were facing 245 Spitfires and Hurricanes. ### Combat Park's plan worked. The Biggin Hill squadrons, 72 and 92 Squadrons made contact with the enemy over Canterbury. Arriving at 25,000 ft (7,600 m), they found themselves 3,000 ft (910 m) above the top covering German fighters (JG 53). Beyond Canterbury, they could also see KG 76 and JG 3 over Ashford. At 11:50, they attacked out of the sun. Taken by surprise, four or five of I./JG 53s Bf 109s were hit by the Spitfires. Spitfires of 92 Squadron tried to charge through the fighter screen to get at the Dorniers but were blocked. Soon afterwards, No. 603 Squadron joined the fight. Park had broken up the top level escort. Some 23 Hurricanes of Nos. 253 and 501 Squadrons arrived at the same height as the bombers and delivered a head-on attack. Lindmayr's crews were experienced and the formation held its nerve and remained intact. JG 3 in turn attacked the Hurricanes dispatching two from 501 Squadron. Northolt's No. 229 and No. 303 Squadron RAF were also arriving and engaged JG 52. One of 239 Squadrons Hurricanes and a JG 52 Bf 109 collided. The bombers ploughed on and reached Lewisham. However, the formation was now isolated. The escorts were embroiled in dogfights all over Kent and half the RAF fighters were yet to engage. JG 53 were further engaged by several squadrons; Nos. 1, No. 46, No. 249 and No. 605 Squadron RAF. No. 605, led by Archie McKellar broke away and delivered a 12-fighter attack scoring some hits on the bombers. JG 27 meanwhile suffered two casualties, one possibly against No. 19 Squadron. It claimed only one British fighter that day. JG 3 claimed two fighters for one loss. Up until now, the Bf 109s had successfully blocked attacks on the bombers. However, Park's tactics of attacking the Germans all along the route forced their fighters to use up fuel more quickly in dogfights. When the outskirts of London came into view, they began to depart at 12:07 north of Lewisham. The North Weald pair, No. 504 and 257 Squadrons engaged the Dorniers with 20 Hurricanes. One German pilot, Feldwebel Robert Zehbe, developed engine trouble and lagged half a mile behind the main bomber stream. His Dornier attracted a swarm of fighters. Eventually Ray Holmes of 504 Squadron, out of bullets, rammed the bomber, sending it into a dive. The Dornier's tail separated and its wings snapped off outboard of the engines. The bomber crashed onto the forecourt of London Victoria station. While diving, its bombs became detached and hit or landed near Buckingham Palace, damaging the building. Zehbe bailed out and landed near The Oval and was severely wounded by a civilian mob. He was rescued by the British Army but died of his wounds. Holmes' Hurricane was badly damaged, crashing near the grounds of Buckingham Palace. Holmes bailed out injured but survived. Directly over the target, Bader's Duxford Wing arrived and attacked while the Germans were on the bomb-run. Thirty seconds after the release of the bombs, they hit the target area, the Battersea rail lines next to Battersea Park on the Thames south bank. Each Dornier's payload of twenty 110 lb (50 kg) bombs carved a run 500 yd (460 m) long and 25 yd (23 m) wide. Some fell on the high-density civilian housing. The bombs missed Clapham Junction but fell across the rail network tracks that connected it to Victoria station north of the Thames and the main line heading north east on the south side of the river. The damage done had cut the tracks in Battersea in several places and a viaduct had collapsed over some rails. Rail traffic was halted. Four unexploded bombs delayed repairs. The rail lines were only out of action for three days. But within minutes, the Do 17 formation had been reduced to 15 aircraft and most of them were damaged. Six had been shot down and four were attempting to make a run for home. The remainder dropped their bombs and were met by a covering force of Bf 109s and landed back in France without further combat. LG 2 meanwhile had been and gone. They saw one rail station and released their bombs and returned home. They saw only one British fighter, No. 46 Squadron's Pilot Officer Gunning who reported the make up of the formation. Park had decided to ignore their raid. Overall the attackers lost six bombers and 12 Bf 109s, some 12.5% of its strength. However, the British claimed 81 aircraft, 26 by the Duxford Wing. Zehbe's Dornier alone was claimed nine times. Among the German casualties that day was Rolf Heitsch and his flame throwing Dornier; the device had not been tested at high altitude and when used, squirted black oil over Holmes' windshield and attracted the attention of British fighters. Park would not have been pleased that despite being stripped of protection the small force of bombers lost only a quarter of its strength while surrounded by 100 fighters. Still, the operation had been a victory. Fighter Command lost 13 fighters, eight were claimed by JG 52. ## Interlude: 13:00 to 13:45 At 13:00, the German formations were plotted making their way back to France. Churchill was delighted with the results. The WAAF had been due to change shift, but the scheduled relief time could not take place during an operation. By 13:05 the fighters were back on the ground. Rearming and refueling began immediately to return the machines back to battle ready status as soon as possible, while the pilots wrote their combat reports which included filing claims and details of their battle to the best of their recollections. Bader's Big Wing landed. Owing to battle damage, only 49 of Duxford's 56 fighters were operational by the afternoon. By this time, the German bombers were touching down in the Pas de Calais. Two were so badly damaged that they were written off in crash landings, bringing the total losses to eight Do 17s. Almost all bore the scars of battle. One machine had sustained 70 hits, another 200. In the afternoon, RAF Bomber Command abandoned more attacks on invasion ports because of insufficient cloud cover. Six Bristol Blenheims undertook an armed reconnaissance over the North Sea. RAF Coastal Command flew 95 sorties for anti-invasion, anti-submarine, mine laying and reconnaissance missions. Spitfires photographed every port from Antwerp to Cherbourg. They returned with evidence of a gradually increasing buildup of amphibious forces. All the Command's aircraft returned. ## Mid-afternoon attack: 13:45 to 15:45 Even before the Do 17s of KG 76 had touched down, the next wave was already just getting airborne. II and III./Kampfgeschwader 2 (KG 2), (from Boissy-Saint-Léger and Cambrai) II./Kampfgeschwader 3 (KG 3) (from Antwerp), I and II./Kampfgeschwader 53 (KG 53) (from Lille) and I and II./Kampfgeschwader 26 (from Wevelghem and Gilze en Rijen) took off to target the West India Docks and Royal Victoria Dock north of the Thames as well as the warehouses of the Surrey Commercial Docks in the south. JG 53 and Adolf Galland's Jagdgeschwader 26 (JG 26) were to escort the bombers. The fighters met them as the bombers formed up over Calais. The phalanx of the German bombers headed for Dungeness. At the head were 43 Do 17s from KG 2; next, a couple of miles behind, came 24 He 111s of KG 53; finally, a couple of miles further behind, came 19 Do 17s from KG 3; followed by 28 He 111s of KG 26. The headwind was present again, and the 114 bombers battled against it. The German fighter pilots kept close escort. They detested the tactic. It handed the initiative to the British regarding how and when to attack. Moreover, if they were bounced by Spitfires, the Bf 109s would take too long to accelerate to full throttle in order to escape. The German fighter escort consisted of five Gruppen from JG 3, JG 53 and Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77). LG 2 Bf 109s flew top cover while Adolf Galland's JG 26 and Jagdgeschwader 51 (JG 51) conducted fighter sweeps in advance of the main bomber stream. For the sake of appearances (the morale of the bomber crews), Zerstörergeschwader 26 (Destroyer Wing 26 or ZG 26) flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110 flew close escort to KG 26. It was half the size of the formation that hit London on 7 September, but instead of having two fighters for every bomber, there were four. Nor could the German pilots complain about being tied to the bombers. Sufficient numbers of fighters were allowed to roam on free-ranging patrols. At 13:45, Chain Home radar picked up the German raids. No. 11 Group scrambled one Spitfire from RAF Hawkinge on the channel coast. Flown by No. 92 Squadron Pilot Officer Alan Wright, his job was to climb as quickly as possible over the sea and act as a spotter. He was to report on the direction, height, composition and strength of the German formation. The radar operators assessed the strengths of the three largest formations at 30, 50, and 60 plus. Five smaller formations added up to 85 plus. In fact, the British estimate of 225 aircraft proved too small. The German force was 475 aircraft strong. Shortly before 14:00, the German formation left the French coast. Park ordered his forces to repeat the earlier interception tactic. Four pairs of squadrons were ordered to patrol Sheerness, Chelmsford, Hornchurch and RAF Kenley. ### RAF scramble At 14:00, No. 11 Group released 68 fighters. Hornchurch's No. 603 and No. 222 Squadron RAF committed 20 Spitfires to Sheerness at 20,000 ft (6,100 m). The squadrons would fail to find each other and went into action singly. At Debden, No. 17 Squadron RAF, No. 257 Squadron RAF sent 20 Hurricanes to Chelmsford at 15,000 ft (4,600 m). Kenley dispatched No. 501 and 605 Squadrons with 17 Hurricanes to Kenley at just 5,000 ft (1,500 m). North Weald ordered No. 249 and 504 Squadrons to cover Hornchurch at 15,000 ft (4,600 m). Just five minutes later, the German bombers began splitting into three groups heading for the coast between Dungeness and Dover. Park decided to scramble four more squadrons. When it became apparent that five concentrations of Bf 109s were taking the direct route to London on free-hunting patrols, Park scrambled eight more squadrons. No. 11 Group dispatched Biggin Hill's No. 41 Squadron RAF followed by 92 Squadron. The force could put up 20 Spitfires. They were directed to Hornchurch at 20,000 ft (6,100 m). At 12:10, Northolt No. 1 (Canadian) and 229 Squadrons sent 21 Hurricanes to Northolt. North Weald sent nine Hurricanes of No. 46 Squadrons to the London Docks. Biggin Hill sent another wave, No. 72 and No. 66 Squadron RAF, with 20 Spitfires to Biggin Hill at 20,000 ft (6,100 m). Debden was called into action again and ordered No. 73 Squadron RAF to Maidstone at 15,000 ft (4,600 m). Beginning at 12:15, Kenley dispatched No. 253 Squadron RAF with nine Hurricanes to guard the airfield. RAF Tangmere was in action for the first time, sending Nos. 213 and No. 607 Squadron RAF's 23 Hurricanes to defend Kenley and Biggin Hill. The largest contingent came from No. 12 Group. Duxford, or the "Big Wing", No. 19, 242, 302, 310 and 311 Squadrons with 20 Spitfires and 27 Hurricanes were ordered to Hornchurch at 25,000 ft (7,600 m). Middle Wallop committed No. 238 Squadron and 12 Hurricanes to the Kenley area. By the time Park decided to launch his third wave, the first engagements were taking place. At 14:20, he ordered No. 11 Group's No. 303 (Polish) Squadron and its nine Hurricanes to Northolt at 20,000 ft (6,100 m). Tangmere scrambled No. 602 Squadron RAF and 12 Spitfires to hover over Kenley, Biggin Hill and Gravesend. Meanwhile, No. 10 Group RAF were ordered into action. A request was made for No. 609 Squadron and 13 Spitfires to climb to 15,000 ft (4,600 m) over Kenley. This squadron left Middle Wallop at 14:28. The RAF now had 276 Spitfires and Hurricanes in the air. The Germans outnumbered the British in this raid by two to one. More seriously, for every two RAF fighters, there were three Bf 109s. ### Initial clashes Over Romney Marsh Nos. 41, 92 and 222 Squadrons engaged JG 26, losing one of their number to the Bf 109s. The second wave of RAF fighters arrived on the scene, comprising 607 and 213 Squadrons with 23 Hurricanes. They initiated a head-on attack against the Do 17s of KG 3. A Hurricane and a Dornier collided, both going down. The Bf 109s did their best to break up attacks and the bombers held a tight formation, putting up withering cross-fire. The Bf 109s were not permitted to leave the bombers and chase enemy fighters. Time and again, they were forced to break off and return to the bomber stream, allowing the RAF fighters to return and repeat the process. Soon after, No. 605 and No. 501 Squadron arrived with 14 Hurricanes. One fighter was hit by return fire, but the pilot aimed his aircraft at a Dornier and bailed out. The fighter collided and destroyed the bomber. The German bomber crews had no way of knowing that the crashes were not premeditated. It seemed as if the British were desperate. Nevertheless, they thought the 'tactic' was devastatingly effective. Chastened by losses, the Dorniers closed ranks to snuff out the gaps and continued to their target. At 14:31, they reached the Thames and British AAA defences opened up. The bombers were forced to evade their fire. One Dornier was damaged. KG 53 lost a He 111 following up KG 3 over the area. At 14:35, Park and Churchill watched the battle unfold in Uxbridge's operations room. The Prime Minister saw that every squadron was being used and asked what reserves were available. Park said there were none. He was referring only to 11 Group, as there were more aircraft in nearby sectors, but at this point Park was stretched. At Park's request, he had sent all the Squadrons from No. 10 and 12 Group that were adjacent to 11 Group to the capital. If the Luftwaffe launched a follow-up attack, there were only three Squadrons available, in 12 and 10 Group (based in Norfolk and Dorset) and none in the Kent region. All other day squadrons were based too far away to get involved. Nevertheless, Park knew that a low cloud base over RAF Croydon (2,000 ft (610 m)), Hornchurch (3,000 ft (910 m)), Northolt (3,500 ft (1,100 m)), RAF Hendon (2,100 ft (640 m)) and Biggin Hill (2,000 ft (610 m)) would make a low-level accurate strike the Germans' only option. High-altitude attacks were improbable. Possibly to create a reserve, Park ordered 41, 213 and 605 Squadrons to return early though they had only been airborne for 45 minutes and had plenty of fuel left, even if ammunition was short. The vast bulk of the remaining squadrons were heading to London. A total of 185 fighters in 19 Squadrons were ready to engage. The battle would involve over 600 aircraft. ### Main battle In the vicinity of Gravesend, the right-hand German formation – comprising the Do 17s of KG 3, trailed by the He 111s of KG 26 – would bear the brunt of the next attack from 63 fighters from 17, 46, 249, 257, 504 and 603 Squadrons. The Hurricanes of 249 and 504 squadrons went into action first. Their first pass saw three Do 17s go down, including Hauptmann Ernst Püttmann, leading 5. Staffel of KG 3 (5./KG 3). The Bf 109s escorting KG 26 could only watch, forbidden to leave their Heinkel charges. As the first attack finished, No. 257 Squadron led by Squadron Leader Robert Stanford Tuck attacked the Heinkels with nine Hurricanes. The escorts had their work cut out and were scattered. No. 257 targeted the badly protected bombers. As 257 engaged KG 26, KG 53 came under attack from No. 1 (Canadian), 66, 72, 229 Squadrons. No. 66 attacked first followed by 72 and 229. Some Spitfires climbed over the bombers to seek cover from the Bf 109s. The British were surprised to see an unidentified formation of Bf 109s continue on without interfering. Two He 111s were forced back to France and another was shot down. Nine Bf 109s were providing close escort for I./JG 3. They claimed one Canadian Hurricane and one Spitfire from No. 66 Squadron. KG 2 in the left-hand column came under attack from 23 Hurricanes from Nos. 73, 253 and 303 Squadrons. JG 53 were alert to the danger and shot down one 303 Hurricane and damaged five more. No. 73 Squadron made a head-on attack damaging one bomber. Meanwhile, Park was hoping for Bader's Wing to turn up and deliver its promised results. As soon as the Duxford Wing did arrive it was intercepted. Arriving between Kenley and Maidstone at varying altitude (15,000–16,000 ft (4,600–4,900 m)), it emerged from cloud in the vicinity of KG 2's stream. Galland's JG 26 was directly above it. In a reversal of their roles, the Hurricanes engaged the Bf 109s while the Spitfires went for the bombers. While they failed to deliver their anti-bomber attacks, they drew in the Bf 109 escorts and free-hunting German fighters making it easier for other RAF fighters to reach the bombers. No. 310 Squadron lost two Hurricanes to JG 26, one to Adolf Galland, as the battle became a confusing mess of combats. By 14:40, the bombers reached London. KG 3 had lost three Do 17s destroyed and two damaged while KG 26 had suffered only one damaged bomber. KG 53 in the central column had lost one and three more were forced to turn back owing to battle damage, while only one KG 2 machine had been forced to do the same. Despite the British presence, 100 bombers with 120 tons of bombs prepared to drop their bombs. One of the reasons the bombers had sustained so little damage was the cloud base. Its density had made it difficult for RAF fighter controllers to direct their squadrons with accuracy. The same cloud that helped shield the bombers was to obscure the target area. Its base started at 2,000 ft (610 m) and its top reached 12,000 ft (3,700 m). The bombers reached the Victoria Docks, but it and the other targets were covered. The skies were clear over West Ham and the bombers concentrated on the borough, in particular the Bromley-by-Bow gas works. KG 3, 26 and 53 dropped their bombs at 14:45. Most of the targeted area was three square miles in extent, bounded on the north by the over ground railway of the District line, on the west by the River Lea, on the east by the Plaistow Marshes and on the south by the Royal Victoria Dock. The gas works were targeted by KG 26. Heavy high explosive bombs severely damaged the plant. Upton Park tube station was also hit and an electric sub-station was hit causing a black out. Residential areas were badly damaged. KG 2 was unable to find the Surrey Commercial Docks. It turned away and dropped its bombs over a wide area. According to West Ham borough records, 17 people were killed, or died of wounds sustained in the attack. Another 92 were seriously injured, while 40 were slightly injured. As the Germans retreated back out over the channel, some bomber groups scattered while others formed uneven formations and were pursued by RAF fighters. With fuel dwindling, the Bf 109s headed back to France, unable to help the hard-pressed bombers. The German bombers that had been forced out of formation attempted to make it to France using the cloud as cover. However virtually all were destroyed. Four Do 17s and six He 111s were shot down by fighters that were now swarming over Kentish air space. The main formations withdrew as more RAF squadrons closed in. The escort plan held up, and 50 Bf 109s met the withdrawing units. Still, there were gaps in the formation. Nos. 238, 602 and 609 Squadrons exploited them. No. 238 Hurricanes engaged KG 53 while the others shot down two Do 17s from KG 2. Bader's squadron also took part shooting down one Dornier. Two RAF fighters were lost to the escorts. Another source indicated the German fighters sent to cover the retreat made little impact and were hardly noticed by RAF fighters. It appears I./ Lehrgeschwader 1 (LG 1) formed part of the withdrawal force. It lost three Bf 110s to No. 303 (Polish) Squadron RAF at 15:50. No. 303 Squadron claimed three Dorniers and two Bf 110s while No. 602 claimed seven bombers and two fighters. Still, the RAF grossly over-claimed German losses. They claimed 77 bombers and 29 fighters. German losses on that raid had been heavy. KG 2 had lost eight Do 17s and seven damaged. Personnel losses of the unit amounted to 19 crew killed, nine captured and 10 wounded. KG 3 had fared little better, losing six destroyed and four damaged. Personnel losses in II./KG 3, 15 were killed, 10 were captured and four were wounded. The He 111s were to suffer lightly. One He 111 was lost, its crew was captured. Three more were damaged and two crewmen were wounded. KG 53 lost six Heinkels with another two damaged. It lost 12 aircrew killed, 18 captured and four wounded including Major Max Gruber, II./KG 53's Gruppenkommandeur (Group Commander). The German fighter screen suffered as well. In the battle, JG 51 lost two Bf 109s, JG 52 a single Bf 109, JG 53 lost seven Bf 109s and one damaged, JG 77 lost one and one damaged, while LG 2 lost two Bf 109s. Having lost two Bf 109s in the first raid, two more were lost owing to the pilots running out of fuel or being shot down in combat. In total, the Luftwaffe had lost 21 bombers destroyed, and scores damaged. It also lost at least 12 fighters. The RAF had lost 15 fighters destroyed while 21 were damaged. Another source puts German fighter losses at 23. From 15:00, III./Kampfgeschwader 55 (KG 55) took off from Villacoublay led by Major Schlemell. It headed towards Southampton before diverting to bomb Royal Navy targets at Portland. British radar reported them as six intruders. There were actually more than 20 He 111s without fighter escort. They were intercepted by six Spitfires from No. 152 Squadron from RAF Warmwell. The bombers dropped their ordnance but only five fell among naval installations causing minor damage. The RAF fighters claimed one destroyed and another damaged. KG 55 9 Staffel lost one He 111P-2 (one survivor) and 8 Staffel suffered one bomber damaged and one of the crew killed. ## Evening and night actions There was one more noteworthy operation before the Germans ceased their attacks for the day. At 17:40, 20 aircraft from Erprobungsgruppe 210 took off. It was picked up just off the Cherbourg peninsula as it made its way across the central Channel to the Isle of Wight. By 17:50, it had reached St. Catherine's Point. Nos. 213 and 602 Squadrons were patrolling nearby at Tangmere, where they were kept for the duration of the raid. No. 607 Squadron, also from Tangmere, was flying to the airfield over Southampton at 15,000 ft (4,600 m) and No. 609 Squadron was on its way from Middle Wallop to patrol Portsmouth. At 18:00, by which time the German operation was virtually over, the British dispositions were completed when No. 238 Squadron took off from Middle Wallop to patrol the airfield. The German target was the Spitfire factory at Woolston. They arrived near it at 17:55. The Southampton guns engaged them for the entire time over the target. When the Germans retired, RAF fighters appeared. Fortunately for the British, the Germans missed the factory. They did manage to rupture a number of gas and water mains while damaging nearby residential areas. There was slight damage done to the shipbuilding yard in Southampton Harbour. According to German records, 10–11 t (11–12 short tons) of bombs were dropped. Had they succeeded in hitting the Spitfire factory, they could have seriously reduced British fighter production. As it was, nine civilians were killed, 10 seriously injured, and 23 slightly injured in the attack. The make up of the formation is unclear. An eye-witness, air enthusiast Alexander McKee, 22, was drinking tea at a café in Stoneham when the attack began: > ... I went outside on hearing enemy planes. I counted them aloud. Ten. They dived straight on Southampton, without any preliminaries, through a barrage of gunfire, one after the other. Alfred saw a bomb released, then handed the glasses [Binoculars] to me. The aircraft had twin-rudders, and might have been Dorniers or Jaguars [a bomber version of the Bf 110 thought to be in use at the time]. The dives were fast but shallow, and they pulled out of them at about 2,000 feet. It was not a dive-bombing attack proper. Soldiers passing made inane remarks about 'nothing could live in that barrage', although the Germans were very obviously living in it, too. The barrage was quite good, but none of the Huns were brought down.... Very quickly and efficiently the Germans re-formed and disappeared into the cloud. I have never seen a better bit of flying than those Nazi pilots put up – they got into formation like a well-drilled team, in the teeth of the guns. Nos. 607 and 609 Squadrons engaged the Germans south-west of The Needles. The British reported 30–40 Bf 110s with 15 Do 17s in support. The tonnage of bombs dropped suggested there were fewer bombers than claimed. The RAF fighters claimed four Do 17s. The fact remains that the Germans penetrated the airspace without interception and came very close to inflicting critical damage to the Spitfire factory. The radar had done its job and alerted No. 11 and 10 Group 20 minutes before the bombs started to fall. The fault lay either with the No. 10 or 11 Group controllers who were late in ordering their Squadrons to scramble. More interceptions took place in the evening. The interception of two separate He 111s near London at 19:00 signalled the last engagement of daylight. It is likely they were on reconnaissance missions to assess the damage done in the attacks. The interception was made by No. 66 Squadron RAF. One of the He 111s was chased out to sea and was last seen flying on one engine. It was likely to have belonged to I./Kampfgeschwader 1 (KG 1), which reported one He 111 destroyed upon crash landing back in France after combat. Small groups of German bombers attempted to attack London in the afternoon, causing little damage. II./Kampfgeschwader 4 (KG 4) had one He 111 crash land near Eindhoven after combat with the crew unhurt. The bomber was 30 percent damaged. 6 Staffel Kampfgeschwader 30 (KG 30) lost one Junkers Ju 88 to fighters when it crashed in France and another force landed after combat. I. and II./Kampfgeschwader 51 (KG 51) lost one Ju 88 each and another damaged. In the lost Ju 88s, all crews were reported missing. Kampfgeschwader 27 (KG 27) bombed Liverpool during the night at 10:48. Widespread damage was caused in the city and neighbouring Birkenhead, but only nine casualties were inflicted. Elsewhere damage was reported at Eastbourne, Worthing, Bournemouth, Cardiff, Avonmouth, Manchester, Warrington, Bootle and Preston. RAF night fighters flew 64 sorties and intercepted two bombers. Neither the fighters or ground defences claimed any successes. ## Aftermath ### Overclaiming and propaganda Overclaiming in aerial warfare is not uncommon. During the Second World War, pilots often claimed more aircraft shot down than was actually the case. The Air Ministry released a press statement on 15 September that 175–185 German aircraft had been shot down. The actual number of aircraft destroyed was two-thirds lower and significantly less than the number of German losses on 15 and 18 August (The Hardest Day), in which the Luftwaffe lost 75 and 69 respectively. At 20:00, Churchill, who had returned to 10 Downing Street, was awakened. He received bad news from the navy. In the Atlantic sinking of shipping had been bad, but his Secretary informed him that all had been redeemed in the day's air battle. He was told the RAF had downed 183 enemy aircraft for under 40 losses. On 16 September, a British flying boat arrived in New York City delivering news of a "record bag" of 185 enemy aircraft. The German Embassy tried in vain to correct the total. The Germans were ignored and The New York Times ran several excited stories calling for a military alliance with Britain and her Commonwealth. The Germans were slower in putting their story together. On 17 September, the Nazi Party newspaper Völkischer Beobachter announced that attacks had caused considerable damage to London. It claimed the Luftwaffe destroyed 79 RAF aircraft for 43 losses. This was also a severe over claim. RAF losses amounted to 29 fighters. AOC 11 Group Keith Park was livid with the claim returns. As far as he was concerned, claiming 200 on one day was nonsense. He placed particular blame on Leigh-Mallory's Big Wing which had claimed one third, around 60, of the 185 'victories' (total claims were 81 in the morning and 104 in the afternoon). More damage should have been done to German bombers inbound to the target rather than destroying stragglers that were no military threat as they made their way to the coast. He complained that there were too many inexperienced leaders and interceptions were being missed. Things needed "tightening up", that was Park's lesson for 15 September. Park was aware the ratio of losses was 2:1 in the British favour. It had been a decent performance, but not Fighter Command's best. ### Evaluation of the day's events In the two main engagements, the fighter losses had been about equal. The big difference was the bomber losses. Fighter Command had greater success against the afternoon attack than the morning assault, which it outnumbered 2:1. The ratio of German fighters to bombers had been 3:1 in the morning but 5:1 in the afternoon, so there were more targets. The more bombers Kesselring sent, the more were lost. Kesselring was back where he started. Park's handling of the actions was a masterpiece of aggressive defence, yet he was not under the same pressure as he had been during August when air battles were so confusing they were hard to control. A big set-piece offensive played into his hands. Leigh-Mallory claimed the Big Wings had destroyed entire formations of enemy aircraft upon seeing them. He even claimed the RAF outnumbered their opponents in several engagements. In the afternoon battle, he claimed that the Wing could not get into position to break up the bombers in time and was intercepted by German fighters. Still, while that was true he also claimed his units had shot down 105 enemy aircraft and probably destroyed a further 40. He claimed another 18 damaged for the loss of 14 and six pilots. The claims were a massive exaggeration. But while the Big Wing had proven physically ineffective for the most part, its biggest contribution to the day had been its use as a psychological weapon. German aircrews had been told the RAF was a defeated force and the German bomber units that had seen the Big Wing form up were quite shocked, and those crews in the badly hit units, including KG 2 and KG 3, that had witnessed head-on collisions with German aircraft were badly shaken. A German victory on the Battle of Britain Day was unlikely. It could only have been possible if Park had made crass errors and had been caught on the ground. Stephen Bungay postulates that had the loss rates been reversed, Dowding could have replaced those with reinforcements from his C units and carried on. Moreover, during both major engagements Fighter Command had used less than half of its strength. It would have been able to meet the Luftwaffe again on the morrow. Hermann Göring met his staff at Karinhall the following day for a conference. Their assessments of the air battle verged on pure fantasy. They concluded the RAF had withdrawn all available fighter units from all over the country to concentrate on London. The fact that the Western afternoon raids against ports were uncontested led them to believe the enemy was breaking. Another four or five days, they thought, would be sure to break them. The OKL believed that the British were down to their last 300 fighters, with only 250 being produced. To stop fighter production, factories in Bristol were to be attacked. London was also to be subjected to round the clock bombing. Theo Osterkamp pointed to the massed formations used by the British (Big Wing), and put their use down to the ineffectiveness of the 15 September raids. Göring was delighted with the news that the British were committing mass formations to battle. The Big Wing's use would allow the German fighters to engage and destroy RAF fighters in large numbers. However, the Germans had not realised this stratagem was by no means the uniform strategy in Fighter Command. Nevertheless, the OKL were still confident of victory. It blamed the bad weather and RAF's last-minute change of strategy for prolonging summer operations. Still, the Luftwaffe bomber crews were ordered to prepare winter quarters. The campaign turned to London for the duration of 1940. It would witness some large-scale daylight air battles, but it gradually turned to a campaign by night. It would become known as The Blitz. ### Hitler's reaction and strategic overview Hitler did not seem overly bothered with the outcome of the air battle. For him, Operation Sea Lion had also been a huge risk, even with air superiority, and he had been convinced since the end of August the Luftwaffe would not achieve it anyway. The war with Britain would have to go on. He would maintain the threat of invasion until 1941 through the use of strategic bombing. Then, he would turn against the Soviet Union and eliminate Britain's last possible ally in Europe. With the Soviets defeated, he believed the British would negotiate. On 17 September, he sent out a directive to the three armed services informing them of Sea Lion's delay. On this date, the date for S-Day had been 21 September. It was now postponed until further notice. It is likely that Hitler did not want to gamble his new-found military prestige by launching a hazardous venture across the Channel unless the Luftwaffe had crushed all opposition. At the beginning of December 1940, Hitler told the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) that they could forget Sea Lion, although he did not formally cancel the operation until 3 March 1942. Göring had never believed in Sea Lion, while Hitler had never believed Adler could achieve victory without Sea Lion. Both went their own ways. Hitler needed someone to keep up the pressure on Britain, and Göring was willing to do it. On 19 September, Hitler ordered that no further barges were to be added to Sea Lion ports, but those under assembly were to continue. But the damage being done by RAF Bomber Command now meant sustaining the army in readiness was becoming a strain. The invasion forces were broken up and moved East on the understanding it could be reassembled with only three weeks notice. There was no clear solution to combating Britain from the air. Göring had not given up hope of winning a victory by airborne assault. He discussed the possibility of invading Ireland (Fall Grün, or Operation Green) with Kurt Student in January 1941, in order to surround Britain by land, sea and air. The operation was shelved. Instead, the Luftwaffe, with varying degrees of success, carried out the strategic bombardment of British industrial cities. The lack of RAF night defences in this stage of the war enabled the German bombers to inflict extensive damage without suffering the heavy losses of the daylight campaign. It is estimated that the Luftwaffe lost around 500 aircrews during the Blitz in comparison to the Battle of Britain in which it lost around 2,800 killed, 340 wounded, 750 captured. Overall losses were cut by one-third of daylight operations. Still, perennial problems with spares meant serviceability rates remained at about 50%. The Luftwaffe's bomber crews had never been trained for bad weather or night operations. To support them, navigation aids in the form of Knickebein (Crooked Leg) were made available. They allowed German crews to navigate effectively to their targets. For the most part, crews were confident in using them, with the exception of poorer quality replacement crews. These systems were responsible for a few very successful attacks, such as the Coventry operation on 14 November. Operations against Liverpool were also successful. Some 75% of the port's capacity was reduced at one point, and it lost 39,126 long tons (39,754 t) of shipping to air attacks, with another 111,601 long tons (113,392 t) damaged. Minister of Home Security Herbert Morrison was also worried that morale was breaking, noting the defeatism expressed by civilians. Operations against London up until May 1941 could also have a severe impact on morale. The campaign's ultimate limitation was the poor formulation of military strategy. The types of targets selected from one operation to the next differed radically and no sustained pressure was put on any one type of British target. The Luftwaffe's strategy became increasingly aimless. Disputes among the OKL staff revolved more around tactics than strategy. This method condemned the offensive over Britain to failure before it had begun. The result of the air campaign against Britain in 1940 and 1941 was a decisive failure to end the war. As Hitler committed Germany to ever increasing military adventures, the Wehrmacht became increasingly overstretched and was unable to cope with a multi-front war. By 1944, the Allies were ready to launch Operation Overlord, the invasion of Western Europe. The Battle of Britain ensured that the Western Allies had a base from which to launch the campaign and that there would be a Western Allied presence on the battlefield to meet the Soviet Red Army in central Europe at the end of the war in May 1945. ## Commemoration Battle of Britain Day is now an annual commemoration of the battle in the United Kingdom, specially commemorated on 15 September. In Canada, the commemoration takes place on the third Sunday of September. ## See also - May Day in England - Minden Day - Oak Apple Day - St Crispin's day - St George's Day in England - Feast day of St Thomas Becket - Trafalgar Day
