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53,924,553	Empty Orchestra	1,100,166,665	null	[ "2017 British television episodes", "Inside No. 9 episodes", "Karaoke", "Television episodes about infidelity" ]	"Empty Orchestra" is the fourth episode of the third series of the British dark comedy anthology television programme Inside No. 9. Written by Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith and directed by Guillem Morales, the episode was first shown on 7 March 2017, on BBC Two. "Empty Orchestra" is set in a karaoke booth, and follows a group of work colleagues—Greg (Shearsmith), Fran (Sarah Hadland), Connie (Tamzin Outhwaite), Janet (Emily Howlett) and Duane (Javone Prince)—celebrating the promotion of Roger (Pemberton). Rebekah Hinds also stars. "Empty Orchestra" is close to a musical. The characters sing throughout much of the episode, with the story being told through the lyrics and the way the characters interact during songs. In comparison to other episodes of Inside No. 9, "Empty Orchestra" is upbeat, features romantic elements, and lacks explicitly bloody or macabre references. The filming experience and resulting episode was a highlight of the series for Pemberton, but raised technical challenges, in part due to simultaneous singing and talking. Television critics had a mixed reaction to the episode. In both The Daily Telegraph and The National, it was characterised as weaker than others in the series. The change in tone divided commentators, some of whom found the setting and constant noise a distraction. The writing and production, however, were praised, while the cast were commended both for their performances and their willingness to embrace the episode's concept. ## Production The third series of Inside No. 9 was announced in October 2015, and was heavily publicised beginning in January 2016, at which time Sarah Hadland, Javone Prince and Tamzin Outhwaite were named as guest stars in the series. "Empty Orchestra" was the fourth episode of the series, and the third of a run of five episodes beginning February 2017—the series's first episode being the December 2016 Christmas special "The Devil of Christmas". It was first shown on 7 March 2017, on BBC Two. "Empty Orchestra"—the name of which is a literal translation of the Japanese word karaoke—was written by Pemberton and Shearsmith, and was directed by Guillem Morales. It was the last episode of the series to be written, and was filmed on a set constructed at Shepperton Studios. The sides of the set could be removed for filming purposes, but, for the most part, the performers were confined. "Empty Orchestra" was originally intended as a wholly musical episode. The initial conceit was that the story would be wholly told through song, but this was not possible. For Shearsmith, the reality of this was difficult to maintain; on the episode commentary, Pemberton expressed a wish that there was less dialogue. The closest example to the original intention of storytelling wholly through singing in the final episode was the performance of "I Know Him So Well". Nonetheless, the resulting episode, for Pemberton, was "a kind of musical", in that "there's music all the way through it". While he would be interested in doing "a proper La La Land-style musical" in the future, "Empty Orchestra" serves to "[tick] that box to some degree". The idea of a love story, which is how Pemberton characterised "Empty Orchestra", was also "very appealing". Pemberton ultimately chose the episode as his favourite of the series, calling it very different to other episodes of Inside No. 9. At the series launch, speaking in reference to the previous episode "The Riddle of the Sphinx", Pemberton said that "When you've cut someone's bum off and eaten it, you kind of go, well, better try something different!" One influence on the episode was Shane Meadows's This Is England; Pemberton drew inspiration from the way that characters' enjoyment of music events was portrayed in the film. ### Cast and filming "Empty Orchestra" stars Pemberton as Roger, who is celebrating a promotion with five colleagues: Greg, played by Shearsmith; Connie, played by Outhwaite; Fran, played by Hadland; Janet, played by Emily Howlett; and Duane, played by Prince. Rebekah Hinds also stars as Chantel. As an anthology series, Inside No. 9 features a new cast each episode, which the writers say re-energises them. During filming, Outhwaite and Hadland said that Pemberton and Shearsmith would not enjoy working with another cast more; the following week, the writers jokingly sent them pictures with Fiona Shaw and Morgana Robinson (who star in "Private View"), claiming to be having more fun. Howlett, like Janet, is deaf. Unlike Howlett, however, Janet is "quite passive, quiet, sweet and generally happy looking after people, especially her boss". As Janet sings, Howlett faced a particular acting challenge. She possesses, she explained, "very little understanding of what constitutes music, and no idea at all about things like keys, pitch or melody – I even struggle with the concept of 'high' and 'low' sounds". The song Janet sings—"Only You" by Yazoo—was particularly challenging. Howlett sought help from the composer John Chambers, with whom she had previously worked, and with his help, learnt the song's rhythm and then placed the lyrics relative to it. Chambers then produced a "board of 'tune'", with words sung with a high note placed physically higher on the board, and Howlett tried various methods to train herself to sing different pitches. The whole process took a considerable amount of time, but "In the end, it paid off, because I got the role. It was one of the best and most welcoming sets I've been on, especially in mainstream filming. I never once felt like a token Deaf, which is rare and beautiful." The writers opted to have the characters in fancy dress to add a layer of visual interest. Outhwaite, Howlett, and Shearsmith expressed their enjoyment of the fancy dress aspect of the episode. Shearsmith initially wore an inflatable sumo suit, but air in the suit produced sounds that interfered with music. The alternative suit was made of foam. Pemberton's character wore a very minimal costume, and Pemberton himself was mostly unchanged; he simply wore glasses and had his hair brushed forward. Outhwaite had long been a fan of Inside No. 9 and the work of Pemberton and Shearsmith, the former of whom she had worked with in an episode of Hotel Babylon. She was particularly pleased to appear alongside Hadland, as the pair are old friends, and characterised her duet with Hadland as her favourite scene. She loved her "selfish, sad and manipulative" character, Connie. The filming process was, for her, extremely enjoyable and memorable. Pemberton said that Hadland and Outhwaite "brought a bubbly energy which injected into the hysteria of that room", naming the episode's production his favourite filming experience from the series. Shearsmith pointed to the scene in which "a hen party invades the karaoke room and they start singing. The music was pumped up and we had a mini party, with mad dancing – that was a memorable scene to film." The filming introduced a number of technical challenges, with the producer Adam Tandy explaining that the simultaneous singing and conversing made production particularly difficult: "To record it all 'clean' and have options in the edit, that was technically hard on everybody." Typically, karaoke scenes in television will see characters sing only the opening lines, but because of the format of Inside No. 9, the characters in "Empty Orchestra" sing the whole song. Each character sang a song, with the vocals recorded live. For technical reasons, the recording of vocals had to be done without a backing track. The actors wore an earpiece to listen to the music while singing; Howlett's, used so that she could feel the beat, was taped under her wig, and she was counted in by Outhwaite. Filming took a week, with days focussed on particular songs. ## Plot Greg, dressed in a sumo-themed fatsuit, enters a karaoke booth and begins singing The Human League's "Don't You Want Me". Connie, dressed as Amy Winehouse, arrives; the two kiss, but break apart when Greg's partner Fran (dressed as Britney Spears) enters. Roger arrives with his assistant Janet; Janet, who is deaf, is dressed as Boy George, and Roger, who has no outfit, puts on a clown's nose when prompted. The group are celebrating Roger's promotion and, to Greg's alarm, Roger has an envelope with a list of names. Fran begins singing Whigfield's "Saturday Night" before Duane, dressed as Michael Jackson, arrives. He has the group play "pills roulette"; each take either ecstasy, Viagra, ketamine, Paracetamol, a laxative or a Tic Tac. Roger is distracted, soon leaving for more drinks; Greg is keen to know what he has written, believing someone is being laid off. Duane starts Wham!'s "Wham Rap!"; Janet "listens" by placing her hand on the speaker, until Greg quizzes her on lay-offs. Connie takes Duane's phone to text Janet, and Roger returns with shots, which he drinks alone. Janet's text from "Duane" asks her to sing him a song if she likes him. Watched by Janet, Connie tells Greg to make a choice between her and Fran. Roger starts Rainbow's "Since You Been Gone" and Greg conspires with Connie and Fran to acquire the envelope. Roger, having danced with Connie, is aroused, but Duane says that all the pills were Tic Tacs. Greg finally reaches the envelope, and Fran's name is circled. Roger reveals that the envelope contains divorce papers; his wife is leaving him. Fran sings "I Know Him So Well" (Elaine Paige and Barbara Dickson), first to Roger and then Greg. She duets with Connie, and, hugging Fran, Greg mouths to Connie that Fran is getting sacked. Connie and Fran, the latter oblivious, sing to each other, as Roger signs his divorce papers. When the song finishes, Roger sombrely talks to Fran. Janet sings Yazoo's "Only You" to Duane, who stops the music after Fran whispers to him. Chastising Connie, Duane says that he does not like Janet "in that way". Roger steps in; someone has to be made redundant, but it will be him, and he has recommended that Fran be promoted. A hen do arrives in the booth, and a newcomer, Chantel, begins "Titanium" (David Guetta and Sia). Watched by Janet, Connie confronts and kisses Greg; Roger meets eyes with a young woman. Connie mocks Janet, who reminds the former that she can lip read. Janet whispers to Fran, who confronts Greg and Connie; UV light reveals Connie's lipstick on Greg's mouth, and Fran tells them that they are both fired. Fran sings with Chantel, Roger dances with the young woman, and Greg and Connie argue. Duane and Janet meet eyes, and Duane places her hand on his chest; she feels his heartbeat as the two kiss. ## Analysis "Empty Orchestra" follows a relatively simple narrative of co-workers on a night out, telling several interweaved stories through body language, muffled conversations, and relevant song lyrics. Phil Harrison, writing for The Guardian, characterised the episode as "a study in communication breakdown; how people use booze, loud music and enforced jollity to fill the gaps between them". Possibilities for macabre developments are seeded early in the episode, but, contrary to viewer expectations, these possibilities are cut off; for example, Duane's "pills" are merely Tic Tacs, and Roger's list—as revealed in his "David Brentish" speech—has no sinister purpose. Viewer expectations (and possible criticisms) are anticipated by Pemberton's Roger saying "it's not just going to be one song after another, is it?" Much of the story is told by the songs, with the lyrics coordinating with the events of the story. For example, "Don't You Want Me" introduces the affair between Greg and Connie, allowing them to flirt in the presence of Fran. It pre-empts the result of their relationship with the line "we will both be sorry"; this is unsung, but nonetheless emphasised. The song also speaks to the relationship between Greg and Roger, with Greg singing "don't you want me?" when he fears that he will be fired, and tells of Greg's character with lines including "Don't forget it's me who put you where you are now // And I can put you back there too". ## Reception "Empty Orchestra" had a mixed reception from television critics, being awarded four out of five by Mark Ward of the Daily Express, three out of five by Ben Lawrence of The Daily Telegraph, and two out of five by the freelance journalist Dan Owen, who claimed that he "never warmed to" the episode, but considered it nonetheless worth watching. The comedy critic Bruce Dessau called it "a hit", and Mark Butler, of i, offered a positive review of an episode that, for him, "ended up being a down-to-earth, relatable and ultimately feel-good slice of drama". Many critics characterised it as weaker than other episodes of Inside No. 9, though both Julie McDowall (The National) and Lawrence stressed the quality of the programme overall, emphasising that "Empty Orchestra" was still commendable. The more upbeat story was "a refreshingly restrained change of pace for the show" for Butler, and possessed its "own charm" for Owen. Butler wrote that "some will have no doubt been disappointed" by the lack of a bloody climax, but that "variety in tone and story is what helps make Inside No. 9 work so well. You can't begrudge it a happy, straightforward ending every now and then." The episode's plot and production were praised. For Mellor, "In barely any time at all, we'd been told a complete story that was satisfying, romantic and unexpectedly uplifting." Owen, similarly, argued that the episode "achieved what it wanted to, ending with a fantastic reveal [concerning UV lights] and each of the storylines were resolved quite nicely", though Lawrence felt that the "twist" involving Janet's ability to lip-read was "obvious". Patrick Mulkern (Radio Times) commended the production, and the inclusion of Janet, while Phil Harrison (The Guardian) called the episode an "object lesson in economical narrative". Mellor summarised the strength of the production and writing by saying that the elements "slotted in with real efficiency. Seeding the UV light early on provided a satisfying pay-off, and the shifts to Janet's aural point of view, along with the use of subtitles and director Guillem Morales' continually inventive shifts in [point of view], kept things varied and lively." Nonetheless, she considered the costumes a missed opportunity, perceiving no meaning behind the choices. The episode's greatest achievement, for Mellor, was the "lyrical cleverness". A number of commentators were critical of the choice of setting. Though Lawrence claimed that it "illustrated how good Pemberton and Shearsmith are at creating maximum tension on a minimal budget", others found that it interfered with their enjoyment of the episode. For Owen, it "offered a definite production challenge that was made to look effortless ... but an appreciation of how well something was made isn't enough". Similarly, Lawrence felt that "amid the karaoke din, it was hard to get a proper handle on the characters or, indeed, really care about their fates". While Owen did not consider the episode funny, Mellor called Roger's song "(tragi) comedy gold to match the farcical comedy of Greg's perpetually thwarted heist attempts". Lawrence described the characterisation as "painted with the broadest of brush strokes, but that suited the super-annuated, hypercharged nature of the plot and the faintly camp dialogue", praising Pemberton in particular. The guest stars were praised for their willingness to support the episode's concept. Dessau picked out Outhwaite's performance as particularly strong; both Mulkern and Lawrence praised Howlett, with Mulkern saying that she put him "in mind of a young Victoria Wood and the sympathetic women she used to bring to life".
30,111,005	Tina Green	1,150,842,961	British businesswoman	[ "1949 births", "20th-century British businesspeople", "20th-century British businesswomen", "21st-century British businesspeople", "21st-century British businesswomen", "British women in business", "Businesspeople from London", "English billionaires", "English businesspeople in fashion", "English businesspeople in retailing", "English expatriates in Monaco", "English expatriates in South Africa", "English interior designers", "Female billionaires", "Living people", "Wives of knights" ]	Cristina Stuart Green, Lady Green (née Paine, formerly Palos; born August 1949), known as Tina Green, is an English businesswoman and interior designer. Green is the director of Taveta, the majority owner of Taveta Investments Ltd, the parent company of the Arcadia Group, of which her husband, Sir Philip Green, is chairman. The Arcadia Group owned the clothing retail chains Topshop and Topman, as well as Burton, Dorothy Perkins, Evans, Miss Selfridge, Outfit, and Wallis. Taveta owned British Homes Stores (BHS) before its 2015 sale. BHS was placed into administration in 2016, and the Arcadia Group was placed into administration in 2020. Green formed the interior design company Green & Mingarelli with the Italian designer Pietro Mingarelli. Green was the recipient of a £1.2 billion dividend payment from the Arcadia Group in 2005, a record payment in British corporate history. In 2005 The Times stated that she was "for tax reasons the legal owner" of her and her husband's estimated wealth of £4.9 billion. In 2020, the couple's wealth was estimated at £930 million by the Sunday Times Rich List and at \$2.4 billion by The World's Billionaires list published by Forbes in 2021. Green has a close financial relationship with the businessman Richard Caring. She is a resident of Monaco. ## Early life and career Cristina Stuart Paine was born in London in August 1949. Her father was a wine merchant, his business led to long periods living abroad and Green spent her childhood in Hong Kong, Japan and Thailand. Green did not finish school and described herself as "trained in nothing" but has said that she loves to "work and to graft". Green met Robert "Bobby" Palos, a South African jazz drummer in Hong Kong when she was 17 and he was 31. They married a year later in 1967 after travelling around Australia and Japan. Green initially worked in the diamond industry and subsequently moved to South Africa with Palos and the couple opened a fashion boutique in Johannesburg. Green and Palos had two children, Stasha (born 1972) and Brett (born 1974). Green's daughter, Stasha, subsequently described her mother's early career as having involved being "a diamond dealer, the first female DJ in Johannesburg [and] a go-go dancer" as well as dancing with The Beach Boys. Green and Palos later took their fashion boutique to London. Green described herself as more driven to succeed in business than Palos, and after 20 years together the couple divorced. They remained friends after their divorce and Green and Palos's second wife were at his bedside when he died. She met businessman Philip Green in 1985 and described him as "Just an ordinary person with a seriously strong work ethic" who was a "a colourful character" who had "zero money". They married in 1990. The couple have two children, Chloe (born 1991) and Brandon (born 1993). Green designed clothing for her husband's clothing shops, including Lewis's and Owen Owen, and subsequently helped design the layout of the stores. Green's fashion boutique in London's Knightsbridge district, Harabels, closed in 1992. Green, her husband Philip, and their children moved to Monaco in 1998, having previously lived on Avenue Road in London's St John's Wood district. Philip Green has said that the move was for health reasons. Tina Green said in a 2005 interview that the couple moved from St John's Wood to Monaco after Philip was the victim of a mugging by three men with a sword. Green has organised several large parties for her husband Philip's 50th, 55th and 60th birthday parties. Philip's 50th birthday party took place in Cyprus and cost an estimated £5 million. The party featured performances from Earth, Wind & Fire, and the singers Tom Jones and Rod Stewart. His 55th birthday party was held in the Maldives at a cost of £20 million, with performances from Jennifer Lopez and George Michael. His 60th was held at the Rosewood Mayakoba resort in Mexico featuring performances from The Beach Boys, Robbie Williams and Stevie Wonder. In 2012 Green ordered the superyacht Lionheart from the shipbuilders Benetti at an estimated cost of £100 million. Green was appointed treasurer to the private charitable foundation of Charlene, Princess of Monaco, in 2017. In 2000, she bought £25 million of shares in the British retail company Marks & Spencer shortly before it was announced that Philip Green was considering a takeover of the company. Green was described as the "for tax reasons the legal owner" of her and her husband's estimated wealth of £4.9 billion by The Times in 2005. In 2020, the couple's wealth was estimated at £930 million by the Sunday Times Rich List and at \$2.4 billion by The World's Billionaires list published by Forbes in 2021. Philip and Tina Green's net worth at its peak in 2007 was estimated to be £4.9 billion by the Sunday Times Rich List, it had declined to an estimated £930 million by 2020. Green has spoken of the British public's perceived resentment of her wealth saying in a 2005 interview that she thought that " ... unfortunately, in this country [the United Kingdom] there's a lot of jealousy. No one likes a winner, they just want the bad news. I just find it very sad". In a 2012 interview Green said that it had been " ... really scary. It scares me. Yes. Because it's been so ... difficult". ## Taveta and the Arcadia Group Green is the director of Taveta Ltd which is the majority owner of Taveta Investments Ltd. Taveta Investments Ltd is the parent company of the Arcadia Group, of which Green's husband, Philip, is the chairman. Taveta Investments acquired the Arcadia Group for £770 million in 2004, by 2018 the group owned the clothing store chains of Topshop and Topman as well as Burton, Dorothy Perkins, Evans, Miss Selfridge, Outfit, and Wallis. In 2005 Tina Green was the recipient of a £1.2 billion dividend from Arcadia, the largest dividend in British corporate history. Green notably paid no British income tax on the dividend due to her residency in the tax haven of Monaco. The dividend was paid for by a loan taken out by Arcadia, cutting Arcadia's corporation tax as interest charges on the loan were offset against profits. In August 2010 Philip Green said that "My wife's not a tax exile – my family do not live in the United Kingdom, it's somewhat different. We do pay all our tax in Britain. I think we have paid over the last five years some £300-400m in taxes on profits that have been made on our company". Philip Green has jocularly referred to his wife's income as "housekeeping money". In 2016 Green said that she or her family had controlling stakes in 11 companies, the majority of which were based in Jersey and the British Virgin Islands. Green said that the locations were chosen as they had strong regulatory and professional corporate regimes. The British Home Stores (BHS) group was acquired by Taveta for £200 million in 2000. It was subsequently sold in 2015 for £1, and went into administration in 2016. BHS had a deficit in its pension schemes of £571 million at the time of its 2016 collapse and 11,000 jobs were put at risk. The shareholders of BHS including the Green family were the recipients of £580 million from the group during their tenure. In 2016, Philip Green agreed to appear before a work and pensions select committee of the British House of Commons on condition that his wife was not called before the committee. As the largest shareholder of the Arcadia Group, in 2019 Green put £100 million over three years into the group's two pension schemes in a deal arranged with the Pensions Regulator. In 2019 Tina Green put £50 million into the Arcadia Group in exchange for rent reductions on clothing stores rented by the group from landlords. The Arcadia Group went into administration in November 2020. The group had struggled with several years of declining sales and the economic fallout of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom. It was seen as having suffered from underinvestment in comparison to other retail companies and having failed to make as successful transition to online retail as its corporate rivals. ### UK Uncut protests In 2010 the Greens became the subject of protests from the activist group UK Uncut for their alleged avoidance of corporate taxation. At the time of the protests the Conservative government under Prime Minister David Cameron was imposing austerity through cuts to government expenditure. The protestors claimed that the cuts could be avoided if corporate tax avoidance was eradicated. Philip Green had been appointed by Cameron as an advisor to the government on efficiency. The UK Uncut campaigners staged a sit-in at Arcadia's flagship London Topshop store in Oxford Street and glued themselves to the windows of Topshop in Brighton on 4 December 2010. The protestors also targeted Barclays, Boots, HSBC, and Vodafone stores. ## Green & Mingarelli Green formed the interior design company Green & Mingarelli with the Italian furniture designer Pietro Mingarelli, having met him on a yacht. The pair work up to 15 hour days when working on designs. The company has created interiors for private residences and yachts. Green's interior design work is noted for her extensive use of black and white. The company restored and designed the interior of a mews house in London's Belgravia district "almost entirely" in black and white. Green extensively uses Lalique glass in her interior designs and helped create a homewear range for Lalique Maison in 2014. Mark Harrison, writing in The Times, described Green's Lalique range as "rather lovely; ornate, but not vulgar; terribly grand" and a "harmonious, genteel, upmarket non-riot of off-white, ebony, crystal and gold". Green herself described her Lalique work as "obviously high end, and obviously expensive". Green & Mingarelli came to the attention of the owner of Lalique, Silvio Denz, due to their extensive use of Lalique glass in the decoration of the 68.5m motor yacht Silver Angel, which led to their homeware commission. In their Lalique collection a sideboard was priced at €30,000 and a mirror at €10,000. ## Financial link with Richard Caring Green has been linked financially to the British businessman Richard Caring, a close friend and business partner of her husband Philip Green. It was revealed in the Swiss Leaks that Green held the "vast majority of [Caring's] cash assets" on trust for him in her bank account with HSBC in Monaco. Green provided £23.5 million to Caring to help him purchase the restaurant chains Belgo and Strada from Luke Johnson. Green gifted the Silver Angel motor yacht, worth an estimated £25 million to Caring in 2017. In 2009 Caring had told the Evening Standard newspaper that he had just acquired the yacht but it was revealed in the Pandora Papers leak that it had been held in Green's name from 2009 to 2017. Silver Angel was decorated by Green's company, Green & Mingarelli in tones of white, cream and black. When Philip Green first saw the interior of the yacht he is said to have remarked to his wife "Are these the only fucking colours you can do? It's the same colour as our boat".
1,211,026	Rainbow/PUSH	1,167,407,448	American non-profit organization	[ "1971 establishments in Illinois", "African Americans' rights organizations", "Civil rights organizations in the United States", "Jesse Jackson", "Movements for civil rights", "Non-profit organizations based in Chicago", "Organizations established in 1971" ]	Rainbow/PUSH is a Chicago-based nonprofit organization formed as a merger of two nonprofit organizations founded by Jesse Jackson; Operation PUSH (People United to Save Humanity) and the National Rainbow Coalition. The organizations pursue social justice, civil rights, and political activism. In December 1971, Jackson resigned from Operation Breadbasket after clashing with Ralph Abernathy and founded Operation PUSH. In 1984, Jackson founded the National Rainbow Coalition. It merged with PUSH in 1996. The combined organization's national headquarters is on the South Side of Chicago and it has regional branches in Washington, D.C., New York City, Los Angeles, Detroit, Houston, Atlanta, Silicon Valley, New Orleans, and Boston. Operation PUSH raised public awareness to initiate corporate action and government sponsorship. The National Rainbow Coalition became a prominent political organization that raised public awareness of numerous political issues and consolidated a large voting bloc. The merged entity has undertaken numerous social initiatives. ## PUSH Operation PUSH, an acronym for People United to Save (later Serve) Humanity, was an organization that advocated black self-help and achieved a broad audience for its liberal stances on social justice and civil rights. Operation PUSH's origins can be traced to a factional split in Operation Breadbasket, an affiliate of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. In 1966, Martin Luther King Jr., the head of the SCLC, appointed Jackson to head the Chicago chapter of Operation Breadbasket, which became a coalition of black ministers and entrepreneurs. After 1968, Jackson increasingly clashed with King's successor at SCLC, Ralph Abernathy. The break became complete in December 1971 when Abernathy suspended Jackson for "administrative improprieties and repeated acts of violation of organizational policy." Jackson resigned from Operation Breadbasket, called together his allies, and formed Operation PUSH. From its inception, Jackson called its membership a "Rainbow Coalition." This concept and phrase was originally created by the 1968 Chicago Black Panther leader Fred Hampton. Hampton used it to describe the multiethnic revolutionary federation he founded. Jackson was not part of Hampton's Rainbow Coalition, and had a difficult relationship with the Panthers. Some former members of Hampton's coalition resent Jackson for using the name, partly because Jackson's politics are reformist, and partly because Jackson copyrighted the name, preventing others from using it. Although money was a problem at first, initial backing came from Manhattan Borough President Percy Sutton, Gary, Indiana Mayor Richard Hatcher, Aretha Franklin, Jim Brown, and Ossie Davis. The organizational meeting of PUSH was in the Chicago home of T.R.M. Howard, a prominent black doctor and community leader on the South Side. Before he moved to Chicago in 1956, Howard developed a national reputation as a Mississippi civil rights leader, surgeon, and entrepreneur. He served on PUSH's board of directors and chaired the finance committee. Through PUSH Jackson was able to continue pursuing the same economic objectives that Operation Breadbasket had. In addition, his organization expanded into social and political development for blacks in Chicago and nationwide. The 1970s saw various tactics to pursue the organization's objectives including direct action campaigns, weekly radio broadcasts, and awards, through which Jackson protected black homeowners, workers, and businesses, and honored prominent blacks in the US and abroad. Jackson also started a campaign against legalizing abortion after Roe v. Wade was decided in 1973. PUSH was concerned with minority youth reading, and championed education through PUSH-Excel, a spin-off program that emphasized keeping inner-city youths in school while assisting them with job placement. The program, which persuaded inner-city youth to pledge in writing to study two hours per night and involved parental monitoring, impressed Jimmy Carter, whose administration became a large sponsor after Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare Joseph Califano and Secretary of Labor Ray Marshall courted Jackson. The organization was very successful at committing major corporations with large presences in the black community to adopt affirmative action programs in which they hired more black executives and supervisors and to buy from black suppliers, wholesalers, and distributors. The organization employed prayer vigils to call attention to issues. It opposed Ronald Reagan's workfare initiative requiring that welfare recipients work for part of their benefits. The organization staged several boycotts, including early 1980s boycotts of Anheuser Busch and Coca-Cola as well as a 1986 boycott of CBS television affiliates. The boycotts became so well known that at one point David Duke supporters referred to a boycott of Nike, Inc. as oppression of whites by blacks. Nike spokesperson Michael Jordan disavowed the boycott. The boycotts of Budweiser and Coke as well as one against Kentucky Fried Chicken were touted for having won minority job concessions from white businesses. ## National Rainbow Coalition The National Rainbow Coalition (Rainbow Coalition for short) was a political organization that grew out of Jesse Jackson's 1984 presidential campaign. During the campaign, Jackson began speaking about a "Rainbow Coalition", an idea created by Fred Hampton, regarding the disadvantaged and welcomed voters from a broad spectrum of races and creeds. The goals of the campaign were to demand social programs, voting rights, and affirmative action for all groups that had been neglected by Reaganomics. Jackson's campaign blamed President Ronald Reagan's policies for reduction of government domestic spending, causing new unemployment and encouraging economic investment outside of the inner cities, while they discouraged the rebuilding of urban industry. The industrial layoffs caused by these policies hit the Black and other minority populations particularly hard. At the 1984 Democratic National Convention on July 18, 1984, in San Francisco, California, Jackson delivered an address entitled "The Rainbow Coalition". The speech called for Arab Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, youth, disabled veterans, small farmers, lesbians and gays to join with African Americans and Jewish Americans for political purpose. Whereas the purpose of PUSH had been to fight for economic and educational opportunities, the Rainbow Coalition was created to address political empowerment and public policy issues. After his unsuccessful bid for the Democratic nomination in 1984, Jackson attempted to build a broad base of support among groups that "were hurt by Reagan administration policies" - racial minorities, the poor, small farmers, working mothers, the unemployed, some labor union members, gays, and lesbians. ## 1990s onwards Jackson moved from Chicago to Washington, D.C. to serve as shadow senator from 1991 to 1996. When he returned to Chicago in 1996 he merged his organizations. The merged entity advocates for African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, other minorities, and women. Its main economic goal is to have more minorities on the payrolls, in the boardrooms, and on the supplier lists of major corporations. The industries it most aggressively pursues are the financial sector on Wall Street, the telecommunications field and high-tech firms in Silicon Valley. The Wall Street activities are organized under sub-organization "The Wall Street Project". The organization has been active in pursuit of increase minority representation in other industries, most notably the broadcast media, the entertainment industry, and the automobile industry. It has also sought increased representation by minority administrators in college and professional sports under the leadership of Jesse Jackson, Jr. For Hispanic issues the merged entity works closely with the League of United Latin American Citizens and the National Council of La Raza. In 1998 the organization attacked Freddie Mac for its lending and employment practices, which led to its pledge to earmark \$1 billion in mortgage loans specifically for minorities, to donate more than \$1 million directly to Rainbow/PUSH and to become a sponsor of Jackson's annual Wall Street Project. In 2000, the organization investigated the case of Raynard Johnson, who was found hanged by a belt from a tree in front of his home in Kokomo, Mississippi. Jackson labelled it a "lynching", although two autopsies both concluded that the death was a suicide. In the early 2000s (decade), Rainbow/PUSH worked with NASCAR to increase the number of minorities involved in auto racing, through direct financial support and projects to find talented African-American racing drivers. This initiative was ended in 2003, after the racing sanctioning body was criticized by conservative groups for the partnership. Among the smaller campaigns it has undertaken are the HIV/AIDS Initiative for funding for AIDS programs; the National Field Department support of "constructive agitation to bring about societal change"; and the Prison Outpost project, whose ultimate goal is "to eliminate the need for prisons." Through his organization and its predecessors Jackson has advocated universal health care, a war on drugs, direct peace negotiations between Palestinians and Israelis, ending apartheid in South Africa and advancing democracy in Haiti. The following is the organization's list of major issues: - 1% Student Loans - Jobs and Economic Empowerment - Employee Rights and Livable Wages - Educational Access - Fair and Decent Housing - Voter Registration and Civic Education - Election Law Reform - Fairness in the Media, Sports, and Criminal Justice System - Political Empowerment - Trade and Foreign Policy - Affirmative Action and Equal Rights - Gender Equality - Environmental Justice Former congressman Mel Reynolds, who served a sentence in prison for sexual assault and bank fraud, was hired by Rainbow/PUSH as its resident scholar on prison reform after his release in 2001. The organization is a member of several anti-war coalitions including Win Without War, United for Peace and Justice, and After Downing Street. In the aftermath of Hurricane Dorian, Rev. Jesse Jackson promised to raise money and collect donations for those affected. The organization set up drop-off locations in Chicago to assist with relief efforts. ## Involvement in the Duke Lacrosse team controversy In 2006, Jesse Jackson promised the Rainbow/Push Coalition would pay Crystal Mangum's college tuition. Mangum made false rape allegations against members of Duke University's men's lacrosse team who had hired her as a stripper. The charges were later dropped due to lack of evidence. Jackson said that whatever the outcome of the trial, the tuition offer would still be good. ## See also - The Rainbow Agenda - Save the Children (film)
37,360,538	Human interactions with insects	1,168,084,724	None	[ "Biology and culture", "Cultural studies", "Ethnobiology", "Insects in culture", "Subfields of entomology" ]	Human interactions with insects include both a wide variety of uses, whether practical such as for food, textiles, and dyestuffs, or symbolic, as in art, music, and literature, and negative interactions including damage to crops and extensive efforts to control insect pests. Academically, the interaction of insects and society has been treated in part as cultural entomology, dealing mostly with "advanced" societies, and in part as ethnoentomology, dealing mostly with "primitive" societies, though the distinction is weak and not based on theory. Both academic disciplines explore the parallels, connections and influence of insects on human populations, and vice versa. They are rooted in anthropology and natural history, as well as entomology, the study of insects. Other cultural uses of insects, such as biomimicry, do not necessarily lie within these academic disciplines. More generally, people make a wide range of uses of insects, both practical and symbolic. On the other hand, attitudes to insects are often negative, and extensive efforts are made to kill them. The widespread use of insecticides has failed to exterminate any insect pest, but has caused resistance to commonly-used chemicals in a thousand insect species. Practical uses include as food, in medicine, for the valuable textile silk, for dyestuffs such as carmine, in science, where the fruit fly is an important model organism in genetics, and in warfare, where insects were successfully used in the Second World War to spread disease in enemy populations. One insect, the honey bee, provides honey, pollen, royal jelly, propolis and an anti-inflammatory peptide, melittin; its larvae too are eaten in some societies. Medical uses of insects include maggot therapy for wound debridement. Over a thousand protein families have been identified in the saliva of blood-feeding insects; these may provide useful drugs such as anticoagulants, vasodilators, antihistamines and anaesthetics. Symbolic uses include roles in art, in music (with many songs featuring insects), in film, in literature, in religion, and in mythology. Insect costumes are used in theatrical productions and worn for parties and carnivals. ## Context ### Culture Culture consists of the social behaviour and norms found in human societies and transmitted through social learning. Cultural universals in all human societies include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept of material culture covers physical expressions such as technology, architecture and art, whereas immaterial culture includes principles of social organization, mythology, philosophy, literature, and science. This article describes the roles played by insects in human culture so defined. ### Cultural entomology and ethnoentomology Ethnoentomology developed from the 19th century with early works by authors such as Alfred Russel Wallace (1852) and Henry Walter Bates (1862). Hans Zinsser's classic Rats, Lice and History (1935) showed that insects were an important force in human history. Writers like William Morton Wheeler, Maurice Maeterlinck, and Jean Henri Fabre described insect life and communicated their meaning to people "with imagination and brilliance". Frederick Simon Bodenheimer's Insects as Human Food (1951) drew attention to the scope and potential of entomophagy, and showed a positive aspect of insects. Food is the most studied topic in ethnoentomology, followed by medicine and beekeeping. In 1968, claimed cultural entomology as a branch of insect studies, in a review of the roles insects played in folklore and culture including religion, food, medicine and the arts. In 1984, Charles Hogue covered the field in English and from 1994 to 1997, Hogue's The Cultural Entomology Digest served as a forum on the field. Hogue argued that "Humans spend their intellectual energies in three basic areas of activity: surviving, using practical learning (the application of technology); seeking pure knowledge through inductive mental processes (science); and pursuing enlightenment to taste a pleasure by aesthetic exercises that may be referred to as the 'humanities.' Entomology has long been concerned with survival (economic entomology) and scientific study (academic entomology), but the branch of investigation that addresses the influence of insects (and other terrestrial Arthropoda, including arachnids and myriapods) in literature, language, music, the arts, interpretive history, religion, and recreation has only become recognized as a distinct field" through Schimitschek's work. Hogue set out the boundaries of the field by saying: "The narrative history of the science of entomology is not part of cultural entomology, while the influence of insects on general history would be considered cultural entomology." He added: "Because the term "cultural" is narrowly defined, some aspects normally included in studies of human societies are excluded." Darrell Addison Posey, noting that the boundary between cultural entomology and ethnoentomology is difficult to draw, cites Hogue as limiting cultural entomology to the influence of insects on "the essence of humanity as expressed in the arts and humanities". Posey notes further that cultural anthropology is usually restricted to the study of "advanced", industrialised, and literate societies, whereas ethnoentomology studies "the entomological concerns of 'primitive' or 'noncivilized' societies". Posey states at once that the division is artificial, complete with an unjustified us/them bias. Brian Morris similarly criticises the way that anthropologists treat non-Western attitudes to nature as monadic and spiritualist, and contrast this "in gnostic fashion" with a simplistic treatment of Western, often 17th-century, mechanistic attitude. Morris considers this "quite unhelpful, if not misleading", and offers instead his own research into the multiple ways that the people of Malawi relate to insects and other animals: "pragmatic, intellectual, realist, practical, aesthetic, symbolic and sacramental." ## Benefits and costs ### Insect ecosystem services The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) report 2005 defines ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems, and distinguishes four categories, namely provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural. A fundamental tenet is that a few species of arthropod are well understood for their influence on humans (such as honeybees, ants, mosquitoes, and spiders). However, insects offer ecological goods and services. The Xerces Society calculates the economic impact of four ecological services rendered by insects: pollination, recreation (i.e. "the importance of bugs to hunting, fishing, and wildlife observation, including bird-watching"), dung burial, and pest control. The value has been estimated at \$153 billion worldwide. As the ant expert E. O. Wilson observed: "If all mankind were to disappear, the world would regenerate back to the rich state of equilibrium that existed ten thousand years ago. If insects were to vanish, the environment would collapse into chaos." A Nova segment on the American Public Broadcasting Service framed the relationship with insects in an urban context: "We humans like to think that we run the world. But even in the heart of our great cities, a rival superpower thrives ... These tiny creatures live all around us in vast numbers, though we hardly even notice them. But in many ways, it is they who really run the show. The Washington Post stated: "We are flying blind in many aspects of preserving the environment, and that's why we are so surprised when a species like the honeybee starts to crash, or an insect we don't want, the Asian tiger mosquito or the fire ant, appears in our midst. In other words: Start thinking about the bugs." ### Pests and propaganda Human attitudes toward insects are often negative, reinforced by sensationalism in the media. This has produced a society that attempts to eliminate insects from daily life. For example, nearly 75 million pounds of broad-spectrum insecticides are manufactured and sold each year for use in American homes and gardens. Annual revenues from insecticide sales to homeowners exceeded \$450 million in 2004. Out of the roughly a million species of insects described so far, not more than 1,000 can be regarded as serious pests, and less than 10,000 (about 1%) are even occasional pests. Yet not one species of insect has been permanently eradicated through the use of pesticides. Instead, at least 1,000 species have developed field resistance to pesticides, and extensive harm has been done to beneficial insects including pollinators such as bees. During the Cold War, the Warsaw Pact countries launched a widespread war against the potato beetle, blaming the introduction of the species from America on the CIA, demonising the species in propaganda posters, and urging children to gather the beetles and kill them. ## Practical uses ### As food Entomophagy is the eating of insects. Many edible insects are considered a culinary delicacy in some societies around the world, and Frederick Simon Bodenheimer's Insects as Human Food (1951) drew attention to the scope and potential of entomophagy, but the practice is uncommon and even taboo in other societies. Sometimes insects are considered suitable only for the poor in the third world, but in 1975 Victor Meyer-Rochow suggested that insects could help ease global future food shortages and advocated a change in western attitudes towards cultures in which insects were appreciated as a food item. P. J. Gullan and P. S. Cranston felt that the remedy for this may be marketing of insect dishes as suitably exotic and costly to make them acceptable. They also note that some societies in sub-Saharan Africa prefer caterpillars to beef, while Chakravorty et al. (2011) point out that food insects (highly appreciated in North-East India) are more expensive than meat. The economics, i.e., the costs involved collecting food insects and the money earned through the sale of such insects, have been studied in a Laotian setting by Meyer-Rochow et al. (2008). In Mexico, ant larvae and corixid water boatman eggs are sought out as a form of caviar by gastronomes. In Guangdong, water beetles fetch a high enough price for these insects to be farmed. Especially high prices are fetched in Thailand for the giant water bug Lethocerus indicus. Insects used in food include honey bee larvae and pupae, mopani worms, silkworms, Maguey worms, Witchetty grubs, crickets, grasshoppers and locusts. In Thailand, there are 20,000 farmers rearing crickets, producing some 7,500 tons per year. ### In medicine Insects have been used medicinally in cultures around the world, often according to the Doctrine of Signatures. Thus, the femurs of grasshoppers, which were said to resemble the human liver, were used to treat liver ailments by the indigenous peoples of Mexico. The doctrine was applied in both Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and in Ayurveda. TCM uses arthropods for various purposes; for example, centipede is used to treat tetanus, seizures, and convulsions, while the Chinese Black Mountain Ant, Polyrhachis vicina, is used as a cure all, especially by the elderly, and extracts have been examined as a possible anti-cancer agent. Ayurveda uses insects such as Termite for conditions such as ulcers, rheumatic diseases, anaemia, and pain. The Jatropha leaf miner's larvae are used boiled to induce lactation, reduce fever, and soothe the gastrointestinal tract. In contrast, the traditional insect medicine of Africa is local and unformalised. The indigenous peoples of Central America used a wide variety of insects medicinally. Mayans used Army ant soldiers as living sutures. The venom of the Red harvester ant was used to cure rheumatism, arthritis, and poliomyelitis via the immune reaction produced by its sting. Boiled silkworm pupae were taken to treat apoplexy, aphasy, bronchitis, pneumonia, convulsions, haemorrhages, and frequent urination. Honey bee products are used medicinally in apitherapy across Asia, Europe, Africa, Australia, and the Americas, despite the fact that the honey bee was not introduced to the Americas until the colonization by Spain and Portugal. They are by far the most common medical insect product both historically and currently, and the most frequently referenced of these is honey. It can be applied to skin to treat excessive scar tissue, rashes, and burns, and as an eye poultice to treat infection. Honey is taken for digestive problems and as a general health restorative. It is taken hot to treat colds, cough, throat infections, laryngitis, tuberculosis, and lung diseases. Apitoxin (honey bee venom) is applied via direct stings to relieve arthritis, rheumatism, polyneuritis, and asthma. Propolis, a resinous, waxy mixture collected by honeybees and used as a hive insulator and sealant, is often consumed by menopausal women because of its high hormone content, and it is said to have antibiotic, anesthetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Royal jelly is used to treat anaemia, gastrointestinal ulcers, arteriosclerosis, hypo- and hypertension, and inhibition of sexual libido. Finally bee bread, or bee pollen, is eaten as a generally health restorative, and is said to help treat both internal and external infections. One of the major peptides in bee venom, melittin, has the potential to treat inflammation in sufferers of rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. The rise of antibiotic resistant infections has sparked pharmaceutical research for new resources, including into arthropods. Maggot therapy uses blowfly larvae to perform wound-cleaning debridement. Cantharidin, the blister-causing oil found in several families of beetles described by the vague common name Spanish fly has been used as an aphrodisiac in some societies. Blood-feeding insects like ticks, horseflies, and mosquitoes inject multiple bioactive compounds into their prey. These insects have long been used by practitioners of Eastern Medicine to prevent blood clot formation or thrombosis, suggesting possible applications in scientific medicine. Over 1280 protein families have been associated with the saliva of blood feeding organisms, including inhibitors of platelet aggregation, ADP, arachidonic acid, thrombin, PAF, anticoagulants, vasodilators, vasoconstrictors, antihistamines, sodium channel blockers, complement inhibitors, pore formers, inhibitors of angiogenesis, anaesthetics, AMPs and microbial pattern recognition molecules, and parasite enhancers/activators. ### In science and technology Insects play an important role in biological research. Because of its small size, short generation time and high fecundity, the common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster was selected as a model organism for studies of the genetics of higher eukaryotes. D. melanogaster has been an essential part of studies into principles like genetic linkage, interactions between genes, chromosomal genetics, evolutionary developmental biology, animal behaviour and evolution. Because genetic systems are well conserved among eukaryotes, understanding basic cellular processes like DNA replication or transcription in fruit flies helps scientists to understand those processes in other eukaryotes, including humans. The genome of D. melanogaster was sequenced in 2000, reflecting the fruit fly's important role in biological research. 70% of the fly genome is similar to the human genome, supporting the Darwinian theory of evolution from a single origin of life. Some hemipterans are used to produce dyestuffs such as carmine (also called cochineal). The scale insect Dactylopius coccus produces the brilliant red-coloured carminic acid to deter predators. Up to 100,000 scale insects are needed to make a kilogram (2.2 lbs) of cochineal dye. A similarly enormous number of lac bugs are needed to make a kilogram of shellac, a brush-on colourant and wood finish. Additional uses of this traditional product include the waxing of citrus fruits to extend their shelf-life, and the coating of pills to moisture-proof them, provide slow-release or mask the taste of bitter ingredients. Kermes is a red dye from the dried bodies of the females of a scale insect in the genus Kermes, primarily Kermes vermilio. Kermes are native to the Mediterranean region, living on the sap of the kermes oak. They were used as a red dye by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The kermes dye is a rich red, and has good colour fastness in silk and wool. Insect attributes are sometimes mimicked in architecture, as at the Eastgate Centre, Harare, which uses passive cooling, storing heat in the morning and releasing it in the warm parts of the day. The target of this piece of biomimicry is the structure of the mounds of termites such as Macrotermes michaelseni which effectively cool the nests of these social insects. The properties of the Namib desert beetle's exoskeleton, in particular its wing-cases (elytra) which have bumps with hydrophilic (water-attracting) tips and hydrophobic (water-shedding) sides, have been mimicked in a film coating designed for the British Ministry of Defence, to capture water in arid regions. ### In textiles Silkworms, the caterpillars and pupae of the moth Bombyx mori, have been reared to produce silk in China from the Neolithic Yangshao period onwards, c. 5000 BC. Production spread to India by 140 AD. The caterpillars are fed on mulberry leaves. The cocoon, produced after the fourth moult, is covered with a continuous filament of the silk protein, fibroin, gummed together with sericin. In the traditional process, the gum is removed by soaking in hot water, and the silk is then unwound from the cocoon and reeled. Filaments are spun together to make silk thread. Commerce in silk between China and countries to its west began in ancient times, with silk known from an Egyptian mummy of 1070 BC, and later to the ancient Greeks and Romans. The silk road leading west from China was opened in the 2nd century AD, helping to drive trade in silk and other goods. ### In warfare The use of insects for warfare may have been attempted in the Middle Ages or earlier, but was first systematically researched by several nations during the 20th century. It was put into practice by the Japanese army's Unit 731 in attacks on China during the Second World War, killing almost 500,000 Chinese people with fleas infected with plague and flies infected with cholera. Also in the Second World War, the French and Germans explored the use of Colorado beetles to destroy enemy potato crops. During the Cold War, the US Army considered using yellow fever mosquitoes to attack Soviet cities. ## Symbolic uses ### In mythology and folklore Insects have appeared in mythology around the world from ancient times. Among the insect groups featuring in myths are the bee, butterfly, cicada, fly, dragonfly, praying mantis and scarab beetle. Scarab beetles held religious and cultural symbolism in Old Egypt, Greece and some shamanistic Old World cultures. The ancient Chinese regarded cicadas as symbols of rebirth or immortality. In the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, the goddess Aphrodite retells the legend of how Eos, the goddess of the dawn, requested Zeus to let her lover Tithonus live forever as an immortal. Zeus granted her request, but, because Eos forgot to ask him to also make Tithonus ageless, Tithonus never died, but he did grow old. Eventually, he became so tiny and shriveled that he turned into the first cicada. In an ancient Sumerian poem, a fly helps the goddess Inanna when her husband Dumuzid is being chased by galla demons. Flies also appear on Old Babylonian seals as symbols of Nergal, the god of death and fly-shaped lapis lazuli beads were often worn by many different cultures in ancient Mesopotamia, along with other kinds of fly-jewellery. The Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh contains allusions to dragonflies, signifying the impossibility of immortality. Amongst the Arrernte people of Australia, honey ants and witchety grubs served as personal clan totems. In the case of the San bushmen of the Kalahari, it is the praying mantis which holds much cultural significance including creation and zen-like patience in waiting. Insects feature in folklore around the world. In China, farmers traditionally regulated their crop planting according to the Awakening of the Insects, when temperature shifts and monsoon rains bring insects out of hibernation. Most "awakening" customs are related to eating snacks like pancakes, parched beans, pears, and fried corn, symbolizing harmful insects in the field. In the Great Lakes region of the United States, there is an annual Woollybear Festival that has been celebrated for over 40 years. The larvae of the species Pyrrharctia isabella (commonly known as the isabella tiger moth), with their 13 distinct segments of black and reddish brown, have the reputation in common folklore of being able to forecast the coming winter weather. There is a common misconception that cockroaches are serious vectors of disease, but while they can carry bacteria they do not travel far, and have no bite or sting. Their shells contain a protein, arylphorin, implicated in asthma and other respiratory conditions. Among the deep-sea fishermen of Greenock in Scotland, there is a belief that if a fly falls into a glass from which a person has been drinking, or is about to drink, it is a sure omen of good luck to the drinker. Many people believe the urban myth that the daddy longlegs (Opiliones) has the most poisonous bite in the spider world, but that the fangs are too small to penetrate human skin. This is untrue on several counts. None of the known species of harvestmen have venom glands; their chelicerae are not hollowed fangs but grasping claws that are typically very small and definitely not strong enough to break human skin. In Japan, the emergence of fireflies and rhinoceros beetles signify the anticipated changing of the seasons. ### In religion In the Brazilian Amazon, members of the Tupí–Guaraní language family have been observed using Pachycondyla commutata ants during female rite-of-passage ceremonies, and prescribing the sting of Pseudomyrmex spp. for fevers and headaches. The red harvester ant Pogonomyrmex californicus has been widely used by natives of Southern California and Northern Mexico for hundreds of years in ceremonies conducted to help tribe members acquire spirit helpers through hallucination. During the ritual, young men are sent away from the tribe and consume large quantities of live, unmasticated ants under the supervision of an elderly member of the tribe. Ingestion of ants should lead to a prolonged state of unconsciousness, where dream helpers appear and serve as allies to the dreamer for the rest of his life. ### In art Both the symbolic form and the actual body of insects have been used to adorn humans in ancient and modern times. A recurrent theme for ancient cultures in Europe and the Near East regarded the sacred image of a bee or human with insect features. Often referred to as the bee "goddess", these images were found in gems and stones. An onyx gem from Knossos (ancient Crete) dating to approximately 1500 BC illustrates a Bee goddess with bull horns above her head. In this instance, the figure is surrounded by dogs with wings, most likely representing Hecate and Artemis – gods of the underworld, similar to the Egyptian gods Akeu and Anubis. Beetlewing art is an ancient craft technique using iridescent beetle wings practiced traditionally in Thailand, Myanmar, India, China and Japan. Beetlewing pieces are used as an adornment to paintings, textiles and jewelry. Different species of metallic wood-boring beetle wings were used depending on the region, but traditionally the most valued were those from beetles belonging to the genus Sternocera. The practice comes from across Asia and Southeast Asia, especially Thailand, Myanmar, Japan, India and China. In Thailand beetlewings were preferred to decorate clothing (shawls and Sabai cloth) and jewellery in former court circles. The Canadian entomologist Charles Howard Curran's 1945 book, Insects of the Pacific World, noted women from India and Sri Lanka, who kept 1+1⁄2 inch (38 mm) long, iridescent greenish coppery beetles of the species Chrysochroa ocellata as pets. These living jewels were worn on festive occasions, probably with a small chain attached to one leg anchored to the clothing to prevent escape. Afterwards, the insects were bathed, fed, and housed in decorative cages. Living jewelled beetles have also been worn and kept as pets in Mexico. Butterflies have long inspired humans with their life cycle, color, and ornate patterns. The novelist Vladimir Nabokov was also a renowned butterfly expert. He published and illustrated many butterfly species, stating: > I discovered in nature the nonutilitarian delights that I sought in art. Both were a form of magic, both were games of intricate enchantment and deception. It was the aesthetic complexity of insects that led Nabokov to reject natural selection. The naturalist Ian MacRae writes of butterflies: > the animal is at once awkward, flimsy, strange, bouncy in flight, yet beautiful and immensely sympathetic; it is painfully transient, albeit capable of extreme migrations and transformations. Images and phrases such as "kaleidoscopic instabilities," "oxymoron of similarities," "rebellious rainbows," "visible darkness" and "souls of stone" have much in common. They bring together the two terms of a conceptual contradiction, thereby facilitating the mixing of what should be discrete and mutually exclusive categories ... In positing such questions, butterfly science, an inexhaustible, complex, and finely nuanced field, becomes not unlike the human imagination, or the field of literature itself. In the natural history of the animal, we begin to sense its literary and artistic possibilities. The photographer Kjell Sandved spent 25 years documenting all 26 characters of the Latin alphabet using the wing patterns of butterflies and moths as The Butterfly Alphabet. In 2011, the artist Anna Collette created over 10,000 individual ceramic insects at Nottingham Castle, "Stirring the Swarm". Reviews of the exhibit offered a compelling narrative for cultural entomology: "the unexpected use of materials, dark overtones, and the straightforward impact of thousands of tiny multiples within the space. The exhibition was at once both exquisitely beautiful and deeply repulsive, and this strange duality was fascinating." ### In literature and film The Ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus has a gadfly pursue and torment Io, a maiden associated with the moon, watched constantly by the eyes of the herdsman Argus, associated with all the stars: "Io: Ah! Hah! Again the prick, the stab of gadfly-sting! O earth, earth, hide, the hollow shape—Argus—that evil thing—the hundred-eyed." William Shakespeare, inspired by Aeschylus, has Tom o'Bedlam in King Lear, "Whom the foul fiend hath led through fire and through flame, through ford and whirlpool, o'er bog and quagmire", driven mad by the constant pursuit. In Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare similarly likens Cleopatra's hasty departure from the Actium battlefield to that of a cow chased by a gadfly. H. G. Wells introduced giant wasps in his 1904 novel The Food of the Gods and How It Came to Earth, making use of the newly discovered growth hormones to lend plausibility to his science fiction. Lafcadio Hearn's essay Butterflies analyses the treatment of the butterfly in Japanese literature, both prose and poetry. He notes that these often allude to Chinese tales, such as of the young woman that the butterflies took to be a flower. He translates 22 Japanese haiku poems about butterflies, including one by the haiku master Matsuo Bashō, said to suggest happiness in springtime: "Wake up! Wake up!—I will make thee my comrade, thou sleeping butterfly." The novelist Vladimir Nabokov was the son of a professional lepidopterist, and was interested in butterflies himself. He wrote his novel Lolita while travelling on his annual butterfly-collection trips in the western United States. He eventually became a leading lepidopterist. This is reflected in his fiction, where for example The Gift devotes two whole chapters (of five) to the tale of a father and son on a butterfly expedition. Horror films involving insects, sometimes called "big bug movies", include the pioneering 1954 Them!, featuring giant ants mutated by radiation, and the 1957 The Deadly Mantis. The Far Side, a newspaper cartoon, has been used by professor of Michael Burgett as a teaching tool in his entomology class; The Far Side and its author Gary Larson have been acknowledged by biologist Dale H. Clayton his colleague for "the enormous contribution" Larson has made to their field through his cartoons. ### In music Some popular and influential pieces of music have had insects as their subjects. The French Renaissance composer Josquin des Prez wrote a frottola entitled El Grillo (lit. 'The Cricket'). It is among the most frequently sung of his works. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov wrote the "Flight of the Bumblebee" in 1899–1900 as part of his opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan. The piece is one of the most recognizable pieces in classical composition. The bumblebee in the story is a prince who has been transformed into an insect so that he can fly off to visit his father. The play upon which the opera was based – written by Alexander Pushkin – originally had two more insect themes: the Flight of the Mosquito and the Flight of the Fly. The Hungarian composer Béla Bartók explained in his diary that he was attempting to depict the desperate attempts to escape of a fly caught in a cobweb in his piece From the Diary of a Fly, for piano (Mikrokosmos Vol. 6/142). The jazz musician and philosophy professor David Rothenberg plays duets with singing insects including cicadas, crickets, and beetles. ### In astronomy and cosmology In astronomy, constellations named after arthropods include the zodiacal Scorpius, the scorpion, and Musca, the fly, also known as Apis, the bee, in the deep southern sky. Musca, the only recognised insect constellation, was named by Petrus Plancius in 1597. "The Bug Nebula", also called "The Butterfly Nebula", is a more recent discovery. Known as NGC 6302 is one of the brightest and most popular stars in the universe – popular in that its features draw the attention of a lot of researchers. It happens to be located in the Scorpius constellation. It is perfectly bipolar, and until recently, the central star was unobservable, clouded by gas, but estimated to be one of the hottest in the galaxy – 200,000 degrees Fahrenheit, perhaps 35 times hotter than the Sun. The honey bee played a central role in the cosmology of the Mayan people. The stucco figure at the temples of Tulum known as "Ah Mucen Kab" – the Diving Bee God – bears resemblance to the insect in the Codex Tro-Cortesianus identified as a bee. Such reliefs might have indicated towns and villages that produce honey. Modern Mayan authorities say the figure also have a connection to modern cosmology. Mayan mythology expert Migel Angel Vergara relates that the Mayans held a belief that bees came from Venus, the "Second Sun." The relief might be indicative of another "insect deity", that of Xux Ex, the Mayan "wasp star." The Mayan embodied Venus in the form of the god Kukulkán (also known as or related to Gukumatz and Quetzalcoatl in other parts of Mexico), Quetzalcoatl is a Mesoamerican deity whose name in Nahuatl means "feathered serpent". The cult was the first Mesoamerican religion to transcend the old Classic Period linguistic and ethnic divisions. This cult facilitated communication and peaceful trade among peoples of many different social and ethnic backgrounds. Although the cult was originally centered on the ancient city of Chichén Itzá in the modern Mexican state of Yucatán, it spread as far as the Guatemalan highlands. ### In costumes Bee and other insect costumes are worn in a variety of countries for parties, carnivals and other celebrations. Ovo is an insect-themed production by the world renowned Canadian entertainment company Cirque du Soleil. The show looks at the world of insects and its biodiversity where they go about their daily lives until a mysterious egg appears in their midst, as the insects become awestruck about this iconic object that represents the enigma and cycles of their lives. The costuming was a fusion of arthropod body types blended with superhero armour. Liz Vandal, the lead costume designer, has a special affinity for the world of the insect: > When I was just a kid I put rocks down around the yard near the fruit trees and I lifted them regularly to watch the insects who had taken up residence underneath them. I petted caterpillars and let butterflies into the house. So when I learned that OVO was inspired by insects, I immediately knew that I was in a perfect position to pay tribute to this majestic world with my costumes. All insects are beautiful and perfect; it is what they evoke for each of us that changes our perception of them." The Webby award-winning video series Green Porno was created to showcase the reproductive habits of insects. Jody Shapiro and Rick Gilbert were responsible for translating the research and concepts that Isabella Rossellini envisioned into the paper and paste costumes which directly contribute to the series' unique visual style. The film series was driven by the creation of costumes to translate scientific research into "something visual and how to make it comical." ## See also - Arthropods in culture - Birds in culture - Plants in culture - Human interactions with insects in southern Africa - Insects in ethics - Insect collecting
51,756,389	Suave (song)	1,164,487,959	1993 song by Luis Miguel	[ "1993 singles", "1993 songs", "1995 singles", "Jerry Rivera songs", "Luis Miguel songs", "Song recordings produced by Luis Miguel", "Song recordings produced by Sergio George", "Songs written by Kiko Cibrian", "Sony Discos singles", "Spanish-language songs", "Warner Music Latina singles" ]	"Suave" (transl. "Smooth") is a song by Mexican singer Luis Miguel from his ninth studio album, Aries (1993). The song was composed by Kiko Cibrian and Orlando Castro with the former handling its production along with the artist. It is a dance number in which the singer describes a woman who bewitches him and becomes the woman of his dreams. The song received positive reactions from two music critics. It was acknowledged as an award-winning song at the 1995 Broadcast Music Inc. (BMI) Latin Awards. Commercially, the song reached number nine on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States. Its music video was directed by Kiko Guerrero and filmed in Acapulco, Mexico, and features Miguel dancing in a beach with several women. "Suave" has been covered by Puerto Rican singer Jerry Rivera in 1995 as a salsa track and Mexican entertainer Diego Boneta in 2021 as part of the soundtrack for the second season of Luis Miguel: The Series (2018). Rivera's version peaked at numbers 16 and one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Tropical Airplay charts in the US, respectively. The cover was nominated in the category of Tropical Song of the Year at the 8th Lo Nuestro Award in 1996. ## Background and composition In 1991 Miguel released his eighth studio album Romance, a collection of classic boleros. The album, which was produced by Armando Manzanero and arranged by Bebu Silvetti, was a commercial success in Latin America and sold over seven million copies worldwide. It revived interest in the bolero genre and was the first record by a Spanish-speaking artist to be certified gold in Brazil, Taiwan and the United States. In spite of the album's success, Miguel did not want to release a follow-up record that was similar to Romance. When asked why he chose not to record more boleros, he replied, "I wanted to try my music, just forgetting a little bit about those boleros that everyone knows." The singer began working with the composers for the album a year before recording in a studio in 1992; in Miguel's words, he wanted to "discuss the works, the themes, and melodies; ... The creation of an album has to be part of me or else I would not be able to interpret it, or sing in it." On 24 August 1992, El Siglo de Torreón reported that Miguel had begun collaborating with David Foster and Juan Carlos Calderón on some compositions, along with English-speaking composers, and selecting cover versions for the album. Due to difficulty finding a suitable producer for the record, the singer decided to co-produce Aries (1993) with his long-time associate Kiko Cibrian. The final release is composed of ten tracks, four of which are dance songs that are "upbeat, brass-heavy, attitudinal numbers" including "Suave". "Suave" was composed by Cibrian and Orlando Castro and its lyrics narrate about a "seductive woman, how her smile has bewitched him...in a few words, she is the woman of his dreams". In the song, Miguel chants: "suave como me mata tu mirada, suave es el perfume de tu piel, suave son tus caricias, como siempre te soñé, como siempre te soñé" ("smooth, how you look kills, smooth, it is the perfume of your skin, smooth, it is your caress as I've always dreamed of you"). According to Castro, Miguel initially rejected the song as he did not like it, but later received a call from Cibrian with a reworked version. ## Promotion and reception "Suave" was released as the album's third single in 1993 by WEA Latina. Its music video was directed by Kiko Guerrero, filmed in Acapulco, Mexico, and features Miguel dancing with several women in the beach. The song was later included on his greatest hits album Grandes Éxitos (2005). A live version of the song was featured on his live albums. AllMusic reviewer Jose F. Promis felt that Miguel "delivers to fine results" on the track along with "Dame Tu Amor" and "Que Nivel de Mujer". John Lannert of the Sun-Sentinel referred "Suave", along with "Luz Verde", as "rhythmic, romantic runes". In 2021, an editor for Terra listed it as one of the best three songs from the album. The track was listed among "10 Luis Miguel Songs You Should Know" by Emily Paulín on Sonica and "20 Best Luis Miguel Songs to Listen on YouTube Music" by an editor for El Comercio. It was acknowledged as an award-winning song at the 1995 BMI Latin Awards. "Suave" ranked at number 54 in the South American edition of the "VH1 100 Greatest Songs of the Nineties in Spanish". Commercially, it peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the US and number one in Mexico according to Notitas Musicales. In 2021, Mexican entertainer Diego Boneta covered "Suave" on the soundtrack for the second season of Luis Miguel: The Series (2018). ## Track listing CD Promo 1. "Suave" (radio edit) – 4:58 2. "Suave" (Instrumental Mix) – 5:29 3. "Suave" (MD's Freestyle Mix) – 7:13 4. "Suave" (MD's Freestyle Semi-Dub Mix) – 7:33 5. "Suave" (MD's Suavisimo Mix) – 7:58 6. "Suave" (Top 40 Radio Edit) – 4:30 7. "Suave" (album version) – 4:47 ## Personnel Adapted from the Aries liner notes: Performance credits - Robbie Buchanan – keyboards, arranger - John Robinson – drums - Kiko Cibrian – guitar, background vocals, arranger, brass arrangements - Paulinho da Costa – percussion - Jerry Hey – brass, brass arrangements - Dan Higgins – brass - Gary Grant – brass - Bill Reichenbach Jr. – brass - Kirk Whalum – saxophone solo - Annie Cruz – background vocals - Iliana Holland – background vocals - Dan Navarro – background vocals - Tom Bowes – background vocals Technical credits - Luis Miguel – producer - Kiko Cibrian – co-producer - Mauricio Abaroa – executive producer - Julio Saenz – executive producer - Benny Faccone – engineer - Humberto Gatica – mixing - Jim Champagne – assistant engineer, mixing assistant - Noel Hazen – assistant engineer, mixing assistant - Bernie Grundman – mastering - Alfredo Gatica – artistic coordination - Ezra Kliger – production coordination - Jose Quintana – production coordination ## Charts ## Jerry Rivera version In 1995, Puerto Rican singer Jerry Rivera covered "Suave" which was later included on his sixth studio album Fresco (1996). Rivera's version was released as a promotional single from the album on 21 November 1995 by Sony Discos. As with the tracks in the album, it is a traditional salsa number produced by Sergio George and Cuto Soto. Ramiro Burr of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram felt that George "injects a light urban touch of cool funk". In the US, the song peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and became his first number one song on the Tropical Airplay chart. Rivera's version was nominated in the category of Tropical Song of the Year at the 8th Lo Nuestro Award in 1996, but ultimately lost to "Abriendo Puertas" by Gloria Estefan. ### Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## See also - List of number-one hits of 1994 (Mexico) - List of Billboard Tropical Airplay number ones of 1996
63,255,425	Industry Bar	1,166,619,001	Gay bar and nightclub in Manhattan, New York City	[ "2010 establishments in New York City", "Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan", "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBT community", "LGBT drinking establishments in New York City", "LGBT nightclubs in New York (state)", "Nightclubs in Manhattan" ]	Industry Bar, or simply Industry, is a gay bar and nightclub in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. Owned by Bob Pontarelli, it is a sister establishment to Barracuda, a gay bar, and Elmo, a restaurant. Industry opened in 2010 and caters primarily to a crowd of young gay men and tourists. Its musical selection is mostly pop, and its live entertainment consists of a number of weekly drag shows, many of which are hosted by internationally recognized drag queens. New York City nightlife journalists frequently note Industry as one of the top gay venues in Manhattan. ## Description Industry occupies the ground-floor space of a Bauhaus-style office building on West 52nd Street in Hell's Kitchen. It was situated directly across the street from Therapy, a gay bar that closed in 2020. Industry's design is based loosely on that of Berghain, a famous nightclub in Berlin, and its layout is "a little bit like a fort, with walls all around and pockets that break loose and allow for an easy flow". The venue's interior features theatre lights, leather couches, oriental rugs, a rococo billiards table, "1970s-era black globe lamps", disco balls and a wooden bar. The stage, located in the rear, is used predominantly for drag shows. The club caters primarily to gay men in their 20s to 40s, and it is known to attract a large tourist crowd. In a 2015 Time Out New York piece, Ethan LaCroix wrote: "Industry is a sprawling, high-ceilinged space, featuring a long concrete bar (manned by hunky, often shirtless bartenders)." New York magazine describes the establishment as "a welcome blend of the three types of gay bars you've come to expect in Manhattan: the tight-shirt lounge, the tank-top megaclub, and the casual-plaid cruising spot". A description on Thrillist reads: "Square footage is [Industry's] biggest asset, with three large areas each equipped to handle a crowd. There's the classic bar room with tables and stools; a sexy, veiled lounge for intimate moments; and a performance area where drag queens and DJs post up daily." The club's listing in The Infatuation states: "If you find yourself asking why ... they have both disco balls and paper lanterns, you're not understanding the true appeal of Industry Bar.... Saturdays are the right night to be here—it's a great, energetic crowd with very high odds of meeting someone new." Tim Murphy of The New York Times characterized the bar's musical selection as "relentlessly gay-pop", listing Madonna, Beyoncé, Rihanna and Lady Gaga as playlist staples. A piece in New York magazine stated: "Excellent DJs spin genre-spanning pop mash-ups of Erasure and Ke\$ha, DJ Earworm mastermixes, and hits from Cher to Kanye to Cher to Robyn to Cher." ## History Business partners Bob Pontarelli and Stephen Heighton began operating New York City nightlife venues in 1991, when they opened the now-defunct Crobar in Manhattan's East Village. Their second establishment, a gay dive bar called Barracuda, opened in Chelsea in 1995. After establishing Elmo, a restaurant, the pair opened Industry in December 2010, in a 4,000-square-foot space previously used as a parking garage. Heighton died the following year. In Industry's early days, Peppermint and Dallas DuBois hosted a weekly themed drag show called "Queen" there. "Queen" is still running, and as of 2018, its rotating cast of drag queens included Chelsea Piers and Pattaya Hart. As of the same year, Industry's other weekly drag shows were hosted by performers including Sherry Vine, Tina Burner, Kizha Carr, Monét X Change and Phi Phi O'Hara. Bob the Drag Queen had a show at the bar prior to appearing on RuPaul's Drag Race. Like all New York City nightlife venues, Industry was ordered to cease operation for several months in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In July 2020, Pontarelli stated to journalist Michael Musto that "Industry has a difficult landlord.... [But] we have no intention of closing." Since reopening at full indoor capacity in May 2021, the club has required proof of vaccination against COVID-19 for entry. ## Reception New York magazine rates Industry 68 out of 100, indicating "not terrible". The club ranked 17th on Time Out New York's 2022 list of "the 24 best gay bars in NYC". Vice News staff included Industry on a 2016 compilation of New York City's "hottest gay nightlife spots", and Jeffrey James Keyes of Metrosource labeled it one of the city's top 50 gay bars in 2018. In his 2015 selection of "the best gay bars in Hell's Kitchen", Ethan LaCroix of Time Out New York described Industry as a "sultry midtown drinkery". ShermansTravel places Industry among "the best gay and queer bars in Manhattan", calling it "industrial-chic" and identifying it as the most spacious gay bar in Hell's Kitchen. In 2023, Thrillist's Kyler Alvord put Industry on his list of "the best bars and hotspots for a queer night out in NYC", writing: "If you see wild club scenes in movies and think, 'that doesn’t exist IRL,' you clearly haven't been to Industry." GayCities.com calls Industry "a true Hell's Kitchen nightlife landmark", while The Guardian notes it as "one of the most popular and successful bars in the area". In 2014, Michael Musto, writing for Paper, ranked the venue second on his list of "the 30 best gay bars in Manhattan". He remarked: "You can't be gay without going to Hell's Kitchen bars, and this one is the shiniest and most happening, with drag shows and more drag shows!" In a NewNowNext piece, Musto referred to Industry as "the reigning home for the city's most established drag entertainment". Miz Cracker, who appeared on season 11 of Drag Race, said: "Everyone who's anyone goes to see 'Queen' on Thursdays at this giant lounge. The wildest queens in the, well, industry perform numbers on a theme for some of the poshest gays in Hell's Kitchen, and everyone has a blast." ## See also - LGBT culture in New York City - List of nightclubs in New York City
21,922,288	1954 World Professional Match-play Championship	1,159,818,529	null	[ "1953 in snooker", "1954 in English sport", "1954 in snooker", "Sports competitions in Manchester", "World Professional Match-play Championship", "World Snooker Championships" ]	The 1954 World Professional Match-play Championship was a professional snooker tournament held from 5 October 1953 to 6 March 1954 across various locations in the British Isles. The final was held at Houldsworth Hall in Manchester, England. Fred Davis won his sixth World Snooker Championship title by defeating Walter Donaldson by 45 to 26 in the final after securing a winning lead at 36–15. Donaldson compiled a of 121, the highest of the tournament, on the last day of the final. There were nine entrants. Rex Williams and Harry Stokes were scheduled to play a preliminary match, with the winner joining the other seven players in the main draw, but Williams retired from the match due to illness. Defending champion Davis defeated Stokes and then John Pulman, to face Donaldson for the eighth consecutive world final. Donaldson had eliminated Kingsley Kennerley and Alec Brown to reach the final. During the final, Donaldson announced his retirement from future world championship events. ## Background The World Snooker Championship is a professional tournament and the official world championship of the game of snooker. The sport was developed in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India. Professional English billiards player and billiard hall manager Joe Davis noticed the increasing popularity of snooker compared to billiards in the 1920s, and with Birmingham-based billiards equipment manager Bill Camkin, persuaded the Billiards Association and Control Council (BACC) to recognise an official professional snooker championship in the 1926–27 season. In 1927, the final of the first professional snooker championship was held at Camkin's Hall; Davis won the tournament by beating Tom Dennis in the final. The annual competition was not titled the World Championship until 1935, but the 1927 tournament is now referred to as the first World Snooker Championship. Davis also won the title each year until 1940, when the contest was cancelled during World War II, and again when the championship resumed in 1946, accumulating a total of 15 titles before retiring from the event. In 1952, the World Professional Match-play Championship was created following a dispute between the Professional Billiards Players' Association (PBPA) and the BACC. In response to player complaints that the BACC was taking too large a percentage of income from the tournament, the BACC claimed that the championship "has always been, and in theory is to be, regarded as an affair of honour and a test of merit", and that "every effort is made to arrange terms advantageous to the professionals competing in the championship, compatible with securing an equitable return for the promoters of it, the B.A.& C.C." The PBPA members established an alternative competition which became known as the World Professional Match-play Championship, now recognised as world championships. Fred Davis had won the world championship in 1948, 1949 and 1951, and the two previous editions of the World Professional Match-play Championship, in 1952 and 1953. There were nine entrants for the 1954 World Professional Match-play Championship, with Rex Williams and Harry Stokes scheduled to play a qualifying match, the winner of which would join the other seven players in the main draw. Main competition matches were over 61 frames, except the final which was over 71 frames. The match was planned to take place from 5 to 7 October 1953. Williams led 3–2 after the first session. He was then ill and the match was abandoned, to be rearranged for a later date. The match was, however, later cancelled and Stokes advanced to the main draw. ## Summary The first round matches were played over 61 frames. Alec Brown and John Barrie met in the first quarter-final match at the Feathers Hotel in Ealing, London, from 9 to 12 November 1953. Brown took a 10–8 lead after the first day and led 18–12 after two days and 26–22 after three days. The highest of the match was 83, compiled by Brown. Brown won with a final score of 35–26. From 16 to 20 November, Fred Davis played Harry Stokes in the second quarter-final in Middlesbrough. Davis had a 9–3 lead after the first day, and increased this to 18–6 on the second day. He led 29–7 after three days, having compiled a break of 109 in the day's second frame. Davis took a winning 38–10 lead after four days and eventually won 45–15. Walter Donaldson and Kingsley Kennerley faced each other in the third quarter-final in Jersey from 1 to 5 December. Donaldson led 30–18 after four days, needing just one more frame on the final day, and eventually won 36–25. John Pulman and Jackie Rea met in Belfast from 7 to 11 December, at the RAOB hall in Belfast, in the last quarter-final. It was closest of the four quarter-finals and was level at 24 frames at the start of the final day. Rea won four of the six frames on the final afternoon but Pulman won five of the first six frames in the evening to win 31–29. Both semi-finals were played from 18 to 23 January 1954, over 61 frames. Fred Davis and John Pulman met in Bolton. Pulman led 20–16 after three days but Davis won 9 of the 12 frames on the fourth day to lead 25–23. Davis won 7 of the 13 frames on the final day to win 32–29. Donaldson and Alec Brown played their semi-final at Carlton Barracks in Leeds. At the end of the afternoon on the second day, Brown led 10–5. Donaldson then dominated and led 29–21 after day five, including a break of 108. The final score was 36–25. Fred Davis and Walter Donaldson met in their eighth successive final, which was held from 1 to 6 March at Houldsworth Hall, Manchester over 71 frames. Davis took a 5–1 lead in the first session, and won the second session by the same margin to finish the first day 10–2 ahead. The pair each won three frames in the third session, and Davis claimed four of the six evening frames for a ten-frame lead at 17–7, extending this to a 14 frame advantage, 25–11, the following day. Donaldson reduced his arrears slightly by winning four of the six frames in the early session on 4 March, but trailed 15–33 by the day's close. Davis secured the victory by winning the first three frames on the fifth day to lead 36–15. The final score was 45–26, with Donaldson making a break of 121, the highest of the tournament, on the final day. It was the most one-sided of their finals. Even before losing the match, Donaldson said that he would not enter the world championship again, saying he could not give enough time to the practice he felt was necessary. ## Schedule ## Main draw The results for the tournament are shown below. Players in bold are match winners.