4,576,248	New York State Route 93	1,132,326,618	State highway in western New York, US	[ "State highways in New York (state)", "Transportation in Erie County, New York", "Transportation in Niagara County, New York" ]	New York State Route 93 (NY 93) is a 43.08-mile (69.33 km) state highway in western New York in the United States. The route begins at an intersection with NY 18F in the village of Youngstown and runs in a general northwest–southeast direction across Niagara and Erie counties to its east end at an intersection with NY 5 in the town of Newstead, just south of the village of Akron. NY 93 serves as a connector between several major arterials, including NY 104 in Cambria, NY 31 just west of the city of Lockport, and NY 78 south of the city. The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. Although it began in Youngstown and ended in Newstead as it does today, the initial routing of NY 93 deviated from the modern path in the vicinity of the city of Lockport. From Cambria to Lockport's eastern suburbs, the highway originally used NY 425, Lower Mountain Road, Akron Road, and a series of streets in Lockport. NY 93 was moved onto NY 104 and Junction Road in Cambria in the 1940s, and altered to bypass Lockport to the south on a new highway and Robinson and Dysinger roads in 1991. In 2006, NY 93 was realigned west of Lockport to continue south on Junction Road to NY 31. The change removed NY 93 from Upper Mountain Road, a county-owned highway that had been part of the route since the 1930s. ## Route description ### West of Lockport NY 93 begins at an intersection with NY 18F (Main Street; co-designated but not signed as County Route 907 or CR 907) in the center of the village of Youngstown. The route proceeds eastward through the village as a two-lane road named Lockport Street, serving two blocks of commercial areas before bending to the northeast and passing into the residential eastern portion of Youngstown. At the eastern village limits, NY 93 briefly widens to four lanes as it enters a partial cloverleaf interchange with the Niagara Scenic Parkway. Past the junction, the highway reverts to a two-lane road and changes names to Youngstown–Lockport Road as it runs across the town of Porter. The residential surroundings continue to the hamlet of Towers Corners, where NY 93 connects to NY 18 (Creek Road). After NY 18, NY 93 curves to the southeast, serving another residential stretch ahead of a junction with Youngstown–Wilson Road (CR 36) on the eastern edge of Towers Corners. After this intersection, the homes give way to farms as the road heads into rural areas of the town. The route continues on a southeast track through Porter, passing a mixture of rural and residential areas on its way into the hamlet of Porter Center, where NY 93 enters an intersection with Porter Center Road (CR 57). Another southeastward stretch brings the route across Twelvemile Creek and into the hamlet of Ransomville, where NY 93 becomes the community's main street. Through Ransomville, NY 93 retains the Youngstown–Lockport Road name, intersecting with Ransomville Road (CR 17) in the hamlet's business district. Just outside Ransomville, NY 93 leaves the town of Porter for the town of Wilson. It continues generally southeastward across mostly open terrain, meeting Randall Road (CR 83) and Church Street (CR 56) on its way to the town of Cambria. NY 93 becomes North Ridge Road at the town line, and it soon enters the hamlet of North Ridge, a community built up around the route's intersection with NY 425 (Cambria–Wilson Road). The hamlet's residential surroundings continue to the adjacent community of Molyneaux Corners, where NY 93 becomes concurrent with NY 104 (Ridge Road). NY 93 and NY 104 proceed northeast across lightly populated areas for 2 miles (3.2 km) to the hamlet of Warren Corners, at which point NY 93 splits from NY 104 and heads southward along Town Line Road. It immediately intersects with Stone Road (CR 19) before leaving the hamlet. ### Lockport area Outside of Warren Corners, the route heads across rural areas along the Cambria–Lockport town line. It soon enters the small hamlet of Hickory Corners, where the road passes under Lower Mountain Road (CR 902). Access to the highway is made by way of Town Line Road Spur (CR 114), a connector leading to Lower Mountain Road. NY 93 continues southward along the town line, changing names to Junction Road at an intersection with Upper Mountain Road (CR 5) west of the city of Lockport. From here, the route crosses over CSX Transportation's Lockport Subdivision rail line at the hamlet of Lockport Junction before intersecting with NY 31 (Saunders Settlement Road) and NY 270 (Campbell Boulevard) just south of the community. NY 270 begins straight ahead to the south while NY 93 turns northeast onto Saunders Settlement Road, beginning a concurrency with NY 31. Now fully in the town of Lockport, NY 31 and NY 93 proceed northeast through an open area of the town as a four-lane divided highway. The two routes continue to the western edge of the city of Lockport, where they intersect with Upper Mountain Road and the Lockport Bypass. The overlap ends here as NY 93 turns southeastward onto the two-lane bypass. Along the bypass, NY 93 briefly enters the city limits as it runs past several industrial facilities and intersects with Hinman Road (CR 903) just ahead of a bridge over the Erie Canal. Past the waterway, the bypass takes a more southerly course through an undeveloped part of the town of Lockport to a junction with Robinson Road (CR 123) on the Lockport–Pendleton town line. The Lockport Bypass ends here, leaving NY 93 to turn eastward onto Robinson Road. The route initially serves a line of homes as it heads along Robinson Road; however, it soon enters a commercial district surrounding the road's intersection with NY 78 (Transit Road). At this point, the Lockport–Pendleton town line turns south to follow NY 78, leaving NY 93 fully within the town of Lockport as it runs eastward past another stretch of homes. Not far from NY 78, NY 93 changes names to Dysinger Road at an intersection with Beattie Avenue (CR 14) and Raymond Road (CR 85). The junction also marks a shift in the road's surroundings as the homes give way to open, rolling terrain. NY 93 continues eastward for several miles to the town of Royalton, where it meets Riddle Road (CR 35) and Akron Road (CR 142) at adjacent intersections just east of the town line. ### East of Lockport NY 93 takes over Akron Road's name and right-of-way, continuing eastward past a line of scattered homes to reach the sparsely developed hamlet of Dysinger. Here, the route turns southward at a junction with Bunker Hill Road (CR 136). Outside of Dysinger, NY 93 heads southeastward across undeveloped areas of Royalton, connecting to Block Church Road (CR 110) as it approaches Tonawanda Creek and the Niagara–Erie county line. The road runs along the northern edge of the creek for about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) prior to curving southward at an intersection with Wolcottsville Road (CR 122). The turn brings NY 93 across Tonawanda Creek and into the Erie County town of Newstead, where it becomes known as Maple Road and immediately intersects with CR 260 (Koepsel Road). Continuing southward, NY 93 runs across open, rolling terrain, meeting CR 259 (Tonawanda Creek Road) on its way to the hamlet of Swifts Mills. Here, the rural surroundings briefly give way to residential areas as NY 93 intersects with CR 255 (Swift Mills Road) in the center of the community. South of Swifts Mills, the road serves only intermittent stretches of homes for 2 miles (3.2 km), including a cluster of residences around its closely spaced intersections with CR 253 (Carney Road) and CR 42 (Rapids Road). It continues on a southward track past the eastern terminus of CR 218 (Hunts Corner–Akron Road) to the outskirts of the village of Akron, where the highway turns east onto Lewis Road and soon enters the village limits. NY 93 runs past a line of homes before intersecting Cedar Street, a road maintained by Erie County as CR 261 north of the village. The route turns south at Cedar Street, following the residential street into downtown Akron. Here, NY 93 intersects with CR 573 (John Street) at a junction that was once the western terminus of NY 267. At this intersection, NY 93 heads west on John Street for one block before continuing south on Buffalo Street for another block to Main Street. NY 93 turns westward again, following Main Street through the westernmost part of Akron's central business district prior to curving southwestward at a junction with Mechanic Street. The highway takes on the Mechanic Street name as it crosses over Murder Creek and leaves downtown Akron. Just south of the creek, NY 93 changes names to Buell Street at an intersection with Jackson Street. As the route continues southward through the southern part of Akron, it serves mostly residential areas, save for an industrial complex at NY 93's intersection with CR 163 (Clarence Center Road) and CR 167 (Parkview Drive). NY 93 exits Akron a short distance south of the junction, at which point the route heads into another area of open fields while retaining the Buell Street name. It continues on a southward track for about 1 mile (1.6 km) to a commercialized intersection with NY 5 (Main Road), where Buell Street and NY 93 both come to an end. ## History ### Designation and early changes NY 93 was established as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, connecting the cities and villages of Youngstown, Lockport, and Akron. Several portions of the route have been realigned since NY 93 was truncated from NY 33 in Peters Corners in 1935. When NY 93 was first assigned, it turned south at the hamlet of North Ridge and overlapped with NY 425 along Cambria–Wilson Road to Lower Mountain Road, then part of NY 3. NY 425 went west from this junction while NY 93 headed eastward, following NY 3 along Lower Mountain, Gothic Hill, Upper Mountain, and Saunders Settlement roads to the city of Lockport. At Locust Street, NY 93 left NY 3 and exited the city along Locust, High, and Akron streets and Akron Road. It met its current alignment southeast of the city in Royalton. NY 3 was realigned c. 1932 to follow Saunders Settlement Road between Shawnee Road (NY 425) and Upper Mountain Road. The former routing of NY 3 along Shawnee, Lower Mountain, Gothic Hill, and Upper Mountain roads was redesignated as New York State Route 3A even though all of NY 3's former routing was already part of either NY 425 or NY 93. The NY 3A designation was eliminated c. 1935 when NY 3 was truncated eastward to a new western terminus in central New York. In the early 1940s, NY 93 was altered to follow North Ridge Road, U.S. Route 104 (now NY 104), and Junction Road between North Ridge and Lower Mountain Road. Around the same time that NY 93 was rerouted, NY 270 was also extended northward along Junction Road from NY 31 to US 104. As a result, NY 93 overlapped NY 270 between Lower Mountain Road and US 104. The overlap with NY 270 remained in place until c. 1963 when NY 270 was truncated southward to the intersection of Lower Mountain and Junction roads. NY 93 was realigned in the late 1970s to bypass Lower Mountain and Gothic Hill Roads on Junction and Upper Mountain roads, replacing NY 270 along Junction Road. The Lower Mountain Road portion of NY 93's former routing is now maintained by Niagara County as County Route 902 (CR 902). ### Lockport realignments The Lockport Bypass, a highway bypassing downtown Lockport to the southwest, was opened to traffic on July 26, 1991. The highway cost \$7.7 million (equivalent to \$ in 2023) to construct and extended from the junction of NY 31 and NY 93 west of the city to Robinson Road south of downtown. NY 93 was realigned to follow the new bypass south to Robinson Road, where it turned east and followed Robinson Road (CR 123) and Dysinger Road (CR 133) to Akron Road in Royalton. The portion of Akron Road (NY 93's former routing) east of the Lockport city limits became NY 954M, an unsigned reference route. Ownership and maintenance of Robinson Road from the bypass to NY 78 was transferred from Niagara County to the state of New York on September 1, 1990, as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. The portion of NY 93 between NY 78 and Akron Road became state-maintained on October 1, 1998, as part of another swap that also transferred ownership and maintenance of Akron Road to Niagara County. Akron Road is now CR 142. On November 1, 2005, the Niagara County Legislature voted on a measure to allow the county to ask the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) to remove the NY 93 designation from Upper Mountain Road, a county-maintained highway, and reassign it to Junction Road (NY 270) and Saunders Settlement Road (NY 31). The impetus for the change came from a resident of Upper Mountain Road, who demanded that trucks should be removed from the roadway. This part of the agenda was passed. NYSDOT obliged to the request in 2006, rerouting NY 93 as proposed and truncating NY 270 southward to NY 31. ## Major intersections ## See also - List of county routes in Niagara County, New York
272,940	Jungle cat	1,163,809,931	Medium-sized wild cat	[ "Felids of Europe", "Felis", "Mammals described in 1777", "Mammals of Central Asia", "Mammals of Europe", "Mammals of South Asia", "Mammals of Southeast Asia", "Mammals of West Asia", "Mammals of the Middle East", "Taxa named by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber" ]	The jungle cat (Felis chaus), also called reed cat, swamp cat and jungle lynx, is a medium-sized cat native to the Middle East, the Caucasus, South and Southeast Asia and southern China. It inhabits foremost wetlands like swamps, littoral and riparian areas with dense vegetation. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, and is mainly threatened by destruction of wetlands, trapping and poisoning. The jungle cat has a uniformly sandy, reddish-brown or grey fur without spots; melanistic and albino individuals are also known. It is solitary in nature, except during the mating season and mother-kitten families. Adults maintain territories by urine spraying and scent marking. Its preferred prey is small mammals and birds. It hunts by stalking its prey, followed by a sprint or a leap; the ears help in pinpointing the location of prey. Both sexes become sexually mature by the time they are one year old; females enter oestrus from January to March. Mating behaviour is similar to that in the domestic cat: the male pursues the female in oestrus, seizes her by the nape of her neck and mounts her. Gestation lasts nearly two months. Births take place between December and June, though this might vary geographically. Kittens begin to catch their own prey at around six months and leave the mother after eight or nine months. The species was first described by Johann Anton Güldenstädt in 1776 based on a specimen caught in a Caucasian wetland. Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber gave the jungle cat its present binomial name and is therefore generally considered as binomial authority. Three subspecies are recognised at present. ## Taxonomy and phylogeny ### Taxonomic history The Baltic-German naturalist Johann Anton Güldenstädt was the first scientist who caught a jungle cat near the Terek River at the southern frontier of the Russian empire, a region that he explored in 1768–1775 on behalf of Catherine II of Russia. He described this specimen in 1776 under the name "Chaus". In 1778, Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber used chaus as the species name and is therefore considered the binomial authority. Paul Matschie in 1912 and Joel Asaph Allen in 1920 challenged the validity of Güldenstädt's nomenclature, arguing that the name Felis auriculis apice nigro barbatis was not a binomen and therefore improper, and that "chaus" was used as a common name rather than as part of the scientific name. In the 1820s, Eduard Rüppell collected a female jungle cat near Lake Manzala in the Nile Delta. Thomas Hardwicke's collection of illustrations of Indian wildlife comprises the first drawing of an Indian jungle cat, named the "allied cat" (Felis affinis) by John Edward Gray in 1830. Two years later, Johann Friedrich von Brandt proposed a new species under the name Felis rüppelii, recognising the distinctness of the Egyptian jungle cat. The same year, a stuffed cat was presented at a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal that had been caught in the jungles of Midnapore in West Bengal, India. J. T. Pearson, who donated the specimen, proposed the name Felis kutas, noting that it differed in colouration from Felis chaus. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire described a jungle cat from the area of Dehra Dun in northern India in 1844 under the name Felis jacquemontii in memory of Victor Jacquemont. In 1836, Brian Houghton Hodgson proclaimed the red-eared cat commonly found in Nepal to be a lynx and therefore named it Lynchus erythrotus; Edward Frederick Kelaart described the first jungle cat skin from Sri Lanka in 1852 and stressed upon its close resemblance to Hodgson's red cat. William Thomas Blanford pointed out the lynx-like appearance of cat skins and skulls from the plains around Yarkant County and Kashgar when he described Felis shawiana in 1876. Nikolai Severtzov proposed the generic name Catolynx in 1858, followed by Leopold Fitzinger's suggestion to call it Chaus catolynx in 1869. In 1898, William Edward de Winton proposed to subordinate the specimens from the Caucasus, Persia and Turkestan to Felis chaus typica, and regrouped the lighter built specimens from the Indian subcontinent to F. c. affinis. He renamed the Egyptian jungle cat as F. c. nilotica because Felis rüppelii was already applied to a different cat. A skin collected near Jericho in 1864 led him to describe a new subspecies, F. c. furax, as this skin was smaller than other Egyptian jungle cat skins. A few years later, Alfred Nehring also described a jungle cat skin collected in Palestine, which he named Lynx chrysomelanotis. Reginald Innes Pocock reviewed the nomenclature of felids in 1917 and classified the jungle cat group as part of the genus Felis. In the 1930s, Pocock reviewed the jungle cat skins and skulls from British India and adjacent countries. Based mainly on differences in fur length and colour he subordinated the zoological specimens from Turkestan to Balochistan to F. c. chaus, the Himalayan ones to F. c. affinis, the ones from Cutch to Bengal under F. c. kutas, and the tawnier ones from Burma under F. c. fulvidina. He newly described six larger skins from Sind as F. c. prateri, and skins with shorter coats from Sri Lanka and southern India as F. c. kelaarti. ### Classification In 2005, the authors of Mammal Species of the World recognized 10 subspecies as valid taxa. Since 2017, the Cat Specialist Group considers only three subspecies as valid. Geographical variation of the jungle cat is not yet well understood and needs to be examined. The following table is based on the classification of the species provided in Mammal Species of the World. It also shows the synonyms used in the revision of the Cat Classification Task Force: ### Phylogeny In 2006, the phylogenetic relationship of the jungle cat was described as follows: The jungle cat is a member of the genus Felis within the family Felidae. Results of an mtDNA analysis of 55 jungle cats from various biogeographic zones in India indicate a high genetic variation and a relatively low differentiation between populations. It appears that the central Indian F. c. kutas population separates the Thar F. c. prateri populations from the rest and also the south Indian F. c. kelaarti populations from the north Indian F. c. affinis ones. The central Indian populations are genetically closer to the southern than to the northern populations. ## Characteristics The jungle cat is a medium-sized, long-legged cat, and the largest of the extant Felis species. The head-and-body length is typically between 59 and 76 cm (23 and 30 in). It stands nearly 36 cm (14 in) at shoulder and weighs 2–16 kg (4.4–35.3 lb). Its body size decreases from west to east; this was attributed to greater competition from small cats in the east. Its body size shows a similar decrease from the northern latitudes toward the tropics. Sexually dimorphic, females tend to be smaller and lighter than males. The face is long and narrow, with a white muzzle. The large, pointed ears, 4.5–8 cm (1.8–3.1 in) in length and reddish brown on the back, are set close together; a small tuft of black hairs, nearly 15 mm (0.59 in) long, emerges from the tip of both ears. The eyes have yellow irides and elliptical pupils; white lines can be seen around the eye. Dark lines run from the corner of the eyes down the sides of the nose and a dark patch marks the nose. The skull is fairly broad in the region of the zygomatic arch; hence the head of this cat appears relatively rounder. The coat, sandy, reddish brown or grey, is uniformly coloured and lacks spots; melanistic and albino individuals have been reported from the Indian subcontinent. White cats observed in the coastline tracts of the southern Western Ghats lacked the red eyes typical of true albinos. A 2014 suggested that their colouration could be attributed to inbreeding. Kittens are striped and spotted, and adults may retain some of the markings. Dark-tipped hairs cover the body, giving the cat a speckled appearance. The belly is generally lighter than the rest of the body and the throat is pale. The fur is denser on the back compared to the underparts. Two moults can be observed in a year; the coat is rougher and lighter in summer than in winter. The insides of the forelegs show four to five rings; faint markings may be seen on the outside. The black-tipped tail, 21 to 36 cm (8.3 to 14.2 in) long, is marked by two to three dark rings on the last third of the length. The pawprints measure about 5 cm × 6 cm (2.0 in × 2.4 in); the cat can cover 29 to 32 cm (11 to 13 in) in one step. There is a distinct spinal crest. Because of its long legs, short tail and tuft on the ears, the jungle cat resembles a small lynx. It is larger and more slender than the domestic cat. ## Distribution and habitat The jungle cat is found in the Middle East, the Caucasus, the Indian subcontinent, central and Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka and in southern China. A habitat generalist, the jungle cat inhabits places with adequate water and dense vegetation, such as swamps, wetlands, littoral and riparian areas, grasslands and shrub. It is common in agricultural lands, such as fields of bean and sugarcane, across its range, and has often been sighted near human settlements. As reeds and tall grasses are typical of its habitat, it is known as "reed cat" or "swamp cat". It can thrive even in areas of sparse vegetation, but does not adapt well to cold climates and is rare in areas where snowfall is common. Historical records indicate that it occurs up to elevations of 2,310 m (7,580 ft) in the Himalayas. It shuns rainforests and woodlands. In Turkey, it has been recorded in wetlands near Manavgat, in the Akyatan Lagoon on the southern coast and near Lake Eğirdir. In the Palestinian territories, it was recorded in the Nablus, Ramallah, Jericho and Jerusalem Governorates in the West Bank during surveys carried out between 2012 and 2016. In Iran, it inhabits a variety of habitat types from plains and agriculture lands to mountains ranging from elevations of 45 to 4,178 m (148 to 13,707 ft) in at least 23 of 31 provinces of Iran. In Pakistan, it was photographed in Haripur, Dera Ismail Khan, Sialkot Districts and Langh Lake Wildlife Sanctuary. In India, it is the most common small wild cat. In Nepal, it was recorded in alpine habitat at elevations of 3,000–3,300 m (9,800–10,800 ft) in Annapurna Conservation Area between 2014 and 2016. In Malaysia, it was recorded in a highly fragmented forest in the Selangor state in 2010. A few jungle cat mummies were found among the cats in ancient Egypt. ## Ecology and behaviour The jungle cat is typically diurnal and hunts throughout the day. Its activity tends to decrease during the hot noon hours. It rests in burrows, grass thickets and scrubs. It often sunbathes on winter days. Jungle cats have been estimated to walk 3–6 km (1.9–3.7 mi) at night, although this likely varies depending on the availability of prey. The behaviour of the jungle cat has not been extensively studied. Solitary in nature, it does not associate with conspecifics, except in the mating season. The only prominent interaction is the mother-kitten bond. Territories are maintained by urine spraying and scent marking; some males have been observed rubbing their cheeks on objects to mark them. Leopards, tigers, bears, crocodiles, dholes, golden jackals, fishing cats, large raptors and snakes are the main predators of the jungle cat. The golden jackal in particular can be a major competitor to jungle cats. When it encounters a threat, the jungle cat will vocalise before engaging in attack, producing sounds like small roars – a behavior uncommon for the other members of Felis. The meow of the jungle cat is also somewhat lower than that of a typical domestic cat. The jungle cat can host parasites such as Haemaphysalis ticks and Heterophyes trematode species. ### Diet and hunting Primarily a carnivore, the jungle cat prefers small mammals such as gerbils, hares and rodents. It also hunts birds, fishes, frogs, insects and small snakes. Its prey typically weighs less than 1 kg (2.2 lb), but occasionally includes mammals as large as young gazelles. The jungle cat is unusual in that it is partially omnivorous: it eats fruits, especially in winter. In a study carried out in Sariska Tiger Reserve, rodents were found to comprise as much as 95% of its diet. The jungle cat hunts by stalking its prey, followed by a sprint or a leap; the sharp ears help in pinpointing the location of prey. It uses different techniques to secure prey. The cat has been observed searching for musk rats in their holes. Like the caracal, the jungle cat can perform one or two high leaps into the air to grab birds. It is an efficient climber as well. The jungle cat has been clocked at 32 km/h (20 mph). It is an efficient swimmer, and can swim up to 1.5 km (0.93 mi) in water and plunge into water to catch fish. ### Reproduction Both sexes become sexually mature by the time they are one year old. Females enter oestrus lasting for about five days, from January to March. In males, spermatogenesis occurs mainly in February and March. In southern Turkmenistan, mating occurs from January to early February. The mating season is marked by noisy fights among males for dominance. Mating behaviour is similar to that in the domestic cat: the male pursues the female in oestrus, seizes her by the nape of her neck and mounts her. Vocalisations and flehmen are prominent during courtship. After a successful copulation, the female gives out a loud cry and reacts with aversion towards her partner. The pair then separate. Gestation lasts nearly two months. Births take place between December and June, though this might vary geographically. Before parturition, the mother prepares a den of grass in an abandoned animal burrow, hollow tree or reed bed. Litters comprise one to five kittens, typically two to three kittens. Females can raise two litters in a year. Kittens weigh between 43 and 55 g (1.5 and 1.9 oz) at birth, tending to be much smaller in the wild than in captivity. Initially blind and helpless, they open their eyes at 10 to 13 days of age and are fully weaned by around three months. Males usually do not participate in the raising of kittens; however, in captivity, males appear to be very protective of their offspring. Kittens begin to catch their own prey at around six months and leave the mother after eight or nine months. The lifespan of the jungle cat in captivity is 15 to 20 years; this is possibly higher than that in the wild. Generation length of the jungle cat is 5.2 years. ## Threats Major threats to the jungle cat include habitat loss such as the destruction of wetlands, dam construction, environmental pollution, industrialisation and urbanisation. Illegal hunting is a threat in Turkey and Iran. Its rarity in Southeast Asia is possibly due to high levels of hunting. Since the 1960s, populations of the Caucasian jungle cat living along the Caspian Sea and in the Caucasus range states have been rapidly declining. Only small populations persist today. There has been no record in the Astrakhan Nature Reserve in the Volga Delta since the 1980s. It is rare in the Middle East. In Jordan, it is highly affected by the expansion of agricultural areas around the river beds of Yarmouk and Jordan rivers, where farmers hunted and poisoned jungle cats in retaliation for attacking poultry. It is also considered rare and threatened in Afghanistan. India exported jungle cat skins in large numbers, until this trade was banned in 1979; some illegal trade continues in the country, in Egypt and Afghanistan. In the 1970s, Southeast Asian jungle cats still used to be the most common wild cats near villages in certain parts of northern Thailand and occurred in many protected areas of the country. However, since the early 1990s, jungle cats are rarely encountered and have suffered drastic declines due to hunting and habitat destruction. Today, their official status in the country is critically endangered. In Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, jungle cats have been subject to extensive hunting. Skins are occasionally recorded in border markets, and live individuals, possibly taken from Myanmar or Cambodia, occasionally turn up in the Khao Khieo and Chiang Mai zoos of Thailand. ## Conservation The jungle cat is listed under CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in Bangladesh, China, India, Israel, Myanmar, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Thailand and Turkey. But it does not receive legal protection outside protected areas in Bhutan, Georgia, Laos, Lebanon, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.
2,243,580	Forest Hills–71st Avenue station	1,173,224,599	New York City Subway station in Queens	[ "1936 establishments in New York City", "Forest Hills, Queens", "IND Queens Boulevard Line stations", "New York City Subway stations in Queens, New York", "New York City Subway terminals", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1936" ]	The Forest Hills–71st Avenue station (previously known as 71st–Continental Avenues station) is an express station on the IND Queens Boulevard Line of the New York City Subway, located on Queens Boulevard at 71st (Continental) Avenue in Forest Hills, Queens. It is served by the and trains at all times, the \<F\> train during rush hours in the reverse peak direction, and the train at all times except late nights. It serves as the terminus for the latter two services. ## History The Queens Boulevard Line was one of the first lines built by the city-owned Independent Subway System (IND), and stretches between the IND Eighth Avenue Line in Manhattan and 179th Street and Hillside Avenue in Jamaica, Queens. The Queens Boulevard Line was in part financed by a Public Works Administration (PWA) loan and grant of \$25 million. One of the proposed stations would have been located at 71st Avenue. During the late 1920s, in anticipation of the arrival of the subway, land was bought by developers and was built up. Zoning laws were changed to allow fifteen-story apartment buildings to be built, and made the neighborhood of Forest Hills a more desirable place to live, especially as it was an express stop. Queens Borough President George Harvey predicted that the introduction of the subway to Forest Hills would turn Queens Boulevard into the "Park Avenue of Queens." On December 31, 1936, the IND Queens Boulevard Line was extended by eight stops, and 3.5 miles (5.6 km), from its previous terminus at Roosevelt Avenue to Union Turnpike, and the 71st Avenue station opened as part of this extension. The station was proposed as a transfer station between the never-built Queens Super-Express Bypass as part of the 1968 Program for Action, which would have significantly expanded railway and subway service in the five boroughs. Under a 1984 plan, the new express station would have been one of three stops on the 63rd Street Line extension east of 21st Street–Queensbridge, the other two stops being at Northern Boulevard and Woodside. The bypass station would have had a mezzanine, two platform levels (an upper platform for Jamaica and Southeast Queens-bound trains; a lower platform for Manhattan-bound trains), a new elevator entrance, and an expanded mezzanine, with escalators and stairs connecting the new platform levels to the existing platforms. The new station would have been built on the south side of Queens Boulevard, south of the existing station. In 2014, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority built a new signal tower for the Manhattan-bound platform. The agency also upgraded the station to compliance with the 1990 Americans With Disabilities Act; the upgrade included passenger elevators to serve the street level, mezzanine and platforms. This project was completed by March 2014 after a three-month delay. However, a ribbon-cutting for the new elevators was not held until May 15, 2014. ## Station layout The station has four tracks and two island platforms. The inner express tracks are served by the E and F trains at all times except nights. The outer local tracks are served by the the R train at all times except late nights, and the E and F trains during late nights. The station is the northern terminus for local trains. The next stop to the west (railroad south) is Jackson Heights–Roosevelt Avenue for express trains and 67th Avenue for local trains. The next stop to the east (railroad north) is Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike for express trains and 75th Avenue for local trains. To the east, the line widens to six tracks, with two tracks starting between the local and express tracks in each direction, then ramping down to a lower level, where they widen to four tracks and run under the 75th Avenue station to Jamaica Yard. F trains stop on the express track at all times except late nights, when they make local stops along the Queens Boulevard Line, but switch to the local track to the east and continue on to Jamaica–179th Street. E trains stop on the express tracks at all times except late nights, when they make local stops along the Queens Boulevard Line. To the east, they continue on the express tracks (except evenings and weekends when they switch to the local track like the F) to Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer, with limited rush-hour express service to 179th Street. This station has four punch boxes: two each at the eastern end and western end. Both outer track walls have a light Fern green tile band with a black border and small "71st AVE" tile captions below them in white lettering on a black background. The tile band is part of a color-coded tile system used throughout the IND. The tile colors were designed to facilitate navigation for travelers going away from Lower Manhattan. As such, a different tile color is used at Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike, the next express station to the east. The green tiles used at the 71st Avenue station were also used at 75th Avenue, the only local station between 71st Avenue and Union Turnpike. The station's I-beam columns are painted emerald green with signs reading "71 - Forest Hills", while older signs on the black columns between the express tracks read "CONTINENTAL AVENUE - Forest Hills" in black lettering on a white background. ### Exits There are two fare control areas on the full width mezzanine above the platforms and tracks. The western section of the mezzanine is bounded on the west by the exit to the western side of 70th Road and the northern side of Queens Boulevard. There used to be a part-time booth at this location. On the east end, the fare control area is sided by a passageway out of fare control connecting the exits between 70th Road and 71st Avenue. There used to be a part-time booth at the northern section of the passageway. An elevator is located at the southern exit between 70th Road and 71st Avenue and makes the station ADA-accessible. The second fare control area is in between the aforementioned fare free passageway and the passageways connecting to the exits at 71st Avenue. At the eastern end of the mezzanine there is a staircase leading to Queens Boulevard between 71st Avenue and 71st Road on the northern side, and a staircase leading to the intersection of 71st Avenue and Queens Boulevard on the south side. There are seven staircases to each platform. ## Signage On the current MTA map and published timetables, the station name is "Forest Hills–71st Avenue." In the past, "Continental Avenue" (the alternative name of 71st Avenue used in nearby Forest Hills Gardens) has been included in the name and is used on the rollsigns of older rolling stock such as the R32. As of 2011, the platform signage reads 71–Continental Av–Forest Hills. ## Points of interest Nearby points of interest include: - Austin Street, a major business thoroughfare in Forest Hills, located south of the station. - Forest Hills LIRR station, located in Station Square in Forest Hills Gardens at Burns Street. - Ridgewood Savings Bank, Forest Hills Branch, designated a landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission since 2000. - West Side Tennis Club, containing Forest Hills Stadium, which hosted the US Open tennis tournament until 1977.
27,754,718	War Horse (film)	1,169,814,190	2011 film by Steven Spielberg	[ "2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2011 drama films", "2011 films", "2011 war drama films", "Amblin Entertainment films", "American epic films", "American war drama films", "DreamWorks Pictures films", "Films about deserters", "Films about horses", "Films about military animals", "Films about the British Army", "Films based on British novels", "Films based on works by Michael Morpurgo", "Films directed by Steven Spielberg", "Films produced by Kathleen Kennedy", "Films produced by Steven Spielberg", "Films scored by John Williams", "Films set in 1912", "Films set in 1914", "Films set in 1918", "Films set in Belgium", "Films set in Devon", "Films set in France", "Films set on farms", "Films shot at Longcross Studios", "Films shot in Bedfordshire", "Films shot in California", "Films shot in Devon", "Films shot in Hampshire", "Films shot in London", "Films shot in Surrey", "Films shot in Wales", "Films shot in Wiltshire", "Films with screenplays by Lee Hall (playwright)", "Films with screenplays by Richard Curtis", "Indian war films", "Reliance Entertainment films", "The Kennedy/Marshall Company films", "Touchstone Pictures films", "War adventure films", "War epic films", "Western Front (World War I) films", "World War I films based on actual events" ]	War Horse is a 2011 war film directed and produced by Steven Spielberg. Its screenplay, written by Lee Hall and Richard Curtis, is based on Michael Morpurgo's 1982 novel War Horse and its 2007 stage adaptation. Set before and during World War I, it tells of the journey of Joey, a bay Irish Hunter horse raised by British teenager Albert (Jeremy Irvine, in his feature film debut), as he is bought by the British Army, leading him to encounter various people throughout Europe, in the midst of the war and its tragedies. The film's ensemble cast also includes Peter Mullan, Emily Watson, Niels Arestrup, David Thewlis, Tom Hiddleston and Benedict Cumberbatch. DreamWorks Pictures acquired the film rights to the novel in December 2009, and Spielberg was announced to direct in May 2010. Having directed many films set during World War II, it was his first to tackle the events of World War I. Shot in England over 63 days, the production used 5,800 extras and 300 horses. Several longtime Spielberg collaborators—including producer Kathleen Kennedy, cinematographer Janusz Kamiński, editor Michael Kahn, production designer Rick Carter and composer John Williams—worked on War Horse. Produced by DreamWorks Pictures and released worldwide by Touchstone Pictures, War Horse became a box-office success (earning \$177 million on a \$70 million budget) and was met with positive reviews. The film was named one of the ten best films of 2011 by the American Film Institute and the National Board of Review, and was nominated for six Academy Awards (including Best Picture), two Golden Globes and five BAFTAs. ## Plot In 1912, a bay Irish Hunter is born in Devon, England. At an auction, farmer Ted Narracott outbids his landlord Lyons for the colt, to the dismay of his wife Rose, because the family needs a working horse that can plough the field, not an Irish Hunter. Their son Albert, accompanied by his best friend Andrew, names the colt Joey, and teaches him to come when he imitates an owl's call. The pair form a close bond. Against all odds, the horse and boy plough a rocky field, saving the family's farm. Rose shows Albert his father's medals from the Second Boer War, and gives him Ted's regimental pennant, confiding in Albert that his father carries physical and mental scars from the war. In 1914, as war with Germany is declared, heavy rain ruins the family's crops, forcing Ted to sell Joey to the army. Albert is heartbroken and tries to stop the sale, to no avail. Captain James Nicholls sees Albert's attachment to the horse and promises to look after Joey. Albert tries to enlist but is too young, and before the company departs, he ties the pennant to Joey's bridle and promises Joey he will find him. Joey bonds with Topthorn, a black stallion with whom he is trained for his military role. The horses are deployed to Flanders with a flying column under the command of Nicholls and Major Stewart. They lead a cavalry charge through a German encampment, but the unit is decimated by machine gun fire. Nicholls is killed along with almost all his fellow cavalrymen and the Germans capture the horses. Gunther, a German soldier, is assigned to the care of Joey and Topthorn. When his younger brother Michael is sent to the front lines, Gunther takes the horses and the four of them desert. The German army tracks down the boys, shoot them for desertion and leave without noticing the horses. They are found by Emilie, a French girl, the next morning. When German soldiers arrive at her grandfather's farm, she hides the horses in her bedroom. For her birthday, Emilie's grandfather allows her to ride Joey, but they run into the Germans who confiscate the horses. Emilie's grandfather keeps the pennant. By 1918, Albert has enlisted and is fighting alongside Andrew in the Second Battle of the Somme. After a British charge into no man's land, Albert and Andrew make it across to the German trench, where a gas bomb explodes. Andrew is killed while Albert survives, temporarily blinded. The Germans use Joey and Topthorn to haul artillery, under the care of Private Hengelmann. He cares for them as best as he can, but Topthorn succumbs to exhaustion and dies. Devastated over this loss, Hengelmann rebels against his commanders and is detained, but not before freeing Joey from his reins. Joey escapes and gallops into no man's land and evades a tank, but is entangled in barbed wire. Colin, a British soldier, makes his way to Joey under a white flag and tries to free him. Peter, a German soldier, comes over with wire cutters, and together they rescue Joey. To decide who should take the horse, they flip a coin. Colin wins and guides the injured Joey to the British trench. Albert hears about Joey's rescue while recuperating. Just as Joey is about to be put down by a doctor who deems the horse too injured to recover, Joey hears Albert's owl call. Albert, his eyes still bandaged, is able to describe Joey in perfect detail, and the two are reunited. The doctor decides to nurse Joey back to health. World War I ends, and Joey is ordered to be auctioned because only the horses of officers will return home. Albert's comrades raise a collection to bid for the horse. The auction is won by Emilie's grandfather, who implies that she has died and the horse is all he has left of her. However, after Albert pleads with him, the old man recognizes the strength of the soldier's bond, returning the pennant and Joey to Albert. Albert returns with Joey to his family's farm, embracing his mother and returning the pennant to his father, who extends his hand to him with pride, as Joey watches. ## Cast - Jeremy Irvine as Albert Narracott - Peter Mullan as Ted Narracott - Emily Watson as Rose Narracott - Niels Arestrup as Grandfather - Tom Hiddleston as Captain James Nicholls - Benedict Cumberbatch as Major Jamie Stewart - David Thewlis as Lyons - Céline Buckens as Emilie - Toby Kebbell as Colin - Patrick Kennedy as Lieutenant Charlie Waverly - Leonard Carow as Private Michael Schröder - David Kross as Private Gunther Schröder - Matt Milne as Andrew Easton - Robert Emms as David Lyons - Eddie Marsan as Sergeant Fry - Nicolas Bro as Private Friedrich Hengelmann - Rainer Bock as Brandt - Hinnerk Schönemann as Peter - Gary Lydon as Si Easton - Geoff Bell as Sergeant Sam Perkins - Liam Cunningham as British Army Doctor - Sebastian Hulk as German Officer at Darm - Gerard McSorley as Market Auctioneer - Tony Pitts as Sergeant Martin - Pip Torrens as Major Tompkins - Philippe Nahon as French Auctioneer - Jean-Claude Lecas as Butcher - Julian Wadham as British Captain in Trench - David Dencik as German Base Camp Officer - Edward Bennett as Cavalry Recruiting Officer - Johnny Harris as Infantry Recruiting Officer - Tam Dean Burn as British Medic in Trench - Maximilian Brückner as German Artillery Officer - Michael Ryan as British Trench Soldier - Maggie Ollerenshaw as The Neighbor ## Production ### Background and development Michael Morpurgo wrote the 1982 children's novel War Horse after meeting World War I veterans in the Devon village of Iddesleigh where he lived. One had been with the Devon Yeomanry and was involved with horses; Captain Budgett, another veteran in his village, was with the British cavalry and told Morpurgo how he had confided all his hopes and fears to his horse. Both told him of the horrific conditions and loss of life, human and animal, during the Great War. Morpurgo researched the subject further and learned that a million horses died on the British side; he extrapolated an overall figure of 10 million horse deaths on all sides. Of the million horses that were sent abroad from the UK, only 62,000 returned, the rest dying in the war or slaughtered in France for meat. The Great War had a massive and indelible impact on the UK's male population: 886,000 men died, one in eight of those who went to war, and 2% of the entire country's population. After observing a young boy with a stammer forming a fond relationship with and talking fluently to a horse at a farm run by Morpurgo's charity Farms for City Children, Morpurgo found a way to tell the story through the horse and its relations with the various people it meets before and during the course of the war: a young Devon farmboy, a British cavalry officer, a German soldier, and an old Frenchman and his granddaughter. Morpurgo tried to adapt the book into a film screenplay, working for over five years with Simon Channing-Williams, which would ultimately go unproduced. The book was successfully adapted for a stage play by Nick Stafford in 2007. From 2006 to 2009, Morpurgo, Lee Hall and Revel Guest worked on a proposed film version of War Horse, which Morpurgo and Hall would write and Guest produce. Lack of finances meant that it was an informal arrangement, with the film rights not formally sold by Morpurgo to Guest's production company and no one being paid for the work they undertook. In 2009, film producer Kathleen Kennedy saw the critically acclaimed production of War Horse in London's West End with her husband, fellow producer Frank Marshall, and their two daughters. They were very impressed by the story, and Marshall recalled how he was amazed that no one had already bought the film rights to the book. Steven Spielberg was told about War Horse by several people, including Kennedy, his colleague at Amblin Entertainment. After discussions with Revel Guest, on 16 December 2009, it was announced that