1,813,625	When You Believe	1,172,715,815	Song from the 1998 film The Prince of Egypt	[ "1990s ballads", "1998 singles", "1998 songs", "2007 debut singles", "Arista Records singles", "Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songs", "Christmas number-one singles in the United Kingdom", "Columbia Records singles", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "DreamWorks Records singles", "Female vocal duets", "Gospel songs", "Irish Singles Chart number-one singles", "Leon Jackson songs", "Mariah Carey songs", "Music videos directed by Mary Lambert", "Music videos directed by Phil Joanou", "Number-one singles in Hungary", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by Babyface (musician)", "Songs from The Prince of Egypt", "Songs written by Babyface (musician)", "Songs written by Stephen Schwartz (composer)", "Soul ballads", "Syco Music singles", "The X Factor (British TV series)", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles", "Whitney Houston songs" ]	"When You Believe" is a song by American singers Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey. The song was made for the 1998 DreamWorks musical animated feature The Prince of Egypt. It was written and composed by Stephen Schwartz. A pop single version of "When You Believe", with additional music and lyrics by writer-producer Kenneth Edmonds (Babyface), was also recorded for the film's end credits and its soundtrack album by DreamWorks Records. Additionally, the song serves as the soundtrack's lead single on November 2, 1998 and for both Houston's fourth studio album, My Love Is Your Love by Arista Records and Carey's first compilation album, \#1's by Columbia Records. The original version of the song, featured in the narrative portion of the film, is performed by Sally Dworsky, Michelle Pfeiffer, and a children's choir (children's choir soloist: Andrew Bryan). "When You Believe" is described as a big ballad, with meaningful and inspirational lyrics, describing the ability each person has to achieve miracles when they reach out to God and believe. The song received generally positive reviews from music critics and experienced moderate success, peaking at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100, despite heavy media attention and live promotion. It achieved better charting throughout Europe and other nations, reaching number one in Hungary, peaking within the top five in Belgium, France, Iceland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. "When You Believe" was awarded the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 71st annual ceremony on March 21, 1999. Prior to their performance of the song that night, Schwartz left Babyface's name off the nomination submission sheet. He felt that because the additions Babyface added to the song were not featured in the actual film version, he did not deserve writing credits. However, while Babyface did not receive the Oscar, Carey and Houston performed his version of the song, because they were more familiar with it than the one in the film. Prior to their performance at the Academy Awards, they sang it on November 26, 1998, on The Oprah Winfrey Show, promoting the song, as well as both their albums. The song featured two music videos. The first and most commonly seen video was filmed at Brooklyn Academy of Music performing arts center. The video features both singers, and begins with Houston and Carey performing in a large auditorium, giving the illusion of a concert. Towards the end of the video, clips of the film are projected onto a large screen at the concert, while they belt out the final verse. The alternate video was only released on NBC's special, When You Believe: Music Inspired by the Prince of Egypt, broadcast on December 13, 1998. It features a similar synopsis, with both singers performing on a large stage of an old Egyptian pyramid. ## Background and recording When Carey compiled her first compilation effort, \#1's, "When You Believe" was included in the track listing. According to Carey, the song was included because she felt it was "a miracle" that she and Houston collaborated on a record. During the development of All That Glitters (a film Carey was working on at the time, later known as Glitter), she had been introduced to DreamWorks co-owner Jeffrey Katzenberg, who asked her if she would record the song "When You Believe" for the soundtrack of the animated film The Prince of Egypt. Houston, on the other hand, was introduced to the project through Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds, with whom she had been collaborating on her album, My Love Is Your Love. After they were shown the film separately, both became very enthusiastic about participating in the project. The song was co-written by Stephen Schwartz and Kenneth Edmonds, who also produced the song. Edmonds expressed how he went through more than one version of the song and described its production as a beautiful movie ballad that was something different from anything he, Carey, or Houston had ever previously recorded. In an interview with Vibe, Carey said that she "liked [the song] the way it was". She had characterised it as "a very big ballad but in an inspirational way" and denied speculation that there had been past rivalry or animosity between her and Houston prior to its recording: "I never even really talked to her until this. We never had any issues between us. The media and everybody made it an issue." In an interview with Ebony, Houston spoke about her relationship with Carey: > I enjoyed working with her very much. Mariah and I got along very great. We had never talked and never sang together before. We just had a chance for camaraderie, singer-to-singer, artist-to-artist, that kind of thing. We just laughed and talked and laughed and talked and sang in between that ... It's good to know that two ladies of soul can still be friends. We talked about doing other things together, enterprise-wise, which is cool, because she's got a good, vivid mind, that girl. She's a smart lady. I really like Mariah. While the pair continued to express their positive feelings for one another, tabloids began writing the opposite. There were claims that the two bore ill will against each other, and that they had to record the song separately due to constant tension. While media speculation grew as the film's release date drew near, both singers maintained that they had become close friends, and had only the most positive things to say about each other. ## Lyrical content The Prince of Egypt is an adaptation of the Biblical story of the Exodus. "When You Believe" is sung in the film by characters Tzipporah and Miriam, and a chorus of people departing from the slavery of Egypt to the Red Sea and the Promised Land. The protagonists of this ballad recall tough times that have caused them to question their own faith: they have prayed for many nights to God, but those prayers have seemed to remain unanswered, and now they wonder if their faith has been only a waste of time. Nevertheless, the main characters realize that although the times may be difficult, their faith should remain strong. As a bridge, a chorus of children sings excerpts of the Song of the Sea in Hebrew. The original draft of the song used the lyric "you can do miracles when you believe", but this seemed to imply that the believer, not God, was responsible for performing miracles; the lyric was later changed to "there can be miracles when you believe". Houston had sung in a church choir while growing up, and Carey had always connected to her faith through music, especially during any difficult times. This song became one of the many reasons that both singers were so interested in the project. They each felt that spreading faith in God was an important and honorable aspect of their career. While describing the song's lyrics and message, Houston said the following in an interview with Ebony: > A powerful ballad; [songwriter] Stephen Schwartz is a genius. You have to be a child of God to understand the depth of this song. Mariah and I did it as we felt it. We both felt very connected to the song because of our background. What can I say? (It is) Just a beautiful song. What a lyric! I can't talk about it—just listen to it. ## Composition Originally, Schwartz composed the film version of "When You Believe", which was sung in the film by the characters of Tzipporah (Michelle Pfeiffer) and Miriam (Sally Dworsky). It featured some different instrumentation from the original, and used a children's choir singing lines from the book of Exodus (the Song of the Sea) in Hebrew. In order to give the song a wider radio and pop appeal, Edmonds changed some of the song's instrumentals and replaced the children's choir with a gospel one. His version was considered more "commercial" and would make the song "help sell the movie". Schwartz's original version was titled "When You Believe", while Edmonds' enhanced version was titled "The Prince of Egypt (When You Believe)". "When You Believe" is a slow tempo ballad, which incorporates pop, soul and R&B genres. A key change separates Houston and Carey's solo parts in the song. During the last bridge and chorus, gospel inspired background singers join the song, giving it a "layered sound" while Houston and Carey's voice switch off belting the bridge. After "When You Believe" was written, Babyface added additional instrumentation, as well as a final bridge. The song is set in common time. Houston's verse is written in the key of B minor and features a basic chord progression of A-G<sub>1</sub>, and the song modulates to D major for her chorus. Her vocals in the song range from the note of F<sub>3</sub> to F<sub>5</sub>. Carey's verse is set in the same key, but the song changes to E major for her chorus. Her vocal range in the song spans from the low note of E<sub>3</sub> to the high note of A<sub>5</sub> The song's key changes again in the last chorus, to F-sharp major. Steve Jones from USA Today called the song a "soaring duet" and felt that the song would be able to appeal to many types of listeners and "cross all genres." The beginning section of the song closely resembles the tune of Dance of the Yao People, composed by Liu Tieshan and Mao Yuan in 1952. ## Critical reception "When You Believe" was generally well-received by critics, who favorably described the track as "epic", "powerful", "beautiful", "stunning", "bombastic", and "a devout duet". Chuck Taylor of Billboard wrote, "The Babyface-stamped track is indeed lovely, offering an instantly accessible chorus and a squeaky clean message of "all things are possible when you believe in your dreams." He added, "The genuine story in this track is the return of Houston, who sounds fantastic—as clear and confident as ever." Another editor, Paul Verna stated that it is a "high-powered" duet, and later highlighted the song while reviewing Houston's album. However, some reviewers were not as enthusiastic. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it "unexpected -- and unexpectedly dull", while David Browne complained it has "so much sap, maple trees will be jealous", particularly dismissing the song's religious aspect as "insipid" and its inspirational message forced and generic. Two decades later, the song was ranked the 96th best Carey song by Billboard, the second-best pop song of the 1990s by Elle, and the 42nd best track of any genre of the decade by Insider. ## Chart performance The song performed moderately in the United States, despite a performance of The Oprah Winfrey Show and the 71st annual Academy Awards. It peaked at number 15 on the Hot 100 and number three on Billboards Adult Contemporary Chart. On March 24, 1999, after fluctuating in the US charts, the song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over 1,000,000 units. In Canada, the song debuted on the RPM Singles Chart at number 66 on the RPM issue dated December 7, 1998, and peaked at number 20 on the chart issue dated January 25, 1999. It was present on the chart for a total of ten weeks. The song performed moderately in Australia, where it entered at number 25 on the ARIA Singles Chart during the week of December 6, 1998. It remained on the chart for 14 weeks, spending its last week on the chart at number 50; it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of over 35,000 units. In New Zealand, it peaked at number eight on the singles chart, and spent nine weeks fluctuating in the singles chart. "When You Believe" experienced its highest charting in Europe. In Belgium, it reached number five on the Flanders Ultratop 50, and peaked at number four and spent 20 weeks on the Wallonian Ultratop 40. During the week of December 5, 1998, "When You Believe" entered the Dutch Top 40 at number fifty-four. The song spent twenty-one weeks on the singles chart and was peaked at number four. Due to strong single sales, the song entered the Finnish Singles Chart at number 10, however, it only spent one week in the chart. In France, the song entered the French Singles Chart at number 14 on December 5, 1998 and eventually peaked at number five. After spending 20 weeks fluctuating in the singles chart, it was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP). In Germany, it peaked at number eight on the German Singles Chart and was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie, denoting shipments of over 250,000 units. The song peaked at number seven in Ireland, where it spent 11 weeks in the Irish Singles Chart. In Norway, "When You Believe" entered at number three on the VG-lista chart and peaked at number two, spending three consecutive weeks at the position. It was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) and spent 15 weeks on the chart. The song peaked at number two in Sweden and Switzerland, spending 20 and 24 weeks on the singles charts, respectively. The IFPI certified the song platinum in Sweden and gold in Switzerland. "When You Believe" experienced high charting in the United Kingdom. It peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart during the week of December 19, 1998 and spent 14 weeks on the chart. As of 2010, sales of the song in the UK are estimated at 260,000 units. ## Music videos The single's music video was filmed at the Brooklyn Academy of Music during the fall of 1998. The video begins with Houston entering a small arena as she begins to sing the song's first verse. As she finishes her part, Carey appears on the stage as well, performing the second verse and chorus. The video is set in a dark studio accented by Egyptian settings, backdrops, and scenes inspired by The Prince of Egypt. An audience is on hand to emulate a concert-like-setting, cheering on both singers. Occasionally, home video clips of Carey and Houston appear throughout the video, as well as clips of the final moments of the film, during the splitting of the Red Sea. The video ends as the room is illuminated, and the two singers are joined by a large choir. As they complete the song, Carey and Houston receive a standing ovation from the crowd, and exit the studio together, walking side by side as they disappear in the distance. For the video, Carey and Houston both donned similar low-cut black gowns, while Carey sported a long straight hairstyle, and Houston a pixie cut. The song's alternate video features a similar synopsis, where Houston begins singing the song on a large stone altar in the middle of an auditorium. As she finishes her verse, Carey is seen walking up the ramp in the background, joining Houston for her verse. They continue singing the song together, standing side by side and holding hands. After completing the song, both singers exit the auditorium together as in the first video, simulating two friends enjoying time with each other. Both videos are very similar, only the alternate version does not feature an audience, choir or images, only the duo singing together atop the stone altar. ## Live performances The duo performed the song live on The Oprah Winfrey Show on November 26, 1998. Aside from the joint performance, Houston and Carey sang their own singles at the time, "I Learned from the Best" and "I Still Believe", respectively. Additionally, they sang the song live at the 71st Annual Academy Awards on March 21, 1999. Before the performance, they were due to rehearse together a few days before their scheduled appearance. Houston however, called in sick and had to miss the rehearsal. Reportedly, her excuse was not taken well, with academy executives calling it a "bullshit story." Conti, the academy's musical arranger, found a young female singer to take Houston's place, Janis Uhley. Before the performance, Carey walked down the stage in a white top and jeans, while choreographer Debbie Allen led the background singers. As they began the performance, Carey forgot the lyrics and stopped, as Uhley began singing in a "theatricality and gusto". Her boastful performance was not taken well by the directors, who called it "inappropriate and unnerving". After she was removed from the stage, a new date was chosen for the rehearsal, one that would accommodate both Houston and Carey. The next night, after they began the rehearsal, both singers had trouble performing the film version of the song. After hours of practice and confusion, they reached a compromise; they would sing a mash-up of the film and single versions, which featured an additional bridge and instrumentation by Edmonds. For the Oscar ceremony, Houston and Carey wore matching white gowns, symbolizing "humbleness and simplicity." Houston entered the arena, performing her verse, followed by Carey. As the song's finale drew near, a full gospel choir joined the performance from large suspending golden scaffolding, all wearing large white tunics. After the original was nominated for the Academy Award, Schwartz refused to give Edmonds writing credits in nomination forms submitted to the academy. In 2016, Carey performed the song on her Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour solo as Houston had died four years prior to the tour. ## Awards and nominations ## Track listings and formats - European CD single 1. "When You Believe" (Album Version) – 4:35 2. "When You Believe" (TV Track) – 4:35 - U.S. CD single 1. "When You Believe" (Album Version) – 4:38 2. "When You Believe" (Instrumental) – 4:30 - European CD maxi-single 1. "When You Believe (Album Version)" – 4:35 2. "I Am Free" – 3:08 3. "You Were Loved" – 4:09 - Japanese CD maxi-single 1. When You Believe" (Album Version) – 4:35 2. "When You Believe" (TV Track) – 4:32 3. "I Am Free" – 3:08 4. "You Were Loved" – 4:11 - U.K. CD maxi-single''' 1. "When You Believe" (Album Version) – 4:35 2. "Sweetheart" (The M!'s Pounding Vocal) – 9:43 3. "You Were Loved" – 4:09 ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## Release history ## Cover versions "When You Believe" was performed by American Idol contestant and winner Candice Glover on the twelfth season of the show. A studio recording of the song was also released as a single on iTunes. Glover performed "When You Believe" on American Idol on the "Divas" theme night on April 17, 2013. Glover's performance was met with praise from the show's judges and it was generally considered the best performance of the night. Rolling Stone wrote that Glover "got judges on their feet" with her "impeccable" performance. Nicki Minaj exclaimed at the end of the performance that "And that is how you do a Mariah Carey/Whitney Houston song". Likewise, Billboard called Glover's performance "best single showing of the night" and commented on the vocal delivery that "she knows precisely when to hit the sweet spot of a song, building up to that point with masterful restraint". MTV News commented that Glover "positively slay[ed]" the song. The song was recorded by Irish musical ensemble Celtic Woman and released as a single from their fifth studio album Celtic Woman: Songs from the Heart (2010). The song also appears on the Japanese release of their seventh studio album Celtic Woman: Believe (2011). The song features lead vocals from one of the group's singers Chloë Agnew. In an interview for Chicago Music Magazine, Chloë Agnew described the lyrics of the song as "really incredible". She stated that "It is a songs that I listen to and wish I had written. It’s really so special. I think a lot of people have found strength and hope in the lyrics. It's been really rewarding to meet and talk to people at our meet and greet events come up and tell me how much that song means to them and how it has helped them". Irish singer Chloë Agnew recorded the track for her debut album Chloë (2002). In 2011, the first season winner of The X Factor, Melanie Amaro covered this song during the live performance. In 2014, the song was performed live by Teodora Sava when she was 13 years old, in duet with Nico, as special guests of the Romanian kids talent show Next Star. Pentatonix and Maren Morris covered the song for Pentatonix's 2018 Christmas album Christmas Is Here!. Their cover is also featured on The Best of Pentatonix Christmas. American Belz Hasidic singer Shulem Lemmer covered the song, in his album The Perfect Dream, released in 2019. Cynthia Erivo and Shoshana Bean, with piano accompaniment by Stephen Schwartz, performed the song as part of the Saturday Night Seder on April 11, 2020. This version was then released as a single on June 30, 2020. Swede Isak Danielson, released a version as a single in November 2020. ## Leon Jackson version "When You Believe" was recorded by The X Factor winner Leon Jackson in December 2007, with slightly altered lyrics in the second verse, removing some religious overtones within the song. The single was available to download from midnight after the result of the show on December 15, 2007, and a CD was rush-released mid-week, on December 19, 2007. This was unusual as most new singles were released on a Monday to gain maximum sales for the UK Singles Chart the following Sunday. Exceptions included the previous two X Factor winners whose were singles released in this fashion, in order for them to compete to be the Christmas number-one single, which they all became. A video for the single was made by each of the final four of the series; Jackson, Rhydian Roberts, Same Difference, and Niki Evans. However, only the winner's version of the song and video was released. The song ended 2007 as the year's fourth biggest-selling single in the UK and remained number one into 2008. However, it only managed to stay in the top 40 for seven weeks, despite being atop the chart for three weeks. It also soon disappeared from the top 100, and was gone by late February. ### Music video The music video, like previous X Factor winners singles, is very simple, with Jackson singing the song in front of a large projection, with swooping shots of various landscapes behind him. It also features several clips from his time in The X Factor'', from his first audition to the moment he was announced the winner and performed his single to close the series. Simon Cowell, Sharon Osbourne, Dannii Minogue, Louis Walsh, Dermot O'Leary and runner-up Rhydian Roberts all feature within the clips. ### Chart performance On December 23, 2007, it debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart, making it the coveted Christmas number one with sales of over 275,000 copies. It stayed at number one for three weeks until it fell down to number five on its fourth week and then fell another ten places to number fifteen in its fifth week. According to The Official Charts Company, the song has sold 506,000 copies in the UK as of December 2012. Additionally, It also spent three weeks at the top of the Irish Singles Chart. ### Charts and certifications #### Weekly charts #### Year-end charts #### Certifications ## See also - List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 2000s - List of number-one singles of 2007 (Ireland)
1,115,648	The World Is Not Enough (Nintendo 64 video game)	1,162,376,868	Nintendo 64 video game	[ "2000 video games", "Electronic Arts games", "Eurocom games", "First-person shooters", "James Bond video games", "MGM Interactive games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Nintendo 64 games", "Nintendo 64-only games", "Stealth video games", "The World Is Not Enough", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games set in Azerbaijan", "Video games set in Kazakhstan", "Video games set in London", "Video games set in Spain", "Video games set in Turkey", "Video games set in the United Kingdom" ]	The World Is Not Enough is a first-person shooter video game developed by Eurocom and based on the 1999 James Bond film of the same name. It was published by Electronic Arts and released for the Nintendo 64 on October 17, 2000, shortly before the release of its PlayStation counterpart. The game features a single-player campaign in which players assume the role of MI6 agent James Bond as he fights to stop a terrorist from triggering a nuclear meltdown in the waters of Istanbul. It includes a split-screen multiplayer mode where up to four players can compete in different types of deathmatch and objective-based games. The game runs on an engine that was adapted to take advantage of the Nintendo 64 strengths. Although Eurocom used original production material to recreate the environments of the film, the company added elements to help the game design, including a mission which takes place in the London Underground. The game supports the Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak, which provides enhanced graphics and visual effects, but a Controller Pak is required to save the player's progress through the game. The World Is Not Enough received generally positive reviews from critics and was frequently compared to Rare's Nintendo 64 first-person shooters GoldenEye 007 and Perfect Dark. It was also considered superior to its PlayStation counterpart because of its level design and inclusion of a multiplayer mode. Critics generally praised the game's graphics and smooth frame rate, but criticized its weak and inconsistent enemy artificial intelligence. In the United States, the game sold more than one million copies. ## Gameplay The World Is Not Enough is a first-person shooter based on MGM's 1999 James Bond film of the same name, where the player assumes the role of James Bond through 14 missions with three difficulty settings. The player has the ability to run, jump, crouch, swim and dive underwater for a short period of time. One mission is played as a rail shooter in which the player skis down a mountain. In each mission, the player must complete a number of objectives while encountering enemies controlled by the game's artificial intelligence. Objectives range from rescuing hostages to destroying vehicles and collecting items. Some objectives require the player to use numerous high-tech gadgets. For example, the Keypad Decrypter can be used to decode lock systems, while the ID scanner is useful to copy fingerprints. Mission objectives vary in quantity and length depending on the difficulty setting chosen. Difficulty settings also affect enemy accuracy and damage, and the availability of the game's optional automatic aiming assistance. The player can use several weapons, including pistols, submachine guns, assault rifles, a shotgun, a sniper rifle, and a rocket launcher. Weapons must be reloaded after a certain number of shots and have alternate fire modes. For example, the Wolfram P2K can be used with or without a silencer. In addition, the player always carries a wristwatch which may be used to stun enemies, fire tranquilizer darts, throw a grappling hook, or emit a laser beam to open locks. In some missions, the player can also use night vision or X-ray vision glasses to outsmart enemies. The player has a certain amount of health which decreases when attacked by enemies. There are no health-recovery items in the game, although body armors can be acquired to provide a secondary health bar. A Nintendo 64 Controller Pak is required to save the player's progress through the game. In addition to the single-player missions, The World Is Not Enough features a multiplayer mode where up to four players can compete against each other in different game types, ranging from the traditional deathmatch to objective-based games such as capture the flag or king of the hill. Other game types include Last Agent Standing, where players begin the game with a finite number of lives and must survive until the opposing players exhaust their lives, and Uplink, in which players must find and touch uplink units scattered in key locations of the map to score points. Multiplayer games can be played on 14 different maps and can also include bots. Bots' appearances and amount of health can be changed to match player preference. ## Plot The game's plot closely follows that of the film. MI6 agent James Bond is sent to Bilbao, Spain to meet a Swiss banker and retrieve money for Robert King, a friend of M who purchased a classified report from the Russian Atomic Energy Department. The report, which was taken from a dead MI6 agent, is believed to contain information about terrorists who have attacked King's oil pipeline in Kazakhstan. Bond asks the banker who killed the MI6 agent, but he is unexpectedly killed by an assassin. Bond escapes with the money and takes it to the MI6 headquarters in London. A terrorist group then launches an attack on the MI6 headquarters, prompting Bond to pursue the assassin through a London Underground station. Bond offers her protection, but she ultimately kills herself by exploding a hot air balloon. The MI6 traces the recovered money to a KGB agent-turned-terrorist known as Renard, who previously kidnapped King's daughter, Elektra. M assigns Bond to protect Elektra, who is about to oversee the construction of an oil pipeline in Azerbaijan. During a tour of the pipeline's proposed route in the mountains, Bond and Elektra are attacked by a hit squad in armed, paraglider-equipped snowmobiles. Bond suspects the attack was caused by Elektra's head of security, Davidov, and decides to kill him before taking his place on a flight to a Russian ICBM base in Kazakhstan. There, Bond meets nuclear physicist Christmas Jones and learns that Renard managed to steal plutonium from a nuclear warhead. To get a lead on where Renard might be hiding, Bond visits a former Russian mafia adversary, Valentin Zukovsky, who reveals that Elektra was in exchange for the use of a submarine currently being captained by his nephew. Jones realises that if Renard were to insert the stolen plutonium into the submarine's nuclear reactor, the resulting nuclear explosion would destroy Istanbul, sabotaging the Russians' oil pipeline in the Bosporus. In Istanbul, Bond and Jones are captured by Elektra's henchmen. Jones is taken aboard the submarine, while Bond is taken to the Maiden's Tower. With the help of Zukovsky, Bond kills Elektra and boards the submarine. Ultimately, Bond finds Renard in the submarine's reactor and kills him before escaping with Jones. ## Development The World Is Not Enough was developed by Eurocom and published by Electronic Arts, which had formed a partnership with MGM in late 1998 to produce games based on MGM's intellectual properties. At the time, Eurocom had started development on a "very scalable" first-person 3D engine intended for sixth generation platforms like the GameCube. After Electronic Arts acquired the James Bond game licence, Eurocom showed them their engine and soon both companies started working together to produce the next Bond-licensed game. This happened when Eurocom was still working on the Nintendo 64 version of Mortal Kombat 4. The engine was created and adapted to take advantage of the Nintendo 64 strengths. It is capable of delivering a fast and smooth frame rate while offering particle explosions, dynamic lighting effects, long draw distances, and other environmental effects like fog or smoke. It also supports the Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak, which provides enhanced graphics and visual effects. Focusing on the game's frame rate and technical aspects was a major priority because developers wanted The World Is Not Enough to be the fastest first-person game on the Nintendo 64 system. According to Eurocom, "[we] don't think we could push it much more than we have". In addition, with The World Is Not Enough being Eurocom's last Nintendo 64 game, the company saw it as "a nice swan song to go out on." To help Eurocom authentically recreate the environments of the film, the film makers provided Eurocom with original production material, including concept drawings, blueprints, and photographs of the film's sets. Although the game closely follows the plot of the film, the developers added elements to help the game design. For example, the London Underground level, where the player must rescue several hostages, is not part of the film. However, the boat chase scene is not playable in the game due to limitations in the Nintendo 64 cartridge size. According to the game's producer Bill Beacham, vehicle-based gameplay would require the creation of a separate engine that would possibly compromise the game's base first-person engine. The characters' faces were digitised from the film's actors, but impersonators provided voiced dialogue. One exception was English actor John Cleese, who reprised his role as Q. Electronic Arts secured a "Teen" rating from the ESRB to avoid intense portrayals of violence because they felt that fast action and memorable spy moments were what the Bond legacy had always stood for. In May 2000, the game was presented at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in Los Angeles. At the time, development of the game was nearly 75% complete. The game was released on a 32MB cartridge and includes over 500 lines of speech, which was compressed using Factor 5's technology. The game was initially intended to be released on November 20, 2000, in North America, but was ultimately released one month earlier on October 17, 2000, because Eurocom managed to finish work on the game quicker than expected. In Europe, the game was released on December 8, 2000. A different game, also titled The World Is Not Enough, was released for the PlayStation in November 2000. ## Reception The World Is Not Enough received generally positive reviews from critics, who frequently compared it to Rare's critically acclaimed Nintendo 64 games GoldenEye 007 and Perfect Dark. It was also considered superior to its PlayStation counterpart because of its level design and inclusion of a multiplayer mode. Matt Casamassina of IGN felt that Eurocom did "an amazing job recreating the cinema experience for the Nintendo 64 owner, perhaps more so than any other movie-to-game license to date." In a less positive review, Shane Satterfield of GameSpot stated that The World Is Not Enough "belongs in the upper echelon of Nintendo 64 software", but it lacks the gameplay delicacy of GoldenEye 007 to reach classic status. Edge concluded that, while the game lacks innovative elements, it "still offers plenty of enjoyment for those who have exhausted Rare's masterpieces." Next Generation agreed, stating that The World Is Not Enough is far from a bad game. Its graphics were widely praised for long draw distances and smooth frame rates. Critics also noted the game's believable environments, texture quality, animations, and highly detailed explosions and particle effects. The soundtrack and sound effects received similar praise. GameRevolution said that the background themes "make for excellent espionage", while Nintendo Power observed that the spoken dialogue "adds a cinematic touch" that GoldenEye 007 does not feature. GamePro stated similar pros, but criticised the plot for being confusing and "too complex for its own good." IGN praised the single-player missions for their variety and great enemy placement, noting that each scenario is different in both design and gameplay mechanics. The reviewer especially highlighted the last mission due to its underwater sections, as it requires players to find hidden air pockets so that Bond can breathe and stay alive. In contrast, Mark Green of N64 Magazine remarked that the missions were fairly scripted, limiting the player's options and experimentation. Similarly, Edge said that the game's "on the fly" mission objectives give the game a fair amount of rigidity. The reviewer explained that, while GoldenEye 007 or Perfect Dark set their mission objectives at the beginning of each level, thus giving players a chance to tackle the mission as they wish, The World Is Not Enough "cannonballs" the player "from one objective to the next with little room for invention of improvisation." Nevertheless, he highlighted the Night Watch level for being "fantastically stealth-centric". The game's weak and inconsistent enemy artificial intelligence was a common subject of criticism. GameSpot described the behaviour of enemies as "They see, they run, they shoot - and that's about it", while N64 Magazine noted that they regularly fail to spot the player even when standing next to them. The gadgetry was seen as a useful gameplay feature, with AllGame noting that players need to figure out the proper way to use each gadget. Although GameZone highlighted the multiplayer mode for its replay value and teamplay options, critics agreed that the game felt short in comparison to Perfect Dark. The artificial intelligence of multiplayer bots was also a frequent criticism. According to GameSpot, "they generally amount to nothing more than fragging". The website would later nominate The World Is Not Enough for its annual Most Disappointing Game award, calling it "far from the GoldenEye 007/Perfect Dark killer that it was made out to be." As of December 2007, The World Is Not Enough has sold more than one million copies in the United States.
22,476,053	Star Wars: Jedi Arena	1,151,962,653	1983 lightsaber battle video game	[ "1983 video games", "Action games", "Atari 2600 games", "Atari 2600-only games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Parker Brothers video games", "Star Wars video games", "Video games developed in the United States" ]	Star Wars: Jedi Arena is a lightsaber battle video game written by Rex Bradford for the Atari 2600 and published by Parker Brothers in 1983. It is the first Star Wars video game to feature lightsabers. The goal of the game, based on one scene in the original Star Wars film, is to take out the opponent with the Seeker ball while defending oneself from incoming laser blasts using one's lightsaber. Following the adequate sales of their first Star Wars game, Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back, Parker Brothers went on to continue developing Star Wars titles, one of which is Star Wars: Jedi Arena, programmed by Rex Bradford. Although the game's reception was mixed at the time of release, with sound effects being praised and primarily the abstract combat being criticized, its legacy is largely negative, with several modern critics referring to the game as one of the worst Star Wars games of all time. ## Gameplay In Star Wars: Jedi Arena, two Jedi Knights, one blue and one red, who are depicted from a top-down perspective, face each other during lightsaber training. Player one is blue; the red Jedi is either a human- or computer-controlled opponent. Players control their lightsabers with the paddle controller to defend themselves from the laser blasts coming from the Seeker ball, fired by the opponent. The Seeker will regularly turn wild and fire laser blasts randomly. The objective of the game is to fire laser blasts from the Seeker at the opponent's shield and finally directly at the opponent by aiming in the direction that the lightsaber is pointing. The game has four difficulty levels, changing the Seeker's speed; on the highest level, the Seeker is invisible. The game ends when one player has received three direct hits, and the winner becomes a Jedi Master. ## Development and release Although Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back was not a huge success, it sold well enough to encourage Parker Brothers to develop more Star Wars titles. In the December 11, 1982, issue of Billboard, it was reported that Parker Brothers was developing its second game cartridge. Titled Star Wars: Jedi Arena, the game was set for release the following month. During Jedi Arena's production, Parker Brothers relied upon an abstract approach to combat that took advantage of "the unique technologies and situations of the Star Wars universe". The game was programmed by Rex Bradford and inspired by one scene in Star Wars in which Luke Skywalker defends himself from the Seeker ball's incoming laser bolts with his lightsaber on board the Millennium Falcon. The game was released for the Atari 2600 as scheduled, in January 1983. ## Reception Star Wars: Jedi Arena received mixed reviews from critics in the 1980s. Adam Thompson of Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games likened the mechanism of damaging the opponent's shield to smashing bricks in Breakout and praised the game's glowing multi-colored laser blasts and the sound effects, the latter of which he felt added realism to the game. According to Peter Brown of GameSpot, however, the main criticisms of the game were the stationary Jedi and abstract combat, for the opposite of which action fans were expecting. Benj Edwards, writing for PCMag.com, claimed that Jedi Arena "may secretly be the best Star Wars video game ever made." ## Legacy The legacy of Jedi Arena among modern critics is extremely negative. Ian Dransfield of Digital Spy ranked it as one of the 5 worst Star Wars games ever, noting that the game has not aged well. Lewis Packwood of Kotaku ranked the game second-to-worst, believing that the game should not have been based on one particular scene in Star Wars involving Luke Skywalker defending himself from a "floaty beach ball". In the book Classic Home Video Games, 1972–1984: A Complete Reference Guide, Brett Weiss criticized the game's controls, its overall "misguided" concept (given that the Jedi never actually engage in a duel), and the gameplay for "[relying] too much on luck". Several other sources described Jedi Arena to be either lamentable or one of the worst Star Wars games. Matt Dorville of Blastr ranked the game No. 31 on the website's list of 50 Star Wars games ranked from worst to best, admitting that Jedi Arena was not bad at the time of release and that the game did offer an entertaining gameplay. In the book Guinness World Records 2017 Gamer’s Edition, Jedi Arena is credited for being the first Star Wars video game to feature lightsaber action.