DreamWorks Pictures had acquired the film rights to the book, with Spielberg stating: "From the moment I read Michael Morpurgo's novel War Horse, I knew this was a film I wanted DreamWorks to make ... Its heart and its message provide a story that can be felt in every country." Spielberg saw the London production of the play on 1 February 2010, and met some of the cast afterwards. He admitted to being moved to tears by the performance. DreamWorks executive Stacey Snider suggested Richard Curtis to work on rewrites for the screenplay; she had worked with Curtis during her time at Universal Pictures, and Curtis had previously written the World War I-set BBC comedy series Blackadder Goes Forth along with Ben Elton. Spielberg was a fan of Blackadder but had never met Curtis, who was initially reluctant to take part, but on meeting Spielberg, he rethought and committed to work on the script. Curtis stated that the screenplay is closer to the book than the play, and that "the existence of the play itself helped [him] "be brave" about [his] own adaptation". Curtis produced over a dozen drafts in three months, and has spoken of the close collaboration he had with Spielberg while working on the script. Having previously only been slated to produce the film, Spielberg decided to direct "the second [he] read [Curtis's] first draft. It happened faster than anything else we've [Spielberg and Snider] done together." On 3 May 2010, it was announced that Spielberg was to direct the film; the cast was announced on 17 June. Speaking at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2011, actor Peter Mullan said that he took the part not just because Spielberg was directing, but also because of the "beautiful, really nice script". Within weeks of hearing from Kennedy about the London theatre production, Spielberg had seen the play, and decided this would be his next film. Spielberg was able to act so quickly because he was on a hiatus, waiting for the animation on his other 2011 film The Adventures of Tintin to be completed. Spielberg had previously worked on numerous projects with World War II themes. In contrast, War Horse is Spielberg's first foray into World War I storytelling, as he admitted that, prior to learning about the War Horse book and play, "I had never been that interested in World War I". Kathleen Kennedy elaborated on the appeal of the story: "In cinema we've told very few stories about World War I and I think that's one of the things that attracted us to this ... It's a forgotten war in the United States, and that had a very powerful effect on Steven and I." David Kenyon and Andrew Robertshaw of Battlefield Partnerships were military advisors on the film. ### Casting After some speculation, the cast for War Horse was announced on 17 June 2010. It had been rumored in the previous week that Eddie Redmayne had been cast in the lead role as Albert Narracott; however, relatively unknown stage actor Jeremy Irvine was chosen instead. Spielberg commented that after seeing hundreds of young boys reading for the role, Irvine had come in and done a cold reading and that "his performance was very natural, very authentic." Irvine auditioned for two months, going in two or three times a week, and learned that he had the part when he was asked to read a piece of the script on camera in order to check his West Country accent, and the piece of mockup script that he read out was Albert telling Joey that Spielberg wanted him to play the part. The cast is European, with British, French and German actors playing characters of their respective nationalities. Robert Emms, who played the lead of Albert Narracott in the West End production of the play, was cast as David Lyons. Casting for extras took place in Devon in late July 2010. In all, some 5,800 extras were used in the film. The granddaughter of Captain Budgett, one of the World War I veterans who had inspired Morpurgo to write the story, acted as an extra in scenes filmed in Castle Combe, and Morpurgo himself filmed a cameo role there, along with his wife Clare. ### Filming Filming took place under the codename Dartmoor to maintain a level of secrecy during production, and took about 64 days in total. Scenes involving the cavalry were shot first at Stratfield Saye House in north Hampshire, the estate of the Duke of Wellington, where incidentally Wellington's war horse Copenhagen is buried; a cavalry charge involving 130 extras was filmed here. Filming on location in Dartmoor, Devon, started in August 2010. Initially, Spielberg was only going to have four or five days' worth of second unit material shot in Devon, but after Kathleen Kennedy sent him photographs of the various locations she had scouted, he decided to cut other elements of the story to enable more filming to take place in countryside that Kennedy described as "so extraordinarily beautiful and absolutely perfect for the story". Dartmoor locations included the small villages of Meavy and Sheepstor, Burrator Reservoir, Bonehill Rocks and the surrounding area near Widecombe-in-the-Moor, Ringmoor Down, Combestone Tor and the surrounding area, Haytor, Hexworthy Bridge, and Cadover Bridge/Brisworthy. Ditsworthy Warren House, an isolated Grade II listed building near Sheepstor on Dartmoor, served as the Narracott family's farmhouse, and many scenes were filmed in the surrounding area. On 11 September 2010, the annual Dartmoor Yomp was rerouted to allow filming to continue undisturbed. Spielberg praised the Dartmoor countryside's beauty: "I have never before, in my long and eclectic career, been gifted with such an abundance of natural beauty as I experienced filming War Horse on Dartmoor... And, with two-and-a-half weeks of extensive coverage of landscapes and skies, I hardly scratched the surface of the visual opportunities that were offered to me". Spielberg felt that the landscape was very much a character in the film. When actor Peter Mullan won the Golden Shell Award at the San Sebastián International Film Festival in Spain for his film Neds, Spielberg insisted that Mullan should attend the ceremony to accept his award in person on 26 September 2010, and rearranged the War Horse shooting schedule accordingly. Although Devon rural locations were used, scenes in the main village in the story were filmed at the Wiltshire village of Castle Combe near Chippenham, despite the vernacular architecture of Devon (predominantly cob walls and thatched roofs) being very different from that of Wiltshire (stone walls and stone tiled roofs). Filming began there on 21 September 2010, and continued until 1 October. Some residents of Castle Combe were angered by the imposition of tightened security within the village, claiming they could not enter without waiting at perimeter barriers until breaks in filming. Production moved on to Wisley Airfield in Surrey, where no man's land battlefield scenes were filmed. Shooting of wartime camp scenes also took place at Bourne Wood near Farnham in Surrey, a frequent location for filming, for about two weeks beginning on 4 October 2010. Scenes were shot at the stately home Luton Hoo between 13 and 14 October 2010. Filming was also scheduled to be undertaken at Caerwent in Wales. Studio filming was undertaken at Longcross Studios, Chertsey in Surrey, and at Twickenham Film Studios. The film shoot was completed in the last week of October 2010, with the entire film, French scenes included, being shot in the UK, apart from some pick-up shots of a bay foal filmed in California in March 2011. Spielberg commented on how he and cinematographer Janusz Kamiński developed the "look" of the film: "...it doesn't feel like Ryan at all ... it has a much more daguerrotype feel, much more brownish. We're not using any of the techniques we used on Ryan. The only similarity is that it is war and it is handheld." Michael Morpurgo, the author of the book on which the film is based, visited the set several times while filming was being undertaken: "Spielberg's a wonderful storyteller and a kid. He adores stories and that's what he's best at. It's extraordinary to meet someone with that kind of enthusiasm, utterly unspoiled ... When I went to visit him on set, he was clearly enthralled by the countryside. He fell for Devon in a big way. He was warm, kind and open, and utterly without ego ... Spielberg was like a conductor with a very light baton. He hardly had to wave it at all. I was in awe." Emily Watson also praised Spielberg's approach: "It was intimate, passionate and about the acting. And every single priority that as an actor that you would want to be there was there. It felt very real and focused." "On set, he'd come in, in the morning, and say, 'I couldn't sleep last night. I was worrying about this shot!' Which was great! He's human and he's still working in an impassioned way, like a 21-year-old, trying to make the best out of everything". ### Horses The pre-production period only allowed for three months to train the horses before shooting commenced. The main horse trainer was Bobby Lovgren, and other horse trainers included Dylan Jones, Bill Lawrence, and Zelie Bullen. During filming, fourteen different horses were used as the main horse character Joey, eight of them portraying him as an adult animal, four as a colt and two as a foal; four horses played the other main equine character, Topthorn. Up to 280 horses were used in a single scene. A farrier was on set to replace horseshoes sucked off in the mud during filming, and the horses playing the main horse characters had a specialist equine make-up team, with their coats dyed and markings added to ensure continuity. Equine artist Ali Bannister was responsible for the "hair and makeup" of the horses, as well as drawing the sketches of horses that are featured in the film. Extra filming involving a bay foal took place in California in March 2011. Working with horses on this scale was a new experience for Spielberg, who commented: "The horses were an extraordinary experience for me, because several members of my family ride. I was really amazed at how expressive horses are and how much they can show what they're feeling." Representatives of the American Humane Association were on set at all times, and the Association awarded the film an "outstanding" rating for the care that was taken of the animals during production. However, a 2013 suit by former AHA employee Barbara Casey alleged that a horse was killed on set, but the organization chose to "cover up the death" to protect Spielberg's reputation. An animatronic horse was used for some parts of the scenes where Joey is trapped in barbed wire; the wire was rubber prop wire. Unlike the play, which used puppet horses, the film uses a combination of real horses, animatronic horses and computer-generated imagery. ### Post-production Editor Michael Kahn spoke of his work on the film: "We have some shots in War Horse that are just fantastic ... We shot it in Devon, and you know it's gorgeous down there, and the horses are beautiful and the farms are beautiful, beautiful scenery and every shot is gorgeous, and eventually you get to the war part of it and it's really, really something." Kahn had a trailer on set and edited the film during filming. Kahn and Spielberg cut the film digitally on an Avid rather than on film, a first with this technology for Spielberg; "He decided that he'd like to try it", Kahn commented. After filming, further editing was undertaken at the UK's Twickenham Film Studios, with the production moving back to the U.S. in November 2010. Kahn also said of his work on the film: "We put together here in Hollywood. It worked well ... Those English actors are awfully good and so were the horses. The horses were beautifully trained. For an editor there were a lot of match [frame] problems with the horses but the shooting was so good that I got everything I needed." Visual effects for the film were undertaken by London-based company Framestore. According to Spielberg, the film's only digital effects were three shots lasting three seconds, which were undertaken to ensure the safety of the horse involved: "That's the thing I'm most proud of. Everything you see on screen really happened." Kathleen Kennedy elaborated, stating "We really did it very naturalistically. There isn't a lot of blood. Steven wasn't interested in bringing Private Ryan into it, but we did want to make a PG-13 movie." Actor Tom Hiddleston said that Spielberg had "seen the stage play and he wanted to retain the magic and heartbeat of that ... It's a moving, powerful story you can take children to see, but it is still very upsetting ... People die, and it is war." ## Music John Williams composed and conducted the film's musical score, the second score composed the same year by Williams for Spielberg after The Adventures of Tintin. Williams took inspiration by visiting a horse farm in California and observing horses and their behavior, saying that "I got in the habit of watching the horses in the morning, and I began to see how they connect to each other and how they became curious about me. That's when I really began to get the sense that horses are very special creatures. They have been magnificent and trusted friends for such a long time and have done so much for us with such grace." The score was recorded by a 90-piece orchestra and Williams compared the recording sessions more to a concert piece rather than a traditional film score, as it relied more on the individual performance of the musicians. It was recorded in late March and early April 2011. Tuba player Jim Self reported in May 2011: "For John Williams I recently finished recording for the film War Horse. It's a war movie so the score has a lot of brass—but it was gentle music often." The score was released by Sony Classical Records on 21 December 2011 to critical acclaim. ## Release War Horse was released in North America by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures through its Touchstone Pictures label on 25 December 2011, making it the first Spielberg-directed film to be distributed through Walt Disney Studios. The film's North American release date was originally set for 10 August 2011, but after a meeting in London between DreamWorks and Disney executives in early October 2010, when some footage was screened, the decision was taken to move its release to 28 December in the holiday period, and in the United Kingdom on 13 January 2012. DreamWorks executive Stacey Snider said, "The reaction to the footage—which [Spielberg] usually never shows—was that it feels like a big, holiday movie ... It just became inevitable that we would move it. [Spielberg] feels great about it." Only a very few unofficial on-set images and clips of video footage were published in the press and online during the filming period. Due to the usual embargo on photos and videos being taken and made public during Spielberg shoots, very few images emerged, with the majority being snatched paparazzi shots. In October 2010, cinematographer Kamiński posted an on-set image of himself on a battlefield set on his Facebook page. The first ten official photographs were made public by DreamWorks in several releases between 11 and 14 March 2011, in Empire magazine and in an article in Entertainment Weekly. On 16 March 2011, a British blogger published an account of her unofficial visit to the War Horse set at Ditsworthy Warren House, and was able to take pictures of the set's interior and of Steven Spielberg despite the security on set. On 29 March, DreamWorks presented behind-the-scenes footage introduced on film by Spielberg to theatre owners at CinemaCon in Las Vegas. Spielberg was unable to attend in person as he was still working on post-production. On 29 June 2011, the film's first official teaser trailer was released, and the official website was launched. On its launch, the website was rather sparse, with only the official trailer and synopsis, and two of the ten previously released official images. Further footage introduced on film by Spielberg was shown at the Empire magazine "Big Screen" event in London in August 2011. Jeremy Irvine talked about his experiences making the film at the same event. The full theatrical trailer was released on 4 October 2011, and more on-set pictures were released on 17 November. The publicity strategy for War Horse unusually featured preview screenings for the public in U.S. heartland areas before either the critics were shown the film or it was screened to the public in major metropolitan areas. The first preview screenings of War Horse were held at various locations across the United States on 1, 2 and 10 November 2011. More preview screenings in the U.S. took place on 27 November, with Spielberg attending a question and answer session at the New York screening that was beamed to the other screening cinemas and shown live on the internet. Press screenings for critics were first held in New York and Los Angeles on 24 November 2011, although there was an embargo on official reviews being published at that time. On 27 November, there was a special screening in London for the crew and cast, the first time anyone involved with the film (apart from Spielberg and his close collaborators) had seen it. Three television advertisements for the film were released in the U.S. on 24 November 2011, shortly followed by others. On 4 December 2011, the film's world premiere was held at the Avery Fisher Hall of New York City's Lincoln Center, where the Tony award-winning Broadway production of War Horse was playing at the neighboring Vivian Beaumont Theater. The UK premiere took place in London's Leicester Square on 8 January 2012, and was attended by Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and his wife Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge. A tie-in book by Steven Spielberg was published by HarperCollins on 27 December 2011. ### Box office War Horse grossed \$79,859,441 domestically and \$97,200,000 internationally for a worldwide total of \$177,584,879. Although it was not one of Spielberg's biggest box office successes, it was the highest-grossing World War I film of all time until Wonder Woman overtook it six years later. ### Home media War Horse was released on Blu-ray Disc, DVD, and digital download by Touchstone Home Entertainment on 3 April 2012. The release was produced in three different physical packages: a four-disc combo pack (two-disc Blu-ray, DVD, and Digital Copy); a two-disc combo pack (Blu-ray and DVD); and a single-disc DVD. The film was released digitally through on-demand services such as the ITunes Store in high and standard definitions. The single-disc DVD includes the bonus feature War Horse: The Look, and the digital versions include "An Extra's Point of View"; the two-disc combo pack includes both bonus features. The four-disc combo pack comes with the same extras as the two-disc combo pack, as well as "A Filmmaking Journey", "Editing & Scoring", "The Sounds of War Horse", and "Through the Producer's Lens" bonus features. ## Reception ### Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average score of . The site's critical consensus reads, "Technically superb, proudly sentimental, and unabashedly old-fashioned, War Horse is an emotional drama that tugs the heartstrings with Spielberg's customary flair." Metacritic reports a score of 72/100 based on 40 critics, indicating "Generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale. Although there was an embargo on official reviews of the film being published before 21 December 2011, reviews started appearing on 26 November in mainstream press such as The Daily Telegraph, which gave it 41⁄2 out of 5 stars. Giving the film an A− grade, Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "The project is tailor-made for Saving Private Ryan Spielberg, the war-story specialist, as well as for E.T. Spielberg, the chronicler of boyhood desires and yearnings for family." Rex Reed of The New York Observer gave the film 4 out of 4 stars and said, "War Horse is a don't-miss Spielberg classic that reaches true perfection. It's as good as movies can get, and one of the greatest triumphs of this or any other year." Roger Ebert gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, saying it contained "surely some of the best footage Spielberg has ever directed ... The film is made with superb artistry. Spielberg is the master of an awesome canvas. Most people will enjoy it, as I did." Richard Roeper praised War Horse by saying, "What a gorgeous, breathtaking, epic adventure this is," and gave the film 4.5 out of 5 stars. Ty Burr of The Boston Globe said that the film was a work of "full-throated Hollywood classicism" that looks back to the craftsmanship and sentimentality of John Ford and other legends of the studio era, and gave it 3 out of 4 stars. Conversely, Simon Winder of The Guardian wrote that the film, "despite twisting and turning to be even-handed, simply could not help itself and, like some faux-reformed alcoholic, gorged itself on an entire miniature liqueur selection of Anglo-German clichés". David Denby of The New Yorker wrote that "The horses themselves are magnificent, and maybe that's reason enough to see the movie. But War Horse is a bland, bizarrely unimaginative piece of work". ### Accolades War Horse made several critics' lists of the best films of 2011. Richard Corliss of Time named it the fifth best film of 2011, saying. "Boldly emotional, nakedly heartfelt, War Horse will leave only the stoniest hearts untouched". David Chen of /Film selected War Horse as 2011's best film. ## See also - Horses in World War I - Au Hasard Balthazar
17,518,965	October Rebellion	1,153,866,464	2007 protest series in Washington, D.C.	[ "2007 in Washington, D.C.", "2007 protests", "October 2007 events in the United States", "Protest marches in Washington, D.C." ]	October Rebellion was the collective name for the series of protest events surrounding the fall 2007 meetings of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund on October 19 – 20, 2007, in Washington, D.C., United States. The events were organized by the October Coalition. According to the October Coalition's call to action, the group demanded an end to all third world debt using the financial institutions' own resources, the end to structural adjustment policies believed to prioritize profit over the lives of individuals, and an end to social and environmental issues caused by oil and gas production, mining, and certain kinds of infrastructure development. ## Demonstration at Immigration and Customs Enforcement Early in the day on October 19, an estimated 100 activists demonstrated outside the Washington headquarters of the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, an agency of the Department of Homeland Security. Demonstrators had assembled to express a critical view of the economic and immigration policies of the United States, while chanting, "No justice, no peace!" According to The Washington Post, "They said that much immigration to the United States was the result of harsh overseas economic policies on the part of the government, the World Bank and the IMF." ## Georgetown march The October Coalition called for "disruptive actions throughout Georgetown," in a march starting at 9:00 p.m. on October 19 from Washington Circle in Foggy Bottom. In explaining their selection of Georgetown for a march, organizers stated on their Web site, "Georgetown, Washington's seat of power, is a playground for the rich. Its residents possess enormous wealth at the expense of the poor majority who live so close to them. They live so close, yet a world away, hidden in plain sight. Georgetown embodies neoliberalism. Georgetown is neoliberalism." A demonstrator at the event described the reason for going to Georgetown as being where the delegates were staying. Prior to the march, the organizers did not outline what specific actions would be taken, nor did they indicate whether or not the group would carry weapons, but encouraged participants to use "creativity" and a "diversity of tactics". According to The Hoya, it was suggested that 30th and M Streets NW would be a preliminary destination. The night before the march, officials at Georgetown University issued a safety alert, indicating that the demonstration was expected to occur between 6 p.m. and 11 p.m., and was expected to end in Georgetown's commercial district. The university advised its students to avoid the area, citing an expectation of traffic delays and road closures. According to Josh Aldiva, an officer in the Second District of the Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia, there would be an increased police presence throughout the entire city, with no extra precautions taken in Georgetown beyond those being taken throughout the city, while recalling that in the past, protest activity surrounding the World Bank and IMF had been mostly peaceful. At the appointed time, an estimated 200 to 300 demonstrators, many wearing the black clothing and masks characteristic of a black bloc, gathered at Washington Circle before departing with a heavy police escort for Georgetown, via Pennsylvania Avenue and M Street NW. The march turned north at Wisconsin Avenue, before reversing course and returning to M Street. Over the course of the march, newspaper boxes were overturned, objects were thrown, and trash cans were knocked over. Many storefronts were boarded in anticipation of the march. Two unboarded windows were broken at the intersection of Wisconsin Avenue and M Street. Two arrests were made, related to an incident where an officer was pushed from a scooter. The event was marred by an accident involving a female bystander, who was walking with a group of friends when she was struck in the forehead by a brick thrown by a demonstrator. The woman was taken to a nearby hospital for treatment following the incident. The Georgetown march ended at approximately 10:30 p.m., when, at 29th and M Streets, police ordered the demonstrators to disperse. Most complied with the order. ## March to the World Bank On October 20, 2007, approximately 500 demonstrators gathered at Franklin Square for a rally and march to the World Bank headquarters at 18th and H Streets. The group consisted of a mix of people, including students, community activists, as well as anarchists dressed for a black bloc. The protest was peaceful, with the exception of an incident in Murrow Park, across the street from the World Bank, where several demonstrators charged the line of police as a group of finance ministers arrived and crossed the police lines for mid-afternoon meetings. Police quickly came in carrying batons and shoving demonstrators, which sent some people running. However, according to Bob Exe, one of the demonstrators, the police line was never charged, but that "some pushing" may have occurred. Following the scuffle with police, the People's Tribunal began, which consisted of a panel of six judges, and a line-up of people from countries affected by the policies of the World Bank and the IMF speaking.
10,405,328	SMS Arminius	1,170,509,335	Ironclad turret ship of the German Imperial Navy	[ "1864 ships", "Ironclad warships of the Imperial German Navy", "Ships built in Cubitt Town", "Ships of the Prussian Navy" ]	SMS Arminius was an ironclad warship of the Prussian Navy, later the Imperial German Navy. The vessel was a turret ship that was designed by the British Royal Navy Captain Cowper Coles and built by the Samuda Brothers shipyard in Cubitt Town, London as a speculative effort; Prussia purchased the ship during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark, though the vessel was not delivered until after the war. The ship was armed with four 21 cm (8.3 in) guns in a pair of revolving gun turrets amidships. She was named for Arminius, the victor of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius served as a coastal defense ship for the first six years of her service with the Prussian Navy. She saw extensive service in the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars during the process of German unification. The vessel was the primary challenge to the French blockade of German ports during the latter conflict. After the wars, Arminius was withdrawn from front-line service and used in a variety of secondary roles, including as a training ship for engine-room crews and as a tender for the school ship Blücher. The ship was eventually sold in 1901 and broken up for scrap the following year. ## Design The warship that came to be SMS Arminius was designed by Captain Cowper Coles, a British Royal Navy officer and advocate of turret-armed ironclad warships. Arminius was nearly identical to the Danish ironclad Rolf Krake, also designed by Coles. ### General characteristics and machinery Arminius was 61.6 meters (202 ft 1 in) long at the waterline and 63.21 m (207 ft 5 in) long overall. The ship had a beam of 10.9 m (35 ft 9 in) and a draft of 4.32 m (14 ft 2 in) forward and 4.55 m (14 ft 11 in) aft. She was designed to displace 1,653 metric tons (1,627 long tons) but at full load, Arminius displaced up to 1,829 t (1,800 long tons). The vessel was constructed with transverse frames and constructed with an iron hull, which contained eight watertight compartments. As was common for warships of the period, she was fitted with a ram bow. The ship's crew consisted of ten officers and 122 enlisted men. She carried a number of smaller boats, including two pinnaces, two cutters, and one dinghy. Arminius was not a particularly successful design; she suffered from severe, fast rolling, especially in heavier seas. She also shipped a great deal of water over the bow and was unbalanced in steering. The ship turned rapidly to starboard but was sluggish in turning to port. The ship was required to have the rudder at 15 degrees to port in order to remain on a straight course. It was also impossible to control the ship with only sail power. The ship was powered by a single two-cylinder single-expansion steam engine built by J. Penn & Sons, Greenwich. The engine drove a single two-bladed screw propeller that was 3.96 m (13 ft) in diameter. Four coal fired, transverse trunk boilers, each of which had four fireboxes apiece, supplied steam to the engine. The boilers were also built by J Penn & Sons, Greenwich, and were arranged in a single boiler room. Limited electrical power was provided by a single generator, which supplied 1.9 kilowatts at 55 volts. The ship was equipped with a schooner rig with a surface area of 540 square meters. The propulsion system was rated at 1,200 metric horsepower (1,200 ihp) and a top speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), though on trials, Arminius reached 1,440 PS (1,420 ihp) and 11.2 kn (20.7 km/h; 12.9 mph). The ship carried 171 t (168 long tons; 188 short tons) of coal, which enabled a range of 2,000 nautical miles (3,700 km; 2,300 mi) at a cruising speed of 8 kn (15 km/h; 9.2 mph). ### Armament and armor As built, Arminius was equipped with a main battery of four rifled, bronze 72-pounder cannon, but after delivery to the Prussian Navy they were replaced with four 21 cm (8.3 in) L/19 guns manufactured by Krupp. These guns were supplied with a total of 332 rounds, and could elevate to 12 degrees. At maximum elevation, the guns could engage targets out to 2,800 m (3,100 yd). After 1881, four machine guns were installed, along with a single 35 cm (13.8 in) torpedo tube mounted in the bow above the waterline. Arminius's armor consisted of wrought iron backed with teak plating. The conning tower was protected by 114 mm (4.5 in) of wrought iron on 229 mm (9 in) of teak. The armored belt ranged in thickness from 76 mm (3 in) of iron on the bow and stern to 114 mm amidships, the entire length of which was backed by 229 mm of teak. The two turrets were armored with 114 mm of iron on 406 mm (16 in) of timber. ## Service history ### Construction She was built by the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London as a speculative project, possibly to sell to the Confederate Navy. The ship was laid down in 1863 and was launched on 20 August 1864. Prussia instead purchased the ship on 20 August 1864 for some 1,887,000 gold marks, paid in part through public donations. The Prussians had hoped to secure the vessel by September, but delivery was delayed by the British government over the Second Schleswig War between Prussia and Denmark. As the British were sympathetic to Denmark, they prevented the ship from being delivered until after the war was concluded. At her launching, she was christened Arminius for the victor of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest against the Romans in 9 CE; the name was chosen to evoke the common feeling of German unity at the time. Commissioning of the ship was delayed after the Prussian naval command decided to use the men who had been allocated to Arminius to commission the new screw corvette Victoria instead. This decision was in part made due to heavy ice in the Kieler Förde, which prevented Arminius from entering the port until 4 April 1865. Victoria arrived in London on 20 April with a second crew for Arminius, allowing her to be commissioned two days later. After entering service, the ship conducted initial sea trials, though her armament had not yet been fitted. On 3 May, she and Victoria departed Britain. The two ships steamed across the North Sea, and after encountering severe storms, stopped at Skagen, Denmark, for shelter. They later stopped in Helsingør, Denmark, before arriving in Kiel on 15 May. She got underway on 1 June and steamed to Danzig, where she was decommissioned to have her guns installed. Along with the ironclad ram Prinz Adalbert, Arminius was the first armored warship acquired by the Prussian Navy. ### Austro-Prussian War She was reactivated in May 1866 under the command of Korvettenkapitän (KK—Corvette Captain) Reinhold von Werner, initially to have work done on her gun turrets, but this was delayed as tensions between Austria and Prussia increased. Arminius received her mobilization order on 12 May, instructing her to depart for Kiel, which was at that time under Austrian control. The Prussians hoped that her presence would intimidate the Austrian commander, Lieutenant Field Marshal Ludwig von Gablenz. She arrived there on 1 June and anchored off the city's coastal fortifications five days later. The next day, Arminius was assigned to a squadron commanded by Konteradmiral (Rear Admiral) Eduard von Jachmann, which also included his flagship, the screw frigate Arcona. Arminius joined a flotilla of ships that was also being transferred from the Baltic Sea to join Jachmann's squadron in the North Sea; these included the aviso Loreley and the gunboats Tiger, Cyclop, and Wolf. Werner was placed in command of the unit and given the title of Kommodore (Commodore). The ships got underway on 12 June and passed through the Danish straits, the Skagerrak, and into the North Sea. The ships arrived in Hamburg, having covered a distance of some 940 nautical miles (1,740 km; 1,080 mi) in 100 hours, an impressive feat for an early ironclad warship. As the war had not yet started, the ships were first ordered to observe the movements of the Austrian Kalik Brigade in Holstein; the Prussians had learned from the Austrian military attache in Berlin that the unit had orders to retreat to Hannoverian territory, namely Wilhelmsburg and Harburg, in the event of war. Unrest broke out in Altona, prompting Werner to send a landing party of one officer and forty men ashore to secure the rail facility in the town. The Austro-Prussian War began on 14 June, and hostilities with Hannover began the following day. Without a naval threat from Austria, the Prussian navy therefore concentrated its effort against the Kingdom of Hanover. For the remainder of the conflict, Arminius operated out of Geestemünde, under Werner's command, and the mere appearance of Arminius caused several Hanoverian coastal batteries to surrender. On 15 June, Arminius, Tiger, and Cyclop, covered the crossing of the Elbe river by General Edwin von Manteuffel and some 13,500 soldiers to attack the city of Hanover. The crossing took place in the span of ten hours, and Werner's flotilla later covered the crossing of additional forces to support Manteuffel, including cavalry and artillery units. Arminius, Cyclop, and Tiger sent men ashore at Brunshausen, where they spiked the guns of an abandoned coastal artillery battery. Werner then detached Tiger and Wolf to bombard the batteries at the mouth of the Elbe, while Cyclop was sent to attack the battery at Grauerort. Arminius entered the Elbe on 17 June, but heavy storms prevented her from intercepting a Norddeutscher Lloyd steamship that was carrying the Hannoverian gold reserves to Britain. The Prussian army, supported by Werner's flotilla, had succeeded in capturing all of the major fortifications guarding the Elbe, Weser, and Ems by 22 June, and other naval forces from the Baltic and Mediterranean Sea had arrived to further strengthen the Prussian fleet. Arminius and the other vessels thereafter patrolled the coast of Ostfriesland to show the flag. By the end of the month, the Prussian army had decisively defeated the Austrians at Königgrätz and ended the war. Following the signing of the peace treaty that formally ended the conflict, Werner's flotilla was disbanded on 23 August and Arminius returned to Kiel. On 3 October, the USS Miantonomoh, a monitor of the US Navy arrived in Kiel while on a promotional tour of European ports; she and Arminius raced the next day, and the latter was two knots faster than the American vessel. Arminius was decommissioned on 20 October, and was only reactivated in 1867 for use as a gunnery training ship to support Thetis, since the latter lacked turret guns. In June, modernization work on the ship began in Kiel, but in September, she had to be sent to Karlskrona, Sweden, to be dry-docked and have her bottom cleaned. She returned to Germany in late November, where she was again decommissioned to allow work to resume. The overhaul included replacing her original rig with a lighter rigging with pole masts. A weather deck, which extended from just astern of the forward turret to her stern, was also fitted and ventilators for the hull were extended up through the new deck. In 1870, the ship had her sailing rig removed altogether, as it had been determined that she could not be steered while under sail, and the masts blocked the firing arcs of the gun turrets. Work on the ship was delayed by accidents during sea trials, and the ship was not ready for active service again until shortly before the conflict with France. ### Franco-Prussian War At the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War on 19 July 1870, the Prussian Navy concentrated Arminius and the armored frigates Kronprinz, Friedrich Carl, and König Wilhelm in the North Sea naval base at Wilhelmshaven. Arminius received her mobilization order on the first day of the war, and at that point she was stationed in Kiel. She sortied on 27 July under the command of KK Otto Livonius to break through the French blockade by hugging the Swedish coast, which her shallow draft permitted. Her passage through Swedish territorial waters also protected the ship from French attack. The ship reached Cuxhaven on 30 July and proceeded to Wilhelmshaven on 1 August. Despite the great French naval superiority, the French had conducted insufficient pre-war planning for an assault on the Prussian naval installations, and concluded that it would only be possible with Danish assistance, which was not forthcoming. Arminius and the three armored frigates, under the command of now Vizeadmiral (Vice Admiral) Jachmann, made an offensive sortie in early August 1870 out to the Dogger Bank, though they encountered no French warships. The three frigates thereafter suffered from chronic engine trouble, which left Arminius alone to conduct operations. In the course of the war, she sortied from the port over forty times; these also failed to result in major combat, though she occasionally traded shots with the blockading French warships. She briefly engaged a French frigate on 24 August, but the latter quickly withdrew. For the majority of the war, Arminius was stationed in the mouth of the Elbe along with the ironclad ram Prinz Adalbert and three small gunboats. The three armored frigates remained off the island of Wangerooge, where their crews attempted to repair their troublesome engines. On 11 September, the three frigates were again ready for action; they joined Arminius for another major operation, though it too did not encounter French opposition. The French Navy had by this time returned to France. On 18 October, Arminius collided with the aviso Falke, though she was not seriously damaged in the accident, though Falke was badly holed below the waterline. On 23 December, Arminius and the rest of the ships stationed in Wilhelmshaven entered the inner harbor of the port, the dredging of which had recently been completed; the outer Jade Bay had iced over, preventing further operations for the winter. ### Later career Following the war, the now-German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) began to demobilize in early 1871. On 29 March 1871, Arminius, the screw frigate Elisabeth, and the aviso Grille departed Wilhelmshaven for the Baltic. Severe storms delayed their progress, and they reached Kiel on 4 April. Arminius was decommissioned there on 27 April. Beginning on 1 May 1872, the ship was used as a training vessel for naval engineers and boiler room personnel, under the command of KK Philipp von Kall. She also took part in shooting practice with the gunnery school, before being decommissioned again on 1 October. She resumed school ship duties from 16 April to 31 May 1873, from 17 March to mid-May 1874, and from 15 March to 31 May 1875, which was to be her final commissioning. The ship was thereafter decommissioned and placed in reserve. Her ram bow allowed her to be used as an icebreaker in the Baltic in the 1880s. She was activated for that purpose in May 1881 to assist in clearing paths for vessels in Kiel. In 1882, she was extensively overhauled and then used as a tender for the cadet training vessel Blücher from August to November. In 1886 and again from January to July 1887, Arminius resumed her old training ship duties. Arminius was sent to the Flensburger Förde for icebreaking work from March to April 1888. The ship was rebuilt again later that year; during the refit the propulsion system was overhauled and replaced with German-built equipment and two searchlights were installed. Four machine guns were installed, along with a 35 cm (13.8 in) torpedo tube. She was reclassified as a special purpose vessel on 10 October. She did not return to service, however, and was ultimately stricken from the naval register on 2 March 1901. Later that year, she was used in a weapons test with a new torpedo warhead, which caused considerable damage to the ship. She was thereafter sold to ship breakers for 72,000 gold marks in 1902, and was towed to Hamburg to be broken up that year.