48,259,106	Transfer function matrix	1,141,502,292	Matrix relating system inputs and outputs	[ "Automation", "Control engineering", "Control theory", "Frequency-domain analysis", "Matrices", "Signal processing", "Systems engineering", "Systems theory", "Types of functions" ]	In control system theory, and various branches of engineering, a transfer function matrix, or just transfer matrix is a generalisation of the transfer functions of single-input single-output (SISO) systems to multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) systems. The matrix relates the outputs of the system to its inputs. It is a particularly useful construction for linear time-invariant (LTI) systems because it can be expressed in terms of the s-plane. In some systems, especially ones consisting entirely of passive components, it can be ambiguous which variables are inputs and which are outputs. In electrical engineering, a common scheme is to gather all the voltage variables on one side and all the current variables on the other regardless of which are inputs or outputs. This results in all the elements of the transfer matrix being in units of impedance. The concept of impedance (and hence impedance matrices) has been borrowed into other energy domains by analogy, especially mechanics and acoustics. Many control systems span several different energy domains. This requires transfer matrices with elements in mixed units. This is needed both to describe transducers that make connections between domains and to describe the system as a whole. If the matrix is to properly model energy flows in the system, compatible variables must be chosen to allow this. ## General A MIMO system with m outputs and n inputs is represented by a m × n matrix. Each entry in the matrix is in the form of a transfer function relating an output to an input. For example, for a three-input, two-output system, one might write, <math> \begin{bmatrix} y_1 \\\\ y_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} g\_{11} & g\_{12} & g\_{13} \\\\ g\_{21} & g\_{22} & g\_{23} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} u_1 \\\\ u_2 \\\\ u_3 \end{bmatrix} </math> where the u<sub>n</sub> are the inputs, the y<sub>m</sub> are the outputs, and the g<sub>mn</sub> are the transfer functions. This may be written more succinctly in matrix operator notation as, $\mathbf Y = \mathbf G \mathbf U$ where Y is a column vector of the outputs, G is a matrix of the transfer functions, and U is a column vector of the inputs. In many cases, the system under consideration is a linear time-invariant (LTI) system. In such cases, it is convenient to express the transfer matrix in terms of the Laplace transform (in the case of continuous time variables) or the z-transform (in the case of discrete time variables) of the variables. This may be indicated by writing, for instance, $\mathbf Y (s) = \mathbf G (s) \mathbf U (s)$ which indicates that the variables and matrix are in terms of s, the complex frequency variable of the s-plane arising from Laplace transforms, rather than time. The examples in this article are all assumed to be in this form, although that is not explicitly indicated for brevity. For discrete time systems s is replaced by z from the z-transform, but this makes no difference to subsequent analysis. The matrix is particularly useful when it is a proper rational matrix, that is, all its elements are proper rational functions. In this case the state-space representation can be applied. In systems engineering, the overall system transfer matrix G (s) is decomposed into two parts: H (s) representing the system being controlled, and C(s) representing the control system. C (s) takes as its inputs the inputs of G (s) and the outputs of H (s). The outputs of C (s) form the inputs for H (s). ## Electrical systems In electrical systems it is often the case that the distinction between input and output variables is ambiguous. They can be either, depending on circumstance and point of view. In such cases the concept of port (a place where energy is transferred from one system to another) can be more useful than input and output. It is customary to define two variables for each port (p): the voltage across it (V<sub>p</sub>) and the current entering it (I<sub>p</sub>). For instance, the transfer matrix of a two-port network can be defined as follows, <math> \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\\\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} z\_{11} & z\_{12} \\\\ z\_{21} & z\_{22} \\\\ \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\\\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} </math> where the z<sub>mn</sub> are called the impedance parameters, or z-parameters. They are so called because they are in units of impedance and relate port currents to a port voltage. The z-parameters are not the only way that transfer matrices are defined for two-port networks. There are six basic matrices that relate voltages and currents each with advantages for particular system network topologies. However, only two of these can be extended beyond two ports to an arbitrary number of ports. These two are the z-parameters and their inverse, the admittance parameters or y-parameters. To understand the relationship between port voltages and currents and inputs and outputs, consider the simple voltage divider circuit. If we only wish to consider the output voltage (V<sub>2</sub>) resulting from applying the input voltage (V<sub>1</sub>) then the transfer function can be expressed as, <math> \begin{bmatrix} V_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \dfrac{R_2}{R_1 + R_2} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \end{bmatrix} </math> which can be considered the trivial case of a 1×1 transfer matrix. The expression correctly predicts the output voltage if there is no current leaving port 2, but is increasingly inaccurate as the load increases. If, however, we attempt to use the circuit in reverse, driving it with a voltage at port 2 and calculate the resulting voltage at port 1 the expression gives completely the wrong result even with no load on port 1. It predicts a greater voltage at port 1 than was applied at port 2, an impossibility with a purely resistive circuit like this one. To correctly predict the behaviour of the circuit, the currents entering or leaving the ports must also be taken into account, which is what the transfer matrix does. The impedance matrix for the voltage divider circuit is, <math> \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\\\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} R_1 + R_2 & R_2 \\\\ R_2 & R_2 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\\\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} </math> which fully describes its behaviour under all input and output conditions. At microwave frequencies, none of the transfer matrices based on port voltages and currents are convenient to use in practice. Voltage is difficult to measure directly, current next to impossible, and the open circuits and short circuits required by the measurement technique cannot be achieved with any accuracy. For waveguide implementations, circuit voltage and current are entirely meaningless. Transfer matrices using different sorts of variables are used instead. These are the powers transmitted into, and reflected from a port which are readily measured in the transmission line technology used in distributed-element circuits in the microwave band. The most well known and widely used of these sorts of parameters is the scattering parameters, or s-parameters. ## Mechanical and other systems The concept of impedance can be extended into the mechanical, and other domains through a mechanical-electrical analogy, hence the impedance parameters, and other forms of 2-port network parameters, can be extended to the mechanical domain also. To do this an effort variable and a flow variable are made analogues of voltage and current respectively. For mechanical systems under translation these variables are force and velocity respectively. Expressing the behaviour of a mechanical component as a two-port or multi-port with a transfer matrix is a useful thing to do because, like electrical circuits, the component can often be operated in reverse and its behaviour is dependent on the loads at the inputs and outputs. For instance, a gear train is often characterised simply by its gear ratio, a SISO transfer function. However, the gearbox output shaft can be driven round to turn the input shaft requiring a MIMO analysis. In this example the effort and flow variables are torque T and angular velocity ω respectively. The transfer matrix in terms of z-parameters will look like, <math> \begin{bmatrix} T_1 \\\\ T_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} z\_{11} & z\_{12} \\\\ z\_{21} & z\_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \omega_1 \\\\ \omega_2 \end{bmatrix} </math> However, the z-parameters are not necessarily the most convenient for characterising gear trains. A gear train is the analogue of an electrical transformer and the h-parameters (hybrid parameters) better describe transformers because they directly include the turns ratios (the analogue of gear ratios). The gearbox transfer matrix in h-parameter format is, <math> \begin{bmatrix} T_1 \\\\ \omega_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} h\_{11} & h\_{12} \\\\ h\_{21} & h\_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \omega_1 \\\\ T_2 \end{bmatrix} </math> where h<sub>21</sub> is the velocity ratio of the gear train with no load on the output, h<sub>12</sub> is the reverse direction torque ratio of the gear train with input shaft clamped, equal to the forward velocity ratio for an ideal gearbox, h<sub>11</sub> is the input rotational mechanical impedance with no load on the output shaft, zero for an ideal gearbox, and, h<sub>22</sub> is the output rotational mechanical admittance with the input shaft clamped. For an ideal gear train with no losses (friction, distortion etc), this simplifies to, <math> \begin{bmatrix} T_1 \\\\ \omega_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & N \\\\ N & 0 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \omega_1 \\\\ T_2 \end{bmatrix} </math> where N is the gear ratio. ## Transducers and actuators In a system that consists of multiple energy domains, transfer matrices are required that can handle components with ports in different domains. In robotics and mechatronics, actuators are required. These usually consist of a transducer converting, for instance, signals from the control system in the electrical domain into motion in the mechanical domain. The control system also requires sensors that detect the motion and convert it back into the electrical domain through another transducer so that the motion can be properly controlled through a feedback loop. Other sensors in the system may be transducers converting yet other energy domains into electrical signals, such as optical, audio, thermal, fluid flow and chemical. Another application is the field of mechanical filters which require transducers between the electrical and mechanical domains in both directions. A simple example is an electromagnetic electromechanical actuator driven by an electronic controller. This requires a transducer with an input port in the electrical domain and an output port in the mechanical domain. This might be represented simplistically by a SISO transfer function, but for similar reasons to those already stated, a more accurate representation is achieved with a two-input, two-output MIMO transfer matrix. In the z-parameters, this takes the form, <math> \begin{bmatrix} V \\\\ F \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} z\_{11} & z\_{12} \\\\ z\_{21} & z\_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I \\\\ v \end{bmatrix} </math> where F is the force applied to the actuator and v is the resulting velocity of the actuator. The impedance parameters here are a mixture of units; z<sub>11</sub> is an electrical impedance, z<sub>22</sub> is a mechanical impedance and the other two are transimpedances in a hybrid mix of units. ## Acoustic systems Acoustic systems are a subset of fluid dynamics, and in both fields the primary input and output variables are pressure, P, and volumetric flow rate, Q, except in the case of sound travelling through solid components. In the latter case, the primary variables of mechanics, force and velocity, are more appropriate. An example of a two-port acoustic component is a filter such as a muffler on an exhaust system. A transfer matrix representation of it may look like, <math> \begin{bmatrix} P_2 \\\\ Q_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} T\_{11} & T\_{12} \\\\ T\_{21} & T\_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} P_1 \\\\ Q_1 \end{bmatrix} </math> Here, the T<sub>mn</sub> are the transmission parameters, also known as ABCD-parameters. The component can be just as easily described by the z-parameters, but transmission parameters have a mathematical advantage when dealing with a system of two-ports that are connected in a cascade of the output of one into the input port of another. In such cases the overall transmission parameters are found simply by the matrix multiplication of the transmission parameter matrices of the constituent components. ## Compatible variables When working with mixed variables from different energy domains consideration needs to be given on which variables to consider analogous. The choice depends on what the analysis is intended to achieve. If it is desired to correctly model energy flows throughout the entire system then a pair of variables whose product is power (power conjugate variables) in one energy domain must map to power conjugate variables in other domains. Power conjugate variables are not unique so care needs to be taken to use the same mapping of variables throughout the system. A common mapping (used in some of the examples in this article) maps the effort variables (ones that initiate an action) from each domain together and maps the flow variables (ones that are a property of an action) from each domain together. Each pair of effort and flow variables is power conjugate. This system is known as the impedance analogy because a ratio of the effort to the flow variable in each domain is analogous to electrical impedance. There are two other power conjugate systems on the same variables that are in use. The mobility analogy maps mechanical force to electric current instead of voltage. This analogy is widely used by mechanical filter designers and frequently in audio electronics also. The mapping has the advantage of preserving network topologies across domains but does not maintain the mapping of impedances. The Trent analogy classes the power conjugate variables as either across variables, or through variables depending on whether they act across an element of a system or through it. This largely ends up the same as the mobility analogy except in the case of the fluid flow domain (including the acoustics domain). Here pressure is made analogous to voltage (as in the impedance analogy) instead of current (as in the mobility analogy). However, force in the mechanical domain is analogous to current because force acts through an object. There are some commonly used analogies that do not use power conjugate pairs. For sensors, correctly modelling energy flows may not be so important. Sensors often extract only tiny amounts of energy into the system. Choosing variables that are convenient to measure, particularly ones that the sensor is sensing, may be more useful. For instance, in the thermal resistance analogy, thermal resistance is considered analogous to electrical resistance, resulting in temperature difference and thermal power mapping to voltage and current respectively. The power conjugate of temperature difference is not thermal power, but rather entropy flow rate, something that cannot be directly measured. Another analogy of the same sort occurs in the magnetic domain. This maps magnetic reluctance to electrical resistance, resulting in magnetic flux mapping to current instead of magnetic flux rate of change as required for compatible variables. ## History The matrix representation of linear algebraic equations has been known for some time. Poincaré in 1907 was the first to describe a transducer as a pair of such equations relating electrical variables (voltage and current) to mechanical variables (force and velocity). Wegel, in 1921, was the first to express these equations in terms of mechanical impedance as well as electrical impedance. The first use of transfer matrices to represent a MIMO control system was by Boksenbom and Hood in 1950, but only for the particular case of the gas turbine engines they were studying for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Cruickshank provided a firmer basis in 1955 but without complete generality. Kavanagh in 1956 gave the first completely general treatment, establishing the matrix relationship between system and control and providing criteria for realisability of a control system that could deliver a prescribed behaviour of the system under control. ## See also - Transfer-matrix method (optics)
60,802,536	2019 Geelong Football Club women's season	1,173,736,326	Football club women's season	[ "2019 AFL Women's season", "Geelong Football Club seasons" ]	The 2019 season was Geelong Football Club's first in the AFL Women's (AFLW) competition. Geelong (known as the Cats) joined the league as an expansion club alongside North Melbourne, having initially been denied entry into the competition's first season in 2017. Paul Hood was the club's inaugural senior coach, and Melissa Hickey was appointed club captain. In preparation for the club's entry into the league, Geelong were provided with a range of recruitment concessions, including early access to existing clubs' players prior to the league's signing period, and additional selections in the 2018 AFL Women's draft. Nina Morrison was selected by the Cats with the first overall selection in the draft. Geelong began the regular season against Collingwood at GMHBA Stadium on 2 February, finished the regular season with a 3–4 win–loss record, and qualified for the 2019 finals series. Geelong was subsequently defeated in a preliminary final against Adelaide by 66 points, eliminating them before the 2019 AFL Women's Grand Final. Meg McDonald won Geelong's best and fairest award with 182 votes, finishing ahead of Olivia Purcell, who came in second place with 168 votes. McDonald was also the Cats' sole selection in the 2019 AFL Women's All-Australian team. Mia-Rae Clifford was the club's leading goalkicker, scoring six goals. ## Background The first season of the AFL Women's (AFLW) league was held in 2017, and consisted of eight teams operated by associated clubs from the Australian Football League (AFL). Although Geelong Football Club's application to join the AFLW's inaugural season was unsuccessful, it was later confirmed in September 2017 that it would join the league as an expansion club from the 2019 season, alongside North Melbourne. Paul Hood was appointed the club's inaugural AFLW coach in February 2018, having previously coached Geelong's VFL Women's (VFLW) team since its inception in 2016. Natalie Wood replaced Hood as the VFLW coach, and also secured a role as an assistant coach for the AFLW team. The coaching team was finalised in November 2018, with Geelong AFL players Tom Stewart and Aaron Black joining Wood as assistant coaches, and Oscar Owens and David Morgan named as development coaches. Melissa Hickey was announced as the Cats' inaugural AFLW captain in December 2018. Rebecca Goring, who had captained the VFLW side since 2017, was awarded the role of vice-captain. The player leadership group for the 2019 season also consisted of Richelle Cranston, Renee Garing, Aasta O'Connor and Anna Teague. Ford Australia and Deakin University were the major sponsors of the AFLW team for the 2019 season. Ford's partnership extended a long-running sponsorship deal that had existed since 1925 with the Geelong Football Club. ## Playing list ### Recruitment The playing list size of each AFLW team was set at 30 players for the 2019 season, with two of these players signed as "cross-code" rookies that had not participated in any Australian rules football competition during the previous three years. In preparation for the clubs' entry into the league, both Geelong and North Melbourne were provided with a range of recruitment concessions. This included an exclusive ten-day signing period held in May 2018 where the two expansion clubs could recruit players from existing AFLW clubs. During this period Geelong signed: Richelle Cranston, Melissa Hickey, Erin Hoare and Anna Teague (from Melbourne); Aasta O'Connor (Western Bulldogs); Maddie Boyd and Phoebe McWilliams (Greater Western Sydney). There was also the potential to sign players over the age of 18 who did not play in the AFLW in 2018, with the Cats recruiting six players from their VFLW team: Cassie Blakeway, Kate Darby, Renee Garing, Rebecca Goring, Jordan Ivey and Danielle Orr. Due to the club only signing thirteen players during the expansion club signing period (compared to North Melbourne's seventeen players), Geelong was awarded four compensation selections in the upcoming draft—including the first two picks. Following the expansion club signing period, all clubs could participate in a signing and trading period that ran from 23 May to 4 June 2018. Geelong were not heavily involved in trading with clubs, preferring to focus on building their list through their VFLW player signings. The AFLW draft was held in October 2018, with the Cats selecting the final ten players of their inaugural list: Nina Morrison (pick 1), Sophie Van De Heuvel (2), Rebecca Webster (7), Olivia Purcell (14), Denby Taylor (20), Georgia Clarke (24), Rene Caris (35), Maighan Fogas (47), Elise Coventry (57) and Madeline Keryk (62). ### Statistics Geelong utilised the majority of their playing list for this season, with only Elise Coventry and Hayley Trevean not appearing in an AFLW game. There were ten players who played in all eight of the club's games. Mia-Rae Clifford was the club's leading goalkicker, scoring six goals. ## Season summary Due to the expansion in the number of teams participating in the AFLW competition, a conference system was introduced for the 2019 season. This involved two conferences ("Conference A" and "Conference B") consisting of five teams, with each team playing the other teams in their conference once—as well as three games against teams from the alternate conference. This equated to each team playing a total of seven matches in the regular season, with the two top teams in each conference qualifying for the finals series. Geelong were placed in Conference B with , , and . Geelong began the regular season against Collingwood at GMHBA Stadium, narrowly winning their first AFLW match by one point. Nina Morrison was nominated for the league's Rising Star award after accumulating 22 disposals and eight tackles and kicking the winning behind in a best-on-ground performance. This was to be Morrison's only game for the season, as she ruptured the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in her right knee at training the following week, which required a reconstruction. Geelong were defeated by reigning premiers Western Bulldogs in round two, recording an 18-point margin. Captain Melissa Hickey missed the first two matches of the season due to injury, with vice-captain Rebecca Goring assuming the captain's role in Hickey's absence. Hickey played her first game for the Cats in round three, captaining a loss against Adelaide. Geelong won their next two matches, defeating Carlton and Brisbane to move to first position on the Conference B ladder after round five. Brisbane's score of 1.2 (8) was the lowest overall score in AFLW history at the time. Geelong played in round six and despite leading after the first quarter, were defeated by 36 points after not scoring in the second half of the match. In the final round of the season, the Cats suffered a 31-point defeat by Greater Western Sydney, with a score of just 1.4 (10). The club finished the regular season with a 3–4 win–loss record and placed second on the Conference B ladder, qualifying for the 2019 finals series. Geelong were subsequently defeated in a preliminary final against Adelaide by 66 points, and therefore did not progress to the 2019 AFL Women's Grand Final. Geelong's score of 1.1 (7) was the lowest overall score in AFLW history. ### Results ### Ladder ## Awards Geelong's inaugural AFL Women's best and fairest was announced in a ceremony held at GMHBA Stadium on 5 April. The award was won by Meg McDonald, who received 182 votes; runner-up Olivia Purcell received 168 votes, with Renee Garing and Maddy McMahon in joint third place on 157 votes. Additionally, captain Melissa Hickey received the ‘Hoops’ award, for best representing the club's values, and Kate Darby was presented with the 'Community Champion' award. McDonald and McMahon were both shortlisted for the honorary 2019 AFL Women's All-Australian team, however only McDonald was selected in the final team. Geelong also had two players, Nina Morrison (round one) and Purcell (round five), who were nominated for the season's Rising Star award. ## VFLW Season In their third season in the second-tier VFL Women’s competition, AFLW coach Paul Hood stepped aside as Natalie Wood became the first female head coach in club history. Geelong appointed five players to a leadership group: Maddy Keryk, Amy McDonald, Danielle Higgins, Kate Darby, and Jordan Ivey sharing and rotating the captaincy responsibilities. Making the finals from sixth position, the team was eliminated by Melbourne University in the first elimination final. ### Results ### Ladder ### Awards - Best & Fairest: Rebecca Webster - VFL Women’s Team of the Year: Rebecca Webster (Half back); Amy McDonald (Interchange) ## See also - 2019 Geelong Football Club season
23,799,631	Far Cry 3	1,171,460,197	2012 video game	[ "2012 video games", "BAFTA winners (video games)", "Far Cry video games", "Fiction about rebellions", "First-person shooters", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Open-world video games", "PlayStation 3 games", "PlayStation 4 games", "Rape in video games", "Red Storm Entertainment games", "Ubisoft games", "Video game sequels", "Video games about mental health", "Video games about pirates", "Video games about slavery", "Video games developed in Canada", "Video games scored by Brian Tyler", "Video games set in Asia", "Video games set in a fictional country", "Video games set on fictional islands", "Video games using Havok", "Video games with expansion packs", "Windows games", "Works about vacationing", "Xbox 360 games", "Xbox One games" ]	Far Cry 3 is a 2012 first-person shooter game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft. It is the third main installment in the Far Cry series after Far Cry 2. The game takes place on the fictional Rook Islands, a tropical archipelago which can be freely explored by players. Gameplay focuses on combat and exploration. Players can use a variety of weapons to defeat human enemies and hostile wildlife, and the game features elements found in role-playing games such as skill trees and experience. After a vacation goes awry, protagonist Jason Brody must save his friends, who have been kidnapped by pirates, and escape from the island and its unhinged inhabitants. Ubisoft Montreal collaborated with Ubisoft's global development team, including Massive Entertainment, Ubisoft Shanghai, Ubisoft Bucharest, Ubisoft Reflections and Red Storm Entertainment. The game's development was partially restarted in 2010 after the departure of several key creative staff. The team evaluated the feedback for Far Cry 2 and identified areas that needed to be improved or removed. The team spent considerable time designing the island, which they described as the "second most important character" in the game. Inspirations were taken from films and TV shows such as Apocalypse Now and Lost, as well as video games The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim and Red Dead Redemption. Michael Mando was hired to portray Vaas Montenegro, an antagonist the team compared to Darth Vader. The game was announced in June 2011 and Ubisoft promoted the game with various companion apps, webseries and crossover. It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in November 2012. The game received critical acclaim upon release, with praise directed at its characters (particularly Vaas), world design, visuals, progression, and gameplay, though the game's multiplayer modes received criticism. Despite weak pre-order sales, nearly 10 million copies of the game were sold. It was nominated for multiple year-end accolades including Game of the Year and Best Shooter awards by several gaming publications. It has also been cited as one of the greatest video games ever made. Ubisoft supported the game with downloadable content and released Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon, the game's standalone expansion, in 2013. A successor, Far Cry 4 was released in November 2014. The game was re-released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in June 2018. ## Gameplay Far Cry 3 is a first-person shooter set on the fictional Rook Islands, a tropical archipelago somewhere in the Pacific, controlled by pirates and mercenaries. Players control Jason Brody and can approach missions and objectives in a variety of ways. They can kill enemies by utilizing firearms such as assault rifles, sniper rifles, grenade launchers, rocket launchers, and explosives like land mines and grenades. Alternatively, players can utilize stealth to avoid the attention of enemies. For instance, players can scout an enemy's outpost by using a camera to mark the locations of enemies, or toss rocks to distract enemies. The stealth approach, which can be done by using silenced weapons and combat knives, can prevent enemies from triggering alarms which call for reinforcements. Skills are collected by gaining experience from completing missions and killing enemies, and are unlocked in three skill trees, themed as the Spider, the Heron, and the Shark. Each skill tree upgrades different aspects of Jason's abilities, with the Spider upgrading his stealth takedowns and hunting skills, the Shark upgrading assault takedowns and health, and the Heron upgrading his long-range takedowns and mobility. As skills are collected, a tribal tattoo on Jason's forearm grows correspondingly. Rook Islands is an open world in which players can explore freely. Jason can travel using a variety of vehicles including dune buggies, all-terrain vehicles, cargo trucks, jet skis, boats and hang gliding. Later in the game, players will find a wingsuit that Jason can wear. Jason will encounter different friendly settlements where he can shop for weapons and materials and complete side missions including hunting quests and assassination missions. Rook Islands is inhabited by a wide variety of wildlife including leopards and sharks, and the game's artificial intelligence (AI) enables the wildlife to interact with each other to simulate a realistic ecosystem. By hunting different animals and harvesting their corpses, players gain materials necessary for crafting new items such as weapon holsters and ammo pouches. Players can hoard green plants to produce syringes, which heal Jason when his health depletes during combat scenarios or provide other gameplay advantages. Players can climb different radio towers and remove their scramblers. When they are removed, areas of the map are opened up, various points of interest are highlighted and players will unlock a new weapon and gain access to a supply-run side mission, a timed quest in which players need to deliver medicines as quickly as possible from one place to another. As pirates control the island, players can infiltrate and liberate numerous enemy outposts. Once an outpost is retaken, it becomes a base for the rebels which unlocks additional side missions for players. It also become a location where players can quickly fast travel to and trade with vendors. A patch was later released to allow players to reset outposts. When exploring the game's world, unscripted events may occur, such as Jason being attacked by wildlife or pirate patrols. Players can complete Trials of the Rakyat missions, which are timed combat challenges; join different minigames including poker, knife throwing and shooting challenges; and gather different collectibles such as relics, letters, and memory cards. The game features a four-player cooperative multiplayer mode, which is set six months before the events of the main game. The mode features five different classes: Warrior, Rusher, Deadeye, Saboteur or Bodyguard. Players can customize each class's loadouts and weapons. In multiplayer, players can activate "battle cry", which boosts the team's health, accuracy and running speed. The game includes competitive multiplayer modes including Team Deathmatch and Domination, in which two teams compete against each other to capture control points. There is also Transmission, a Domination variant in which the control points are radio transmitters that change location. In Firestorm, a team needs to ignite two fuel dumps held by another team while protecting their own from being set on fire. Killing enemies successively, reviving team members and utilizing battle cry grant players Team Support Points, which can be used to unlock perks like "psyche gas" which causes enemies to hallucinate all players as shadows. The game features a map editor that allows users to create and share custom content. Players can create their maps by customizing landscapes, and by placing buildings, trees, vehicles and units controlled by AI. ## Plot Jason Brody (Gianpaolo Venuta) is on vacation with a group of friends in Bangkok, Thailand. On a skydiving trip, they unknowingly land on the fictional pirate-occupied Rook Islands, where they are captured by pirate lord Vaas Montenegro (Michael Mando), who intends to sell them into slavery. Jason escapes with help from his older brother Grant (Lane Edwards), whom Vaas kills. Jason is rescued by Dennis (Charles Malik Whitfield), an adopted member of the islands' native Rakyat tribe. Dennis recognizes Jason's potential as a warrior and gives him the Tatau, the tattoos of a Rakyat warrior. While helping the Rakyat, Jason finds one of his friends, Daisy (Natalie Brown), at the house of botanist Dr. Earnhardt (Martin Kevan). Impressed with Jason's prowess, the Rakyat allow him to be the second outsider to enter their sacred temple. After he returns the Silver Dragon Knife, a Rakyat relic, Jason is initiated into the tribe by the priestess Citra (Faye Kingslee). Aided by Earnhardt and CIA agent Willis Huntley (Alain Goulem), Jason helps the Rakyat retake their island from the pirates while also finding and rescuing his girlfriend Liza (Mylène Dinh-Robic) and his friends Keith (James A. Woods) and Oliver (Kristian Hodko). After several encounters with Vaas, Jason learns Vaas is Citra's brother who betrayed the Rakyat after becoming addicted to drugs brought by his employer, Hoyt Volker (Steve Cumyn), a South African slave trader and drug lord. Jason soon matures into a fearsome and skilled warrior and, revered by the Rakyat, begins to enjoy all the killing while growing more distant from his friends. Citra has sex with Jason while he is under the effects of hallucinogens, after which she asks him to stay on the island. Deciding to remain, Jason bids goodbye to his friends and heads to Vaas' pirate base, discovering Vaas has set up a trap for him. Jason survives but then enters a delusional, dream-like state where he must fight multiple duplicates of Vaas. He eventually reaches the real Vaas and stabs him with the Dragon Knife, before collapsing. Jason awakens with Citra in the Rakyat temple and promises to kill Hoyt for her. After reaching Hoyt's island with Huntley's help, Jason meets Sam Becker (Stephen Bogaert), Huntley's fellow operative, who helps him infiltrate Hoyt's army. During this time, Jason discovers that his younger brother Riley is alive and is being held captive by Hoyt. With Hoyt watching them on camera, Jason beats Riley to maintain the ruse, though he reveals himself when Becker loops the video. Jason works his way into Hoyt's confidence, and he and Becker plan to kill Hoyt at a poker game. However, as they sit down to play, Hoyt murders Becker after revealing he saw through the looped video. Jason kills Hoyt and his men in a knife fight, losing half a finger in the process, and escapes the island with Riley. Jason and Riley fly to Earnhardt's house to discover it on fire. The dying doctor reveals that the Rakyat attacked the house and kidnapped Jason's friends. Jason confronts Citra at the Rakyat temple, but she drugs him and captures Riley. Citra tells Jason that she has fallen in love with him, believing him to be a mighty warrior of Rakyat legend and that she will "free" him. Jason dreams of walking a fiery path with the Dragon Knife, with Liza appearing as a monster in his dream. He awakens, holding Liza at knifepoint, and is given a choice to either save his friends or kill them by allying with Citra. If Jason frees his friends, Citra begs him to stay on the island while an outraged Dennis prepares to stab Jason for his betrayal. Citra jumps in front of him and is stabbed instead; proclaiming her love for Jason as she dies in his arms. Jason and his friends leave the island by boat, with Jason narrating that despite all the killing turning him into a monster, he still believes that in some place in his heart, he is better than this. If Jason kills Liza, he and Citra later have sex in a ritual. Afterward, Citra stabs Jason, telling him as he dies that their child will lead the Rakyat to glory and that he "won." The game ends with a still image of the boat and the Dragon Knife on the beach while the credits roll. ### Cooperative campaign Six months before Jason arrives on the Rook Islands, ex-Scottish gangster Callum (Stuart Martin), discharged US Army combat medic Tisha (Alana Maria), retired corrupt Philadelphia police officer Leonard (Nigel Whitmey) and former Russian hitman Mikhail (Nick Nevern) find work on the cruise ship MS Astrid. However, pirates capture the Astrid and its passengers after the captain sells them out in exchange for the ship's payroll. The cooperative campaign centers around the four characters fighting against pirates and privateers in the Rook Islands as they pursue the captain. ## Development Ubisoft Montreal served as the game's lead developer and was responsible for creating the game's single-player. It was a global production that involved multiple Ubisoft studios: Massive Entertainment created the game's multiplayer portion, Ubisoft Shanghai designed the missions and crafted the AI of wildlife, Ubisoft Bucharest provided quality assurance, Ubisoft Reflections assisted Montreal on the design of vehicles, and Red Storm Entertainment was responsible for making the PC version and the game's user interface. West Studio created early concept art for the game. The game's pre-production started in 2008, and more than 90 people worked on the game. Far Cry 3 was initially planned to form a single cohesive narrative with the previous installments of the series, though this was abandoned when the game's development was partially restarted in 2010 due to the departure of several creative staff including the original creative director and narrative director. On November 6, 2012, Ubisoft confirmed that the game had been released to manufacturing. Far Cry 3 is the first game in the series to use the Dunia 2 game engine, a heavily modified and upgraded version of the Dunia engine used in Far Cry 2. The Dunia 2 engine was made to improve the performance of Dunia-based games on consoles and to add more complex rendering features such as global illumination. ### Gameplay design The team avoided creating distinct levels. As opposed to traditional game design – in which designers carefully calculated where and how to place environmental objects on a grid – the team instead experimented with dynamic cover design and utilized an algorithm provided by the Dunia Engine to quickly procedurally generate the layout of a large area. The team would then manually adjust the placement of different objects and test the output. By avoiding repeating patterns, this enabled the world to be unpredictable and realistic, and allowed dynamic wildlife and enemy encounters to remain fresh even when players explore the same area again. Spaces are created to be logical and grounded. For instance, some enemy outposts are sites of industries, crucial for the pirates to operate at Rook Islands. The team wanted players to believe that the spaces they explore "[exist] for a reason" within the game – not merely for gameplay purposes – and these efforts at creating a civilization helped increase the game world's credibility. When creating the world's space, the game was inspired by The Elder Scrolls series and Red Dead Redemption in how these series reward players with progression. However, the team wished to avoid repetitiveness in gameplay, and created over 250 different hostile encounters and a system that remembers each encounter and only recycle it after extended play. The team believed that this helped raise the diversity of the experience. The team evaluated the gameplay elements from Far Cry 2 and determined which gameplay elements they should include or improve. Weapon degradation and malaria infection were removed as the team thought that it made the game less fun. According to producer Dan Hay, Far Cry 2's world was barren and lacked reactions to players' actions. Therefore, the team decided to make the world more lively with the goal of creating "an actual civilization" for players to encounter. In Far Cry 3, players' actions impact the game's world, with Vaas's influence gradually reducing after Jason liberates a hostile camp. The world of Rook Islands was designed to be filled with opportunities and activities for players, enticing them into exploring so that they would not feel bored while traveling within the game's world. The team introduced side quests which allow players to learn more about the history and inhabitants of the islands. The world was designed to be empowering, so that players were free to do what they wanted in the world without being hurried into completing the main quests. The team also attempted to increase the accessibility of travel by improving the game's driving mechanics and introducing fast travel points. Within each mission, players can freely choose their playstyle, whether they choose to eliminate enemies using stealth or firepower, Hay believing that the game respects players' choices. He also believed the team had crafted a meaningful open world, and Rook Island was considered to be the "second most important character". According to Jamie Keen, the game's lead designer, the world was both "alluring and repulsive" and players will "feel seduced by the place and all the people in it". Inspirations were taken from media including Apocalypse Now and Lost. The team decided to return to an island setting, like the first Far Cry, as a narrative decision made during the game's early development. The team believed that the setting mashed well with the story they wanted to create, enabled them to create a world filled with variety, and helped inspire a sense of isolation and discovery. ### Story Level designer Mark Thompson stated that in a Far Cry game, morality was not absolute and that there was always "a moral gray space". The team intentionally avoided introducing a morality system which would judge players' actions. Gray morality is seen as Jason murdered the pirates in order to rescue his friends and survive on the hostile island. The team took inspiration from Apocalypse Now, The Deer Hunter, and Deliverance when they were writing the story. They understood the game as a first-person shooter, which involves killing many non-playable characters to succeed, and the team wanted a story that embraced the concept of shooting to prevent narrative dissonance that might hinder the story and the overall experience. As Jason kills more people, he becomes increasingly tolerant toward violence. Hay stated that players will slowly see the transformation in Jason, as he strays further from who he was at the beginning of the game, and begins to parallel his pirate counterparts. Jason's hallucination sequences were meant to reflect his destabilizing psyche. Thompson described them as "introspective sequences" in which Jason's conscience questions the players' actions. When he was writing these sequences, Jeffrey Yohalem was inspired by the dreamlike levels from Prince of Persia. Jason's friends view him differently and he will begin experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder. Despite his explanatory closing narrative, the game left room for interpretation. Ultimately, Hay stated that the story was about the cost of becoming a hero, and how heavy the toll can be in one's journey. Yohalem designed a story that examines the minds of players. The game was described as being "self-aware", reacting to players' style of play. Yohalem, in particular, wished to contrast the difference between players and the playable character, in which players have fun playing the game, while Jason is forced on a terrible journey killing people. Being able to freely explore the game world and enjoy the activities it can offer, while ignoring the urgency to save Jason's friends, was meant to reflect players' inner mindset. According to Yohalem, the game can reveal a player's personal perspective, and asks whether players are willing to "kill these characters in the game in order to finish your entertainment". This creates a sense of discomfort to players. Yohalem, when creating the story and the world, was inspired by Pulp Fiction, A History of Violence, Requiem For a Dream and Exit Through The Gift Shop. As opposed to Far Cry 2's oppressive world, the game was inspired by Alice in the Wonderland; Yohalem stated that the game asked why players would willingly trap themselves in a beautifully-crafted but virtual world instead of spending time with real people. The story was widely criticized for racism and colonialism, though Yohalem defended it by calling the game "the opposite of Avatar" as the local indigenous people did not need Jason's help and he was being manipulated into doing what the people wanted. He insisted that players need to approach the game like a riddle so as to understand the subtext and clues that the game offers. Initially, the game's primary villain was named Bull, a bald and muscular man who looked similar to "a 300-pound, six-foot-tall bullmastiff dog". The character was redesigned after Michael Mando auditioned for the role, as his physicality was very different from what the developers had planned. Bull's physical fierceness transformed into the villain's emotive and volatile personality. A second iteration of the character was named Pyro and featured a heavily mutilated body, though such features were later removed as Mando's portrayal of Vaas enabled his personality to be expressed through subtle mannerisms. The team envisioned him to be a charming but menacing villain. Hay compared Vaas to Darth Vader, in which his presence is often short and brief, yet when he appears, he catches attention and galvanizes players' memories. Hay described Vaas as a character that was "very much in your face", which helped cemented Jason's early status as a "victim". Yohalem added that Vaas's death at the game's midpoint was inspired by the novel To the Lighthouse, in which the protagonist died midway through the story and the rest of the plot explores her absence. To create nuanced characters, the team utilized motion capture so that actors could convey more-complicated emotions on-screen. Enemies are controlled by AI which was designed to be believable, such as when untrained enemies would make mistakes during combat. Elias Toufexis initially was chosen to voice Jason Brody, though he was replaced by Gianpaolo Venuta two years later. ### Multiplayer Massive Entertainment handled the game's multiplayer development. According to David Polfeldt, the managing director of Massive, the team was involved at the early stage of development and the opportunity helped diversify their portfolio, as the team had only had experience working on real-time strategy games like World in Conflict. Magnus Jensen, the multiplayer portion's creative director, stated that the multiplayer carries the theme of insanity from the single-player. To accomplish this, the competitive multiplayer allows players to use supernatural elements to combat enemies, while the cooperative multiplayer features characters that are "as unhinged as any of the characters" in the single-player mode. The multiplayer was also said to include elements commonly found in independent games and social games. The game's multiplayer functionality was shut down on September 1, 2022. ## Promotion and release Far Cry 3 was announced in June 2011 during Ubisoft's press conference at E3 2011. A closed beta for the game's multiplayer portion was launched for players who purchased Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Future Soldier at GameStop before May 22, 2012. A companion app named Far Cry The Outpost was released for iOS and Android to allow players to manage their multiplayer loadout and monitor their progress. A UK-exclusive companion app named "Insanity Mirror" imagines what players would look like if they are trapped on an island. A Facebook app named "Holiday From Hell", which allows players to create and customize their own postcard, was released in September 2012. The first 2,000 participants had their own postcard printed and delivered by Royal Mail for free. To promote the game at PAX East, players who shaved their head or received a permanent tribal tattoo would receive a free copy of the game. At PAX Prime, attendees can shave their head into a mohawk to look like Vaas. Ubisoft commissioned Michael Lambert, a Minecraft enthusiast, and artists Axel Janssen and Yohann Delcourt to create a custom map and texture pack mimicking Far Cry 3's setting and characters within the popular indie game Minecraft. The Minecraft texture pack was released, along with a Far Cry 3-Minecraft custom adventure map, on October 26, 2012. A four-part webseries named Far Cry: The Experience, which stars Mando as Vaas and Christopher Mintz-Plasse as himself, was released. The game was initially set to be released on September 4, 2012, for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. This was delayed to November 29 in Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) regions and December 4 in the US, to give additional time to complete the game. On launch date, the Windows version of the game suffered from server issues which temporarily caused the game to be unplayable. Players who pre-ordered the game gained access to "The Lost Expeditions" pack which includes two single-player missions named The Forgotten Experiment and Ignition in the Deep and a flare gun for multiplayer. Players who preordered the game at GameStop gained access to the "Monkey Business Pack", which adds four missions to the game. European players could also purchase the Insane Edition which includes all pre-order bonuses and all other forms of launch downloadable content (DLC), along with a Vaas bobblehead and a survival skill manual for usage in real situations of danger. Uplay users can unlock bonus content ranging from a new mission to customizable items. The "Monkey Business Pack" and "The Lost Expeditions" were later bundled with another two DLC packs, namely "The Warrior" and "The Predator Pack" in the Deluxe Bundle, which was released on January 17, 2013. Not included in the bundle were "High Tides", a PlayStation 3-exclusive DLC that concludes the cooperative multiplayer modes with two missions, and Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon, the game's standalone expansion. Blood Dragon was a parody of 1980s action films, cartoons and video games and takes place on a retro-futuristic open world island with players assuming the action role of the military cyborg Sergeant Rex "Power" Colt. Far Cry 3 and Blood Dragon were later bundled with Far Cry 2 and Far Cry Classic in a compilation game named Far Cry: The Wild Expedition for PS3, Xbox 360, and PC. Starting from May 29, 2018, players who purchased Far Cry 5's season pass or the Gold Edition on PC can gain access to the Classic Edition, the game's re-release for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. The Classic Edition was made available for standalone purchase on June 26, 2018. On September 21, 2012, it was confirmed that Far Cry 3 would not appear on Nintendo's Wii U due to the system not being an onset of development, despite Ubisoft themselves being major supporters of the system at launch a few weeks before Far Cry 3's launch. ## Reception ### Critical reception Jim Sterling from Destructoid felt the game had a larger emphasis on storytelling when compared with its predecessors, and liked the game's cast of characters. Sterling called the story "tightly written" and "stylishly presented". Matt Bertz from Game Informer agreed, calling the story "compelling". The game's cast of side-characters was praised for their acting and characterization. Mando's performance as Vaas was praised by critics: Ryan Taljonick from GamesRadar stated that his presence made some missions memorable. Mitch Dyer from IGN noted that Jason is a relatable character due to his many flaws. Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot questioned some of the narrative decisions, such as the heavy emphasis on drug use. Other story beats, such as Jason's transformation into an effective combatant within a short period of time and Vaas's early death in the story, were criticized. Bob Mackey of 1Up.com felt that the game lacked cultural commentary that it promised stating: "The team at Ubisoft Montreal could have used this opportunity to point out the strange trend of our wise-cracking, pretty boy video game heroes ruthlessly slaying hordes of faceless human opponents in increasingly cruel ways, but Far Cry 3 plays it incredibly safe -- despite what its advertising campaign would have you believe." Both Bramwell and Tom Francis from PC Gamer remarked on the main quest's linear design, which Francis described as a "guided tour of all the clumsiest ways to mash story and videogames together until both of them break". Arthur Gies from Polygon criticized the story for being clichéd. The game's handling of subject matter like misogyny and homophobia and its usage of the white savior trope were also criticized. The island setting received critical acclaim. Tom Bramwell from Eurogamer stated that the island was the main reason he became captivated by the game, mainly due to the game's diverse activities and the island's rich history. He liked the artificial intelligence of the game's wild animals, which makes the game unpredictable. Bertz agreed, saying that the environment was "varied" and "gorgeous", and appreciated its design for accommodating multiple playstyles. VanOrd appreciated the effort Ubisoft had put into designing Rook Islands, saying that "Far Cry 3 isn't so much about the story as it is about its world", and called the world "enthralling" and "focused". VanOrd also liked the ecology, which interacts with each other and helped make the world more believable. Dyer enjoyed finding the game's collectibles, which helped enrich the island's history. According to Dyer, the game had an "astonishing sense of place" and "captivating culture and scenery". Arthur Gies from Polygon was also impressed by the world design, which he felt allowed various emergent events to occur and systems to flow and intertwine with each other. Taljonick added that the emergent gameplay contributed to some personal stories which are unique to each player. Critics generally enjoyed the gameplay. Sterling praised the freedom given to players to approach objectives, though they felt that many of the side-objectives became repetitive very quickly. They praised the game's increased accessibility, though they noted that travel was an annoyance for them. Bramwell appreciated players' freedom, citing stealth as one of the game's strengths and noting combat's adaptive nature. VanOrd agreed, calling stealth "a blast" and praised the game for presenting opportunities that allow players to experiment and be creative. Dyer agreed, saying that the game's action can be exhilarating and that actions can be chained together. Bertz and Taljonick liked the gameplay improvements such as the inclusion of fast-travel points and the removal of weapon malfunctioning, though Bertz was disappointed that the AI-controlled human enemies were not more adaptive. VanOrd liked the gunplay and vehicular control, and the game's sense of progression presented due to the inclusion of role-playing game elements, though he and Francis lamented the respawning enemies, which they felt were frustrating. Gies praised the game's wealth of content, though he warned that such could be "intimidating". The multiplayer component of the game was considered as a disappointment. Sterling remarked that the game's competitive multiplayer lacked new ideas and compared it to Call of Duty. They liked the efforts put into cooperative multiplayer which they compared to Left 4 Dead, but criticized the lack of characterization for the player avatars. Francis called the cooperative multiplayer "fun", though he was disappointed by the lack of a server browser. Bramwell called the multiplayer components the least interesting parts of the game, though he appreciated the presence of bonus content, saying that it made for a generous package. Bertz called the cooperative mode "a fun diversion", though he lamented clumsy movements and sub-par hit-detection mechanics as factors that hindered competitive multiplayer's appeal. VanOrd felt that the cooperative mode did not use the excellent open world created by the team, though he praised the "unique twists" featured in the progression system. Dyer had a more negative view on the multiplayer components, calling them uninspired and criticizing the confusing map design. He felt that the cooperative component made the game a "mindless shooter with senseless direction", and further criticized the lack of difficulty scaling. ### Sales The game's preorder sales were below Ubisoft's expectations. In the US, it was the sixth-bestselling video game according to NPD Group. It was also the second-biggest launch for a video game in the region in December. In January 2013, it became the second-bestselling game, trailing behind Black Ops II. In the UK, it was the ninth-biggest launch for a video game in 2012. In its week of release, it became the second-bestselling retail game, only behind Call of Duty: Black Ops II. Far Cry 3 later toppled Black Ops II as the bestselling game of the week during Christmas. More than 4.5 million copies were shipped to retailers in December 2012. In October 2014, Ubisoft announced that approximately 10 million copies of the game had been sold. ### Awards ## Legacy The game's success helped elevate the franchise's status, which is now viewed as a blockbuster series with a strong identity. Dom Peppiatt from GamesRadar wrote that Far Cry 3 and its expansion Blood Dragon helped cement Ubisoft's domination in the open-world first-person shooter genres and its position as both a developer and publisher. Many features from Far Cry 3, such as the presence of towers and wildlife hunting, were later used in other Ubisoft non-Far Cry games. Ubisoft initially planned to make a direct-narrative sequel to Far Cry 3, which involved the return of Jason as the game's protagonist and other supporting characters and the resurrection of Vaas. The plan was quickly abandoned. A sequel, Far Cry 4, set in the Himalayas region, was released on November 18, 2014, for Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360 and Xbox One. It features a new cast of characters and a new map.
5,522,545	Ontario Highway 66	1,154,198,537	Ontario provincial highway	[ "Kirkland Lake", "Ontario provincial highways", "Roads in Timiskaming District", "Trans-Canada Highway" ]	King's Highway 66, commonly referred to as Highway 66, is a provincially-maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. Located in the Timiskaming District, the highway begins at Matachewan near a junction with Highway 65. It extends eastward for 107.0 kilometres (66.5 mi) to the Quebec boundary just east of Kearns. At the provincial boundary, the highway continues eastward as Route 117. From Highway 11 (41 kilometres (25 mi) east of Matachewan) at Kenogami Lake eastwards to the Quebec boundary, Highway 66 is designated as part of the Trans-Canada Highway. ## Route description Beginning at the village of Matachewan, where the highway continues west as Highway 566, the route travels 4.6 kilometres (2.9 mi) east to a junction with Highway 65. From there to the community of Kenogami Lake, on Highway 11, the highway passes through a 40-kilometre (25 mi) wilderness, encountering few roads or signs of humanity. Instead the highway winds through rock cuts, muskeg and thick coniferous forests. After intersecting Highway 11, the route continues east through the controversially-named community of Swastika. It encounters Highway 112 between Swastika and the community of Chaput Hughes, after which the highway enters the town of Kirkland Lake. East of the town, Highway 66 passes through King Kirkland and encounters Highway 672. Highway 66 returns to a remote setting, eventually passing through the community of Larder Lake, where it encounters Highway 624. For the remaining 17 kilometres (11 mi), the route snakes through the wilderness, passing through the communities of Virginiatown and Kearns between long segments of forest. Immediately east of Kearns, the highway crosses the Ontario–Quebec boundary, where it continues as Quebec Route 117 to Rouyn-Noranda. The entirety of Highway 66 is located within Timiskaming District in the rugged and remote Canadian Shield. Outside of the communities along the route, there is almost no habitation or services. Consequently, traffic volumes drop considerably east of Highway 11. ## History Highway 66 was first assumed by the Department of Highways on September 22, 1937, shortly after its merger with the Department of Northern Development (DND) on April 1. The DND created the road during the early 1930s, connecting several rail stops. The Kirkland Lake area is the site of several gold deposits that were discovered during the first quarter of the century, and the King's Highway status brought about new improvements to help service the mines. Initially, the route was only 26.2 miles (42.2 km) long, connecting Kirkland Lake with the Ontario–Quebec boundary. On November 16, 1955, the route was extended 25.5 miles (41.0 km) west to Highway 65 near Matachewan. Although several minor realignments to improve the rugged route have been made since then, it did not change significantly between 1956 and 1997. On April 1, 1997, a 1.9-kilometre (1.2 mi) section of the highway, between Goldthorpe Drive and Main Street, was transferred to the town of Kirkland Lake. Beginning in August 2011, the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario undertook the Virginiatown Relocation Study to determine a new location around the town and bypass the abandoned Kerr Addison Mine. Construction was announced in 2015 and was completed sometime before the end of 2017. ## Major intersections ## See also - Golden Highway
1,858,255	Australian cricket team in England in 1948	1,164,040,717	Visit to England by the Australian cricket team in 1948	[ "1948 Ashes series", "1948 in Australian cricket", "1948 in Ceylon", "1948 in English cricket", "Australian cricket tours of England", "Australian cricket tours of Sri Lanka", "Australian folklore", "International cricket competitions from 1945–46 to 1960", "Sri Lankan cricket seasons from 1880–81 to 1971–72", "The Ashes", "The Invincibles (cricket)" ]	The Australian cricket team in England in 1948 is famous for being the only Test match side to play an entire tour of England without losing a match. This feat earned them the nickname of "The Invincibles", and they are regarded as one of the greatest cricket teams of all time. According to the Australian federal government, the team "is one of Australia's most cherished sporting legends". The team was captained by Don Bradman, who was making his fourth and final tour of England. Including five Test matches, Australia played a total of 34 matches, of which 31 were first-class, between 28 April and 18 September. Two of the non-first-class matches were played in Scotland. They had a busy schedule, with 112 days of play scheduled in 144 days, meaning that they often played every day of the week except Sunday. Their record in the first-class games was 23 won and 8 drawn; in all matches, they won 25 and drew 9; many of the victories were by large margins. They won the Test series 4–0 with one draw. The strength of the Australian team was based around its formidable batting line-up, which included Bradman, Arthur Morris, vice-captain Lindsay Hassett, Neil Harvey and Sid Barnes, and the hostile fast bowling of Ray Lindwall, Keith Miller and Bill Johnston. Due to the popularity of Bradman, generally regarded as the greatest batsman of all time, and the fact that he had announced that it was his farewell international tour, the Australians were greeted with much fanfare across the country, and many records for match attendances were broken. The record for Test attendance at a match in England was broken three times: in the Second, Third and Fourth Tests, and stands to this day. ## Touring party - Keith Johnson (manager) - Donald Bradman (captain) (information) - Lindsay Hassett (vice-captain) (information) - Ray Lindwall (information) - Keith Miller (information) - Sam Loxton (information) - Neil Harvey (information) - Bill Brown (information) - Arthur Morris (information) - Don Tallon (wicket-keeper) (information) - Sid Barnes (information) - Ian Johnson (information) - Bill Johnston (information) - Ernie Toshack (information) - Doug Ring (information) - Ron Hamence (information) - Colin McCool (information) - Ron Saggers (wicket-keeper) (information) ## Significance The 1948 Australian team has great significance in cricket history, as it is the only side to tour England unbeaten, earning the sobriquet "The Invincibles". The tour was captain Donald Bradman's last Test series, and the immediate postwar team was the most successful that Bradman appeared in. It has been claimed that English cricket suffered more heavily from the effects of World War II than the Australians. Even so, various commentators have rated the 1948 Australians as one of the best cricket teams ever, and it is often compared to other great outfits such as the 1902 Australian touring team, Warwick Armstrong's Australian side of just after World War I, the West Indies team of the 1980s and the Australian team of the 1990s and 2000s. This was not a view shared by Jack Fingleton, Bradman's batting rival from the 1930s, who wrote 'the 1948 Australian side to England, side that some critics, ignoring the apparent lack of strength in English cricket that season, dubbed the "best Australian team ever" – which was just moonshine. Yorkshire almost beat the Australians of 1948, but his view is very much in the minority. The high regard with which The Invincibles are held in the annals of Australian and world cricket is reflected in the various honours accorded to the players. Bradman, Lindwall and Miller were among the ten inaugural inductees into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 1996. Hassett, Morris and Harvey were later inducted, so that 20% of the inductees are from the 1948 team. Of these six, all except Hassett were selected in Australia's Team of the Century, with Bradman as captain and Miller his deputy. Bradman, Lindwall, Miller and Harvey are among a group of only 14 Australians in a total of 60 players who have been inducted into the International Cricket Council's Hall of Fame. In The Ten Greatest Test Teams by Tom Graveney (with Norman Miller), ten teams were compared by a computer, and the 1948 Australians emerged second behind the 1984 West Indians. Graveney strongly disagreed with the result, writing 'there has not been a better team in my lifetime than Don Bradman's Australian tourists of 1948'. The computer regarded Sam Loxton as a member of the team as he played more Tests in the series than Neil Harvey; if Harvey had been picked, the Australians would have been the superior team. The three Queensland players selected in the touring party—Don Tallon, Bill Brown, and Colin McCool—were all from Toombul District Cricket Club. ## Preparations Since the resumption of cricket following World War II, Australia had played 11 Tests and had been unbeaten. In 1946–47, they won the five-Test series against England 3–0, and followed this with a 4–0 series win over India in the following season. Australia were regarded as an extremely strong team in the lead-up to the tour of England, and their captain Donald Bradman publicly expressed his desire to achieve the unprecedented feat of going through the five-month tour without defeat. The committee that selected the touring party was Bradman, Jack Ryder and Chappie Dwyer. They held their final meeting on Wednesday 11 February and announced the team that day. The team was chosen with a dual emphasis on strong batting and fast bowling. This was in large part because England had agreed to make a new ball available after 55 six-ball overs in the Tests; a new ball was generally taken after every 200 runs, which usually takes more than 55 overs to accumulate, the rule change meant that a new ball was more frequently available. A new ball is more helpful to fast bowling, so this move favoured the team with the better pace attack, in this case Australia. Australia had injury concerns to key players ahead of the tour. Chronic knee injuries had begun to hamper medium-pacer Toshack, and he only made the trip after a 3–2 vote by a medical panel, despite being one of the first players chosen by the selectors on cricketing merit. Leading paceman Lindwall had been playing with an injured leg tendon. In addition, his foot drag during the delivery stride led to speculation about the legality of his bowling action. The injury was worked on ahead of the tour, while Bradman advised Lindwall on how to rectify any suspicion over his bowling action. The Australian captain advised his bowler to ensure that his foot was further behind the line than usual to avoid being no-balled, and to operate below full speed until the umpires were satisfied. Bradman's counsel was effective, as Lindwall did not have a no-ball problem during the tour. Bill Jeanes, who was secretary of the Australian Board of Control and had managed the previous Australian tour of England in 1938, was offered the job of managing the 1948 team, but he turned it down. Jeanes had become increasingly unpopular among the players because of an approach that cricket historian Gideon Haigh has called "increasingly officious and liverish". He was replaced by Keith Johnson, the New South Wales delegate to the Australian Board of Control. Johnson had previously managed the Australian Services team—which included Keith Miller and Lindsay Hassett—in the Victory Tests that took place in 1945 at the conclusion of the Second World War in Europe. ### Warm-up matches in Australia Before they sailed for England, Australia played three warm-up matches. The first two were two-day games against Tasmania in Hobart and at the Northern Tasmanian Cricket Association Ground, Launceston; the third was a three-day match against Western Australia in Perth. In Hobart, Australia scored 538/5 declared, with centuries by Barnes, Hassett and Harvey in reply to 122. Using a mixture of pace and spin, they reduced Tasmania to 186/7 when time ran out. In Launceston, Australia won by an innings and 49 runs. Toshack took 5/24 as Tasmania fell for 123. Australia then scored 288 before five bowlers shared the wickets as Tasmania fell for just 116, Barnes taking 3/1. Four days later, on Saturday 13 March, the Australians were at the WACA Ground where they found a tougher test from Western Australia. Western Australia scored 348 as Wally Langdon made 112, while five bowlers took two wickets each. Australia replied with 442/7 declared, including 115 apiece by Morris and Bradman. Western Australia only had time to reach 62/3 and the game was drawn. The match attracted a total crowd of 30,500. ## Voyage and stopover in Ceylon The team set sail on board from Fremantle on Friday 19 March. En route to England, the Australians berthed in Colombo where they played a one-day single-innings match—not limited overs—against the Ceylon national team at the Colombo Oval. The local newspaper The Islander ran a headline of "Bradman Will Definitely Play" and this guaranteed a crowd of more than 20,000. Australia batted first and became suspicious about the pitch as the morning went on. At lunch, Ian Johnson demanded that the pitch be measured and it was found to be only 20 yards (18 m) long. After that, the bowlers delivered from two yards behind the crease. Australia made 184/8 declared (Barnes 49, Miller 46) before a monsoon ended the match with Ceylon at 46/2 in reply. The party docked at Tilbury on Friday 16 April to a resounding welcome. Bradman announced the delivery of 17,000 food parcels as a gift to the British people from the State of Victoria. Great Britain was still in the throes of rationing and post-war austerity. ## Popularity Despite Australia's ruthless on-field dominance and a succession of one-sided victories, the touring team drew unprecedented levels of spectator and media interest. Bradman's dominant cricketing stature was a key factor in his team's popularity with the public, especially as it was known that it would be his last international campaign. A leading cricket writer of the time, R. C. Robertson-Glasgow, said "we want him to do well. We feel we have a share in him. He is more than Australian. He is a world batsman." The Australian journalist Andy Flanagan said that "cities, towns and hotels are beflagged, carpets set down, and dignitaries wait to extend an official welcome. He is the Prince of Cricketers." Writing later, Haigh opined that "perhaps no touring cricketer ... has been as feted as Bradman in that northern summer". Bradman received hundreds of personal letters every day, and one of his dinner speeches was broadcast live, causing the British Broadcasting Corporation to postpone the news bulletin. Of Bradman's retirement, Robertson-Glasgow said in the 1949 Wisden Cricketers' Almanack: "... a miracle has been removed from among us ... So must ancient Italy have felt when she heard of the death of Hannibal." As a team, the Australians were greeted by record crowds and gate receipts across the country, even when wet weather curtailed the matches. The record attendance for a Test match in England was broken three times, in the Second Test at Lord's, the Third Test at Old Trafford, and the Fourth Test at Headingley. The 158,000 spectators that watched the proceedings at Headingley remain a record for a Test on English soil. Off the field, the Australians were inundated with requests for social functions, including appointments with government officials and members of the royal family, and they had to juggle a plethora of off-field engagements, with 112 days of scheduled cricket in the space of 144 days. Three-day matches were often held consecutively with only the traditional Sunday rest day, although their dominance ended several matches prematurely and earned them extra rest days. Team manager Keith Johnson, the only administrator in the touring party, was flooded with phone calls and letters. Bradman later said he was worried that Johnson's tireless work would cause health problems and that "it was the tribute to a bulldog determination to see the job through". Wisden said "Indebtedness for the smooth running of the tour and general harmony of the team was due largely to the manager, Mr Keith Johnson, hard-working and always genial ... Paying tribute to the loyalty of the players, Mr Johnson said there had not been a discordant note in the party throughout the tour." Bradman said that "no side could have wished for a better manager". ## Bradman's role Bradman's position as a selector gave him more power than previous Australian captains, who did not have an explicit vote in team selection. This was further magnified by Bradman being a member of the Board of Control while still an active player, a threefold combination that he alone has occupied in Australian cricket history. According to Haigh, he "was the dominant figure in Australian cricket", and an "unimpeachable figure". At the age of 40, Bradman was by four years the oldest player on the team; three-quarters of his team were 32 or younger, and some viewed him as a father figure. Bradman wrote that this was the most personally fulfilling period of his playing days, as the divisiveness of the 1930s had passed. He wrote: > Knowing the personnel, I was confident that here at last was the great opportunity which I had longed for. A team of cricketers whose respect and loyalty were unquestioned, who would regard me in a fatherly sense and listen to my advice, follow my guidance and not question my handling of affairs ... there are no longer any fears that they will query the wisdom of what you do. The result is a sense of freedom to give full reign to your own creative ability and personal judgment. However, some players expressed displeasure at Bradman's ruthless obsession towards annihilating the opposition. Miller deliberately allowed himself to be bowled first ball for a duck in a protest against Australia's world record of 721 runs in one day against Essex. He also deplored Bradman's hard-nosed attitude in fixtures nominally designated as "festival matches". Feeling that Bradman was needlessly batting Australia far beyond impregnability, Miller played with reckless aggression, rather than a measured style in line with his captain's aim of remaining undefeated. Bradman's letters in later life, published posthumously, revealed his hostility towards Miller. Sid Barnes later criticised Bradman for his reluctance to allow Ron Hamence—one of the reserve batsmen—to partake in meaningful matchplay due to captain's reluctance to risk Australia's unbeaten run. ## Roles and strategy As matches often started the day after the previous fixture, sometimes amounting to six days of cricket a week—Sunday was always a rest day—Australia employed a rotation policy in order to allow the players to recuperate, except for the Tests and matches against Worcestershire, the Marylebone Cricket Club and the Leveson-Gower's XI, when they chose their strongest team. As a result, no member of the squad—Bradman included—played in more than 23 of the first-class matches. Thus, the vice-captain Hassett led the Australians in nine tour matches while Bradman was rested, and maintained the unbeaten run in all of them. Wisden opined that "in addition to his playing ability Hassett's cheerfulness and leadership, which extended to off-the-field relaxation as well as in the more exacting part of the programme, combined to make him an ideal vice-captain able to lift a considerable load off Bradman's busy shoulders". Likewise, the batting was regularly rotated. The three openers Barnes, Morris and Brown took turns sitting out, while the middle-order was changed frequently and the wicket-keeping duties divided between Tallon and Saggers. Australia's bowling attack was led by Lindwall and Miller, who took the new ball in the Tests. Bradman used the pair in short and fiery bursts with the new ball. English cricket administrators had agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs; at the time, the norm was to allow a new ball for every 200 runs scored, something that usually took longer than 55 overs. The new regulation played directly into the hands of the Australians, as a new ball is ideal for fast bowling and the tourists had a vastly superior pace attack. Bradman thus wanted to preserve his two first-choice pacemen for a vigorous attack on the English batsmen every 55 overs. As a result, Australia's third fast bowler Bill Johnston bowled the most overs, and the left arm seamer Ernie Toshack also had a heavy workload until a knee injury ended his campaign. The new ball rule also meant that spin bowling was less effective in the Tests, so Australia only used one full-time spinner in the Tests, off spinner Johnson, until his omission in favour of leg spinner Ring. Together they took only eight wickets. Things were different in the county matches. As Bradman wanted to keep Lindwall and Miller fresh for the Tests, he generally gave them a lighter workload against the weaker opposition in the county matches, and the three spinners Ring, Johnson and McCool did more of the work, especially as the 55-over rule did not apply outside the Tests. Ring did the second-most bowling outside the Tests, despite not being in Bradman's first-choice team. Bradman even used Hamence, a reserve batsman, to open the bowling at times, in order to rest his bowlers, and in the second match against Yorkshire, decided to bat for an extended period instead of going for a win, so that his bowlers could recuperate. ## Ashes Test matches The five-Test Ashes series was won convincingly by Australia 4–0. England was captained by Norman Yardley and their batting was strong on paper, the first four in the order generally being Len Hutton, Cyril Washbrook, Bill Edrich and Denis Compton. They were supported by the likes of Joe Hardstaff, Jr., Tom Dollery, Charlie Barnett, Jack Crapp, John Dewes, Allan Watkins, Yardley and wicket-keeper Godfrey Evans. However, they found the fast bowling trio of Lindwall, Miller and Johnston—supported by the medium pace of Toshack—a real handful, especially with the 55-over new ball rule. Lindwall and Miller were groundbreaking fast bowlers, with high pace and the ability to deliver menacing short-pitched bowling at the upper body of the batsmen. Prior to World War II, pace bowlers were generally much slower and rarely bowled at the body. England were yet to develop similar bowlers, and as a result, Australia were able to pepper the upper body of the opposition without fear of retaliation. At one stage, the Australian short-pitched barrage prompted the English selectors to drop leading batsman Hutton, something that provoked great controversy. Lindwall and Johnston dominated the home batsmen and took 27 wickets apiece, at averages of 19.62 and 23.33 respectively, while the injury-prone Miller took 13 at 23.15. For England, the batsman emerging with most credit was Compton, who scored 562 runs at 62.44. Washbrook (356 runs at 50.85) was the only other player to average beyond 45. In contrast, Australia's batsmen had relatively little difficulty against the hosts' attack. England's bowling was largely reliant on Alec Bedser and against a powerful Australian batting line-up he managed only 18 wickets at 38.22. Alec Coxon, Dick Pollard, Edrich, Barnett and Yardley provided his seam support. Jim Laker, Jack Young, Eric Hollies and Doug Wright were the spinners in action. Bedser was the only English bowler to take more than nine wickets. Morris led the runscoring and century-making with 696 runs at 87.00 and three triple-figure scores, supported by Bradman (508 at 72.57) and Barnes (329 at 82.25). With the first three batsmen in such form, Australia regularly made strong starts to their innings, averaging more than 120 for their first two wickets. The resounding Australian victories gave the England selectors many problems as they sought to find a combination that could challenge the tourists' superiority. As a result, England used 21 players in all, while Australia only used 15, one of which was forced by injury. Australia had ten players who competed in four or more Tests, while England only had seven such players. ### First Test Since the Second World War, Australia had played 11 Tests and had been unbeaten. In 1946–47, they won the five-Test series against England 3–0, and followed this with a 4–0 series win over India in the following season. Australia were regarded as an extremely strong team in the lead-up to the tour of England, and Bradman publicly expressed his desire to achieve the unprecedented feat of going through the five-month tour without defeat. Prior to the First Test, Australia had played 12 first-class matches, winning ten and drawing two. Eight of the victories were by an innings, and another was by eight wickets. It was thought that Bradman would play Ring, but he changed his mind on the first morning of the First Test when rain was forecast. Johnston was played in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket and he amply rewarded his captain by taking the most wickets of any bowler in the match. Yardley won the toss and elected to bat. The first innings set the pattern of the series as the England top-order struggled against Australia's pace attack. Only twenty minutes of play was possible before the lunch break due to inclement weather, but it was enough for Miller to bowl Hutton. During the interval, heavy rain made the ball skid through upon resumption. Washbrook was caught attempting to hook Lindwall. At 15/2, Compton came in, and together with Edrich, they took the score to 46 before left arm paceman Johnston bowled the latter. Two balls later, Johnston removed Hardstaff without scoring, leaving England at 46/4. Two runs later, Compton was bowled by Miller and half the English team were out with only 48 runs on the board. Lindwall was forced to leave the field mid-innings due to a groin injury and did not bowl again. Johnston bowled Barnett and when Evans and Yardley were both dismissed with the score on 74, England only had two wickets left. Laker and Bedser scored more than half of England's total, adding 89 runs in only 73 minutes. Both fell within two runs, ending England's innings at 165. Laker top-scored with 63. Johnston ended with 5/36, a display characterised with accuracy and variations in pace and swing. Miller took 3/38 and a catch. Australia's openers Morris and Barnes successfully negotiated the new ball by Edrich and Bedser to reach stumps with 17 without loss after 15 minutes. Ideal batting conditions greeted the players on the second day. Barnes and Morris took the score to 73 before Laker removed Morris. Bradman came in and the score progressed to 121 before Barnes was caught by wicket-keeper Evans with a one-handed diving effort for 62. Miller was then dismissed for a duck by Laker. Australia scored slowly, as Yardley employed leg theory to slow the scoring. Brown came in at No. 5, but he had played most of his career as an opening batsman and appeared uncomfortable before falling for 24. Hassett came in and Australia reached stumps at 293/4, a lead of 128. Bradman reached his 28th Test century in over 210 minutes, with the last 29 runs taking 70 minutes. It was one of his slower innings as Yardley focused on stopping runs. On the third morning, Bradman added only eight before falling for 138 when he leg glanced an inswinger from Bedser to Hutton at short fine leg. Johnson and Tallon came and went, failing to pass 21. The scoring was slow during this passage of play—Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs. Lindwall came out to bat at 365/7 and he added 107 runs with Hassett for the eighth wicket. Hassett reached his century and proceeded to 137 in almost six hours of batting. Both fell in quick succession, but Australia's last-wicket pair of Johnston and Toshack wagged a further 33 runs in only 18 minutes before Bedser ended the innings on 509, leaving the tourists with a 344-run lead. Yardley placed the majority of the bowling load on his spinners, with Young (1/79) and Laker (4/138) bowling 60 and 55 overs respectively. Bedser bowled 44.2 overs, taking 3/113. At the start of England's second innings, Washbrook and Edrich fell early, leaving England at 39/2. This brought together England's leading batsmen, Hutton and Compton, who took the score to 121 without further loss by stumps on the third day. Miller battled with Hutton and Compton through the afternoon, delivering five bouncers in the last over of the day. One of these struck Hutton high on his left arm. The batsmen survived, but Miller received a hostile reaction from the crowd. The English had the better of the late afternoon period, scoring 82 runs together in 70 minutes. Hutton resumed on 63 and he and Compton progressed before the light deteriorated and a thunderstorm stopped proceedings. Shortly after the resumption, Miller bowled Hutton with an off cutter in the dark conditions, ending a 111-run partnership at 150/3. The innings was then repeatedly interrupted by poor light. Wisden opined that "rarely can a Test Match have been played under such appalling conditions as on this day". Hardstaff supported Compton in a partnership of 93 before being removed by Toshack, and Barnett followed soon after at 264/5. Compton brought up his third consecutive century at Trent Bridge, aided by a 57-run partnership with his captain before Johnston dismissed Yardley for 22. England reached stumps at 345/6, just one run ahead, with Compton on 154. Compton and Evans continued to resist the Australians on the final morning, which was briefly interrupted twice by rain. After the resumption, Compton was out hit wicket for 184 after attempting to hook Miller. He had batted for 413 minutes and hit 19 fours. Wisden opined that "No praise could be too high for the manner in which Compton carried the side's responsibilities and defied a first-class attack in such trying circumstances". Compton's fall at 405/7 exposed the bowlers and Australia quickly finished off the innings within half an hour. England finished at 441, leaving Australia a target of 98. Lindwall's absence meant that the remaining four frontline bowlers had to bowl more than 32 overs each—Johnston bowled 59 and ended with 4/147 while Miller took 4/125 from 44 overs. Australia progressed steadily to 38 before Bedser bowled Morris for nine and then dismissed Bradman for a duck, again caught by Hutton at short fine leg. This left Australia 48/2. Hassett joined Barnes and they reached the target without further loss. Barnes ended on 64 with 11 boundaries. ### Second Test Australia retained the same XI from the First Test at Trent Bridge. On the other hand, England made three changes; the leg spinner Wright had regained fitness and replaced the left arm orthodox of Young, all rounder Coxon made his Test debut in place of Barnett and Dollery replaced Hardstaff as the No. 5. batsman. Following his injury in the previous Test, Lindwall was subjected to a thorough fitness test on the first morning and was only included after protesting to Bradman, who gambled on his inclusion. Australia won the toss and elected to bat. Miller played, but was unfit to bowl. Barnes fell for a duck, and Morris and Bradman rebuilt the innings, slowly taking the score to 87 before Bradman was caught for the third consecutive time by Hutton in the leg trap off Bedser. In the meantime, Morris, after a slow start, made 105 runs out of a total of 166 scored while he was at the wicket, including 14 fours and one six. His innings was noted for powerful, well-placed cover drives. His dismissal left Australia at 166/3, quickly followed by Miller, left Australia at 173/4. Hassett and Brown rebuilt the innings slowly, taking more than three and half minutes on average for each run. Hassett was dropped three times before Yardley removed him and Brown in the space of nine runs to leave Australia 225/6. Johnson fell soon after and England were well placed when Australia ended the day on 258/7. Australia's lower order batted the tourists into control on the second morning. Tallon batted on, supported by Johnston and Toshack, who scored their highest Test scores. Australia's wicket-keeper put on 45 with Johnston—who scored 29. Toshack then joined Johnston and the last pair put on 30 more runs before Johnston fell. Bedser was the most successful of the bowlers, ending with 4/100 from 43 overs, while debutant Coxon took 2/90 from 35 overs. Lindwall took the new ball and felt pain in his groin again after delivering his first ball. He persevered through the pain and removed Washbrook in his fourth over. Hutton then fell to Johnson to leave England at 32/2. Lindwall then clean bowled Edrich before doing the same to Dollery for a duck two balls later. England were 46/4 and Australia were firmly in control. Compton was joined by his skipper Yardley and the pair rebuilt the innings, scoring 87 runs together in 100 minutes. After the tea break, Lindwall and Johnston returned with the new ball. Compton edged Johnston to be out for 53. One run later, Lindwall bowled Yardley to leave England at 134/6 with their skipper dismissed for 44. Johnson then removed Evans for nine, before Coxon and Laker added 41 for the eighth wicket. After 85 minutes of resistance, Johnston removed both. England's last pair added ten runs to close at stumps on 9/207. On the third morning, Lindwall removed Bedser, ending England's innings at 215, giving Australia a 135 first innings lead. Lindwall ended with 5/70. The weather was fine as Australia started their second innings. Barnes was given an early life and he took advantage to combine with Morris in an opening stand of 122 before Morris was bowled for 62. Bradman joined Barnes at the crease and they amassed 174 runs for the second wicket. Barnes accelerated after reaching his half-century. Once he reached his century, Barnes became particularly aggressive. He dispatched one Laker over for 21 runs, including two successive sixes before finally falling for 141, caught on the boundary from Yardley. He had struck 14 boundaries and two sixes in his innings. The speed of his batting had allowed Australia to be 296/2 after 277 minutes when he departed. Hassett was bowled first ball, so Miller came to the crease at 296/3 to face Yardley's hat-trick ball. Miller survived a loud leg before wicket appeal on the hat-trick ball. Bradman fell to Bedser again, this time for 89. Brown joined Miller at 329/4 and Australia reached stumps at 343, without further loss. After the rest day, the fourth morning was punctuated by three rain stoppages. In 88 minutes of play, Australia added a further 117 runs. Brown was caught behind from Coxon for 32 after an 87-run partnership with Miller, who was out for 74, followed by Lindwall for 25. Bradman declared with Australia at 460/7, 595 runs ahead. Yardley and Laker had been the only multiple wicket-takers, with two each. Further showers breathed extra life into the pitch, and Lindwall and Johnston extracted steep bounce with the new ball, troubling the English batsmen. Hutton was dropped before he had scored and played and missed multiple times. Hutton and Washbrook took the score to 42, before Hutton edged Lindwall and was out for 13. Toshack removed Edrich and Washbrook in quick succession to leave England at 65/3. However, Compton and Dollery added 41 to have England close at 106/3. The final day started poorly for England, with Compton being caught off Johnston from the second ball of the day. Yardley and Dollery took the score to 133 before Toshack took two wickets in the same over. Eight runs later, Dollery was bowled from a Lindwall bouncer that stayed low. Lindwall bowled Laker for a duck later in the same over to leave England at 141/8. England were bowled out for 186, ceding a 409-run victory. Toshack ended the innings with 5/40, while Lindwall and Johnston took three and two respectively. The gross attendance was 132,000 and receipts were £43,000 – a record for a Test in England. ### Third Test When the teams reconvened at Old Trafford for the Third Test, Hutton had been dropped. The reason was said to be Hutton's struggles with Lindwall's short-pitched bowling. The omission generated considerable controversy. and the Australians were pleased, feeling that Hutton was England's best batsman. Hutton's opening position was taken by debutant Emmett. England made three further changes. Young and Pollard replaced Wright and Laker in the bowling department. Coxon was replaced by debutant batsman Jack Crapp. Australia dropped Brown, who had scored 73 runs at 24.33 in three innings, for the all rounder Loxton. Yardley won the toss and elected to bat. The change in England's opening pair did not result in better results. A run out was narrowly avoided from the first ball, and Washbrook and Emmett appeared to be uncomfortable on a surface that helped the bowlers. Both fell early, leaving England 28/2. Edrich eschewed attacking strokeplay as he and Compton attempted to establish themselves. Compton attempted to hook a Lindwall bouncer, but edged it into his face. This forced him to leave the field with a bloodied eyebrow with the score at 33/2. Edrich and Crapp then engaged in grim defensive batting, resulting in one 25-minute period where only one run was added. They reached lunch at 57/2. Upon the resumption, Crapp accelerated, hitting a six and three boundaries from Johnson. Australia took the new ball and Lindwall trapped Crapp lbw for 37. Dollery then fell for one. England had lost two wickets for one run to be 97/4. After 170 minutes of slow batting, Edrich fell to Lindwall. At 119/5, Compton returned to the field, his wound having been stitched. Yardley fell for 22 with the score at 141/6, bringing Evans to the crease. Compton and Evans added 75 runs, before Lindwall removed the latter to leave England at 216/7. England resumed on the second day at 231/7 and Australia was unable to break through with the new ball. Bedser defied the Australians for 145 minutes, adding 37 and featuring in a 121-run partnership with Compton. Soon after, Pollard pulled a ball from Johnson into the ribs of Barnes, who was standing at short leg, forcing him into hospital. The last two wickets fell and England were bowled out for 363. Compton was unbeaten on 145 in 324 minutes of batting, having struck 16 fours. Lindwall took 4/99 and Johnston 3/67. Barnes's injury left Australia with only Morris as a specialist opener. Johnson was deployed as Australia's makeshift second opener, but made only one, and Bradman fell for seven to leave Australia at 13/2. Morris and Hassett rebuilt the innings, adding 69 for the third wicket in 101 minutes before Hassett fell. Miller joined Morris and they took the score to 126/3 at stumps. Australia had added only nine runs on the third morning when Miller fell for 31. Four runs later, Morris fell for 51, leaving Australia 139/5. Barnes came in, despite having collapsed in the nets due to the lingering effects of the blow to his chest. He made a painful single before the pain forced him back to hospital. Tallon and Loxton added a further 43 before Tallon fell. Lindwall came into bat at 172/6 with Australia facing the prospect of the follow on. Loxton and Lindwall added a further 36 before the former was bowled, leaving Australia 208/7, five runs behind the follow-on mark. Johnston helped Lindwall advance Australia beyond the follow on before Bedser removed both and Australia were bowled out for 221, giving England a lead of 142 runs. During his innings, Lindwall was given a series of bouncers by Edrich. One of the short-pitched balls hit Lindwall in the hand, evoking cheers from the crowd. Bedser and Pollard were the most successful bowlers, taking 4/81 and 3/53 respectively. Lindwall removed Emmett for a duck at the start of the second innings, bringing his tormentor Edrich to the crease. Lindwall did not bounce Edrich, but Miller did, earning the ire of the crowd. Edrich and Washbrook settled and put together a 124-run partnership in only 138 minutes. This was aided three dropped catches from Washbrook. Edrich struck eight boundaries and brought up his fifty with a six, but was immediately run out by Morris with a direct hit. Crapp joined Washbrook and helped see off the new ball, as England reached 174/3 at the close, with Washbrook unbeaten on 85. The rest day was followed by the fourth day, which was abandoned due to persistent rain. Yardley declared at the start of the fifth day, leaving Australia a victory target of 317, but the rain meant that the entire first session was lost. The tourists batted in a defensive manner to ensure a draw. They ended at 92/1 in 61 overs. Morris finished unbeaten on 54, his fourth consecutive half-century of the Test series. The attendance of 133,740 exceeded the previous Test. ### Fourth Test Australia made two changes for the Test. Harvey replaced the injured Barnes, while Saggers replaced the injured Tallon behind the stumps. England made three changes. Emmett was dropped and Hutton was recalled to take his opening position. Laker replaced his left arm finger spinning colleague Young. Dollery, who had made only 38 in three innings, was replaced by all-rounder Cranston. England won the toss and elected to bat on an ideal batting pitch. Hutton and Washbrook put on an opening partnership of 168, the best by England in the series. Washbrook refrained from the hook shot, which had caused him to lose his wicket on earlier occasions in the series. The partnership was ended when Hutton was bowled by Lindwall. Washbrook reached his century and joined by Edrich, the pair batted until late in the first day, when Washbrook was dismissed by Johnston for 143 in the last over of the day. His innings had included 22 boundaries and ended a second-wicket partnership that yielded exactly 100 runs. Bedser was sent in as the nightwatchman and survived as England closed at 268/2, with Edrich on 41. The next day, Bedser batted on in steady support of Edrich. The pair saw England to lunch without further loss, and 155 runs were added for the third wicket before Bedser was out after almost three hours of batting for 79. Bedser had struck eight fours and two sixes. Edrich fell three runs later at 426/4 for 111. With two new batsmen at the crease, Australia quickly made further inroads to leave England at 473/6. Loxton then successively removed Cranston, Evans and Laker as England fell from 486/6 to 496/9, before Miller bowled Yardley to end England's innings at 496. The home team had lost their last eight wickets for the addition of 73 runs. Loxton took 3/55 while Lindwall and Johnson both took two. Australia lost the services of Toshack after he broke down with a knee injury. With Barnes injured, Hassett was moved from the middle order to open the innings with Morris. Morris fell for six, before Bradman and Hassett saw the tourists to stumps at 63/1. Bradman did the majority of the scoring, finishing unbeaten on 31. On the third morning, England made the ideal start when Pollard removed Hassett for 13 and Bradman for 33 in the same over. This left Australia struggling at 68/3. Harvey, playing his first Ashes Test, joined Miller at the crease. Australia were more than 400 behind and Harvey told his senior partner "Let's get stuck into 'em". If England were to remove the pair, they would expose Australia's lower order and give themselves an opportunity to win by taking a substantial lead. The pair launched a counterattack, with Miller taking the lead with many lofted boundaries. This allowed Australia to seize the initiative, with Harvey joining in and hitting consecutive boundaries against Laker. Miller was dismissed by Yardley for 58 while attempting another six, but the partnership had yielded 121 runs in 90 minutes, prompting Wisden to liken it to a "hurricane". Harvey then shared another century stand with Loxton which yielded 105 in only 95 minutes. Harvey ended with a century on his Ashes debut, scoring 112 from 183 balls in an innings noted for powerful driving on both sides of the wicket. The high rate of scoring during the innings freed the match from England's firm control. Loxton was particularly severe on Laker, lifting his deliveries into the crowd for five sixes in addition to nine fours. At the other end, Harvey and Johnson fell to Laker in quick succession to leave the score at 329/6. Australia was still some way behind when Lindwall replaced Johnson, and 15 runs later, Yardley bowled Loxton for 93, while Saggers only managed five, leaving Australia at 355/8 with only Johnston and Toshack remaining. Lindwall hit out, scoring 77 in an innings marked by powerful driving and pulling, dominating stands of 48 and 55 with Johnston and Toshack respectively. He was the last man out at 458, leaving Australia 38 runs in arrears on the first innings. Bedser took the final wicket to end with 3/92. Laker took 3/113, while Pollard and Yardley ended with two wickets each. England set about extending their first innings lead for the remainder of the fourth day. For the second time in the match, Washbrook and Hutton put on a century opening partnership. Washbrook made 65 and Hutton 57, leaving England at 129/2. Edrich and Compton continued where the openers had left off, adding 103 before Lindwall trapped Edrich lbw for 54. England lost wickets at regular intervals late in the day to be 278/6. When Johnston removed Compton for 66, England were 7/293 with no recognised batsmen remaining, having lost 4/33. Wicket-keeper Evans led a rearguard action as England reached 362/8 at the close of the fourth day. England batted on for five minutes on the final morning, adding three runs in two overs before Yardley declared at 365/8, with Evans on 47 not out. Johnston had the pick of the bowling figures, with 4/95. Batting into the final day allowed Yardley to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller, which would help to break up the wicket and make the surface more likely to spin. This left Australia a target of 404 runs for victory. At the time, this would have been the highest ever fourth innings score to result in a Test victory for the batting side. Australia had only 345 minutes to reach the target, and the local press wrote them off, predicting that they would be dismissed by lunchtime on a deteriorating wicket expected to favor the spin bowlers. Morris and Hassett started slowly on a pitch that offered spin and bounce. Only 44 runs came in the first hour. Just 13 runs were added in the next 28 minutes before Hassett was dismissed by Compton's left arm unorthodox spin for 17 with the score at 57. Bradman joined Morris with 347 runs needed in 257 minutes and they began to attack; Morris hit three consecutive fours off Len Hutton's bowling as Australia reached lunch at 121/1. In the half-hour preceding the interval, Australia had added 64 runs. Both had given chances, but England fumbled them. Upon resumption, Morris severely attacked Compton, who had been bowling in an attempt to exploit the spin, aided by a series of full tosses and long hops that were easily dispatched for runs. This prompted Yardley to take the new ball. Australia reached 202, halfway to the required total, with 165 minutes left. Morris passed his century, and was then dropped on 126. Bradman was given another life at 108 when Evans missed a stumping opportunity. Australia reached tea at 288/1 with Morris on 150. The pair had added 167 during the session. Morris was eventually dismissed by Yardley for 182, having partnered Bradman in a stand of 301 in 217 minutes. He struck 33 fours in 290 minutes of batting. This brought Miller to the crease with 46 runs still required. He fell with eight runs still needed. Harvey came in and got off the mark with a boundary that brought up the winning runs. Australia had won by seven wickets, setting a new world record for the highest successful Test run-chase, with Bradman unbeaten on 173 in only 255 minutes with 29 fours. The attendance of 158,000 was the highest for any cricket match on English soil and the takings were 34,000 pounds. The attendance remains a record for a Test in England. ### Fifth Test With the series already lost, England made four changes to their team. Dewes replaced the injured Washbrook, while Watkins replaced Cranston as an all-rounder. Both Dewes and Watkins were making their Test debut. England played two spinners; Young replaced fellow finger spinner Laker, while the leg spin of Hollies replaced Pollard's pace. The selectors were widely condemned for their incessant changes. Australia made three changes. Off spinner Johnson was replaced by the leg spin of Ring. Australia's second change was forced on them; the injured seamer Toshack was replaced by the recovered batsman Barnes. The final change was the return of wicket-keeper Tallon from injury. The match saw Lindwall at his best. English skipper Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a rain-affected pitch. Precipitation during the week meant that the start of the Test was delayed until the afternoon. The humid conditions, along with the rain, assisted the bowlers, with Lindwall in particular managing to make the ball bounce at variable heights. Miller bowled Dewes for one with his second ball to leave England at 2/1, before Johnston removed Edrich for three to leave England at 10/2. Lindwall dismissed Compton after Morris had taken a diving catch, and Miller then removed Crapp, who failed to score in his 23-ball innings, leaving England at 23/4. After the lunch break, England had struggled to 35/4, before Lindwall bowled Yardley with a swinging yorker. The debutant Watkins then batted for 16 balls without scoring before Johnston dismissed him for a duck to leave England at 42/6. Watkins also collected a bruise on the shoulder that inhibited his bowling later in the match. Lindwall then removed Evans, Bedser and Young, all yorked in the space of two runs. The innings ended at 52 when Hutton leg glanced and was caught by wicket-keeper Tallon, who grasped the ball one-handed at full stretch to his left. In his post-lunch spell, Lindwall bowled 8.1 overs, taking five wickets for eight runs, finishing with 6/20 in 16.1 overs. Bradman described the spell as "the most devastating and one of the fastest I ever saw in Test cricket". Hutton was the only batsman to resist, scoring 30 in 124 minutes from 147 deliveries. No other player passed seven. Miller and Johnston took 2/5 and 2/20 respectively, and Ring was not needed to bowl. In contrast, Australia batted with apparent ease, and Morris and Barnes passed England's first innings total by themselves. The score had reached 117 before Barnes fell to Hollies for 61, ending a partnership that had taken only 126 minutes. This brought Bradman to the crease late on the first day. As Bradman had announced that the tour was his last at international level, the innings would be his last at Test level if Australia batted only once. The crowd gave him a standing ovation as he walked out to bat. Yardley led his team in giving Bradman three cheers. With 6996 Test career runs, he only needed four runs to average 100 in Test cricket, but Hollies bowled him second ball for a duck with a googly. Hassett came in at 117/2 and Australia closed at 153/2. Morris was unbeaten on 77. On the second morning, Hassett and Morris took the score to 226 before their 109-run stand ended with Hassett's fall for 37. The following four batsmen were unable to establish themselves at the crease and none passed 20. Morris was finally removed for 196, ending an innings noted for his hooking and off-driving; it took a run out to remove Morris. Australia were eventually out for 389. Morris had scored more than half the runs as the rest of the team struggled against the leg spin of Hollies, who took 5/131. England had relied heavily on spin; two-thirds of the overs were delivered by the two spinners. England started their second innings 337 runs in arrears. Lindwall made the early breakthrough, and Edrich joined Hutton and the pair consolidated the innings to close at the end of the second day on 54/1. Early on the third day, Lindwall bowled Edrich for 28, before Compton and Hutton consolidated the innings with a partnership of 61 in 110 minutes. On 39, Compton fell to a reflex catch by Lindwall. Hutton managed to continue resisting before edging Miller to Tallon for 64, having top-scored in both innings, to leave England at 153/4. Thereafter, England collapsed in the fading light, prompting the umpires to call off play. The ground was then hit by rain, resulting in a premature end to the day's play. England had lost four wickets for 25 runs to end at 178/7. England resumed on the fourth morning and Johnston quickly removed the last three wickets to seal an Australian victory by an innings and 149 runs. Johnston ended with 4/40 and Lindwall 3/50. This result sealed the series 4–0 in favour of Australia. The match was followed by a series of congratulatory speeches. ## Other matches in Great Britain ### v Worcestershire ; At Worcester, 28, 29, 30 April. Worcestershire (233 and 212) lost to the Australians (462/8 declared) by an innings and 17 runs. The pitch was slow, and the weather was cold and showery for the traditional tour opener against Worcestershire. Worcester attracted a record attendance of 32,000 with takings of more than £4000. The hosts elected to bat, and started strongly as a century second-wicket stand took them to 137/1 after 133 minutes. However, the dismissal of Charles Palmer, who top-scored with 85, precipitated a collapse and they lost their last nine wickets in two hours to be all out for 233. Five Australian bowlers shared the wickets, with Johnson taking 3/52. In their sole innings, Australia took the initiative from the outset through a 166-run second-wicket stand between Morris (138) and Bradman (107). This took them to 265/1, before they declared at 462/8 after Miller had hit an unbeaten 50 in faster than even time. Off spinner Peter Jackson took 6/135 for the locals. In their second innings Worcestershire were bowled out by Australia for 212 runs, with 70 minutes to spare. McCool took 4/29 as the spinners took eight of the wickets. ### v Leicestershire ; At Leicester, 1, 3, 4 May. The Australians (448) defeated Leicestershire (130 and 147) by an innings and 171 runs. Australia elected to bat, and Miller, who had been promoted to No. 3, shared century partnerships with Barnes (78) and Bradman (81). A middle-order collapse then ensued as the remaining Australians struggled against the local spin attack, but last man Johnston managed to hold up his end in a 37-run last-wicket partnership that allowed Miller to reach his double century. He ended on 202 not out as Australia were dismissed for 448. The Australian-born slow bowler Vic Jackson was the best Leicestershire bowler, taking 5/91. Leicestershire scored only 130 in their first innings; another Australian expatriate, Jack Walsh, top-scored with 33. Ring took 5/34 and the hosts hampered their batting efforts with two run outs. Australia enforced the follow on and Leicestershire faced the prospect of being bowled out twice in a day after Johnson took the first wickets to have them 5/83. After a rain delay Australia took the final five wickets for 34 runs in an hour on the final day; Leicestershire were all out for 147 in an innings defeat. Johnson ended with 7/42. ### v Yorkshire ; At Bradford, 5, 6 May. Yorkshire (71 and 89) lost to the Australians (101 and 63/6) by four wickets. This low-scoring game was the closest that Australia came to defeat on the tour. The game was played in cold, blustery, overcast and wet conditions that suited spin bowlers. Yorkshire made only 71 in their first innings. Miller mixed medium-paced off-breaks with his fast bowling and this combination returned him 6/42. At the other end Johnston bowled his left arm orthodox spin and took 4/22 from 26 overs. Together the pair bowled almost unchanged, delivering 49.3 of 54.3 overs. Australia struggled in reply and stumps were called when they fell to 4/38. Miller came in at the start of the second day's play and scored 34 of the next 48 runs added, before falling at 7/86, part of a collapse of 5/27. He hit two sixes in his innings, including one from the first ball that he faced, feeling that a defensive strategy would be almost impossible in the difficult conditions. Australia ended at 101, and Loxton was unable to bat due to injury. Frank Smailes had the best bowling figures for Yorkshire, 6/51. Yorkshire scored 89 in their second innings, which followed a similar pattern to their first effort. Wickets fell steadily as Johnston (6/18) and Miller (3/49) bowled 31.2 of the 36.2 overs. Australia were set a target of 60 runs for victory, and Hassett elected to not have the pitch rolled. Former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton said that Hassett "might have made an initial mistake in not having the pitch rolled because whenever there was rain about in England the heavy roller seemed to knock any nonsense [erratic bounce and sideways movement] out of the pitch". Hassett and Hamence both fell with the score on 20 to leave Australia five down. Australia slumped to 6/31, effectively seven down with Loxton incapacitated by injury, but scraped home without further loss with Harvey and Tallon at the crease. Harvey was given two chances, once when he was on one, and Tallon was also missed. It would have been their first defeat against an English county since 1912, but Harvey won the game with a straight drive over the fence. Wickets had fallen at less than 10 runs apiece, and at the rate of every four overs. ### v Surrey ; At The Oval, 8, 10, 11 May. The Australians (632) defeated Surrey (141 and 195) by an innings and 296 runs. Australia won the toss and Barnes and Morris put on 136 for the opening stand before the latter fell for 65. Barnes and Bradman then added 207 for the second wicket. Barnes' 176 came in 255 minutes and Bradman made 146 in 165 minutes. After Bradman departed at 403/3, wickets began to fall more regularly, but Hassett held up his end and made 110, while Tallon remained unbeaten on 50. Surrey's Test paceman Alec Bedser took 4/104. On the second afternoon, Surrey scored 141 runs in three hours in their first innings. Johnson took 5/53 and Laurie Fishlock carried his bat for 81 not out, but received little support, the next highest scores being 15 and 10. Australia enforced the follow on and took two early wickets before stumps on the second day. They made continual inroads on the final day, and Surrey were all out for 195 to complete an innings win. Johnston took 4/40 and Johnson 3/40. ### v Cambridge University ; At Fenner's, Cambridge, 12, 13, 14 May. Cambridge University (167 and 196) lost to the Australians (414/4 declared) by an innings and 51 runs. Cambridge elected to bat and wickets fell regularly. No player made over 33 and the hosts were out in the second session of the first day for 167. Miller was prominent with the ball and in the field, taking 5/46 and two catches for his fellow bowlers. In reply, Australia were already 184/1 at stumps, with Brown heading for a consecutive century. He put on 176 for the second wicket with Hamence, who made 92. Brown reached 200 and was out immediately thereafter, prompting stand-in skipper Hassett to declare midway through the second day at 414/4, having reached 61 not out himself. In their second innings Cambridge failed to cope with the leg-spin of McCool, who took 7/78 as the match ended early on the third morning. Attendance over the three days was nearly 25,000. ### v Essex ; At Southend, 15, 17 May. The Australians (721) defeated Essex (83 and 187) by an innings and 451 runs. After electing to bat, Australia made history on the first day by breaking the record for the most runs scored in a first-class match in a day. Ironically, it was the only time they were dismissed in a single day on the entire tour. With centuries from Brown (153), Bradman (187), Loxton (120) and Saggers (104\), Australia's first innings totalled 721; they were dismissed on the close of the first day's play. Bradman's 187 came in 155 minutes and Brown's 153 lasted three hours; the pair put on 219 in 90 minutes after Barnes fell for 79 at 145/1. Bradman came in and seized the initiative, reaching 42 in the 20 minutes before lunch, including five fours from one over by Frank Vigar which subsequently entered Essex club folklore. Bradman and Brown were parted when the latter fell at 364/2 only halfway through the day's play. Miller then famously deliberately allowed himself to be bowled first ball as a protest against Australia's merciless crushing of their hosts, something that angered his captain and batting partner Bradman. Miller later told Dickie Bird that he had wanted to go to the local horse races, but this was refused by Bradman. The all rounder therefore made his duck in protest, but still did not get to go to the races. Later, Loxton and Saggers made 166 in 65 minutes for the sixth wicket, before a late-order collapse saw Australia lose 5/57, leaving Saggers unbeaten, but not before he reached the only first-class century of his career. After being demoralised by the Australian batsmen on the first day, Essex made only 83 in their first innings, capitulating within 37 overs. Toshack took 5/31 and Miller 3/14, and Australia enforced the follow-on. Essex's second innings appeared to be heading the same way when four early wickets to Johnson had them at 46/6. However, a partnership of 133 between Tom Pearce and Peter Smith for the seventh wicket salvaged some respectability before they were out for 187. Johnson ended with 6/37 as the Australians dismissed their hosts twice in a single day. The ground attendance of 32,000 was a record. ### v Oxford University ; At Oxford, 19, 20, 21 May. The Australians (431) defeated Oxford University (185 and 156) by an innings and 90 runs. Australia batted first after Hassett won the toss, and the opening pair of Brown and Morris put on 139. Brown scored his third century in succession, before being out lbw to Indian Test player Abdul Hafeez Kardar for 108. Morris, Loxton, McCool and Ring all reached 50 as the Australians posted 431. Oxford's best batting performance came in the form of a 75-run partnership between Geoffrey Keighley and Kardar in their first innings, resisting the spin bowlers on the dry wicket. Despite Kardar's innings of 54 and 29, the top-score in both innings, Australia won by an innings and 90 runs as wickets fell steadily. The wickets were spread evenly among the tourists; Toshack took three in each innings, while Johnston and McCool totalled four for the match. ### v Marylebone Cricket Club ; At Lord's, 22, 24, 25 May. The Australians (552) defeated Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) (189 and 205) by an innings and 158 runs. The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests, and with two other capped players, were basically a full strength Test team, as were Australia, who fielded their first-choice team. Barring one change in the bowling department, the same team lined up for Australia in the First Test, with the top six batsmen in the same position. It was a chance to gain a psychological advantage. After winning the toss, Australia batted first. After the loss of Morris early, Barnes (81) and Bradman (98) set about regaining the ascendancy with a 160-run stand. Bradman scored eleven fours in his 98, which took two hours, and Hassett then took over and added 51. Miller then saw Australia to stumps at 407/5. He continued the next day and Australia's highest scorer with 163, and Johnson supported him with 80. Despite a collapse which saw the last five wickets fall for 54 runs following the pair's departure, Australia reached 552. Bradman's batsmen gained a psychological advantage ahead of the Tests by attacking the off spin of Jim Laker. They hit nine sixes from the English Test representative on the second morning. Miller and Lindwall then sought to gain an advantage over England's leading batsmen—Hutton and Compton—before the Tests. The MCC side, composed almost entirely of Test players, reached 91/2, Toshack removed Compton and Hutton in quick succession to reduce the hosts to 104/5. He took three more wickets to end with 6/51 as the MCC were eventually dismissed for 189, conceding a first innings lead of 363 runs. Some English observers decried Toshack's leg stump attack as being negative, but former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton said that Toshack's line was close enough to leg stump that most balls had to be played. Bradman opted to enforce the follow on, and his spinners did most of the damage, McCool taking 4/35 and Johnson 3/37. Only Len Hutton of the locals batsmen passed 26 during the match, scoring 52 and 64, and Australia had taken a key psychological victory ahead of the Tests with an innings victory. The total attendance was 60,000. ### v Lancashire ; At Manchester, 26, 27, 28 May. The Australians (204 and 259/4) drew with Lancashire (182). The first day was abandoned due to rain. Australia lost the toss and were sent in to bat on a drying pitch. The 19-year-old Lancashire spin bowler Malcolm Hilton took Bradman's wicket twice in the match, causing a media sensation. Hilton bowled Bradman with an arm ball for 11, the Australian captain's first score on tour below 80. The Australian batsmen failed to capitalise on their starts as six were dismissed between 20 and 40. Australia looked set to concede a lead for the first time on tour as the hosts reached 3/129, but Johnston (5/49) took five of the last seven wickets for 28 runs in Lancashire's only innings, which ended on the third morning. With a result impossible, Australia had time for batting practice. Bradman reached 43, and when Hilton came on, the Australian captain, perhaps perturbed by earlier events, attempted to hit the spinner out of the attack. After missing the first two balls, Bradman charged the third, swung and missed, fell over and was stumped. Harvey (76\) and Hamence (49\) shared an unbeaten fifth-wicket partnership of 122 after Loxton made 52. ### v Nottinghamshire ; At Nottingham, 29, 31 May 1 June. Nottinghamshire (179 and 299/8) drew with the Australians (400). In Nottinghamshire's first innings, Ray Lindwall took 6/14 from 15.1 overs, with only 10 scoring strokes being made off him. Reg Simpson made 74 and Joe Hardstaff junior 48, but only one other batsman reached double figures. After their 98-run third-wicket stand was broken, Australia took 8/68 to bowl the hosts out for 179. Lindwall, conceded less than a run per over. Only ten of his balls were scored from and not a single run was taken from his last 30 balls. Fingleton said that Lindwall "absolutely paralysed" the batsmen, with some of his bowling "in the real Larwood manner". Australia only batted once, and Brown top-scored with 122 in 3 hours 45 minutes, while Bradman added 86. The Australia middle-order fell away and the tourists lost their last six wickets for 74 runs. In the county's second innings, Keeton was hit in the chest by one of Lindwall's deliveries and took no further part in the match. On the final day, Hardstaff hit the first century against the Australians on the tour, 107, and Simpson again batted well, making 70. Lindwall and the Australian pacemen were less incisive in the second innings, and Ring and Johnson took four and three wickets respectively. ### v Hampshire ; At Southampton, 2, 3, 4 June. Hampshire (195 and 103) lost to the Australians (117 and 182/2) by eight wickets. Hampshire won the toss and elected to bat against the Australians, who were led by Hassett while Bradman rested. The Australians were behind on the first innings for the first time on the tour and the match remained in the balance until the third afternoon. On a drying pitch, the hosts reached 116/3 before losing their remaining wickets for 79 to be all out for 195, while Johnston took 6/74. In reply, Australia fared worse and collapsed from 2/70 and made only 117. Charles Knott's off spin proved challenging for the Australians, but Miller scored three successive sixes from him before the collapse, top-scoring with 39. In their second innings, both Miller and Johnston took five Hampshire wickets. John Arnold top-scored for the hosts in both innings, with 48 and 42. Australia needed 182 runs in 175 minutes to win. Barnes went for a duck but Johnson, sent in five minutes before lunch, hit 74 out of a second-wicket partnership of 105, including three sixes and seven fours. Brown, with 81 not out, and Hassett saw the Australians through to victory. ### v Sussex ; At Hove, 5, 7 June. Sussex (86 and 138) lost to the Australians (549/5 declared) by an innings and 325 runs. Lindwall won the match for the Australians with his bowling, taking 11/59. After winning the toss, the Sussex batsmen struggled with his length and variation of pace, and he hit the off-stump five times in the first innings alone to end with 6/34. Loxton also bowled well in the first innings, taking 3/13. Australia replied to Sussex's 86 strongly, and were already 254/1 by the end of the first day. Powered by Morris's 184 and with centuries too for Bradman (109) and Harvey (100\), Australia added a further 295 runs on the second day to declare at 549/5. They then still had time to send down 63.3 overs, enough to finish the match within two days. In Sussex's second innings Lindwall took two wickets in the first over. Harry Parks made 61, but Sussex were all out for 138, losing their last seven wickets for 59. In all, eight of Lindwall's wickets were bowled, five these by swinging yorkers, the batsmen unable to counter the swerving deliveries. Fingleton said that "Lindwall bundled the stumps over in all directions" as Sussex "crumpled completely ... in as depressing a batting performance as the tour knew". At the other end, Toshack helped to pin down the batsmen for Lindwall. He delivered 17 overs that yielded only three scoring shots for a total of six runs. ### v Northamptonshire ; At Northampton, 16, 17, 18 June. Northamptonshire (119 and 169) lost to the Australians (352/8 declared) by an innings and 64 runs. Starting the day after the First Test, the Northamptonshire match was interrupted by rain. Northamptonshire batted first and collapsed to 7/61 before some tail-end resistance took them to 119; Johnston and Johnson took three wickets each. The Australians passed the locals' score on the first afternoon, and their innings was built around Hassett's 127, which included 17 fours. Morris and McCool also made fifties. Northamptonshire made 169 runs in their second innings, Johnston and Ring taking four wickets each. In neither of the county innings did any player reach 50. ### v Yorkshire ; At Sheffield, 19, 21, 22 June. The Australians (249 and 285/5 declared) drew with Yorkshire (206 and 85/4). The Australians were made to work hard for their 249, with only Bradman reaching 50. Harvey and Hamence passed 40 but could not convert their starts into large scores. Alec Coxon took 4/66 for the hosts and was selected for the Second Test. Yorkshire made 206 in reply, Toshack taking 7/81 and Johnston 3/101: together, they bowled 81.1 of the 90.1 overs in the innings. Like the Australians, the local batsmen struggled to make the most of their starts; eight batsmen reached double figures but none passed 40. Not wanting to tire his bowlers ahead of the Second Test, Bradman declared Australia's second innings with a lead of 328 runs and only seventy minutes of play remaining. Brown hit 113 and Bradman himself 86, putting on 154 for the second wicket. Yardley expressed his displeasure by bowling his part-timers and then promoting tailenders to the upper half of the order in the second innings. The Australians batted in leisurely fashion with no urgency to force a result. Bradman then allowed his second-string bowlers to deliver 24 of the 27 overs as the match petered into a draw. The Australians were booed from the field by the spectators. ### v Surrey ; At The Oval, 30 June, 1–2 July. Surrey (221 and 289) lost to The Australians (389 and 122/0) by 10 wickets. Australia won the toss and sent Surrey in to bat. They made 221, and Jack Parker top-scored with 76 in an uneven effort in which there were six single-figure scores. As the match started the day after the Second Test, Bradman let most of his second-string bowlers do the work to rest his first-choice bowlers, and Ring took three wickets, while the Test players only took two in total. Hamence opened the batting for Australia—Brown injured a finger while fielding—but he was out for a duck. Hassett (139) and Bradman (128) then put on 231, Bradman making his sixth century of the tour. However, the Australians lost wickets steadily thereafter to be all out for 389. Surrey made 289 in their second innings, with McCool taking 6/113 after bowling more than 40% of the overs. The hosts batted steadily with three fifties, but wickets fell regularly and only one partnership greater than 40 materialised. The tourists wanted to finish the run-chase quickly so they could watch fellow Australian John Bromwich play in the Wimbledon tennis final. Harvey and Loxton volunteered and chased down the 122 runs needed for victory in just 58 minutes to complete a 10-wicket win in just 20.1 overs. Harvey ended unbeaten on 73 and the Australians arrived at Wimbledon in time. ### v Gloucestershire ; At Bristol, 3, 5, 6 July. The Australians (774/7 declared) defeated Gloucestershire (279 and 132) by an innings and 363 runs. The Australians elected to bat and made the highest score of the tour, and it was also the second biggest score by an Australian team in England (the 1893 team made 843 against a "Oxford and Cambridge Universities Past and Present" at Portsmouth), and the highest score by an Australian team versus an English county. Morris's 290, made from 466 balls in five hours, was the highest individual score of the tour, and he featured in century stands with Barnes, Miller and Harvey. Loxton made 159 not out, Harvey 95 and McCool 76. This match preceded the Third Test, and off spinner Tom Goddard was regarded as a candidate for England selection after strong performances in county cricket. However, Morris and Loxton's aggressive attack gave Goddard figures of 0/186 from 32 overs, effectively ending his chances of selection. Former English Test paceman Maurice Tate said "Tom [Goddard] is not used to batsmen using their feet to him ... the county batsmen diddle and diddle [shuffle about indecisively instead of quickly moving into position and attacking] to him and that gets him many wickets." Instead, it was Loxton who forced his way into the Third Test. Gloucestershire replied with an innings of 279, in which Jack Crapp made 100 not out, while Johnson took 6/68. Made to follow on during the final day, the hosts made only 132, losing their last eight wickets for 60. Johnson took 5/32 to end with 11/100 for the match, while Ring took 5/47 to end with seven for the match. Australia's spinners took 19 wickets. ### v Middlesex ; At Lord's, 17, 19, 20 July. Middlesex (203 and 135) lost to the Australians (317 and 22/0) by ten wickets. Denis Compton hit a cautious 62, but Middlesex lost wickets regularly to fall from 1/78 to 203 all out. Five bowlers shared the wickets, Johnston and Loxton taking three apiece. At one stage, Australia were 53/3, but Morris (109) and Loxton (123) put on a partnership of 172. No other batsman bettered Hamence's 30, and Jim Sims took 6/65 as the Australians collapsed and lost their last six wickets for 46. Middlesex scored 135 in their second innings, with only John Dewes (51) and Leslie Compton resisting the tourists, while eight managed only single figures. Five bowlers shared the wickets, and McCool was the only one to take three. McCool and Ring made the 22 required for victory in four overs. ### v Derbyshire ; At Derby, 28, 29, 30 July. The Australians (456) defeated Derbyshire (240 and 182) by an innings and 34 runs. The Australians chose to bat first, and Brown top scored with 140, his first 50 taking three hours. He shared century stands with Bradman, who made 62, and Miller (57). Loxton later made 51 as the Australians fell away late in the innings, losing 7/142. Derbyshire made 240 in their first innings with the future Test umpire Charlie Elliott top-scoring with 57, while Miller, Johnston and Ring taking three wicket apiece. The county followed on 216 behind after losing their last six wickets for 64 runs. In their second innings they made 182, with Denis Smith making 88, the highest individual score ever made by a Derbyshire player against the Australians. However, only one other player reached double figures, as McCool precipitated a collapse of 9/72, taking 6/77, while Loxton took 3/16. There was a Derbyshire record attendance of 17,000 on the first day. ### v Glamorgan ; At Swansea, 31 July, 2–3 August. Glamorgan (197) drew with the Australians (215/3). Rain prevented play after 3pm on the second day. No one scored more than 40 as Glamorgan elected to bat and made 197, with the four Australian bowlers, Lindwall, Miller, Johnson and Ring sharing the wickets. The Australians' 215/3 was based on an aggressive 84 from Miller, with five sixes and seven fours, and a partnership of 126 with stand-in Hassett, who was 71 not out when the rain came. The attendance on the two days of play totalled 50,000. ### v Warwickshire ; At Birmingham, 4, 5, 6 August. Warwickshire (138 and 155) lost to the Australians (254 and 41/1) by nine wickets. Bradman put Warwickshire in to bat on a wet pitch and the hosts struggled to 138 in an innings that lasted almost 80 overs. Martin Donnelly (28) was the only batsman to pass 20, and Lindwall and Johnson took three wickets each. Australia scored 254 in reply; Hassett top-scored with 68, Lindwall made 45, and the pair's partnership of 70 was the highest of the match. Three other batsmen reached 30, but most of the Australians were uncomfortable against the leg spin of Eric Hollies, who opened the bowling and took 8/107, the best innings analysis against the Australians on the whole tour. This performance earned the Warwickshire bowler a call-up for the fifth and final Test. In their second innings Warwickshire made 155 runs, Johnston and McCool taking four wickets each, the former conceding only 32 from 39 overs. Australia made the required 41 by lunch on the third day. ### v Lancashire ; At Old Trafford, Manchester, 7, 9, 10 August. The Australians (321 and 265/3 declared) drew with Lancashire (130 and 199/7). Cyril Washbrook's benefit match brought him a then record sum, £14,000, but it was a mixed experience because he injured his right thumb whilst facing Lindwall and withdrew from the England team for the Fifth Test. The Australians scored 321 in their first innings with only Barnes (67) reaching 50. Nine of the Australians made a start, reaching 14, but could not capitalise on their opportunities, and they lost wickets at regular intervals after an opening stand of 123. The slow left-arm bowler William Roberts took 6/73. Lancashire replied with 130 of which Washbrook made 38, while Lindwall and Johnson took three wickets apiece, but the Australians did not enforce the follow on. Australia made 265/5 declared and Bradman scored an unbeaten 133, his highest at Old Trafford, with 90 for Barnes. Bradman declared at lunch on the third day after batting the hosts out of the match, but they held on with three wickets in hand after losing two late in the day. Ikin had reached 99 after being repeatedly hit by bouncers. Bradman took the second new ball and gave it to Miller, who refused to bowl, saying that he felt Ikin deserved a century. Lindwall (4/27) was then given the ball and promptly removed Ikin one run short of his century. ### v Durham ; At Sunderland, 11, 12 August. The Australians (282) drew with Durham (73/5). In the absence of the resting Bradman, Hassett won the toss and elected to bat. Attendance was 17,000 on the first day of this two-day non-first-class match. Rain prevented any play on the second day. After a poor start that saw them fall to 22/3, McCool (64) and Miller (55) made half-centuries for the Australians. Many of the Australians made starts and six scores passed 20, but none went on. Paceman Keith Jackson took 5/76 for the hosts. Five Australian bowlers each took one wicket and Jackson top-scored with 23 before rain ended the match. ### v Kent ; At Canterbury, 21, 23 August. The Australians (361) defeated Kent (51 and 124) by an innings and 186 runs. Australia elected to bat first and Brown made 106, while Bradman (65) and Harvey (60) both scored half-centuries. Kent collapsed to the lowest score of the tour in the first innings, succumbing in only 23 overs. Johnston and Loxton both took 3/10, and six local batsmen made ducks. Forced to follow on, half the Kent side were out for 45 in the second innings. Tony Pawson and Godfrey Evans added 71, but the match, held in front of record crowds for the ground, ended inside two days, soon after Evans was run out. It took the Australians less than 56 overs to get 20 wickets. Lindwall took 4/37 in the second innings; all his wickets were top-order batsmen. ### v Gentlemen of England ; At Lord's, 25, 26, 27 August. The Australians (610/5 declared) defeated the Gentlemen of England (245 and 284) by an innings and 81 runs. In his last match at Lord's, Bradman won the toss and made his ninth century (150) of the tour against a side composed almost entirely of Test players. Brown (120) and Hassett (200\) also scored centuries, and Miller made 69. Bradman elected to bat into the second day. The Gentlemen responded with 242 of which Reg Simpson made 60 and, following on, 284, with Bill Edrich making 128. There were no other scores beyond 30 in either innings. Ring took 5/70 for the innings and eight for the match, while Johnson secured seven wickets. The Victorian spin duo bowled the majority of the overs in both innings. ### v Somerset ; At Taunton, 28, 30 August. The Australians (560/5 declared) defeated Somerset (115 and 71) by an innings and 374 runs. After winning the toss, the Australians made all their runs on the first day, with centuries for Hassett (103), Harvey (126) and Johnson (113\) and 99 for Hamence. The Australians put on 255 for the second wicket, through Hassett and Barnes, who was replaced by Harvey after retiring ill. The other Australian batsmen had all made centuries, and were keen to see Hamence do the same. The rest of the team left their card games in readiness to applaud his impending milestone, only to see him stumped for 99, his highest score for the season. On the Monday, the second day, on a pitch that was taking spin, Somerset collapsed twice inside four hours and less than 82 overs in total. McCool took 4/21 and 4/23, and Johnston also took eight, including 5/34 in the second innings. He took the last two wickets of the Somerset first innings as a spinner, and then had Harold Gimblett lbw with the second ball of the second innings as a fast-medium bowler to take three wickets in four balls. ### v South of England ; At Hastings, 1, 2, 3 September. The Australians (522/7 declared) drew with the South of England (298). The tourists elected to bat and after losing the openers early, Hassett top scored with 151, his third consecutive century. He was supported by Bradman (143) and Harvey (110), whose quick scoring enabled the Australians to declare with a large total. Hassett shared partnerships in excess of 150 with both Bradman and Harvey. Harvey's century took only 90 minutes and Loxton hit 67 in 75 minutes on the second day. The second and third days were continually interrupted by rain, and Compton made 82 in the showers. Bradman gave his regular bowlers a light workload and Brown took 4/16 in 4.1 overs to finish off the tail, the only time he bowled in first-class matches on the entire tour. There was no time left for the second innings. ### v HDG Leveson-Gower's XI ; At Scarborough, 8, 9, 10 September. HDG Leveson-Gower's XI (177 and 75/2) drew with the Australians (489/8 declared). This was the final match for Bradman in England, and the ground was crowded despite rain interruptions. It was Australia's biggest challenge in the post-Test tour matches. During the last Australian campaign in 1938, this team was effectively a full-strength England outfit, but this time Bradman insisted that only six current England Test players be allowed to play. Bradman then fielded a full-strength team, with the only difference from the Fifth Test line-up being the inclusion of Johnson at the expense of Ring. The host captain Walter Robins won the toss and decided to bat, but Lindwall took 6/59 in an innings that lasted into the second day, bowling four of his victims and taking five of the last six wickets to fall as the hosts lost their last six wickets for 57 runs. Bradman and Barnes made 153 and 151 respectively, sharing a second-wicket partnership of 225 after Morris was out for 62. Loxton hit a ball from Freddie Brown into his own face, breaking his nose. Australia reached 2/407 on the third and final afternoon before collapsing to 8/469 before Bradman declared without attempting to force a result. Leveson-Gower's XI played out time, with Bradman bowling the last over. ### v Scotland ; At Edinburgh, 13, 14 September. The Australians (236) defeated Scotland (85 and 111) by an innings and 40 runs. The match against Scotland was a two-day fixture that did not have first-class status. Australia elected to bat and Morris top-scored with 112, and McCool made 52, but all struggled against the leg-spin of William Laidlaw, who took 5/51. The Australians collapsed at the end, losing their last six wickets for 36 runs, and only three made double figures. Scotland collapsed against Johnston and Johnson, who took 6/15 and 3/18 respectively. Forced to follow on, a second innings opening stand of 50 preceded a second collapse, this time Ring and Morris took 4/20 and 5/10. Only three Scottish players passed double figures in either innings. ### v Scotland ; At Aberdeen, 17, 18 September. Scotland (178 and 142) lost to the Australians (407/6 declared) by an innings and 87 runs. In another two-day non-first-class match, Scotland batted better than in Edinburgh after being sent in to bat, but still lost. Tom Crosskey top-scored with 49 in the hosts' 178, before Bradman top-scored with 123 in his last match in Britain and McCool, promoted to open, made 108, while Johnson made 95 after being promoted to No. 5. Scotland then made 142 in some light-hearted cricket in which wicketkeeper Tallon took two wickets and stand-in gloveman Johnson stumped a Scottish batsman off Ring. Bradman allowed his non-regular bowlers opportunities with the ball, and the wickets were shared, with nobody taking more than four. ## See also - 1948 English cricket season - 1982 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France
20,579,258	Glynor Plet	1,171,417,756	Dutch footballer (born 1987)	[ "1987 births", "AFC Ajax players", "Alanyaspor footballers", "Belgian Pro League players", "Dutch expatriate men's footballers", "Dutch expatriate sportspeople in Belgium", "Dutch expatriate sportspeople in Israel", "Dutch expatriate sportspeople in Turkey", "Dutch men's footballers", "Dutch sportspeople of Surinamese descent", "Eerste Divisie players", "Eredivisie players", "Expatriate men's footballers in Belgium", "Expatriate men's footballers in Israel", "Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey", "FC Den Bosch players", "FC Lisse players", "FC Twente players", "Footballers from Amsterdam", "Go Ahead Eagles players", "HFC Haarlem players", "Hapoel Be'er Sheva F.C. players", "Heracles Almelo players", "Israeli Premier League players", "K.R.C. Genk players", "Living people", "Maccabi Haifa F.C. players", "Men's association football forwards", "S.V. Zulte Waregem players", "SC Telstar players", "SV Argon players", "Süper Lig players", "Vierde Divisie players" ]	Glynor Orvil Plet (; born 30 January 1987) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a striker. He is the all-time top scorer and former captain of Telstar. Plet is noted for his physical strength, ability in the air, and ball retention. After a turbulent youth career, where he alternated between playing for amateur and professional clubs, Plet made his professional debut in November 2005, aged 18, for Eerste Divisie club Den Bosch. Failing to break through, he moved to amateur club Lisse where he turned heads by becoming top goalscorer in the Hoofdklasse and winning the title with the club. He then signed his first professional contract with Telstar aged 21. After scoring 18 and 21 goals respectively in his two seasons at Telstar, he earned a move to Eredivisie club Heracles Almelo. In 2012, he joined Twente, before moving abroad and having stints of varying success with Genk, Hapoel Be'er Sheva, Zulte Waregem, Maccabi Haifa, and Alanyaspor. In July 2019, Plet returned to Telstar, where he became the club's all-time leading goalscorer in May 2023. Despite Telstar's interest in renewing his contract, Plet decided not to continue at the club, and left in June 2023. ## Early life and personal life Plet was born on 30 January 1987 in Amsterdam, Netherlands to parents of Surinamese descent. His name derives from the fictional title character, MacGyver, from the 1985 TV series MacGyver, in which his parents were fans. ## Career ### Early years Plet played for SC Voorland, Ajax, Haarlem and Argon, before joining FC Den Bosch in 2005. Plet had a tumultuous career early on: "Throughout my entire youth, I went back and forth between professional and amateur clubs. Starting with the youth team of Ajax, then to amateur clubs in Haarlem, and again to amateurs in Den Bosch. I was too impatient and I had to get playing time at all costs." During his time in the youth team of Haarlem, which was a professional club at the time, Plet spent four years there. However, at the age of 16, he made the unconventional decision to join the under-19 team of Hoofdklasse amateur club Argon. Initially, he had no interest in this move as his lifelong goal had always been to become a professional footballer, and transitioning from a professional club to an amateur one seemed counterintuitive. Nevertheless, his father and brother believed that Argon would provide better opportunities for him to showcase his talent. Haarlem never attracted any scouts, whereas Argon's under-19 team competed at a higher level against clubs like Ajax, Zwolle, and Emmen. Plet's father persisted, urging him to "listen to me for a year, give your all to football, and you'll see that it will work out." ### Den Bosch Taking his father's advice to heart, Plet gave his utmost dedication that season, and, after a year, he earned a move to professional club FC Den Bosch. Driven by impatience and a relentless pursuit for playing time, he resorted to signing an amateur contract with Den Bosch. This commitment required him to commute daily from Amsterdam to 's-Hertogenbosch, even incurring financial costs to participate in his sport. At Den Bosch, Plet initially joined the under-19 team but quickly progressed to training with the senior squad. He made his professional debut for the latter on 6 November 2005, replacing Prince Rajcomar in the 89th minute of a 2–0 loss to Stormvogels Telstar in the Eerste Divisie. On 6 April 2007, he scored his first professional goal, shortly after coming off the bench, in another away loss to Stormvogels Telstar. However, due to the presence of fellow striker Frank Demouge, Plet was primarily limited to substitute appearances. Following Demouge's departure to Willem II, head coach Theo Bos chose Koen van der Biezen as the team's first-choice striker. Despite gaining first-team experience, Plet departed the club after consultation with his father and agent, due to the fact that he was on an amateur contract and in need for financial independence. Plet scored once in 18 appearances for the club in the Eerste Divisie. In the 2007–08 season, Plet joined amateur club Lisse in the Saturday Hoofdklasse A. Plet took on a daytime job with a sponsor while practicing in the evenings. Reflecting on that period, the striker acknowledged its positive impact, stating, "That year was good for me. I earned my own money, which boosted my self-worth." The team experienced a successful season in sporting terms with Plet being a key player for them, scoring 19 goals in 23 matches and helping them to the national amateur title. ### Telstar In July 2008, Plet signed a two-year contract with Eerste Divisie club Telstar, marking his return to professional football. He scored on his debut for the club on 8 August 2008, the first matchday of the season, securing a 1–0 away victory against Excelsior. In the 2009–10 season, Plet was one of the revelations in the Eerste Divisie. Partly because of the many goals he made for the club, Telstar won the period title for the first time since 1979. In his two seasons in the Eerste Divisie, he had scored 18 and 21 goals respectively – the latter being a club record. Go Ahead Eagles initially expressed interest for him, followed by Cambuur. However, Plet was reluctant to continue playing in the Eerste Divisie, feeling he had accomplished what he could in that competition. His aspiration was to reach the Eredivisie, the top tier of Dutch football, as he had invested years of effort into his development. Plet's mindset was clear: "Place me at an Eredivisie club, and I will accept guidance from the people there to improve myself." Consequently, he stayed at Telstar for an opportunity with an Eredivisie club. Confident in his abilities, he believed that there would always be a club in need of a striker like himself, stating, "There are plenty of clubs worldwide; there is always one that needs a forward like me." At the time of leaving the club in May 2010, the then 23-year-old striker had played 73 league matches for Telstar, scoring 39 goals. ### Heracles Almelo On 27 May 2010, Glynor Plet signed a three-year contract with an option for another year with Eredivisie club Heracles Almelo to succeed Bas Dost, who had left to Heerenveen. Plet scored two goals for Heracles on his Eredivisie debut against Willem II in a 3–0 home victory on 7 August 2010. He scored a total of seven goals in 22 matches in his first season for the club, before adding 10 goals in 19 matches in the 2011–12 season. ### Twente Plet joined Eredivisie rivals Twente on 31 January 2012, signing a three-and-a-half-year contract. He was supposed to succeed Marc Janko as the competitor of Luuk de Jong. He made his debut for the club against his former club, Heracles, on 10 February 2012. However, he failed to meet expectations at Twente and was told he could leave the club in the summer of 2012, scoring six goals in 22 appearances during his time there. #### Genk (loan) On 31 August 2012, Plet was sent on a one-season loan to Belgian Pro League club Genk. At Genk, Plet took on the role of a supersub, starting only eight out of 27 league matches, but still managing to score ten league goals. Plet's impact was also extended to the UEFA Europa League, where he scored crucial late equalisers against Sporting CP (group stage) and VfB Stuttgart (round of 32), resulting in 1–1 draws. During that season, Plet also achieved success with Genk by winning the Belgian Cup. The team secured victories over notable opponents such as Standard Liège, Zulte Waregem, and Anderlecht. In the first cup round against third division team Union SG, Plet contributed to the 6–0 victory by scoring a header to double the score. However, he did not find the net again throughout the cup campaign. Despite missing his penalty in the shootout during the semifinals against Anderlecht, Genk progressed and ultimately emerged as the cup winners in the final against Cercle Brugge. In his final appearance for Genk, Plet reached a significant milestone by scoring his 100th career goal. He netted the 1–1 equaliser against Sporting Lokeren, and also provided the assist for the winning goal, proving himself decisive in the 2–1 victory. After discussions between Genk and Twente, it was decided that Plet, despite his total tally of 13 goals, would return to Twente. His contract was terminated by Twente on 1 September. ### Hapoel Be'er Sheva Plet signed a two-year contract with Israeli Premier League club Hapoel Be'er Sheva on 23 September 2013. On 9 February 2014, Plet scored the equalising goal in the 34th minute, a strike from distance, in a 3–1 loss to Maccabi Tel Aviv. In May 2014, his strike was chosen as Goal of the Year by the Israeli television channel, Channel 1. With Hapoel Be'er Sheva, Plet secured a spot in the UEFA Europa League by finishing in second place in the league. ### Zulte Waregem On 9 July 2014, Plet returned to Belgium by signing with Zulte Waregem, having previously enjoyed considerable success with Genk. He made his debut on 17 July, in the first leg of the Europa League's second qualifying round against Zawisza Bydgoszcz (2–1). Notably, Plet marked his debut by scoring the opening goal. In the return leg, he scored again, contributing to a 3–1 victory. Plet's first appearance in the league for Zulte Waregem occurred on 27 July, in a home match against Kortrijk, which ended in a 2–0 win for Waregem. On 10 August 2014, Plet scored his first league goal for Essevee in a 1–1 draw against Club Brugge, finishing off a cross from Aleksandar Trajkovski. However, Zulte Waregem had a challenging start to the season, resulting in the team's decline to lower positions in the league standings. During this period, Plet managed to score only one additional league goal, leading coach Francky Dury to relegate him to the bench. In January 2015, Plet was informed that he was free to explore opportunities with other clubs. He scored twice in 18 appearances for Zulte Waregem. #### Go Ahead Eagles (loan) On 29 January 2015, Plet was sent on loan to Eredivisie side Go Ahead Eagles for the rest of the season. He suffered relegation to the Eerste Divisie with the club at the end of the season. He managed to score only once during his time at Go Ahead, in a 2–1 away loss to Dordrecht. ### Maccabi Haifa On 7 September 2015, Plet returned to Israel and signed a two-year contract with Maccabi Haifa. On 12 September, he made his debut against Bnei Sakhnin, coming on as a substitute for Ofir Kriaf in the 69th minute. However, he was sent off in injury time after elbowing opposing centre-back Abraham Paz in the back of the head. As a result, he received a three-game suspension by the Israel Football Association's tribunal. On 24 October, he made his second appearance for the team and scored his first goal in a 4–0 victory against Hapoel Acre. On 4 January 2016, he scored in a match against his former side, Hapoel Be'er Sheva, but later on also received a red card for the second time that season, after a foul on opposing goalkeeper Dudu Goresh. During the Israel State Cup semi-final, also against Hapoel Be'er Sheva, he scored a brace within two minutes, but later fell out due to an injury, as his team eventually won 3–1. Maccabi Haifa progressed and won the cup after a 1–0 victory over Maccabi Tel Aviv in the final. Plet played one-and-a-half year for Maccabi Haifa, scoring 12 goals and assisting four in 33 appearances for the Greens. ### Alanyaspor On 10 January 2017, Plet signed with Turkish Süper Lig club Alanyaspor on a two-and-a-half-year deal. Shortly after signing, manager Hüseyin Kalpar, who had signed Plet, was dismissed, and his replacements had no place for him in their team. As a result, Plet played his final competitive match for Alanyaspor on 22 May 2017. He decided to stay and honour his contract despite the club wanting to ship him elsewhere. Plet appeared for training every day, despite being only rarely selected to play. During his two-and-a-half-year stint with Alanyaspor, Plet scored once in 10 total appearances, of which he started in nine games. ### Return to Telstar In July 2019, Plet returned to his former club Telstar on a two-year contract. New Telstar head coach Andries Jonker was pleased with Plet's return to the club: "With Glynor, we are bringing in a player with a lot of experience and quality. In a young group, it is important to have guys like Glynor who know what it takes to live as a professional footballer. The qualities that Glynor brings with him make us as staff confident in his added value, and I am very happy that we have been able to secure Glynor for two seasons." Plet immediately scored on his return debut for the club on 23 August 2019, the final goal of a 3–0 league victory against Excelsior after coming on as a 79th-minute substitute for Reda Kharchouch. On 13 May 2023, Plet became Telstar's all-time leading goalscorer, scoring in a 2–1 league loss to MVV, after having shortly shared the title with Sander Oostrom. At that point, he had decided not to renew his contract with Telstar, despite the club expressing their hope of signing the 36-year-old Plet to a new deal. He left Telstar at the end of his contract in June 2023, still undecided on whether he would continue or retire. In July 2023, he had decided not to rejoin Telstar, expressing a desire to pursue a career as a sports agent while continuing to play, preferably for another professional club. ## Style of play Given his relatively late breakthrough into professional football, Plet has often been described as a late bloomer, having signed his first professional contract with Telstar at the age of 21. Described as a powerful figure, Plet is mainly utilised as a striker. In attack, he uses his physicality and technique to hold the ball and create opportunities for overlapping teammates, and has been described as a typical target man. He is an aerial threat due to his tall stature (1.94 m or 6 ft 4 in). ## Career statistics ## Honours Lisse - Hoofdklasse: 2007–08 Genk - Belgian Cup: 2012–13 Maccabi Haifa - Israel State Cup: 2015–16