7,678,095	Norway Airlines	1,139,952,260	Defunct Norwegian airline, 1988–1992	[ "1992 disestablishments in Norway", "Airlines disestablished in 1992", "Airlines established in 1987", "Defunct airlines of Norway", "Norwegian companies established in 1987" ]	Norway Airlines A/S was a Norwegian airline which operated between 1988 and 1992. Focusing on charter, the airline operated two Boeing 737-300 aircraft from 1988 to 1992, after which it operated two McDonnell Douglas MD-80 aircraft, one MD-83 and one MD-87. The airline flew a single scheduled route, between Oslo Airport, Fornebu and London Gatwick Airport, at first on contract with Air Europe and from 1991 at its own expense. At its peak, Norway Airlines had 196 employees. The company struggled financially and lost more than 100 million Norwegian krone (NOK) before terminating operations, having never made a profit. The airline was established by Trøndelag-based investors on 2 April 1987, having been originally intended to operate charter flights to the Mediterranean area. Ansett Australia was an early investor, but soon sold out. The company suffered with its main contractor, Sun Tours, going bankrupt in 1988, after which the airline moved to the British charter market. Air Europe's holding company bought a third of Norway Airlines in October 1989; this allowed the Norwegian company to start flying Air Europe's route between Oslo and Gatwick as a wet lease operation, in addition to several international destinations from London. Air Europe went bankrupt in March 1991, causing Norway Airlines to temporarily halt operations. Sterling Airways came in as a new strategic minority owner, and the two airlines started an alliance along with Transwede. Their key goal was to secure concessions to fly between the Scandinavian capital cities of Oslo, Stockholm and Copenhagen, but no permission was ever granted. Instead Norway Airlines started its own service between Oslo and London. Operations ceased on 14 October 1992 after the board had filed for bankruptcy. ## History ### Establishment Norway Airlines was established on 2 April 1987 by Kjell Adserø and his holding company Hell Holding, along with several other investors from Trøndelag—the largest of which was Lyng Industrier. The business model was to operate charter flights from Norway to the Mediterranean; eighty percent of the market was carried out with foreign airlines and Adserø believed that Norwegians not only would prefer a Norwegian carrier, but would be willing to pay more for one. The company had an initial share capital of NOK 10 million and established its head office and main base at Stavanger Airport, Sola. Separate companies, organized as kommandittselskap, were established to own each aircraft and lease them to the airline. The aircraft owner companies paid 28.7 million United States dollars for each Boeing 737-300, which were delivered new from Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Shares in the aircraft owning companies was offered to the public with a four-percent annual return on investment. Part of the investment model was based on tax advantages. The share capital was expanded to NOK 20 million in September 1987. Among the purchasers was Ansett Australia, who bought a twenty-percent stake. Ragnar Lyng replaced Adeserø as chairman and Johan H. Gedde-Dahl was hired as managing director. Original plans were to start operations on 24 October 1987, but this had to be postponed due to late delivery of the aircraft. Revenue flights commenced in February 1988, after delivery of the airline's first 148-passenger Boeing 737-300, City of Trondheim. The airline's second 737-300, City of Stavanger, was delivered the same month, but was leased to Monarch Airlines. About sixty percent of the company's initial business was flying on contract with Sun Tours. Gedde-Dahl was replaced by Kristian Åreskjold in March 1988. The company lost NOK 15 million in 1987 and budgeted with a deficit of NOK 13 million the following year. To cover the losses, the airline issued a private placement for NOK 12 million and a public issue of NOK 18 million. The airline retained only a single aircraft in operation until late 1989 and the staff of 50 to 60 employees was too much for the revenue form a single aircraft to cover. The airline planned to acquire a third aircraft in 1990 and budgeted with a profit of NOK 7 million in 1989 and NOK 32 million in 1990. Sun Tours filed for bankruptcy in late May 1988. However, Åreskjold stated that the bankruptcy "came at a convenient time" as in the short term Norway Airlines would fly back Sun Tours customers at the expense of the Norwegian Travel Guarantee Fund and that there was a deficit of aircraft on the European charter market. Within a week, Norway Airlines had signed a contract to fly with both aircraft for Britannia Airways out of London Gatwick Airport. A new issue of shares for NOK 25 to 30 million took place in June 1988 and the company stated its intent to list itself on the Trondheim Stock Exchange. Nils Erik Christensen had by then been appointed chairman. ### Air Europe Scandinavia The airline was by September again in need of new capital. The contracts with Britannia ended on 1 November. While there was a high demand for 737-300 aircraft, aviation regulations hindered Norway Airlines from wet leaseing the aircraft (with full crew) and limited them to dry leaseing (without crew), which jeopardized the jobs of 86 employees. There were speculations in mid-October that Air Europe was planning to purchase Norway Airlines. Lyng had by then bought Ansett's share and held a 55-percent ownership. Norway Airlines announced on 25 October that they would lease both their aircraft to Air Europe on a five-year contract, one aircraft from November 1988 and one from March 1989. The airline would have to continue with ad-hoc charters for the one aircraft until March. The deal also involved that the United Kingdom-based International Leisure Group (ILG) would purchase a 33-percent share of Norway Airlines through a private placement of NOK 25 million. Air Europe announced on 6 December 1988 that they would start a scheduled service between Oslo-Fornebu and London-Gatwick and intended to offer cheaper flights than the incumbents Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) and British Airways. Operations started on 15 May, using Norway Airline's 737-300, which was reconfigured to seat 142 passengers in a two-class layout. Norway Airlines announced that they would take the brand name Air Europe Scandinavia and would paint their aircraft in the Air Europe livery, albeit with the Flag of Norway. Air Europe simultaneously started services from Copenhagen and Stockholm to London. The Oslo–London route immediately achieved an eighty-percent cabin factor, with about twenty percent of its sales in business class. The capacity was doubled from November to two daily round trips. Other routes flown on behalf of Air Europe were from London to Rome, Gibraltar and Malta, although occasionally the aircraft could be used on other services. The London routes had after a year achieved a twenty-percent market share. Norway Airlines had by July 1990 lost an accumulated NOK 75 million and new shares worth NOK 40 million were issued to finance continued operations. Norway Airlines applied in 1990 for permission to operate a charter route from Oslo to Penang, Malaysia, using a Boeing 757. The application was dismissed by the Ministry of Transport and Communications to protect SAS' route from Copenhagen to Singapore. The Penang route was necessary for Norway Airlines to procure a third aircraft, which according to the company was necessary to generate a profit, and would have created 100 new jobs. In the meantime, Tjæreborg Reiser sent their charter passengers with scheduled flights to London and onwards with British carriers to Malaysia. The dismissal was appealed to Minister of Transport and Communications, Lars Gunnar Lie of the Christian Democratic Party. The issue became a political issue within Syse's Cabinet, as the Conservative Party and the Progress Party were both in favor of increased deregulation of the airline industry. The issue was complicated by the common aviation policy of the three Scandinavian counties, which had largely been established to protect SAS' interest on international services. The cabinet therefore opened for discussion a further deregulation with the governments of Sweden and Denmark. The Conservative Party stated that this was in part a response to Danish and Swedish authorities allowing charter services to Phuket, Thailand, which could be seen as competing to SAS' route to Bangkok. Syse's Cabinet resigned on 3 November over issues regarding Norway and the European Union, before a reply to the application could be made. The airline reached a non-public settlement with Thor Tjøntveit on 10 September regarding the latter's right to purchase one of Norway Airline's aircraft. Norway Airlines lost NOK 12 million in 1990. In January 1991, the airline won the contract to fly personnel the Norwegian Armed Forces, as the airline priced half a million krone lower than Busy Bee. Operations started in April and secured sufficient business that the airline could order its third aircraft, along with a contract from Gullivers Reiser for additional charter flights. Within a week it received concession to operate scheduled flights between Oslo, Copenhagen and Stockholm to London. A similar concession was also granted to Braathens SAFE, but they stated that the intense competition on the route would make it difficult for them to start a service. However, the five-year concession required that Norway Airlines not have any foreign citizens in the board; as two representatives for ILG sat on the board, they would have to resign for the concession to be valid. The Progress Party called for the law to be changed. Norway Airlines also applied for a route from Bergen and Stavanger to London. Air Europe fell under financial distress in 1991 and terminated all its Gatwick operations on 8 March. This resulted in Norway Airlines having to ground both its aircraft. Before operations could commence, the two creditors of the aircraft, Fokus Bank and Christiania Bank, had to refinance the two holding companies. As the aircraft remained grounded when the military contract started on 1 April, Norway Airlines had to lease aircraft externally to operate the charters. The aircraft were freed up towards the end of April, allowing the services with Gullivers Reiser to commence on 28 April. Originally the leases on the aircraft expired 1 April 1993 and 1994, respectively, but Norway Airlines renegotiated them to both expire 1 April 1994. The Gullivers Reiser contract involved flying from Norway to Greece, Spain, Portugal and Turkey. Air Europe's bankruptcy cost Norway Airlines NOK 6 million and required the company to reduce its staff from 196 to 106 employees. One aircraft was fully utilized, although the second was occasionally operated for Star Tour, Vingreiser and British Airways. ### Nordic cooperation Denmark's Sterling Airways bought ILG's share of Norway Airlines in mid July. The airlines announced a partnership, which also included Transwede. The Wallenberg-controlled NRT owned a 48-percent stake in Sterling and 66 percent of Transwede—the remaining third owned by Sterling. The three airlines applied for concessions to operate on the capital triangle between Oslo, Copenhagen and Stockholm. SAS held a monopoly on these routes and the airlines intended to capture the leisure market between the capital regions. Both ILG and Sterling were hindered in owning more than a third of Norway Airlines because of Norwegian corporate legislation. Fokus Bank had gradually become the largest shareholder in Norway Airline and owned 40.6 percent of the company in July 1991. At a shareholders meeting in July, Stein Øxseth was appointed chairman and all non-Norwegian board members were replaced. In September 1991, the government changed the policy for the military's procurement of air transport from 1 April 1992. This involved that the transport of 200,000 people annually would be transferred to scheduled services, resulting in Norway Airlines losing the opportunity to extend its engagement with the military. The route from Oslo to London was introduced on 3 October, at first with four weekly services, increasing to nine from 23 October. The three partner airlines launched their alliance as the TransNordic Group and would use a bowler hat as their common symbol. However, the routes arrived so late in the evening that the last flights from Fornebu to Trondheim, Bergen, Stavanger and Tromsø had all departed. After five months the airline had achieved a 55-percent cabin factor on the London route. The ministry rejected in December 1991 the airline's application for flying to Stockholm and Copenhagen. By December the British airline Dan-Air had also established itself on the Oslo–London route. To meet the price competition, SAS launched discounted business class tickets. In the course of twelve months from late 1991 to late 1992, the capacity between Oslo and London doubled, as also Norsk Air introduced a service from Sandefjord Airport, Torp. Norway Airlines lost NOK 32 to 33 million in 1991. Norway Airlines replaced its two 737-300 aircraft with two McDonnell Douglas MD-80 aircraft leased from Transwede, one MD-83 and one MD-87. For the owners of the Boeing aircraft the move meant that they had to find a new lessee in a marketed where leasing prices had fallen from US\$250,000 to US\$150–180,000 per month. An interlining agreement was signed by Norway Airlines in March with British Airways and 25 other airlines at Gatwick. Norway Airlines announced on 15 March that it would take over the 25 Sterling employees in Norway in October. TransNordic Group started negotiations in June with Braathens SAFE, Maersk Air and Conair of Scandinavia for them to join the alliance. Prior to the roll-out of Amadeus reservation system in July 1992, Norway Airlines had not been included in the default searched of travel agents, who had to phone the airline to get a price quote. Foreign airlines were from 1 April 1992 permitted to fly passengers between the Scandinavian capitals, and both TAP Portugal and Delta Air Lines started flying passengers as extensions to their existing routes. This was negotiated as part of bilateral agreements and intra-Scandinavian agreements continued to hinder Norway Airlines from flying any of the routes. As of May, the Ministry of Transport and Communications had received applications to operate from Oslo to the other Scandinavian capitals by six airlines: Norway Airlines, Braathens SAFE, Transwede, Sterling, Maersk Air and Conair. Norway Airline's board voted on 14 October 1992 to file for bankruptcy, and all aircraft were grounded on 15 October 1992. The official reason was "the crisis in the airline industry and unacceptable profitability", combined with Norwegian authorities' lack of willingness to grant the airline concessions. The airline had lost more than NOK 100 million by the start of the year and had failed to make a profit during 1992. Norway Airlines entered negotiations with Air Holland for the latter to purchase the airline, but the deal fell through on 1 December. Within days of the bankruptcy, Dan-Air also terminated operations. Braathens SAFE therefore decided to start flying the Fornebu–Gatwick route. Six days after Dan-Air's closure, the first schedules were published in the newspaper; slots and British permission was granted three days after that. The service started another two days later. ## Organization When established, the company was based at Tananger in Sola outside Stavanger and had its main operative base at Stavanger Airport, Sola. The head office was later moved to Fornebu in Bærum outside Oslo, and the main base moved to Oslo Airport, Fornebu. At its peak the company had 196 employees, of which 144 were based in Norway. At the time of bankruptcy, the company had 120 employees, of which 78 were flight staff. Air Europe's CEO Rod Lynch stated that Air Europe, and in extension Norway Airlines, had forty percent lower operating costs than Lufthansa and twenty percent lower than British Airways. Lynch emphasized the lack of trade unions as a key to holding costs down. Air Europe claimed a thirty-four percent market share on passengers between Oslo and London. Norway Airlines had a single-class service on their route and in their marketing claimed that they offered "business class service to everyone". The airline served a warm in-flight meal and drinks at the level of business class on other airlines. The airline hoped to attract business travelers to travel at a more reasonable fare, while attracting leisure travelers with better service. Norway Airlines pioneered smoke-free flights from Norway. ## Destinations Norway Airlines only operated a single scheduled service, between Oslo and London. The route was flown nine times per week, two round trips per day on Thursdays, Fridays and Sundays, and one round trip per day on Mondays, Tuesdays and Wednesdays. The route saw an average 60,000 to 70,000 passengers per year. ## Fleet Norway Airlines operated the following aircraft:
51,180,915	Shut Up and Dance (Black Mirror)	1,172,426,318	null	[ "2016 British television episodes", "Black Mirror episodes", "Drones in fiction", "Internet trolling", "Netflix original television series episodes", "Television episodes about Internet culture", "Television episodes about bank robbery", "Television episodes about cyberbullying", "Television episodes about malware", "Television episodes about murder", "Television episodes about pedophilia", "Television episodes written by Charlie Brooker" ]	"Shut Up and Dance" is the third episode of the third series of the British science fiction anthology series Black Mirror. It was written by series creator and showrunner Charlie Brooker and William Bridges, and premiered on Netflix on 21 October 2016, together with the rest of series three. The episode tells the story of a teenage boy, Kenny (Alex Lawther), who is blackmailed into committing bizarre and criminal acts by anonymous hackers in possession of a video of him masturbating. The teen is joined by a middle-aged man (Jerome Flynn), who is also being blackmailed over infidelity. The episode is dark in tone and has themes related to a previous episode, "White Bear". "Shut Up and Dance" received mixed reviews. Critics praised Lawther and Flynn's acting, but were polarised as to whether the episode's tone was effective, whether the plot twist was good and whether the episode had interesting themes. It was ranked poorly in critics' lists of Black Mirror instalments by quality. ## Plot Kenny (Alex Lawther) returns home from his restaurant job to find that his sister Lindsey (Maya Gerber) has unintentionally infected his laptop with malware. He downloads an anti-malware trojan, allowing unseen hackers to record him masturbating through his webcam; they email the teenager, threatening to leak the footage if he refuses to comply. At work, Kenny receives a text summoning him to a location 15 miles (24 kilometres) away in 45 minutes. Feigning illness to leave, he frantically cycles there and is met by another blackmail victim (Ivanno Jeremiah), who passes Kenny a box containing a cake. Ordered to deliver the cake to a hotel room, Kenny meets Hector (Jerome Flynn), whom the hackers also contact. He had arranged to commit adultery with a prostitute and fears he will lose custody of his children if his wife Penny (Leanne Best) finds out. The two are told to drive to a set of coordinates. Stopping for petrol, they meet Karen (Natasha Little), a friend of Hector's wife, who requests a lift home. Hector drives recklessly to get her there before continuing to their destination. Tasked with using a gun concealed in the cake to rob a bank, Hector insists on being the driver, leaving Kenny to perform the robbery. Despite urinating in his panic, he steals a bag of cash and flees the scene with Hector. Hector is instructed to destroy the car, while Kenny takes the money to a drop site in a forest. He meets another victim (Paul Bazely), who explains they are to fight to the death whilst being filmed through a drone; the winner earns the money. When Kenny protests that he was merely masturbating to photos, his opponent asks how young the subjects were, revealing he is a paedophile and implying Kenny is, too. Kenny attempts suicide, but discovers the gun from earlier is empty and the two fight. Arriving home, Hector is texted a Trollface, learning the blackmailers have disclosed evidence of his infidelity to Penny regardless. The others' information is also released. A shellshocked Kenny staggers from the woods injured. His mother (Camilla Power) phones him, shocked that Lindsey and her friends have seen the video of him "looking at kids". As she begs Kenny to tell her none of it is true, he hangs up, receiving a Trollface image as police arrive and apprehend him. ## Production Whilst series one and two of Black Mirror were shown on Channel 4 in the UK, in September 2015 Netflix commissioned the series for 12 episodes (split into two series of six episodes). In March 2016, Netflix outbid Channel 4 for the rights to distributing the third series, with a bid of \$40 million. Due to its move to Netflix, the show had a larger budget than in previous series. "Shut Up and Dance" is the third episode of the third series; all six episodes in this series were released on Netflix simultaneously on 21 October 2016. As Black Mirror is an anthology series, each episode is standalone. The titles of the six episodes that make up series 3 were announced in July 2016, along with the release date. A trailer for series three, featuring an amalgamation of clips and sound bites from the six episodes, was released by Netflix on 7 October 2016. Two days prior to the release of series 3 on Netflix, Den of Geek! published an interview in which Brooker hinted that the episode is "a grimy, contemporary nightmare" set in London, with no science fiction elements. ### Conception and writing The episode was co-written by series creator Charlie Brooker and William Bridges, who was new to the television industry. Bridges pitched three ideas to Brooker and executive producer Annabel Jones and although none of them were developed further, he was sent a draft script of "Shut Up and Dance" to work on. Brooker stated that the absence of science fiction elements from the episode was a "very conscious" decision, noting that science fiction is also absent from series one episode "The National Anthem" and series two episode "The Waldo Moment". Having recently written series three episode "San Junipero", which was conceived of as a 1980s period piece, Brooker was interested in writing a present-day story. He commented that the "weird, British, colloquial nasty humour" and "seediness" of the episode is similar to "The National Anthem". The story went through many different iterations, starting from an idea similar to 1992 heist film Reservoir Dogs, where a group of strangers were tossed together to commit a robbery. Some drafts did not imply that Kenny was looking at child pornography. In one version of the story, there was no reason why the events were happening, and in another the roles were reversed, with Hector having the extremely dark secret. In a different draft, the hackers were shown in an internet café in Eastern Europe, having blackmailed the characters for fun. The episode was originally set in the United States, as this would make it easier for the characters to access a gun, and the timeframe of the storyline was initially longer. ### Filming The episode was filmed over a three-week period; it was the second in the series to be filmed, after "San Junipero". Director James Watkins had previously directed horror films Eden Lake (2008) and The Woman in Black (2012), which Lawther says made Watkins "really [learn] the craft of sustaining incredible suspense over long periods of time." It was Watkins' first experience directing television. Having seen art department preparations for series three episodes "Nosedive" and "San Junipero", Watkins aimed to deviate from their tones to "embrace being the ugly cousin". Alex Lawther plays the main character Kenny; having been a fan of the programme prior to auditioning, Lawther particularly liked series two episode "White Bear". When first auditioning, Lawther had only seen the script for a couple of scenes and was unaware of the twist ending. Lawther's first proper meeting with co-star Jerome Flynn was during shooting of in the in-car scenes. Filming was intense, with Flynn hyperventilating at times, though there was also corpsing (breaking into laughter) from Flynn, Lawther and Natasha Little, who played Hector's wife's friend Karen. Lawther played Kenny as if he were innocent, as his character is very repressed about his sexual proclivities. He also believed that Kenny feels constantly uncomfortable. Kenny handing a toy back to the girl who had left it behind in the cafe was intended as a hint to Kenny being a paedophile; there were discussions over how the scene should be acted to avoid giving away the twist. After struggling to find a parent who was happy to have their daughter act as the girl, Jones had her own daughter play the role. Lawther commented that whilst filming, he saw a news story similar to the episode's storyline, which he found surreal. The ending features Radiohead's "Exit Music (For a Film)", initially included as a temporary track during editing. The producers received permission from Radiohead to use the song as they liked Black Mirror. ## Analysis The episode was found to be the most similar to prior Black Mirror episodes out of those in the third series. Pat Stacey of the Irish Independent noted that it is the only episode of the series set entirely in England, whilst Alex Mullane of Digital Spy compared it to a "British version" of 1995 action film Die Hard with a Vengeance, as the main character "is led on a not-so-merry chase around the city". Sean Fitz-Gerald of Thrillist wrote that it is a "dark thriller" which is both "a very atypical and very classic Black Mirror story". The episode's tone was seen by Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph as the "most nihilistic" Black Mirror episode to that point; he commented that its "vision of humanity" is "uncompromisingly negative" and that it leaves an "acrid aftertaste". Stuart Joy, writer of the book Through the Black Mirror: Deconstructing the Side Effects of the Digital Age, analysed that the portrayal of Kenny as youthful deceives the viewer and challenges societal perceptions of paedophiles. Lawther said of the script: "How brilliant [it was] that they'd made me sympathize with a paedophile for so long, and the complexity of that, because he's so young". His character is 19 years old, a withdrawn and socially-awkward teenager who is easily intimidated by workplace bullies and infantilised by his mother. Joy noted that Kenny's attitude towards sex is indicative of immaturity. Questioned by the much older Hector about what the hackers had caught him doing, Kenny refuses to say the word "masturbation", instead using the euphemism "doing it". Other moments emphasising his childlike nature include a series of nervous tics, twitches and stutters exhibited by Kenny, as well as a moment where he urinates himself out of terror when forced to commit a bank robbery. Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic compared the episode to previous episodes with contemporary settings—series one's "The National Anthem" and series two's "White Bear" and "The Waldo Moment". She also compared it to the 2001 special episode "Paedogeddon!" of the television news satire Brass Eye, which Brooker co-wrote. "Paedogeddon!" aimed to "lampoon the kind of moral panic and mob fury that's unleashed whenever the subject of child abuse is up for debate". Fitz-Gerald, Gilbert and Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club commented that the episode's themes resemble those in "White Bear". Handlen wrote that the audience must question "the danger of unsupervised vigilantism even when the victims arguably deserve what's coming to them", calling Kenny a "still sympathetic" character "not deserving" of his punishment, though he is "disturbed and troubled and in need of some serious counseling". Fitz-Gerald believed that all of the characters are "depraved [...] to a degree", noting that the internet brings out bad behaviour in people. Handlen called the episode "one of the most pervasive nightmares of the modern age", as it asks: "What if someone's watching you at your most vulnerable?" Mullane opined that the episode is "a cautionary tale about placing yourself in precarious positions online, particularly when it comes to sexting, images, and pornography". Fitz-Gerald summarised that the episode was a "hypothetical extreme" of hacking and trolling, and asked whether human nature and advanced technology are compatible. However, Caroline Framke of Vox believed that although the episode "might ostensibly be about the dangers of hacking, or trying to live a double life in a world that makes secrets all too easy to access", it relies on the feeling of shame. The episode asks: "How far would you go to keep your shame safely hidden?" Josh Dzieza of The Verge commented that the anonymous hackers mark "a bit of a departure" for the programme, which usually does not feature "overt villains". Mullane analysed that the hackers' identities do not need to be revealed as they are "effectively a stand-in for The Internet: all-seeing, all-knowing, and extremely dangerous". The supposed malware remover that Kenny downloads is called "shrive", a word from Middle English meaning "to prescribe penance" (the same root word is used for Shrove Tuesday). Gilbert commented that in light of this, "the gauntlet Kenny, Hector, and others are forced to run throughout the episode seems to be a kind of punishment for their sins, but at the end, none of them are forgiven". ## Reception Rotten Tomatoes reported that 65% of critics have given the episode a positive review based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 8.50/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Terrifically tense and twisty, "Shut Up and Dance" is well-paced and incredibly unsettling, leaving viewers stunned and with a greater distaste for humanity than normally evoked from an average episode Black Mirror." "Shut Up and Dance" received ratings of five out of five stars by Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph, four out of five stars by Pat Stacey of The Irish Independent and a B class rating by Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club. The episode's themes received mixed reception. Mullane wrote that the story was no deeper than one where "bad people do bad things and then get punished for it". Gilbert called it redundant to series two episode "White Bear", saying that there was "no clear message or moment of redemption to take away from it". However, Handlen approved of the episode's themes, praising its "willingness to force moral questions that make everyone feel awful". Alex Lawther's performance as Kenny was universally well received. Described by Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter as "one of the best things of 2016", Handlen concurred that Lawther is "the real stand-out" of the episode, while Mullane wrote that he is "superb in the main role". Dzieza praised Lawther's portrayal of "adolescent desperation", whilst Framke commented that his depiction of Kenny was "quivering, desperate, heartbreaking". Framke stated that Lawther's "incredible, vulnerable performance" made her "sympathise with his terror", which she found crucial to the twist. Jerome Flynn's acting of Hector was also praised. Mullane wrote that his character is "suitably sleazy, without ever being a caricature", whilst Framke praised his "coiled anger", describing the character as "gruff and to the point" and "furious at his total helplessness". Dzieza praised Flynn's "unsettling" contrast between "gruffness and utilitarian friendliness". Collin opined that "the deliciously horrible details of Flynn’s performance sell you on his character's predicament in a snap". However, Handlen commented that though Flynn "does a fine job", the episode is not a "showcase" for him. Critics were polarised as to whether the tone of the episode was effective. Whilst Matt Fowler of IGN wrote that it was "remarkably heart-pounding" and Stacey found it "fantastically tense", Gilbert commented that it "felt like too much of an endurance test" and Framke believed that there was not much suspense prior to the twist ending. Fitz-Gerald experienced a "mounting sense of anxiety" as "Kenny's hopelessness as a puppet to anonymous sociopaths is palpable", but Adam Chitwood of Collider found the tension too frustrating, and Handlen wrote that the episode is "never boring, but it's not all that engaging, either". Gilbert found it more upsetting than any prior episode, and Dzieza commented that the episode's aesthetics are "chilly and claustrophobic". Dzieza further said that the "queasiness" up to the twist is "well orchestrated", but found the ending "a letdown". Stacey said that the episode was "blackly funny", with Gilbert concurring that the scenes involving Hector's wife's friend Karen contained some of the darkest humour of the show. The twist ending in which Kenny is revealed to be a paedophile received a mixed reaction from critics. Handlen opined that it is "not quite powerful enough to make up for everything that came before it", with Framke agreeing that it "doesn't hit that hard". Fitz-Gerald said that "I half hate it, half love it." Mullane called it "a huge gut-punch", but criticised that "it also removes any anchor for investment in any of these characters". Dzieza commented that it demonstrated that "the episode is more interested in turning gadgets into weapons of maximum humiliation than in saying anything more interesting about how digital humiliation works". However, Mullane opined that the episode's ending "perfectly captures the bleak mood of the piece and the inescapable claustrophobia of these people's situations". Director James Watkins was praised by Mullane and Collin for creating tension, with Collin writing that Watkins "keeps his camera on its feet and hungry" during moments of tension and Kenny's chase sequences. However, the episode was criticised as too long by Framke and Chitwood, with Framke attributing this to the programme's move to Netflix. ### Black Mirror episode rankings "Shut Up and Dance" appeared on many critics' rankings of the 23 instalments in the Black Mirror series, from best to worst. - 8th – Matt Donnelly and Tim Molloy, TheWrap - 8th – Corey Atad, Esquire - 15th – Morgan Jeffery and Rosie Fletcher, Digital Spy - 15th – Charles Bramesco, Vulture - 18th – Ed Power, The Telegraph - 19th – Aubrey Page, Collider - 19th – Travis Clark, Business Insider - 23rd – James Hibberd, Entertainment Weekly Following the fifth series, Brian Tallerico of Vulture rated Lawther's performance as Kenny the eleventh best performance in the show. Additionally, Proma Khosla of Mashable ranked the 22 Black Mirror instalments excluding Bandersnatch by tone, concluding that "Shut Up and Dance" was the second most bleak after "The Waldo Moment". The episode also appears on critics' rankings of the 19 episodes from series 1 to series 4: - 4th – Eric Anthony Glover, Entertainment Tonight - 17th – Steve Greene, Hanh Nguyen and Liz Shannon Miller, IndieWire Other critics ranked the 13 episodes in Black Mirror's first three series. - 4th (of the Top Ten) – Brendan Doyle, Comingsoon.net - 10th – Mat Elfring, GameSpot - 11th – Andrew Wallenstein, Variety - 13th – Jacob Hall, /Film - 13th – Adam David, CNN Philippines Some critics ranked the six episodes from series three of Black Mirror in order of quality. - 1st – Jacob Stolworthy and Christopher Hooton, The Independent - 2nd – Liam Hoofe, Flickering Myth ## See also - Blue Whale Challenge - Momo Challenge hoax
135,600	Brownsville, Texas	1,171,079,003	null	[ "1845 establishments in the Republic of Texas", "Brownsville, Texas", "Cities in Cameron County, Texas", "Cities in Texas", "County seats in Texas", "Lower Rio Grande Valley", "Mexico–United States border crossings", "Populated coastal places in Texas", "Populated places established in 1845", "Texas populated places on the Rio Grande" ]	Brownsville (/ˈbraʊnzˌvɪl/) is a city in and the county seat of Cameron County in the U.S. state of Texas. It is on the western Gulf Coast in South Texas, adjacent to the border with Matamoros, Mexico. The city covers 145.2 sq mi (376.066 km<sup>2</sup>), and had a population of 186,738 at the 2020 census. It is the 139th-largest city in the United States and 18th-largest in Texas. It is part of the Matamoros–Brownsville metropolitan area. The city is known for its year-round subtropical climate, deep-water seaport, and Hispanic culture. The city was founded in 1848 by American entrepreneur Charles Stillman after he developed a successful river-boat company nearby. It was named for Fort Brown, itself named after Major Jacob Brown, who fought and died while serving as a U.S. Army soldier during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). As a county seat, the city and county governments are major employers. Other primary employers fall within the service, trade, and manufacturing industries, including a growing aerospace and space transportation sector. It operates international trading through the Port of Brownsville. The city experienced a population increase in the early 1900s, when steel production flourished. It is frequently cited as having one of the highest poverty rates in the United States. Due to significant historical events, the city has multiple houses and battle sites listed under the National Register of Historic Places. It was the scene of several key events of the American Civil War, such as the Battle of Brownsville and the Battle of Palmito Ranch. The city was also involved in the Texas Revolution, as well as the Mexican–American War. Brownsville's idiosyncratic geographic location has made it a wildlife refuge center. Several state parks and historical sites are protected by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Brownsville has a predominantly Hispanic population, which at 93.9% is the third-highest proportion of Hispanic Americans of any city in the United States outside of Puerto Rico. ## History ### Founding In 1781, Spanish government officials granted José Salvador de la Garza 59 leagues of land (408 sq mi). He used the land to construct a ranch several miles northwest of the area. During the early 1800s, Brownsville was known to residents as los tejidos (English: "pasturelands"). The area was inhabited by a few settlers around 1836 when Texas declared its independence from Mexico. On February 4, 1846, President James K. Polk instructed American General Zachary Taylor and his troops to begin moving south towards Brownsville. Once Taylor arrived, he built Fort Texas. It was later renamed Fort Brown in honor of Major Jacob Brown, one of two soldiers who died during the siege of Fort Texas. Charles Stillman arrived in Matamoros in 1828 from Connecticut to help his father in the mercantile business. Brownsville became part of Texas after the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. During that year, Stillman formed a partnership with Samuel Belden and Simon Mussina to form the Brownsville Town Company. They reportedly sold lots valued at \$1,500. The city of Brownsville was originally established in late 1848 by Stillman, and was made the county seat of Cameron County on January 13, 1849. The state originally incorporated the city on January 24, 1850. This was repealed on April 1, 1852, because of a land-ownership dispute between Stillman and its former owners (including Juan Cortina, a Mexican rancher). The state reincorporated the city on February 7, 1853; this remains in effect. The issue of ownership was not decided until 1879, when the United States Supreme Court ruled in favor of Stillman. ### Mexican–American War On April 25, 1846, Captain Seth B. Thornton received reports of Mexican troops crossing the Rio Grande. Thornton and 63 U.S. dragoons moved to Rancho de Carricitos and discovered several houses in the area. Mexican General Anastasio Torrejón crossed the Rio Grande the previous day. He commanded 1,600 cavalry and infantry troops to surround Thornton's troops in fractions. Due to heavy force from Torrejón's troops, Thornton's troops surrendered. Eleven American casualties were reported; 45 troops and Thornton were held as prisoners. Reports of the incident were sent to President James K. Polk, who announced, "American blood has been spilled upon the American territory." On May 13, the United States Congress declared war against Mexico. American General Zachary Taylor retreated from Fort Texas on May 1, 1846; Mexican General Mariano Arista began preparing artillery and troops from across the Rio Grande. On May 3, Arista and the Mexican Army began the siege of Fort Texas, during the first active campaign in the Mexican–American War. This was counteracted by the United States 7th Infantry Regiment. Despite heavy strikes, Mexican General Pedro de Ampudia outlined a traditional siege to move forward. Taylor was notified of the incident and began moving towards Fort Texas. Mexican troops intercepted them near Palo Alto, about 5 mi (8.0 km) north of present-day Brownsville, resulting in the first battle of the war. The following day, Mexican troops had retreated. Taylor's troops charged up to them, resulting in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, which took place within the present limits. When Taylor arrived at the besieged Fort Texas, he found that two soldiers, including the fort's commander, Major Jacob Brown, had died. Brown, who suffered an injury when a cannonball hit his leg, died three days after his injury on May 9. In his honor, General Taylor renamed the facility as Fort Brown. An old cannon at the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College marks the spot where Major Brown received his fatal wound. On July 13, 1859, Juan Cortina saw Brownsville city Marshal Robert Sheers arrest and beat an elderly man who had been a ranch hand at his mother's ranch. Cortina approached the marshal, questioning his motives, before shooting him twice after he refused to release the man. The first shot reportedly missed Sheers, but the second struck his shoulder, causing him to fall to the ground. Cortina and the elderly man rode off on a horse. The following year, Cortina returned with troops, executing four Anglo men and simultaneously releasing several Mexican prisoners. He then issued a proclamation explaining his reasons for the attack. ### American Civil War During the American Civil War, Brownsville served as a smuggling point for Confederate goods into Mexico. Most significantly, cotton was smuggled to European ships through the Mexican port of Bagdad to avoid Union blockades. The city was located at the end of the "Cotton Road", southwest of the Cotton Belt. In November 1863, Union troops landed at Port Isabel and marched towards Brownsville to take control of Fort Brown. In the ensuing Battle of Brownsville, Confederate forces abandoned the fort, blowing it up with 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) of explosives. In 1864, Confederate forces commanded by Colonel John Salmon Ford reoccupied the town, and he became mayor of Brownsville. Robert E. Lee and his Confederate army surrendered to Union commander Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, signing a hand-written document at the Appomattox Court House, officially ending the American Civil War. Theodore Barrett was ordered to move 500 62nd Regiment troops of colors towards Brazos Island. On May 11, Barrett's troops moved inland towards Brownsville and spotted Confederate soldiers. John Salmon Ford received news of this and prepared to attack. On May 15, 1865, 34 days after the signing of the surrender, the Battle of Palmito Ranch took place. Confederates killed or wounded around 30 opponents and captured more than 100 other troops. This is accepted by some historians as the last battle of the American Civil War. President Grant sent Union General Frederick Steele to Brownsville to patrol the United States–Mexico border after the Civil War to aid the Juaristas with military supplies. ### 20th century Texas, like other Southern states, passed a new constitution and Jim Crow laws that established racial segregation and disenfranchised African Americans at the turn of the 20th century, generally by raising barriers to voter registration. While Hispanic residents were considered white under the terms of the United States annexation of Texas, legislatures found ways to suppress their participation in politics. On August 13 and 14, 1906, Brownsville was the site of the Brownsville affair. Racial tensions were increasing between white townsfolk and black infantrymen who were stationed at Fort Brown. On the night of August 13, one white bartender was killed, and a white police officer was wounded by rifle shots in the street. Townsfolk, including the mayor, accused the infantrymen of the murders. Without affording them a chance to defend themselves in a hearing, President Theodore Roosevelt dishonorably discharged the entire 167-member regiment due to their alleged "conspiracy of silence". Investigations in the 1970s revealed that the soldiers were not responsible for the attacks, and the Nixon Administration reversed all dishonorable discharges. Fort Brown was decommissioned after the end of World War II in 1945. In 1948, the city and college acquired the land. In the spring of 1991 a cluster of anencephaly cases made national headlines and prompted a public health investigation. A high anencephaly rate of 19.7 per 10,000 live births was found and that neural tube defects in general, including spina bifida, and encephalocele had been occurring in Mexican American women undetected for years in the area. Subsequently, multiple risk factors were found foremost folic acid deficiency, and increasing dietary folate intake had a protective effect. ### 21st century Brownsville has received significant media attention surrounding immigration policies and border-wall funding costs. In 2006, President George W. Bush signed into law the Secure Fence Act of 2006. The act administered the construction of a border fence extending from San Diego in California through the entry of the Port of Brownsville. In 2008, the United States Department of Homeland Security issued a proposal to add 70 mi (110 km) of border fence and reallocate portions of the University of Texas at Brownsville campus. The proposal would have transferred 180 acres (73 ha) of university land, including several historical monuments and the university's golf course, to Mexico. The proposal was altered after Andrew Hanen, a federal district judge, rejected the department's idea. In 2016, Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump proposed building a border wall along the United States-Mexico border. Trump's proposed wall, if passed, would consist of 2,000 mi (3,200 km) "of hardened concrete, and ... rebar, and steel" across the southern border, including Brownsville. On January 25, 2017, days after assuming office, Trump issued Executive Order 13767, directing construction for a border wall. Brownsville was also the center of controversy surrounding the new administration's continuation of the Obama policy of housing children separate from adults (except mothers) who entered the country unlawfully. The issue surrounded Casa Padre, the largest juvenile immigration detention center in America, which is located within Brownsville's city limits. Downtown Brownsville has received several revitalization projects from the city government to increase tourism and safety. The Texas Historical Commission named Brownsville as part of its Main Street Program in 2016. Several historic buildings were restored, including the Stegman Building, a historic building named after Baldwin G. Stegman, one of the city's first streetcar line developers. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) selected Brownsville as one of six cities for their "Greening America's Communities" program. The agency worked on a revitalization project for Market Square, a building constructed in 1850. The city also received a \$3.4 million grant from the Façade Improvement Program for this project. ## Geography Brownsville is one of the southernmost cities in the contiguous United States; only a handful of municipalities in Florida's Miami-Dade and Monroe Counties (plus Everglades City in Collier County) are located farther south than Brownsville. The city has a total area of 84.867 sq mi (220 km<sup>2</sup>), of which 81.528 sq mi (211 km<sup>2</sup>) are land and 3.339 sq mi (9 km<sup>2</sup>) are water, according to the United States Census Bureau of 2017. The city is situated at the intersection of different climates (subtropical, Chihuahuan Desert, Gulf Coast plain, and Great Plains); this produces high bird migration rates. Its idiosyncratic network of resacas (English: oxbow lakes), distributaries of the Rio Grande, provide habitat for numerous nesting/breeding birds of various types typically during the spring and fall migrations. Brownsville's vegetation is classified as grassland. ### Metropolitan area Brownsville is in one metropolitan statistical area as defined by the United States Census Bureau. The Brownsville–Harlingen–Raymondville combined statistical area consists of Cameron County and Willacy County. It includes the Brownsville metropolitan area and the micropolitan area of Raymondville. The city of Raymondville is the county seat of Willacy County. The Brownsville-Harlingen-Raymondville combined statistical area is home to 445,309 people (2017 estimated), making it the 106th-largest combined statistical area in the United States. Based on the Uniform Crime Report conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 2013, the Brownsville metropolitan area ranked last on its list of the "Most Dangerous Cities" in Texas, with "240 incidents of violent crime per 100,000 people" and a murder rate of 1.4. Robbery crimes make up 25% of overall crime in the city, with a rate of 58.1 per 100,000 residents. ### Flora and soil Broadleaf evergreen plants, including palms, dominate Brownsville neighborhoods to a greater degree than other locations in Texas, including nearby cities such as Harlingen and McAllen. Brownsville is home to the Sabal mexicana, the only species of palmetto palm native to Texas with a significant trunk (Sabal minor, also native to Texas, is nearly trunkless. Though it used to cover a large portion of the land next to the Rio Grande, the city contains one of the last native stands of S. mexicana. Citharexylum berlandieri (Tamaulipan fiddlewood), Rivina humilis (pigeonberry), and Leucophyllum frutescens (Texas sage) are also native flora. Soils are mostly of clay to silty clay loam texture, moderately alkaline (pH 8.2) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.5 and with a significant degree of salinity in many places; other types of soils present around the city include Cameron clay and sporadic amounts of Laredo silt loam. Due to Brownsville's proximity to the coast, Lomalta clay is common around the swamp areas of the vicinity. Several parts of the city have a high risk of localized flooding because of flat topography, ubiquitous low-permeability clay soils, and inadequate infrastructure funding. According to the United States Geological Survey, Brownsville's soils are primarily alluvium and windblown deposits. The majority of the city's soil is made of floodplain deposits from the Rio Grande; it consists of clay, sand, silt, gravel, and organic matter. Windblown deposits are made up of "active dunes and dune complexes" that contain mostly clay and silt near the coastal region and combination of clay, sand, and silt inland. ### Climate Brownsville has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa). Winters are warm, and summers are hot and humid. Due to its location on the Gulf Coast about 2.49° north of the Tropic of Cancer, the climate closely borders a tropical savanna climate. Due to its proximity to the deserts of Chihuahua and Gulf Coastal Plains, Brownsville's geographic location lies near the boundary of a hot semi-arid climate. Snow is a very rare event in Brownsville. Its wet season is concentrated during the late summer and early fall, peaking in September, when the threat from tropical cyclones is greatest. In most years, November through April is the dry season. As such, Brownsville receives modest annual rainfall, averaging about 26.78 in (680 mm) annually based on records between 1991 and 2020. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 62.9 °F (17.2 °C) in January to 87 °F (30.6 °C) in August. Heat waves during the summer have caused 141 days of high temperatures over 90 °F (32.2 °C) and fewer than five days of temperatures above 100 °F (37.8 °C). The city is located along the boundary of USDA hardiness zones 9b and 10a. The hottest temperature on record in Brownsville occurred on March 27, 1984, when the city reached 106 °F (41 °C). On the other extreme, freezing temperatures occur once or twice a year typically. On December 25, 2004, Brownsville recorded its first instance of measurable snow in 109 years with 1.5 in (3.8 cm), and the first recorded White Christmas. Brownsville's lowest temperature on record occurred on February 13, 1899, when the city reached 12 °F (−11 °C). Based on 30-year averages obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Climatic Data Center weather records, 24/7 Wall St. ranked Brownsville the fifth-hottest city in America in 2016. In 2011, Brownsville became one of the first cities in the United States to require stores to charge a fee for single-use plastic shopping bags. The ordinance was enacted to reduce pollution and litter around the city. The city repealed the ordinance in 2018 after it was ruled illegal by the Supreme Court of Texas. Forbes identified Brownsville as one of 12 metropolitan areas in the United States with the cleanest air. In 2018, the Brownsville–Harlingen area was among the "Cleanest U.S. Cities for Ozone Air Pollution" in the American Lung Association's "State of the Air" in 2018. ## Demographics Brownsville is the 18th-most populous city in Texas. It ranks as one of the top U.S. cities in terms of the percentage of Hispanic residents. According to the Pew Research Center, its metropolitan area holds the 26th-largest Hispanic population with roughly 373,000 (88.7%) sharing this distinction. Of that percentage, 96.7% are Mexican and 0.8% are Puerto Rican. ### 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 186,738 people, 53,506 households, and 42,240 families residing in the city. The ancestry of Brownsville was 0.9% German, 0.6% English, 0.5 Irish, 0.4% French, 0.4% Italian, and 0.2% Dutch. The median age was 29.9 years old. A total of 12.0% of the population was 65 or older, with 7.1% between the ages of 65 and 74, 3.3% between the ages of 75 and 84, and 1.6% 85 or older. A total of 25.9% of the population were foreign born, with 35.7% of those being US citizens, and 64.3% of those were not US citizens. The median household income was \$47,435, with families having \$50,127, married couples having \$59,604, and non-families had \$18,322. A total of 22.0% of the population were in poverty, with 36.4% of people under 18, 21.2% of people between the ages of 18 and 64, and 28.2% of people 65 or older were in poverty. ### 2010 census As of the census of 2010, 175,023 people, 49,871 households, and 41,047 families were residing in the city. The population density was 1,207.1 people/sq mi (466.0/km<sup>2</sup>). The 53,936 housing units averaged 372.0/sq mi (143.6/km<sup>2</sup>). The racial makeup of the city was 88% White, 0.4% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 9.1% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 93.2% of the population. Of the 38,174 households, 50.1% had children under 18 living with them, 59.3% were married couples living together, 20.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 15.7% were not families. About 13.