49,926,096	Lonzo Ball	1,173,173,104	American basketball player (born 1997)	[ "1997 births", "21st-century African-American musicians", "21st-century African-American sportspeople", "21st-century American male musicians", "21st-century American rappers", "African-American basketball players", "African-American male rappers", "All-American college men's basketball players", "American male rappers", "American men's basketball players", "Ball family", "Basketball players from Anaheim, California", "Basketball players from San Bernardino County, California", "Chicago Bulls players", "Chino Hills High School alumni", "Living people", "Los Angeles Lakers draft picks", "Los Angeles Lakers players", "McDonald's High School All-Americans", "New Orleans Pelicans players", "Point guards", "Rappers from California", "UCLA Bruins men's basketball players" ]	Lonzo Anderson Ball (born October 27, 1997) is an American professional basketball player for the Chicago Bulls of the National Basketball Association (NBA). A point guard, he played college basketball for one season with the UCLA Bruins, earning consensus first-team All-American honors before the Los Angeles Lakers selected him with the second overall pick of the 2017 NBA draft. He was named to the NBA All-Rookie Second Team in 2018. As a high school senior at Chino Hills High School in 2016, Ball was awarded multiple national high school player of the year honors, and led his team, alongside his brothers LiAngelo and LaMelo, who are both current professional basketball players, to an undefeated 35-0 record, as well the consensus national top ranking. As a college freshman in 2016–17, he led the nation in assists and broke the UCLA record for the most assists in a season. Ball also won the Wayman Tisdale Award as the top freshman in the nation. As an NBA rookie with the Lakers, his playing time was limited by shoulder and knee injuries, and he was sidelined for much of his second season after an ankle injury. He was traded at the end of the season to the New Orleans Pelicans in a trade package for Anthony Davis. He played two seasons with the Pelicans before joining the Bulls in a sign-and-trade deal, but a persistent knee injury has sidelined him for the majority of his tenure with the team, with him missing the entirety of the 2022–23 season. ## Early life Ball was born in Anaheim, California, to LaVar and Tina Ball, who were both former college basketball players. The 6-foot-6-inch (1.98 m) Ball started playing basketball at the age of two. He idolized LeBron James, who he began following around age six and when James was a first-year NBA player with Cleveland. Ball grew up with his younger brothers, LiAngelo and LaMelo. Until they reached high school, the trio played together on teams coached by their father. Ball played basketball at Chino Hills High School in Chino Hills, California. As a junior in 2014–15, he averaged 25 points, 11 rebounds, 9.1 assists, 5 blocks, and 5 steals. In his senior year, he led the school to a 35–0 record and a state title, and the Huskies were ranked the consensus No. 1 team in the nation. His younger brothers, junior LiAngelo and freshman LaMelo, were also on the team, as well as his cousin Andre. Ball averaged a triple-double with averages of 23.9 points, 11.3 rebounds, and 11.7 assists per game. He received national honors, including the Naismith Prep Player of the Year, Morgan Wootten National Player of the Year, USA Today Boys Basketball Player of the Year, and Mr. Basketball USA. By the end of his senior year, Ball was rated as a consensus five-star recruit in the 2016 high school class. He was ranked No. 4 overall recruit in the 2016 class behind Harry Giles, Josh Jackson and Jayson Tatum by both Rivals.com and ESPN, while Scout.com ranked him at No. 7. In November 2015, he signed a National Letter of Intent to attend the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), and play for the Bruins. ## College career As a freshman in 2016–17, he was one of 50 players named to the preseason watch list for the John R. Wooden Award, given annually to the top college player in the nation. Ball's vision and passing skills led UCLA's rise up the national rankings, as he and fellow freshman T. J. Leaf helped the Bruins bounce back from a 15–17 record from the year before to a 31–5 record. Ball led the nation in assists and transformed the Bruins into the top scoring offense in the country. In his first collegiate game against Pacific, he had 19 points, 11 assists, and eight rebounds. Later in the year, Ball was named the MVP of the Wooden Legacy tournament, after he led UCLA to a win over Texas A&M in the championship game. He remained on the Wooden Award list in midseason, when he was also joined by Leaf, as UCLA was one of just five schools with two candidates on the list. On February 4, 2017, in a 107–66 blowout win against the Washington Huskies, Ball had 22 points, six rebounds, and five assists. With close to two dozen NBA executives in attendance, the game matched Ball against the Huskies' Markelle Fultz, who were among the nation's top point guards and projected to be among the top picks in the 2017 NBA draft. Fultz scored 25 points in an even matchup between the two freshmen. In the Bruins' regular season finale, Ball had a career-high 14 assists in a 77–68 win over Washington State, when he also broke Gary Payton's 30-year-old Pac-12 season record for assists by a freshman. UCLA was seeded No. 3 in the NCAA tournament, and won their opening game 97–80 over Kent State. Ball had 15 points and three assists to surpass Larry Drew II's school record for most assists in a season. In the second round, he came close to a triple-double with 18 points, seven rebounds, and nine assists in a 79–67 win over Cincinnati. All of his assists came in the second half, when UCLA overcame a three-point halftime deficit after scoring a season-low 30 points in the first half. The Bruins were eliminated in the Sweet 16, losing 86–75 to Kentucky. Ball had 10 points, eight assists, and four turnovers in the loss, while Wildcats point guard De'Aaron Fox scored 39 points for an NCAA tournament freshman record. Ball strained his hamstring in the game but played through it and was limping in the second half. Ball did not offer it as an excuse for being outplayed. After the game, he announced that he would declare for the 2017 NBA draft, where he was generally projected to be a top-3 pick. For the season, Ball averaged 14.6 points, 7.6 assists, and 6.0 rebounds. He was the only player in the nation to average at least 14 points, six assists, and six rebounds, and was the first player in the conference since California's Jason Kidd in 1993–94 to average at least 14 points, seven assists, and six rebounds. His 274 assists also passed Kidd (272) for the second-most in a season by a Pac-12 player, behind only Ahlon Lewis (294) of Arizona State in 1997–98. Ball made 55.1 percent of his field goal attempts and 41.2 of his three-point attempts to become the first NCAA Division I player since 1992–93 to make at least 70 percent from the 2-point range and 40 percent from the 3-point range. He was a unanimous first-team All-American, earning honors from the Associated Press, United States Basketball Writers Association (USBWA), National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC), and Sporting News. Additionally, he was awarded the Wayman Tisdale Award by the USBWA as the top freshman in the nation. Ball was the only freshman that year to be a finalist for the Wooden Award, Naismith College Player of the Year, and Oscar Robertson Trophy. He was also voted Pac-12 Freshman of the Year, named first-team All-Pac-12 along with teammates Leaf and Bryce Alford, and received honorable mention for the Pac-12 All-Defensive Team. ## Professional career ### Los Angeles Lakers (2017–2019) #### 2017–18 season: Rookie season Ball was selected with the second overall pick of the 2017 NBA draft by his hometown team the Los Angeles Lakers. It was the third straight year they had the No. 2 pick. He and Brandon Ingram, their second overall pick from the previous year, headlined a young core for the Lakers. D'Angelo Russell, their No. 2 pick in 2015, was traded days earlier, partly to clear the way for their newly drafted point guard. Lakers president of basketball operations Magic Johnson billed Ball as "the new face of the Lakers." During the 2017 NBA Summer League in Las Vegas, Ball was named the league MVP after averaging 16.3 points, 9.3 assists, 7.7 rebounds, 2.5 steals, and 1.0 blocks per game. He had two triple-doubles, the first in Vegas since 2008 and the first ever in Vegas by a rookie. He had four games with 10 or more assists, becoming the first in league history to have more than 10 assists in more than one game; his 9.3 assist average was also a league record. As a rookie in 2017–18, Ball played in 52 games, missing 30 games due to shoulder and knee injuries. In the second game of the season on October 20, 2017, he scored a then career-high 29 points, to go along with 11 rebounds and nine assists in a 132–130 win against the Phoenix Suns, falling one assist shy of becoming the youngest player to notch a triple double in NBA history. In the following game, he had eight points, eight rebounds, and 13 assists in a 119–112 loss to the New Orleans Pelicans, becoming the youngest player in franchise history to get at least 10 assists in a game. On November 11, he recorded 19 points, 13 assists, and 12 rebounds in a 98–90 loss against the Milwaukee Bucks, becoming the youngest player at the time to achieve a triple-double at the age of 20 years and 15 days old, breaking James' record by five days. Leading up to the game, Bucks' coach Jason Kidd, who Ball is often compared to, had called it "a stretch" to compare the two since it was too early in Ball's career. Ball, who had been struggling with his shooting, made over 50% of his field goals in a game for the first time in his career. On November 19, he recorded his second triple-double with 11 points, 16 rebounds, and 11 assists in a 127–109 win over the Denver Nuggets. It was the most rebounds by an NBA rookie guard since Steve Francis had 17 in 1999–2000. He also joined fellow NBA rookie Ben Simmons, as well as Magic Johnson, Connie Hawkins, Art Williams, and Oscar Robertson as the only players to record multiple triple-doubles within the first 20 games of their NBA careers. Ball missed the team's Christmas game after spraining his left shoulder in the previous game against the Portland Trail Blazers. He returned after missing six games, playing in five games before spraining the medial collateral ligament (MCL) in his left knee against the Dallas Mavericks on January 13, 2018. Originally, he was expected to be sidelined for one to three weeks. Ball was selected to play in the Rising Stars Challenge during NBA All-Star Weekend, but withdrew because of the injury. He returned after the All-Star break after missing 15 games. On February 23, he played 17 minutes and had nine points, seven rebounds and six assists in a 124–102 victory against the Mavericks. It was the first game he played all season that he did not start. He was also on a minutes restriction, and the Lakers held him out of their following game to limit his back-to-back games during his return. Ball missed the final eight games of the season due to a knee contusion. He ended the season with averages of 10.2 points, 7.2 assists and 6.9 rebounds, but made only 36 percent of his field goals. He was named to the NBA All-Rookie Second Team, while fellow rookie teammate Kyle Kuzma exceeded expectations and earned First Team honors. #### 2018–19 season: Sophomore season On July 17, 2018, Ball underwent an arthroscopic surgery on his left knee to repair a torn meniscus. During the offseason, the Lakers signed the four-time NBA Most Valuable Player LeBron James, which shifted the spotlight away from Ball. They also signed veteran point guard Rajon Rondo to mentor and compete with the youngster. A week before camp, Lakers coach Luke Walton stated that Ball would be eased back and not participate in full-contact practices initially. Ball's added bulk made him better on defense, and he became one of the Lakers' most dynamic defenders during the season as he picked up point guards full-court to create turnovers in the backcourt. On offense, he had to adjust to playing off the ball more with James often handling the ball. On December 15, in a 128–100 win against the Charlotte Hornets, the duo became the first teammates to achieve a triple-double in the same game since Jason Kidd and Vince Carter did it in 2007, with Ball posting 16 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists, while James had 24 points, 12 rebounds, and 11 assists. The last Lakers teammates to accomplish the feat were Johnson and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar in 1982. It was Ball's third triple-double of his career and his first in over a year. On January 19, 2019, he had a career-high seven assists in a quarter to help the Lakers build a 13-point lead over the Houston Rockets after the first period. In the third quarter, he collided with the Rockets' James Ennis III and suffered a Grade 3 left ankle sprain, which included a torn ligament. Ball left the game with 11 assists in 22 minutes and the team up by 18 points, but the Lakers lost the game in overtime 138–134. He had suffered two other ankle injuries earlier in the season, but had been able to play in all of the team's first 47 games. Since Walton called him out for being passive after a 108–86 loss against the Minnesota Timberwolves, he had been averaging 13 points, 6.4 rebounds and 8.4 assists with nearly two steals over seven games before the injury. Ball was selected again for the Rising Stars game, but he was ruled out again because of his ankle injury. In late February, he traveled to Ohio to potentially undergo surgery. However, this surgery was not authorized by the Lakers, so the team informed him that his contract could be voided if he proceeded, and successfully talked him out of it. Originally expected to be sidelined for four to six weeks, he was shut down for the rest of the season in March. ### New Orleans Pelicans (2019–2021) On July 6, 2019, the Lakers traded Ball, Ingram, Josh Hart, the draft rights to De'Andre Hunter, two first-round draft picks, a first-round pick swap and cash to New Orleans in exchange for All-Star Anthony Davis. Ball made his debut for the Pelicans on October 22, registering eight points, five rebounds, and five assists in a 130–122 overtime loss to the defending champion Toronto Raptors. On December 29, he hit a then career-high seven three-pointers, and scored a season-high 27 points, to go with 10 rebounds, and eight assists in a 127–112 win over the Rockets. On January 18, 2020, he recorded his first triple-double of the season with 18 points, 10 rebounds, and 11 assists in a 133–130 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. On March 3, he matched his then career-high seven three-pointers, while recording 26 points and eight assists in a 139–134 loss to the Timberwolves. He also made seven three-pointers the following day, finishing with 25 points, 11 rebounds, and six assists in a 127–123 overtime loss to the Dallas Mavericks. From December 2019 to March 2020, in a 45-game span, he averaged 12.7 points, 7.3 assists, and 6.7 rebounds while shooting 39.2% from three. Heading into the 2020–21 season, Ball was at his healthiest. New Pelicans coach Stan Van Gundy placed him in a 3-and-D role, which he had never played before. On January 29, 2021, Ball matched his then career-high seven three-pointers, and scored a season-high 27 points, in a 131–126 win over the Bucks. On April 5, Ball set a new career-high eight three-pointers, while matching his season-high 27 points and registering nine assists in a 122–115 win over the Rockets. On May 1, Ball matched his career-high eight three-pointers while recording a career-high 33 points, alongside 11 rebounds and eight assists in a 140–136 OT win against the Minnesota Timberwolves. On May 4, Ball matched his career-high 33 points in a 108–103 win against the Golden State Warriors. He ended the season with career highs in scoring (14.6), 3-point percentage (37.8%), field goal percentage (41.4) and free throw percentage (78.1). In his new role, his assist average dropped to 5.7 per game, near the level he posted while playing alongside LeBron James with the Lakers. New Orleans had power forward Zion Williamson initiate plays off the dribble and handle the ball in transition. Ball became a restricted free agent during the offseason. ### Chicago Bulls (2021–present) On August 8, 2021, Ball was traded to the Chicago Bulls in a sign-and-trade deal, with the Pelicans receiving Tomáš Satoranský, Garrett Temple and draft picks. He signed a four-year, \$85 million contract extension with the Bulls. On October 20, Ball made his Bulls debut, putting up 12 points, six rebounds, and four assists in a 94–88 win over the Detroit Pistons. On October 22, he put up a triple-double with 17 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists in a 128–112 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. On January 20, 2022, after he missed three games with a meniscus tear, the Bulls announced that Ball would undergo surgery on his left knee and miss six to eight weeks. On April 6, he was ruled out for the remainder of the season after experiencing pain during rehabilitation when his physical activity was increased. He played in 35 games, the fewest in his career. He had been a good fit for the Bulls, playing with Zach LaVine and DeMar DeRozan. At the time of his injury, Chicago was 27-13, the best record in the Eastern Conference. Ball was enjoying the best shooting season of his career with career highs in field goal percentage (42%) and 3-point percentage (42%). That season, he was the only NBA player to average five rebounds and five assists and shoot over 40% on 3s. On February 21, 2023, the Bulls announced that Ball would be out for the remainder of the 2022–23 season due to recurring discomfort during participation in basketball activities. Ball did not appear at all in that season. He underwent a cartilage transplant in his left knee on March 16, 2023. In June 2023, Bulls vice president Arturas Karnisovas said that the team did not expect him to be able to play in the 2023–24 season. ## Career statistics ### NBA #### Regular season \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2017–18 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|L.A. Lakers \\| 52 \\|\\| 50 \\|\\| 34.2 \\|\\| .360 \\|\\| .305 \\|\\| .451 \\|\\| 6.9 \\|\\| 7.2 \\|\\| 1.7 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| 10.2 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2018–19 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|L.A. Lakers \\| 47 \\|\\| 45 \\|\\| 30.3 \\|\\| .406 \\|\\| .329 \\|\\| .417 \\|\\| 5.3 \\|\\| 5.4 \\|\\| 1.5 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 9.9 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2019–20 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|New Orleans \\| 63 \\|\\| 54 \\|\\| 32.1 \\|\\| .403 \\|\\| .375 \\|\\| .566 \\|\\| 6.1 \\|\\| 7.0 \\|\\| 1.4 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| 11.8 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2020–21 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|New Orleans \\| 55 \\|\\| 55 \\|\\| 31.8 \\|\\| .414 \\|\\| .378 \\|\\| .781 \\|\\| 4.8 \\|\\| 5.7 \\|\\| 1.5 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| 14.6 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2021–22 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Chicago \\| 35 \\|\\| 35 \\|\\| 34.6 \\|\\| .423 \\|\\| .423 \\|\\| .750 \\|\\| 5.4 \\|\\| 5.1 \\|\\| 1.8 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| 13.0 \\|- class="sortbottom" \\| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\\|Career \\| 252 \\|\\| 239 \\|\\| 32.5 \\|\\| .400 \\|\\| .364 \\|\\| .578 \\|\\| 5.7 \\|\\| 6.2 \\|\\| 1.6 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| 11.9 ### College \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2016–17 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|UCLA \\| 36 \\|\\| 36 \\|\\| 35.1 \\|\\| .551 \\|\\| .412 \\|\\| .673 \\|\\| 6.0 \\|\\| 7.6 \\|\\| 1.8 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| 14.6 ## Player profile Ball formerly had an unorthodox jump shot, whereby he moved the ball from his left hip to the left of his forehead. He rotated his right elbow in toward his chest until it reached a 45-degree angle, at which point he shot the ball towards the basket. Ball preferred to shoot jumpers while moving towards his left. This led to Ball averaging only 31% shooting from three-point range in his two seasons with the Lakers. Heading into the 2020–21 NBA season, videos of Ball's new shooting form emerged. He has been shooting in a more conventional form, with the ball squared up to his forehead and averaged a then career-high 37.5% shooting from three in his first season with the Pelicans. Ball began shooting in games from 40 feet (12 m) deep when he was a pre-teen. In college, he shot three-pointers from beyond the NBA line, which is 4 feet (1.2 m) longer than the 19-foot-9-inch (6.02 m) college line. His go-to shot with time expiring was a step-back three-pointer from deep. ## Awards and honors NBA - 2× Rising Stars Challenge (2018, 2019) - NBA All-Rookie Second Team (2018) College - Associated Press first-team All-American (2017) - USBWA first-team All-American (2017) - NABC first-team All-American (2017) - Sporting News first-team All-American (2017) - First-team All-Pac-12 (2017) - Wayman Tisdale Award (2017) - Pac-12 Freshman of the Year (2017) - Pac-12 All-Freshman team (2017) - Honorable mention Pac-12 All-Defensive Team High school - Naismith Prep Player of the Year (2016) - Morgan Wootten National Player of the Year (2016) - USA Today Player of the Year (2016) - Mr. Basketball USA (2016) - McDonald's All-American (2016) - Ballislife All-American (2016) - Ballislife All-American Game MVP (2016) - California Mr. Basketball (2016) - Los Angeles Times Player of the Year (2016) ## Endorsements Ball began his pro career using sports apparel from his father LaVar's Big Baller Brand instead of signing with any of the major apparel companies. His father had insisted that he not sign with a company unless they agreed to license merchandise from Big Baller Brand. In May 2017, Big Baller Brand announced the release of Ball's first shoe, the ZO2. The \$495 price tag on the shoe sparked wide criticism from celebrities and on social media, in regard to its potential quality in comparison to competing brands such as Nike and Adidas as well as Ball's lack of star power. In response to his critics, LaVar tweeted on May 4, "If you can't afford the ZO2S, you're NOT a BIG BALLER!" It was later revealed that despite not being a founder of the company, Lonzo owned 51% of the Big Baller Brand, while his father owned 16.4% of the business and both his mother and Alan Foster, co-founder of Big Baller Brand, owned 16.3% of the business. On April 6, 2018, Jordan Crawford became the first player besides Ball to wear the ZO2s during a game. On December 20, 2017, Ball was announced as the logo for the Junior Basketball Association (JBA), a league his father LaVar planned to establish for high-school basketball players who have finished high school but want an alternative option to the NCAA. The logo of the JBA is an outline of Ball. In March 2019, Ball told ESPN that he had cut his ties with BBB's manager and co-founder Alan Foster, accusing him of enriching himself through Ball's business and personal finances. In particular, he stated that \$1.5 million of his personal money had gone missing. In addition, the Lakers showed concerns for the quality of BBB's shoes – believing it was a potential factor in his ankle injuries. Shortly afterward, Ball stripped references to BBB from his social media pages, changed his avatar to a childhood photo of himself wearing a Nike-branded T-shirt, permanently covered up his BBB tattoo, and posted a photograph of himself on Instagram with the caption "Moving on to bigger and better \#MyOwnMan" [sic]. Ball and his family have also mentioned the idea of folding the Big Baller Brand altogether in the aftermath of Alan Foster's firing. ## Music career Ball is a rap music enthusiast; in his spare time he writes lyrics on his phone. He has frequently gone to a studio to record music. He has said that he would be a rapper if he was not an NBA player. In September 2017, Ball released his first rap single, "Melo Ball 1", an ode to his youngest brother, LaMelo. During that same month, he released the song "ZO2", a dedication to his own brand of shoes. The following month, Ball released another rap single titled "Super Saiyan", which is a nod to the anime and manga series Dragon Ball Z. In the track, he compares himself to Goku, the main protagonist of DBZ. On February 15, 2018, Ball and his father would participate in the Lip Sync Battle as competitors. That same day, Ball released his debut album, Born 2 Ball, under the name Zo. The album would be released under the Big Baller Music Group, a subsidiary of the Big Baller Brand, run by a close friend of his father. In March, Born 2 Ball peaked at No. 42 on Billboard's Independent Albums chart and No. 13 on its Heatseekers Albums chart. In 2020, Ball competed on the fourth season of The Masked Singer as "Whatchamacallit". He was eliminated on week 8 alongside Dr. Elvis Francois as "Serpent". ### Discography #### Albums - 2018: Born 2 Ball - 2020: BBA (Bounce Back Album) #### Singles - 2017: "Melo Ball 1" - 2017: "ZO2" - 2017: "Super Saiyan" ## Personal life In February 2017, Ball's mother, Tina, suffered a stroke and was hospitalized for two months. In August, he and his family premiered in their own Facebook Watch reality show, Ball in the Family. Ball was in an on-and-off long-term relationship with Denise García, with whom he has a daughter.
38,995,590	Demographic history of Scotland	1,127,473,093	null	[ "Demographic history of the United Kingdom", "History of Scotland by topic" ]	The demographic history of Scotland includes all aspects of population history in what is now Scotland. Scotland may have been first occupied in the last interglacial period (130,000–70,000 BC), but the earliest surviving archaeological evidence of human settlement is of Mesolithic hunter-gatherer encampments. These suggest a highly mobile boat-using people, probably with a very low density of population. Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements dating from 3500 BC, and greater concentrations of population. Evidence of hillforts and other buildings suggest a growing settled population. Changes in the scale of woodland indicates that the Roman invasions from the first century AD had a negative impact on the native population. There are almost no written sources from which to reconstruct the demography of early medieval Scotland. This was probably a high fertility, high mortality society, similar to developing countries in the modern world. The population may have grown from half a million to a million by the mid-fourteenth century when the Black Death reached the country. It may then have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the fifteenth century. Roughly half lived north of the River Tay and perhaps 10 per cent in the burghs that grew up in the later medieval period. Inflation in prices, indicating greater demand, suggests that the population continued to grow until the late sixteenth century, when it probably levelled off. It began to grow again in the relative stability of the late seventeenth century. The earliest reliable evidence suggests a population of 1.2 million in 1681. This was probably reduced by the "seven ill years" of the 1690s, which caused severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north. The first national census was conducted in 1755, and showed the population of Scotland as 1,265,380. By then four towns had populations of over 10,000, with the capital, Edinburgh, the largest with 57,000 inhabitants. Overall the population of Scotland grew rapidly in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Whilst the Lowland Clearances caused depopulation in the affected areas, only local net population reductions occurred in the Highlands during the Highland Clearances. By 1801, Scotland's population had reached 1,608,420 and it grew to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901. By the beginning of the twentieth century, one in three lived in the four cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen. Glasgow emerged as the largest city, with a population of 762,000 by 1901, making it "the Second City of the Empire". Despite industrial expansion there were insufficient jobs and between the mid-nineteenth century and the Great Depression about two million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia, and another 750,000 to England. The Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population but they provided 15 per cent of the national armed forces, and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead in World War I (1914–18). With the end of mass migration, the population reached a peak of 5,240,800 in 1974. Thereafter it began to fall slowly, moving down to 5,062,940 in 2000. There was also a decrease in some urban populations as a result of policies of slum clearance, overspill and relocation to new towns, with the population of Glasgow falling from over a million in 1951 to 629,000 in 2001. Rural areas also saw a loss of population, particularly in the Highlands and Hebrides. ## Prehistoric and Roman eras At times during the last interglacial period (130,000– 70,000 BC) Europe had a climate warmer than today's, and early humans may have made their way to what is now Scotland, though archaeologists have found no traces of this. Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable, around 9600 BC. Mesolithic hunter-gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements, and archaeologists have dated a site near Biggar to around 8500 BC. Numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat-using people making tools from bone, stone and antlers, probably with a very low density of population. Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements, such as the stone house at Knap of Howar on Papa Westray dating from 3500 BC, and greater concentrations of population. Although the Roman geographer Ptolemy indicated that there were 19 "towns" in Caledonia, north of the Roman province of Britannia, no clear evidence of urban settlements has been found and these were probably hillforts. There is evidence of over 1,000 such forts, most south of the Clyde-Forth line, but the majority seem to have been abandoned in the Roman period. There is also evidence of distinctive stone wheelhouses (a type of roundhouse, with a circle of stone piers resembling the spokes of a wheel) and over 400 small underground souterrains (underground galleries that may have been used to store food). Extensive analyses of Black Loch in Fife indicate that arable land spread at the expense of forest from about 2000 BCuntil the time of the Roman advance into lowland Scotland in the first century AD, suggesting an expanding settled population. Thereafter, there was regrowth of birch, oak and hazel for some 500 years, suggesting that the Roman invasions had a negative impact on the native population. ## Middle Ages There are almost no written sources from which to reconstruct the demography of early medieval Scotland. Estimates have been made of a population of 10,000 in Dál Riata and 80–100,000 for Pictland, which was probably the largest region. It is likely that the fifth and sixth centuries saw higher mortality rates due to the appearance of bubonic plague, which may have reduced the population. The examination of burial sites for this period, such as that at Hallowhill, St Andrews, indicates a life expectancy of only 26 to 29. The known conditions have been taken to suggest it was a high fertility, high mortality society, similar to developing countries in the modern world, with a relatively young demographic profile, and perhaps early childbearing, and large numbers of children born to each woman (although with high child mortality). This would have meant a relatively low ratio of available workers to the number of mouths to feed, which in turn would have made it difficult to produce a surplus that would allow demographic growth and the development of more complex societies. From the formation of the Kingdom of Alba in the tenth century, to before the Black Death reached the country in 1349, estimates based on the amount of farmable land suggest that the population may have grown from half a million to a million. Growth was probably punctuated by occasional crises, like the famines recorded in chronicles for 1154 and 1256. More significant was a series of poor harvests that affected Scotland and most of Europe in the early fourteenth century and widespread famines in 1315–16 and in the later 1330s. Although there is no reliable documentation of the demographic impact of the Black Death in Scotland, there are some indications of the immediate effects of the plague. Walter Bower recorded that 24, about a third, of the canons of St. Andrews died during the outbreak. There are also anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades. If the pattern followed that in England, then the population may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the fifteenth century. Compared with the distribution of population after the later Clearances and the Industrial Revolution, these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom, with roughly half living north of the River Tay. ## Early modern era Price inflation, which generally reflects growing demand for food, suggests that the population was probably still expanding in the first half of the sixteenth century. Almost half the years in the second half of the sixteenth century saw local or national scarcity, necessitating the shipping of large quantities of grain from the Baltic. Distress was exacerbated by outbreaks of plague, with major epidemics in the periods 1584-8, 1595 and 1597–1609. The population expansion probably levelled off after the famine of the 1590s, as prices were relatively stable in the early seventeenth century. Famine was common, with four periods of famine prices between 1620 and 1625. The invasions of the 1640s had a profound impact on the Scottish economy, with the destruction of crops and the disruption of markets resulting in some of the most rapid price rises of the century, but population probably expanded in the Lowlands in the period of stability that followed the Restoration in 1660. There is evidence that there was a different demographic regime operating in the Highlands, where growth probably continued from the early seventeenth century to the late eighteenth century. Estimates based on hearth tax returns for 1691 indicate a population of around 1.2 million. The population may have been seriously affected by the failed harvests (1695, 1696 and 1698-9) known as the "seven ill years". The result was severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north. Starvation probably killed 5 to 15 per cent of the Scottish population, but in areas like Aberdeenshire death rates reached 25 per cent. The famines of the 1690s were seen as particularly severe, partly because famine had become relatively rare in the second half of the seventeenth century, with only one year of dearth (in 1674), and the shortages of the 1690s were the last of their kind. Between 1650 and 1700 approximately 7,000 Scots migrated to America, 10–20,000 to Europe and England and 60–100,000 to Ireland. The first reliable figure for the national population is from the census conducted by the Reverend Alexander Webster in 1755, which showed the inhabitants of Scotland as 1,265,380 persons. Unlike in England, where the nucleated village existed relatively early, most of the early modern population of Scotland, in both the Lowlands and Highlands, was housed in small clachans or townships and isolated dwellings. These were unstructured groups of houses, often belonging to between four and six tenants, who were often engaged in common agriculture. As the population expanded, some of these settlements were subdivided to create new clachans and more marginal land was settled, with sheilings (clusters of huts occupied while summer pasture was being used for grazing) becoming permanent settlements. Perhaps 10 per cent of the population lived in the burghs that had grown up in the later medieval period, mainly in the east and south of the country. They perhaps had an average population of 2,000, but many were much smaller than 1,000, and the largest, Edinburgh, probably had a population of over 10,000 at the beginning of the period. Edinburgh doubled in size in the century after 1540, particularly after the plague of 1580, with most of its population probably coming from a growing reservoir in the surrounding countryside. It also expanded beyond the city walls in suburbs at Cowgate, Bristo and Westport and by 1750, with its suburbs, it had reached a population of 57,000. The only other towns above 10,000 by the end of the period were Glasgow with 32,000, Aberdeen with around 16,000 and Dundee with 12,000. By 1600 Scotland had a higher proportion of its population living in larger towns than contemporaneous Scandinavia, Switzerland and most of Eastern Europe: by 1750 in Europe, only Italy, the Low Countries and England were more urbanised than Scotland. ## Modern era The agricultural revolution changed the traditional system of agriculture which had existed in Lowland Scotland. Thousands of cottars and tenant farmers migrated from farms and smallholdings to the new industrial centres of Glasgow, Edinburgh and northern England. Particularly after the end of the boom created by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1790–1815), Highland landlords needed cash to maintain their position in London society. Whereas rents had often been paid in kind, the landlords turned to money rents. They evicted the farmers who had occupied run rig arable land and shared grazing. Their holdings were let to large scale sheep farmers, who could afford substantially higher rents. The eviction of tenants went against dùthchas, the principle that clan members had an inalienable right to rent land in the clan territory. Particularly in the north and west Highlands, estates offered alternative accommodation in newly established crofting communities, with the intention that the resettled tenants worked in fishing or the kelp industry. These evictions were the first phase of the Highland Clearances. The total population of the Highlands continued to rise throughout the clearances. The result was a continuous exodus from the land—to the cities, and further afield to England, Canada, America and Australia. The Great Famine of Ireland of the 1840s, caused by potato blight, which devastated the population of Ireland, reached the Highlands in 1846. The overcrowded crofting communities were highly dependent on the potato. Although 150,000 people faced disaster, they were rescued by an effective emergency relief system that stands in dramatic contrast to the failures of relief in Ireland and prevented a major demographic crisis. By the time of the first decadal census in 1801, the population was 1,608,420. It grew steadily in the nineteenth century, to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901. While population fell in some rural areas, it rose rapidly in the towns. Aberdeen, Dundee and Glasgow grew by a third or more between 1755 and 1775 and the textile town of Paisley more than doubled its population. Because of the industrial revolution, Scotland was already one of the most urbanised societies in Europe by 1800. In 1800, 17 per cent of people in Scotland lived in towns of more than 10,000 inhabitants. By 1850 it was 32 per cent and by 1900 it was 50 per cent. By 1900 one in three of the entire population were in the four cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen. Glasgow emerged as the largest city. Its population in 1780 was 43,000, reaching 147,000 by 1820; by 1901 it had grown to 762,000. This was due to a high birth rate and immigration from the countryside and particularly from Ireland; but from the 1870s there was a fall in the birth rate and lower rates of migration and much of the growth was due to longer life expectancy. Glasgow was now one of the largest cities in the world, and it became known as "the Second City of the Empire" after London. Mortality rates were high compared with England and other European nations. Evidence suggests a national death rate of 30 per 1,000 in 1755, 24 in the 1790s and 22 in the early 1860s. Mortality tended to be much higher in urban than rural settlements. The first time these were measured, 1861–82, in the four major cities these were 28.1 per 1,000 and 17.9 in rural areas. Mortality probably peaked in Glasgow in the 1840s, when large inflows of population from the Highlands and Ireland combined population outgrowing sanitary provision and combining with outbreaks of epidemic disease. National rates began to fall in the 1870s, particularly in the cities, as environmental conditions improved. By 1930–32 the national rate was 13.4 per 1,000, with a rate of 14.1 and in rural areas 12.8. Even with the growth of industry there were not enough good jobs: as a result, from 1841 to 1931, about two million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia, and another 750,000 Scots relocated to England. With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent 690,000 men to the First World War, of whom 74,000 died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded. Thus, although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population, they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 8.3% of the UK's 887,858 dead from all causes. While emigration began to tail off in England and Wales after the First World War, it continued apace in Scotland, with 400,000 Scots, 10 per cent of the population, estimated to have left the country between 1921 and 1931. When the Great Depression hit in the 1930s there were no easily available jobs in the US and Canada, and emigration fell to less than 50,000 a year, bringing to an end the period of mass migrations that had opened in the mid-eighteenth century. This contributed to the growth of the population, which reached a peak of 5,240,800 in 1974. Thereafter it began to fall slowly, moving down to 5,062,940 in 2000. There was also a decrease in some urban populations as a result of slum clearance, overspill and relocation to new towns, with the population of Glasgow falling from over a million in 1951 to 629,000 in 2001. Rural areas also saw a loss of population, particularly the Highlands and Hebrides. In the early part of the twenty-first century Scotland saw a rise in its population to 5,313,600 (its highest ever recorded) at the 2011 census. ## See also - Demographic history, global perspective - Demography of Scotland
5,320,680	School District 53 Okanagan Similkameen	1,069,074,313	School district in Canada	[ "Regional District of Okanagan-Similkameen", "School districts in British Columbia", "School districts in the Okanagan", "Similkameen Country" ]	School District 53 Okanagan Similkameen is a school district that serves fragments of the southern Okanagan and lower Similkameen regions, which include Cawston, Hedley, Keremeos, Okanagan Falls, Oliver, and Osoyoos, totaling to six communities in the district, all of which are in British Columbia, Canada. Its main "maintenance department" office is held in Oliver, consisting of ten schools, five of which are elementary, three are high or secondary schools, while two are alternative schools. This district's superintendent is Beverly Young, while 2,665 students attend schools in it; there are 480 employees for the Okanagan Simlkammen school district. Their motto is "Learning Today for Living Tomorrow", and all places within the district are towns or villages. In addition to the conventional school programs, School District 53 offers three adult learning outlets, an outreach school, three early learning centres, as well as one elementary hockey academy; the district supports Aboriginal people. It provides a school bus transportation service, in order for children to get to their school and home, being responsible to the Director of Facilities. This bus service has been considered for expansion. School District 53 maintains a policy on emergency, which was amended on April 30, 2008. There is also a "smoke-free" policy that was amended on September 26, 2007. ## Facilities School District 53 Okanagan Similkameen consists of ten schools, five of which are elementary, three are high or secondary schools, while two are alternative schools, within a total of six communities in British Columbia, Canada, in fragments of the southern Okanagan and lower Similkameen regions. The schools of the latter region include Cawston Primary School—held in the town of Cawston—whose principal is Shannon Miller. Cawston School is a Kindergarten to Grade 4 school that is well known for its Weekend Western Day Assembly, held on Victoria Day Weekend and featuring hobby horse barrel racing. The village of Keremeos is home to Similkameen Elementary Secondary School (S.E.S.S.), which holds students from Grades 5 to 12, with the principal being Naren Searcy. Hedley did have a Kindergarten to Grade 4 school of its own until January 2008, when the Okanagan Similkameen district voted four to two to close the school. Linda Thiel was the last principal of Hedley Elementary School and oversaw its closure. In addition to the schools of the lower Similkameen, the southern Okanagan holds seven of the ten schools part of the district, as well as its main "maintenance department" office, which is held in the town of Oliver. All schools in the district which are part of the Okanagan region maintain the same format: elementary schools have children from Kindergarten to Grade 8, while secondary schools consist of pupils from Grade 8 to 12. This includes Okanagan Falls Elementary School, which is held in the Okanagan Falls town, with Lisa McCall serving as the school's principal. The Osoyoos town is home to Osoyoos Elementary School—whose principal is Dave Foster —and Osoyoos Secondary School, which is principled by Glen Heinrichs. Since 2001, British Columbia has invested over 4.8 Canadian million dollars on replacing Osoyoos Elementary School, as well as Okanagan Falls Elementary School. It offers the Okanagan Similkameen Learning Centre, which consists of students from Grades 8 to 12; the principal of the learning centre is B. Hansen. Its neighboring town, Oliver, is home to, as of September 2011, Oliver Elementary School and Tuc-el-Nuit Elementary School—the former's principal is Mike Safek, while the latter's is Dave Foster. The community also had a secondary school, named Southern Okanagan Secondary School, until it was burnt by a fire in September 2011, during the school's multimillion-dollar renovation project. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police's (RCMP) investigation found no conclusion. The Government of British Columbia are contributing to the school's rebuilding; its construction began in spring 2012, being slated for completion in 2013. In addition to the conventional school programs, School District 53 offers three adult learning outlets, an outreach school, three early learning centres, as well as one elementary hockey academy. It also works with a number of Aboriginal people, having signed an enhancement agreement to improve academic achievement of them. 2,665 students attend schools in this district, whose superintendent is Beverley Young. ## Demographics 1,303 of those 2,665 students within the district attend elementary schools, while 1,202 attend secondary schools; 102 are adult education students. School District 53 contains 480 employees, and its motto is "Learning Today for Living Tomorrow". While its board chair is Marieze Tarr, its secretary treasurer is Lynda Minnabarriet and its MLA is John Slater. The district has five trustees. It provides a school bus transportation service, in order to get children to their school and home, being responsible to the Director of Facilities. The bus service has been considered for expansion. The British Columbia province gives funds to the school district, so that it can maintain their schools correctly. The amount given is based on the number of kids that are enrolled for the year. Further money is often left over by the end of the year. StrongStart BC, an "early learning initiatives" program, operates at three schools within the district, Okanagan Falls Elementary School, Oliver Elementary School, Cawston Primary School, and Osoyoos Elementary School. The district's boundaries include three First Nations Bands: the Osoyoos Indian Band and the upper and lower Similkameen Bands, all of which are Indian governments. An emergency—a "sudden", "unexpected" occurrence that requires action for a situation—at schools within the district 53 scope can result in school or bus transportation facilities. This district's policy on emergency was amended on April 30, 2008, which includes fire, threats or facilities, violence, school bus accident, serve weather, earthquake, hazardous spills, accidents, explosions, or floods. The policy was amended because the district recognizes the importance of emergencies, specifically during school's session, that could be both natural and human, hence why it necessitates to develop plans for emergencies. It also maintains a "smoke-free" policy, meaning that it is prohibited to smoke in a district 53 area. This rule was amended on September 26, 2007. ## See also - List of school districts in British Columbia
174,723	Fanny Mendelssohn	1,165,680,705	19th-century German pianist and composer	[ "1805 births", "1847 deaths", "19th-century German composers", "19th-century classical composers", "19th-century classical pianists", "19th-century women composers", "19th-century women pianists", "Burials at Dreifaltigkeitsfriedhof I, Berlin", "Child classical musicians", "Composers for piano", "Fanny Mendelssohn", "German Calvinist and Reformed Christians", "German Romantic composers", "German classical pianists", "German people of Jewish descent", "German women classical composers", "German women pianists", "Jewish classical pianists", "Mendelssohn family", "Musicians from Berlin", "Musicians from Hamburg", "Women classical pianists" ]	Fanny Mendelssohn (14 November 1805 – 14 May 1847) was a German composer and pianist of the early Romantic era who was also known as Fanny (Cäcilie) Mendelssohn Bartholdy and, after her marriage, Fanny Hensel (as well as Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel). Her compositions include a piano trio, a piano quartet, an orchestral overture, four cantatas, more than 125 pieces for the piano, and over 250 lieder, most of which went unpublished in her lifetime. Although praised for her piano technique, she rarely gave public performances outside her family circle. She grew up in Berlin and received a thorough musical education from teachers including her mother, as well as the composers Ludwig Berger and Carl Friedrich Zelter. Her younger brother Felix Mendelssohn, also a composer and pianist, shared the same education and the two developed a close relationship. Due to her family's reservations, and to social conventions of the time about the roles of women, six of her songs were published under her brother's name in his Opus 8 and 9 collections. In 1829, she married artist Wilhelm Hensel and, in 1830, they had their only child, Sebastian Hensel. In 1846, despite the continuing ambivalence of her family towards her musical ambitions, Fanny Hensel published a collection of songs as her Opus 1. She died of a stroke in 1847, aged 41. Since the 1990s her life and works have been the subject of more detailed research. Her Easter Sonata was inaccurately credited to her brother in 1970, before new analysis of documents in 2010 corrected the attribution. The Fanny & Felix Mendelssohn Museum opened on 29 May 2018 in Hamburg, Germany. ## Life ### Early life and education Mendelssohn was born in Hamburg, the oldest of four children, including her brother Felix Mendelssohn born four years after her. She was descended on both sides from distinguished Jewish families; her parents were Abraham Mendelssohn (who was the son of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn), and Lea, née Salomon, a granddaughter of the entrepreneur Daniel Itzig. She was baptised as a Christian in 1816, becoming Fanny Cäcilie Mendelssohn Bartholdy. Despite this, she and her family continued an affinity with the social and moral values of Judaism. Like her brother Felix, she objected strongly when their father Abraham changed the family surname to "Mendelssohn Bartholdy" with the intention of playing down their Jewish origins: she wrote to Felix of "Bartholdy, that name which we all dislike." While growing up in the family's new home in Berlin, Mendelssohn showed prodigious musical ability and began to write music. She received her first piano instruction from her mother, who may have learned the Berlin Bach tradition through the writings of Johann Kirnberger, a student of Johann Sebastian Bach. Thus as a 14 year old, Mendelssohn could already play all 24 preludes from Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier from memory alone, and she did so in honour of her father's birthday in 1819. Beyond inspiration from her mother, Mendelssohn may also have been influenced by the role-models represented by her great-aunts Fanny von Arnstein and Sarah Levy, both lovers of music, the former the patroness of a well-known salon and the latter a skilled keyboard player in her own right. After studying briefly with the pianist Marie Bigot in Paris, Mendelssohn and her brother Felix received piano lessons from Ludwig Berger and composition instruction from Carl Friedrich Zelter. At one point, Zelter favoured Fanny over Felix: he wrote to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1816, in a letter introducing Abraham Mendelssohn to the poet, "He has adorable children and his oldest daughter could give you something of Sebastian Bach. This child is really something special." Both Mendelssohn and her brother Felix received instruction in composition from Zelter starting in 1819. In October 1820, they joined the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin, which was then being led by Zelter. Much later, in an 1831 letter to Goethe, Zelter described Fanny's skill as a pianist with the highest praise for a woman at the time: "... she plays like a man." Visitors to the Mendelssohn household in the early 1820s, including Ignaz Moscheles and Sir George Smart, were equally impressed by both siblings. ### Gender and class limitations The music historian Richard Taruskin suggests that "the life of Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel is compelling proof that women's failure to "compete" with men on the compositional playing-field has been the result of social prejudice and patriarchical mores (which in the nineteenth century granted only men the right to make the decisions in bourgeois households)." Such attitudes were shared by Mendelssohn's father, who was tolerant, rather than supportive, of her activities as a composer. In 1820, he wrote to her, "Music will perhaps become his [i.e. Felix's] profession, while for you it can and must be only an ornament". Although Felix was privately broadly supportive of her as a composer and a performer, he was cautious (professedly for family reasons) of her publishing her works under her own name. He wrote: > From my knowledge of Fanny I should say that she has neither inclination nor vocation for authorship. She is too much all that a woman ought to be for this. She regulates her house, and neither thinks of the public nor of the musical world, nor even of music at all, until her first duties are fulfilled. Publishing would only disturb her in these, and I cannot say that I approve of it. The music historian Angela Mace Christian has written that Fanny Mendelssohn "struggled her entire life with the conflicting impulses of authorship versus the social expectations for her high-class status ...; her hesitation was variously a result of her dutiful attitude towards her father, her intense relationship with her brother, and her awareness of contemporary social thought on women in the public sphere." Felix's friend Henry Chorley wrote of Fanny: "Had Madame Hensel been a poor man's daughter, she must have become known to the world by the side of Madame Schumann and Madame Pleyel as a female pianist of the highest class", suggesting that as well as her sex, her social class was limiting for her career. The biography of the Mendelssohn family compiled from family documents by Fanny's son Sebastian Hensel has been construed by the musicologist Marian Wilson Kimber as intending to represent Fanny as having no aspirations to perform outside the private sphere. Kimber notes that Fanny's "oft-reported longing for a professional music career is not supported by her ... diaries, which are somewhat surprising for how little they reveal about her musical life." ### Felix and Fanny The siblings' bond was strengthened by their shared passion for music. Fanny's works were often played alongside her brother's at the family home in Berlin in a Sunday concert series (Sonntagskonzerte), which was originally organized by her father and after 1831 carried on by Fanny herself. In 1822, when Fanny was 17 and Felix 13, she wrote "Up to the present moment I possess his [Felix's] unbounded confidence. I have watched the progress of his talent step by step, and may say I have contributed to his development. I have always been his only musical adviser, and he never writes down a thought before submitting it to my judgment." In 1826/1827 Felix arranged with Fanny for some of her songs to be published under his name, three in his Op. 8 collection and three more in his Op. 9. In 1842, this resulted in an embarrassing moment when Queen Victoria, receiving Felix at Buckingham Palace, expressed her intention of singing to the composer her favourite of his songs, Italien (to words by Franz Grillparzer), which Felix confessed was by Fanny. There was a lifelong musical correspondence between the two. Fanny helped Felix by providing constructive criticism of pieces and projects, which he always considered very carefully. Felix would rework pieces solely based on the suggestions she made, and nicknamed her "Minerva" after the Roman goddess of wisdom. Their correspondence of 1840/41 reveals that they were both outlining scenarios for an opera on the subject of the Nibelungenlied (which never materialized): Fanny wrote "The hunt with Siegfried's death provides a splendid finale to the second act." ### Marriage and later life In 1829, after a courtship of several years (they had first met in 1821 when she was 16), Fanny married the artist Wilhelm Hensel, and the following year gave birth to their only child, Sebastian Hensel. She later had at least two miscarriages or stillbirths, in 1832 and 1837. In 1830 came her first public notice as a composer, when John Thomson, who had met her in Berlin the previous year, wrote in the London journal The Harmonicon in praise of a number of her songs that had been shown to him by Felix. Her public debut at the piano (one of only three known public performances according to Mendelssohn scholar R. Larry Todd) came in 1838, when she played her brother's Piano Concerto No. 1. Fanny's support of Felix's music was clearly demonstrated during the 1838 rehearsals in Berlin for her brother's oratorio St. Paul at the Singverein, which she attended at the invitation of its conductor, Carl Friedrich Rungenhagen. In a letter to her brother she described attending the rehearsals and "suffering and champing at the bit ... as I heard the whining and [the accompanist's] dirty fingers on the piano ... They started [the passage] 'mache dich auf' at half the right tempo, and then I instinctively called out, 'My God, it must go twice as fast!' The consequence was that Rungenhagen consulted her closely about all details of the rehearsals and performance; this included her firm instructions not to add a tuba to the organ part. "I assured them that they should be ruled by my word, and they'd better do it for God's sake." Wilhelm Hensel, like Felix, was supportive of Fanny's composing, but unlike many others of her circle was also in favour of her seeking publication of her works. The music historian Nancy B. Reich has suggested two events which may have increased her confidence. One was her visit to Italy with her husband and Sebastian in 1839–40. This was her first visit to Southern Europe and she felt invigorated and inspired; they also spent time with young French musicians who had won the Prix de Rome (one was the young Charles Gounod) and whose respect for Fanny powered her self-esteem as a musician. The other event was her acquaintance shortly afterwards with the Berlin music enthusiast Robert von Keudell: in her diary she wrote: "Keudell looks at everything new that I write with the greatest interest, and points out to me if there is something to be corrected ... He has always given me the very best counsel." In 1846, after an approach by two Berlin publishers and without consulting Felix, she decided to publish a collection of her songs (as her Op. 1), under her married name, "Fanny Hensel geb. [i.e. née] Mendelssohn-Bartholdy". After publication, Felix wrote to her "[I] send you my professional blessing on becoming a member of the craft ... may you have much happiness in giving pleasure to others; may you taste only the sweets and none of the bitterness of authorship; may the public pelt you with roses, and never with sand." (12 August 1846). On 14 August Fanny wrote in her journal "Felix has written, and given me his professional blessing in the kindest manner. I know that he is not quite satisfied in his heart of hearts, but I am glad he has said a kind word to me about it." She also wrote about the publication to her friend Angelica von Woringen: "I can truthfully say that I let it happen more than made it happen, and it is this in particular which cheers me ... If [the publishers] want more from me, it should act as a stimulus to achieve. If the matter comes to an end then, I also won't grieve, for I'm not ambitious." Throughout March 1847 Fanny had many meetings with Clara Schumann. At this time Fanny was working on her Piano Trio Op. 11 and Clara had recently completed her own Piano Trio (Op. 17), which she may have intended to dedicate to Fanny. ### Death On 14 May 1847 Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel died in Berlin of complications from a stroke suffered while rehearsing one of her brother's cantatas, The First Walpurgis Night. Felix himself died less than six months later from the same cause (which was also responsible for the deaths of both of their parents and their grandfather Moses), but not before completing his String Quartet No. 6 in F minor, written in memory of his sister. Fanny was buried next to her parents in a portion of the Dreifaltigkeit Cemetery in Berlin reserved for Jewish converts to Christianity (Neuchristen). ## Compositions Fanny Mendelssohn composed over 450 pieces of music. Her compositions include a piano trio, a piano quartet, an orchestral overture, four cantatas, over 125 pieces for the piano, and in excess of 250 lieder (art songs). Six of her songs were originally published under Felix's name in his Opus 8 and 9 collections. Her piano works are often in the manner of songs, and many carry the name Lied für Klavier (Song for Piano), analogous to Felix's Lieder ohne Worte (Songs Without Words). This style of piano music was most successfully developed by Felix, whose first set (Op. 19b) appeared in 1829–30, with a second set (Op. 30) appearing in 1833–34. Fanny's sets of Lieder für Klavier were written in the period 1836–1837, at about the same time as Felix's set Op. 38. The majority of Fanny Mendelssohn's compositions are limited to lieder and piano pieces as she felt her abilities did not extend to larger, more intricate compositions. She was also undoubtedly hampered by the fact that, unlike her brother, she had never studied or played any string instruments, experience which would have assisted her in writing chamber or orchestral works. After completing her string quartet, she wrote to Felix in 1835, "I lack the ability to sustain ideas properly and give them the needed consistency. Therefore lieder suit me best, in which, if need be, merely a pretty idea without much potential for development can suffice." She was an early example of women composers of a string quartet; she had also earlier written, with the assistance of Zelter, a piano quartet in 1822 (her first large-scale work), and, despite her reservations in her letter to Felix, she wrote in her last year a piano trio (Op. 11). Her Easter Sonata written in 1828, was unpublished in her lifetime. It was discovered and attributed to her brother in 1970, before examination of the manuscript and a mention of the work in her diary finally established in 2010 that the work was hers. Most of Hensel's work after her marriage was on a small scale, songs and piano pieces. In 1831 for the first birthday of her son Sebastian, she created a cantata, the Lobgesang (Song of Praise). Two other works for orchestra, soloists and choir were written in that year, Hiob (Job) and an oratorio in sixteen sections, Höret zu, merket auf (Listen and take note). In 1841 she composed a cycle of piano pieces depicting the months of the year, Das Jahr (The Year). The music was written on tinted sheets of paper and illustrated by her husband, with each piece accompanied by a short poem. The writer Kristine Forney has suggested that the poems, artwork and coloured paper may represent the different stages of life, with others suggesting they represent her own life. In a letter from Rome, Fanny described the process behind composing Das Jahr: > I have been composing a good deal lately, and have called my piano pieces after the names of my favourite haunts, partly because they really came into my mind at these spots, partly because our pleasant excursions were in my mind while I was writing them. They will form a delightful souvenir, a kind of second diary. But do not imagine that I give these names when playing them in society, they are for home use entirely. After Das Jahr her only large-scale work was her Piano Trio Op. 11 of 1847. ### Style and form Angela Mace, the musicologist who proved Fanny Hensel's authorship of the Easter Sonata, considers that Fanny was much more experimental with her lieder than Felix, noting that her works have a "harmonic density" that serves to express emotion. R. Larry Todd has pointed out that, although there has been much comment about the influence of Felix's music on Fanny (and some comment on that of Fanny on Felix), both were strongly influenced by the later music of Ludwig van Beethoven in terms of form, tonality and fugal counterpoint. This is apparent for example in Fanny's string quartet. The musicologist Stephen Rodgers has claimed that the relative lack of analysis of Fanny Hensel's music has left the presence of triple hypermeter in her songs mostly overlooked. He points to this type of meter being used by Mendelssohn to alter the speed of vocals in the song and to reflect emotions through distortion of duple norms. He also points to a lack of tonic harmony as a recurring characteristic of her lieder, identifying it in the lied Verlust (Loss) as a deliberate means to reflect the song's themes of abandonment and failing to find love. Mendelssohn's use of word painting is also acknowledged as a common element of her style, a method of stressing emotion in the song text. She commonly used strophic form for her songs, and her piano accompaniments frequently doubled the voice-line, characteristics also of the music of her teachers Zelter and Berger. Though the foundation created by her teachers would remain, Rodgers suggests that she increasingly turned to through-composed forms as her style developed, as a way to respond to elements of poetic text. ## Legacy From the 1980s onwards there has been renewed interest in Mendelssohn and her works. In November 2017, the Mendelssohn-Haus museum in Leipzig inaugurated a permanent exhibit dedicated to her. The Fanny & Felix Mendelssohn Museum, which is dedicated to the lives and work of the two siblings, opened on 29 May 2018 in Hamburg. Minor planet :fr:(9331) Fannyhensel is named after her. On 14 November 2021, Google commemorated Fanny Hensel's 216th birthday with a Google Doodle in North America, Iceland, Germany, Greece, Ukraine, Israel, Armenia, Australia and New Zealand. ### Music Six months before his death, Felix attempted to ensure that his sister received the recognition that had been withheld throughout much of her life. He collected many of her works intending to release them to the public through his publisher, Breitkopf & Härtel. In 1850, the publisher began to distribute Fanny Mendelssohn's unreleased works, starting with Vier Lieder Op. 8. Commencing in the late 1980s, Fanny Mendelssohn's music has become better known, thanks to concert performances and new recordings. Her Easter Sonata for piano, formerly attributed to Felix, was premiered in her name by Andrea Lam on 12 September 2012. ### Writings Fanny Mendelssohn published no writings during her lifetime. Selected letters and journal entries were published during the 19th century, notably by Sebastian Hensel in his book on the Mendelssohn family. Her collected letters to Felix, edited by Marcia Citron, were published in 1987. ### Biographical and musicological studies During the 19th century Fanny mainly figured as a bystander in biographies and studies of her brother Felix; typically she was a representative of a supposed 'feminizing' influence that sapped his artistry. In the 20th century the conventional narrative switched to presenting Felix as disapproving of his sister's musical activities and seeking to contain them, whilst the 'feminizing' accusation against Fanny evaporated. From the 1980s onwards Fanny Mendelssohn has been the subject of many academic books and articles. Kimber opines that "The tale of Fanny, the 'suppressed' composer, has so readily found a place in the biographies of the siblings because of its resemblance to prevailing models for the life of a 'Great Composer' ... based in Romantic ideology about male artists. ... Hensel fits neatly into a traditional narrative of the suffering artistic genius ... with a modern twist: the feminine gender of its main character. Thus two characters [Felix and Fanny] are forced to bear the weight of two centuries of gender ideology." A catalogue of the works of Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel has been prepared by Renate Hellwig-Unruh, according to which each work may be referred to by its "H-U number".
50,953,902	Call the Police (G Girls song)	1,081,314,410	null	[ "2016 debut singles", "2016 singles", "2016 songs", "English-language Romanian songs", "Eurodance songs", "Song recordings produced by Play & Win", "Songs written by Eric Turner (singer)" ]	"Call the Police" is a song recorded by Romanian girl band G Girls. It was made available for digital consumption on 14 June 2016 through Global Records and Roton worldwide, while being distributed in Italy on 15 July 2016 by Ego. Serving as the group's debut recording, the track was written by Eric Turner and J-Son, while production was handled by Marcel Botezan and Sebastian Barac. Musically, "Call the Police" is a "typical" Eurodance song which musically incorporates "Romanian music dance vibe". Music critics were positive towards "Call the Police", noting the track as being catchy and comparing it to band member Inna's works. For promotion, an accompanying music video for the single was shot by Roman Burlaca at Palatul Noblesse. Commercially, "Call the Police" experienced moderate success on music charts; while it peaked at number six on Poland's Airplay Top 100, the track reached position 64 in Romania. ## Background and release G Girls is a four-part girl band started by label Global Records, consisting of Romanian singers Alexandra Stan, Antonia, Inna and Lori; the latter previously participated at Romanian reality singing competition Vocea României. "Call the Police" was written by Eric Turner and Julimar Santos Oliveira Neponunceno, while the production process was handled by Marcel Botezan and Sebastian Barac. On 14 June 2016, the recording was distributed in multiple regions through Global and Roton, while being made available for purchase in Italy on 15 July 2016 by Ego. At the time of the track's premiere, Stan and Antonia were promoting "Écoute" and "Sună-mă", respectively, and Inna would release "Heaven". ## Composition and reception According to magazine Beebee, the recording is a "typical" Eurodance track which musically incorporates "Romanian music dance vibe" in its composition. Jonali particularly called the single a "club-ready summer jam" and an "infectiously island-infused groove". Iko, writing for magazine Beebee, described the release of the single and the forming of the "hottest girl group out there" a surprise, while comparing the track to Inna's works. He further noted the band's commercial appeal, with him praising the accompanying music video for "Call the Police". Jonali from his own music website named the song's hooks as being catchy, pointing out its refrain, "Somebody better call the police on me, somebody better call the police"; he also drew comparisons to Inna. Japanese portal TV Groove saw the single as an "exquisite catchy club tune that is perfect for summer, packed with an addictive island groove". MuuMuse's Bradley Stern included "Call the Police" in his list of July 2016's best releases. Upon its release, "Call the Police" experienced moderate success on record charts. It reached a peak position at number six and five on Poland's Airplay Chart and Dance Top 50, respectively. In native Romania, the single debuted at number 64 on the Airplay 100 on the week ending 24 July 2016; the single also claimed the same position in its second and last week on the chart. ## Music video An accompanying video for the song was shot by Roman Burlaca at Palatul Noblesse in Bucharest, and was uploaded onto the YouTube channel of label Global Records on 1 June 2016. Marius Panduru served as the director of photography, while make-up was managed by Tania Cozma, Andra Manea and Dana Pertina, and hair styling by Alex Ifimov and Sorin Stratulat. The video commences with Inna and Antonia entering the building after nodding to each other. Afterwards, the latter walks to a hall full of partying people while taking and developing photographs. Meanwhile, Inna is shown sitting on a mask-designed chair surrounded by males in tie in a white room. Stan, dressed in red lingerie, is displayed with a man which she later ties up to a chair in the video and steals his money. Fellow band member Lori then walks in a neon-green room where both lesbian and gay couples are shown kissing, with the latter being portrayed in a bathtub letting a glass of water falling on one's body. She subsequently writes "911" on a mirror, and all the band members are shown dressing neon and sparkling outfits in order to be visible in the dark. After Lori mixes up some pink drinks, the visual ends with them walking out of the building while throwing all the frames that were taken by Antonia in the beginning on the floor. Scenes interspersed through the main video show the band performing to the track close to each other in light or dark places. ## Track listing ## Charts ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Top Românesc. Vocal and technical credits - G Girls – vocals - Alexandra Stan – main vocals - Antonia – main vocals - Inna – main vocals - Lori – main vocals - Sebastian Barac – producer - Marcel Botezan – producer - Julimar Santos Oliveira Neponunceno – songwriter - Eric Turner – songwriter Visual credits - Roman Burlaca – director - Tania Cozma – make-up - Alex Ifimov – hair styling - Andra Manea – make-up - Sorin Stratulat – hair styling - Marius Panduru – director of photography - Dana Pertina – make-up ## Release history
42,021,511	The End of the Tour	1,173,411,459	2015 film by James Ponsoldt	[ "2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2010s buddy drama films", "2015 biographical drama films", "2015 drama films", "2015 films", "2015 independent films", "A24 (company) films", "American biographical drama films", "American buddy drama films", "Biographical films about writers", "Films about conversations", "Films about journalists", "Films directed by James Ponsoldt", "Films scored by Danny Elfman", "Films set in 1996", "Films shot in Michigan", "Films shot in Minnesota" ]	The End of the Tour is a 2015 American drama film about writer David Foster Wallace. The film stars Jason Segel and Jesse Eisenberg, was written by Donald Margulies, and was directed by James Ponsoldt. Based on David Lipsky's best-selling memoir Although of Course You End Up Becoming Yourself, screenwriter Margulies first read the book in 2011, and sent it to Ponsoldt, a former student of his, who took on the job of director. Filming took place in early 2014 in Michigan, with scenes also shot at the Mall of America. Danny Elfman provided the score, with the soundtrack featuring songs by musicians like R.E.M. and Brian Eno, whose inclusion was based on the kind of music Wallace and Lipsky listened to. The film debuted at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival, and was theatrically released on July 31, 2015, by A24 to critical acclaim, particularly for the performance of Segel. He received Best Actor nominations from various awards groups, including the Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead. ## Plot Writer David Lipsky is dismayed to hear about the suicide of novelist David Foster Wallace in 2008. He had interviewed the author over a period of days twelve years earlier, following the publication of Wallace's novel Infinite Jest, which received critical praise and became an international bestseller, a touchstone for numerous readers. He listens to the recordings he made during their time together. The film returns to the period shortly after the book's release. Although initially skeptical of the high praise Wallace's book is receiving, Lipsky – a writer having only marginal success – is awestruck after reading it. He persuades his editor at Rolling Stone magazine to give him an assignment to interview Wallace during his book tour. The journalist travels to meet Wallace at his home on the outskirts of Bloomington-Normal, Illinois (near Illinois State University where the author teaches writing). Lipsky finds the young author unassuming and amiable, but indifferent to being interviewed. Wallace permits Lipsky to tape-record their conversations, with the proviso that Lipsky won't use any direct quotes which Wallace asks to have taken "off the record" five minutes later. Wallace opens up to Lipsky on a variety of subjects, ranging from dogs to television to fame and self-identity, but remains somewhat guarded. He tacitly admits to alcoholism, but offers few details of his experience. Lipsky's mention of Wallace's brief voluntary institutionalization under a suicide watch causes some friction between them. As their conversation continues late into the night, Wallace invites Lipsky to stay in his unused "guest room", rather than a motel. The room is dominated by stacks of his books. They resume the interview in the morning. Lipsky also accompanies Wallace for a few days to Minneapolis-Saint Paul, where Wallace has the final appearance of his book tour. There they meet two women friends of Wallace: Betsy, whom he knew in graduate school, and Julie, a literary critic; the men spend time with the women later that night and the next day at the Mall of America. Although Wallace and Lipsky generally get along well, Wallace becomes angry when he sees Lipsky flirting with Betsy. After their return to Wallace's home, tension increases when Lipsky asks the author about rumors of past heroin abuse. Wallace denies it, accusing Lipsky of looking for a stereotypical angle from which to write his article. As their time comes to an end, the two spend a morning together, mainly as new friends rather than as journalist and subject. Lipsky summons the nerve to give Wallace a copy of his own novel, and they agree to stay in touch. The closing passage is set fourteen years later, when Lipsky is on his own book tour. He reads from his memoir, Although of Course You End Up Becoming Yourself (2010), based on their 1996 encounter. He recounts the road trip he had with Wallace, reflecting on ideas the two had discussed and how their conversations made Lipsky less lonely. ## Cast - Jason Segel as David Foster Wallace - Jesse Eisenberg as David Lipsky - Ron Livingston as Bob Levin - Anna Chlumsky as Sarah - Joan Cusack as Patty Gunderson - Mickey Sumner as Betsy - Mamie Gummer as Julie - Becky Ann Baker as Bookstore manager ## Production ### Development Lipsky's 2010 memoir Although of Course You End Up Becoming Yourself was a New York Times bestseller and an NPR Best Book of the Year. Lipsky also received the National Magazine Award in 2009 for writing about David Foster Wallace. Time magazine's Lev Grossman wrote, "the transcripts of their brilliant conversations read like a two-man Tom Stoppard play," and NPR's Michael Schaub called the book "crushingly poignant ... startlingly sad yet deeply funny." In 2011, Pulitzer Prize–winning playwright Donald Margulies read the memoir. "Here was a story of two men circling each other," Margulies told the Los Angeles Times. "It was all there." He wrote a screenplay based on Lipsky's book. A few lines were additionally inspired by Wallace's posthumous novel The Pale King. Margulies included material that Lipsky shared with him about time with Wallace off-tape and which he had not included in his memoir. Margulies pointed out, > "What Lipsky shared with me is that moment that some people have accused me of creating. As being too Hollywood. [Laughs]. When in fact it was something that Lipsky didn’t include in his book because he felt that it got in the way of Wallace’s voice. Because that was really what he was trying to convey in that book... That moment that occurs between the two guys in Julie’s kitchen, I wouldn’t have known if David Lipsky hadn’t shared that with me. Not to sound too coarse about it, but it provided me with my third act. Because it’s a turn that occurs. A schism that occurs that changes the tenor of what follows. Dramatically speaking, I felt that that was absolutely necessary. And serendipitous that such a thing actually occurred, and that David Lipsky was generous enough to share it with me, and gave me permission to include it in the film. So there were things that I pulled to it that were not in the book. But certainly not anything that didn’t happen." Margulies sent the completed script to James Ponsoldt, his former student at Yale University and a Sundance Award-winning director. The New York Times has described him as "A devoted David Foster Wallace fan himself." Ponsoldt had excerpts read at his wedding from Wallace's memorable commencement speech "This is Water", at Kenyon College. (Ponsoldt told The Wall Street Journal he had read Wallace since high school, and that Infinite Jest "was the most substantive relationship of my freshman year.") Ponsoldt later told The A.V. Club about his response to being offered the script by Margulies: "I was flattered. I was excited. I was very nervous. I was hyper-aware of Lipsky’s book. Wallace is a hero to me." He continued, "When I read it, I was deeply, deeply moved and blown away by what Donald had pulled off." Ponsoldt discussed the project's history with an interviewer, "[Lipsky's] book came out in 2010. It was a 'New York Times' bestseller. He wrote it with the support of some of David Foster Wallace’s family. They’re thanked prominently in the acknowledgements. The article that Lipsky had written for 'Rolling Stone' when Wallace died won a National Magazine Award. Our film was made with the support of people who knew Wallace, who aided in the making of the film." Margulies explained, "We’ve approached this with such, we think, humanity." Speaking with Time magazine, David Lipsky related that before sending the memoir to publishers, he asked for the Wallace family's approval. Jason Segel told the Los Angeles Times, "My personal feeling in taking on the movie and especially in seeing it is that it’s a real extension of David Foster Wallace’s themes and writing." Vanity Fairs Richard Lawson reported, "His estate does not endorse this movie. But Segel, and Ponsoldt, and everyone else involved do him wonderful justice anyway. By the end of the tour, we truly feel the weight and impact of what a loss for our culture Wallace’s death was." ### Casting Eisenberg was cast as David Lipsky in December 2013. Eisenberg told the Orange County Register he had been a fan of Wallace's work since college. "I just thought it was phenomenal." An admirer of Margulies' plays, it took him "no time at all to accept the part," Eisenberg said. With a screenplay, "You only really have the story and the characters to judge, and this had a wonderful story, wonderful characters." Eisenberg spent time with Lipsky learning how to accurately portray a journalist. Wired, after observing that "there has been enough conversation over the meaning and implications of director James Ponsoldt’s fourth feature The End Of The Tour to rival the page count of Infinite Jest," praised Eisenberg's performance as "the best part of the film," deserving of "awards attention." According to The New York Times, Segel was nervous about taking the part as David Foster Wallace. But "paging through the screenplay, Mr. Segel felt a rush of recognition." Preparing for the role, Segel listened exhaustively to Lipsky's recordings, watched online clips of David Foster Wallace, and assembled a small book club to read Infinite Jest. He told The New York Times that when he bought the novel, the saleswoman rolled her eyes. "She said, Infinite Jest. Every guy I've ever dated has an unread copy on his bookshelf.'" Segel's performance as David Foster Wallace was called "a revelation" by Entertainment Weekly, "stunning" by Vanity Fair and "infinitely impressive" by the Chicago Sun-Times. The Huffington Post wrote, "It's early, but let's prep Jason Segel's Oscar campaign just to be safe." Mickey Sumner was cast as Wallace's classmate Betsy. "It was a movie about David Foster Wallace," she explained, "whom I adored and loved." Anna Chlumsky—playing Sarah, Lipsky's girlfriend—told Variety she was attracted by the depth of Margulies' screenplay. By March 18, 2014, Academy Award-nominated actor Joan Cusack had joined the cast as Wallace's Minneapolis–Saint Paul escort, Patty Gunderson. On March 19, 2014, Ron Livingston joined the cast as Rolling Stone editor Bob Levin. ### Filming Principal photography began on February 19, 2014, in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and Hudsonville, Michigan, and continued for five weeks. On March 19, 2014, it was announced that filming was taking place at JW Marriott Grand Rapids and shooting was said to wrap soon. Around March 20, 2014, Muskegon County Airport was used for scenes representing Chicago O'Hare Airport and a fuselage of an Embraer 145 in Muskegon hangar was used for aircraft interior scenes. Around March 21, some scenes were filmed at the Mall of America and near the Third Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis. ### Music The film's soundtrack, written by Danny Elfman, was released by Lakeshore Records on July 24, 2015. Supervised by Tiffany Anders, the soundtrack features songs by Alanis Morissette, R.E.M., Brian Eno, and Felt. There is also a cover by Tindersticks of Pavement's ballad "Here". Director James Ponsoldt told ComingSoon.net, "From early on, R.E.M. and Brian Eno were a band and a musician that sort of factored into the time that David Lipsky and David Foster Wallace spent together. And they had conversations about what they listened to. So I knew that R.E.M. and Eno would feature in the movie." Reviewing Elfman's score at Soundtrack Dreams, Minhea Manduteanu wrote, "From 'Walking the dog' on, everything fell into place. It's not by accident that this final section includes a cue by Brian Eno. Elfman channeled his inner Eno in those cues and it worked magic." ## Release On December 9, 2014, it was announced the film would receive its premiere at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival. On January 23, 2015, A24 acquired distribution rights to the film. The film debuted at the Sundance Festival's Eccles Theater on January 24, 2015. The premiere earned what New York and USA Today called "rave" and "glowing reviews." The New York Times reported, "Mr. Segel’s performance – empathetic, nuanced, whip smart – left the packed theater breathless." The End of the Tour began a limited theatrical release on July 31, 2015, distributed by A24 Films. ## Reception ### Critical response The film received a 92% "Certified Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 161 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The site's critical consensus states: "Brilliantly performed and smartly unconventional, The End of the Tour pays fitting tribute to a singular talent while offering profoundly poignant observations on the human condition." The film also holds a score of 82 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 35 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim." At RogerEbert.com, critic Brian Tallerico called the film a "joy," and "stunning ... a gift of highly intellectual discussion between two brilliant people at turning points in their lives," while also praising Jason Segel and Jesse Eisenberg. In his review for The New York Times, A.O. Scott wrote, "I love it ... You hang on its every word and revel in its rough, vernacular beauty ... This one is just about as good as it gets." Entertainment Weekly gave the film an "A−" rating and Chris Nashawaty wrote it was "thoughtful and deeply affecting ... The real revelation (an overused word, but it truly applies here) is Jason Segel... It's a profoundly moving story." Matthew Jacobs of HuffPost cited Jason Segel's portrayal of Wallace as one of the 23 best performances of 2015. The Washington Post's Ann Hornaday gave the film four out of four stars and called it, "A five-day conversation you won't want to end... Part love story, part road trip, part elegy to a bygone, pre-9/11 age, 'The End of the Tour' brims with compassion and sharply honed insight" about "what it means to be human." In his review for Vanity Fair, Richard Lawson called it a "wise, humbly sublime film... a profound, and profoundly affecting, movie, one that had me blubbering with happy-sad tears[.] What a pleasure to spend two hours in its company." Lawson especially praised Segel's performance as "a stunning, career-defining performance." In his review for the New York Daily News, Joe Neumaier awarded the film five out of five stars, calling it "one of the best movies of the year ... Director James Ponsoldt's smart, incisive and extraordinary drama is the kind of film that burrows into your head and leaves you illuminated about life and how to live it." Neumaier called Segel's work "an award-worthy performance." In her review for the Los Angeles Times, Sheri Linden wrote "James Ponsoldt's magnificent The End of the Tour gives us two guys talking, and the effect is breathtaking ... They're played with a wrought and wary chemistry, synapses blazing, by Jason Segel and Jesse Eisenberg." In his review for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers called the film "riveting" and "mesmerizing", writing "As the details accumulate, so does the power of the film, an illuminating meditation on art and life ... That's what makes the movie, elevated by two extraordinary actors, an exhilarating gift." In her review for Slate, Dana Stevens called the film, "A movie of ideas that contains actual ideas," writing "I greatly enjoyed it." In his review for Cut Print Film, Josh Oakley awarded the film a perfect "10/10", calling it "one of the best films of the year", and stating "The End of the Tour presents, with ample evidence, Wallace as a figure who could never fill the holes of loneliness with the spackle of acclaim." In his review for the Chicago Sun-Times, Richard Roeper awarded the film four out of four stars, calling it "brilliant ... this is one of the best movies of the year." In his review for the Minnesota Star Tribune, Colin Covert gave the film four out of four stars, writing, "Simply put, it is a masterwork." Wallace's literary estate was not approached to participate in the film: it did not give permission — and ultimately opposed — the film. ### Year-end lists The film appeared on many critics' lists of the best films of 2015. ### Accolades
55,541,443	Elena Rybakina	1,173,441,600	Kazakhstani tennis player (born 1999)	[ "1999 births", "Kazakhstani female tennis players", "Living people", "Naturalised citizens of Kazakhstan", "Naturalised tennis players", "Olympic tennis players for Kazakhstan", "Russian female tennis players", "Tennis players at the 2020 Summer Olympics", "Tennis players from Moscow" ]	Elena Andreyevna Rybakina (born 17 June 1999) is a Russian-born Kazakhstani professional tennis player. She has a career-high singles ranking of world No. 3 by the Women's Tennis Association (WTA), the first Kazakhstani to be ranked in the world's top 10, and is the current No. 1 player in women's singles from Kazakhstan. Rybakina is also the first player from Kazakhstan to win a title at a Major, claiming the 2022 Wimbledon Championships. Rybakina has reached thirteen other finals on the WTA Tour, winning four further titles, including two WTA 1000 titles at the 2023 Indian Wells Open and the 2023 Italian Open. Rybakina had a career-high combined junior ranking of No. 3. She reached two junior major semifinals, and won a Grade-A title at the Trofeo Bonfiglio in 2017. Born and playing as a Russian, Rybakina switched federations to Kazakhstan in June 2018, having just entered the top 200 for the first time a month earlier. Prior to the switch, she did not have an individual coach as a junior, and did not hire a traveling coach until early 2019. Her first consistent success on the WTA Tour came in mid-2019 and was highlighted by her first WTA Tour title at the Bucharest Open as well as her top 100 debut. Rybakina made a breakthrough in the 2020 season, during which she led the tour with five finals, including four in her first five events of the year. Rybakina is noted for her excellent serve and can generate high-powered groundstrokes. She plays primarily from the baseline and has good movement for her height. ## Early life and background Elena Rybakina was born on 17 June 1999 in Moscow. She started playing sports with her older sister from a very young age, originally focusing on gymnastics and ice skating. Upon being told that she was too tall to become a professional in either of those sports, her father suggested she switch to tennis instead because of his interest in the sport. Rybakina began playing tennis at the age of six. Rybakina moved from the Dynamo Sports Club to the Spartak Tennis Club, where she had several accomplished coaches. She trained with former top-10 player Andrey Chesnokov and former top-100 player Evgenia Kulikovskaya. One of her fitness coaches was Irina Kiseleva, a World Championship gold medalist in the modern pentathlon. Rybakina did not have individual training until she was a junior, instead practising in a group of about eight players up until age 15 and a group of four players through age 18. She also only played tennis about two hours per day and trained in fitness for three hours a day. Her time for tennis was limited in part because she attended a regular high school not specialized for athletes and needed to balance tennis with schoolwork. ## Junior career Rybakina is a former world No. 3 junior. She began playing on the ITF Junior Circuit in November 2013 at the age of 14. The following March, she won her first title at her second career event, the Grade-3 Almetievsk Cup. She played her first Grade-2 event in June at the Ozerov Cup in Moscow, finishing runner-up to compatriot Anna Blinkova. She began playing Grade-1 events from the start of 2015, but did not have any success until she reached the final at the Belgian International Junior Championships in May, losing to Katharina Hobgarski. Rybakina made her junior-major debut later in the year at the US Open, where she reached the third round. Following an opening-round loss at the 2016 Australian Open, she won back-to-back Grade-1 titles. She continued to struggle at the junior Grand Slam and other Grade-A events in singles for the rest of the year. Her best result of 2016 at the Grade A-events came in doubles when she finished runner-up to Olesya Pervushina and Anastasia Potapova at the Trofeo Bonfiglio, alongside Amina Anshba in an all-Russian final. The 2017 season was Rybakina's last year on the junior tour. In the middle of the season, she won her first and only Grade-A title at the Trofeo Bonfiglio, defeating Iga Świątek in the final. She also fared better at the Grand Slam events compared to previous years, losing in the semifinals of the Australian Open and the French Open to eventual champions Marta Kostyuk and Whitney Osuigwe, respectively. She finished her junior career at the first round-robin edition of the ITF Junior Masters, the junior counterpart to the WTA Finals. She won one match in her round-robin group and finished in seventh place. ## Professional career ### 2014–18: First ITF titles, national change Rybakina began playing on the ITF Women's Circuit in December 2014, at the age of 15. While she was still playing on the junior circuit, she reached three ITF finals in singles and two in doubles, winning both of the doubles finals only in 2017. She also made her WTA Tour debut in October 2017 at the Kremlin Cup, where she reached the main draw through qualifying but lost in the opening round to Irina-Camelia Begu. At her next WTA tournament in February 2018, Rybakina won her first WTA Tour match at the St. Petersburg Trophy against Timea Bacsinszky. She then upset world No. 7, Caroline Garcia, in three sets, after saving a match point in the second set. Losing in the next round, this quarterfinal appearance helped her rise from No. 450 to No. 268 in the world. In March, Rybakina won her first ITF singles title at a \$15k event in Kazan, where she also won the doubles title. Her next significant rankings jump came in April when she finished runner-up to Sabina Sharipova at the \$60k Lale Cup in Istanbul, bringing her to No. 215. She broke into the top 200 for the first time in late May. The following month, Rybakina acquired Kazakhstani citizenship and switched federations from Russia to Kazakhstan, having just turned 19 years old at the time. The Kazakhstan Tennis Federation had offered her financial support to change her nationality, which she chose over various options to play college tennis in the United States. Playing for Kazakhstan, Rybakina entered her first Grand Slam qualifying draw at the US Open, but did not reach the main draw. ### 2019: First tour title and top 50 After playing mostly ITF events in the first half of 2019, Rybakina began playing primarily on the WTA Tour in the second half of the season. During the first few months of the year, she won three ITF titles, including the \$60k Launceston International. She made her Grand Slam debut at the French Open as a qualifier, losing to Kateřina Siniaková. In her first WTA event on grass, Rybakina made her first semifinal at the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships. Despite this success, she lost in qualifying at Wimbledon. Rybakina's breakthrough came in July when she won her maiden WTA Tour title at the Bucharest Open, a month after turning 20 years old. During the event, she upset second seed Viktória Kužmová before defeating Patricia Maria Țig in the final. With this title, she made her top 100 debut in the WTA rankings at No. 65. Rybakina qualified for her second main-draw Grand Slam match of the year at the US Open, but again lost in the first round. At her next tournament, she made her second WTA Tour tournament final of the year at the Jiangxi International Open, finishing runner-up to Rebecca Peterson. This result brought her into the top 50 for the first time. Rybakina closed out the year strong, reaching at least the quarterfinals at her last three events of the season. In particular, she reached the quarterfinals at the Wuhan Open, her first career Premier-5 event. In the tournament, she defeated world No. 6, Simona Halep, who retired late in the first set with a lower back injury. She lost in the next round to eventual champion and world No. 14, Aryna Sabalenka. Rybakina finished the season at No. 37 in the world. ### 2020: Five finals and top 20 Rybakina led the WTA Tour in finals during the 2020 season, and finished tied for second in match wins. She reached the finals at four of her first five events. Before the COVID-19 pandemic led to the shutdown of the WTA Tour for more than five months, she had reached the final of every tournament except for the Australian Open and the Qatar Open, losing to world No. 1, Ashleigh Barty, in both instances, the latter in a walkover due to an abductor strain in her leg. Prior to the Australian Open, her two finals came at International events. After losing her first final of the year to Ekaterina Alexandrova at the Shenzhen Open, she defeated Zhang Shuai to win her second WTA title at the Hobart International. At Melbourne, she recorded her first two Grand Slam main-draw match wins against Bernarda Pera and Greet Minnen. Following the tournament, she reached two Premier finals at the St. Petersburg Trophy and the Dubai Championships, finishing runner-up to No. 8 Kiki Bertens and No. 2 Simona Halep, respectively. At Dubai in particular, Rybakina defeated two top-ten players in No. 7 Sofia Kenin and No. 3 Karolína Plíšková, the latter of which was the highest ranked player she had defeated to date. These four finals helped her climb to No. 17 in the world at the time of the tour shutdown. She also became the first Kazakhstani player in the top 20 in history. During the bulk of the shutdown, Rybakina stayed in Moscow and did not have the opportunity to practice for two and a half months. She eventually resumed training in Bratislava, Slovakia for five weeks. When the tour resumed in New York in August, she lost her return match to Alexandrova and then only recorded one match win at the US Open. Back in Europe, she finally defeated Alexandrova at the Italian Open in her third opportunity of the year before squandering a chance to serve out the match in a third-round loss to Yulia Putintseva. At the Internationaux de Strasbourg, Rybakina reached her fifth final of the year and first since the resumption of the tour, losing in the final to No. 5, Elina Svitolina. She did not carry this success to the next major, losing to Fiona Ferro in the second round at the French Open. ### 2021: French Open quarterfinals and top 15 She reached the quarterfinals of the French Open without dropping a set when she defeated Serena Williams in the fourth round. At the same tournament, she also reached the quarterfinals in doubles, partnering Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova; incidentally, Pavlyuchenkova was the opponent who defeated her in the quarterfinals of the singles portion of the 2021 French Open. Rybakina was the 15th seed of the Olympic Games tennis tournament, winning her first three matches without losing a set before a semifinals defeat to Belinda Bencic. In the bronze medal match, Rybakina was defeated in a comeback by Elina Svitolina. On 1 November 2021, she made her debut in the top 15, at world No. 14, becoming the highest ranked Kazakhstani player in history. ### 2022: World No. 12, Wimbledon title Rybakina started the season at the Adelaide International 1, making it to the final where she was defeated by world No. 1, Ashleigh Barty. Her success continued at the Sydney Tennis Classic with a lopsided defeat of reigning US Open champion Emma Raducanu, in the first round. She subsequently withdrew from the tournament citing a thigh injury. She reached a career-high ranking of No. 12, on 17 January 2022. Her remaining early hardcourt season saw little progress with a second-round retirement and a walkover at the Australian Open and St. Petersburg Ladies' Trophy, respectively, and a first-round loss at the Qatar Ladies Open. Her "Sunshine Double" (Miami and Indian Wells) saw improvement with a quarterfinal appearance at the Indian Wells Open against Maria Sakkari and a third-round appearance to Jessica Pegula at the Miami Open. Her clay-court season began with a second-round loss to Anhelina Kalinina after a first-round bye at Charleston. Following this, she represented Kazakhstan as the team's top seed and won both of her singles matches in a tie against Germany securing a berth in the finals later in the year. The remainder of her clay-court season saw little achievement as she failed to advance into the quarterfinals at the Stuttgart Open, Madrid Open, Italian Open, and French Open. Rybakina's grass-court season in the lead up to Wimbledon saw a second-round loss to Shelby Rogers at the Rosmalen Open followed by a first-round bye and a second-round loss to Lesia Tsurenko at the Eastbourne International. At the Wimbledon Championships, she reached her second Grand Slam quarterfinal, defeating CoCo Vandeweghe, Bianca Andreescu, Zheng Qinwen and Petra Martić. Then she reached the semifinals at a major for the first time, defeating Ajla Tomljanović in her quarterfinal match. She became the first Kazakhstani singles player (male or female) to reach the semifinal of a Grand Slam. Then she reached her first major final, after defeating Simona Halep in straight sets, becoming the youngest Wimbledon finalist since Garbiñe Muguruza in 2015. After dropping the first set, she defeated Ons Jabeur in three sets to secure her first major title. She became the youngest woman champion since the 21-year-old Petra Kvitová in 2011. She was the fourth-youngest active major champion, older only than Iga Świątek, Bianca Andreescu and Emma Raducanu. Rybakina's Russian nationality and previous international representation of Russia became a matter of public discourse in the aftermath of her success at Wimbledon 2022, where Wimbledon had banned athletes representing Russia and Belarus due to Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Russian state media celebrated Rybakina's win as a national victory despite her longstanding decision not to represent the country of her birth. The North American hardcourt season began with early round losses at the Silicon Valley Classic (first round) and Canadian Open (second round). Her US Open preparations continued at the Cincinnati Open where she advanced to the quarterfinals and was defeated by Madison Keys. Her season continued next with an entry to the US Open as the 25th seed; however, she lost in the first round to qualifier Clara Burel. ### 2023: Two WTA 1000 titles, world No. 3 Rybakina started the season at the Adelaide International 1, defeating Danielle Collins in three sets before losing to Marta Kostyuk in the second round. She followed it by another loss in Adelaide International 2 to Petra Kvitová in straight sets. However, she reached the doubles final with partner Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova. At the Australian Open, Rybakina defeated 2022 finalist Danielle Collins again in the third round, world No. 1 Iga Świątek in the fourth round, and former French Open champion Jeļena Ostapenko in the quarterfinals to reach her first Australian Open semifinals. In the semifinals, she defeated former world No. 1 and two-time Australian Open champion, Victoria Azarenka, in straight sets, reaching the second Grand Slam final of her career. However, despite winning the first set, Rybakina ultimately lost in the championship match to Aryna Sabalenka in a high quality encounter. She reached the top 10 on 30 January 2023. In Abu Dhabi she reached the quarterfinals defeating Karolina Plíšková, where she lost to Beatriz Haddad Maia. In Dubai, she reached the third round by beating Bianca Andreescu and Marie Bouzková in straight sets. She withdrew from her third round match against fifth seed Coco Gauff due to a lower-back injury. At Indian Wells, as the tenth seed, she made her second consecutive Indian Wells quarterfinal after defeating Sofia Kenin, 21st seed Paula Badosa and Varvara Gracheva. Then she defeated Karolína Muchová to reach her first WTA 1000 semifinal. In the semifinals, she moved past the defending champion Świątek, in straight sets, for the second time in 2023 to reach her first WTA 1000 final. In the final, she edged second seed Aryna Sabalenka in straight sets, reversing the result of their matchup in the Australian Open final for her first WTA 1000 title. This result pushed her ranking to a new career-high of world No. 7 in the WTA singles rankings. Following the final in Miami where she lost to 15th seed Petra Kvitová who prevented her from completing the Sunshine Double, and an early second round exit at the Madrid Open to Anna Kalinskaya, she reached a new career-high of world No. 6 on 8 May 2023. She reached the quarterfinals at the Italian Open and moved to a new career high ranking of world No. 5 with a win over Jasmine Paolini, Anna Kalinskaya by retirement and Markéta Vondroušová. Next she defeated world No. 1, Iga Świątek (who retired during the deciding set due to injury) for the third time to reach her first Rome semifinal. Rybakina reached her third WTA 1000 final of the season defeating Jeļena Ostapenko. She became the third player in the Open Era to reach the final in the same season at the Australian Open, Indian Wells, Miami and Rome after Monica Seles in 1991 and Maria Sharapova in 2012. She won her first WTA 1000 clay title, after Anhelina Kalinina retired in the second set, and moved to a career-high ranking of world No. 4, on 22 May 2023. At the 2023 French Open despite her walkover due to respiratory illness in the third round, she reached world No. 3 in the rankings on 12 June 2023. On 26 June 2023, Rybakina announced her withdrawal from the Eastbourne International event with a viral illness. At Wimbeldon as defending champion, Rybakina reached the quarterfinals where she lost to Ons Jabeur in three sets. Following her quarter final loss at Wimbledon, she reached the semifinals at the Canadian Open for the first time in her career. She overcame Jennifer Brady and Sloane Stephens before defeating Daria Kasatkina in a match that lasted 3 hours and 27 minutes, the longest match of Rybakina's career. The match finished at 2:55am local time. In the semifinals Rybakina lost to Ludimilla Samsonova in three sets reporting that she felt 'destroyed' physically in the post match press conference because of the scheduling issues she faced during the tournament. ## Playing style With a powerful serve, Rybakina is an aggressive baseliner who aims to finish points quickly, and whose high risk game style leads to an accumulation of both winners and unforced errors. She can generate effortless power, both on groundstrokes and her serve. Her forehand and backhand are both hit flat, with relentless depth and speed, allowing her to generate excellent power with both her groundstrokes, and she can hit winners with both shots. Her powerful serve, which is capable of reaching 122 mph (196 km/h), allows her to serve a large number of aces, and she led the tour in the ace count in 2020, serving 192 aces throughout the year. Due to her doubles experience, Rybakina aims to finish points at the net, and is a capable volleyer. She also has good movement given her height, although this is one of the few weak areas in her game. Adriano Albanesi, a WTA coach, described her as "a right-handed [Petra] Kvitová". Rybakina plays with a very calm demeanor, and believes she can defeat any opponent. Early in her WTA career, she has excelled at three-set matches, winning 13 out of 14 from September 2019 through February 2020. Her tennis idol is Roger Federer. ## Coaches Rybakina hired Andrei Chesnokov, whom she had already trained with at Spartak Tennis Club, to be her private coach in 2018 at the age of 18. This was the first time she had an individual coach. Chesnokov only coached in Moscow and did not travel with her to tournaments. In February 2019, Rybakina switched coaches to Stefano Vukov, a Croatian former tennis player who briefly competed mainly on the ITF Futures tour. With Vukov as her first travelling coach, Rybakina rapidly improved, rising from just inside the top 200 of the WTA rankings into the top 30 in about a year. ## Endorsements Rybakina has been sponsored by Yonex for clothing and shoes since 2023 French Open. She had previously been endorsed by Adidas from the start of 2020 and by Nike. She uses a Yonex VCore 100 racket. On January 24, 2023, Rybakina began to cooperate with the Kazakhstan Bank RBK. In March 2023, Rybakina donated ₸35 million to rising female tennis players in Kazakhstan. ## Career statistics ### Grand Slam tournament performance timelines #### Singles #### Doubles Note: Rybakina switched federations from Russia to Kazakhstan in June 2018. ### Grand Slam tournament finals #### Singles: 2 (1 title, 1 runner-up) ## Awards - Order of Friendship (Kazakhstan) II degree
26,366,815	German submarine U-2336	1,172,027,825	German World War II submarine	[ "1944 ships", "Maritime incidents in 1946", "Maritime incidents in February 1945", "Operation Deadlight", "Ships built in Hamburg", "Type XXIII submarines", "U-boat accidents", "U-boats commissioned in 1944", "U-boats scuttled in 1946", "World War II submarines of Germany" ]	German submarine U-2336 was a Type XXIII U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. U-2336 had a very short career. She only conducted one war patrol and sank only three vessels, one of which was another German U-boat, during an accidental collision (). Despite her short time in service, U-2336 is known for sinking the last two Allied merchant ships lost to a submarine in the war, when she torpedoed and sank the freighters Avondale Park and Sneland I off the Isle of May inside the Firth of Forth. After the war, U-2336 was surrendered to the Allies, taken to the British port of Lisahally and sunk in Operation Deadlight on 3 January 1946. ## Construction U-2336 was the 16th U-boat of the Type XXIII class. She was ordered on 20 September 1943, and was laid down on 27 July 1944 at Deutsche Werft, Hamburg, as yard number 490. She was launched on 10 September 1944 and commissioned under the command of Leutnant zur See Jürgen Vockel on 30 September. ## Design Like all Type XXIII U-boats, U-2336 had a displacement of 234 tonnes (230 long tons) when at the surface and 258 tonnes (254 long tons) while submerged. She had a total length of 34.68 m (113 ft 9 in) (o/a), a beam width of 3.02 m (9 ft 11 in) (o/a), and a draught depth of3.66 m (12 ft). The submarine was powered by one MWM six-cylinder RS134S diesel engine providing 575–630 metric horsepower (423–463 kilowatts; 567–621 shaft horsepower), one AEG GU4463-8 double-acting electric motor electric motor providing 580 PS (430 kW; 570 shp), and one BBC silent running CCR188 electric motor providing 35 PS (26 kW; 35 shp). The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 9.7 knots (18.0 km/h; 11.2 mph) and a submerged speed of 12.5 knots (23.2 km/h; 14.4 mph). When submerged, the boat could operate at 4 knots (7.4 km/h; 4.6 mph) for 194 nautical miles (359 km; 223 mi); when surfaced, she could travel 2,600 nautical miles (4,800 km; 3,000 mi) at 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph). U-2336 was fitted with two 53.3 cm (21 in) torpedo tubes in the bow. She could carry two preloaded torpedoes. The complement was 14–18 men. This class of U-boat did not carry a deck gun. ## Service history U-2336 trained with the 32nd U-boat Flotilla from 30 September 1944 until 15 February 1945, and began her first voyage as a front boat of the 4th U-boat Flotilla on 16 February 1945. Two days later, she collided with , another Type XXIII U-boat, off Heiligendamm on the Baltic coast. U-2344 was sunk, with the loss of 11 crew. It took about two months for U-2336 to leave her home port of Kiel, which she did on 18 April 1945 under a new commander, Kapitänleutnant Emil Klusmeier. After traveling across the straits of Kattegat and Skagerrak, U-2336 reached Larvik, Norway on 24 April 1945. This was to be her home port for the remaining few days of the war. ### First patrol On 1 May 1945, U-2336 left Larvik and headed out into the North Sea. On 7 May 1945, U-2336 sank the last Allied merchant ships to be lost to a German submarine in the war, when she torpedoed the freighters Avondale Park and Sneland I (in order) off the Isle of May inside the Firth of Forth. Sneland I exploded as soon as it was hit and sank two minutes later, killing seven crew members, including the captain. Avondale Park lost two crew members, with the rest entering lifeboat or jumping into the sea. U-2336 returned to Kiel on 14 May 1945 and then transferred to Wilhelmshaven, Germany, where she was surrendered to the Western Allies. ### Post-war U-2336 was taken to Lisahally, United Kingdom on 21 June 1945 to take part in Operation Deadlight where she was sunk on 3 January 1946 by gunfire from the British destroyer HMS Offa. ## Summary of raiding history ## See also - Battle of the Atlantic - Actions of 7–8 May 1945
601,367	Belgian Shepherd	1,173,120,106	null	[ "Dog breeds", "Dog breeds originating in Belgium", "FCI breeds", "Herding dogs" ]	The Belgian Shepherd (also known as the Belgian Sheepdog, Belgian Malinois, or the Chien de Berger Belge) is a breed of medium-sized herding dog from Belgium. While predominantly considered a single breed, it is bred in four distinct varieties based on coat type and colour; the long-haired black Groenendael, the rough-haired fawn Laekenois, the short-haired fawn Malinois, and the long-haired fawn Tervuren. In the United States, the American Kennel Club considers the four varieties to be separate breeds. The breed descends from a common type of shepherd dog found throughout Western Europe that includes such modern breeds as the Bouvier des Ardennes, Dutch Shepherd and German Shepherd. A common sight in the service of Belgian shepherds for centuries, it was not until the end of the 19th century that a breed club was formed and attempts were made to standardise the breed. In addition to its historical role as a herding dog, Belgian Shepherds have been used as assistance dogs, companion dogs, detection dogs, guard dogs, guide dogs, police dogs, and search and rescue dogs. The breed has a long history of being used by military forces, serving in both World Wars; they continue to be used by a number of militaries in a variety of roles to this day. ## Appearance The Belgian Shepherd is a medium-sized athletic breed with a body built for endurance, they typically stand between 56 and 66 centimetres (22 and 26 in) with bitches being on average 4 centimetres (1.6 in) shorter than dogs, they usually weigh between 20 and 30 kilograms (44 and 66 lb); the breed standard states the ideal height is 62 centimetres (24 in) for dogs and 58 centimetres (23 in) for bitches. The breed has a long, slender head with triangular, erect ears that are rounded at the base, and a long, narrow but balanced muzzle, according to the breed standard a dog that stands 62 centimetres at the withers should have a head that is 25 centimetres (9.8 in) long and a muzzle approximately half that length. The breed's body is muscular but not overly heavy; the body's length from shoulder to haunches is approximately the same as their height at the withers, proportionally slightly longer in bitches; they have a straight topline and their belly is neither low-slung nor overly high like that of a sighthound. The breed's chest is deep but not overly broad; their neck is muscular, widening at the shoulders with a slight arch at the nape; their tail is strong and of medium length and curves upwards slightly at the level of their knee; their forelegs are straight and well-boned, their hind legs are muscular and very powerful, none of the legs are overly heavy. ### Varieties The four varieties vary principally in their coat types and colours, the breed standard describes three coat varieties; long-haired, short-haired and rough-haired. Long-haired dogs have a long, smooth coat with short hair on their faces, ears and legs although there is long feathering on the rear of the legs, they have an abundant mane on their neck and chest, particularly long hair on the rear of their thighs and a bushy tail that forms a plume. Short-haired dogs have particularly short hair on the faces, ears and lower portion of their legs, short over the rest of the body and slightly longer on the neck and tail. Rough-haired dogs have a coat that is rough, dry and approximately 6 centimetres (2.4 in) long over the body, they have shorter hair on the top of the muzzle and legs and, unlike the other coat types, they have long hair on the face and muzzle. #### Groenendael The Groenendael variety is long-haired, it has a solid black double coat, the outer coat is straight and particularly long around the shoulders, neck and chest; they have short hair on the face, and well feathered legs and tail. #### Laekenois The Laekenois variety is rough-haired, its coat is fawn in colour with discreet black overlay and is harsh, dry and normally slightly tangled in appearance; it has a bristled, feathered muzzle and limited feathering on the legs and tail. According to the breed standard, black overlay means the tips of the hair are black but not in patches or stripes such as brindle. #### Malinois The Malinois variety is short-haired, it is fawn in colour with black overlay, with a charcoal-coloured face and extremities. #### Tervuren The Tervuren variety is long-haired like the Groenendael; its double coat is typically fawn in colour with black overlay and with black extremities, although grey with black is known; it has a ruff of long hair around the neck and feathering on the legs. ## Temperament Belgian Shepherds are known to be highly intelligent, alert and sensitive; they are typically highly trainable, vigilant and hard-working with a strong guarding instinct making them protective of property and family, and very well suited for service with security services. The Groenendael and Tervueren varieties have a reputation for occasionally being snappy, making them less suitable as companion dogs for children; the Laekenois, whilst considered very good with children, can occasionally be troublesome with other dogs. The Belgian Shepherd responds well to training and responds very well to firm and understanding training; they require training from an early age, particularly the Laekenois which can have a tendency to try to dominate a weaker-willed master. The breed is very active, particularly the Malinois which may reflect its continued breeding for security roles, and they all require exercise; the breed adapts well to living indoors, although the Malinois is least suited to these environments. ## History Belgian Shepherds descend from a common type of herding dog as similar Western European breeds like the Bouvier des Ardennes, Dutch Shepherd and German Shepherd, and for centuries they were used by Belgian shepherds for this task. Unlike in other European countries where, throughout the 19th century, shepherd breeds were standardised and breeders made efforts to perpetuate their breeds, by the end of the century the Belgian Shepherd was becoming obsolete and was at danger of extinction. In 1891, the Club de Chien Berger Belge was formed with the purpose of saving the type and a team led by Professor Adolphe Reul of the Cureghem Veterinary School conducted a field survey of the type. As the Belgian Shepherd had for centuries been bred for working ability with little consideration given to form, Professor Reul found the type to vary greatly in appearance. As a part of their work, Professor Reul's team assembled 117 specimens and began the process of standardising them into distinct varieties. Classifying them as a single breed, initially Professor Reul's team divided the breed into six different varieties based on coat type and colour; between 1892 when the first breed standard was drafted and 1956, as few as two varieties and as many as eight were recognised by either the Club de Chien Berger Belge or the Société Royale Saint-Hubert. In 1905 it was decided that interbreeding between the different varieties should be forbidden, but the disruptions caused by the First World War resulted in a decline in breed numbers, so in 1920 it was decided matings between the varieties should be allowed in order to preserve the breed and avoid issues resulting from inbreeding. The Second World War once again threatened the viability of the breed and in late 1945, it was decided once again that matings between dogs of the different varieties was to be encouraged, and through careful breeding the Belgian Shepherd recovered in numbers. In 1956 the current breed standard was adopted and it specified the four varieties known today; the Groenendael, Laekenois, Malinois and Tervuren. The Groenendael variety is believed to have been created in 1885 by Nicholas Rose, owner of the Château de Groenendael. Rose owned a long-haired, black Belgian Shepherd bitch called "Petite", liking her look so much he spent over a year searching for a suitable mate, eventually finding a dog named "Piccard D'Uccle" who belonged to a shepherd called Mr Beernaert, these two are considered the foundation stock of the variety. Their finest progeny were called "Duc de Groenendael" and "Barroness" who were mated widely to Belgian Shepherds of different appearances with the black progeny retained. Initially Rose had wanted to name the variety the "Rose", but it was deemed this could cause confusion given their black colour so they were instead named after his château, Groenendael. During the First World War, Groenendaels were used by the Belgian Army to locate wounded soldiers and carry messages, their bravery was recognised by U.S. soldiers during the war and examples were imported to the U.S. in the following years; to this day in the US the name Belgian Shepherd or Belgian Sheepdog is commonly used to refer to the Groenendael. The Malinois variety was said to be the first variety to breed true to type and initially they became so well-known in Belgium that at one time the other varieties were collectively called "other-than-Malinois", it was the Malinois that the other varieties were gauged against. The variety takes its name from the Mechelen region (called Malines in French), where it was the predominant coat type used by the local shepherds. The Laekenois variety has always been the rarest; they take their name from the Château de Laeken, a residence of the Belgian royal family. The Laekenois was a favourite of Queen Marie Henriette, who frequently watched them in the service of the shepherds who grazed the royal domains around the château; this patronage contributed to their popularity at the time. In addition to being used as herding dogs, rough-haired Belgian Shepherds were traditionally used as guard dogs in the regions surrounding Boom, guarding valuable linens put out to bleach in the sun. The Tervuren variety is believed to have been created when a brewer, M. Corbeel, bred his fawn long-haired Belgian Shepherd pair "Tom" and "Poes", one of their progeny was a long-haired fawn bitch named "Miss" who was purchased by a M. Deanhieux. Miss was bred with Duc de Groenendael, the foundation sire of the Groenendael variety, and the fawn progeny became the Tervuren variety who take their name from the region of Tervuren. The Tervuren variety is considered particularly robust and healthy and in Europe a number of breeders use them to reinforce the bloodlines of other varieties, particularly the Groenendael. ### Kennel club classification Most of the world's national kennel clubs including the Société Royale Saint-Hubert, as well as the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, recognise the Belgian Shepherd as a single breed with four distinct varieties. Notably, the American Kennel Club recognises the four varieties as separate breeds; this has caused some consternation for American breeders who breed from imported European stock. European Groenendaels in particular can whelp Tervuren-coloured pups; in most of the world these can be registered as Tervurens, whereas in the United States these pups would be disqualified from registration. ## Popularity and uses The Groenendael remains the most popular variety followed by the Tervuren. The Malinois is gaining in popularity while the Laekenois remains comparatively rare. Extremely versatile, Belgian Shepherds are frequently trained for use as assistance dogs, detection dogs, guard dogs, guide dogs, police dogs, and search and rescue dogs. The breed, in particular the Groenendael, Laekenois and Tervuren varieties, are predominantly kept as pets or companion dogs; all of the varieties are frequently seen competing in obedience competitions and Schutzhund. In recent times, the Laekenois has been employed by the Belgian Army in a variety of roles, and the Tervuren is frequently used by government organisations as a drug detection dog. The Malinois in particular has become increasingly popular with customs, military, border guard and police forces; organisations that utilise the Malinois include the United States Armed Forces, the United States Secret Service, the Israel Defense Forces' Oketz Unit, the Australian Defence Force, and the anti-poaching canine unit at the Kruger National Park. ## Health Belgian Shepherds are considered to be a relatively healthy breed with a life expectancy of 12 to 14 years, although skin allergies, eye problems and dysplasia are seen. The Société Royale Saint-Hubert recommends all four varieties are tested for hip and elbow dysplasia and that the Malinois be tested for epilepsy. The working lines of the Malinois have been associated with Rage syndrome. A genetic polymorphism in the dopamine transporter gene has been linked to Rage syndrome, and dogs at risk of passing the genotype on to offspring can be identified through genetic testing. ## Notable examples - Conan, United States Army Malinois that assisted in the capture and killing of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. - Diesel, French police Malinois that was posthumously awarded the PDSA Dickin Medal after he was killed in the 2015 Saint-Denis raid. - K9 Killer, Kruger National Park anti-poaching dog Malinois awarded the PDSA Gold Medal for assisting in the capture of 115 poachers. - King Tut, US President Herbert Hoover's pet Malinois. - Kuga, Australian Army Malinois awarded the Dickin Medal after capturing an insurgent whilst shot during the War in Afghanistan. - Mali, British Army Malinois awarded the Dickin Medal after completing a mission whilst injured during the War in Afghanistan. - Wilson, neighbour Jim's pet dog from British sitcom series Friday Night Dinner. ## See also - Max (2015 film) and Dog (2022 film) both feature Malinois. - Jim's dog Wilson from Channel 4 series Friday Night Dinner is a Malinois. - List of dog breeds. - Belgian Malinois Love