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3.62, and the average family size was 3.99. In the city, the age distribution was 34.6% under 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 27.5% from 25 to 44, 17.2% from 45 to 64, and 9.5% who were 65 or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.5 males. ### Income and employment Despite a fast-growing economy, Brownsville has one of the highest poverty rates in the nation. The median income for a household in the city was \$24,468, and the median income for a family was \$26,186. Males had a median income of \$21,739 versus \$17,116 for females. The per capita income for the city is \$9,762. It is frequently cited as having the highest percentage of residents in the nation below the federal poverty level. About 31.6% of families and 35.7% of the population were below the federal poverty line, including 48.4% of those under 18 and 31.5% of those 65 or over. Based on data collected from the United States Census Bureau's American Community Survey, the Brownsville metropolitan area ranked as the second-poorest urban area in the country, behind the McAllen metropolitan area. In 2017, the city's unemployment rate was 6.2% with 18.1% adults holding a bachelor's degree. It reported a 5.8% jobless rate the following year. Despite high unemployment rates, the urban area is also one of the fastest growing in the United States. ## Economy Brownsville's economic activity is derived from the service and manufacturing industries. Government and the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley are both large contributors to the local economy. Other prominent industries in Brownsville include education and aerospace and space transportation. During the first decade of the 1900s, the city's population increased after a boom in the agriculture industry. Brownsville's subtropical climate has made it a commercial hub for the citrus industry. The Port of Brownsville produces significant revenue for the city of Brownsville. The port, located 2 mi (3.2 km) from the city, provides a link between the road networks of nearby Mexico and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway of Texas. The port has become an important economic hub for South Texas, where shipments arrive from other parts of the United States, Mexico, and other foreign countries. The port also participates in ship recycling; it has five of the country's eight ship-recycling companies. It received a \$1.8 million grant from the United States Department of Commerce to support business and infrastructure development. The grant is expected to create 700 jobs and generate \$3 million in private investments. ### International trade Brownsville's economy is based mainly on its international trade with Mexico under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Due to Matamoros' maquiladora (English: textile factory) boom, Brownsville experienced growth in the air cargo industry during the late 1980s. It is home to one of the fastest-growing manufacturing sectors in the United States. Brownsville has been recognized as having one of the best pro-business climates in the United States, and the city has been ranked among the least expensive places to live in the country. President Barack Obama signed a bill in 2016 allowing for the deepening of the Brownsville Ship Channel from 42 ft (13 m) to 52 ft (16 m). ### Sports The Sams Memorial Stadium is located in Brownsville. It has a capacity of 10,000 and it opened in 1957. The stadium is used mostly for American football and soccer. ### Technology Entrepreneur Elon Musk announced the construction of SpaceX South Texas Launch Site, a private space launch facility east of Brownsville on the Gulf Coast in 2014. The launch facility is estimated to produce for the city of Brownsville and generate approximately in annual salaries from the roughly 500 jobs to be created by 2024. The facility itself is projected to employ 75–100 full-time workers in the early years with up to 150 full-time employees/contractors by 2019. As of October 2014, the University of Texas at Brownsville and the Brownsville Economic Development Council (BEDC), in collaboration with SpaceX, are building radio-frequency (RF) technology facilities for STARGATE (Spacecraft Tracking and Astronomical Research into Gigahertz Astrophysical Transient Emission). The facility is intended to provide students and faculty access to radio frequency technologies used in spaceflight operations, and will include satellite and spacecraft tracking. The city's economic development council also purchased five lots in Boca Chica Village totaling 2.3 acres (0.93 ha) near the SpaceX launch site and renamed it as the Stargate subdivision. The beach location will include a 12,000 sq ft (1,100 m<sup>2</sup>) tracking center. Stargate received several startup grants including from the United States Economic Development Administration. ### Principal employers According to the BEDC, the top employers in the city as of May 2015 were: ## Parks and recreation Brownsville has 37 parks connected by a 1,200-acre (1.9 sq mi) system of parkland and 32 mi (51 km) of bike lanes. The city also has three gymnasiums, two public pools, and 55 athletic fields. Brownsville's proximity to the coast has allowed the city to register several locations under the list of protected areas of the United States. Resaca de la Palma State Park is one of six nature preserves (and three state parks) that are part of the World Birding Center. It is also the largest nature preserve of the park system, with approximately 1,200 acres (490 ha) of native semitropical brushland. The area was part of the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. The National Park Service lists the site of the Battle of Palo Alto as a National Historic Park. The agency purchased 300 acres (120 ha) of the site's land, with two-thirds belonging to private landowners. It is native to the Prosopis glandulosa (honey mesquite) bush, Opuntia engelmannii (prickly pear), and Yucca treculeana (yucca). The city encompasses two national wildlife refuges. Located in northeast Cameron County, Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge protects several endangered species, including the Texas ocelot (Leopardus pardalis albescens), a rare wild cat, and the Aplomado falcon (Falco femoralis). The refuge measures 65,096-acre (263.43 km<sup>2</sup>). The Lower Rio Grande Valley National Wildlife Refuge is located in northwest Cameron County and measures 90,788-acre (36,741 ha). The refuge contains trails that are connected to the Great Texas Coastal Birding Trail. The Boca Chica State Park and Brazos Island State Park are state parks that were transferred by separate lease agreements to the Lower Rio Grande Valley refuge center in 2007. They measure 10,680-acre (43.2 km<sup>2</sup>) and 217-acre (0.88 km<sup>2</sup>), respectively. Laguna Madre is located on the eastern side of the county. It is a long, shallow, hypersaline lagoon, and is one of the most protected lagoon ecosystems in the United States. ## Government Brownsville has a council–manager government. The mayor and a six-member city commission are selected in nonpartisan elections. Four members are elected from geographic districts; the remaining two members are elected at-large. Since Brownsville is the county seat of Cameron County, many county offices are in Brownsville. The city's public library system has two branches. The primary law enforcement agency for the city is the Brownsville Police Department. The Brownsville Fire Department has nine stations around the city; its central office is located on the eastern side of the city. Most of Brownsville is represented by two county commissioners of the five-member Commissioners' Court (one member, the County Judge, represents all of Cameron County). County offices are partisan; the Democratic and Republican Parties hold primaries in March of the year that their office term expires. The City of Brownsville falls under two Texas House of Representatives districts. Each representative has a two-year term and is elected in the same manner as other partisan elected officials. The elected representatives include, District 37: Alex Dominguez (D) (since 2019), and District 38: Eddie Lucio, III (D) (since 2007). Brownsville is represented by Texas Senatorial District 27, the incumbent senator is Eddie Lucio Jr. (D) (since 1991). This city is represented by Texas's 34th congressional district. The incumbent Representative is Vicente Gonzalez (D) (since 2023). The city holds several federal office buildings. The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Brownsville. Downtown Brownsville is served by the Old Federal Courthouse; it is now used as a City Hall. The National Weather Service operates an office and a Nexrad weather radar site in east Brownsville. They provide forecasts and radar coverage for Deep South Texas and the adjacent coastal waters. Other federal building located within the city limits of Brownsville include: Social Security Administration and the Reynaldo G. Garza – Filemon B. Vela United States Courthouse. Military buildings and battle sites include the Brownsville Armed Forces Reserve Center (AFRC) host units from the United States Army Reserve and the Texas Army National Guard, and the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). ## Education ### Primary and secondary education Brownsville Independent School District (BISD) serves most of the city. Enrollment in the 2018–2019 school year was 44,402 students, 95% of whom are economically disadvantaged. Enrollment at BISD reached a high of 49,991 students in 2010–2011, and has declined an average of 1,000 students per year since 2014–2015. It is the 17th largest school district in Texas. There are seven high schools within the district: James Pace, Lopez, Gladys Porter, Simon Rivera, Homer Hanna, Veterans Memorial and Brownsville Early College. A portion of northern Brownsville is served by the Los Fresnos Consolidated Independent School District. South Texas Independent School District, a magnet school district, operates a medical academy in northern Brownsville. There are several private parochial elementary and middle schools located throughout the community. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Brownsville operates Catholic schools in the Rio Grande Valley, including Brownsville. ### Colleges and universities Six colleges and universities are located within the Brownsville boundaries. The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, part of the University of Texas system, was founded in 2014 after the merger of the University of Texas at Brownsville and University of Texas–Pan American. It is the 10th-largest university in Texas, having 25,137 undergraduates, 3,068 graduate students, and 439 professionals enrolled in 2018. In 2017, The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education ranked the university third in the country in awarding bachelor's degrees to Hispanic students. Texas Southmost College is a community college located near the southern border of Brownsville. As of 2018, it had a total enrollment of 7,132. Students usually transfer to the neighboring University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. The city operates three vocational schools. These include the South Texas Vocational Technical Institute, Brightwood College campus (formerly known as Kaplan College), and Southern Careers Institute. The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Public Health (UTSPH), is one of five regional campuses established by the Regional Academic Health Center program in 2001; it is located on the Brownsville campus of the University of Texas at Rio Grande Valley. The campus offers a PhD program in epidemiology and a Doctor of Public Health (DrPH) in health promotion, the only program of its kind available in South Texas. The campus directs its attention to health concerns in the Rio Grande Valley, including diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease. It also centers its concerns on genetics and its relationship to infectious and chronic disease. ## Infrastructure ### Transportation #### Major highways Brownsville is served by Interstate 69E, sharing its alignment with U.S. Route 77. The highway connects to the cities of Kingsville and Corpus Christi. U.S. Route 77 was a proposed part of the North American Free Trade Agreement's completed Interstate 69 corridor. Other highways that serve the Brownsville area are U.S. Route 83, U.S. Route 281, SH 4 and SH 48. Interstate 169/SH 550 is a toll road that connects North Brownsville to the Port of Brownsville; it forms a loop around the outer city limits of Brownsville. An interchange in nearby Olmito carries traffic from Interstate 69E onto the highway. #### Mass transit Established in mid-Brownsville in 1978, the Brownsville Urban System (BUS), currently known as the Brownsville Metro, consists of three hubs that run 13 routes covering a large portion of Brownsville. The system provides 11 paratransit vans to disabled passengers, complying with the standards for the Americans with Disabilities Act. It is the only mass transit system in its county and one of the largest in the Rio Grande Valley. Annual ridership for 2015 was 1,384,474. #### Intercity transit The Brownsville/South Padre Island International Airport (BRO) provides passengers with daily nonstop service to American Eagle hubs Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, United Express to George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston, and World Atlantic Airlines, which operates charter and on-demand flights to Miami International Airport. The airport received a \$12.7 million grant from the Federal Aviation Administration for the construction of a new 85,000 sq ft (7,900 m<sup>2</sup>) terminal facility. The project is expected to commence construction by late 2018. #### Bike share and trails The City of Brownsville currently has 64 mi (103 km) of hike and bike trails and on-street bike lanes. In 2016, a bike-share program was established in Brownsville in collaboration with the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. Six bike stations were installed. The contract was renewed with another company to provide a "dockless ride-share program" in late 2018. #### Railroad Several attempts were made to attract a railroad, but the St. Louis, Brownsville and Mexico Railway did not reach Brownsville until 1904. In 1910, a railroad bridge was constructed between Brownsville and Matamoros (Mexico), and regular service between the two towns began. The introduction of the rail link to Brownsville opened the area for settlement by northern farmers, who subsequently arrived in the lower Rio Grande Valley in large numbers. The new settlers cleared the land of brush, built extensive irrigation systems and roads, and introduced large-scale truck farming. In 1904, H. G. Stillwell Sr. planted the first commercial citrus orchard in the area, thus opening the way for citrus fruit culture, one of the valley's leading industries. The expansion of farming in the area, and the railroad link to the north, brought new prosperity to Brownsville and spurred a host of civic improvements. Brownsville was served by the Missouri Pacific Railroad night train from Houston, the Pioneer (#315/316) until 1964, and a daily train from Houston, the Valley Eagle (#321/322), until 1962. Today, the Brownsville and Rio Grande International Railroad (reporting mark BRG) is a terminal switching railroad headquartered in Brownsville. It operates 45 mi (72 km) of line at the Port of Brownsville, and interchanges with Union Pacific Railroad and TFM. BRG traffic includes steel, agricultural products, food products, and general commodities. #### International bridges Brownsville has three international bridges that connect to Mexico. These include the Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge (B&M), Gateway International Bridge and the Veterans International Bridge at Los Tomates. ### Utilities Electricity, water, and wastewater services in Brownsville are provided by the Brownsville Public Utilities Board. Since it is a public utility, the city commission appoints six members of the utilities board with the mayor serving as the seventh member (ex-officio). As of 2016, it is the 68th-largest public power utility in the country by number of customers served (48,232). Its power generation was ranked 51st in the US with 1,638,579 megawatt-hours. Renewable resources were projected to increase with partial help from the proposed addition of a 400-megawatt Tenaska combined-cycle electric generating plant in 2015. A series of wind turbines was also built in the northeast part of Cameron County. The board operates three treatment plants in Brownsville; it also owns 92.91% of the Southmost Regional Water Authority groundwater treatment facility. Several liquefied natural gas companies are currently in the process of establishing pipelines in the city. Two were denied a review of their applications after missing several deadlines. ## Arts and culture Brownsville is known for its strong Mexican culture. Charro Days is a two-nation fiesta celebration held in Brownsville in cooperation with Matamoros, Mexico. It is accompanied with El Grito, a joyous shout originating in Mexican culture. Musicians and actors of Mexican heritage make appearances. Sombrero Festival is a continuation of Charro Days. It is a three-day event consisting of performances from tejano, corrido and other traditional Mexican artists as well as a variety of contests. In 2016, a Mexican art gallery donated a statue called Mr. Charro that was unveiled at a park. The city hosts the Latin Jazz Festival every year around early October in Downtown Brownsville. It is a three-day celebration of local Latin jazz performers, art and dance. The festival began in 1997, founded by American musician Tito Puente. Brownsville has a growing number of arts galleries, including the Puente Art Studio, the B&E Art Studio, and the Rusteberg Art Gallery. The Brownsville Museum of Fine Arts features exhibitions of Egyptian and Astronomical art. It was formerly known as the Brownsville Art League, formed by a group of eight women. The museum underwent a renovation in 1960, featuring a 4,000 sq ft (370 m<sup>2</sup>) studio. In 2002, it changed its name to its current name and underwent another renovation. According to the Association of Art Museum Directors, women account for 38% of leadership positions. Brownsville also has several museums dedicated to historic artifacts and military equipment. The Historic Brownsville Museum opened to the public in 1986. The building was used as a Spanish Colonial Revival passenger depot and was later abandoned. It features Spanish architecture and education programs. Several renovations were made over time, including the addition of a Spanish-style fountain, a courtyard and an engine building. The Commemorative Air Force Museum houses World War II aircraft and holds tours on the early events of wars in Asia and Europe. It also documents the stories of pilots who were part of the 201st Mexican Fighter Squadron. Built in 1850 by Henry Miller, the Stillman House Museum was owned by Charles Stillman and Mexican consul Manuel Pérez Treviño. It was the site of meetings with Mexican general and president Porfirio Diaz. The Stillman's great-grandson purchased the house after the previous homeowners sold it and donated it to the city after several renovations. It opened to the public in 1960. The home sustained damage from Hurricane Dolly in 2008 and reopened to the public the following year after it was restored. Costumes of the Americas Museum is an indigenous clothing museum. Inspired by Bessie Kirkland Johnson, the museum was opened in 1997 featuring clothing from indigenous people in several Mexican states and other Latin American countries. ### Notable restaurants Vera's Backyard Bar-B-Que as of 2022 is the only restaurant in Texas still serving barbacoa made using this traditional method commercially because they are grandfathered in; all other legal commercial providers steam the meat rather than pit-smoking it. ### Filming location ## Media ### Print The Brownsville Herald is the city's major daily newspaper. It has a circulation of 15,880 with 16,409 on Sundays. Other newspapers that share content within Brownsville include The Monitor (headquartered in McAllen), the Valley Morning Star (headquartered in Harlingen) and The Rider, the official weekly campus paper of the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. ### Radio FM stations include: - KBNR (88.3) – Spanish-language Christian - KJJF/KHID (88.9) – Relevant Radio - XHMLS (91.3) – Latin pop - KESO (92.7) – Classic Hits (70s/80s Hits) - XHAAA (93.1) – Regional Mexican - XHO-FM (93.5) – News/talk - KFRQ (94.5) – Classic Rock - KVMV (96.9) – Contemporary Christian - XEEW-FM (97.7) – Latin pop - KKPS (99.5) – Hot AC - KTEX (100.3) – Country - KNVO (101.1) – Spanish Adult Hits - KBFM (104.1) – Rhythmic Top 40 - KJAV (104.9) – Adult Contemporary/Spanish AC Hits - KXIQ-LP (105.1) - KRIX (105.5) – Classic Rock - XHNA (105.9) – Regional Mexican - KHKZ (106.3) – Hot AC - KVLY (107.9) – AC AM stations include: - KURV (710) – News/Talk - KVNS (1700) – Sports Talk ### Television Brownsville has three licensed broadcast full power television stations: - KVEO-TV (Channel 23; DT 24) – NBC affiliate - 23.2 CBS affiliate - KNWS-LD (Channel 64; DT 27) – Azteca America affiliate - 67.2 CW affiliate - KXFX-CD (Channel 67; DT 20) – Fox affiliate ## Notable people - James Carlos Blake, novelist, received his elementary education at Saint Joseph Academy - Shelbie Bruce, actress - José Tomás Canales, lawyer, writer, politician - Oscar Casares, author and professor the University of Texas at Austin; published two books about Brownsville, including Amigoland (2009) - Buddy Garcia, 2012 member of the Texas Railroad Commission - Reynaldo G. Garza (1915–2004), Judge appointed to the United States District Court in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, and to the United States Court of Appeals by President Jimmy Carter in 1978 - Tony Garza, former United States Ambassador to Mexico - Gilberto Hinojosa, county judge of Cameron County from 1995 to 2007; Texas Democratic Party chairman since 2012 - Mifflin Kenedy (1818–1895), South Texas rancher and steamboat businessman - Pierre Yves Kéralum (1817–1872), priest and architect who designed the Immaculate Conception Cathedral - Bernard L. Kowalski (1929–2007), film and television director - Kris Kristofferson, country singer, songwriter and actor, 2004 Country Music Hall of Fame Inductee - Eddie Lucio III, member of the Texas House of Representatives - Eddie Lucio Jr., member of the Texas State Senate - Bianca Marroquín, theater and television actress - Dolissa Medina, Chicana filmmaker, writer, and multimedia artist - Grace Napolitano, United States Representative for California's 32nd congressional district - Jose Rolando Olvera Jr., United States District Judge for the Southern District of Texas appointed by U.S. President Barack Obama in 2015 - Américo Paredes (1915–1999), author of George Washington Gómez - Rudy Ruiz, author, entrepreneur and advocate; attended Saint Joseph Academy - Efren Saldivar, nurse and convicted serial killer - Ramón Saldívar, scholar of Chicano literature and culture, awarded the National Humanities Medal by President Barack Obama in 2011; professor at Stanford University - Julian Schnabel, neo-expressionism painter and Academy Award-nominated, Golden Globe winner and director of The Diving Bell and the Butterfly - Bruce Sterling, author of the Mirrorshades anthology and one of the pioneers of the cyberpunk genre - Emeraude Toubia, actress (Shadowhunters) - Benjamin D. Wood (1894–1986), one of the pioneers of learning technologies and automated testing methods - Jaime Zapata (1979–2011), U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement agent who was ambushed, shot, and killed by Los Zetas in San Luis Potosí, Mexico. He was returning from a meeting in Mexico City; Victor Avila, another agent who accompanied him, was wounded in the same incident ## Sister city - Heroica Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico ## See also - José de Escandón y Helguera, 1st Count of Sierra Gorda - List of museums in the Texas Gulf Coast - Nuevo Santander - Timeline of Brownsville, Texas#Bibliography - Virreinato de Nueva España
48,011,026	Italian ironclad Palestro	1,134,771,491	Ironclad warship of the Italian Royal Navy	[ "1871 ships", "Principe Amedeo-class ironclads", "Ships built in La Spezia" ]	Palestro was an ironclad warship, the second and final member of the Principe Amedeo class, built for the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) in the 1860s and 1870s. She was armed with a battery of six 254 mm (10 in) guns and one 279 mm (11 in) gun. The last sail-rigged ironclad of the Italian fleet, she had a single steam engine that was capable of propelling the ship at a speed of slightly over 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). Obsolescent before she entered service, Palestro had an uneventful career. She served primarily in Italy's colonial empire and did not see action. In 1880, she took part in an international naval demonstration off Ragusa to enforce the Treaty of Berlin. Palestro was employed in the defense of La Maddalena from 1889 to 1894, and thereafter as a training ship. She was stricken from the naval register in 1900 and broken up for scrap in 1902–1904. ## Design Palestro was 78.82 meters (258 ft 7 in) long between perpendiculars; she had a beam of 17.3 m (56 ft 9 in) and an average draft of 8 m (26 ft 3 in). She displaced 5,761 long tons (5,853 t) normally and up to 6,318 long tons (6,419 t) at full load. Her superstructure consisted of a small conning tower. She had a crew of 548 officers and men. Her propulsion system consisted of one single-expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller, with steam supplied by six coal-fired, cylindrical fire-tube boilers that were vented through a single funnel placed directly aft of the conning tower. Her engine produced a top speed of 12.85 knots (23.80 km/h; 14.79 mph) at 6,117 indicated horsepower (4,561 kW). She could steam for 1,780 nautical miles (3,300 km; 2,050 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The ship was barque-rigged to supplement the steam engine; Palestro and her sister were the last rigged ironclads to be built by Italy. Palestro was armed with a main battery of six 10 in (254 mm) guns, mounted in three armored casemates. The first was located forward, toward the bow, the second and third were placed close to the stern on each side of the ship. A 11 in (279 mm) gun was mounted forward as a bow chaser. Palestro was protected by iron belt armor that was 8.7 in (221 mm) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull. The casemates were protected with 5.5 in (140 mm) of iron plating, and the small conning tower had 2.4 in (61 mm) thick iron plates. ## Service history The keel for Palestro was laid down at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard in August 1865. The ship was named for the gunboat Palestro, which had been sunk at the Battle of Lissa in 1866. The date of her launched is unknown, though surviving records indicate either 30 September or 2 October 1871. The ship was completed on 11 July 1875, after almost a decade of work. Obsolescent by the time she was completed, Palestro primarily served in the Italian colonial empire, which Italy had begun acquiring in the 1880s. She occasionally took part in training maneuvers with the main Italian fleet throughout her career. On 14 November 1880 she assisted with the refloating of the P&O steamship Sumatra, which had run aground at Brindisi. Also in that month, Palestro and the ironclad Roma took part in a naval demonstration off Ragusa in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro. Palestro was used as a headquarters ship for the ships defending La Maddalena from 1889 to 1894. She was then used as a training ship for coxswains. Palestro was stationed in La Spezia in 1895 as a special service ship. The ship was stricken from the naval register on 14 April 1900 and broken up for scrap between 1902 and 1904.
41,122,851	North Carolina Highway 133	1,145,437,127	State highway in North Carolina, US	[ "State highways in North Carolina", "Transportation in Brunswick County, North Carolina", "Transportation in New Hanover County, North Carolina", "Transportation in Pender County, North Carolina" ]	North Carolina Highway 133 (NC 133) is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of North Carolina. It traverses 46.6 miles (75.0 km) from Oak Island Drive in Oak Island to NC 210 in Bells Crossroads. The route serves communities such as Southport, Belville, Leland, Wilmington, and Castle Hayne. Additionally, NC 133 serves as an entry point for Military Ocean Terminal Sunny Point located to its east. Much of NC 133 runs parallel to the Cape Fear River and Brunswick River between Southport and Belville. West of Wilmington, NC 133 runs concurrently with U.S. Route 17 (US 17), US 74, and US 76. The road follows another concurrency along US 74 and US 421, west of Downtown Wilmington, and crosses into New Hanover County on the Isabel Holmes Bridge. North of Wilmington, NC 133 exits to the north, serving several suburban communities north of Wilmington. NC 133 runs concurrently with US 117 through Castle Hayne, before bearing northwest toward Bells Crossroads. As early as 1916, portions of NC 133, particularly between its northern terminus and Wilmington were added to the state's highway system as NC 40 and NC 60. The segment later was used for both U.S. Route 421 (US 421) and US 117. The southern portion between Belville and Southport remained unnumbered until 1951 when it was numbered as part of NC 130. In 1957, NC 40 was added as a primary route from NC 210 to Southport, replacing part of US 421 and NC 130. During this time, NC 40 was also extended south from Southport to Oak Island. Due to the establishment of Interstate 40 (I-40) in North Carolina, NC 40 was renumbered as NC 133 in 1961. Since its establishment, the routing around Wilmington has been adjusted, as new expressways have been built. ## Route description NC 133 starts at the intersection of East Oak Island Drive and Country Club Drive near Yaupon Beach on Oak Island. The start of the road is just about one-half mile (0.80 km) from the Oak Island lighthouse, a tourist attraction in the area. Running north along Country Club Drive, NC 133 crosses the Intracoastal Waterway on the G. V. Barbee Bridge. The road name changes to Long Beach Road SE and passes the Cape Fear Regional Jetport to the east. 2.1 miles (3.4 km) north of the G. V. Barbee Bridge, NC 133 meets NC 211 (Southport-Supply Road SE) at an intersection northwest of Southport. The road briefly becomes a four-lane undivided road between Old Long Beach Road and an area just north of NC 211. North of the intersection, NC 133 continues northeast along Long Beach Road SE for 1.7 miles (2.7 km). At an intersection with, NC 87 (River Road SE), NC 133 turns to the north and runs concurrently with NC 87 for one mile (1.6 km). Near Boiling Spring Lakes, NC 133 turns right toward Wilmington, maintaining the name River Road SE. The border of Military Ocean Terminal Sunny Point coincides with the eastern side of the road in this area. Additionally, NC 133 runs to the south and east of Boiling Spring Lakes. Following the boundary of Military Ocean Terminal Sunny Point, NC 133 bears to the northeast until it nears Liliput Creek where it turns to the northwest. Access to Orton Plantation and Brunswick Town State Historical Site is located off of NC 133 north of Sunny Point. Between Liliput Creek and Belville, the road generally parallels both the Cape Fear River and Brunswick River. A historical marker dedicated to Robert Howe is located off of NC 133 in Belville. In Leland the road meets U.S. Route 17 (US 17), US 74, and US 76 at a diverging diamond interchange. NC 133 merges onto the freeway, running concurrently with US 17/US 74/US 76 across the Brunswick River. NC 133 and US 74 exit the freeway at a trumpet interchange with US 421 west of Downtown Wilmington. US 17, US 76, and US 421 continue to the east and cross into downtown Wilmington via the Cape Fear Memorial Bridge. NC 133, US 74, and US 421 run concurrently to the north, paralleling the Northeast Cape Fear River. An intersection north of the trumpet interchange provides access to the USS North Carolina Battleship Memorial. The three routes pass over the Cape Fear River on the S. Thomas Rhodes Bridge. US 74 and NC 133 turn east from the north-south road and cross the Northeast Cape Fear River via the Isabel Stellings Holmes Bridge. Following an interchange with Third Street, the roads run concurrently along the Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway. NC 133 exits off the freeway at Castle Hayne Road in the community of Hightsville. Following Castle Hayne Road to the north, NC 133 goes through Wrightsboro, a census-designated community north of downtown Wilmington. Wilmington International Airport is located east of NC 133, with access from 23rd Street and Gordon Road. NC 133 meets Interstate 140 (I-140) north of Wrightsboro at a partial cloverleaf interchange. Near Skippers Corner, NC 133 meets US 117 and NC 132 at a roundabout. NC 132 ends at the roundabout, and NC 133 exits to the north, running concurrently with US 117. NC 133 and US 117 both run through Castle Hayne and cross over the Northeast Cape Fear River, entering Pender County. North of the bridge, NC 133 turns left at Old Blossom Ferry Road and follows the road to the northwest. The route is primarily rural north of Castle Hayne, passing south of Cape Fear Elementary School and Cape Fear Middle School. NC 133 ends at an intersection with NC 210 in Bells Crossroads. North Carolina Bicycle Route 5 runs concurrently along NC 133 from the northernmost US 17/US 421 intersection, across the Isabel Holmes Bridge, to Third Street in Wilmington. ## History The routing of modern-day NC 133 was established in 1916 when North Carolina created a highway running from Wilmington, through Castle Hayne and Bells Crossroads, towards Clinton. The section between Bells Crossroads and Castle Hayne became part of NC 60; while the section south of Castle Hayne to Wilmington became part of NC 40. By 1931, US 17-1 ran concurrently with NC 40 along the entire route, including the segment from Wilmington to Castle Hayne. US 117 replaced US 17-1 along the Castle Hayne to Wilmington segment in 1933. The same year, US 421 was extended concurrent with NC 60 from Bells Crossroads to Castle Hayne. US 421 was extended south along US 117 in 1935. This replaced NC 40 to Wilmington, while NC 60 was also removed from the concurrent routing. Beginning in 1940, an improved road was created from NC 130 (modern-day NC 211) to Oak Island. A 24-mile (39 km) segment between Belville and Southport first appeared on North Carolina maps beginning in 1941 as an unnumbered gravel-topsoil road. South of Liliput Creek, the road followed an eastern route, which ran parallel to the Cape Fear River and followed East Moore Street into Southport. The road was improved from US 17/US 74/US 76 to Orton Plantation in 1948. In 1951, the segment was completely improved, and NC 130 was extended along the road from Southport to Belville. North of Wilmington, US 421 was removed from the routing between Bells Crossroads and Wilmington in 1954. NC 210 was routed along the segment from Bells Crossroads to US 117 north of Castle Hayne. The third and final designation of NC 40 was established from Bells Crossroads to Southport in 1957, as a partial renumbering of NC 210 and NC 130. The highway also ran concurrently with US 117 from Castle Hayne to Wilmington, and US 17/US 74/US 76/US 421 west of Wilmington. Following the establishment of Military Ocean Terminal Sunny Point, NC 40 was rerouted along new routing along the western edge of the installation. It then ran concurrent with NC 87 to Southport. The highway was extended south from Southport to Oak Island in 1960, running concurrently along NC 211 for 1 mile (1.6 km). In 1961, NC 40 was renumbered as NC 133 with the establishment of I-40 in North Carolina. In 1969, the routing of NC 133 was adjusted to its modern route between the Brunswick River and Northeast Cape Fear River. NC 133 ran concurrently with US 17/US 74/US 76 in Brunswick County until reaching US 421 at an interchange. NC 133 then ran concurrently with US 421 north to the Isabel Stellings Holmes Bridge, where it crossed the Northeast Cape Fear River concurrent with US 117. Both highways then followed Front Street and Fourth Street in downtown Wilmington, along with Cornelius Harnett Drive and Castle Hayne Road towards Wrightsboro. In 1978, NC 133 was placed onto the modern-day freeway between Belville and US 421, running concurrently with US 17/US 74/US 76. Between 1980 and 1984, the section of NC 133 running concurrently with US 421 was mulitlaned and adjusted slightly to the west NC 133 was removed from its routing along North Front Street, North Fourth Street, Cornelius Harnett Drive, and Castle Hayne Road in 2005. This temporary gap in the route was due to the construction of the Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway in Downtown Wilmington. The route was reestablished in February 2008 via the Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway. In 2014, construction began on the 2.2-mile-long (3.5 km) Long Beach Road Extension in Brunswick County which removed NC 133 from a concurrency with NC 211 and shortened its concurrency with NC 87. The project was completed on January 10, 2016. In 2016, construction on a diverging diamond interchange was completed at the US 17/US 74/US 76 interchange in Leland. ## Future The Wilmington Urban Area Metropolitan Planning Organization (WMPO) has identified three projects to be completed along NC 133 in New Hanover and Brunswick Counties. A widening project along Castle Hayne Road, between US 74 (Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway) and I-140 is planned to begin construction in 2030. The installation of a roundabout at the intersection of NC 133 and 23rd Street is projected to begin right of way acquisitions in 2022, with construction beginning in 2024. Additionally, the WMPO plans for the creation of a flyover interchange at the current intersection between NC 133, US 74, and US 421 west of the Isabel Holmes Bridge. Construction of the flyovers is expected to begin in 2024. ## Major intersections
1,936,785	M-221 (Michigan highway)	1,167,485,344	State highway in Superior Township, Chippewa County, Michigan, United States	[ "State highways in Michigan", "Transportation in Chippewa County, Michigan" ]	M-221 is a short state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula (UP) of the US state of Michigan that connects M-28 with the community of Brimley and Brimley State Park. The highway was originally part of M-28 until the 1940s when it was briefly a local road. It has been a state highway again since it was designated as M-221 in 1945. ## Route description M-221 runs for 2.494 miles (4.014 km) north from M-28 into the unincorporated community of Brimley in Superior Township. The highway passes through rural fields and woods until it enters downtown. At the corner of Main Street and Lakeshore Drive, the signed portion of M-221 ends, but state maintenance continues on Lakeshore Drive across the Waiska River. The total length of the highway, including the unsigned segment, is 2.545 miles (4.096 km). M-221 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) like other state highways in Michigan. As a part of these maintenance responsibilities, the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction. These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic, which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway. MDOT's surveys in 2009 showed that the traffic levels along M-221 were 2,940 vehicles daily north of the junction with 71⁄2 Mile Road and 1,476 vehicles per day south of the intersection; along the whole highway, 26 trucks were recorded in the survey. No sections of M-221 have been listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. ## History M-221 was part of the original M-25 that ran through the eastern UP in 1919. This specific segment of roadway ran north into Brimley and turned east onto 6 Mile Road to connect with US Highway 2 (now H-63/Mackinac Trail) The trunkline became part of M-28. In early 1942, M-28 was rerouted on the current alignment south of Brimley and this highway was turned back to local control. In 1945, M-221 was designated along a portion of the former M-28. ## Major intersections ## See also
25,789	Romulus Augustulus	1,173,832,857	Last Western Roman Emperor from 475 to 476	[ "465 births", "5th-century Christians", "5th-century Roman usurpers", "5th-century Western Roman emperors", "5th-century births", "6th-century deaths", "Ancient child monarchs", "Dethroned monarchs", "Monarchs deposed as children", "Monarchs who abdicated", "Romans from unknown gentes", "Romulus Augustulus", "Year of birth uncertain", "Year of death unknown" ]	Romulus Augustus (c. 465? – after 511), nicknamed Augustulus, was Roman emperor of the West from 31 October 475 until 4 September 476. Romulus was placed on the imperial throne by his father, the magister militum Orestes, and, at that time, still a minor, was little more than a figurehead for his father. After Romulus ruled for just ten months, the barbarian general Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. As Odoacer did not proclaim any successor, Romulus is typically regarded as the last Western Roman emperor, his deposition marking the end of the Western Roman Empire as a political entity, despite the fact that Julius Nepos would continue to be recognised as the western emperor by the east. The deposition of Romulus Augustulus is also sometimes used by historians to mark the transition from antiquity to the medieval period. Very few records survive of Romulus' reign. There are no known policies, laws or inscriptions of significance of the emperor, which leaves the impression that he was a shadowy and relatively inconsequential figure. The nickname 'Augustulus' means "little Augustus" and was a derisive nickname referencing his young age. Romulus' immediate family, including his father and possibly his mother, and maybe both his paternal and maternal grandparents, were from the Roman province of Pannonia, and many of his family members had military backgrounds. Romulus came to power through the usurpation of his predecessor, Julius Nepos (r. 474–475 in Italy) in 475. Nepos fled to Dalmatia and continued to claim the imperial title in exile, which hampered Romulus' legitimacy and ensured that he was never recognised by the eastern Roman emperor Zeno. In 476, the barbarian foederati (ally troops) in Italy demanded Italian lands to settle on, which was refused by Orestes. Under their leader Odoacer, the foederati defeated and killed Orestes and deposed Romulus, whereafter Odoacer became the first King of Italy and accepted Emperor Zeno as his nominal superior. Romulus' life was spared by Odoacer, and he was allowed to retire to the castellum Lucullanum, a great fortress in Campania, located in Naples. Little certain information is known concerning Romulus's life in exile. He might have played a role in founding a monastery at castellum Lucullanum in the 480s or 490s, dedicated to Saint Severinus of Noricum. Romulus could have been alive as late as 507 or 511 when Theodoric the Great, Odoacer's successor, wrote a letter to a "Romulus" concerning a pension. Romulus was likely dead before the mid-540s, as accounts of the eastern Roman invasion of Italy at that time do not mention him. ## Name Romulus Augustus' birth name was simply Romulus; he was named after his maternal grandfather, a nobleman from Poetovio in Noricum. Upon his accession to the imperial throne, he also took Augustus as a proper name, not just a title. Many historians have noted the coincidence that the last western emperor bore the names of both Romulus, the legendary founder and first king of Rome, and Augustus, the first emperor. The full style used on his coinage was Dominus Noster Romulus Augustus Pius Felix Augustus. Romulus Augustus was often colloquially referred to as 'Augustulus' (meaning "little Augustus") even in his own time, in reference to his youth. "Augustulus" was a derisive nickname and was never in official use; all of Romulus' coins use the names Romulus Augustus. In Greek, his first name Romulus was also changed derisively into the nickname Momylus ("little disgrace"). ## Background ### Geopolitical background By the time of emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305), the idea that the Roman Empire had grown so large that it would be better managed by two co-ruling emperors, rather than one, had become established. After various divisions were made throughout the 4th century, the empire was firmly and permanently divided into a western and eastern sphere of imperial administration from the death of emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395) in 395 onwards. Though modern historians typically use the terms Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire to describe the new political situation, the Romans themselves never considered the empire to have been formally divided, still viewing it as a single unit, although most often having two rulers rather than one. Over the course of the 5th century, the western empire experienced a period of catastrophic decline. Not only were many of the rulers in the west generally lacking in competence, but they also faced enormous problems. In comparison with the eastern provinces, much of the west was more rural, with fewer people and a less stable economy. An increasing number of Germanic barbarian invasions and settlements throughout the west only added to these issues. In 410, the Visigoths under Alaric I had sacked Rome and in 455, the last western emperor of Theodosius' dynasty, Valentinian III (r. 425–455), was deposed and murdered. That same year, Rome was sacked again for the second time in less than fifty years, this time by the Vandals. The Roman army became increasingly reliant on barbarian mercenaries and after Valentinian's murder, the most powerful barbarian generals, such as Ricimer (c. 418–472), became politically dominant, ruling through proclaiming puppet emperors. In the twenty years between the death of Valentinian and the accession of Romulus Augustus, eight different emperors ruled in the west. By 475, the western empire was in critical condition. Outside of Italy, authority was only exercised in Raetia and some regions of Gaul. The ruling emperor in 475 was Julius Nepos, who had been in power for less than a year. Nepos had been appointed western emperor in 474 by the eastern emperors Leo I (r. 457–474) and Zeno (r. 474–491), but had little real support in the west. In 475, Nepos named Orestes as a patrician and magister militum ('master of soldiers'; effectively commander-in-chief), replacing the previous holder of that office, Ecdicius. Orestes was a distinguished late Roman figure, once having served as notarius (secretary) to the Hunnic king Attila. As magister militum, Orestes was tasked by Nepos to lead an army against Visigoths and Burgundians, foederati (barbarian allies of the empire) who were rebelling in southern Gaul. The army given to Orestes by Nepos was multi-ethnic, with many foederati soldiers. obeying to the grievances of his troops, among other things learning that Nepos had refused requests for land grants, Orestes betrayed the emperor's orders and marched on Ravenna, the capital of the western empire. On 28 August 475, Orestes entered Ravenna with his army and Nepos escaped across the Adriatic Sea to Salona in Dalmatia. ### Ancestry and family There is little surviving concrete evidence in regards to Romulus' ancestry beyond Orestes being known to have been a Roman citizen from Pannonia and sparse information on his immediate family. Orestes' father was a Pannonian Roman officer by the name of Tatulus, and Tatulus had at least one other son, Paulus, who served as a comes. The name of Romulus' mother is not known, but it might have been Barbaria. The name Barbaria, otherwise rarely attested, may derive either from the gens (family) Barbii, attested in Roman Pannonia, or it may simply be the feminine version of the name Barbarius, attested from a few Roman individuals in southern Gaul. Romulus' maternal grandfather was a comes, also by the name of Romulus, attested as alive in 449, when he was sent on an embassy to Attila by the general Aetius. Orestes and Romulus Augustus' mother married at some point before 449. It is believed that Romulus' mother, and thus perhaps her immediate family, were, like Orestes, from Roman Pannonia. It is possible that Romulus Augustus had older siblings, especially given that Romulus was born several years after the marriage of his parents. In ancient Rome, it was customary for the eldest son to be named after his grandfather. That Romulus was not named Tatulus thus indicates that he was not the firstborn boy. ## Reign After an interregnum in the west lasting two months, Romulus, perhaps as young as ten years old, was proclaimed emperor in Nepos' stead by Orestes on 31 October 475. He was the last emperor to be proclaimed in the west. Why the interregnum since Nepos lasted so long and why Orestes, a high-ranking military official and a Roman by birth, did not take the imperial title for himself is not known. It is possible that Orestes was waiting for some form of formal recognition or response from emperor Zeno in the east, which never came. Romulus would throughout his brief ten-month reign be little more than a figurehead, with his father, who retained the position of magister militum, actually running much of the imperial administration. Zeno never recognised the rule of Romulus as emperor in the west, given that Nepos, invested as emperor by Zeno's predecessor Leo I, still ruled in exile in Dalmatia. Problems with the Western Roman army, mainly composed of barbarian foederati, had escalated throughout the 470s. The issues the army had with the central government had been what allowed Orestes to depose Nepos. In 476, the barbarian foederati in Italy, composed mainly of the Herules, Scirians and Turcilingians, demanded land in Italy to settle on. Orestes refused. The leader of the foederati was Odoacer, a barbarian officer of undetermined tribal affiliation. Orestes had once worked alongside Odoacer's father Edeko at the court of Attila. On 28 August 476, Odoacer defeated Orestes in battle at Ticinum, captured him and had him executed. On 4 September, Odoacer captured Ravenna, killing Orestes' deputy and brother Paulus during the fighting. Romulus was captured and deposed, whereafter Odoacer assumed control of Italy as its first king. Odoacer sent Romulus' western imperial regalia to emperor Zeno in the east, and swore allegiance to him, ruling without further imperial successors in the west. According to the 5th-century Eastern Roman writer and historian Malchus, Odoacer may have forced Romulus himself, as his last official act as emperor, to send the imperial regalia and a "letter of resignation" to Zeno, writing that the Roman Empire from this point only required a single emperor, ruling from Constantinople. Though Zeno granted Odoacer the distinction of patrician, he also urged the king to accept Julius Nepos back as emperor in Italy. Though Odoacer nominally accepted Nepos as his sovereign, minting coins in his name, Nepos was never able to reoccupy Italy. ## Later life Odoacer spared the life of the young Romulus on account of his "youth and beauty". Romulus was granted an annual pension of 6,000 solidi (the normal income of a wealthy Roman senator) and granted an estate in Campania near Naples called the castellum Lucullanum (today called Castel dell'Ovo), originally built by the consul and general Lucius Licinius Lucullus in the 60s BC. Castellum Lucullanum had once served as the retirement villa of Tiberius (r. 14–37), Rome's second emperor. By late antiquity, castellum Lucullanum must have been fortified, and it likely functioned as a small administrative and military centre in Campania. Romulus was accompanied to Campania by a large retinue and some of his surviving relatives. Romulus may have been alive as late as 507 or 511, when Theodoric the Great, Odoacer's successor as king of Italy, wrote to a "Romulus" to confirm a grant made to him and his mother by Petrus Marcellinus Felix Liberius, the praetorian prefect of Italy, on Theoderic's authority. Per Thomas Hodgkin, who translated the letter in 1886, the identification of Romulus in the letter as Romulus Augustus is strengthened by the name "Romulus" by this point not being very common and by the letter not giving the Romulus in question any titles or honorifics. The absence of titles differentiates the letter from the vast majority of other letters preserved from Theodoric, as if neither the king nor his scribe were quite sure how to address a former emperor. If the Romulus in the letter is the same person as Romulus Augustulus, it is possible that the letter indicates that Romulus and his family had to renegotiate their financial arrangements and pension with the king, seeing as they had been drawn up under the reign of a different king. Given that Romulus is not mentioned in accounts of the later eastern Roman invasion of Italy in the mid-530s, he had likely died some time before the conflict. Romulus may have played a role in founding a monastery around the remains of Saint Severinus of Noricum at castellum Lucullanum in the 480s or early 490s. A Roman noblewoman by the name of Barbaria, possibly Romulus' mother, also aided in founding the monastery. This monastery became prominent under Pope Gregory I (r. 590–604) and was active until the 10th century. ## Legacy Very few records survive of Romulus' reign. Any policies that he might have pursued are not known. The scant narrative record and few known coins, in addition to there not being any known inscriptions of significance or laws issued by the emperor, make him a shadowy and relatively inconsequential figure. Ralph W. Mathisen considered him in 1997 to have been the "perhaps even the least significant" of the short-lived emperors near the end of the Western Roman Empire. When not seen as only inconsequential, opinions by historians on Romulus Augustus have been negative. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1788), Edward Gibbon wrote that he "assumed and disgraced the names of Romulus [and] Augustus". Romulus Augustus is typically regarded as the last Western Roman emperor, or even the last Roman emperor overall, with his deposition seen as marking the end of the Western Roman Empire as a political entity. The deposition of Romulus is also one of the most commonly used dates by historians to mark the transition from antiquity to the medieval period. Romulus being seen as the last emperor over other contenders derives not only from Romulus having been the last emperor proclaimed in the west, but also from the poetic nature of being named after both Romulus, the founder of Rome, and Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Many historians have noted the coincidence that the last emperor combined the names of both the city's founder and the first emperor. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Gibbon wrote that "the appellations of the two great founders of the city and of the monarchy were thus strangely united in the last of their successors". Some modern scholars consider Romulus' distinction as the last western emperor to be dubious. In particular, some historians, such as Ralph W. Mathisen and Marjeta Šašel Kos, have pointed to Julius Nepos as the actual last Western Roman emperor. Though he never regained Italy, Nepos continued to rule in Dalmatia, with support from Zeno and with nominal recognition by Odoacer, until he was murdered in 480. Throughout the duration of his brief reign, Romulus was never recognised in Constantinople, with the eastern court instead continuing to recognise Nepos as the legitimate western emperor. Though none would be widely recognised thereafter, Nepos also was not the last person to claim the western empire. From about 477 to 516, the Moorish dux Masties in North Africa claimed to be an emperor. In Visigothic Hispania, two Roman usurpers rose from the Ebro valley, attempting to claim imperial authority: Burdunellus (496) and Petrus (506). Romulus Augustus being identified as the last emperor of the western empire is a tradition that began already among eastern Roman historians and writers in the early 6th century. The earliest known writer to consider him as such was Marcellinus Comes (died c. 534), who wrote the following passage concerning Romulus: > The western Empire of the Roman people, which first began in the seven hundred and ninth year after the founding of the City with Octavian Augustus, the first of the emperors, perished with this Augustulus, in the five-hundred and twenty-second year of the reign of Augustus' successor emperors. From this point on Gothic kings held power in Rome. Later Eastern Roman authors continued to regard him as the last emperor of the western empire. Procopius (c. 500–after 565) considered Romulus to have been the last legitimate ruler in the west, as did Jordanes (also 6th century).