21,489,557	February 2009 North American storm complex	1,171,866,670	2009 storm complex in the United States	[ "2009 natural disasters in the United States", "F4 tornadoes by date", "February 2009 events in the United States", "Tornadoes in Indiana", "Tornadoes in Missouri", "Tornadoes in Oklahoma", "Tornadoes in Tennessee", "Tornadoes in Texas", "Tornadoes in Virginia", "Tornadoes of 2009" ]	On February 10–11, 2009, a broad-scale damaging wind event and small tornado outbreak affected the Central and Eastern United States. During the two-day period, 14 tornadoes touched down in seven states. Oklahoma was struck by six tornadoes, the most of any state. The six tornadoes in Oklahoma also tied the record for the most tornadoes ever recorded in the state during the month of February, which would later be broken in 2023. The first day of the outbreak produced the most tornadoes; the second brought mainly high wind damage and rain or snow in most of the Northeast. The storm system responsible for the tornado outbreak resulted from the unusual congruence of a cold, dry system, originating in the Four Corners and a warm, moist system, moving north out of Texas. Complicating factors included daytime heating and a strong wind field favorable to the creation of circulating thunderstorms. On the second day, the stronger cold front limited discrete supercell activity and the risk of tornadoes decreased significantly. A squall line, however, produced high winds and rain along the river valleys, primarily those of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. A tight pressure-gradient behind the cold front led to a large area of damaging non-thunderstorm winds across the Midwest and Ohio Valley. This squall line continued to renew its energy as it passed through the Midwest, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and New England, causing wind and water damage, and dumping 6 inches (15 cm) of snow in central and eastern Massachusetts. The resulting power outages affected homes throughout the northeastern seaboard. The widespread damaging winds left an estimated \$1.7 billion (2009 USD) in damage across the Ohio River Valley and Southeastern United States. A small tornado outbreak accompanied the storm, with 14 confirmed across 7 states. The most significant damage occurred in Oklahoma from two tornadoes in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area and a deadly EF4 tornado that destroyed large parts of Lone Grove. The EF4 tornado killed eight people and injured 46 others. ## Meteorological synopsis ### February 10 Early on February 10, 2009, a strong upper-level trough moved east from the Four Corners into the central and southern Great Plains by the afternoon and early evening hours. Temperatures across Texas and Oklahoma were unusually low antecedent to a severe weather outbreak, generally ranging from 30 to 50 °F (−1 to 10 °C). Early morning fog moving northwest into Oklahoma signaled the arrival of low-level moisture into the region. Strong surface heating combined with cooler air aloft created an unstable atmosphere, a situation unusual in the region for February. In the afternoon hours, a shortwave trough moved from Arizona into Texas while a strong mid-level jet emanated from the Big Bend region. Daytime heating of the moistening boundary layer increased throughout the afternoon across Oklahoma and Texas as cloud cover shifted eastward. A very strong wind field increased with height through the lower troposphere, resulting in a wind shear favorable for rotation in the thunderstorms. Meteorologists expected large hail stones and damaging winds, and recognized the potential for strong tornadoes as thunderstorms developed from central Oklahoma southward into north-central Texas in the afternoon. During the night, a cold front moved eastward toward the Mississippi Valley and organized the thunderstorms into a lengthy squall line. Along with a continued threat of hail and tornadoes, the risk of damaging winds increased. The Storm Prediction Center announced a "moderate risk" of severe weather for portions of eastern Oklahoma, northeastern Texas, western Arkansas, and northwestern Louisiana. Around 19:00 UTC, a line of thunderstorms began developing near the Wichita Mountains in Comanche County, Oklahoma. One supercell originating there produced five tornadoes from Canadian County in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area to Pawnee County. One of these was rated EF2 when it struck western areas of Edmond. The most significant tornado originated in Montague County, Texas at 00:48 UTC. It quickly crossed the Red River into Oklahoma and moved through predominantly rural areas, ultimately striking Lone Grove at EF4 intensity. Severe damage took place in the town and eight people were killed. In addition to the five Oklahoma tornadoes, three tornadoes struck northern sections of Texas and one tornado hit Springfield, Missouri. ### February 11 Concurrent with the strong upper-level trough tracking northeastward, the threat for organized severe weather shifted eastward into the Ohio River Valley on February 11, where the Storm Prediction Center issued a Slight risk across much of the region. Very strong wind fields, including mid-level winds upwards of 115 kn (130 mph; 215 km/h), overspread the risk area. Strong forcing along an eastward-moving cold front combined with those wind fields led to the persistence of a low-topped squall line despite little instability ahead of the convection. Widespread sunshine developed ahead of the squall line throughout the afternoon hours, increasing the potential for strong winds aloft to be transferred to the surface. As such, the Storm Prediction Center raised the threat level to a Moderate risk across portions of Kentucky, Ohio, and West Virginia for widespread and potentially significant damaging winds. The organization would ultimately receive over 350 reports of damaging winds on February 11, including a peak gust of 85 kn (100 mph; 155 km/h) near Belle, West Virginia. By the evening hours, the squall line encountered cooler surface temperatures and became increasingly separated from the powerful upper-level trough, and it lost its vigor moving through the Mid-Atlantic region. ## Confirmed tornadoes ## Non-tornadic events During the evening of February 10, a long line of severe thunderstorms developed along the tail-end of a cold front in central Texas. Meteorologists predicted embedded supercell thunderstorms that could produce hail up to 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) in diameter and wind gusts up to 90 mph (140 km/h). North of the squall line, bow echo thunderstorms developed in Missouri, causing widespread wind damage. By the morning of February 11, the squall line reached as far southeast as eastern Louisiana, where winds were recorded in excess of 70 mph (110 km/h) along with hail up to 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. Around 12 pm EST (17:00 UTC), the first line of thunderstorms significantly weakened, but a new, narrow line developed in eastern Kentucky and Tennessee. A strong, deep layer wind field prevented a number of tornadoes from forming but instead caused widespread wind damage. Throughout the day, the line of low-topped thunderstorms continued eastward, reaching Ohio and West Virginia by 4 pm EST (21:00 UTC). Several hours later, the line broke apart, with the strongest storms tracking through Pennsylvania. By February 12, rain showers, accompanied by high winds up to 60 mph (97 km/h), affected most of the Northeastern United States. The large-scale damaging wind event left an estimated \$1.7 billion (2009 USD) in losses. ### West South Central states In addition to the strong tornadoes, Oklahoma was affected by high winds and large hail. The largest hailstones were observed in Okesa at 4.5 inches (11 cm) in diameter. Numerous cars were hit and several houses sustained roof damage; the cost of the hail damage was estimated at \$100,000. Heavy rains produced by the storms also caused isolated flooding, inundating numerous streets. A lightning bolt struck an oil tank, igniting a fire. The most significant wind damage occurred in Atoka and Coal counties where winds up to 70 mph (110 km/h) destroyed two mobile homes, several barns, and outbuildings. Gusts peaked at 81 mph (130 km/h) in McIntosh and Pawnee counties. Throughout the state, an estimated 61,000 people lost power: 29,000 lost power due to thunderstorms and 32,000 due to tornadoes. Strong straight-line winds of 70–80 mph (110–130 km/h) caused significant damage in Hamilton County, Texas. Barns, sheds, and outbuildings were destroyed with some having debris strewn 1.5 mi (2.4 km) downstream. Several mobile homes near Hamilton sustained damage after tree limbs fell on them. In Huron, several outbuildings were damaged or destroyed and a permanent building was damaged at a youth retreat center. An estimated 15,000 residences were without power following the storms in Texas. Three people were injured in McGregor when their home was destroyed. In Arkansas, high winds produced by the squall line knocked out power to 315,324 residences and caused widespread structural damage. Trees and power lines were brought down in eight counties, and several homes in Independence and Van Buren County sustained damage. Winds estimated at 80 mph (130 km/h) in Van Buren blew a barn onto AR 9. Hundreds of trees were blown down, many of which fell on homes. Winds estimated up to 85 mph (137 km/h) caused extensive damage to homes, primarily from fallen trees, and injured three people. In Conway County, a sawmill and two barns were destroyed, while several homes and a church also sustained damage. Damaging straight-line winds affected northwestern Louisiana, downing many trees and power lines. Several homes were damaged by fallen trees in Shreveport. Approximately 12,000 residences lost power in the state. ### Midwest In Missouri, high winds caused widespread damage and knocked out power to 7,629 residences. Several homes and businesses lost their windows due to 65 mph (105 km/h) wind gusts produced within squall lines. Flooding and high winds in Michigan knocked out power to about 57,000 residences. In southern Michigan, upwards of 0.8 inches (2.0 cm) of rain fell, leading to faster snowmelt. A tight pressure gradient behind the cold front produced strong winds across portions of Indiana and Illinois, with many areas seeing sustained winds of 35 to 45 mph (56 to 72 km/h) with gusts up to 70 mph (110 km/h). Heavy rain, warmer temperatures, and snow melt contributed to saturated grounds. In the town of Carmel, a total of 2.75 inches (70 mm) of rain fell. The combination of these factors swelled the Wabash River, leading to widespread flooding of low-lying areas. The river remained above flood-stage through February 23. Floods affected portions of Fountain, Parke, Sullivan, Tippecanoe, Vermillion, Vigo, and Warren counties. In southwestern counties, the White River reached nearly 4 ft (1.2 m) above flood-stage, inundating low-lying areas and some roads. The river remained above flood-stage through February 22. Flood gates were erected in Hazleton as water reached a local sports field. Non-thunderstorm wind gusts peaked at an estimated 80 mph (130 km/h) in Crawford and Tippecanoe counties; the highest measured value was 73 mph (117 km/h) in Hamilton County. In Tippecanoe County, several homes had shingles and siding blown off and fallen trees blocked roads. Winds in southwestern Indiana damaged power lines weakened from the ice storm in late January. A total of 14,590 residences lost power in Indiana. Several large trees were brought down by high winds, one of which fell on a home in South Bend. A total of 70,695 residences lost power in Illinois. Rainfall up to 4 inches (100 mm) fell throughout most of the state. Several major roadways were covered in flood waters. The Little Wabash River overflowed its banks and inundated nearby roads. Elevated waters along the Wabash River in Indiana traveled south into Illinois by February 13, with Wabash and White counties experiencing flooding. The river crested at 24.86 ft (7.58 m) in Mount Carmel, nearly 5 ft (1.5 m) above flood-stage on February 19. Strong winds on the backside of the cold front affected large portions of the state, with gusts generally reaching 50 to 60 mph (80 to 97 km/h). Some minor damage resulted from these winds. In Ohio, 70 mph (110 km/h) wind gusts led to a highway accident that killed a truck driver. The high winds also caused significant damage throughout the state. Heavy rains produced by the same system inundated several streets in flood-prone towns in Ohio. In Scioto County, the high winds destroyed a brick house and brought down power lines. The most significant damage resulted from the strong pressure gradient behind the frontal system. Thousands of tree were knocked down or uprooted by winds gusting in excess of 75 mph (121 km/h), cutting power to 585,775 residences. Ten railroad cars were knocked off their tracks near Shelby. Several hundred homes lost shingles and gutters due to the winds. Wind also overturned two semi-trailers, though the drivers of both vehicles were unharmed. A vacant school building in Epworth lost its entire roof. Some windows were damaged or broken by flying debris or fallen trees. Power outages forced numerous schools to close for at least two days following the storm. A large barn was leveled just north of Brighton in Lorain County by 64 mph (103 km/h) winds. Throughout the state, damages from the storm system amounted to \$4.7 million. ### Northeastern states Hurricane-force wind gusts up to 92 mph (148 km/h) caused significant damage and power losses in Pennsylvania. Throughout the state, at least 400,000 residences lost power due to the winds. Allegheny Power stated that the loss of power due to this system was the largest ever experienced by the company. Thousands of trees and power lines were brought down by strong winds and numerous homes sustained significant damage. Although most of the damage to homes consisted of shingle damage, several homes lost gutters and had portions of their siding blown off. In Pottstown, a large portion of the roof of a four-story building was blown off, forcing residents to evacuate the building. An 18 ft (5.5 m) pillar was knocked down at the First Moravian Church in Easton. In Northampton County, a fire sparked by fallen power lines destroyed a barn and partially melted a nearby metal shed. The blaze was fully contained by 40 firefighters. Another fire sparked by fallen power lines destroyed a garage in Lower Merion Township. In Philadelphia, the roof of a portable classroom began to peel off, forcing the forty students inside to evacuate to a safer structure. A large tree fell through one house and severely damaged the roof of a nearby home. Numerous major highways and local streets were shut down for several hours to allow cleanup crews to clear debris. Throughout the state, damages from the storm system amounted to \$3.7 million. In upstate New York, winds in excess of 50 mph (80 km/h) shattered windows, toppled numerous trees, and brought down power lines, cutting power to more than 50,000 residences. Unseasonably warm temperatures and heavy rains from the storm system increased the snowmelt rate in northern areas of the state. In Genesee County, an estimated 2 to 5 inches (5.1 to 12.7 cm) of the snowpack melted, triggering flash floods along several rivers. The Tonawanda Creek reached a height of 14.38 ft (4.38 m), 2.38 ft (0.73 m) above flood stage. Several homes were inundated by flood waters throughout the region. In all, 84,624 residences lost power in New York State. The storm system continued producing gusty winds through February 12, which caused tree damage and power outages, and killed a construction worker in the New York City metropolitan area. The construction worker was killed after a cinder block wall collapsed due to high-winds. Winds in the city gusted to 65 mph (105 km/h) in the Bronx. Throughout Long Island, an estimated 4,000 people lost power. In New Jersey, strong winds gusted up to 55 mph (89 km/h), bringing down tree limbs that killed two people. A total of 93,816 residences were also left without power at the height of the storm. High winds on the backside of the storm brought down a power line that sparked a small fire in Galloway Township, burning a total of 40 acres (16 ha). A total of 8,486 Connecticut residences were left without power after high winds damaged numerous power lines and tree limbs. Downed wires delayed Metro-North service on the New Haven Line. In Massachusetts, gusts up to 55 mph (89 km/h) brought down several trees and cut power to residences in Middleborough, Boston, Brookline and Hingham. The Western Massachusetts Electric Company reported that at least 360 residences lost power during the storm. Westerly winds and enhanced moisture from lakes led to 3 to 6 in (7.6 to 15.2 cm) of snow falling in parts of The Berkshires. ### Elsewhere In Mississippi, strong winds on the backside of the cold front blew a metal roof off a power company building, bringing down several trees and power lines. Progressing into Alabama, the initial squall line brought locally severe thunderstorms with a peak gust of 75 mph (121 km/h) near Cherokee. Some areas saw trees downed and homes damaged. The more significant effects resulted from the pressure gradient winds on the backside of the storm, with widespread damaging winds. Trees were downed in many areas, some of which caused power outages, and a few homes had roof damage. Three people were trapped in their apartment in Florence when a tree fell on the building. A downed power line sparked a fire that burned 15 acres (6.1 hectares) a few miles southwest of Leighton. At least 8,300 customers lost power in various parts of the state. In Huntsville, a car carrying four people lost control on rain-slicked roads and crashed into a van, killing one of the occupants and injuring the other three. Effects in Georgia were largely limited to scattered instances of downed trees and power lines across northern and central parts of the state. Peak gusts were estimated at 58 mph (93 km/h). Winds of 55 to 65 mph (89 to 105 km/h) affected the majority of Kentucky, resulting in extensive power outages. A total of 161,588 residences lost power, exacerbating the effects of an ice storm two weeks earlier. Numerous counties reported downed trees and some structural damage, mainly from the fallen trees. A peak gust of 73 mph (117 km/h) was recorded at Owensboro–Daviess County Regional Airport in western Kentucky. At least 2,500 homes suffered some degree of damage in southwestern Kentucky. Several homes had their roof torn off in Cadiz and two brick buildings collapsed in Morganfield. In eastern Kentucky, approximately 90 percent of Williamsburg lost power; five homes lost their roof in the city. One fatality occurred in Kentucky when a utility worker was knocked over by high winds and fell 30 ft (9.1 m) to his death while trying to restore power. Widespread damage to trees occurred across most of Tennessee as the storm moved through, with Central Tennessee and East Tennessee being more severely affected. Many areas estimated or measured winds in excess of 60 mph (97 km/h), with peak gusts estimated at 86 mph (138 km/h) near Collinwood and Lawrenceburg. Mostly minor damage to homes was reported in multiple counties; some had their roof significantly damaged. Widespread power outages occurred, with a total of 74,052 residences losing service. In Collinwood, the doors and roofs of three dry kilns at a Hughes Hardwood were blown in or torn off. Several brush and structure fires ignited during the storm in Washington County were worsened by the winds, one of which destroyed two buildings. One person was killed by high winds in Davy, West Virginia when a gymnasium roof collapsed. Throughout the state, power was knocked out to an estimated 225,000 residences. In Montgomery County, Virginia, winds knocked down power lines which sparked two brush fires, one of which burned a total of 12 acres (4.9 ha). Winds up to 65 mph (105 km/h) cut power to 28,059 residences in the state. The strong winds also cut power to 50,820 residences in Maryland. ## Aftermath In the wake of the tornado outbreak, law enforcement officers, including 30 National Guard troops, were sent to Lone Grove to assist with rescue efforts. The American Red Cross opened shelters in Ardmore, Edmond, and Oklahoma City. About 100 volunteers from the Sorghum Mill Estates Neighborhood Association traveled to affected areas in Edmond to help with cleanup efforts. A local restaurant provided free meals to the volunteers as they assisted relief workers. The Salvation Army had two canteens in Oklahoma City, one in Lone Grove, and one in Perkins. About 2,000 meals, drinks, and snacks were provided by the Salvation Army to emergency responders. Feed the Children sent two truckloads of relief supplies to Carter County. They also sent three food trucks, containing a total of 619 meals, 900 drinks, and about 500 snacks, to Ardmore. On February 22, the New Life Baptist Church sent drinks and prepackaged snacks, along with items needed for clean-up. Baptist Disaster Relief assisted in Lone Grove with food and emotional care. The Oklahoma City Thunder of the National Basketball Association (NBA) gave away two tickets to anyone who made a donation of \$25 or an equivalent amount of food to benefit victims of the tornado. A concert featuring Chris Cagle and other local musicians at Heritage Hall in Ardmore raised over \$18,000 to benefit Carter County tornado victims. Another concert set up by the Salvation Army raised \$2,300 more for victims. The Governor of Oklahoma Brad Henry declared a State of Emergency in 17 counties and described the outbreak as the worst natural disaster he had seen since becoming governor. On February 15, President Obama approved Henry's request for federal assistance in Carter, Logan and Oklahoma counties. A disaster recovery center was set up by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) on February 20. Homeowners were allowed to borrow \$200,000 to repair damages to their home or find a temporary or permanent shelter. They were also allowed to borrow up to \$40,000 to replace lost property. Businesses were allowed to borrow up to \$2 million for damage repair, property loss, and economic loss. By February 23, about \$781,000 had been given in federal grants. On February 25, FEMA approved Governor Henry's request for public assistance in Carter, Coal and Love counties. The estimated cost to clear the 7,000 tons of debris in Lone Grove was placed at \$500,000, of which \$90,000 has been paid for by FEMA. The Department of Homeland Security offered to assist with the reconstruction of homes and businesses and to support those who were left homeless. ## See also - List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks - List of F4 and EF4 tornadoes - List of United States tornadoes from January to March 2009
36,932,692	Through a Glass Darkly (Koen novel)	1,167,799,461	Book by Karleen Koen	[ "1986 American novels", "1986 debut novels", "Fiction set in 1715", "Fiction set in 1716", "Fiction set in 1720", "Fiction set in 1721", "Novels set in London", "Novels set in Paris", "Novels set in the 1710s", "Novels set in the 1720s" ]	Through a Glass Darkly is a 1986 historical fiction novel by American author Karleen Koen. A former magazine editor, Koen had never before written a novel and spent four years developing it while living as a housewife with her family. She sold the hardcover rights to Random House for \$350,000, which was then a record for a new novelist. The circumstances behind the work's publication led to Koen becoming the subject of much media attention in the late 1980s. Koen's story is set in the midst of the turbulent politics of the English and French aristocracy as well as the South Sea Bubble. The novel begins in 1715 England, when teenage protagonist Barbara Alderley becomes married to the handsome, older Earl Devane. Though in love with him, Barbara soon discovers a secret from his past that threatens to tear their relationship apart. Barbara must learn to navigate courtly intrigues and financial crises while experiencing personal tragedies. Released on July 12, 1986, by Random House, Through a Glass Darkly landed on The New York Times Best Seller list. Critical reception was largely mixed, with reviewers focusing on the novel's prose and attention to historical detail. It has been translated into more than ten languages. ## Background Through a Glass Darkly was the first novel written by American author Karleen Koen. She had previously been a reporter for the Houston Business Journal and also served as the editor of Houston Home & Garden before leaving to spend more time with her husband and two children. Desiring to once again have her name in print, Koen was persuaded by her husband to write a novel to help keep busy in between housework. At first sceptical at writing fiction, Koen began mentioning the idea at parties to avoid appearing as a mere housewife. "When you're at home raising children your status is – well, there is no status," Koen later recalled. Commencing the novel in 1980, she wrote three long drafts during a four-year period; the final manuscript ultimately contained 1,300 double-spaced pages. Koen found inspiration from her interest in the eighteenth century. Rather than use the "virginity-sexual tango" trope of most historical romance novels, Koen sought to circumvent the "rules" of the genre and concentrate on characterization. Koen engaged in an intensive research period on the eighteenth century using approximately 300 books, which she often obtained from a local university's library. She also traveled briefly to England and France. Koen found writing the novel to be "a very intense thing" and became very attached to her characters, even the villains. She sought to "hook the readers emotionally and make them care. I guess it's soap opera (but) there's a kind of sigh you heave when you finish a certain type of book. I wanted that sigh." She added: > "The heroine is Barbara, and she is 15 when the novel opens and 21 years old at the end. It's the story of her coming of age, her family, marriage and relationships. I left the exact place where all this happens rather nebulous, but the locale is southern England. It's all created. The period was fascinating to research – I went through about 300 books. It was the age of Defoe, Pope, Swift and Addison and I lost myself in their time." To gain a publisher for her novel, she sent the manuscript to several literary agents she had discovered in Writer's Digest. Though two turned her down, one agent, Jean Naggar, encouraged Koen to continue finishing the book, believing it to be "the launching of a major author." Naggar mailed the manuscript to five major publishing companies, with Random House purchasing it for a "whopping" \$350,000 in August 1985, which was at the time a record for a new novelist. Random House's publisher, Howard Kaminsky, wanted to publish "Oprah Winfrey-type books" in the "how-to-be-the-best-you-can-be" genre. He reasoned, "I'm sure that's up there with the highest prices ever paid for the hardcover rights alone to a first novel. But then it is not that big a price when you consider that it's such a deserving novel – and it will undoubtedly go for a very large amount in paperback later." ## Plot summary In 1715 England, fifteen-year-old Barbara Alderley lives with her widowed grandmother, the Duchess of Tamworth, and her younger siblings on their family's country Tamworth estate. Barbara's indebted and calculating mother, Lady Diana Alderley, arrives to inform them of Barbara's possible marriage to Roger Montgeoffry, Earl Devane, a former aide to the deceased Duke. Barbara is pleased with the news, believing herself to be in love with the handsome, wealthy, and popular earl despite his age (nearly thirty years her senior). Roger in turn desires Barbara's dowry of land in London, which he hopes to develop into an opulent estate and townhouses; she and her mother travel to London to make arrangements for the betrothal. Due to Diana's greed, negotiations almost fall apart until the intervention of the Duchess results in Barbara and Roger finally marrying. The couple travel to Paris. While learning to navigate through Parisian society, Barbara remains in love with her husband but Roger has no thoughts at all for his young bride other than mere fondness. Roger however has a secret: he once had a long-term affair with the French aristocrat the Prince of Soissons, with whom he begins anew soon after arriving in Paris. Through the actions of courtiers jealous of Barbara's devotion to Roger, pamphlets eventually spread about the affair. The young and naive Barbara is among the last to hear of it and breaks down in tears and shock. The plot jumps forward to 1720 England, where the country is unknowingly approaching the South Sea Bubble economic collapse; Barbara has separated from her husband and conducted affairs with several men in Paris and London. Still in love with Roger despite his affair, she is unhappy and becomes horrified when she discovers that one of her jealous lovers, Lord Charles Russel, killed Jemmy, a young nobleman who she accidentally slept with for one night. Later, the bursting of the Bubble causes chaos and violence through London. Barbara's only surviving sibling, Harry, is in severe debt and commits suicide; many citizens blame Lord Devane, who helped run the South Sea Company, for the country's finances. At the Tamworth estate, Barbara and Roger attempt a reconciliation but he collapses from an apoplexy soon after while evaluating his own precarious financial situation in London. With the help of several of Roger's friends, Barbara attempts to oversee his finances and takes him out of the still-chaotic city. At Tamworth, Roger gradually becomes worse and dies. Stricken and in mourning, Barbara holds a public memorial in London for her deceased husband, despite being warned that it would draw attention to his estate during the Parliamentary inquest into the financial crisis. To give her peace, the Duchess develops a scheme of spiriting her granddaughter out of the country by having her visit their plantation in Virginia. The novel ends with Barbara and several servants leaving on a ship intended for the colonies. ### Main characters - Barbara Alderley, Lady Devane – young, naive, devoted, and beautiful, she is the protagonist of the novel and Roger's wife - Roger Montgeoffry, Earl Devane – wealthy, charismatic, handsome, and popular, he is Barbara's husband and Philippe's lover - Alice Saylor, Duchess of Tamsworth – the venerable dowager of the Saylor family, she is Diana's mother and Barbara's grandmother - Tony Saylor, Duke of Tamworth – young, shy, and kind, he is in love with his cousin Barbara - Lady Diana Alderley – calculating, cold, promiscuous, and greedy, she is mother to Barbara and Harry - Philippe, Prince of Soissons – a sophisticated and dangerous French aristocrat, he is Roger's lover - Harry Alderley – impetuous and handsome, he is Barbara's brother - Jane Ashford, later Cromwell – kind and serious, she is a childhood friend of Barbara's and Harry's early love ## Themes Through a Glass Darkly is a long, complex narrative that features more than 60 characters and at least 15 subplots. The title of the novel comes from the Bible verse 1 Corinthians 13. Before she began writing it, Koen envisioned creating a story about the relationship between a young woman and an older man, a plot element riddled with emotional tension that required much planning and foresight. Koen also sought to create a story that featured issues relevant to contemporary women, such as the non-existence of "legal rights. If a husband wanted to beat his wife to death he could do it, and if her parents didn't care... No birth control. If you had any normal sexual urges you were pregnant all the time, and half the women died in childbirth. Life was very violent and short and I just wanted to show how it was without getting up on a soapbox, so someone reading it would say, 'I'm glad I live now.'" According to Koen, another consistent theme throughout Through a Glass Darkly is how vital family is to our well-being, family in this case being a loose term that does not necessarily equate to being biologically related. She was also interested in writing how people are connected to each other. ## Release and reception Through a Glass Darkly was first released in hardcover on July 12, 1986. Koen became known as the "unknown author who hit the jackpot" of a book that "everyone's been talking about." Media stories angled the book's backstory as a "phenomenon," particularly because it was purchased by a prestigious publisher at such a high price for a first time novelist. After its release, Koen began a seven-city promotional tour that ended in late September 1986. Avon Books paid more than twice Random House's price to gain paperback rights, and released the novel on paperback on September 1, 1987. Even before it was officially published, Through a Glass Darkly landed on The New York Times Best Seller list, where it stayed for more than a year. It was translated into ten languages the year it was published. In February 1987, People reported that "plans to turn the book into a big-budget miniseries are also underway." ### Critical reception After reviewing the hype surrounding the book, author Barbara Schaaf concluded that its prose "was first-rate – literate and with flashes of timeless insight. Anyone who can take a 15-year-old heroine... and dash off over 700 pages just to get her to age 21 without losing the reader, has real talent." Schaaf added that Koen has a "fine eye for art, architecture, fashion, manners and relays the everything," though she critiqued the author for sometimes inserting too many historical details. She believed that the book especially shone in depicting the South Sea Bubble; "most historical writers," Schaaf opined, "neglect the economic background of their periods, regardless of its importance, and [Koen's] grasp of a complicated situation makes it as fascinating as her descriptions of the sexual behavior of the upper and lower classes." People's Harriet Shapiro declared that Through a Glass Darkly "is no run-of-the-mill bodice buster, trade slang for bosom-heaving historical romances. Koen paints a lavish, carefully researched portrait of a young woman's turbulent coming of age in 18th-century England and France." Texas Monthly asserted that characterization was Koen's greatest asset, though the story's "sense of pacing falters" after two hundred pages. Another criticism was directed at the numerous monologues, which felt like having "commercials stacked toward the end of a late-night TV movie." Texas Monthly ended their review on a positive note, giving praise to the historical detail as well as the story's ending, which the reviewer believed would encourage readers to buy the forthcoming sequel. In a guest column for The New York Times, author Erica Jong called Koen's work a "well-researched, workmanlike historical novel [...] of the sort that Kathleen Winsor or Thomas B. Costain used to write: packed with details of costume, architecture and cuisine, populated by rudimentary paper-doll characters, full of undigested Continued on next page gobbets of research." Jong shone a negative light on some of the characters, which she believed "seem[ed] derived from movies, mini-series and other books" and overshadowed by the attention to historical detail. She concluded that "Koen's publishers [did] her a disservice in presenting this rather routine and turgid book as though it were Gone With the Wind," when it was actually a "well-researched bodice-ripper." Phoebe-Lou Adams of The Atlantic gave a negative review and criticized the "enormous, gigantic, monstrous historical novel" for containing a protagonist who "suffers and suffers and suffers while innumerable soap-opera types minuet about in fancy dress. The period is early eighteenth century, and the research underlying the gallimaufry is thorough beyond the call of duty." In response to some bad attention her novel received, which she said "hurt like hell," Koen noted the persistence of "in-fighting" within the publishing industry. "Who reviews your book has a lot to do with the kind of review you get," she said. ## See also - List of romantic novelists
44,896,276	Italian cruiser Vesuvio	1,169,657,121	Protected cruiser of the Italian Royal Navy	[ "1886 ships", "Cruisers of Italy", "Etna-class protected cruisers", "Ships built in Livorno", "World War I cruisers of Italy" ]	Vesuvio was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) built in the 1880s. She was the third member of the Etna class, which included three sister ships. Named for the volcano Mount Vesuvius, the ship's keel was laid down in July 1883. She was launched in March 1886 and was commissioned into the fleet in March 1888. She was armed with a main battery of two 254 mm (10 in) and a secondary battery of six 152 mm (6 in) guns, and could steam at a speed of around 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph). Her career was relatively uneventful; the only significant action in which she took part was the campaign against the Boxer Uprising in China in 1900. She was stricken from the naval register in May 1911 and sold for scrap in 1915. ## Design The four ships of the Etna class were designed in Italy as domestically produced versions of the British-built cruiser Giovanni Bausan. The Italian government secured a manufacturing license from the British firm Armstrong Whitworth, but the design was revised by the Italian naval engineer Carlo Vigna. These cruisers were intended to serve as "battleship destroyers", and represented a temporary embrace of the Jeune École doctrine by the Italian naval command. Vesuvio was 283 feet 6 inches (86.4 m) between perpendiculars, with a beam of 42 feet 6 inches (13 m). She had a mean draft of 19 feet (5.8 m) and displaced 3,373 long tons (3,427 t). Her crew numbered 12 officers and 296 men. The ship had two horizontal compound steam engines, each driving a single propeller, with steam provided by four double-ended cylindrical boilers. Vesuvio was credited with a top speed of 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph) from 6,820 indicated horsepower (5,090 kW). She had a cruising radius of 5,000 nautical miles (9,300 km; 5,800 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The main armament of the ships consisted of two Armstrong 254 mm (10 in), 30-caliber breech-loading guns mounted in barbettes fore and aft. She was also equipped with a secondary battery of six 152 mm (6 in), 32-caliber, breech-loading guns that were carried in sponsons along the sides of the ship. For anti-torpedo boat defense, Vesuvio was fitted with five 57 mm (2.2 in) 6-pounder Hotchkiss guns and five 37 mm (1.5 in) 1-pounder Hotchkiss guns. The ship was also armed with four 356 mm (14 in) torpedo tubes. One was mounted in the bow underwater and the other three were above water. She was protected with an armor deck below the waterline with a maximum thickness of 38 mm (1.5 in). The conning tower had 13 mm (0.5 in) worth of armor plating. ## Service history Vesuvio was built by the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando shipyard in Livorno, with her keel being laid down on 10 July 1883. Her completed hull was launched on 21 March 1886, and after fitting-out work was finished, she was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 16 March 1888. She was present during a naval review held for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a visit to Italy later that year. Vesuvio and her sisters Stromboli and Ettore Fieramosca participated in the 1893 naval maneuvers as part of the Squadron of Maneuvers, which was tasked with defending against the Permanent Squadron. Vesuvio was placed in reserve for 1896, though she was reactivated to take part on the naval maneuvers at the end of the year. During these maneuvers, she was assigned to a force tasked with defending against a simulated French fleet. In February 1897, Vesuvio deployed to Crete to serve in the International Squadron, a multinational force made up of ships of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, French Navy, Imperial German Navy, Regia Marina, Imperial Russian Navy, and British Royal Navy that intervened in the 1897–1898 Greek uprising on Crete against rule by the Ottoman Empire. She arrived as part of an Italian division that also included the ironclad battleships Sicilia (flagship of the division's commander, Vice Admiral Felice Napoleone Canevaro) and Re Umberto and the torpedo cruiser Euridice. By June, she had been assigned to the 1st Division of the active fleet in 1897, which also included the battleships Re Umberto, Sardegna, and Sicilia, the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan, and the torpedo cruisers Euridice and Montebello. In 1900, Vesuvio and Ettore Fieramosca were sent to Chinese waters to assist in the suppression of the Boxer Uprising as part of the Eight-Nation Alliance. Both ships were formally assigned to the Cruising Squadron in Chinese waters in 1901. During 1901, she made stops in Shanghai, Wusong, and Hong Kong. After a second deployment to the Far East from 1906 to 1909, Vesuvio was placed in reserve, struck from the Navy List on 11 May 1911 and sold for scrap in 1915.
53,932	Euclidean distance	1,153,733,276	Length of a line segment	[ "Distance", "Euclid", "Length", "Metric geometry", "Pythagorean theorem" ]	In mathematics, the Euclidean distance between two points in Euclidean space is the length of a line segment between the two points. It can be calculated from the Cartesian coordinates of the points using the Pythagorean theorem, therefore occasionally being called the Pythagorean distance. These names come from the ancient Greek mathematicians Euclid and Pythagoras, although Euclid did not represent distances as numbers, and the connection from the Pythagorean theorem to distance calculation was not made until the 18th century. The distance between two objects that are not points is usually defined to be the smallest distance among pairs of points from the two objects. Formulas are known for computing distances between different types of objects, such as the distance from a point to a line. In advanced mathematics, the concept of distance has been generalized to abstract metric spaces, and other distances than Euclidean have been studied. In some applications in statistics and optimization, the square of the Euclidean distance is used instead of the distance itself. ## Distance formulas ### One dimension The distance between any two points on the real line is the absolute value of the numerical difference of their coordinates, their absolute difference. Thus if $p$ and $q$ are two points on the real line, then the distance between them is given by: $d(p,q) = \|p-q\|.$ A more complicated formula, giving the same value, but generalizing more readily to higher dimensions, is: $d(p,q) = \sqrt{(p-q)^2}.$ In this formula, squaring and then taking the square root leaves any positive number unchanged, but replaces any negative number by its absolute value. ### Two dimensions In the Euclidean plane, let point $p$ have Cartesian coordinates $(p_1,p_2)$ and let point $q$ have coordinates $(q_1,q_2)$. Then the distance between $p$ and $q$ is given by: $d(p,q) = \sqrt{(q_1-p_1)^2 + (q_2-p_2)^2}.$ This can be seen by applying the Pythagorean theorem to a right triangle with horizontal and vertical sides, having the line segment from $p$ to $q$ as its hypotenuse. The two squared formulas inside the square root give the areas of squares on the horizontal and vertical sides, and the outer square root converts the area of the square on the hypotenuse into the length of the hypotenuse. It is also possible to compute the distance for points given by polar coordinates. If the polar coordinates of $p$ are $(r,\theta)$ and the polar coordinates of $q$ are $(s,\psi)$, then their distance is given by the law of cosines: $d(p,q)=\sqrt{r^2 + s^2 - 2rs\cos(\theta-\psi)}.$ When $p$ and $q$ are expressed as complex numbers in the complex plane, the same formula for one-dimensional points expressed as real numbers can be used, although here the absolute value sign indicates the complex norm: $d(p,q)=\|p-q\|.$ ### Higher dimensions In three dimensions, for points given by their Cartesian coordinates, the distance is $d(p,q)=\sqrt{(p_1-q_1)^2 + (p_2-q_2)^2 + (p_3-q_3)^2}.$ In general, for points given by Cartesian coordinates in $n$-dimensional Euclidean space, the distance is $d(p,q) = \sqrt{(p_1- q_1)^2 + (p_2 - q_2)^2+\cdots+(p_n - q_n)^2}.$ The Euclidean distance may also be expressed more compactly in terms of the Euclidean norm of the Euclidean vector difference: $d(p,q) = \\| p - q \\|.$ ### Objects other than points For pairs of objects that are not both points, the distance can most simply be defined as the smallest distance between any two points from the two objects, although more complicated generalizations from points to sets such as Hausdorff distance are also commonly used. Formulas for computing distances between different types of objects include: - The distance from a point to a line, in the Euclidean plane - The distance from a point to a plane in three-dimensional Euclidean space - The distance between two lines in three-dimensional Euclidean space ## Properties The Euclidean distance is the prototypical example of the distance in a metric space, and obeys all the defining properties of a metric space: - It is symmetric, meaning that for all points $p$ and $q$, $d(p,q)=d(q,p)$. That is (unlike road distance with one-way streets) the distance between two points does not depend on which of the two points is the start and which is the destination. - It is positive, meaning that the distance between every two distinct points is a positive number, while the distance from any point to itself is zero. - It obeys the triangle inequality: for every three points $p$, $q$, and $r$, $d(p,q)+d(q,r)\ge d(p,r)$. Intuitively, traveling from $p$ to $r$ via $q$ cannot be any shorter than traveling directly from $p$ to $r$. Another property, Ptolemy's inequality, concerns the Euclidean distances among four points $p$, $q$, $r$, and $s$. It states that $d(p,q)\cdot d(r,s)+d(q,r)\cdot d(p,s)\ge d(p,r)\cdot d(q,s).$ For points in the plane, this can be rephrased as stating that for every quadrilateral, the products of opposite sides of the quadrilateral sum to at least as large a number as the product of its diagonals. However, Ptolemy's inequality applies more generally to points in Euclidean spaces of any dimension, no matter how they are arranged. For points in metric spaces that are not Euclidean spaces, this inequality may not be true. Euclidean distance geometry studies properties of Euclidean distance such as Ptolemy's inequality, and their application in testing whether given sets of distances come from points in a Euclidean space. According to the Beckman–Quarles theorem, any transformation of the Euclidean plane or of a higher-dimensional Euclidean space that preserves unit distances must be an isometry, preserving all distances. ## Squared Euclidean distance In many applications, and in particular when comparing distances, it may be more convenient to omit the final square root in the calculation of Euclidean distances. The value resulting from this omission is the square of the Euclidean distance, and is called the squared Euclidean distance. For instance, the Euclidean minimum spanning tree can be determined using only the ordering between distances, and not their numeric values. Comparing squared distances produces the same result but avoids an unnecessary square-root calculation and sidesteps issues of numerical precision. As an equation, the squared distance can be expressed as a sum of squares: $d^2(p,q) = (p_1 - q_1)^2 + (p_2 - q_2)^2+\cdots+(p_n - q_n)^2.$ Beyond its application to distance comparison, squared Euclidean distance is of central importance in statistics, where it is used in the method of least squares, a standard method of fitting statistical estimates to data by minimizing the average of the squared distances between observed and estimated values, and as the simplest form of divergence to compare probability distributions. The addition of squared distances to each other, as is done in least squares fitting, corresponds to an operation on (unsquared) distances called Pythagorean addition. In cluster analysis, squared distances can be used to strengthen the effect of longer distances. Squared Euclidean distance does not form a metric space, as it does not satisfy the triangle inequality. However it is a smooth, strictly convex function of the two points, unlike the distance, which is non-smooth (near pairs of equal points) and convex but not strictly convex. The squared distance is thus preferred in optimization theory, since it allows convex analysis to be used. Since squaring is a monotonic function of non-negative values, minimizing squared distance is equivalent to minimizing the Euclidean distance, so the optimization problem is equivalent in terms of either, but easier to solve using squared distance. The collection of all squared distances between pairs of points from a finite set may be stored in a Euclidean distance matrix, and is used in this form in distance geometry. ## Generalizations In more advanced areas of mathematics, when viewing Euclidean space as a vector space, its distance is associated with a norm called the Euclidean norm, defined as the distance of each vector from the origin. One of the important properties of this norm, relative to other norms, is that it remains unchanged under arbitrary rotations of space around the origin. By Dvoretzky's theorem, every finite-dimensional normed vector space has a high-dimensional subspace on which the norm is approximately Euclidean; the Euclidean norm is the only norm with this property. It can be extended to infinite-dimensional vector spaces as the L<sup>2</sup> norm or L<sup>2</sup> distance. The Euclidean distance gives Euclidean space the structure of a topological space, the Euclidean topology, with the open balls (subsets of points at less than a given distance from a given point) as its neighborhoods. Other common distances on Euclidean spaces and low-dimensional vector spaces include: - Chebyshev distance, which measures distance assuming only the most significant dimension is relevant. - Manhattan distance, which measures distance following only axis-aligned directions. - Minkowski distance, a generalization that unifies Euclidean distance, Manhattan distance, and Chebyshev distance. For points on surfaces in three dimensions, the Euclidean distance should be distinguished from the geodesic distance, the length of a shortest curve that belongs to the surface. In particular, for measuring great-circle distances on the earth or other spherical or near-spherical surfaces, distances that have been used include the haversine distance giving great-circle distances between two points on a sphere from their longitudes and latitudes, and Vincenty's formulae also known as "Vincent distance" for distance on a spheroid. ## History Euclidean distance is the distance in Euclidean space; both concepts are named after ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, whose Elements became a standard textbook in geometry for many centuries. Concepts of length and distance are widespread across cultures, can be dated to the earliest surviving "protoliterate" bureaucratic documents from Sumer in the fourth millennium BC (far before Euclid), and have been hypothesized to develop in children earlier than the related concepts of speed and time. But the notion of a distance, as a number defined from two points, does not actually appear in Euclid's Elements. Instead, Euclid approaches this concept implicitly, through the congruence of line segments, through the comparison of lengths of line segments, and through the concept of proportionality. The Pythagorean theorem is also ancient, but it could only take its central role in the measurement of distances after the invention of Cartesian coordinates by René Descartes in 1637. The distance formula itself was first published in 1731 by Alexis Clairaut. Because of this formula, Euclidean distance is also sometimes called Pythagorean distance. Although accurate measurements of long distances on the earth's surface, which are not Euclidean, had again been studied in many cultures since ancient times (see history of geodesy), the idea that Euclidean distance might not be the only way of measuring distances between points in mathematical spaces came even later, with the 19th-century formulation of non-Euclidean geometry. The definition of the Euclidean norm and Euclidean distance for geometries of more than three dimensions also first appeared in the 19th century, in the work of Augustin-Louis Cauchy.
24,156,962	MegaTraveller 1: The Zhodani Conspiracy	1,149,025,463	1990 video game	[ "1990 video games", "Amiga games", "Atari ST games", "DOS games", "Empire Interactive games", "Paragon Software games", "Role-playing video games", "Science fiction video games", "Single-player video games", "Traveller (role-playing game)", "Video games based on tabletop role-playing games", "Video games developed in the United States" ]	MegaTraveller 1: The Zhodani Conspiracy is a 1990 space science fiction role-playing video game based on the Traveller series and was produced by Game Designers' Workshop licensee Paragon Software for Amiga, Atari ST, and MS-DOS. The game is set within the Official Traveller Universe and features character creation and other aspects of game mechanics compatible with prior Traveller products. The player controls up to five ex-military adventurers whose objective is to save their civilization, the Imperium, from a conspiracy instigated by the Zhodani, a rival spacefaring race, and aided by the actions of a traitor named Konrad Kiefer. Gameplay features real-time planetary and space exploration, combat, trading, and interaction with various non-player characters in eight solar systems containing twenty-eight visitable planets. Development presented Paragon with technical challenges because this game, distributed on floppy disks for computers hosting as little as 512 KB RAM, simulates the detailed game mechanics of the Traveller tabletop role-playing games within a sizable game world. To meet the difficulties posed by these hardware limitations, Paragon chose to excise or simplify some elements familiar to players of earlier Traveller games. Reception upon the release of the game was very mixed. Some reviewers rated it highly and praised its playability and depth of gameplay. Others reviewed the game less favorably; substantial criticism was directed towards its handling of ground combat. Computer Gaming World listed it as the fourth worst game of all time in its November 1996 issue. A sequel, MegaTraveller 2: Quest for the Ancients, was published in 1991; a second sequel was planned but never released. ## Gameplay Before players may begin a new game, a party of adventurers must be created. A pre-generated party is available for quick entry into the game, but players may also create new party members. The character creation process begins with the player being presented with basic character profiles possessing randomly generated attributes. The player has the option to accept the displayed character or "re-roll" to generate a new profile with another set of attributes. An accepted character is enrolled in a military career, chosen by the player from the Army, Navy, Marines, Scouts, or Merchants. The player guides the character through consecutive four-year terms to obtain training in various skills and earn service benefits such as retirement pay. The longer characters remain in the service, the more skills and benefits they are able to acquire, but they do so at the risk of diminished attributes due to old age, injury, or even death. When a character retires or "musters out", he or she is added to the pool of available adventurers from which a party is chosen by the player to begin the game. If a character is killed during the course of the game, the player may recruit a new party member in some planetary spaceports. The game begins in a city on the planet Efate. Here, as on all explorable planets in this game, the player observes the party and its surroundings from a directly overhead point of view and issues commands via hotkeys or clickable icons displayed onscreen. The explorable terrain of planets is limited to certain cities and immediately adjacent regions. Cities feature several types of buildings that are a recurrent feature on most planets, including a store for purchasing or selling armor, weapons, and other items, a library, a hospital, a police station, and a starport for launching and outfitting a spaceship. Some cities host additional visitable buildings which may include a tavern or a hotel in which important non-player characters are located. Building types are color-coded for easier player identification. The player directs the party's movements and issues commands to perform various actions such as communicating with non-player characters, using objects, or firing a weapon. Combat takes place in real-time and requires the player to direct individual party members to target opponents and fire their weapons, reload, or move to a better position. Space travel forms an important aspect of gameplay. When traveling within a single solar system, the ship and its surroundings are viewed from a third-person perspective on an "In System Travel Screen." Navigation takes place in real-time as the player maneuvers the ship between explorable worlds, visits a gas giant to refuel, or engages in combat with other spaceships. Some solar systems contain more than one explorable planet, but most such planets in the game may be reached only after the player's spaceship has been outfitted with a "jump drive" capable of interstellar travel and accompanying computer software to control it. ## Plot The game takes place within the fictional universe in which prior Traveller releases are also set. The most significant power in this universe is the human-dominated Imperium which predominates across thousands of inhabited solar systems. Bordering the regions controlled by the Imperium are other interstellar powers including the Zhodani Consulate. The Imperium and the Zhodani have a long history of tense relations and, as the game begins, rumors of another frontier war are circulating. Against this backdrop, a security agent working for Sharushid, a large corporation active throughout the Imperium, discovers that a company sub-sector chief named Konrad Kiefer is secretly aiding the Zhodani by smuggling arms across the border into the hands of dissidents in preparation for an uprising within the Imperium to be coordinated with a Zhodani attack. This security agent encounters five experienced adventurers in a bar on the planet Efate and entrusts them with evidence of Kiefer's treachery. These adventurers are tasked with delivering the evidence to a second Sharushid agent located in another solar system and ultimately with stopping Kiefer and his conspiracy against the Imperium. The player assumes control over the party just after the security agent entrusts it with the evidence against Kiefer. The game includes numerous subplots which largely serve as means for the player to earn money. For example, the player can choose to locate and retrieve a stolen icon on behalf of a religious leader in exchange for a reward. Other methods to earn money include stripping the corpses of slain opponents for marketable items, killing wanted criminals to earn a reward, and attacking other vessels in space to pirate their cargo. Gameplay in the early stages of the game primarily involves activities of this nature so that the player can accumulate enough money to outfit the party with better weapons and armor and purchase a jump drive capable of propelling the party's spacecraft to other worlds crucial to obtaining the means to stop Kiefer. Events in this game transpire just prior to the Fifth Frontier War between the Imperium and the Zhodani, which marks the line of demarcation between earlier tabletop role-playing products released by Game Designers Workshop under the name Traveller and later products set after the war released under the name MegaTraveller. This game is the only MegaTraveller product authorized by Game Designers Workshop where events occur prior to this conflict. ## Development Marc Miller, an original creator of Traveller, wrote in a letter of introduction to this game, "I've always said that Traveller would make the perfect computer game for the same two reasons that it's a great role-playing game: rules and background. The background, and its wealth of detail, will naturally capture the interest of players. But it's the simplicity of the rules which makes the computerization possible." After Paragon Software acquired the video game rights to Traveller from Game Designers Workshop, Miller contributed "generous support and research material" to Paragon's development efforts. The limited capacity of the floppy disk media on which the game was distributed and the hardware limitations of computer systems at the time of the game's release forced Paragon's developers to limit certain aspects of the Traveller universe and game mechanics. Starship design and alien character creation, both of which are available in other products set in the Traveller universe, were deliberately excluded from this game. Explorable planetary terrain was limited to a relatively small area. Both space and planetary exploration employ relatively generalized maps to simplify the program and eliminate minor details. Space combat uses a simpler set of rules than those found in Traveller's original "Starship Combat" ruleset. In Computer Gaming World, L.S. Lichtmann wrote that the development of some aspects of the game was left incomplete. He observed that some promotional screenshots do not resemble anything players encounter in the actual game and that a pamphlet included in the game box lists a large number of differences between what is written in the manual and the actual game mechanics. ## Reception Reactions to MegaTraveller 1 varied greatly. Some reviewers commended the game's design, playability, and depth of gameplay. Arnie Katz wrote in VideoGames & Computer Entertainment that the "...extensive character-generation system, eye-catching graphics, flexible quick-play interface, and majestic scope make MegaTraveller a necessary addition to any adventurer's computer library." Reviewer Sandra Foley wrote in Amiga Computing that its gameplay "brilliantly balance[s] complexity and playability, MT1's gameplay is a miracle in that it actually feels like a RPG. A triumph of intelligent game design." She assigned the game a rating of 95%. Writing for Amiga Power, reviewer Stuart Campbell gave the game a rating of 88% and stated that "MegaTraveller 1 is involving, playable, superbly-designed, and one of the most atmospheric games I've played ever. It balances realism with gameplay, and is extremely user-friendly...." Computer Gaming World took a more negative view of the game. In 1993 Scorpia stated that it "comes off rather poorly", criticizing the "atrocious combat system" and economy. She concluded that the game "is only for the devoted MegaTraveller fan with a high tolerance for exasperation". In 1996 the magazine's editorial staff listed MegaTraveller 1 as the fourth worst game of all time and "easily the Mega-worst role-playing experience of all time." They wrote that the plot "felt tossed-off...from rehashes of pen and paper modules that [Miller] had designed in the past." Amiga Format also expressed disappointment with the game's plot. Its reviewer wrote that the player's effort is largely directed towards earning money and that the "main plot consists of about six conversations, swapping a few items, and blowing away Kiefer Konrad." The game's handling of ground combat received the most substantial criticism. Computer Gaming World's editorial staff wrote that the game's real-time combat system was "handled so fast that players didn't have a chance in 90% of the battles." According to reviewer L.S. Lichtmann, "many are disappointed because the phased, tactical system of Traveller has been modified to have arcade game characteristics." He also stated that the player does not compete on a "level playing field" when he or she must issue commands in real-time to individual party members engaged in combat while the computer simultaneously controls multiple non-player characters. Paragon responded to these criticisms by releasing an updated version of the game which gave the player the ability to pause the combat to issue orders to party members. But even after this update, some reviewers still found that, whenever possible, it is still far easier for the party to flee from ground combat situations than to fight. Moreover, immediately after the player assumes control of the party at the start of the game, it is attacked by well-armed opponents. The Computer Gaming World editorial staff criticized this design choice by stating that the "player would have to run away from the first encounter or be killed within two minutes of spending 30 minutes to an hour generating a character." Another element of game mechanics that received significant criticism was the game's handling of space flight. Paragon's attempt to simulate realistic space physics, including planetary gravitational fields and spaceship inertia, is a potential source of difficulty for some players. According to Paul Presley, the Asteroids inspired type of "control method becomes very awkward until you get used to it (and that could take some time)." Graphics were another issue on which reviewers did not find consensus. Reviewer Scott Miller mentioned the "amazingly detailed EGA graphics" in the game's IBM compatible release in a review published in Compute!. L.S. Lichtmann found this version's graphics to be merely "adequate to the task." and reviewer Chris Jenkins stated that the "graphics are colourful, but not overly imaginative." Sandra Foley commended the graphics of the game's Amiga release: "Big, colourful, and easy on the eye, MegaTraveller's graphics are better than those of any previous computer RPG." Amiga Format's reviewer wrote, "Every time something moves on the screen, it jerks. All the moving graphics look small, blocky and quite pathetic. The scrolling is eyewatering...." Scott Miller stated that the game's IBM compatible release supports both RealSound and the Covox Speech Thing which provide "great sound effects" to the player with the proper computer hardware. ## Reviews - Amiga Power - Jul 1991 - ASM (Aktueller Software Markt) - Jun 1991 - Challenge \#47 (1990) - CU Amiga - Jun 1991 - White Wolf \#22 (Aug./Sept. 1990) ## Versions Criticism of the game's handling of ground combat upon its initial release prompted Paragon to issue an updated version 3.0 of the game in late 1990 which featured an enhanced combat system. The new version offered the ability for the player to pause repeatedly the real-time combat to order party members to change their positions or fire their weapons at a selected opponent. This update was made available without charge to everyone who had purchased an earlier version of the game. Paragon implemented additional changes in preparation for the game's publication in the United Kingdom by its European distributor, Empire Software. On the basis of criticism generated upon the game's initial release, the user interface was retooled to provide the player with greater ability to control the game with a mouse, and the realistic inertia-based thrust model of spaceship flight was replaced. ## Legacy Marc Miller subsequently assumed a more direct role as a game designer with Paragon Software in its work on a sequel, MegaTraveller 2: Quest for the Ancients, published in 1991. MegaTraveller 2 featured an updated user interface which incorporated some of the enhancements Paragon made in preparation for MegaTraveller 1's release in the United Kingdom. In the summer of 1992, MicroProse issued a newsletter promising the release of a third installment in the series to be published in the fall of 1992 under its MicroPlay label. The advertisement claimed that MegaTraveller 3: The Unknown Worlds would include three distinctly themed scenarios: "pursuit and rescue, mysterious quest and classic science fiction." It was also stated that this game would feature a "new random world generator that guarantees no two universes are ever the same." However, neither Paragon Software nor MicroProse released subsequent MegaTraveller games. In November 1996, Computer Gaming World's editors wrote that MegaTraveller 1's "failure kept many other deserving paper RPGs from traveling to the computer for nearly a decade."