30,490,647	The Bishop Revival	1,161,305,704	null	[ "2010 American television episodes", "Fringe (season 2) episodes" ]	"The Bishop Revival" is the 13th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe. The episode's storyline followed Nazi scientist Alfred Hoffman (Craig Robert Young) as he specially designed airborne toxins to kill only surrounding people with similar genetic traits, such as people with brown eyes. It was written by Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta, and directed by Adam Davidson. Along with Young and a number of small guest parts, the episode featured another guest appearance by Clark Middleton as rare book seller Edward Markham. "The Bishop Revival" first aired in the United States on January 28, 2010 on the Fox network to an estimated 9.153 million viewers. Critical reception for the episode ranged from positive to mixed, as reviewers were divided on the episode's villain. ## Plot 15 people suffocate at a Jewish wedding, appearing to have asphyxiated from the inside out. When the Fringe team arrives, Olivia (Anna Torv) identifies that all the victims were from the groom's side, whose grandmother was a Holocaust survivor - and Walter (John Noble) surmises that they were all killed via their shared genetic traits. Later, a similar mass death occurs at a coffee shop, in which Walter recognizes the victims all had brown eyes, another common genetic trait. From fingerprints found at the scene, they discover the culprit is Alfred Hoffman (Craig Robert Young), a Nazi scientist apparently somehow over 100 years old. Walter realizes that the man likely worked with his own father, Robert Bishoff (a German scientist who defected to the US in 1943 and anglicised his name), in creating a chemical agent that, once heated as a gas, could be used to target any specific trait using DNA from the target subject—especially those not of the master race. Though Walter originally had his father's files on the subject, his son Peter (Joshua Jackson), 10 years earlier, had sold them; Peter tries to recover the files but finds some have been used by an artist to create sensationalism art, causing Walter to become distraught. They trace Hoffman to his home, finding his equipment used to create the chemical agent downstairs but no sign of Hoffman. Walter nearly suffocates from an agent left by Hoffman, but Olivia and Peter are able to save him in time. As the FBI search the premises, they find evidence that points to a convention being held to promote world equality. Olivia and Peter depart to try to find Hoffman, while Walter remains behind, examining Hoffman's equipment. At the convention, Hoffman has replaced the heating elements for the chafing dishes with his own. Olivia and Peter struggle with locating Hoffman before Walter and Astrid (Jasika Nicole) arrive. Walter uses a fogger to distribute his own chemical agent, this time specific to Hoffman, and soon the man is found dying. As the team regroups, Walter fully admits to killing Hoffman, a crime in itself, but Broyles (Lance Reddick) decides to let Walter go. Later, Peter has been able to recover the rest of his grandfather's work and returns it to Walter; Walter then goes through the files, finding an old photo of his father and Hoffman working together. ## Production "The Bishop Revival" was the third episode to be written by writing partners Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta. It was the only Fringe episode directed by Adam Davidson. "The Bishop Revival" revealed that the seahorse shown in promotions since the series began was in fact a genetically encoded "signature" created by Walter's father Dr. Robert Bishop. In an interview after the episode's broadcast, consulting producer Akiva Goldsman cited "The Bishop Revival" when discussing the use of flashbacks in Fringe; he stated his disinclination to use too many flashbacks in the series, explaining "I think flashbacks are really useful and there are a couple of places where it will be useful. But fundamentally, no, I don't think we're a show that will be doing a lot of jumping back in time despite the single horde of calls for the 'Walter's Grandfather Nazi Hunting' series. I think not, but it was fun to do [in the 'Peter' episode]." Guest stars for the episode included Craig Robert Young, Max Train, Sierra Pitkin, Brendon Zub, Barbara Kottmeier, John Macintyre, Lauren Attadia, Al Miro, Aaron Brooks, Magda Harout, Leonard Tenisci, Alberta Mayne, Nancy Linari, and Dan Joffre. Clark Middleton, who was last seen in the first-season episode "Ability", made his second guest appearance in "The Bishop Revival" as rare bookseller Edward Markham. ## Cultural references The episode contained two pieces of music from the 19th century German composer Johannes Brahms: his Piano Quartet No. 1, Op.25 in G Major: III. Andante Con Moto-Animato and Piano Quartet No. 1, Op.25 in G Minor: II. Intermezzo: Allegro Ma Non Troppo-Trio: Animato. Also in the episode, someone is seen holding a Dharma Initiative tea bag, a reference to the mysterious organization on the science fiction series Lost. The Nazi in this episode appears to be Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel, Heinrich Himmler. Aside from looking like the character, Himmler was also both a Nordicist and a Nazi Occultist. At one point in the episode, a scared elderly woman points at him screaming, "It's him... it's him...!" This has a double meaning, as she could have been saying "It's him!" or she could have been trying to say "It's Himmler!" ## Reception ### Ratings In a Thursday night filled mostly with repeats, Fox's airing of new episodes Bones and Fringe finished \#1 among adults aged 18–49, with an estimated 9.153 million viewers tuning in. Fringe was up fifteen percent from the previous week with a 3.0 rating, tying its highest 18–49 ratings share for the season. It was the second most viewed episode of the season after the season premiere "A New Day in the Old Town". ### Reviews The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics. Jane Boursaw of TV Squad wasn't sure what to think about "The Bishop Revival", but loved the plotline about Walter's dad being a German spy working for the US government. Alternately, Annalee Newitz of io9 called the episode "surprisingly meh"; while appreciating "all the weird family revelations about the Bishops", she believed the revelations about Walter's father to be "too much" because "we didn't need that extra backstory". Newitz wished Fringe had brought back Olivia's childhood subplot and its ties with Walter and Peter. The A.V. Club columnist Noel Murray was also critical of the episode, explaining "Plotwise, there wasn't much going on in 'The Bishop Revival.'... The FD tracked down a criminal and felled that criminal; that's really it." Murray did however praise the killer's methods and "Aryan aloofness" as "cool" and "delightfully old-school". Like Newitz, Tim Grierson of the magazine New York believed the episode contained "stupid revelations"; for instance, the Nazi connection of Walter's father "just felt like a variation on season one's episodes in which bizarre phenomena could always magically be linked back to Walter's work for the government. Obviously, this info about Peter's grandfather was supposed to be 'shocking,' showing how the Bishop family's scientific work can so easily be perverted for evil, but by this point it just seems like a very artificial, unnecessary ploy to keep us engaged." Other than a few minor complaints with the episode's logic, IGN writer Ramsey Isler thought positively about "The Bishop Revival" and the Nazi story element in particular, stating "there's a definite unique Fringe flavor that makes this story work". Isler disliked the unsolved mystery of Hoffman however, writing the "story really had the feel of one of those intriguing but ultimately disposable stories in the Fringe library". Jennifer Walker from TV Fanatic called the episode "amazing" and a "heart stopper", while Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times enjoyed the father-son dynamic. Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly wrote "The Bishop Revival" was "one of the series' most satisfying stand-alone episodes" because it featured a "good threat" and gave more information about the Bishop family's backstory. Tucker praised John Noble's performance, as his "portrayal of Walter encompasses everything from endearing daffiness to ferocious concentration and commitment". MTV's Josh Wigler believed the episode was "terrific," but wished there was more of a balance between the show's three leads, and that Olivia was featured on a regular basis. He, Hanson, and other critics agreed that this and the previous week's episode gave Fringe some strong momentum heading into the winter finale. Though normally skeptical of the series' many fringe cases, Popular Mechanics called the episode Fringe's "most plausible case yet". ### Awards and nominations At the 2011 Young Artist Awards, Sierra Pitkin received a nomination for Best Performance in a TV Series under the category "Guest Starring Young Actress Ten and Under".
66,182,615	Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience	1,171,584,666	null	[ "2021 American television episodes", "American television series premieres", "Black-and-white television episodes", "Television episodes set in the 1950s", "Television episodes set in the 2020s", "Television episodes written by Jac Schaeffer", "WandaVision episodes" ]	"Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience" is the first episode of the American television miniseries WandaVision, based on Marvel Comics featuring the characters Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch and Vision. It follows the newlywed couple as they try to conceal their powers while living an idyllic suburban life in the town of Westview, New Jersey. The episode is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise. It was written by head writer Jac Schaeffer and directed by Matt Shakman. Elizabeth Olsen and Paul Bettany reprise their respective roles as Wanda Maximoff and Vision from the film series, with Debra Jo Rupp, Fred Melamed, and Kathryn Hahn also starring. Development began by October 2018, and Schaeffer was hired to write the episode and serve as head writer for the series in January 2019. Shakman joined that August. The episode pays homage to sitcoms from the 1950s and 1960s, including The Dick van Dyke Show and I Love Lucy. Filming occurred in front of a live studio audience over two days in early November 2019, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Atlanta, Georgia. It was shot in black-and-white and used many period-appropriate practical special effects and wire gags. "Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience" was released on the streaming service Disney+ on January 15, 2021. Critics praised the faithful recreation of sitcom elements from the era and the performances of Olsen, Bettany, and Hahn. The episode had Disney+'s most-watched series premiere opening weekend until it was surpassed by the series premiere of The Falcon and the Winter Soldier in March 2021. It received several accolades, including three Primetime Emmy Award nominations, winning one for Outstanding Fantasy/Sci-Fi Costumes. ## Plot Newlywed couple Wanda Maximoff and Vision move into the town of Westview, New Jersey, during what appears to be the 1950s. They attempt to blend in, despite Vision being an android and Maximoff having telekinetic abilities. One day they notice a heart drawn on a calendar but cannot remember what it signifies. Vision amazes his co-workers at Computational Services Inc. with his speed, but is unsure what the company actually does. Their neighbor Agnes introduces herself to Maximoff, and the pair conclude that the heart represents Maximoff and Vision's anniversary. Agnes helps Maximoff prepare for the occasion. Vision's boss Mr. Hart reminds him that Maximoff and Vision are hosting Mr. Hart and his wife for dinner that night, which is what the heart on the calendar actually represents. That night, Maximoff and Vision struggle to hide their abilities while making a last-minute dinner for the Harts, with help from Agnes. As they sit down to eat, the Harts ask Maximoff and Vision about themselves, but the couple are unable to explain where they came from. Mr. Hart grows furious and chokes on his food, at which point the episode's sitcom format subsides. Vision uses his powers to remove the food from Mr. Hart's throat at Maximoff's request. The sitcom format returns and the Harts thank Maximoff and Vision for dinner before leaving. As Maximoff and Vision reaffirm their love for one another, these events are revealed to be occurring on the fictional sitcom WandaVision that someone is watching using 21st-century technology. A commercial during the WandaVision program advertises a Stark Industries ToastMate 2000 toaster oven. ## Production ### Development By October 2018, Marvel Studios was developing a limited series starring Elizabeth Olsen's Wanda Maximoff and Paul Bettany's Vision from the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films. In January 2019, Jac Schaeffer was hired as head writer of WandaVision, and was set to write the first episode of the series. In August, Matt Shakman was hired to direct the miniseries, with Schaeffer and Shakman executive producing alongside Marvel Studios' Kevin Feige, Louis D'Esposito, and Victoria Alonso. Feige described the series as part sitcom, part "Marvel epic", paying tribute to many eras of American sitcoms. Olsen described the first episode as a "big love song to The Dick Van Dyke Show", though it also pays homage to other series such as I Love Lucy. As research for replicating the style of those series, Schaeffer, Shakman, and Feige spoke with Dick Van Dyke—the star of the eponymous 1960s sitcom—to learn how that series could be "very broad with silly physical-comedy gags, and yet it never feels false". Van Dyke told them his show was guided by what could and could not happen in real life. The first episode's title was revealed to be "Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience" in January 2021. ### Writing Of all the sitcom styles that the series pays homage to, Schaeffer found the 1950s era to be one of the most challenging to write because of the "patter-patter" dialogue of the time, which she attempted to replicate in this episode. She noted that this is the "most wholly sitcom" episode of the series, with later episodes introducing more elements from outside the sitcom format. This meant the episode had the least amount of mythology to establish, leading to the smallest number of changes for the series with only eight script revisions. Two scenes that were conceived early in development are the opening with Maximoff and Vision in the kitchen, and the scene with Vision at his job. The kitchen scene had to establish the tone and premise of the series, and convince the audience to continue watching despite the unexpected 1950s sitcom format. Schaeffer hoped to do this with an entertaining start for the episode, and an early discovery for her in writing the scene was a "cutesy back and forth" between Maximoff and Vision that was inspired by the relationships between couples in 1950s and 1960s sitcoms. Schaeffer felt the whole series depended on the appeal of Maximoff and Vision's relationship, which for this episode she specifically based on the "adorable, relatable and aspirational" relationship between Rob and Laura Petrie (Van Dyke and Mary Tyler Moore, respectively) in The Dick Van Dyke Show. She also described Maximoff as "full Donna Reed" in the episode, with Agnes inspired by "sex-starved but forever rebuffed middle-aged neighbor" women such as Ethel on I Love Lucy, Mrs. Roper on Three's Company, and Mona on Who's the Boss?. The primary conflict of the sitcom scenes is a misunderstanding between Maximoff and Vision about their dinner plans, which Schaeffer settled on after brainstorming ideas with series writers Laura Donney and Mackenzie Dohr, as well as writers assistant Clay Lapari. The dinner scene with the Harts at the end of the episode was one of the most difficult for Schaeffer to write. She wanted the episode to "lull the audience into the sitcom mode ... and then shatter that" with a key moment during the dinner, but initially did not know what this could be. She did know that it would not involve a supervillain appearing since that would not fit the nature of the series. Schaeffer consulted with the writers room for their ideas, and they discussed what could happen that the audience would find upsetting. They looked at episodes of past sitcoms that dealt with special topics, such as drug use, since Schaeffer felt those created an uncomfortable feeling for the audience that broke away from the appeal of sitcoms. She decided that Mr. Hart would choke on his food during the dinner scene and almost die, which she felt was a simple solution but something that would stand out as an uncomfortable and confusing moment within the sitcom experience. She hoped that the sight of Mr. Hart choking would have a similar emotional impact on the audience as seeing a fight scene in an MCU film would. Schaeffer wrote into the script that the filming style for this sequence would change from a sitcom-style multi-camera setup and become close-ups inside the set. The series features fake commercials that Feige said would indicate "part of the truths of the show beginning to leak out", with "Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience" including a commercial that is advertising a Stark Industries ToastMate 2000 toaster oven with the slogan "Forget the past, this is your future!". The toaster oven has a blinking red light which is the first time color is introduced to the series, and it has a sound effect reminiscent of Tony Stark's Iron Man repulsors. Including a Stark Industries product points to Tony, who manufactured the weapons used to bomb Sokovia and kill Maximoff's parents as revealed in Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015). Abraham Riesman of Vulture noted that "toaster" is a common insult for robots in science fiction, and highlighted the blinking light for its introduction of color and for blinking long enough to make Riesman uncomfortable. His colleague Savannah Salazar saw the commercial's slogan as a reference to Maximoff letting go of her anger towards Stark when she joined the Avengers, and agreed with Riseman about the toaster being a metaphor for Vision. Brenton Stewart at Comic Book Resources said the light had a "particular air of menace" which gave the commercial an "unsettling feeling of a bomb about to go off". Stewart also pointed out the period-accurate sexist nature of the commercial and how the slogan seemed to be alluding to Maximoff's current situation. ### Casting The episode stars Elizabeth Olsen as Wanda Maximoff, Paul Bettany as Vision, Debra Jo Rupp as Mrs. Hart, Fred Melamed as Mr. Hart, and Kathryn Hahn as Agnes. Also appearing as residents of Westview are Asif Ali as Norm, David Lengel as Phil Jones, and Amos Glick as Dennis the mailman. Ithamar Enriquez and Victoria Blade portray the man and woman in the ToastMate 2000 toaster oven commercial. Kat Dennings makes an uncredited appearance as Darcy Lewis at the end of the episode, with only her hand being visible; the series reveals that this hand belongs to Lewis in its fourth episode, "We Interrupt This Program". ### Design Shakman and cinematographer Jess Hall put together a collection of images from existing series that influenced the framing, composition, and color of the episode's sitcom setting, and Hall created a specific color palette of 20 to 30 colors for the episode based on those reference images so he could control the "visual integrity in color" of the episode. Hall worked with production designer Mark Worthington and costume designer Mayes C. Rubeo to ensure that the sets and costumes for the episode matched with his color palette. Hall attempted to create an authentic black-and-white, 1950s look for the episode, but had to balance this with the series' 4K HDR platform. He used digital intermediate (DI) techniques to do this, with a black-and-white Lookup Table (for translating colors into the final look during the DI process) that controlled the HDR factor and the expanded dynamic range. Worthington's team had to learn how different colors work when filmed in black-and-white, and did three days-worth of color tests. The suit and wedding dress worn by Vision and Maximoff in the opening titles were both made for the series, with the dress created as an homage to Audrey Hepburn's wedding dress in Funny Face (1957). Rubeo felt that dress was the most beautiful wedding dress of the period, and sourced the same fabric that was used on the film from a factory in France. Rubeo had to coordinate with Worthington to make sure the colors of the costumes did not blend with the sets when filmed in black-and-white, as her initial costume for Maximoff did not stand out from the color of the kitchen set and had to be adjusted. Makeup head Tricia Sawyer and hair stylist Karen Bartek aimed to portray Maximoff as the ideal 1950s housewife in the episode, with "perfectly curled locks and flawless makeup." They considered details such as the shapes of her eyebrows and nails, as well as how certain colors translated into black-and-white. To shoot scenes in black-and-white, Bettany was painted blue, rather than Vision's maroon color, since the blue appeared better in the grayscale image. Additionally, Olsen used a pinker shade of foundation, a "robin's egg blue-green" eye shadow, a pinky-red nail color, and a darker pink shade for her lips, to help create a natural look for filming in black-and-white. Camera tests were required to find the correct colors for Olsen, Rupp, and Bettany's makeup. Wigs were used for the hair styles in the episode to allow it to be filmed at the same time as other episodes without the actors' hair having to be re-styled to change between eras. Perception, who created the end credits sequence for the series, also created a new Marvel Studios logo and opening title sequence for this episode. The logo transitions from the normal Marvel Studios logo into black-and-white and a 4:3 aspect ratio. The logo's fanfare also changes to sound like it is coming from old television speakers. The graphics for the opening titles were inspired by those in The Dick Van Dyke Show, and Perception also made the episode's closing card featuring Maximoff and Vision in an I Love Lucy-style frame. Additionally, Perception provided graphics for the episode's fake commercial based on similar commercials from the 1950s. ### Filming Filming began in early November 2019, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, with Shakman directing, and Hall serving as cinematographer. "Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience" utilized a multi-camera setup and was shot in black-and-white over two days in front of a live studio audience to mimic classic sitcom filming. A group of Marvel Studios friends and family served as the live studio audience members, including series co-star Teyonah Parris since she does not appear in the episode. Co-executive producer Mary Livanos felt the audience produced a "really great, genuine" reaction to the episode, exceeding the expectations of the producers. Olsen and Bettany were initially hesitant about the live audience, but by the end of filming they "wanted to keep on running the show" that way. Because of the audience, scenes from this episode could not be adjusted later in production. Schaeffer found this aspect exciting, and described the episode as a "very bizarre one-act play". As with past multi-camera sitcoms, the episode was rehearsed for a week before filming. Many revisions for the episode happened during this week rather than during the writing of the script, including "punching up jokes and enhancing physical comedy bits". The crew dressed in period appropriate outfits during production. Sawyer and Bartek were on set during filming to do touch-ups for the actors between takes, which involved "running in really fast when we had a minute ... just like a [real] sitcom". A 4:3 aspect ratio is used for the black-and-white scenes, shifting to a modern 2.40:1 widescreen ratio for the last shot of the episode which is set outside of the fictional WandaVision program. Hall enjoyed shooting in 4:3 because he was able to use it as a "dramatic tool". He tested using camera lenses from the 1950s, but there were not many of them available for the series and he found them to be fragile. Instead, Hall worked with Panavision to modify modern lenses to match the characteristics from the old lenses that he liked. The resulting lenses created "this sort of even falloff around the edges", which worked well in the square 4:3 aspect ratio and was a period-appropriate effect. Hall used tungsten lights that were common for the era, with a lighting set-up involving many overhead vintage lights to create an "even, soft lighting" that accommodated for the actors moving into different rooms of the set while filming live. During filming, the special effects team moved props with wire rigs and used camera tricks to create the effect of Maximoff's magic, as was done in series like Bewitched and I Dream of Jeannie. Jump cuts were used to depict Maximoff magically changing clothes, with a shot of Olsen freezing in one position cut with a shot of her in the same position in a different costume. Her stand-in copied the position while Olsen got changed in between the shots. Vision's accelerated actions were achieved by undercranking the camera and adjusting its shutter speed to create in-camera motion blur. Additional shooting took place without the studio audience for when something goes wrong with Maximoff's illusion in the dinner scene with the Harts. Shakman used lenses, lighting, and sound design to change the mood for this, inspired by The Twilight Zone, and felt the transition from the multi-camera sitcom scenes was "very dramatic". In the dinner scene, Mrs. Hart repeatedly says "stop it", for which Shakman instructed Rupp to act as if she had one emotion on the inside and another on her face. Rupp said balancing the levity and horror of the scene was one of the most interesting things she did on the series, and described the Twilight Zone influences as "genius". The choking scene includes shots looking back where the sitcom audience should be to show that there is an wall there when Maximoff's illusion breaks. ### Editing Editor Tim Roche said the episode was easier to edit than some of the later ones due to the way it was filmed in front of a live audience, since the actors and Shakman had rehearsed the episode enough that there was a clear roadmap for what the editing should be, based on the onscreen action and the available camera coverage. The one thing that was not as easy for Roche was finding the pacing of the episode, as he found that series from the 1950s had a faster pace than he had initially assumed, but this came from the performance of the actors more so than the editing style. Roche used rewind effects and wipe transitions in the episode. ### Visual effects Tara DeMarco served as the visual effects supervisor for WandaVision, with the episode's visual effects created by Monsters Aliens Robots Zombies (MARZ), Framestore, RISE, The Yard VFX, and Luma. DeMarco used Vision's introduction in Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) as the definitive version of the character when approaching the visual effects for him in WandaVision. Bettany wore a bald cap and face makeup on set to match Vision's color, as well as tracking markers for the visual effects teams to reference. Complex 3D and digital makeup techniques were then used to create the character, with sections of Bettany's face replaced with CGI on a shot-by-shot basis; the actor's eyes, nose, and mouth were usually the only elements retained. MARZ was first asked to remake a shot of Vision from Age of Ultron as a test, and was hired to work on WandaVision when Marvel liked the results. The vendor was responsible for creating Vision in the series' first three episodes, including 50–60 shots in the first episode. MARZ effects supervisor Ryan Freer said the episode provided additional challenges compared to their first test shot since it was the first time that Vision had been seen in black-and-white and doing slapstick comedy. They did additional tests on early footage from the series to ensure that they could preserve Bettany's performance, which involved a lot of "these incredible '50s sitcom expressions with cheek puffs and all". Shakman and Bettany were initially concerned with how the effects would look in this context, but their fears were alleviated after seeing the first shots that MARZ completed for the episode. Freer said animating Vision's face to match Bettany's performance was "tedious", and involved a lot of manual work to make the character's neck match with the collar of Bettany's clothing as well as to clean up the background around Vision's head. For most of the episode's scenes, MARZ completely recreated the on-set lighting to be able to light the character's face correctly. Sometimes they would add back specific highlights from Bettany's face to give Vision's face "more character", and other times they would reduce the amount of reflecting light to make the effect more convincing. The tracking markers on Bettany's face needed to be removed before the final visual effects could be applied to him, and MARZ created an artificial intelligence program that could automatically remove the markers from 50 shots within three hours, which otherwise would have required more manual labor to remove from each frame. To give Vision a more "wholesome" look, the digital contact lenses used in the films and later episodes were not added to Bettany's eyes in the first three episodes, and his eyelashes were not digitally removed as they usually are. DeMarco said contemporary visual effects were used to remove wires and smooth cuts, and to add wire gags that were not filmed. For example, the kitchen features a blend of practical wire gags and CGI to help "fill out the scene". Freer noted that the CG objects added to the kitchen had to match the practical ones and look "janky and off-time". Shots of Vision changing between his human and synthezoid forms and using his abilities were also designed to mimic period-appropriate effects, with "puffs of smoke and starry glitter" added by MARZ. The scene where Maximoff makes wedding rings appear on her and Vision's fingers was initially created by cutting from a shot of them without rings to a shot of them with the rings on. Marvel felt the result was too seamless for a 1950s sitcom, so MARZ digitally adjusted the actors' hands in the shots to make the jump cut more obvious. DeMarco listed the episode's final shot, which slowly transitions from black-and-white in a 4:3 aspect ratio to a 2:40:1 aspect ratio in full color, as one of the most challenging visual effects of the series. ### Music "A Newlywed Couple", the episode's theme song composed by Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez, was meant to evoke the "dawn of television". They included "an optimistic group of voices singing jazzily" about the love between Maximoff and Vision, and were thrilled to use words like "gal" and "hubby" as well as a "big musical pratfall" in the middle of the song. "Gal" is used along with a triplet to pull the "lyric and musical choice together" and make the theme sound like it was written in the late 1950s. Composer Christophe Beck composed "classic, jazz-style[d]" music for the episode which was recorded with a small orchestra that is typical of the ones used for 1950s television series. He also introduced several themes in the episode that he went on to reprise later in the series, including Maximoff and Vision's love theme when Maximoff creates rings for them, and Beck's "definitive" theme for Maximoff that can be heard during the end credits. Beck's score for the choking scene transitions from the period style to a "tension piece" inspired by the music that Bernard Herrmann composed for Alfred Hitchcock's films. The song "Yakety Yak" by the Coasters is also featured in the episode. A soundtrack album for the episode was released digitally by Marvel Music and Hollywood Records on January 22, 2021, featuring Beck's score. The first track is the theme song by Anderson-Lopez and Lopez. ## Marketing In early December 2020, six posters for the series were released daily, each depicting a decade from the 1950s through the 2000s. Charles Pulliam-Moore from io9 noted that the 1950s poster was "modest enough at first glance", depicting an "unassuming living room" from the decade, but the "wallpaper peeling to reveal a static-y reality lurking just beneath the surface was conveying that as WandaVision progresses, things are going to get even weirder". Collider's Gregory Lawrence said the poster asks fans to "peel away anything" that feels familiar, and the peeling wallpaper reveals "a glimpse of... something. Something wild, something celestial, something implying a destiny that isn't 'entertaining each other on TV'." He added that the poster "so cleverly, subtly get[s] at the inherent pull of the unusual premise" of the series. After the episode's release, Marvel announced merchandise inspired by the episode as part of its weekly "Marvel Must Haves" promotion for each episode of the series, including shirts, accessories, housewear, Funko Pops, and a set of rings from Entertainment Earth based on those worn by Maximoff and Vision. In February 2021, Marvel partnered with chef Justin Warner to release a recipe for Lobster Thermidor based on the one that Agnes gives to Maximoff in the episode. ## Release ### Streaming "Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience" was released on the streaming service Disney+ on January 15, 2021. The episode was originally listed as "Episode 1" on the service, but the title was updated by January 20 to be "Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience". Hoai-Tran Bui at /Film originally assumed that all of the episodes for the series would be untitled, and wondered if the titles were being withheld upon release to avoid spoilers despite not finding the first episode's title to be particularly revealing. ### Home media The episode, along with the rest of WandaVision, will be released on Ultra HD Blu-ray and Blu-ray on November 28, 2023. ## Reception ### Audience viewership Nielsen Media Research, which measures the number of minutes watched by United States audiences on television sets, listed WandaVision as the sixth-most-watched original series across streaming services for the week of January 11–17, with 434 million minutes viewed. This is around 6.48 million complete views of the series' first two episodes, which were both released on January 15, and more complete views than the series on Nielsen's top 10 original series list which had more minutes viewed but longer runtimes available. Parrot Analytics used social media, fan ratings, and piracy data to evaluate audience demand for the series, and found it to be in the top 0.2 percent of series worldwide. WandaVision ranked in the top 15 shows worldwide for each of its first four days of release, as well as the top 45 shows in the U.S. during that same period. Mexico, France, Brazil, Chile, and Germany were some of its top international markets during those first four days. On January 15, the series was 24.5 percent more in-demand than Disney+'s The Mandalorian was when it premiered in November 2019, but WandaVision was behind that series' current audience demand. WandaVision had a 9.3 percent share of the engagement on Reelgood, an online streaming guide with more than 2 million U.S. users, for its premiere weekend of January 15–17, making it the most-streamed series during that time according to their data. A similar service, Whip Media's TV Time, found WandaVision to be the most anticipated series among U.S. users of their platform and listed it as the second-most-viewed series globally during its debut weekend. Tracking on certain opted-in smart TVs, Samba TV found that 1.1 million U.S. households watched both of the first two episodes from January 15 to 18, with 1.5 million watching "Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience". WandaVision had Disney+'s most-watched series premiere opening weekend, ahead of the season premiere of The Mandalorian's second season, until Disney+ announced that it had been surpassed by the series premiere of Marvel Studios' The Falcon and the Winter Soldier in March 2021. ### Critical response The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100% approval rating with an average score of 7.40/10 based on 18 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "'Filmed Before a Live Studio Audience' taps into the strange side of the MCU and gives Elizabeth Olsen and Paul Bettany plenty of room to flex their comedic muscles." Roxana Hadadi at RogerEbert.com said Olsen and Bettany had excellent chemistry in the episode, and felt their work elevated the "fairly recognizable plot about a dinner party gone wrong". The A.V. Club's Sam Barsanti called the first two episodes of the series "an absolute delight, with hoary old sitcom gags that somehow kill" and a "nicely weird, novel way to have fun with these characters", while his colleague Stephen Robinson gave the episodes an "A−", feeling Schaeffer delivered a "damn good sitcom". In his recap for the first and second episodes, Christian Holub of Entertainment Weekly praised Hahn's performance, with his colleague Chancellor Agard also praising Olsen and Bettany, saying he forgot at times that the series' sitcom world was fake due to how "locked in" their performances are. Reviewing the first two episodes for Den of Geek, Don Kaye gave them 4 out of 5 stars and said everything in the first episode is a "loving tribute to the kinds of 'wholesome,' squarely middle class, conservative family comedies" that existed in the mid-1950s. IGN's Matt Purslow rated the first two episodes 7 out of 10, and felt it was "quite a feat of writing" that there were many elements in the first episode that worked on both the "in-show universe and meta levels" despite needing to do a lot of heavy lifting for the series. Purslow also enjoyed the theme song for the episode, the self-aware title sequence, and the fact that S.W.O.R.D. appeared to be making its proper introduction into the MCU. Writing for Vulture, Abraham Riesman gave the episode 3 out of 5 stars, saying it was "nice to see an MCU thing where people are allowed to act. But ultimately, what remains to be seen is whether there's any thematic oomph, or if it's just going to be an empty jumble of well-executed tropes and portents." He did wish more of the show's premise had been kept a secret from the marketing campaign since "the abrupt depositing of the audience into a genre and format completely antithetical to those they had known before would have been a much-needed shock to the system for a viewer used to the MCU's tropes". ### Accolades
38,828,194	Promos (The Office)	1,130,159,352	null	[ "2013 American television episodes", "The Office (American season 9) episodes" ]	"Promos" is the eighteenth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 194th overall. The episode was written by Tim McAuliffe and directed by Jennifer Celotta. It originally aired on NBC on April 4, 2013. The episode guest stars sports star Ryan Howard, Chris Diamantopoulos, Nora Kirkpatrick, and Allan Havey. Former series regulars Steve Carell and B. J. Novak also appear through archival footage. The series—presented as if it were a real documentary—depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In this episode, everyone in the office is excited when international promos for the documentary surface, but are soon horrified to discover how much candid filming has taken place. While everyone panics about their secrets being revealed, Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) reflects upon how much she and Jim (John Krasinski) have changed over the past nine years. Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) makes Angela Lipton (Angela Kinsey) jealous when he starts dating a Brussels sprout farmer. Meanwhile, at Athlead's office in Philadelphia, Jim and Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson) have a big meeting with baseball player Ryan Howard (not to be confused with the former series regular), who pitches a bizarre sci-fi sports movie about himself. The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics; many felt that while the episode had an interesting theme and that much of the drama was successful, the humor was too broad or forced. The episode was viewed by 3.44 million viewers and received a 1.8/5 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. The episode ranked fourth in its timeslot, and it was the highest-rated NBC series of the night, though it was lowest rated episode of The Office at the time of airing. ## Synopsis The office is excited to see promos for the upcoming WVIA documentary The Office: An American Workplace, which consists of the footage of them that has been compiled over the past nine years. However, many of the workers are dismayed to learn just how much of their activities have been recorded; for instance, Dwight and Angela's affair that occurred a year ago was captured. Several excuse themselves and go to the warehouse to talk, turning off their microphones in an unsuccessful effort to keep the discussion private. Pete Miller (Jake Lacy) suggests that Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) talk to dismissed crew member Brian (Chris Diamantopoulos) to learn more. At Brian's house, Pam tells him that upon seeing the old footage she thinks Jim's feelings for her have largely faded, and Brian agrees. When she asks about what the crew filmed, he tells her that every important moment was captured even when not wearing their microphones. Realizing the extent to which their privacy has been violated, Pam storms out of Brian's house. On re-watching the promo, Pam decides she is glad that the history of her relationship with Jim has been captured. Angela Lipton (Angela Kinsey) and Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez) call Angela's husband Senator Robert Lipton (Jack Coleman) to inform him that the documentary will probably out him and reveal that Angela slept with Dwight. Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) becomes obsessed with online comments regarding his brief appearance in the promo, posting lengthy replies and even uploading his own video in response to negative reactions. The documentary crew discovers that Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) has left at least some of the negative comments, taking pleasure in Andy's annoyance. Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) starts dating a Brussels sprout farmer, Esther Bruegger (Nora Kirkpatrick), while negotiating the purchase of a tractor with her father Henry (Allan Havey). Dwight does poorly in the negotiations, yielding to all of Henry's terms. During the haggling, Esther's sisters flirt with Clark Green (Clark Duke) and try to coax him into buying farming equipment. Clark stops Dwight from signing the papers and takes him aside to tell him that he thinks Esther and her sisters are too physically attractive to be interested in men like them, and that Esther is probably just dating him so that her father can take advantage of him on the tractor deal. Dwight sees the logic in Clark's suspicion. However, Esther appears and tells Dwight that he should not sign the contract and negotiate for a better deal. Dwight realizes that Esther does care for him after all and go for a ride on the tractor, much to Angela's dismay. At the Athlead offices, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) and Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson) have a meeting with Major League Baseball player Ryan Howard. The meeting ends up with Darryl and Jim reading Ryan's self-written screenplay of a baseball player turned alien-fighting superhero. ## Production "Promos" was written by consulting producer Tim McAuliffe, his first writing credit for the series. It was directed by former series writer, director, and co-showrunner Jennifer Celotta, her third such credit for the series. The episode features Philadelphia Phillies star Ryan Howard playing himself. This marks the second time a major sports star has played themselves for the season, as former Philadelphia 76ers star Julius Erving portrayed himself in the episode "Lice". Robinson later said that Ryan "killed it" and that "He's pretty damn funny in real life, which doesn't always translate to TV". He also joked that Howard is "definitely a better actor than John Krasinski. Without a doubt." The titular promos are composed of stock footage from The Office, primarily from early seasons of the series. They feature the departed characters Michael Scott (Steve Carell) (in clips from previous episodes) and Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak). ## Cultural references In the cold open, Phyllis is seen listening to an audiobook of the erotic romance novel Fifty Shades of Grey on her iPod, which makes everyone uncomfortable due to her arousal. Ryan Howard makes reference to the restaurant Subway's slogan, "Eat Fresh", a reference to the fact that he is a spokesman for the franchise. During the table read of Howard's screenplay, he mentions that it is of utmost importance for them to secure the rights to the name Darth Vader from the popular space movie series Star Wars. Oscar notes that Angela's husband—when he was dressed as former US president Ronald Reagan for Halloween—kissed him like former president John F. Kennedy. The title of the in-series documentary, The Office: An American Workplace, is the name given to the series itself when it was broadcast in the UK to differentiate it from the British version of the show. In the context of the series and episode, it is revealed that the documentary is scheduled to air on WVIA-TV, the actual Scranton PBS affiliate. ## Reception ### Ratings "Promos" originally aired on April 4, 2013 on NBC. In its original American broadcast, the episode was viewed by an estimated 3.44 million viewers and received a 1.8 rating/5 percent share. This means that it was seen by 1.8 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 5 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This marked a decrease in the ratings from the previous episode, "The Farm". The Office ranked fourth in its timeslot, being beaten by an entry of the ABC series Grey's Anatomy which received a 2.8/8 percent rating, an episode of the CBS police procedural Person of Interest which received a 2.7/8 percent rating, and an installment of the Fox comedy series New Girl which earned a 2.0/6 rating. ### Reviews Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a "B−". He noted that it "represents a tipping point for The Office" because it eliminates the fact that—while the characters have known they were on camera—many of the people that the documentary is following have not realized the extent to which the camera people have been following and recording them." Adams said that strong plots such as Pam's realization about her relationship with Jim were rushed, and that other plots, like Dwight's, were made to "[run] out the clock". M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode a "B−". Roth Cornet of IGN awarded the episode a 7.9 out of 10, denoting a "good" episode. She argued the episode had a "cohesive, united feel", even though Jim and Darryl were separated from the main action, that "past, present, and (possible) future combined together nicely", and that "the emotion wasn't overplayed". However, she said that this was not the "funniest episode of The Office that we've ever seen". Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode 3.5 stars out of 5, and criticized the reintroduction of Brian, saying it felt "forced" and that it ruined "something so innately interesting". Nick Campbell of TV.com wrote that the quality of the episode hinged on whether or not the viewer could accept the fact that the characters were unaware of the extent of the footage that the camera crew caught. He wrote that "If you can ride with the Scranton branch not understanding what 'being filmed all the time' means, this might have been a pretty funny episode. If you can't ... then the premise of this episode is pretty awful." He concluded that while "Promos" had "its moments", it was not the most solid of the series' episodes. Alan Sepinwall of HitFix felt that "there was good idea hiding inside of 'The Promo' [sic]", but that much of the episode was undermined by the broad nature of the humor.
2,039,308	Pilning railway station	1,161,743,420	Railway station near Bristol, England	[ "DfT Category F2 stations", "Former Great Western Railway stations", "Low usage railway stations in the United Kingdom", "Railway stations in Bristol, Bath and South Gloucestershire", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1886", "Railway stations served by Great Western Railway", "South Wales Main Line" ]	Pilning railway station is a minor station on the South Wales Main Line near Pilning, South Gloucestershire, England. It is 10 miles (16 km) from Bristol Temple Meads and is the last station on the English side before the Severn Tunnel through to Wales. Its three letter station code is PIL. It is managed by Great Western Railway, who provide the two train services per week from the station. The station was opened by the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway in 1863, but was resited in 1886 when the Severn Tunnel was opened. The station had an extensive goods yard, boasting one of the largest railway communities in the Bristol area, and operated a motorail service to Wales. In 1928 the original station was reopened on the Severn Beach Line, which allowed passengers and freight to reach Avonmouth Docks, though this only lasted until 1964. The goods yard was closed in 1965, and the station buildings later demolished, with very little in the way of facilities. Passenger services also declined, to two trains per day in the 1970s and the current service level of two trains per week in 2006. The station's footbridge was removed in 2016 as part of Great Western Main Line electrification project, meaning that only eastbound trains can now use the station. Campaigners have alleged this is part of an attempted closure by stealth, although the incident raised the station's profile nationally. Pilning is one of the least-used stations in Britain, but passenger numbers have increased in recent years due to efforts by the Pilning Station Group. ## Description Pilning railway station is located in the Pilning area of South Gloucestershire, 2 miles (3.2 km) north of the Bristol conurbation. The surrounding area is primarily farmland, with the village itself some 0.75 miles (1.2 km) further west. The station is on the South Wales Main Line between Bristol Parkway and Newport (South Wales), 9 miles 42 chains (15.3 km) from Bristol Temple Meads and 116 miles 51 chains (187.7 km) from London Paddington via Bristol Parkway. West of Pilning, the railway descends into a cutting and then into the Severn Tunnel, emerging in Wales at Severn Tunnel Junction, 6 miles 76 chains (11.2 km) away. The next station to the east is Patchway, 3 miles 46 chains (5.8 km) distant. The station sits on an embankment, with a bridge over the road east of the station and over an irrigation channel at the west. The railway through Pilning has three tracks: from north to south these are the Up Tunnel towards Bristol; the Down Tunnel towards Wales; and then the Down Pilning Loop, also towards Wales. A fourth track, the Up Pilning Loop, ends just west of the station. All three tracks through the station are unidirectional. The two Tunnel lines have a 90 miles per hour (140 km/h) speed limit, while the loop has a speed limit of 40 miles per hour (64 km/h). The line is electrified using overhead wires. Despite there being three tracks, Pilning only has a single platform in use, Platform 1, on the north side of the line. This is 120 metres (130 yd) long and serves trains towards Bristol. The old down platform, Platform 2, sits between the Down Tunnel and Down Pilning Loop, but is no longer accessible to the public. It is 121 metres (132 yd) long. There is an old brick station building on Platform 1 but it is not in railway use. Infrastructure owner Network Rail has a compound at the station. Facilities at Pilning are extremely basic: the platform, which is covered by CCTV, has a bus stop-style shelter on it but no seats. Customer help points on the platform and timetable boards provide service information, but there are no facilities for buying tickets. There is a free car park with 10 spaces and four bicycle stands, and also a payphone. Access is via a long ramp from the main road. Pilning is consistently one of the least-used stations in Britain, recording less than 50 annual passengers several times between 1997 and 2015. Numbers have since increased by a factor of ten, thanks in part to campaigns by the Pilning Station Group; however as of 2017/18 it is still the 35th least used station of the 2,559 in Britain. ## Service Pilning is managed by Great Western Railway, which operate all services from the station. A parliamentary service of two trains per week operates; as of the December 2019 timetable these are the Saturday 08:33 and 14:33 services from Cardiff Central to Penzance and Taunton respectively. The standard journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is 20 minutes, and to Taunton is 80 minutes. Services at Pilning are formed using GWR and diesel multiple-unit trains. Due to there being no westbound trains, a fares easement is in place allowing passengers to travel to Severn Tunnel Junction in order to return eastbound to Pilning. Rail replacement buses do not call at Pilning; in the event of engineering works taxis are provided instead. Great Western Railway services between London Paddington and South Wales pass through Pilning non-stop throughout the day, two trains per hour in each direction on weekdays, one train per hour at weekends. Other Great Western Railway services between Cardiff and Taunton or Portsmouth Harbour also pass through non-stop, again two trains per hour in each direction on weekdays, one train per hour at weekends. Freight trains also operate through Pilning, roughly two per hour each way, with many transporting coal between Bristol and South Wales. ## History ### Bristol and South Wales Union Railway Pilning railway station first opened on 8 September 1863 when services began on the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway (BSWUR). The railway ran from Bristol Temple Meads to New Passage Pier, north of Bristol on the banks of the River Severn, where passengers could transfer onto a ferry to cross the river into Wales. The line, engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was built as single track broad gauge. Pilning was 9 miles 39 chains (15.3 km) from Temple Meads, initially the fifth station along the line, between Patchway 3 miles 3 chains (4.9 km) east and New Passage 1 mile 76 chains (3.1 km) west. There was a single platform on the north side of the line, and a siding to the south. Few details are known about this iteration of the station, nor are there any photos from its time in use. The station was 1 mile (1.6 km) east of the village of Pilning in Gloucestershire, on Pilning Street, a road between Pilning and Easter Compton, which was 1.5 miles (2.4 km) further south. The immediate area was farmland with little in the way of housing, although there was a pub, The Plough, across the road from the station. To the east the line crossed the road at a level crossing, which was operated from the station using levers. There were initially six trains per day on weekdays in each direction, with three trains per day on Sundays. In 1868 the BSWUR was amalgamated with the Great Western Railway (GWR), which had from the beginning operated all BSWUR services; and in 1873 the line was converted to standard gauge. ### High Level station Although the BSWUR made travel from Bristol to Wales easier, the change from train to ferry to train was inconvenient, and so plans to build a tunnel under the Severn were considered even before the railway opened. Parliamentary permission was gained in 1872, with construction beginning in 1873. GWR chairman Daniel Gooch and other directors visited Pilning in 1884 as part of an inspection tour of the works. The route to the tunnel diverged from the New Passage line 35 chains (0.70 km) east of Pilning, necessitating the building of a replacement station on the new line, approximately 100 yards (90 m) south of the original. The new station opened with the first passenger services through the tunnel on 1 December 1886. The New Passage branch, including the original station, was closed to passengers the same day, despite requests from local residents that a reduced service continue to operate. The route remained in goods use to allow trains to deliver coal to the Severn Tunnel pumping station, which was on a spur off the New Passage route. The new station was built on an embankment, and would eventually become known as Pilning High Level. The railway crossed the road via a bridge east of the original station's level crossing, and the new station entrance adjacent to that level crossing. To the west the line went into a cutting descending towards the Severn Tunnel. The station embankment also crossed a small irrigation channel at Gumhurn Bridge. The new station was 3 chains (60 m) further along the line from Bristol at 9 miles 43 chains (15.3 km), with Patchway now 3 miles 46 chains (5.8 km) to the east, having been resited in 1885. The next station west was Severn Tunnel Junction, 6 miles 76 chains (11.2 km) away the other side of the Severn. There were two platforms, either side of the two running lines, although double-tracking to Patchway was only completed in 1887. The northern platform served eastbound trains, the southern one was for westbound trains. The station buildings were of a standard GWR design with chimneys and a fretted canopy; however this design bore no resemblance to the other stations along the line. The main station building was on the northern platform, containing the station master's office, booking office, parcels office and toilets. There was a smaller waiting room on the westbound platform. The platforms were wooden, with gas lamps and wooden bench seats. A large covered footbridge connected the platforms east of the buildings. In 1905 there were 30 staff employed by the station – 14 signalmen, 6 signalmen/porters, 8 porters, a tunnel inspector and the stationmaster – making it one of the largest railway communities in the Bristol area. Staff members were given first aid training and examinations by St John Ambulance, with an annual awards event. The station had a large goods yard to the south and east of the station, including a cattle pen and loading bay at the east end of the northern platform. A siding between the platforms and the junction was converted to a goods loop in 1904, a westbound goods loop south of the station was laid in 1905, and a further eastbound loop just west of the station in 1906. The station had two signal boxes: Station Box was sited at the western end of the southern platform and had 54 levers; Junction Box was 0.25 miles (0.40 km) east at the eastern end of the goods yard and had 68 levers. As the final station before the Severn Tunnel, the yard was used to inspect wagons before they entered the tunnel, and also to house an emergency rescue locomotive. Heavier trains had a special brake van added, as the standard Great Western brake van had an open veranda and thus exposed the guards to choking fumes while in the tunnel. Banking locomotives were also kept at Pilning to help trains with the steep slopes between the Severn Tunnel and Patchway. In 1910, the GWR introduced a Motorail service through the Severn Tunnel, operating between Pilning and Severn Tunnel Junction. Vehicles were loaded onto special wagons which were then attached to passenger trains using two dedicated shunting locomotives. Waterproof covers were available to protect cars from the conditions inside the tunnel, while passengers travelled in a coach hauled by the same train. There were usually two or three such trains per day. The service continued for more than fifty years, barring a cessation during World War I. The opening of the Severn Bridge in 1966, allowing direct road travel between Bristol and South Wales, brought about the end of the service, with the final train running on 6 October 1966. ### Pilning Low Level In 1900, the GWR built a new branch from the route to New Passage, running along the banks of the Severn to the docks at Avonmouth. This allowed trains to travel via the original station at Pilning and avoid congestion along the line via central Bristol. The line was single-track throughout, but Pilning had a passing loop and two loop sidings adjacent to the line. The loop was capable of holding a train of 60 wagons, while the sidings could hold 52 and 48 wagons. A brick signal box, Pilning Branch Box, more commonly known as Low Level, was opened adjacent to the level crossing in 1917. It had ten levers controlling the crossing and the eastern end of the passing loops, the western end being controlled by a ground frame. The level crossing had manually-controlled gates, requiring the signaller to leave the signal box in order to operate them. The crossing was also at the bottom of a gradient, with train operators advised to approach it cautiously. Trains working from Wales to Avonmouth required elaborate shunting moves – there was no path between the two without reversing – and so the level crossing was frequently closed, leading to traffic jams. A new route to Avonmouth, via Henbury, was opened in 1910, but no direct connection between South Wales and Avonmouth was built until 1971. In the early 1900s the nearby village of Severn Beach became a popular seaside resort, with a station opening there in 1922 for trains via Avonmouth. This spurred the upgrading of the line from Pilning to Avonmouth to passenger traffic: inspections occurred in 1927, approval was granted on 24 April 1928, and the first passenger services ran on 23 June 1928. The station at Pilning on this line opened on 9 July 1928, referred to variously as Pilning Halt, Pilning Low Level Halt and Pilning Low Level, although the latter was the most common. The station on the route via the Severn Tunnel was renamed Pilning High Level, with the station boards noting "Junction for Severn Beach and Avonmouth". The total cost of construction of the new stations at Pilning, Cross Hands Halt and New Passage Halt was estimated at £502. The new Low Level station was on the site of the original station, 9 miles 39 chains (15.3 km) from Bristol Temple Meads. Patchway was the next station east, 3 miles 43 chains (5.7 km) away, while to the west Cross Hands Halt was 73 chains (1.5 km) distant. The station had a single 150 feet (46 m)-long wooden platform on the north side of the line, with no facilities or lighting. The shortness of the platform meant that only two carriages could be accommodated, and so passengers were required to travel in the correct part of the train in order to alight. Tickets were sold from the High Level station, whose stationmaster oversaw the Low Level also. The Low Level station handled parcels traffic, unlike other halts on the route. The station had no water tower, and so locomotives were required to travel to High Level to use the facilities there. A small shelter and platform lighting were added by 1959. The initial service along this loop was nine trains per day on weekdays and four on Sundays, mostly running circular trips to and from Bristol Temple Meads via Clifton Down and Patchway. ### British Rail When the railways were nationalised in 1948, Pilning came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways. In 1949 there were seven trains towards South Wales and eight towards Bristol from Wales each day, with two each way on Sundays. The Low Level station saw an additional five trains per day towards Bristol via Patchway, and seven per day towards Severn Beach, with some continuing to Bristol from there. Many trains via Severn Beach would terminate at Pilning Low Level. Passenger services between Severn Beach and Pilning were withdrawn on 23 November 1964, causing the closure of the Low Level platform. The line to Avonmouth continued in freight use, however in 1968 a work to rule incident precipitated the closure: a signaller at Pilning Branch Box took a sick day and train staff refused to work the crossing gates themselves. The line was officially closed on 1 September 1968 following this incident, with the Divisional Movements Manager stating it was surplus to requirements. The tracks and signal box remained in place until at least August 1970, but were eventually removed. The site is now in agricultural use, and the only remnants of the station are level crossing gates: one remaining in situ, the other now used at the Didcot Railway Centre. The High Level station continued in use, but reverted to its original name, Pilning, on 6 May 1968. During the 1950s a brick building was built on the northern platform, and around the same time the footbridge had its roof and walls removed, leaving users exposed to the elements. The goods yard was closed on 29 November 1965, with the good loops westbound towards the tunnel cut short in February 1968 and the eastbound loop between the High Level station and the junction removed in May 1969. The Motorail loading bay was used to store a fire service emergency train for the Severn Tunnel, however this had been relocated to Severn Tunnel Junction by 1991. The Junction and Station signal boxes were closed on 15 March 1971, with control passed to Bristol Panel Signal Box at Bristol Temple Meads. Passenger services had increased slightly by this point, with nine or ten trains each direction between Bristol and Cardiff from Monday to Saturday and two trains each way on Sundays, but this increase was short-lived, and by 1973 Pilning received only one train per day in each direction. The station buildings had been boarded up by this point, and by 1982 had been demolished, with the exception of the 1950s brick building. Basic shelters were constructed on each platform as a replacement. The few stopping trains had to be timed for daylight hours, as the station lighting had been disconnected. British Rail was split into business-led sectors in the 1980s, at which time operations at Pilning passed to Regional Railways. ### Post-privatisation The British rail network was privatised in the 1990s – the infrastructure, including stations, became property of Railtrack in 1994, and were subsequently transferred to Network Rail in 2002. Bristol-area passenger services were franchised to Wales & West in 1997, which was succeeded by Wessex Trains, an arm of National Express, in 2001. The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006, and responsibility passed to First Great Western, a subsidiary company of FirstGroup, rebranded as Great Western Railway in 2015. Services continued at two per day under Wales & West and Wessex Trains, however the Greater Western franchise of 2006 specified only two trains per week at Pilning, and so the service was reduced: from Cardiff to Bristol on Saturday morning and back the same afternoon. The station, isolated and with a skeleton service, was one of the least used stations in the country, with less than 100 passengers per year. Despite the low patronage, there was local interest in the station. The Pilning Station Group, founded by local resident Jonathan King in the 1980s, campaigned for an increase in services. Upon King's death in 2014, a small plaque dedicated to him was added to the brick abutment of the footbridge. The group devised challenges for people to travel from Pilning on the morning train, get as far as possible, and then return on the evening train. The group also successfully campaigned for an extra train to call to support a local music festival. On 5 November 2016, the footbridge at Pilning was demolished by Network Rail as part of the Great Western Main Line electrification project, as the bridge was too low for overhead wires and the low passenger numbers did not justify a replacement. The removal of the footbridge meant that the westbound platform was no longer accessible and thus was closed, with the final train having called on 10 September. Campaigners alleged that the removal amounted to a closure by stealth, with Network Rail apologising for not consulting residents or conforming to their code of best practice. Due to trains only being able to call in the eastbound direction, a fares easement was implemented to allow westbound travel to Severn Tunnel Junction in order to return eastbound to Pilning, with the westbound service being replaced by a second eastbound service. Geoff Marshall and Vicki Pipe visited Pilning in 2017 as part of their All the Stations project, attracting local media attention to the station's status. There was subsequently a campaign for Pilning to receive the footbridge from Angel Road, following that station's closure in May 2019, however Network Rail stated that there was no financial justification for replacing the bridge. Local rail group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways claim that Network Rail saved £658,000 by removing the bridge, and that a replacement would cost in the region of £5,000,000–£7,000,000. The Severn Tunnel electrification works made use of the Network Rail compound at Pilning, were completed in 2020, having been delayed due to corrosion in the tunnel. ### Incidents Railway staff have suffered injuries or death at Pilning; in 1893, signalman George Hann sustained severe cuts to the neck and throat after being hit by shards of glass from an unwanted bottle of lemon squash, which had been thrown from a passing train and smashed against the signal box's woodwork. A platelayer was hit by a train in 1908, suffering a broken arm; and in 1942 track worker George Daniel Garland was killed while spreading ashes – witnesses stated that there was no lookout and that high winds prevented the train being heard. Two staff are also known to have died at Pilning from natural causes: train driver James Winnicombe, who collapsed on the footplate in 1929; and track worker John Holbrook, who died in a workmen's cabin in 1932. Passengers have also been the victims of accidents. On 31 May 1874, a seven-year-old child, Arthur Edward Claypole, and a nurse, Maria Hall, fell from an express train. Claypole had been leaning on the door when it came open causing him to fall out, with Hall jumping out after him. Claypole died from the injuries sustained. An insufficient door fastening was cited as the cause of the incident. A major incident occurred in 1933, when a London, Midland and Scottish Railway excursion train from Worsley to Barnstaple caught fire after passing through the Severn Tunnel. The fire, which started in the restaurant car, spread to two other coaches. The train was stopped at Pilning, where the three burning carriages were removed to a siding and allowed to burn, also setting fire to the grass on the embankment. There were no injuries among the passengers; an attendant was injured while attempting to rescue property from the burning carriages. The rest of the train continued to Barnstaple and arrived an hour late, but 70 passengers from the affected carriages had to be carried by a later train. ## Future Service improvements at Pilning are supported by both the Pilning Station Group and Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways. While Severn Beach railway station is nearby, Pilning potentially offers much quicker access to Bristol and Wales. The campaigners note that 25,000 jobs are due to be created in the area as part of the Westgate development, and that a new junction on the M49 motorway could allow for a park and ride-type station "Pilning Parkway". Requests for extra services have however been rebuffed, with Great Western Railway stating that Pilning's location on the main line means that stopping trains negatively impact journey times for long-distance services. The South East Wales and West of England Business Link, a plan to improve connectivity between Newport and Weston-super-Mare, proposes replacing the existing station with one 900 metres (980 yd) further west where the B4055 Cross Hands Road crosses the railway. This site is within the village of Pilning, offering better road access and bus interchange. The railway at this point is four-track, allowing stopping trains to be overtaken by fast trains. The plan won the Oliver Lovell Award for best new group at the 2018 Railfuture awards. There are expected to be increases in the number of trains passing through Pilning in the years to 2043, with a predicted service of ten passenger trains and up to two freight trains per hour in each direction. Network Rail estimate that 15 trains per hour in each direction could use the route if European Train Control System signalling was implemented.
13,532,651	On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog	1,171,637,871	Adage and meme about Internet anonymity	[ "1993 neologisms", "1993 works", "Adages", "Animals on the Internet", "Dogs in popular culture", "Individual printed cartoons", "Internet culture", "Internet memes about dogs", "Works originally published in The New Yorker" ]	"On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog" is an adage and Internet meme about Internet anonymity which began as a caption to a cartoon drawn by Peter Steiner, published by The New Yorker on July 5, 1993. The words are those of a large dog sitting on a chair at a desk, with his paw on the keyboard of the computer before him, speaking to a smaller dog sitting on the floor beside him. Steiner had earned between \$200,000 and \$250,000 by 2013 from its reprinting, by which time it had become the cartoon most reproduced from The New Yorker. ## History Peter Steiner, a cartoonist and contributor to The New Yorker since 1979, has said that although he did have an online account in 1993, he had felt no particular interest in the Internet then. He drew the cartoon only in the manner of a "make-up-a-caption" item, to which he recalled attaching no "profound" meaning, seeing that it had received little attention initially. He later stated that he felt as if he had created the "smiley face" when his cartoon took on a life of its own, and he "can't quite fathom that it's that widely known and recognized". ## Context Once the exclusive domain of government engineers and academics, the Internet was by then becoming a subject of discussion in such general interest magazines as The New Yorker. Lotus Software founder and early Internet activist Mitch Kapor commented in a Time magazine article in 1993 that "the true sign that popular interest has reached critical mass came this summer when the New Yorker printed a cartoon showing two computer-savvy canines". According to Bob Mankoff, then The New Yorker's cartoon editor, "The cartoon resonated with our wariness about the facile façade that could be thrown up by anyone with a rudimentary knowledge of html." ## Implications The cartoon symbolizes the liberation of one's Internet presence from popular prejudices. Sociologist Sherry Turkle elaborates: "You can be whoever you want to be. You can completely redefine yourself if you want. You don't have to worry about the slots other people put you in as much. They don't look at your body and make assumptions. They don't hear your accent and make assumptions. All they see are your words." The cartoon conveys an understanding of Internet privacy that implies the ability to send and receive messages—or to create and maintain a website—behind a mask of anonymity. Lawrence Lessig suggests that "no one knows" because Internet protocols require no user to confirm their own identity. Although a local access point in, for example, a university may require identity confirmation, it holds such information privately, without embedding it in external Internet transactions. A study by Morahan-Martin and Schumacher (2000) on compulsive or troublesome Internet use discusses this phenomenon, suggesting the ability to represent one's self behind the mask of a computer screen may be part of the compulsion to go online. The phrase may be taken "to mean that cyberspace will be liberatory because gender, race, age, looks, or even 'dogness' are potentially absent or alternatively fabricated or exaggerated with unchecked creative license for a multitude of purposes both legal and illegal", an understanding that echoed statements made in 1996 by John Gilmore, a key figure in the history of Usenet. The phrase also indicates the ease of computer cross-dressing: representing oneself as of a different gender; age; race; social, cultural, or economic class, etc. In a similar sense, "the freedom which the dog chooses to avail itself of, is the freedom to 'pass' as part of a privileged group; i.e., human computer users with access to the Internet". ## In popular culture - The cartoon inspired the play Nobody Knows I'm a Dog by Alan David Perkins. The play revolves around six individuals, unable to communicate effectively with people in their lives, who nonetheless find the courage to socialize anonymously on the Internet. - The Apple Internet suite Cyberdog was named after this cartoon. - The book Authentication: From Passwords to Public Keys by Richard E. Smith displays Steiner's cartoon on the front cover, with the cartoon's dog replicated on the back cover. - A cartoon by Kaamran Hafeez published in The New Yorker on February 23, 2015, features a similar pair of dogs watching their owner sitting at a computer, with one asking the other, "Remember when, on the Internet, nobody knew who you were?" - It has become a frequently used refrain in discussions about the Internet and as such has become an Internet meme, perhaps iconic to Internet culture.
27,881	Sleipnir	1,173,827,464	Odin's eight-legged horse	[ "Horses in Norse mythology", "Horses in mythology", "Legendary creatures with supernumerary body parts", "Loki", "Norse underworld", "Odin" ]	In Norse mythology, Sleipnir /ˈsleɪpnɪər/ (Old Norse: ; "slippy" or "the slipper") is an eight-legged horse ridden by Odin. Sleipnir is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In both sources, Sleipnir is Odin's steed, is the child of Loki and Svaðilfari, is described as the best of all horses, and is sometimes ridden to the location of Hel. The Prose Edda contains extended information regarding the circumstances of Sleipnir's birth, and details that he is grey in color. Sleipnir is also mentioned in a riddle found in the 13th century legendary saga Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, in the 13th-century legendary saga Völsunga saga as the ancestor of the horse Grani, and book I of Gesta Danorum, written in the 12th century by Saxo Grammaticus, contains an episode considered by many scholars to involve Sleipnir. Sleipnir is generally accepted as depicted on two 8th century Gotlandic image stones: the Tjängvide image stone and the Ardre VIII image stone. Scholarly theories have been proposed regarding Sleipnir's potential connection to shamanic practices among the Norse pagans. In modern times, Sleipnir appears in Icelandic folklore as the creator of Ásbyrgi, in works of art, literature, software, and in the names of ships. ## Attestations ### Poetic Edda In the Poetic Edda, Sleipnir appears or is mentioned in the poems Grímnismál, Sigrdrífumál, Baldrs draumar, and Hyndluljóð. In Grímnismál, Grimnir (Odin in disguise and not yet having revealed his identity) tells the boy Agnar in verse that Sleipnir is the best of horses ("Odin is the best of the Æsir, Sleipnir of horses"). In Sigrdrífumál, the valkyrie Sigrdrífa tells the hero Sigurðr that runes should be cut "on Sleipnir's teeth and on the sledge's strap-bands." In Baldrs draumar, after the Æsir convene about the god Baldr's bad dreams, Odin places a saddle on Sleipnir and the two proceed to the location of Hel. The Völuspá hin skamma section of Hyndluljóð says that Loki produced "the wolf" with Angrboða, produced Sleipnir with Svaðilfari, and thirdly "one monster that was thought the most baleful, who was descended from Býleistr's brother." ### Prose Edda In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, Sleipnir is first mentioned in chapter 15 where the enthroned figure of High says that every day the Æsir ride across the bridge Bifröst, and provides a list of the Æsir's horses. The list begins with Sleipnir: "best is Sleipnir, he is Odin's, he has eight legs." In chapter 41, High quotes the Grímnismál stanza that mentions Sleipnir. In chapter 42, Sleipnir's origins are described. Gangleri (described earlier in the book as King Gylfi in disguise) asks High who the horse Sleipnir belongs to and what there is to tell about it. High expresses surprise at Gangleri's lack of knowledge about Sleipnir and its origin. High tells a story set "right at the beginning of the gods' settlement when the gods established Midgard and built Val-Hall" about an unnamed builder who has offered to build a fortification for the gods in three seasons that will keep out invaders in exchange for the goddess Freyja, the sun, and the moon. After some debate, the gods agree to this, but place a number of restrictions on the builder, including that he must complete the work within three seasons with the help of no man. The builder makes a single request; that he may have help from his stallion Svaðilfari, and due to Loki's influence, this is allowed. The stallion Svaðilfari performs twice the deeds of strength as the builder and hauls enormous rocks to the surprise of the gods. The builder, with Svaðilfari, makes fast progress on the wall, and three days before the deadline of summer, the builder was nearly at the entrance to the fortification. The gods convene and figured out who was responsible, resulting in a unanimous agreement that, along with most trouble, Loki was to blame. The gods declare that Loki would deserve a horrible death if he could not find a scheme that would cause the builder to forfeit his payment, and threatened to attack him. Loki, afraid, swore oaths that he would devise a scheme to cause the builder to forfeit the payment, whatever it would cost himself. That night, the builder drove out to fetch stone with his stallion Svaðilfari, and out from a wood ran a mare. The mare neighed at Svaðilfari, and "realizing what kind of horse it was," Svaðilfari became frantic, neighed, tore apart his tackle, and ran towards the mare. The mare ran to the wood, Svaðilfari followed, and the builder chased after. The two horses ran around all night, causing the building work to be held up for the night, and the previous momentum of building work that the builder had been able to maintain was not continued. When the Æsir realize that the builder is a hrimthurs, they disregard their previous oaths with the builder, and call for Thor. Thor arrives, and kills the builder by smashing the builder's skull into shards with the hammer Mjöllnir. However, Loki had "such dealings" with Svaðilfari that "somewhat later" Loki gave birth to a grey foal with eight legs; the horse Sleipnir, "the best horse among gods and men." In chapter 49, High describes the death of the god Baldr. Hermóðr agrees to ride to Hel to offer a ransom for Baldr's return, and so "then Odin's horse Sleipnir was fetched and led forward." Hermóðr mounts Sleipnir and rides away. Hermóðr rides for nine nights in deep, dark valleys where Hermóðr can see nothing. The two arrive at the river Gjöll and then continue to Gjöll bridge, encountering a maiden guarding the bridge named Móðguðr. Some dialogue occurs between Hermóðr and Móðguðr, including that Móðguðr notes that recently there had ridden five battalions of dead men across the bridge that made less sound than he. Sleipnir and Hermóðr continue "downwards and northwards" on the road to Hel, until the two arrive at Hel's gates. Hermóðr dismounts from Sleipnir, tightens Sleipnir's girth, mounts him, and spurs Sleipnir on. Sleipnir "jumped so hard and over the gate that it came nowhere near." Hermóðr rides up to the hall, and dismounts from Sleipnir. After Hermóðr's pleas to Hel to return Baldr are accepted under a condition, Hermóðr and Baldr retrace their path backward and return to Asgard. In chapter 16 of the book Skáldskaparmál, a kenning given for Loki is "relative of Sleipnir." In chapter 17, a story is provided in which Odin rides Sleipnir into the land of Jötunheimr and arrives at the residence of the jötunn Hrungnir. Hrungnir asks "what sort of person this was" wearing a golden helmet, "riding sky and sea," and says that the stranger "has a marvellously good horse." Odin wagers his head that no horse as good could be found in all of Jötunheimr. Hrungnir admitted that it was a fine horse, yet states that he owns a much longer-paced horse; Gullfaxi. Incensed, Hrungnir leaps atop Gullfaxi, intending to attack Odin for Odin's boasting. Odin gallops hard ahead of Hrungnir, and, in his, fury, Hrungnir finds himself having rushed into the gates of Asgard. In chapter 58, Sleipnir is mentioned among a list of horses in Þorgrímsþula: "Hrafn and Sleipnir, splendid horses [...]". In addition, Sleipnir occurs twice in kennings for "ship" (once appearing in chapter 25 in a work by the skald Refr, and "sea-Sleipnir" appearing in chapter 49 in Húsdrápa, a work by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason). ### Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks In Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, the poem Heiðreks gátur contains a riddle that mentions Sleipnir and Odin: > > 36\. Gestumblindi said: > > "Who are the twain > > that on ten feet run? > > three eyes they have, > > but only one tail. > > Alright guess now > > this riddle, Heithrek!" > > > > > Heithrek said: > > "Good is thy riddle, Gestumblindi, > > and guessed it is: > > that is Odin riding on Sleipnir." ### Völsunga saga In chapter 13 of Völsunga saga, the hero Sigurðr is on his way to a wood and he meets a long-bearded old man he had never seen before. Sigurd tells the old man that he is going to choose a horse, and asks the old man to come with him to help him decide. The old man says that they should drive the horses down to the river Busiltjörn. The two drive the horses down into the deeps of Busiltjörn, and all of the horses swim back to land but a large, young, and handsome grey horse that no one had ever mounted. The grey-bearded old man says that the horse is from "Sleipnir's kin" and that "he must be raised carefully, because he will become better than any other horse." The old man vanishes. Sigurd names the horse Grani, and the narrative adds that the old man was none other than (the god) Odin. ### Gesta Danorum Sleipnir is generally considered as appearing in a sequence of events described in book I of Gesta Danorum. In book I, the young Hadingus encounters "a certain man of great age who had lost an eye" who allies him with Liserus. Hadingus and Liserus set out to wage war on Lokerus, ruler of Kurland. Meeting defeat, the old man takes Hadingus with him onto his horse as they flee to the old man's house, and the two drink an invigorating draught. The old man sings a prophecy, and takes Hadingus back to where he found him on his horse. During the ride back, Hadingus trembles beneath the old man's mantle, and peers out of its holes. Hadingus realizes that Sleipnir is running over the sea: "and he saw that before the steps of the horse lay the sea; but was told not to steal a glimpse of the forbidden thing, and therefore turned his amazed eyes from the dread spectacle of the roads that he journeyed." In book II, Biarco mentions Odin and Sleipnir: "If I may look on the awful husband of Frigg, howsoever he be covered in his white shield, and guide his tall steed, he shall in no way go safe out of Leire; it is lawful to lay low in war the war-waging god." ## Archaeological record Two of the 8th century picture stones from the island of Gotland, Sweden depict eight-legged horses, which are thought by most scholars to depict Sleipnir: the Tjängvide image stone and the Ardre VIII image stone. Both stones feature a rider sitting atop an eight-legged horse, which some scholars view as Odin. Above the rider on the Tjängvide image stone is a horizontal figure holding a spear, which may be a valkyrie, and a female figure greets the rider with a cup. The scene has been interpreted as a rider arriving at the world of the dead. The mid-7th century Eggja stone bearing the Odinic name haras (Old Norse 'army god') may be interpreted as depicting Sleipnir. ## Theories John Lindow theorizes that Sleipnir's "connection to the world of the dead grants a special poignancy to one of the kennings in which Sleipnir turns up as a horse word," referring to the skald Úlfr Uggason's usage of "sea-Sleipnir" in his Húsdrápa, which describes the funeral of Baldr. Lindow continues that "his use of Sleipnir in the kenning may show that Sleipnir's role in the failed recovery of Baldr was known at that time and place in Iceland; it certainly indicates that Sleipnir was an active participant in the mythology of the last decades of paganism." Lindow adds that the eight legs of Sleipnir "have been interpreted as an indication of great speed or as being connected in some unclear way with cult activity." Hilda Ellis Davidson says that "the eight-legged horse of Odin is the typical steed of the shaman" and that in the shaman's journeys to the heavens or the underworld, a shaman "is usually represented as riding on some bird or animal." Davidson says that while the creature may vary, the horse is fairly common "in the lands where horses are in general use, and Sleipnir's ability to bear the god through the air is typical of the shaman's steed" and cites an example from a study of shamanism by Mircea Eliade of an eight-legged foal from a story of a Buryat shaman. Davidson says that while attempts have been made to connect Sleipnir with hobby horses and steeds with more than four feet that appear in carnivals and processions, but that "a more fruitful resemblance seems to be on the bier on which a dead man is carried in the funeral procession by four bearers; borne along thus, he may be described as riding on a steed with eight legs." As an example, Davidson cites a funeral dirge from the Gondi people in India as recorded by Verrier Elwin, stating that "it contains references to Bagri Maro, the horse with eight legs, and it is clear from the song that it is the dead man's bier." Davidson says that the song is sung when a distinguished Muria dies, and provides a verse: > > What horse is this? > > It is the horse of Bagri Maro. > > What should we say of its legs? > > This horse has eight legs. > > What should we say of its heads? > > This horse has four heads. . . . > > Catch the bridle and mount the horse. Davidson adds that the representation of Odin's steed as eight-legged could arise naturally out of such an image, and that "this is in accordance with the picture of Sleipnir as a horse that could bear its rider to the land of the dead." Ulla Loumand cites Sleipnir and the flying horse Hófvarpnir as "prime examples" of horses in Norse mythology as being able to "mediate between earth and sky, between Ásgarðr, Miðgarðr and Útgarðr and between the world of mortal men and the underworld." The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture theorizes that Sleipnir's eight legs may be the remnants of horse-associated divine twins found in Indo-European cultures and ultimately stemming from Proto-Indo-European religion. The encyclopedia states that "[...] Sleipnir is born with an extra set of legs, thus representing an original pair of horses. Like Freyr and Njörðr, Sleipnir is responsible for carrying the dead to the otherworld." The encyclopedia cites parallels between the birth of Sleipnir and myths originally pointing to a Celtic goddess who gave birth to the Divine horse twins. These elements include a demand for a goddess by an unwanted suitor (the hrimthurs demanding the goddess Freyja) and the seduction of builders. ## Modern influence According to Icelandic folklore, the horseshoe-shaped canyon Ásbyrgi located in Jökulsárgljúfur National Park, northern Iceland was formed by Sleipnir's hoof. Sleipnir is depicted with Odin on Dagfin Werenskiold's wooden relief Odin på Sleipnir (1945–1950) on the exterior of the Oslo City Hall in Oslo, Norway. Sleipnir has been and remains a popular name for ships in northern Europe, and Rudyard Kipling's short story entitled Sleipnir, late Thurinda (1888) features a horse named Sleipnir. A statue of Sleipnir (1998) stands in Wednesbury, England, a town which takes its name from the Anglo-Saxon version of Odin, Wōden. ## See also - List of horses in mythology and folklore - Helhest, the three-legged "Hel horse" of later Scandinavian folklore - Horses in Germanic paganism - The "táltos steed", a six-legged horse in Hungarian folklore - Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology - Sinterklaas's white stallion, on which he rides along the roofs in winter - The horse in Nordic mythology
68,410,164	The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild	1,171,748,925	2022 film by John C. Donkin	[ "2020s American animated films", "2020s English-language films", "2020s adventure comedy films", "2020s children's animated films", "2022 adventure films", "2022 comedy films", "2022 computer-animated films", "2022 directorial debut films", "2022 films", "20th Century Animation films", "American adventure comedy films", "American computer-animated films", "Animated films about animals", "Animated films about dinosaurs", "Animated films set in prehistory", "Canadian adventure comedy films", "Canadian animated comedy films", "Canadian computer-animated films", "Casting controversies in film", "Disney controversies", "Disney+ original films", "English-language Canadian films", "Film spin-offs", "Ice Age (franchise) films", "Walt Disney Pictures animated films" ]	The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild is a 2022 computer-animated adventure comedy film directed by John C. Donkin, in his feature directorial debut, with a screenplay by Jim Hecht, Ray DeLaurentis, and William Schifrin. It is a spin-off film of the Ice Age franchise. The film stars the voices of Simon Pegg (the only previous cast member to return), Vincent Tong, Aaron Harris, Utkarsh Ambudkar, and Justina Machado also starring in the film. It follows the two opossum brothers Crash and Eddie and their adventure to becoming independent possums alongside the titular character Buck Wild. Originally planned to be a television series, The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild was redeveloped into a feature-length film. Produced by 20th Century Animation and released under the Walt Disney Pictures label, it was released on January 28, 2022, as a Disney+ original film. The film received generally negative reviews from critics who felt that it had a lack of primary focus on the titular character, and criticized the recasting of voice actors, animation quality, the absence of Scrat, and lack of involvement from Blue Sky Studios. ## Plot In an attempt to practice one of their extreme stunts, Crash and Eddie accidentally cause an avalanche and destroy the gang's summer habitat. Manny, Sid, Diego, and Ellie get mad at them, declaring they would not survive on their own. Wanting to prove them wrong, Crash and Eddie secretly leave their temporary camp while the others are asleep. Finding them gone the next morning, Ellie insists that they go search for them. Meanwhile, Crash and Eddie stumble upon the entrance to the Lost World, a land full of dinosaurs, and run into their old friend Buck, who saves them from raptors and tells them that a Protoceratops named Orson, who was bullied when he was young for having a massive brain, has escaped from exile and has come to conquer the Lost World. Buck tries to get Crash and Eddie back to their home, but finds out that Orson has covered the entrance with a boulder. Buck and the possums go to Buck's shelter, where Buck explains how he used to be part of an old team that established a watering hole as a place for animals to peacefully co-exist. He goes on to say that Orson did not accept an offer to join his team because he believed in a world where the strong dominate the weak, with him being the leader. Buck further explains that they defeated Orson and banished him to an island, where he learned that he can control two raptors with fire. The two raptors find Buck's hideout, but Zee, a zorilla who used to be part of Buck's former team, saves Buck and the possums by using a gas to knock out the raptors. Orson then gets an army of raptors and attacks the watering hole, with Buck and Zee telling the animals to evacuate. Buck and Zee, their relationship strained after their team's breakup, go with the possums to get help. They arrive at the Lost Lagoon and summon their old friend Momma, a Tyrannosaurus. When Orson and his raptors arrive and attack them again, Buck and Zee forgive each other for breaking up the old team and agree to work together. Acting as a diversion, Buck is captured by Orson, allowing the others to escape. Trying to figure out how Orson controls the raptors, Zee and the possums devise a plan to get Buck back. Ellie, Manny, Sid, and Diego find out that Crash and Eddie entered the Lost World and uncover the entrance. They run into Momma, who gives them a ride to the watering hole, where Orson has taken Buck to feed his raptors, planning to use him as an example for anyone who refuses to follow his rules. Zee and the possums free Buck and fight Orson and his army, with Manny, Sid, Diego, Ellie, and Momma joining in the battle. Buck tries to explain to Orson that everyone needs to live in peace, but Orson arrogantly rebuffs him and continues to fight. After figuring out that Orson controls the raptors with fire, Crash and Eddie create a fire of their own and stop the raptors from fighting and make the two raptors chase Orson instead, saving the Lost World. Ellie, Manny, Sid, and Diego apologize to Crash and Eddie for doubting them and ask them to come home, but Crash and Eddie express that they want to stay in the Lost World with Buck and Zee. Sad to not be with them anymore yet proud to see that their adventure with Buck made them more mature, Ellie allows Crash and Eddie to stay and says goodbye, but Crash and Eddie still come to visit the gang often. ## Cast - Simon Pegg as Buckminster "Buck" Wild: A one-eyed weasel and dinosaur hunter. - Utkarsh Ambudkar as Orson: A humanoid supremacist Protoceratops with a bulging brain who wants to take control of the Lost World. - Justina Machado as Zee: A striped polecat who was a former member of Buck's superhero team. - Vincent Tong and Aaron Harris as Crash and Eddie, respectively: Twin prankster opossum brothers and Ellie's adoptive brothers. They were originally voiced by Seann William Scott and Josh Peck from the previous films. - Dominique Jennings as Ellie: A woolly mammoth, Manny's wife, and Crash and Eddie's adopted sister. She was originally voiced by Queen Latifah from the previous films. - Jake Green as Sid: A dim-witted ground sloth who is Manny and Diego's best friend and the founder of the herd. He was originally voiced by John Leguizamo from the previous films. - Sean Kenin Elias-Reyes as Manny: A woolly mammoth who is Ellie's husband, Sid and Diego's best friend and the leader of the herd. He was originally voiced by Ray Romano from the previous films. - Skyler Stone as Diego: A saber-tooth tiger who is Manny and Sid's best friend and a member of the herd. He was originally voiced by Denis Leary from the previous films. Additional voices include Theo Borders, Jason Harris, Kristin McGuire, Shakira Ja'nai Paye, Peter Pamela Rose, and Jason Linere White. ## Production ### Development In July 2016, Bustle noted that the chance of a sixth entry to the Ice Age franchise was relatively high but would depend on the box office performance of the fifth film. In August 2018, 20th Century Fox CEO Stacey Snider announced the development of a television series centered around the character of Buck, produced by Blue Sky Studios. In December 2020, the project was confirmed to have been redeveloped as a film titled Ice Age: Adventures of Buck Wild, centering around Buck going on an adventure in the Dinosaur World with Crash and Eddie, during the Disney Investor Day 2020 event. Simon Pegg was reported to be reprising his role as Buck. Blue Sky was closed on April 10, 2021, and consequently, many of their upcoming projects were canceled. Unlike the previous Ice Age films released by 20th Century Fox and produced by 20th Century Fox Animation and Blue Sky, the film was produced by Walt Disney Pictures. Despite this, production on Ice Age: Adventures of Buck Wild continued. When the teaser poster was unveiled, it was revealed that the title had changed from Ice Age: Adventures of Buck Wild to The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild, including the word 'the' at the beginning of the title. On January 14, 2022, director John C. Donkin and executive producer Lori Forte said that Blue Sky was never involved in the film. This would later be confirmed by Ice Age: Scrat Tales producers, Chris Wedge, Michael Knapp, and Anthony Nisl in an April 2022 interview with Paste. ### Casting Simon Pegg reprised his role as Buck from Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs and Ice Age: Collision Course, having been confirmed to when the film was announced. However, he was the only actor to return from the previous films, as all remaining cast members were replaced due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ### Animation The animation was outsourced to Bardel Entertainment in Vancouver. Bardel had previously collaborated with Disney and 20th Century Animation on Diary of a Wimpy Kid (2021). Around 80 people were involved in the creation of The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild. Almost all the production was done remotely which led Donkin to never having a meeting with the entire team. Donkin said, "It was a pretty lean crew. But yet, everybody was able to really concentrate and work hard from their homes." He also said that they finished production on the film in late 2020. ### Music Batu Sener composed the musical score. The soundtrack was released on January 28, 2022, by Hollywood Records and Walt Disney Records. Sener's score was nominated for Public Choice Award at the 2022 edition of World Soundtrack Awards. ## Release ### Marketing The first look of the film was shown on December 10, 2020, at Disney's Investor Day, depicting Crash and Eddie getting saved by Buck and his pterodactyl Penelope from falling to their deaths. ### Streaming The film was released in the United States and Canada on January 28, 2022, as a Disney+ original film. It was later released on Disney+ in other countries on March 25, 2022. However, the film was released on the service under Walt Disney Pictures instead of 20th Century Studios, after being moved from 20th Century Studios and 20th Century Animation. ## Reception ### Audience viewership According to Whip Media's viewership tracking app TV Time, The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild was the 10th-most-anticipated movie of January 2022. According to data from Samba TV, 797,000 US households watched The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild in its first 2 days of streaming. According to Whip Media's viewership tracking app TV Time, The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild was the 8th-most-watched film across all platforms in the United States during the week of January 28, 2022, to January 30, 2022, and the 10th during the week of February 4, 2022, to February 6, 2022. ### Critical response On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 19% of 37 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of . Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 30 out of 100 based on 5 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Courtney Howard of Variety gave the film a negative review, saying how the story's focus is on the major characters of the previous Ice Age films, rather than solely on the titular Buck. She also points out the problematic disability representation and how the animation is "akin to a late-stage pre-viz pass", ending the review saying that the film "should've remained on ice." Natalia Winkleman of The New York Times said that she was disappointed to see the film replace almost all of its celebrity voices and stated that of all the "sins" in the movie, the omission of Scrat was unforgivable. Laura Millar from The Michigan Daily wrote that she was somewhat disappointed in the cast change and the "elementary plot", but said that she was most upset that the film was not made for the same audience as the past Ice Age films. Johnny Loftus of Decider complimented Simon Pegg's performance, but said the world depicted across the movie appears empty and generic, and found the appearances of several characters uninteresting, writing, "The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild feels like a tangent, or perhaps a try-out pilot for a small screen Crash & Eddie ‘toon. What it doesn’t feel like is a feature film." Jennifer Green of Common Sense Media rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote: "Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild [...] has frequent animated action involving perilous situations and some mild language. [...] Characters discover qualities in themselves that allow them to gain confidence and improve their relationships. The film has messages about existing peacefully alongside those who are different from you and being a contributing member of your herd [...] and there's some potty humor involving peeing, farting, and other bodily functions." Giving the film a D+, The A.V. Club's Jesse Hassenger negatively compared it to Disney's other direct-to-video sequels, saying: "The new direct-to-streaming Ice Age sequel is a generic chunk of content." Mark Kennedy of the Associated Press gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, writing: "Visually and storytelling-wise it's not a cut above much of what kids can watch on TV these days. This is a franchise that looks like it's slowly going the way of the dinos, while we drool." ### Accolades Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild received a nomination for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Non-Theatrical Animation at the 2022 Golden Reel Awards. ## Future The film's promotional kit mentions another Ice Age film that is in development, with the script being penned by Ray DeLaurentis. Lori Forte discussed the possibility of a sequel, saying, "I think it's a little premature. We hope that people will respond to this, and that will promote us to be able to do another movie. If the audiences want it, we've got plenty of ideas. There's no end to ideas and adventures and characters, so we're ready if they're ready."
2,506,075	Blood on the Dance Floor (song)	1,170,835,060	1997 single by Michael Jackson	[ "1997 singles", "1997 songs", "Epic Records singles", "Funk songs", "Michael Jackson songs", "New jack swing songs", "Number-one singles in Denmark", "Number-one singles in New Zealand", "Number-one singles in Spain", "Song recordings produced by Michael Jackson", "Song recordings produced by Teddy Riley", "Songs written by Michael Jackson", "Songs written by Teddy Riley", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles" ]	"Blood on the Dance Floor" is a song by American singer-songwriter Michael Jackson, released as the first single from the remix album Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix (1997). Jackson and Teddy Riley created the track in time for the 1991 release of Dangerous. However, it did not appear on that record and was worked on further for its commercial release in 1997. One interpretation of the song describes a predatory woman named Susie who seduces Jackson before plotting to stab him with a knife. The composition explores a variety of genres ranging from funk to new jack swing. The single peaked at number 42 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and reached number one in Denmark, New Zealand, Spain and the United Kingdom. It also reached the top 10 several other countries, including Australia, Finland, Germany, Netherlands, Norway and Sweden. Commentators compared "Blood on the Dance Floor" to music from Dangerous. Others commented on the song's perceived aggressive tone and the vocal style, the broad genres heard and possible lyrical interpretations of the song. Reviews at the time of release were largely mixed, but contemporary reviews have been favorable. The song was promoted with a music video that premiered on Top of the Pops. It centered on Susie seducing Jackson in a courtship "dance", before opening a switchblade. "Blood on the Dance Floor" was the only track from the remix album performed on the HIStory World Tour. ## Production and music Teddy Riley came up with the song's title while Jackson recorded the piece for his Dangerous album in 1991—it failed to make the final track listing. Riley was reportedly upset that Jackson did not call him to "vacuum clean this old master" upon realizing it would be included on Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix. Riley wanted to update the musical composition before it appeared on the remix album. In a Making Michael interview, Matt Forger mentioned that when work began on the album, they used the original Teddy Riley DAT version (which Riley played to Jackson when he came to work on "Dangerous") which they took to Montreux where Jackson recorded his vocals. Instruments played in the song include a guitar and piano, the latter of which has an F<sub>2</sub>–E<sub>5</sub> range in scientific pitch notation. Jackson's vocal range on the track is C<sub>3</sub>–B<sub>5</sub> and aspects of the song are performed in the key F minor. Genres that have been attributed to the song are dance, funk and new jack swing. Jackson incorporates many of the vocal traits associated with his work, such as hiccups and gasps. Neil Strauss of The New York Times suggests that the predatory woman in the title track, "Susie", is a metaphor for AIDS. However, in an interview with Adrian Grant, Jackson denied that the song was about AIDS. Included throughout releases of the single are three remixes of the song "Dangerous" from Jackson's album of the same name. "Dangerous" was originally intended to be the tenth single from that album, and Roger Sanchez, who previously remixed "Jam" and "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough", was once again commissioned to create several remixes of the song in time for its release as a single in early 1994. However, the single was cancelled, and all of the remixes were shelved. It is likely that the reason some of these remixes were released as part of this single is due to its association with the Dangerous album, since it was originally created during its recording sessions. Regardless, the majority of Sanchez' original remixes remain unreleased, and are only available on a rare digital audio tape distributed among label executives. ## Reception Larry Flick from Billboard wrote, "Produced by the artist with Teddy Riley this track chugs with a pleasant jeep-styled groove that provides a firm foundation for a lip-smacking vocal and a harmony-laden hook that is downright unshakable." He added that it is a "winning jam". The Dallas Morning News described "Blood on the Dance Floor" as an angry tale of a back-stabbing woman and Michael Saunders of The Boston Globe described it as "a middling dance-funk cut". Anthony Violenti of The Buffalo News said of the single, "[it is] laced with Teddy Riley's new jack swing sound and a pounding techno beat", whereas The Cincinnati Post characterized the song as a "lackluster first release ... dated, played-out dance track", but gave the album an overall favorable review. Jim Farber of New York Daily News, noted of the vocals and musical style, "[Jackson] coughs up a series of strangulated mutters and munchkin hiccups in lieu of a vocal, while its chilly, faux-industrial music proves as appealing as a migraine". David Sinclair from The Times constated, "With his voice little more than a whisper, and the groove screwed to a very high torque, this is as lean and urgent a piece as Jackson has ever produced." William Ruhlman of AllMusic observed, "'Blood on the Dance Floor' is an uptempo Jackson song in the increasingly hysterical tradition of 'Billie Jean' and 'Smooth Criminal' with Jackson huffing, puffing, and yelping through some nonsense about a stabbing ... over a fairly generic electronic dance track". He was not complimentary of the B-sides that accompanied it. Stephen Thomas Erlewine, also of AllMusic, had a negative reaction to the record. He described "Blood on the Dance Floor" as a "bleak reworking of 'Jam' and 'Scream'". Music commentator Nelson George, compared the song to material from Dangerous, such as the critically acclaimed tracks "Jam" and "Dangerous". He described it as a "pile driving" song that "explodes from radio speakers". A longtime commentator on Jackson's public life, J. Randy Taraborrelli, gave a retrospective analysis of the album in the biography, The Magic & the Madness. Taraborrelli thought that "Blood on the Dance Floor" was one of Jackson's best songs, a song that US fans "don't even know exists". In 2005, J T Griffith, of AllMusic, believed that in hindsight, "Blood on the Dance Floor" was actually a good song. He explained, "[it is] a second-rate mixture of 'Beat It' and 'Thriller' but Jackson's missteps are better than most pop music out there. This track showcases all the artist's trademarks: the ooohing, the grunts, and funky basslines. It is hard to hear 'Blood on the Dance Floor' and not want to moonwalk or dance like a ghoul". ## Promotion "Blood on the Dance Floor" was the only track from Blood on the Dance Floor: History in the Mix to appear on the set list of the HIStory World Tour. The music video for "Blood on the Dance Floor" was directed by Jackson and Vincent Paterson. Filming occurred in February 1997, when Jackson's first child Prince was born. It premiered on Top of the Pops in the UK on March 28, 1997, several weeks ahead of its release as a single. The video opens with a thrown switchblade impaling a spray painted image. The impaled image is that of a blood dripping love heart with "SUSIE + ME" scrawled across it. Jackson and a group of dancers then enter a salsa dance hall and he begins to dance with a woman, "Susie", while shaking a piece of percussion. Jackson then appears seated while the woman dances seductively above him on a table top. After the 1st verse and chorus, there is an a cappella moment, in which Jackson breathes to the drums and the bass, then the strings, then spins, drops down and claps, then the main song starts with the 2nd verse. Throughout the video, Jackson shows a sexual attraction towards the dancing woman—played by Sybil Azur. Jackson caresses her ankle, calf, knee and thigh, and at one stage looks up her dress. The woman is then seen opening a flick knife as the pair engage in a final courtship dance. The video closes in the same manner it began, with the switchblade impaling the spray painted image. The music video won the Brazilian TVZ Video Award: Best International Music Video of the Year. Interviewed on her experience during the video one of the dancers, Carmit Bachar (of The Pussycat Dolls) noted, "I was called in by Vincent Paterson for 'Blood on the Dance Floor'. It was to have a Latin feel, some sort of mambo. I arrived wearing a little salsa dress, fish nets, heels, and my hair was up in a kind of bun with a flower. I was 'camera ready'. I showed up with the whole outfit. It's not that producers can't see what they like, or the potential in somebody, but what I do helps them to see their vision more". A "Refugee Camp Mix" of "Blood on the Dance Floor" appeared on Jackson's video collection, HIStory on Film, Volume II and Michael Jackson's Vision. The original song would later appear on the Number Ones DVD, which contained previously unreleased scenes. Furthermore, Paterson recorded an unreleased, alternate version of the music video, shot with an 8 mm camera. Writer David Noh, described it as, "grainy, overexposed, and sexy as shit". According to Paterson, "Michael loved it, but Sony hated it and refused to release it". The New York Times described the United States promotional effort for the Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix campaign as "subdued", creating "hardly a sound" and "perplexing to many people in the industry". Jackson's label Epic Records, refuted allegations they were not promoting the album sufficiently, saying, "We are completely behind the album ... Michael is certainly one of our superstars and is treated as such ... We just went into this one with our global hats on". The New York Times acknowledged that promotion was stronger internationally, where Jackson had more commercial force and popularity. ## Live performances Jackson performed the song only in the second leg of his HIStory World Tour in 1997. ## Chart performance "Blood on the Dance Floor" became a top ten hit in almost all countries in Europe. It peaked at number one in the UK, Denmark, Spain and New Zealand, charting for 11 weeks in the latter two nations. In the UK it sold 83,767 copies in its first week, enough to take the number one spot from "I Believe I Can Fly" by Jackson collaborator R. Kelly. It was Jackson's seventh and final UK chart topper as a solo artist, although it fell to number eight in its second week of release. The European country where "Blood on the Dance Floor" had the most longevity was Switzerland, where it spent 18 weeks in the chart. The total number of sales in the UK, as of May 2016, stands at 207,700. "Blood on the Dancefloor" peaked at number 42 on the US Billboard Hot 100. This relatively lower peak position has been attributed to the lack of US promotion and—according to J. Randy Taraborrelli and AllMusic writer William Ruhlman—the ongoing US public interest in Jackon's private life over his music. ## Track listings - UK CD single 1. "Blood on the Dance Floor" – 4:13 2. "Blood on the Dance Floor (TM's Switchblade Mix)" – 8:38 3. "Blood on the Dance Floor (Refugee Camp Mix)" – 5:26 4. "Blood on the Dance Floor (Fire Island Vocal Mix)" – 8:55 5. "Blood on the Dance Floor (Fire Island Dub)" – 8:55 - US CD single 1. "Blood on the Dance Floor" – 4:13 2. "Blood on the Dance Floor (TM's Switchblade Edit)" – 3:22 3. "Blood on the Dance Floor (Refugee Camp Edit)" – 3:20 4. "Dangerous (Roger's Dangerous Edit)" – 4:41 - Europe 12-inch single 1. "Blood on the Dance Floor (TM's O-Positive Dub)" – 8:38 2. "Blood on the Dance Floor (Fire Island Dub)" – 8:55 3. "Dangerous (Roger's Dangerous Club Mix)" – 6:58 4. "Dangerous (Roger's Rough Dub)" – 6:48 ## Remixes Tony Moran Mixes - "Blood on the Dance Floor (TM's Switchblade Mix)" – 8:38 / 8:53\* - "Blood on the Dance Floor (TM's Switchblade Edit)" – 3:22 - "Blood on the Dance Floor (TM's O-Positive Dub)" – 8:38 - "Blood on the Dance Floor (T&G Pool of Blood Dub)" – 7:34 Fire Island Mixes - "Blood on the Dance Floor (Fire Island Vocal Mix)" – 8:55 - "Blood on the Dance Floor (Fire Island Radio Edit)" – 3:50 - "Blood on the Dance Floor (Fire Island Dub)" – 8:55 Wyclef Jean Mixes - "Blood on the Dance Floor (Refugee Camp Mix)" – 5:26 - "Blood on the Dance Floor (Refugee Camp Edit)" – 3:20 - "Blood on the Dance Floor (Refugee Camp Dub)" – 3:38 Note: There is an alternate, extended version of Tony Moran's "Switchblade Mix", available only on a singular UK 12-inch promo. The main difference in this version is the inclusion of a new lyrical section at the 2:34 point, which was omitted in the original. The last sound effect at the end of the song is also remarkably different. ## Personnel - Written, composed and produced by Michael Jackson and Teddy Riley - Solo and background vocals, vocal arrangement by Michael Jackson - Teddy Riley and Brad Buxer: Keyboards and synthesizers, drum programming - Guitar by Nile Rodgers - Matt Carpenter: Digital Systems programming - Engineered by Teddy Riley, Dave Way and Mick Guzauski - Mixed by Mick Guzauski ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## See also - "Blood on the Dance Floor x Dangerous", a 2017 mashup
6,037,917	Islam	1,173,916,619	Abrahamic religion continued through Muḥammad صلى الله عليه وسلم	[ "610 establishments", "Abrahamic religions", "Islam", "Monotheistic religions", "Religious organizations established in the 7th century" ]	Islam (/ˈɪslɑːm/; Arabic: ۘالِإسْلَام, al-ʾIslām , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad.[^1] Adherents of Islam, called Muslims, number approximately 2 billion globally and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians. The Muslim population increased from 221 million or 12.5% of the world population in 1910, to 1.553 billion or 22.5% of the world population in 2010. It is expected that the Population of Muslims will increase between 2015 and 2060 by 70%. Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as Adam (believed to be the first man), Ibrahim, Noah, Moses, and Isa (Jesus), among others. These earlier revelations are attributed to Judaism and Christianity, which are regarded in Islam as spiritual predecessor faiths. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injeel (Gospel). They also consider Muhammad as the main and final Islamic prophet, through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the sunnah, documented in accounts called the hadith, provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam teaches that God (Allah) is one and incomparable. It states that there will be a "Final Judgment" wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (Jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (Jahannam). The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—comprise the Islamic oath and creed (shahada); daily prayers (salah); almsgiving (zakat); fasting (sawm) in the month of Ramadan; and a pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca. Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment. Prominent religious festivals include Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam in descending order are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. The religion of Islam originated in Mecca about 610 CE. Muslims believe this is when Muhammad began receiving revelation. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, mostly during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, much of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah), and through conquests. There are two major Islamic denominations: Sunni Islam (85–90%) and Shia Islam (10–15%). While Sunni–Shia differences initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country; 31% live in South Asia; 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa. Sizable Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe. Due largely to a higher fertility rate than that of other religions, Islam is the world's fastest-growing major religious group, and if current trends hold it would slightly surpass Christianity as the world's largest religion by the end of the 21st century. ## Etymology In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. 'submission [to God]') is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace. In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God. A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence). Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion. ## Articles of faith The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine predestination. ### God The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings. God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating partners to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran. Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is," and that the purpose of existence is to worship God. He is viewed as a personal god and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general. ### Angels Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran and hadith. They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr) or 'fire' (nār). Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles. Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking. Some of them, such as Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens. Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy. ### Scripture The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the Quran. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died. While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization. The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community. Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir. In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature, and has influenced art and the Arabic language. Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), have become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both, while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God. ### Prophets Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول‎, rasūl). Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others. The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas Al-Anbiya. Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam. In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran. This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); "good", hasan (حسن, ḥasan); or "weak" (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran. Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference. ### Resurrection and judgment Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death. On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God. Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion"); as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour"); and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer"); ### Divine predestination The concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating". Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "Insha-Allah" meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events. ## Acts of worship There are five acts of worship that are considered duties – the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (alms-giving), fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage – collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām). In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties. ### Declaration of faith The shahadah is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God." Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses. ### Prayer Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state ritual purity achieved by means of the either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash. A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the Muslim community. For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor. Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time. ### Almsgiving Zakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually) of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies. It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty, and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth. The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates. Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity. A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies. ### Fasting In Islam, fasting (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional. ### Pilgrimage The Islamic pilgrimage, called the "ḥajj" (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. In Mecca, pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwah, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement. The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil. All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin. Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca. ### Supererogatory acts Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran. Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan. One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day. Supplication to God, called in Arabic ad-duʿāʾ (Arabic: الدعاء ) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging. Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating. ## History ### Muhammad and the birth of Islam (570–632) According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic: الامين), and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija. In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel. The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind. During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba. After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats. Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity. ### Early Islamic period (632–750) Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands, resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires. Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad's widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor. Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism, with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt. Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina, and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists. The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as Isis. The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers. This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs. The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh. The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military. Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue. While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions, Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious. The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750. ### Classical era (750–1258) Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or sufism. At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil. Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by Wasil ibn Ata. Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority. Caliph Al-Mu'tasim carried out inquisitions, with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months. However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed. This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age". Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics. Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine, and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles. Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors. Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics. In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine. In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr, while others developed the concept of a function. The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians, contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields, and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge. Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia. In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion. Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi. The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam, in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims. Trade brought many Muslims to China, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty. Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty. ### Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century) Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas and Muslims assimilated into new cultures. Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe. Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism, as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore. Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam. Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation, by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study. Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model, and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years. The introduction of gunpowder weapons led to the rise of large centralized states and the Muslim gunpowder empires consolidated much of the previously splintered territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina. The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran. In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire. The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans, as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished. The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, help spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran. Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism, which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans. ### Modern era (18th–20th centuries) Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam, rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology, and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars. He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics, but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime. During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam. He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site. He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia. Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups. Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively. In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement. In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices. The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India. As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam. Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture-oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam. Similar to contemporary codification, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code. The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924. Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914. ### Contemporary era (20th century–present) Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world, which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring, Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence. The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims. In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia. In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power. Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism. Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran. Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group. This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population, the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide. Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International, while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity. The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions. Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority. More "individualized" interpretations of Islam notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance, an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility. Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites, and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion. ## Demographics As of 2015, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.8 billion people, are Muslims. In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%, in 1990 it was 19.9% and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050. The Pew Research Center estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia. Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority, with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone. Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world, followed by Bengalis and Punjabis. Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005, accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016. Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith." Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from Sub Saharan Africa (2.9 million). According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans". In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women. According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans. By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity. It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups." ## Main branches or denominations ### Sunni Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam. The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of the prophet Muhammad) and the community". Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i. Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters. Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone, but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas. Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960); it incorporates elements of Sufism and science. ### Shia Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination. Shias, or Shiites, split with Sunnis over Muhammad's successor as leader, who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority. According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, significant event that took place at Ghadir Khumm, during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca. At Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority). Shias recognise that Muhammad nominated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him. Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis, such as Ali. The Twelvers, the first and the largest Shia branch, believe in twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. They recognise that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams have been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources. Zaidi, the second-oldest branch, reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination. The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris. ### Muhakkima Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (\~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman. Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections. ### Other denominations - The Ahmadiyya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in India in 1889. Ahmad claimed to be the "Promised Messiah" or "Imam Mahdi" of prophecy. Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners, but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical, and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement's inception. - Bektashi Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli. Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs, with possible syncretist origins in Shamanism and Animism, alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (\~0.5%–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide. - Quranism is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran and not the sunnah or Hadith, with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the five pillars of Islam. The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like Syed Ahmad Khan, Abdullah Chakralawi and Ghulam Ahmed Perwez in India questioning the hadith tradition. In Egypt, Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi penned the article "Islam is the Quran alone" in the magazine Al-Manār, arguing for the sole authority of the Quran. A prominent late 20th century Quranist was Rashad Khalifa, an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a numerological code in the Quran, and founded the Quranist organization "United Submitters International". ### Non-denominational Muslims Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination. Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response. The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way. ## Mysticism Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam. Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis, emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi, still one of the best selling poets in America. Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam. Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet. Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period, was more or less Sufism. Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations. Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad. Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities. Sufism influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia. Sufism is prominent in Central Asia, as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger. ## Law and jurisprudence Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists. Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus). Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad. Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram). Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible; forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence. Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will. Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwa) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law. In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws. Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights. ### Schools of jurisprudence A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools while the three major Shia schools are the Ja'fari, Zaidi and Isma'ili schools. Each differs in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh ("principles of jurisprudence"). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab. The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad. ## Society ### Religious personages Islam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service. Religious interpretation is presided over by the ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt). ### Governance In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon. Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest. Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns. The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually. During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends, while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons. Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual self-perfection while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare. When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare. Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization. For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation is 868 CE. ### Daily and family life Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for himself. Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation. Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety. Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements. In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr). Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous. However, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives at the same time. There are also cultural variations in weddings. Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam. After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear. On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor. The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor. Male circumcision, called khitan, is often practised in the Muslim world. Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation. A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words. Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan. A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings. ### Arts and culture The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people. Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims, sometimes referred to as "Islamicate". Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others. While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture. Additionally, the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims. In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings, while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles. The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage). Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up. ## Influences on other religions Some movements, such as the Druze, Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. The Druze faith further split from Isma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate. Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences. ## Criticism Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms. Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church, appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy'' by Dante Alighieri. Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity. Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law. Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized. ## See also - Glossary of Islam - Index of Islam-related articles - Islamic mythology - Islamic studies - Major religious groups - Outline of Islam [^1]: Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In ', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . (See also: quick reference.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."
21,076,607	Liebster Jesu, mein Verlangen, BWV 32	1,105,476,368	Church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach	[ "1726 compositions", "Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach", "Psalm-related compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach" ]	Liebster Jesu, mein Verlangen (Dearest Jesus, my desire), BWV 32, is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. He composed the dialogue cantata (Concerto in Dialogo) in Leipzig for the first Sunday after Epiphany and first performed it on 13 January 1726 as part of his third cantata cycle. Bach composed the cantata in his third year as Thomaskantor on a text which Georg Christian Lehms, a court poet in Darmstadt, had published already in 1711. Lehms derived from the prescribed gospel, the finding in the Temple, a dialogue. Instead of a parent missing a son, as in the gospel, an allegorical Soul (soprano) misses Jesus (bass). The motifs of the story, the loss and anxious search, are placed in a more general situation in which the listener can identify with the Soul. As Lehms did not provide a closing chorale, Bach chose the twelfth and final stanza of Paul Gerhardt's hymn "Weg, mein Herz, mit den Gedanken". Bach structured the cantata in six movements, first alternating arias and recitative, then uniting the voices in recitative and aria, finally a chorale. The two soloists are supported by an intimate Baroque instrumental ensemble of oboe, strings and continuo. The oboe accompanies the soprano, a solo violin the bass, both play when the voices are united. ## History and words Bach composed the cantata in his third year as Thomaskantor (director of church music) in Leipzig for the First Sunday after Epiphany. The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the Epistle to the Romans, speaking of the duties of a Christian (), and from the Gospel of Luke, the finding in the Temple (). Bach composed a text written by Georg Christian Lehms, court poet in Darmstadt, who published it in 1711. Bach had set texts by Lehms already when he composed cantatas for the Weimar court from 1714 to 1717. He had set a similar work by Lehms a few weeks earlier, Selig ist der Mann, BWV 57 for the second day of Christmas. Lehms treated the Gospel to an allegorical dialogue of Jesus and the Soul. In the Concerto in Dialogo (Concerto in dialogue), Bach assigned the Soul to the soprano voice and gave the words of Jesus to the bass as the vox Christi, the voice of Christ, disregarding that the Jesus in the Gospel is still a boy. Lehms imagines not a parent searching for a missing son, but more generally the Christian Soul "with whom we are expected to identify", as John Eliot Gardiner notes. The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann comments that the poet "takes up the general motifs of the story: the loss, the search for Jesus and his rediscovery, and places them in the context of the believer’s relationship with Jesus". The dialogue also refers to medieval mysticism and to imagery of the Song of Songs. Lehms did not provide a closing chorale; Bach added the twelfth and final stanza of Paul Gerhardt's hymn "Weg, mein Herz, mit den Gedanken" (1647). It is sung to the melody of "Freu dich sehr, o meine Seele", which was codified by Louis Bourgeois when setting the Geneva Psalm 42 in his collection of Pseaumes octante trios de David (Geneva, 1551). Bourgeois seems to have been influenced by the secular song Ne l'oseray je dire contained in the Manuscrit de Bayeux published around 1510. Bach led the first performance of the cantata on 13 January 1726 as part of his third cantata cycle. ## Music ### Structure and scoring Bach structured the cantata in six movements, four movements of alternating arias and recitatives, then the voices united in a duet and finally a closing chorale. He scored the intimate dialogue for soprano and bass soloist, a four-part choir only in the chorale, and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of oboe (Ob), two violins (Vl), viola (Va) and basso continuo. The duration is given as 22 minutes. In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr, using the symbols for common time (4/4) and alla breve (2/2). The continuo, playing throughout, is not shown. ### Movements The dialogue, set in arias and recitatives for a solo voice and in duets, shows that Bach was familiar with Italian contemporary opera. #### 1 The dialogue is opened by the soprano as the Soul in an aria in E minor, marked lento, "Liebster Jesu, mein Verlangen" (Dearest Jesus, my desire), The voice is complemented by an obbligato oboe, described by John Eliot Gardiner as "a solo oboe as her accomplice in spinning the most ravishing cantilena in the manner of one of Bach’s concerto slow movements". Julian Mincham distinguishes in the oboe line two different "ideas", in the first five measures a "sense of striving, effort and stretching upwards", then "garlands" of content in achieving a union, as the last lines of the text say "Ach! mein Hort, erfreue mich, laß dich höchst vergnügt umfangen" (Ah! My treasure, bring me joy, let me embrace You with greatest delight). #### 2 The bass answers in a short recitative, "Was ists, daß du mich gesuchet?" (How is it, that you sought Me?), a paraphrase of Jesus saying in the gospel that he has to be in his Father's place. #### 3 He expands the reasoning in a da capo aria in B minor, "Hier, in meines Vaters Stätte" (Here, in My Father's place). embellished by a solo violin, which "encircles the voice with triplets and trills". The words "betrübter Geist (troubled spirit) appear whenever mentioned in "minor-mode colourings in the melody and harmony". #### 4 In the following dialogue recitative, "Ach! heiliger und großer Gott" (Ah! Holy and great God), the soul answers with a paraphrase of the opening line of Psalm 84, "Wie lieblich ist doch deine Wohnung" (How amiable is Thy dwelling), which both Heinrich Schütz and Johannes Brahms set to music, Brahms as the central movement of Ein deutsches Requiem. Bach sets the text as an "evocative arioso with a pulsating string accompaniment". The two voices never sing at the same time. #### 5 A duet, "Nun verschwinden alle Plagen" (Now all trouble disappears), finally unites both voices and also their "associated obbligato instruments (oboe and violin), so far heard only separately". Gardiner writes: "It is one of those duets ... in which he seems to throw caution to the winds, rivalling the lieto fine conclusions to the operas of his day, but with far more skill, substance and even panache". #### 6 A four-part setting of Paul Gerhardt's hymn, "Mein Gott, öffne mir die Pforten" (My God, open the gates), "returns the cantata – also in terms of style – to the sphere of reverence appropriate for a church service". ## Recordings The entries are taken from the listing on the Bach Cantatas Website. Instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are marked green under the header Instr..

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