125,563	Jailhouse Rock (film)	1,163,874,736	1957 film by Richard Thorpe	[ "1950s American films", "1950s English-language films", "1950s musical drama films", "1950s teen films", "1957 drama films", "1957 films", "American black-and-white films", "American musical drama films", "American rock music films", "American romantic drama films", "American romantic musical films", "Articles containing video clips", "Films about singers", "Films based on songs", "Films directed by Richard Thorpe", "Films produced by Pandro S. Berman", "Films set in prison", "Films shot in Los Angeles County, California", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films", "United States National Film Registry films" ]	Jailhouse Rock is a 1957 American musical drama film directed by Richard Thorpe and starring Elvis Presley, Judy Tyler, Mickey Shaughnessy, Vaughn Taylor and Jennifer Holden. Adapted by Guy Trosper from a story written by Nedrick Young, the film tells the story of Vince Everett (Presley), a convict who learns the guitar while in prison and later becomes a star following his release. The film's iconic soundtrack was written by songwriters Mike Stoller and Jerry Leiber. The dance sequence to the film's title song is often cited as "Presley's greatest moment on screen." Jailhouse Rock premiered in Memphis, Tennessee on October 17, 1957, and was released nationwide on November 8, 1957. It peaked at \#3 on the Variety box-office chart and finished \#14 for the year, grossing \$4 million. The film initially earned mixed reviews, with much of the negative targeted at Presley. In 2004, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, who deemed it "culturally, aesthetically or historically significant." ## Plot Construction worker Vince Everett accidentally kills a drunken, belligerent man in a barroom brawl and is sentenced to 10–14 months in the state penitentiary for manslaughter. His cellmate, washed-up country singer Hunk Houghton, in jail for bank robbery, teaches Vince a few guitar chords. Hunk then convinces Vince to participate in an inmate show that is broadcast on nationwide television. After his appearance, Vince receives many fan letters, but the jealous Hunk prevents their delivery. Hunk convinces Vince to sign a pact to become equal partners in his act when they are both free. Later, during an inmate riot in the mess hall, a guard shoves Vince, who retaliates by striking the guard. As punishment, the warden orders Vince to be lashed with a whip. Vince later learns that Hunk attempted to bribe the guards to forgo the punishment but did not have enough money. Upon Vince's release 14 months later, the warden gives him his withheld fan mail from the TV show. Hunk promises Vince a singing job at a nightclub owned by a friend, where Vince meets Peggy Van Alden, a promoter for pop singer Mickey Alba. Vince is surprised when the club owner denies him a job as a singer but offers him a job as a bar boy. To prove himself to the club owner, Vince takes the stage to sing when the house band takes a break, but a customer laughs obnoxiously throughout the performance, enraging Vince, who smashes his guitar and leaves the club. Peggy then persuades Vince to record a demo so that he can listen to himself sing. Vince records "Don't Leave Me Now", and Peggy takes the tape to Geneva Records. The manager seems unimpressed, but he reluctantly agrees to play the tape for his boss in New York. The next day, Peggy informs Vince that the song has been sold. Later, Peggy takes Vince to a party at her parents' home, but Vince leaves after he offends a guest whom he mistakenly believes is belittling him. Angry and offended, Peggy confronts Vince, who kisses her brutally. Peggy resentfully calls the gesture "cheap tactics", to which Vince replies, "They ain't tactics, honey; it's just the beast in me." Later, Vince and Peggy are shocked to discover that Geneva Records gave the song to Mickey Alba, who recorded and released the song, thereby stealing Vince's song. Infuriated, Vince storms into the label's office and confronts the manager, violently slapping him around. To avoid a similar misfortune, Vince convinces Peggy to form their own label, which they name Laurel Records, and hire an attorney named Mr. Shores to oversee the business. Vince then records "Treat Me Nice" and begins pitching it, but the song is universally rejected. However, Peggy convinces her friend Teddy Talbot, a disc jockey, to air the song, and it becomes an immediate hit. Vince asks Peggy out to celebrate but is disappointed to learn that she had already accepted a dinner date with Teddy. Later, Vince makes arrangements for another television show. At a party, Hunk, who has been granted parole, persuades Vince to give him a part in the upcoming show in an effort to revive his own music career. Prior to taping, Vince rehearses "Jailhouse Rock" in a stylized cell block. But Hunk's number is cut because of his outdated music style. Vince later informs Hunk that the pact that they had signed in prison is worthless. However, indebted to Hunk for having tried to bribe the prison guards, Vince offers Hunk a job with his entourage. Vince soon becomes a major star. However, Peggy no longer speaks with Vince, as his success has made him arrogant. Vince signs a movie deal, and the studio head asks him to spend the day with his conceited costar Sherry Wilson for publicity purposes. Sherry then falls in love with Vince after shooting a kissing scene. Hunk grows tired of Vince's egotism. Peggy appears unexpectedly to discuss business. At the same time, Mr. Shores approaches Vince with an offer from Geneva Records to purchase Laurel Records and sign him to a rich contract. Peggy refuses to sell and is devastated when Vince wants to close the deal anyway. Enraged by Vince's attitude and treatment of Peggy, Hunk starts a fight with Vince and strikes him in the throat, endangering Vince's voice and singing ability. At the hospital, Vince forgives Hunk and realizes that he loves Peggy and that she loves him. Vince's doctor later informs him that his vocal cords are fully recovered, and in the living room, Vince tests his voice by singing "Young and Beautiful" to Peggy to confirm that his singing voice is intact and his worries are unfounded before the two put their arms around each other for comfort as the film ends. ## Cast - Elvis Presley as Vince Everett, an ex-con who becomes a singing star. Producer Pandro S. Berman's wife convinced him to make a film with Presley in the leading role. Presley's manager, Colonel Thomas Parker, was only interested in the film's score and the rights to record sales and publishing royalties, and Presley was paid \$250,000 and 50% of the film's royalties. - Judy Tyler as Peggy Van Alden, a music promoter who helps Vince build his career and becomes his lover. Tyler was previously known for her part as Princess Summerfall Winterspring on the television show Howdy Doody and as Suzy in the Broadway musical Pipe Dream (1955). Tyler took a three-month leave of absence from Howdy Doody to shoot the film. Tyler and her husband were killed in a car crash on July 3, just days after production was completed and before its premiere. Presley was so devastated that he refused to watch the film. - Mickey Shaughnessy as Hunk Houghton, Vince's cellmate and a former country singer. He teaches Vince the guitar and later becomes Vince's assistant. Shaughnessy was known as Leva in From Here to Eternity (1953). He was also a comedian, and Variety reported that Shaughnessy had performed a 45-minute routine deriding Presley sometime before the film was made. Elaine Dundy, author of the book Elvis and Gladys (1985), considered his selection an "odd choice" and the result of Berman's lack of involvement with casting. - Vaughn Taylor as Mr. Shores, an attorney whom Vince and Peggy hire to manage Vince's financial affairs. - William Forrest as the studio head (uncredited) - Jennifer Holden as starlet Sherry Wilson. The film was Holden's debut; after auditioning for the role at MGM in May 1956, she was selected immediately. She studied drama with Lillian Roth and had previously appeared on stage. - Dean Jones as disc jockey Teddy Talbot. Jones was formerly a blues singer, and he was coached for the role by disc jockeys Ira Cooke and Dewey Phillips. Jones went on to star in a string of Walt Disney films. - "Jailhouse Rock" cowriter Mike Stoller (of the Leiber and Stoller songwriting partnership) and Presley's regular band during that period—Scotty Moore, Bill Black and D. J. Fontana—appear as Vince's band throughout the film, though uncredited. ## Production Jailhouse Rock was Presley's third film and his first for MGM. It was filmed at MGM Studios (now Sony Pictures Studios) in Culver City, California. The film was originally titled The Hard Way and was changed to Jailhouse Kid before MGM finally settled on Jailhouse Rock. The film was not listed with the studio's planned releases for the year because it was based on a story by Nedrick Young, a blacklisted writer. During production, producer Pandro Berman was more focused on another of his productions, the 1958 film The Brothers Karamazov. He allowed studio head Benny Thau and William Morris Agency president Abe Lastfogel to select the cast. Richard Thorpe, who had a reputation for quickly finishing projects, was chosen to direct the film. The first scene filmed was the title dance sequence to the song "Jailhouse Rock." Presley was not initially pleased with the direction of choreographer Alex Romero, so Romero asked Presley to try his own moves to for the final sequence. The scene has often been cited as Presley's greatest musical moment on screen. Filming began on May 13, 1957 with the newly created choreography. Presley's characteristic hairstyle and sideburns were covered with a wig and makeup for the musical and jail scenes. During the performance, one of Presley's dental caps detached and became lodged in his lung, and he spent a night in the hospital before filming resumed the next day. Thorpe, who usually filmed scenes in a single take, finished the film by June 17, 1957. ### Soundtrack Before production began, rock-and-roll songwriting partners Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller were commissioned to create the film's soundtrack, but they did not send any material to MGM for months. In April 1957, the studio summoned the writers to New York and Jean Aberbach, director of the Hill & Range music publishing company, confronted them demanding to see the songs. When told that there was no material, Aberbach locked the songwriters in their hotel room and would not allow them to leave until they had written songs. Four hours later, Leiber and Stoller had written "I Want to Be Free", "Treat Me Nice", "(You're So Square) Baby I Don't Care", and "Jailhouse Rock." Presley recorded the finished songs at Radio Recorders in Hollywood on April 30 and May 3, 1957, with an additional session at the MGM soundstage in Hollywood on May 9 for "Don't Leave Me Now." Leiber and Stoller were invited to the recording session of April 30, where they met Presley, who convinced MGM to cast Stoller as the band's pianist in the film. During filming, Presley mimed the words for film's musical numbers, and the music was later added to the finished scenes. The following songs in the film were performed by Presley unless otherwise noted: - "One More Day" (Sid Tepper, Roy C. Bennett) – performed by Mickey Shaughnessy - "Young and Beautiful" (Abner Silver, Aaron Schroeder) - "I Want to Be Free" (Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller) - "Don't Leave Me Now" (Aaron Schroeder, Ben Weisman) - "Treat Me Nice" (Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller) - "Jailhouse Rock" (Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller) – dance routine choreographed by Elvis Presley - "(You're So Square) Baby I Don't Care" (Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller) - Presley also played electric bass ## Release Jailhouse Rock premiered on October 17, 1957 at Loews State Theater in Memphis. Female lead Judy Tyler had been killed in an automobile accident soon before the film's release, and a devastated Presley did not attend the premiere. The film opened nationally on November 8. ### Box office The film peaked at \#3 on the Variety box-office chart and reached \#14 for the year. According to MGM records, the film earned \$3.2 million in the U.S. and Canada and \$1,075,000 elsewhere during its initial theatrical run, resulting in a profit of \$1,051,000. In 1957, Presley was ranked the fourth-leading box-office commodity in the film industry. According to Variety, by 1969, Jailhouse Rock's gross income in the U.S. and Canada was comparable to that of The Wizard of Oz (1939). ### Critical reception Jailhouse Rock earned mixed reviews from critics. Some felt it scandalous when released because it portrayed Vince Everett as an antiheroic character, presented a convict as a hero, used the word "hell" as a profanity and included a scene with Presley in bed with Tyler. The Parent-Teacher Association described the film as "a hackneyed, blown-up tale with cheap human values." The New York Times criticized Guy Trosper for writing a screenplay in which the secondary characters were "forced to hang on to the hero's flying mane and ego for the entire picture." Cue magazine called the film "[an] unpleasant, mediocre and tasteless drama." Some publications criticized Presley. Time panned his onstage personality, while The Miami News compared the film with horror pictures and wrote, "Only Elvis Presley and his 'Jailhouse Rock' can keep pace with the movie debut of this 'personality,' the records show. In estimating the lasting appeal of their grotesque performer." Jazz magazine Down Beat wrote that Presley's acting was "amateurish and bland." British magazine The Spectator described Presley's evolution from his "silly" performance in Loving You to "dangerously near being repulsive." Other reviewers responded positively to the film. Louise Boyca of The Schenectady Gazette wrote that "it's dear Elvis that gets the soft focus camera and the arty photography." Boyca remarked upon the low production costs of the film, and said that Presley was "in top singing and personality form." The Gadsden Times said, "Elvis Presley not only proves himself as a dramatic actor ... but also reveals his versatility by dancing on the screen for the first time. The movie ... also contains Elvis' unique style of singing." Look favored the film, describing how one audience "registered, loud and often, its approval of what may accurately be described as the star's first big dramatic singing role." Author Thomas Doherty wrote in his 2002 book Teenagers and Teenpics: The Juvenalization of American Movies in the 1950s: "In Jailhouse Rock, the treatment of rock 'n' roll music, both as narrative content and as cinematic performance is knowing and respectful ... The elaborate choreography for the title tune, the long takes and uninterrupted screen time given to the other numbers, and the musical pacing—the rock 'n' roll builds in quality and intensity—all show an indigenous appreciation of Presley's rock 'n' Roll." Critic Hal Erickson of AllRovi wrote that the film "is a perfect balance of song and story from beginning to end." Mark Deming, also of AllRovi, wrote that Jailhouse Rock was "one of [Presley's] few vehicles which really caught his raw, sexy energy and sneering charisma on film." The review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes lists the film with an overall 81% "Fresh" approval rating based on 16 reviews. ### Accolades In 1991, Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller were awarded with an ASCAP Award for Most-Performed Feature Film Standards for the song "Jailhouse Rock". In 2004, Jailhouse Rock was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry, as it was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." The film is famous for the dance sequence (also choreographed by Presley) in which Presley sings the title track while on stage, cavorting with other inmates through a set resembling a block of jail cells. The sequence is widely acknowledged as the most memorable musical scene in Presley's 30 narrative films, and is credited by some music historians as the prototype for the modern music video. Jailhouse Rock ranked 495th on Empire's 2008 list of the 500 greatest films of all time. The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists: - 2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs: - "Jailhouse Rock" – \#21 - 2006: AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – Nominated ## See also - List of American films of 1957
51,586,315	The Student (short story)	1,121,912,733	Story by Anton Chekhov	[ "1894 short stories", "Saint Peter", "Short stories by Anton Chekhov", "Works originally published in Russian newspapers" ]	"The Student" (Russian: "Студент", romanized: Student) is a short story by Anton Chekhov first published on April 16, 1894, in the newspaper Russkie Vedomosti. It tells of a clerical student returning home on a cold Good Friday evening who stops at a fire and meets two widows. He recounts to them the canonical Gospels' story of the Denial of Peter and upon finishing, notes that these two women are deeply moved, leading him to conclude that all of history is connected through truth and beauty. At four pages, "The Student" is one of Chekhov's shortest stories and was the one he identified as his favorite among his own works. Critics have disagreed about whether the protagonist's point of view at the end of the story coincides with Chekhov's perspective. Other critical interpretation has focused on the symmetrical structure of "The Student" as well as the significance of the language used both to tell the story of the Denial of Peter and to tell the story as a whole. "The Student" has been praised by critics for its compactness and delicacy. ## Plot On a Good Friday evening, Ivan Velikopolsky, a 22-year-old sacristan's son and clerical student, walks home and imagines that the bitter wind, cold, and darkness he experiences were also felt throughout history: by Rurik, Ivan the Terrible, and Peter the Great. Along his path, he meets Vasilisa and Lukerya, a mother and her daughter who have both been widowed. As he joins them around their fire, Ivan remarks that the warmth they feel must also have been felt by Saint Peter. Suddenly, he asks if the widows have been reading the Twelve Passion Gospels to which Vasilisa replies that they have. Ivan begins to recount the story of the Denial of Peter, in which Jesus foretells to Saint Peter that he will thrice deny Him before the next crowing of the cock. Peter follows Jesus upon His arrest and joins some workers in the yard standing around a fire as He is questioned. Thrice the workers suspiciously ask Peter if he knows Jesus and thrice he denies his acquaintance. A cock crows and Peter, realizing what he has done, weeps. Ivan ends his story deep in thought as Vasilisa begins to cry and Lukerya looks on in pain. He parts with the widows and continues homeward, thinking that his story troubled Lukerya and made Vasilisa weep not because he told it well but because the tale was relevant to them nineteen centuries later. As he rides the ferry to his village, Ivan comes to believe that truth and beauty serve as the connectors of all human history and he is filled with joy and awe at life itself. ## Publication Dealing with a strong cough, Anton Chekhov wrote "The Student" while on a monthlong vacation to Yalta, a city he found to be "ever so boring". The story, which initially bore the title "In the Evening", was published in issue number 104 of the newspaper Russkie Vedomosti (The Russian News) on April 16, 1894, and, at just four pages long, was one of Chekhov's shortest stories. Later in 1894, "The Student" was republished in the collection Novellas and Stories (Povesti i rasskazyi). For this edition, Chekhov clarified why Vasilisa wept, heightened Ivan's reaction to the dark and cold near the story's beginning, and made clearer the connection between truth, beauty, and human history. While editing the text, Chekhov extended rather than curtailed it, which was a rarity for the author. Chekhov relayed to Ivan Bunin that "The Student" was his favorite among his own short stories. According to L. M. O'Toole, it was also the story "that [Chekhov] considered to be structurally most perfect" among his oeuvre. Chekhov referenced it as a counterexample when challenged that his works were overtly pessimistic, describing it to his brother Alexander as his "manifesto for optimism". Chekhov included the story in the eighth volume of his collected works published by Adolf Marks in 1899–1901. "The Student" received an English translation by Constance Garnett in 1918 when it was published in the Tales of Chekhov series in the volume The Witch, and Other Stories. ## Analysis Chekhov's contemporaries believed Ivan's epiphany in the end of "The Student" represented a "conversion" for the agnostic author himself. This was echoed a century later when metropolitan bishop Veniamin (Fedchenkov) wrote, "nowhere does Chekhov write ill about the Orthodox clergy". According to Veniamin, the effect of "The Student" is indescribably moving, even to nonbelievers. Andrey Shcherbenok wrote that Ivan's reinvigoration with beauty and truth at the story's end has been viewed as "coincid[ing] with the authorial perspective" but that "The problem with this interpretation is that the narrative agency in 'The Student' is so fluid that it is difficult to separate the voice of the authorial narrator from that of a hero." Mark Stanley Swift commented that Veniamin's reading of the story "confuses the poignant portrayal of the faithful and the intimate depiction of religious experience for personal belief on the part of the author". Cathy Popkin presented an alternative interpretation of the story's ending, writing that Ivan's epiphany may have instead been intended by Chekhov to be "a transitory result of [Ivan's] youthful impetuosity, a phase of no lasting significance". According to Olga Bogdanova, the character of Ivan was written with the work of Leo Tolstoy in mind, as Chekhov had long been interested in Tolstoy's ideas and morals but, by March 1894, had disavowed them, writing that "Tolstoy's morality has ceased to touch me". To this end, Bogdanova wrote that the revelation at the conclusion of "The Student" was often taken at face value by modern literary critics but that an intertextual reading of the story considering the influence of Tolstoy's works suggests that Ivan's revelation was speculative and naive. Robert Louis Jackson wrote that Chekhov may have changed the story's title from its first publication (when it was called "In the Evening") to its second "not simply because the story moves from darkness to light ... but because with respect to the essential lessons of life he believed that the human being is an eternal student, forever failing, forever drawing a deep spiritual breath, and forever restarting the journey". Different aspects of the story within the story resonate with the student and the widows, according to David Weiss. For Ivan, "it's Peter's failure, his denials, his weakness that matter" while to Vasilisa and Lukerya, "it's the way he suffers for his failures, failure despite his good intentions, good intentions undone by fear and human weakness". Jackson wrote that Vasilisa and Lukerya are the story's true heroes, since "in the most essential terms of human experience they have kept the faith: theirs is the light of the biblical 'burning bush,' and they have kept the fires burning". ### Structure and style The structure of "The Student" follows a descent–ascent pattern mirroring that in Dante Alighieri's Inferno, according to Michael Finke: "The hero moves in spirit and space from cheerfulness in the thick woods before the onset of darkness, to despondency with the onset of night and bitter cold in a low, marshy place, and then to euphoria with the crossing of a river and ascent in space." Donald Rayfield described the story as having a "cyclic shape" in which "all the details of the scene are mirrored in the story of Peter's betrayal, which in turn is mirrored in the final page of narrative". Ivan begins to identify some of the similarities between his situation and that of Peter in his story, according to Jefferson Hunter, but he fails to recognize the extent to which his interactions with Vasilisa and Lukerya are a reenactment of the story of Peter. Hunter wrote that "Both Ivan and Peter are simultaneously self-centered and ignorant about themselves, the ignorance being symbolized in Peter's case by his repeated denials of his true identity and exemplified in Ivan's by his innocent joy at 'discovering' something his despair has already taught him: the sameness of human life over the ages." L. S. K. le Fleming wrote that Chekhov used partially antonymous sets of words like "cold", "wind", and "blown" and "fire", "bonfire", and "heat" in a way that related them both to the condition of the student and that of the environment: at the story's outset, Ivan grapples with thoughts of suffering as cold winds blow, then gains newfound physical and spiritual warmth at the bonfire where he relates the biblical tale and, as he departs, the "glow of warmth in his soul is even reflected back onto the natural scene in a crimson glow which lingers in the sky from the sunset." According to Rayfield, the language in "The Student" begins as "harsh and laconic", then becomes "rich and gentle" as the protagonist recounts his story, then mirrors in its rhythm the natures of characters after he is finished. Ivan's language, as described by Rayfield, is a mishmash of childlike repetition of adjectives and Church Slavonic, "mingling the past with the present in the very texture of the prose". Although the Denial of Peter is recounted in all four Canonical Gospels, Ivan's retelling calls specifically upon language from the Gospel of Luke, despite the absence of that Gospel's recounting of Peter's Denial among the Twelve Passion Gospels. Ivan favors the language from the Gospel of Luke, according to David W. Martin, because it is more dramatic than the language found in analogous portions of the Gospels of Matthew or John. Rayfield described the third-to-last paragraph as "a Tolstoyan series of syllogisms" that are clumsily constructed by Ivan who, in the final paragraph–a single flowing sentence of more than 100 words–rejects the cerebral syllogistic approach in favor of an emotional climax. ### Themes O'Toole wrote that the short story's theme is catharsis: "the power of tragedy to move and inspire". According to Tatiana Spektor, "The Student" exists as part of "the traditional Russian dialogue between religion and atheism" due to its exploration of philosophical questions by means of literary texts (here the Denial of Peter). Spektor wrote that the interdependence of all things is a major theme in "The Student", and Rayfield described the story as "a parable about art", a distinction which he believed fit few other of Chekhov's stories. ## Reception According to Rayfield, "'The Student' is a perfect example in miniature of Chekhov's art, and it bridges the gap between the ecstatic mood of the ecclesiastical and steppe stories of 1886–7 and the lyricism of the prose of the 1900s." "'The Student' is only a few pages long, but it is a story of extraordinary economy, beauty, and power", wrote James N. Loehlin. He continued that the story "not only describes the power of narrative to evoke spiritual truth, it embodies it". Kerry McSweeney wrote that Ivan's revelation at the story's end may also provide a similar feeling of epiphany to the reader, writing that "What is central is the continuing power of Chekhov's artwork to establish connections–to forge new links in a living chain that is not vertical, timeless, and sacred but horizontal, temporal and secular." ## See also - "Easter Eve", another Chekhov story taking place around Easter
21,768,098	Jonathan Alder	1,156,679,112	American settler	[ "1773 births", "1849 deaths", "American pioneers", "Burials in Ohio", "Captives of Native Americans", "Farmers from Ohio", "People from Gloucester Township, New Jersey", "People from Ohio in the War of 1812", "People from Plain City, Ohio", "People of colonial New Jersey", "People of the Northwest Territory", "Virginia colonial people" ]	Jonathan Alder (September 17, 1773 – January 30, 1849) was an American pioneer, and the first white settler in Madison County, Ohio. As a young child living in Virginia, Alder was kidnapped by Shawnee Indians, and later adopted by a Mingo chief in the Ohio Country. He lived with the Native Americans for many years before returning to the white community. Alder settled near present-day Plain City, Ohio, where he became a farmer. He was reunited with his birth family, which moved to Ohio with him, and also had a short career as a military officer during the War of 1812. A middle school, high school, and school district in Plain City all bear his name. ## Early life Alder was born September 17, 1773, in Gloucester, New Jersey, to Bartholomew Alder and Hannah Worthington. The family moved in 1775 to Wythe County, Virginia, where Alder's father died about a year later. In May 1782, Jonathan, at eight years old, was sent out with his brother David to search for a couple of horses that ran away. They were attacked by a small group of Shawnee Indians from Ohio. David saw the Indians first and tried to escape, but he was chased down, killed, and later scalped. The Indian group also captured Alder's neighbor, Mrs. Martin, and her young child. The group travelled north, passing present-day Chillicothe, Ohio, on the way to a Mingo village on the north side of the Mad River, somewhere near present-day Logan County, Ohio. During the trip, the Indians killed and scalped Martin's child, which they found burdensome. Martin responded by screaming in grief; when the Indians' threats to scalp her did not quiet her screams, they whipped her until she was silent. Alder's life was spared due to his appearance, his captors thought his black hair would allow him to pass as an Indian. When the group reached the village, Alder learned why his life had been spared. One of the Mingo chiefs, Succohanos, and his wife, Whinecheoh, were an aging couple who had lost their son, and planned to adopt Alder as a replacement. Alder was forced to run the gauntlet, as a rite of passage, and after he exhibited bravery during the trial, he was adopted and cared for by Whinecheoh. The Indian's other prisoner, Mrs. Martin, had been promised to a man in another village, and was taken away during Alder's adoption ceremony. ## Native American life The first few years that Alder lived with the Indians he was very ill, a condition Alder attributed to the Indians' diet. The other children in the village were friendly towards Alder, and worked together to teach him their language, customs, and traditions. In time, Alder fully adopted the Mingo way of life; he lived, hunted, and fought as an Indian. When he was old enough he was given an English musket, which he used to hunt mud turtles, wild turkeys, and raccoons. He was praised in the village for his hunting skills. He grew attached to his new life and when, in 1783, a trader from Kentucky offered to exchange him for a Shawnee prisoner, Alder refused. Alder was living in the Indian village of Mack-a-chack when it was destroyed by Benjamin Logan during his raid into Ohio Country in 1786, and he accompanied the Indians on raids into Kentucky to steal horses from white settlers. In 1790, Whinecheoh died at the age of eighty, and Succohanos died in 1792 at the age of ninety. After their deaths, Alder wandered from village to village, and began courting an Indian woman from Upper Sandusky named Barshaw. In the fall of 1793, during the peak of the Northwest Indian War, he joined Shawnee chief Blue Jacket to defend against Anthony Wayne's attacks in the Ohio Country, and also took part in the attack on Fort Recovery on June 30, 1794. Alder was asked for advice on the 1795 Treaty of Greenville on land reservations, and urged by the Indians to attend its signing. Alder, not realizing the treaty's importance, chose not to attend. ## Life as settler In the summer after the signing of the Treaty of Greenville, which restored peace between Indians and settlers, Alder decided to return to the white community. He married Barshaw, and settled in Pleasant Valley, in the area of Jerome Township, about 5 miles (8 km) north of present-day Plain City, Ohio. He built a cabin, took up the lifestyle of a farmer, and raised hogs, cows and horses. He sold milk and butter he made to the Indians, and pork and horses to the whites. Alder began adopting the white community's habits, and learned English from the other white settlers. While living in Pleasant Valley, Barshaw struggled to integrate with settler life. She gave birth to two of Alder's children, but both died in infancy. The couple decided the Great Spirit was opposed to their marriage, and separated. Alder gave Barshaw most of the couple's property, including the cabin, all of the cows, seven horses, and about \$200 in silver. Alder kept only two horses and the hogs. After some time, Alder developed interest in his original family in Virginia. A companion, John Moore, learned that Alder had been taken prisoner near Greenbrier, and traveled to Wythe County to search for Alder's family. Initial inquiries were unsuccessful, but one of a series of advertisements Moore placed in the district was seen by Alder's surviving brother Paul. Paul then wrote Jonathan to inform him that the family was still alive. Alder left for Paul's house, with Moore, in November 1805. He and Moore arrived in Virginia the Sunday after New Year, and Alder was reunited with his biological mother and siblings. Alder stayed with his family in Virginia for over a year, and while visiting his family, he met and fell in love with Mary Ann Blont, a woman from Virginia. The couple were married on January 6, 1806, and in August 1806, Alder, Blont, and the rest of Alder's family returned to Pleasant Valley. Alder built another log cabin along the Big Darby Creek in 1806, and he and Mary had 12 children between 1808 and 1830. ## Military career During the War of 1812, during the summer of 1812 or 1813, Alder was elected captain of a company of 70 men formed in Plain City. With Frederick Loyd as his lieutenant, Alder's company was ordered by the Governor to march about twenty miles north and build a blockhouse at Mill Creek, about three miles north of Marysville, Ohio, to protect the Darby settlements. The company built and garrisoned the blockhouse for a few weeks, but when a false alarm was sounded regarding Indians attacking the settlements, the men returned to their homes. This was the only fort ever constructed in Union County, and some of the foundation is still visible today. After the war ended, Alder returned to the life of a farmer. He continued to visit the other former captives with whom he had become friends. In the fall of 1818, Alder received a visit from Simon Kenton, to share and compare stories. The two discovered that they had much in common, and had been at many of the same battles, even if they had been on opposite sides. They met several times up until 1828. ## Legacy Living out the rest of his days as a farmer, Jonathan Alder died on January 30, 1849, in Canaan Township, Madison County, Ohio, at the age of 75. He had become a well-known figure in the region, and is still remembered today with a school district, high school, and junior high school named after him. A historical marker was erected by Ohio in front of Foster Chapel Cemetery at , near West Jefferson, where he is buried. The cabin Alder built in 1806 is now located at the Madison County Historical Society Museum in London. ## See also - History of Ohio
718,175	M-34 (Michigan highway)	1,166,811,961	State highway in Hillsdale and Lenawee counties in Michigan, United States	[ "State highways in Michigan", "Transportation in Hillsdale County, Michigan", "Transportation in Lenawee County, Michigan" ]	M-34 is an east–west state trunkline highway in the southeastern region of the US state of Michigan. It has a western terminus near Osseo on M-99 and runs through forest and farm lands to its eastern terminus at Business US Highway 223 (BUS US 223) and M-52 in Adrian. The highway serves a number of smaller communities in the area and intersects two US Highways while carrying between 4,200 and 11,300 vehicles on a daily basis. M-34 was designated and signed with the beginning of the state highway system around July 1, 1919, along a route that extended to either end of its current routing. These western and eastern extensions were added to other highways during the 1920s, shortening M-34 to roughly its current length. A few more changes were made in the mid-1950s and 1960s resulting in the modern routing. M-34 has a short, unsigned sibling, Connector 34, which is better known as Industrial Drive in the Adrian area. ## Route description M-34 begins at an intersection with M-99 just west of Osseo. M-99 approaches Osseo from the west along Hudson Road and where M-99 turns south along Pioneer Road, M-34 continues east along Hudson Road. The highway turns to the southeast to the south of Osseo near Deer Lake and continues towards Pittsford. Hudson Road runs through a mix of forests and local farms. The trunkline passes to the south of the main business district in Pittsford. East of town, the highway turns east and intersects US Highway 127 (US 127) at the Hillsdale–Lenawee county line in Hudson. The trunkline continues eastward through the city of Hudson as Main Street. On the eastern edge of town, it becomes Carleton Road and passes through more farmland. Just south of Clayton, M-34 has a junction with the northern terminus of M-156, a connector highway that runs south into Ohio and US 20. Approximately four miles (6.4 km) east of that junction, M-34 turns north for about two miles (3.2 km) along Benner Highway and passes through the community of Cadmus. At the end of its course along Benner Highway, M-34 turns east towards Adrian on Beecher Road. There are some residential subdivisions along the road on the southwest side of Adrian. M-34 intersects Industrial Drive and crosses US 223 and Beecher Road becomes Beecher Street in town. The trunkline continues east and terminates at the intersection of Beecher and Main streets where it meets BUS US 223/M-52. M-34 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) like other state highways in Michigan. As a part of these maintenance responsibilities, the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction. These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic, which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway. MDOT's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M-34 were the 11,302 vehicles daily immediately east of the BUS US 223/M-52 junction in Adrian; the lowest counts were the 4,166 vehicles per day between Hudson and the M-156 junction. No section of M-34 has been listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. ## History When the state highway system was signed around July 1, 1919, M-34 started in Jonesville at an intersection with M-23 along the present-day alignment of M-99. The highway ran to Adrian along its present route and continued southeasterly along present-day US 223 through Blissfield, where it terminated at the Ohio state line near Sylvania, Ohio. In 1924, the western terminus of the highway was extended to Homer where it terminated at M-60. Just a few years later, in 1926, the western terminus was truncated, to end at Hillsdale, with the remainder to Jonesville becoming an extension of the M-64 of the day. At the same time, the eastern segment of M-34 from Adrian to the border was assumed into the US 127 corridor, therefore, scaling the terminus back to US 127 (now US 223). In 1954, a new US 223 bypass was built around Adrian, resulting in the relocation of M-34 to end at BUS US 223/M-52. Finally, in 1966, when a new alignment of M-99 highway was opened, the western terminus of M-34 was scaled back to end at the new highway near Osseo. In 2003, the short connector between M-34 and US 223 was abandoned and obliterated. Industrial Drive, which is known internally at MDOT as Connector 34, is a new connector between the two highways that was assumed into the state trunkline system at the same time. ## Major intersections ## See also
35,109,539	Slamet Rijadi	1,173,305,518	Indonesian Army general	[ "1927 births", "1950 deaths", "Converts to Roman Catholicism", "Deaths by firearm in Indonesia", "Indonesian Christians", "Indonesian Roman Catholics", "Indonesian collaborators with Imperial Japan", "National Heroes of Indonesia", "People from Surakarta" ]	Brigadier General Ignatius Slamet Rijadi (Perfected Spelling: Ignatius Slamet Riyadi; 26 July 1927 – 4 November 1950) was an Indonesian soldier. Rijadi was born in Surakarta, Central Java, to a soldier and a fruit seller. Rijadi was "Sold" to his uncle and renamed as a toddler to cure his illnesses, Rijadi was raised at his parents' home and studied at Dutch-run schools. After the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, Rijadi studied at a Japanese-run sailor's academy and worked for them upon graduation; he abandoned the Japanese army towards the end of World War II and assisted resistance operations for the rest of the occupation. After Indonesia's independence on 17 August 1945, Rijadi led Indonesian forces in the Surakarta area during the revolution against the returning Dutch. Starting with a guerrilla campaign, by 1947, when he fought against Dutch offensives in Ambarawa and Semarang, he was in charge of the 26th Regiment. During a second Dutch offensive, Rijadi lost control of the city but soon retook it, later leading counter-offensives in West Java. In 1950, after the end of the revolution, Rijadi was sent to the Moluccas to put down a rebellion. After several months of planning and a month crossing Ambon Island, Rijadi was killed near the end of the operation by a rebounding bullet. Since his death, Rijadi has received much recognition. The main street in Surakarta is named after him, as is a frigate in the Indonesian Navy, the KRI Slamet Riyadi. Awarded several medals in 1961 posthumously, Rijadi was given the title of National Hero of Indonesia on 9 November 2007. ## Biography ### Early life Rijadi was born with the name Soekamto in Surakarta, Central Java, Dutch East Indies, on 26 July 1927; he was the second son born to Underlieutenant Raden Ngabehi Prawiropralebdo, an officer in the sultan's army, and Soetati, a fruit seller. When Soekamto was one year old, his mother dropped him; he afterwards became frequently ill. To help cure his illness, his family "sold" him in a traditional Javanese ritual to his uncle, Warnenhardjo; after the ceremony, Soekamto's name was changed to Slamet. Although formally Warnenhardjo's son after the ceremony, Slamet was raised at his parents' house. He was a Roman Catholic, and it is said that since he was young Rijadi liked "'tirakat' fasting and 'mystical' things'". Rijadi's primary education was done at Dutch-run schools. His elementary school was taken at the Hollandsch-Inlandsche School Ardjoeno, a private school owned and run by a Dutch religious group. While at Mangkoenegaran Middle School, where numerous students were named Slamet, he received an additional name, Rijadi; it is also during middle school that his father bought him back. After middle school and the Japanese occupation in 1942, he attended a sailor's academy in Jakarta. After graduation, he worked as navigator on a wooden ship. Rijadi, who when not at sea lived in a dormitory near Gambir Station in Central Jakarta, occasionally met with underground resistance. On 14 February 1945, with Japan facing defeat in World War II, Rijadi and other sailors abandoned their dormitory and took up arms; Rijadi moved back to Surakarta and supported resistance movements there. He was not captured by the Japanese military police or other units for the remainder of the occupation, which ended with Indonesia's independence on 17 August 1945. ### National revolution After the Japanese surrender, the Dutch attempted to re-occupy the newly declared Republic of Indonesia; unwilling to be colonised, the Indonesians fought back. Rijadi began a guerrilla campaign against Dutch posts and quickly rose through the ranks. He was in charge of a Battalion of the 26th Regiment, 4th Division/Panembahan Senopati in Pacitan. During Operation Product, a general offensive by Dutch forces in mid-1947, Rijadi led Indonesian forces in several parts of Central Java, including Ambarawa and Semarang; he also led a cleansing force between mounts Merapi and Merbabu. In September 1948 Rijadi was promoted and given control of four battalions of soldiers and one of student soldiers. Two months later, the Dutch launched a second attack, this time on the nearby city of Yogyakarta (then serving as the nation's capital). Although Rijadi and his troops launched attacks on Dutch forces approaching Solo through Klaten, ultimately the Dutch soldiers entered the city. Applying a divide and conquer policy, Rijadi was able to drive the forces out in four days. During the remainder of the war, Rijadi was sent to West Java to fight against Raymond Westerling's Legion of the Just Ruler. ### Later life and death Not long after the end of the war, the Republic of South Maluku (RMS) declared its independence from the nascent Indonesia. Rijadi was sent to the frontline on 10 July 1950 as part of Operation Senopati. To retake the island of Ambon, Rijadi took half his forces and invaded the eastern shores, while the other half was tasked with invading from the northern coast. Although the second group experienced heavy resistance, Rijadi's group was able to take to the beach in native canoes unopposed; they later landed more infantry and armour. On 3 October, the troops, along with Colonel Alexander Evert Kawilarang, were tasked with capturing the rebel capital at New Victoria. Rijadi and Kawilarang led a three pronged assault, with forces approaching by land from the north and east, and naval forces pulling directly into Ambon harbour. Rijadi's forces approached the city through mangrove swamps, a journey which took a month. During the trip, RMS snipers armed with Jungle Carbines and Owen Guns shot constantly at the troops, often pinning them down. Upon arriving in New Victoria, Rijadi's forces made short work of the RMS troops. However, he did not see the end of the battle. As Rijadi was riding atop a tank towards the final rebel stronghold on 4 November, a volley of machine gun fire erupted in his direction. A single bullet rebounded off the tank's armour and into Rijadi's abdomen. After being rushed to a hospital ship, Rijadi insisted on returning to the front; instead, the doctors gave him much morphine and attempted unsuccessfully to treat the wound. Rijadi died of wounds that night; the battle ended the same day. Rijadi was buried in Ambon. ## Legacy Numerous things have been named after Rijadi. The 5.8-kilometre (3.6 mi) long main road of Surakarta is named after the brigadier general. The KRI Slamet Riyadi, a frigate described as one of the most sophisticated in the Indonesian Navy, is named after him. Rijadi has received numerous awards. He received several medals posthumously, including the Bintang Sakti in May 1961, the Bintang Gerilya in July 1961, and the Satya Lencana Bakti in November 1961. On 9 November 2007, President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono gave Rijadi the title National Hero of Indonesia; Rijadi received the title along with Adnan Kapau Gani, Ida Anak Agung Gde Agung, and Moestopo based on Presidential Decree Number 66 / TK of 2007.
1,403,259	Canadian horse	1,172,229,644	Breed of horse	[ "Conservation Priority Breeds of the Livestock Conservancy", "Horse breeds", "Horse breeds originating in Canada", "National symbols of Canada" ]	The Canadian horse (French: cheval canadien) is a horse breed from Canada. It is a strong, well-muscled horse, usually dark in colour. It is generally used for riding and driving. Descended from draft and light riding horses imported to Canada in the late 1600s from France, it was later crossed with other British and American breeds. During the 18th century the Canadian horse spread throughout the northeastern US, where it contributed to the development of several horse breeds. During the peak popularity of the breed, three subtypes could be distinguished, a draft horse type, a trotting type and a pacing type. Thousands of horses were exported in the 19th century, many of whom were subsequently killed while acting as cavalry horses in the American Civil War. These exports decreased the purebred Canadian population almost to the point of extinction, prompting the formation of a studbook and the passage of a law against further export. Experimental breeding programs in the early 20th century succeeded in re-establishing the breed to some extent, but mechanization, combined with two world wars, again resulted in the breed almost becoming extinct. In the 1980s, concerned with the declining population numbers, interested breeders undertook a promotional program, which resulted in renewed interest in the breed. By the 1990s, population numbers were higher, and genetic studies in 1998 and 2012 found relatively high levels of genetic diversity for a small breed. However, livestock conservation organizations still consider the breed to be at risk, due to low population numbers. ## Breed characteristics Most Canadian Horses are dark coloured: black, bay, or brown. A few chestnuts are found, occasionally with flaxen manes and tails, and the cream gene appears in the breed as the result of the genetic influence of one stallion. While some sources state that the gene for grey is no longer found in the breed, after the genetic bottleneck of the late 20th century, the preservation society for the breed states that they can be "rarely grey". Their height averages and stallions average 1,050 to 1,350 pounds (480 to 610 kg) in weight, while mares weigh 1,000 to 1,250 pounds (450 to 570 kg). The Canadian horse has a rather short, high-set head with a broad forehead. The neck is arched and graceful, and the chest, back and loins broad and strongly muscled. The shoulders and croup are sloping, with a relatively high-set tail. Overall, the breed gives the impression of strength and agility. Their heavy and wavy mane and tail, arched necks and finely boned heads are all reminiscent of Andalusian and Barb ancestry. Their trot is described as flashy. They are hardy horses and easy keepers. Today, most Canadian horses are used as riding and driving horses, and are known for their jumping ability. They are seen in competition in almost every discipline, as well as for leisure riding. They can also be found in light draft work, trail riding, and working as a stock horse. Unlike most breeds, there is a set naming system that is used to identify individuals based on the registration format employed by the Canadian Livestock Records Corporation. First comes the prefix, the farm or breeding establishment of which the foal was born into, followed by the sire's name, and lastly the given name for the foal. Each year a different letter is assigned to begin the given name for the foal, and it is by the year's letter that the foal is named. Some older horses do not fall under this naming strategy, but it is now mandatory in naming registered offspring coming from purebred Canadian lines. Originally, horses were tattooed with identification numbers, but now microchipping is the identification technology chosen by the breed registry. ## History The Canadian Horse descended from the French stock Louis XIV sent to Canada in the late 17th century. The initial shipment, in 1665, consisted of two stallions and twenty mares from the Royal Stables in Normandy and Brittany, the centre of French horse breeding. Only 12 of the 20 mares survived the trip. Two more shipments followed, one in 1667 of 14 horses (mostly mares, but with at least one stallion), and one in 1670 of 11 mares and a stallion. The shipments included a mix of draft horses and light horses, the latter of which included both pacing and trotting horses. The exact origins of all the horses are unknown, although the shipments probably included Bretons, Normans, Arabians, Andalusians and Barbs. The horses were leased to gentleman farmers or religious orders for money or in exchange for a foal, and they remained the property of the king for three years. Despite poor conditions and hard work, the horses thrived in Canada, and were given nicknames that included "the little iron horse" and "the horse of steel". Population numbers rose quickly from the early stock, with 148 horses by 1679, 218 horses by 1688, 684 by 1698, and by 1709, enough that the government limited farmers to owning two horses and a foal, with additional horses to be slaughtered, although this law was a failure in terms of enforcement. During the 1700s, the "French Canadian Horse" spread through what is now eastern Michigan and Illinois in the United States, and lived a generally feral existence, with many escaping human control completely. In 1798, a horse with characteristics similar to the Canadian is reported to have appeared spontaneously in Massachusetts and given to one Justin Morgan, giving rise to the Morgan breed. But this specimen may have actually been born 7 miles from the Canadian Border in Vermont, which has always fed suspicions that it was in fact a Canadian horse. During the Expulsion of the Acadians in the mid-18th century, the English seized the livestock of the Acadians, including horses. Some of these animals were transported to Sable Island, where their descendants became the Sable Island horse. In the late 18th century, imported horses from the US and the British Isles were crossbred with existing Canadian stock. By the 19th century, they were found performing light draft work, as well as riding and driving duties. Cornelius Krieghoff, a 19th-century Canadian painter, was known for his works featuring the Canadian horse, who he usually showed in association with the French habitants, as opposed to the English settlers in the area. His paintings generally portrayed the Canadian horse in a utilitarian, workhorse role, often in winter scenes. In 1849, there were estimated to be more than 150,000 Canadian horses, and many were exported from Canada annually. Some were shipped to the West Indies, where they possibly contributed to gaited breeds such as the Paso Fino. By the middle of the 19th century, Canadian horses had spread through the northeastern US, where they were used for racing, as roadsters, and, due to their stamina, to pull freight wagons and stagecoaches. Many played a role in the development of other breeds, including the Morgan horse, the American Saddlebred and the Standardbred. Although used extensively in the US, no efforts were made to establish a purebred population, studbook, or breed association in that country. Thousands of horses imported to the US from Canada were used as artillery and cavalry horses in the American Civil War, where many were killed. One equine historian states that "The Canadian horse played a major role in the history of that war; it has even been said that the North won simply on the fact that its soldiers had the better horse – the Canadian." By 1880, through exports and war casualties, Canadian horses had almost become extinct. In 1885, the Canadian Horse Breeders Association was formed to inspect and approve breeding stock with the aim of creating a studbook for the breed, and in 1886, further export from Canada was forbidden by Quebec law. In 1913, an experimental breeding program was begun at Cap-Rouge by the Canadian government. The program's goal was to breed larger horses that retained the endurance and vitality for which the breed was known, and succeeded in increasing the size of stallions to high and 1,200 to 1,500 pounds (540 to 680 kg) in weight, with mares slightly smaller. However, mechanization, combined with World War I and World War II, ended the federal breeding program, and in 1940 all breeding stock was sold at auction. However, the province of Quebec re-established the program at Deschambault. The program lasted there until 1979, when the herd was again disbanded and sold at auction. ### 1970s to present By the 1970s, the popularity of the breed had decreased significantly, and there were approximately 400 Canadian horses worldwide, with only around five annual registrations between 1970 and 1974. Several interested breeders began a campaign of preservation and promotion, which resulted in a Canadian team winning the 1987 North American Driving Championships. Popularity began to increase, and by the mid-1990s population numbers were between 2,500 and 3,000, and The Livestock Conservancy, which had classified the breed as "critical", changed its designation to "rare". With the increase in popularity came pressure for the breed standard to change to meet modern show and market trends, by breeding for taller horses with more refinement. In 2002, the Canadian Horse Heritage and Preservation Society was formed in response to these pressures, with a goal of preserving the original Canadian horse type. The Canadian Horse Breeders Association remains the official registering body for the Canadian horse, as governed by the Canadian federal Animal Pedigree Act, with the responsibility to "monitor registration, identification, and the keeping of the stud book for Canadian horses". It is also responsible for inspecting breeding stock before they are registered with the studbook. The studbook is maintained by the Canadian Livestock Records Corporation. Since the beginning of the studbook, there have been over 13,600 horses registered. In 2012, 208 new horses were registered, mainly in Quebec. The Livestock Conservancy still considers the breed to be threatened, a designation given to breeds with a global population of less than 5,000 and annual US registrations of fewer than 1,000. Rare Breeds Canada considers the breed to be at risk, with fewer than 500 annual registrations of female breeding stock. In a study of mitochondrial DNA published in 2012, the Canadian horse and the Newfoundland pony were found to be the most genetically diverse of the Canadian breeds studied, which also included the Sable Island horse and the Lac La Croix pony. The Canadian horse showed high haplotype diversity, sharing haplotypes with all Canadian populations, as well as draft breeds, Nordic pony breeds and British mountain and moorland pony breeds also tested in the study. The Canadian horse had been shown to be related to draft horse breeds, including the Percheron, Belgian and Clydesdale, in previous microsatellite loci studies. This relationship was supported by findings in the 2012 study. The high levels of diversity in the Canadian horse supported the conclusions of a 1998 study, which determined that the small population size and historical genetic bottlenecks had not resulted in a significant loss of genetic variation. The 1998 paper also stated that the Canadian horse did not show inbreeding any more significant than other, more popular, breeds. The Canadian horse is a common animal symbol of Canada. In 1909, the Parliament of Canada declared it the national breed of the country, and in 2002 was made an official animal symbol of Canada by Parliamentary Act. In 2010, the provincial legislature of Quebec named it a heritage breed of the province. ## Sub-types During the peak popularity of the breed, three main types could be distinguished. All three are now considered extinct, having disappeared or been merged back into the main Canadian horse population. The first, the Canadian Heavy Draft or St. Lawrence, which disappeared by the late 1700s, probably developed from Shire and Clydesdale crosses. They were probably a popular export to New England, which bred large numbers of horses for Caribbean plantations. The second, the Frencher, sometimes also called the St. Lawrence, was a trotting horse known for its power and speed, resulting from crosses with Thoroughbreds. Mixed with French trotting lines, they played a role in the development of the US trotting horses. ### Canadian Pacer The third type was the Canadian Pacer, which was historically better documented than the other two types. Canadian Pacers were likely the result of breeding pacing horses imported from France with Narragansett Pacers from New England. The resulting horses were known for their ability to race on ice. From there, they were exported to the United States, where North Carolina became a breeding centre, later exporting them to Tennessee in the late 1700s. Pedigrees were not maintained, so early breeding histories are often impossible to trace. The Canadian Pacer influenced the Tennessee Walker, the American Saddlebred and the Standardbred. Commonly called "Canucks", the fastest members of the breed came from Quebec near the St. Lawrence River. Racing began in this area during the long, severe winters, when Sunday races after attending church for Mass became common. Eventually these races became large enough to endanger the church-going populace, and races were banned within a certain distance of churches. They instead moved to local rivers, whose smooth, frozen surfaces provided useful raceways, and the resulting contests drew attention to the pacers from Quebec. Several horses imported to the United States from Canada had a lasting impact on American horse breeding. In the early 1800s, a roan-coloured stallion named Copperbottom was imported to Lexington, Kentucky, from Quebec, through Michigan. He began to be offered for stud service in 1816, and his progeny spread throughout the eastern US. Known mainly as saddle stock, they also included several pacing horses. Another roan stallion, Tom Hal, a successful pacer in his own right, founded an important family of pacers in the US. Appearing in Kentucky in 1824, he was offered for stud, and his offspring (many of whom carried on the family name, being differentiated only by the name of the owner) began the family of Standardbreds that included Little Brown Jug, Brown Hal, Star Pointer, Adios and Good Time, all champion harness racing horses. Another pacing import to the US was a black stallion named Old Pilot, said to have been bred near Montreal, who originated the Pilot family of trotting horses. Old Pilot produced a son, also named Pilot, who was acclaimed as a sire of trotting horses, as well as being a successful harness horse himself.
22,894,039	Frank Lapidus	1,169,459,812	Fictional character of the TV series Lost	[ "Fictional alcohol abusers", "Fictional aviators", "Fictional characters from New York City", "Fictional sole survivors", "Lost (2004 TV series) characters", "Male characters in television", "Television characters introduced in 2008" ]	Frank J. Lapidus is a fictional character on the ABC television series Lost played by Jeff Fahey. Frank is introduced in the second episode of season four as a pilot hired on a mission to the island where Oceanic Flight 815 crashed. He aids the survivors of the crash against mercenary Martin Keamy (Kevin Durand) and helps to rescue a group who become known as the Oceanic Six. Three years later, Frank encounters the group again while working as a commercial airline pilot. His plane lands back on the island, and he is forcibly taken in by a group of his passengers headed by Ilana (Zuleikha Robinson) and Bram (Brad William Henke), who are working for the island's highest authority figure Jacob (Mark Pellegrino). In the series finale, he ultimately escapes the island with a few of his fellow inhabitants. Frank's name was created by co-executive producer Edward Kitsis, who had been pitching the name "Lapidus" for years and had also used it for an unseen character in the episode "Exposé". Fahey was the producers' first choice for the role, which was developed to suit his personality. As a result of the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, Frank's role in the first half of season four was diminished, and some planned storylines were carried over into the fifth season. Frank's introduction, along with the three other new characters from the freighter introduced in season four, was well received, as was his return in season five. Lost executive producer Damon Lindelof confirmed in an interview that Lapidus would be a series regular for the show's sixth and final season. ## Arc Originally from The Bronx, New York, Frank was the intended pilot of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815, which crashed on an island in the South Pacific. He is first encountered in The Bahamas, ringing the NTSB to state that the body of the pilot of Flight 815 shown on the sea bed, on the Television news, is not who it is claimed to be. Frank is later recruited as a pilot on behalf of Charles Widmore (Alan Dale), who is chartering a freighter destined for the island upon which Flight 815 crashed. Frank reveals himself to be a conspiracy theorist who believes there are still survivors of Flight 815. He goes on to pilot a helicopter from the freighter to the island, which malfunctions on approach. His team—consisting of Daniel Faraday (Jeremy Davies), Charlotte Lewis (Rebecca Mader) and Miles Straume (Ken Leung)—parachute to safety, and Frank is able to land the helicopter without incurring significant damage. Lapidus identifies Juliet Burke (Elizabeth Mitchell) as a "local" and in response to the return of Charlotte, who was being held hostage by John Locke (Terry O'Quinn), flies Desmond Hume (Henry Ian Cusick) and Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews) to the freighter. Later, Frank disagrees with the actions of fellow freighter passenger Martin Keamy (Kevin Durand), a mercenary hired to capture island inhabitant Benjamin Linus (Michael Emerson). He helps a group of survivors avoid Keamy's team, and later attempts to resist Keamy's command. When Keamy murders the freighter's captain (Grant Bowler) in a display of power, he is forced to comply, but is able to secretly transfer a satellite phone to the survivors as a warning. When a group of survivors overpower Keamy's mercenaries, Frank attempts to fly them to safety. Due to a lack of fuel, the group—consisting of Lapidus, Sayid, Desmond, Jack Shephard (Matthew Fox), Hugo Reyes (Jorge Garcia), Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly), Sun-Hwa Kwon (Yunjin Kim) and Aaron Littleton—crash into the ocean, where they take to a lifeboat and are later rescued by the Searcher, a ship belonging to Desmond's girlfriend Penelope Widmore (Sonya Walger). Following their rescue, Frank begins working for Ajira Airways. He encounters the survivors again three years later, while piloting Flight 316 to Guam. Frank realizes the Oceanic Six intend to return to the island, and minutes later, the flight experiences extreme turbulence. Frank and his co-pilot are able to land the plane on the adjacent Hydra Island, although the co-pilot is killed. After gathering the survivors of Flight 316 together, Frank accompanies Sun and Ben to the main island. They meet Christian Shephard (John Terry), who reveals that the remaining survivors have travelled through time to 1977. Christian instructs them to await the arrival of John Locke, which they do. Sun is determined to remain with Locke and find her husband Jin-Soo Kwon (Daniel Dae Kim), so Frank parts from her, returning to Hydra Island intent on repairing the jet radio to call for help. Upon his return, Frank finds that passenger Ilana (Zuleikha Robinson) has found guns on the island and claimed leadership of the group. After he is unable to answer her cryptic question "What lies in the shadow of the statue?" she attacks him and knocks him out. Frank later regains consciousness in an outrigger, being transported back to the main island by Ilana, Bram (Brad William Henke) and three other Flight 316 survivors. He overhears them discussing whether or not he may be a potential "candidate", though when he asks what he may be a candidate for, they refuse to elaborate. Frank accompanies the group through the jungle to meet up with the island's native inhabitants The Others, at the foot of the aforementioned statue. In the season six premiere "LA X", Frank tells Sun that he does not trust Ilana and her men. He then witnesses The Man in Black (also O'Quinn), who was posing as Locke all along, knock out Richard Alpert, the Others' ageless advisor. He then participates in the burial of the real Locke. Frank then accompanies Ben, Sun and Ilana to rescue any inhabitant of the attacked Temple. They only rescue Miles. They eventually decide to head for the beach. Frank overhears Miles saying that Ben killed Jacob (Mark Pellegrino). He then tells Ben that he was the original pilot of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815. He is at the beach when Jack, Hurley and Richard arrive. In order to stop the Man in Black from leaving the island, Richard suggests that they destroy the Ajira plane. After Ilana is killed while holding dynamites, Frank goes to the Black Rock with the group in order to get more dynamite. However, Hurley blows up the ship in order to prevent anymore risks; destroying all the dynamite supplies. After Hurley tells of his plan to talk to the Man in Black and Richard goes with his plan to destroy the plane, Frank joins Hurley, along with Jack, and Sun. Their group then merge with the Man in Black's camp. Later, Charles Widmore's second in command, Zoe, arrives at the camp and threatens to destroy the camp with artillery shells if the Man in Black does not give back Desmond. Frank, Jack, Hurley, Sun, and Claire Littleton (Emilie de Ravin) go with Sawyer's plan of betraying the Man in Black by joining Widmore, and they escape from the Man in Black's group. After Jack leaves the group, due to his reluctance to leave the island, the remaining group reach Hydra Island. However, Widmore betrays them, and has them locked in the animal cages at Hydra Station. The Man in Black attacks Widmore's camp as the Smoke Monster; allowing Jack, who has joined the Man in Black, to free Frank and the rest of the group. They then head to the Ajira plane to leave the island. But when they get to the plane, the Man in Black reveals the plane is rigged with C4. He then suggests they leave the island by Widmore's submarine. Frank and the group reach the sub, and they take control of it. After betraying the Man in Black, Widmore's men attack, but they manage to submerge. Jack then discovers the Man in Black planted the C4 in Jack's bag. Sayid sacrifices himself and runs off with the C4 as far away from the others as he could until it explodes. The explosion causes the submarine to sink, and Frank is knocked out after a door hits him. Frank revives and makes it to the surface of the water. He is found by Richard and Miles as they head for Hydra Island to blow up the Ajira plane. Frank convinces them to steal the plane and let him fly it. After much repair work and picking up Kate, Claire, and Sawyer, the plane takes off and heads for home. ## Development After Naomi Dorrit (Marsha Thomason) landed on the island in season three, the producers began to plan who else would be on the boat she came from. They wanted these new characters to be interested in finding the island for their own personal reasons. The team created consisted of Frank, Daniel Faraday, Charlotte Lewis and Miles Straume, referred to as the "freighter folk". Their relationship with the survivors of Flight 815 formed the crux of the fourth season. Co-executive producer/writer Edward Kitsis had been pitching the name "Lapidus" for years, finally naming an unseen character in the fourteenth episode of the third season Rick Lapidus. Unsatisfied, Kitsis developed the character "Frank Lapidus, Helicopter Pilot". According to producers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse, Jeff Fahey "was the first and only choice for the role". Cuse had enjoyed Fahey's roles in The Lawnmower Man and The Marshal, and he and Lindelof commended his "intense eyes", stating that "he has exactly the right sensibilities" for the part. Fahey was offered the part without having to audition. At the time the producers began to consider him for the role, he had taken a break from acting and was living in Afghanistan, doing charity work and running an orphanage in Kabul. When Cuse contacted him about appearing in the show, Fahey was on the top of a mountain in Caracas, Venezuela during a rainstorm, having just opened an orphanage. He had never seen the series before, but the producers talked him through the first three seasons in an attempt to convince him to return to acting and accept the role. When he was cast, Fahey was unaware of whether he would be a guest star, or would develop into a regular. Focus on the character was diminished by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, which resulted in the fourth season being cut short. The latter half of the season did feature the character more predominately, however some stories planned for Frank and his fellow freighter folk had to be deferred to the fifth season. Frank was not originally envisioned with a beard, however at the time of his casting, Fahey himself had one. Lindelof and Cuse felt that the beard worked with Lapidus' character, and allowed Fahey to keep it for the role, with the requirement he shave it back to a more manageable length. The character remained bearded until his return in fifth season episode "316", set three years on from his original introduction. Fahey praised the way the character was developed to suit him, explaining that upon meeting with Lindelof and Cuse, rather than discussing the show with him, they were more interested in him personally and his experiences, going on to incorporate elements of himself into Lapidus. He expanded: "The beauty of this is they'll feed you a concept based on an idea of who you are. The actor and the characters are not suits off the rack, they tailor-make them to you. What's very exciting is it is a very positive give and take. It's a nice dance, as it were." Fahey was not given an overarching overview of his character, nor were any of the other new freighter folk, which he found exciting, creating a level of intrigue amongst the cast and crew as well as fans. Prior to arrival on the island, Lapidus was described by Naomi as a drunk. Entertainment Weekly's Kristin Dos Santos deemed Lapidus the most laid back of the four new characters, though Fahey commented that "It might be because he's just rolled around a few more places a little longer than the others", agreeing with Dos Santos' assessment that Lapidus was "a little nomadic". Lindelof and Cuse have said that Frank "never takes anything at face value [and is] a true conspiracy nut [who] has probably seen every episode of The X-Files, [which will] pay off for him". ## Reception Producers Lindelof and Cuse were initially worried about how the freighter folk characters would be received by fans, after the unhappy reaction to new characters Nikki (Kiele Sanchez) and Paulo (Rodrigo Santoro), introduced in season three. However, following their introduction in "Confirmed Dead", the four characters were well received, with Paige Albiniak of the New York Post citing them as a reason behind the show's improved ratings. Erin Martell of AOL's TV Squad wrote that within one episode Fahey had already won her over, and called Frank her favorite new Lost character. IGN's Chris Carabott described Frank, as well as the other new characters from the freighter, as "great" and "exciting", writing that: "Fahey's Lapidus has exceptional screen presence that even overshadows the regular cast members to an extent." TV Guide's Bruce Fretts praised the casting of the freighter folk, noting that Fahey had been a personal favourite of his since his appearance in The Marshall. He deemed the group all stronger actors than former Lost stars Michelle Rodriguez, Rodrigo Santoro, Maggie Grace and Ian Somerhalder, and expressed hope that they would remain on the show longer. Jeff Jensen from Entertainment Weekly called the new characters "fascinating" and wrote that they "totally worked for me, while their intriguing backstories left me jonesing for more." Peter Mucha of The Philadelphia Inquirer deemed Frank's flashback "mind-bending", and Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV called "Confirmed Dead" the "perfect introduction" to the new characters, writing that he could not wait to find out more about them. Michael Ausiello of TV Guide also enjoyed their introduction, and praised the actors' performances. Casey Gillis for The News & Advance highlighted the introduction of the freighter folk as one of the highlights of the season, opining that they "fit seamlessly into the ensemble", while Digital Spy's Ben Rawson-Jones praised the season for introducing Frank, who he deemed "a real cult figure." In contrast, James Poniewozik of Time was critical of Lapidus. He wrote that he was amazed by the economy and precision with which the new characters were introduced because "Each got just one flashback and a little time on the island, and yet by the end of the episode, I felt I had a true handle on what they were like as individuals." He appended, however, that this was: "with the possible exception of Frank, who seems a bit too generic-drunk-hippie-guy for now." Following the episode "Something Nice Back Home", TV Guide's Trish Wethman noted that she was intrigued by Lapidus' "seemingly heroic antics" in saving a group of the survivors from Keamy and his men, though overall was confused by the motivations of the freighter folk. Carabott wrote that Frank's return in the fifth season episode "316" was shocking, but seemed as though it was meant to be. He opined that: "The chances of Frank being on that plane are astronomical and the fact that he was supposed to be the pilot of Flight 815 just makes the situation all the more unusual. His appearance in this episode is absurd but after four and a half seasons of Lost it makes perfect sense." James Yates of the Staten Island Advance wrote that it was "great" to see Frank again, as he had missed the character's presence, and hoped he would play a major part upon returning to the island.
5,327,766	Ontario Highway 12	1,151,730,155	Ontario provincial highway	[ "Ontario provincial highways", "Roads in Simcoe County", "Roads in the Regional Municipality of Durham", "Trans-Canada Highway", "Transport in Orillia", "Transport in Whitby, Ontario" ]	King's Highway 12, commonly referred to as Highway 12 and historically known as the Whitby and Sturgeon Bay Road, is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. The highway connects the eastern end of the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) with Kawartha Lakes (via Highway 7), Orillia and Midland before ending at Highway 93. It forms the Central Ontario Route of the Trans-Canada Highway system from north of Sunderland (Highway 7) to Coldwater (Highway 400). Highway 12 connects several small towns along its 146 km (91 mi) route, and bypasses a short distance from many others. It is signed as a north–south route between Whitby and Orillia, and as an east–west route from there to Midland. The rural portions of the highway feature a posted speed limit of 80 km/h (50 mph), often dropping to 50 km/h (31 mph) through built-up areas. The entire route is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police. Highway 12 was first established in early 1922 between Highway 2 in Whitby and Lindsay. The section running east from Sunderland became part of Highway 7 before route numbering was introduced in 1925. Highway 12 was then routed through Beaverton and around the eastern and northern shores of Lake Simcoe to Orillia and later to Midland; Beaverton was bypassed during the 1960s. The section south of Highway 7 in Brooklin was transferred to municipal government in mid-1997 and is now designated as Durham Regional Highway 12 north of Regional Road 28 (Rossland Road). A majority of Highway 12 follows the historic Whitby and Sturgeon Bay Road, constructed in the mid-1800s to connect Whitby and Penetanguishene, both important naval ports of the time. ## Route description The highway begins at Highway 407, just south of the community of Brooklin in the town of Whitby. It travels north and joins with Highway 7 on the southern edge of Brooklin. Highway 7 travels west to Markham, and is signed concurrently with Highway 12 for 39.1 km (24.3 mi) north of this point to Sunderland. North of Sunderland, Highway 7 separates and travels east to Lindsay; Highway 12 thereafter receives the Trans-Canada Highway designation. The highway continues north, following the eastern and northern shores of Lake Simcoe and bypassing Beaverton while curving to the northwest towards Orillia. It bypasses south of Orillia, and shares a routing with Highway 11 northwards for approximately two kilometres between interchanges 131 and 133. At the latter interchange, Highway 12 branches northwest towards Coldwater, where it joins Highway 400 between interchanges 141 and 147. At Waubaushene, the Trans-Canada Highway designation ends as it follows Highway 400 as the Georgian Bay Route towards Parry Sound and Sudbury, while Highway 12 continues west towards Victoria Harbour, Port McNicoll, and the Martyrs' Shrine. The highway ends at a junction with Highway 93 at the western town limits of Midland. ## History The oldest portion of Highway 12 was originally known as the Coldwater Portage and later the Coldwater Road, connecting the modern sites of Orillia and Coldwater by a 23 km (14 mi) trail. Upper Canada Governor John Colborne surveyed the portage in 1830 and ordered it to be widened for wagon use. As the area was settled and an increasing need for land connection with the south arose, a new road was proposed from Whitby to Sturgeon Bay (near Waubaushene). In February 1843, the residents formally petitioned the government to construct the route. The Sturgeon Bay Road, from Coldwater to Sturgeon Bay, was opened as a rough wagon road in 1844. The Atherley Narrows, separating Lake Simcoe from Lake Couchiching, were surveyed in the early 1840s and the first causeway and bridge constructed in the years that followed. The portion of the route between Whitby and Orillia, however, was still under construction during the second half of the decade. Highway 12 was first introduced into the provincial highway system on January 22, 1922, The highway, initially known as the Whitby–Lindsay Road, was not numbered until the summer of 1925. The route followed the present-day Highway 12 from Whitby to Sunderland, then travelled east to Lindsay. Highway assumptions carried out on June 22 and July 2, 1927, extended Highway 7 east from Brampton to Peterborough. In doing so, it became concurrent with Highway 12 between Whitby and Sunderland. The route of Highway 12 between Sunderland and Lindsay was renumbered as part of Highway 7 at this time. Highway 12 was later extended north to Orillia, via Beaverton. This was accomplished through two assumptions. on August 17, the majority of the route through Brock, Thorah and Mara Townships was assumed. Several more miles were assumed on December 28, 1927, extending Highway 12 as far as Orillia. On August 5, 1931, Highway 12 was extended from Orillia to Midland. The majority of the route paralleled an existing railway that was constructed over a native portage. Highway 12 remained unaltered for several decades, until the mid-1960s, when the Beaverton Bypass was constructed. On November 4, 1966, the 10.3 km (6.4 mi) bypass opened, routing Highway 12 to the east. Portions of the former route of Highway 12 were renumbered as Highway 48B. The highway again remained unchanged for several decades, until a short portion of the southern end of the highway was decommissioned in the late 1990s. On April 1, 1997, the portions of Highway 12 south of Brooklin were transferred to municipal government. From Brooklin to Regional Road 28 (Rossland Road), the Regional Municipality of Durham has subsequently redesignated the road as Regional Highway 12. Prior to the highway downloadings of 1997 and 1998, Highway 12 was also not routed concurrently along Highway 400 between Coldwater and Waubaushene, but instead ran as a single roadway, parallel to, and crossing, the 400. The bypassed section was redesignated as Simcoe County Road 16. That section was signed as "TO 12" until 2016, when Highway 12 was officially rerouted along Vasey Road and onto a concurrency with Highway 400. ## Major intersections
70,200,164	John L. Chapin	1,172,137,657	United States Army captain	[ "1913 births", "1944 deaths", "Military personnel from El Paso, Texas", "Recipients of the Silver Star", "Texas A&M University alumni", "United States Army officers", "United States Army personnel killed in World War II" ]	John Letcher Chapin (March 15, 1913 – January 22, 1944) was an American soldier who served as a captain in the United States Army during World War II. He was born and raised in El Paso, Texas. He earned a degree in chemical engineering from Texas A&M University, worked at the El Paso Post Office, and was soon recruited by a Texas Army National Guard unit. Chapin became the commander of a company during World War II and declined multiple promotions to remain with his men. He was injured in the Battle of San Pietro Infine but refused to return home, dying in the Battle of Rapido River while trying to break through the Winter Line in Italy on January 22, 1944. He is buried in Italy and memorialized in Captain John L. Chapin High School in El Paso. ## Early and personal life John Letcher Chapin was born on March 15, 1913, in El Paso, Texas. He attended grade school and high school in the El Paso Independent School District and Ysleta ISD, graduating from Ysleta High School. Chapin earned his degree in chemical engineering at Texas A&M University in 1936. At the age of nine years, Chapin met Velma Perkins, who he married on April 21, 1937. They had a son named Paul on December 27, 1938. Chapin worked at the El Paso Post Office and planned to attend medical school prior to joining the military. ## Military career A Texas Army National Guard unit approached Chapin about becoming their chemical warfare officer with his degree, and he chose to join the Infantry Branch instead. He only planned to stay in the unit for a year, but his company was activated in November 1940 as Company E, 141st Infantry Regiment, 36th Division. While in training, Chapin was promoted and assumed control of the company. He was respected by its members due to his skill and fairness. However, Chapin declined five promotions to the rank of major to stay with his company. Most of his company members were Hispanic and non-English speakers, and Chapin, who spoke Spanish fluently, believed leaving his company could bring a non-Spanish-speaking captain who would mistreat the soldiers. Another particular example of Chapin's perceived devotion to his soldiers is his unit's boycott of a burger restaurant in El Paso. The restaurant's business manager displayed a sign refusing service to Black and Mexican people, which led to a boycott from the entire unit and a US\$500 fine for discrimination. Company E was stationed at various locations across the United States, while Chapin's family eventually chose to settle in California. On December 12, 1942, Chapin departed on a train to the front line in Europe during World War II. He fought at Salerno and San Pietro Infine, where he was severely injured and refused to return home in order to stay with his company. He was killed by German machine gun fire on January 22, 1944, while trying to break through the Winter Line in Italy during the Battle of Rapido River, which occurred on the Gari River. His body was found in a foxhole and he was posthumously awarded a Silver Star for his courage and devotion. Only 27 of the 145 present soldiers of Company E survived the battle. Velma did not learn of Chapin's death until February 22, 1944, exactly a full month after he died. His body is buried at the Sicily–Rome American Cemetery and Memorial in Nettuno, Italy, and his gravestone displays the letters "KIA" to symbolize that he was killed in action defending the United States. ## Legacy His legacy is memorialized in the name of Captain John L. Chapin High School in El Paso, which was dedicated in 2001. The committee to decide the name for the new school initially planned to use the name of a local Hispanic war hero, but spoke with many living members of Company E, who insisted on Chapin's name instead. They cited Chapin's selflessness, refusal to accept promotions, and respect for the people he led. Company E as a whole is remembered through historical books such as Patriots from the Barrio, which Wilmer Valderrama and WM Entertainment have acquired film and television rights to, and The Men of Company E.
41,517,931	Cyclone Bejisa	1,173,444,558	South-West Indian tropical cyclone in 2012–13	[ "2013–14 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season", "2014 in Mauritius", "2014 in Réunion", "Intense Tropical Cyclones", "Tropical cyclones in 2013", "Tropical cyclones in 2014" ]	Intense Tropical Cyclone Bejisa was a powerful tropical cyclone that affected the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in early January 2014. In late December 2013, a tropical disturbance developed to the north of Madagascar. With favorable conditions, the low developed into a disturbance and soon into a depression on 28 December. The system continued to develop and intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Bejisa on 29 December, with rapid intensification occurring. It developed into an Intense Tropical Cyclone on 30 December, reaching peak maximum sustained winds of 165 km/h (103 mph). Due to an eyewall replacement cycle, Bejisa weakened, but re-intensified to a secondary peak of 160 km/h (99 mph) on 1 January. Increased wind shear weakened the eyewall, which passed within 15 km (9.3 mi) of Réunion. After having moved generally south-southeastward for much of its duration, Bejisa turned to the southwest on 3 January, by which time it had weakened to tropical storm status. It became a post-tropical cyclone on 5 January after the convection weakened over the center, and Bejisa became extratropical the next day as it meandered southwest of Madagascar. In its formative stages, Bejisa brought heavy rainfall to Seychelles, and it also dropped rainfall in Mauritius and Madagascar. Effects were worst on Réunion, where wind gusts were around 130–150 km/h (81–93 mph) along the coast. The storm also dropped torrential rainfall, peaking at 800 mm (31 in) at a volcano in Cilaos. The winds and rains downed many trees and power lines, which blocked roads and left 181,000 people without power. About 49% of the island also lost water supply. Bejisa left heavy damage to the agriculture industry, mainly to vanilla and sugar cane, totaling €62 million (US\$84.8 million) in losses. The commune of Saint-Paul sustained moderate damage, with losses estimated at €3 million (US\$4.1 million). Bejisa killed one person on the island due to head trauma, and there were 16 injuries. Later, the cyclone produced high waves in South Africa. ## Meteorological history In late December 2013, computer forecast models began to predict the development and cyclogenesis of a disturbance within the monsoon trough north of Madagascar. At 1800 UTC on 27 December, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) noted a discrete area of disturbed weather approximately 1,350 km (840 mi) north-northwest of Réunion that corresponded with model forecasts and had the potential to develop. Accompanied by a low-level circulation center, the monitored storm complex developed rainbands about its southern periphery the following day. At 12:00 UTC on 28 December, Météo-France deemed the system sufficiently organized to be considered a tropical disturbance, the fourth system to be given such a classification by the agency that season. Upon its designation, the disturbance was analyzed to have an unusually high barometric pressure, based on nearby weather station observations. Météo-France projected for the system to peak as a tropical cyclone before slightly weakening and impacting the Mascarene Islands. Tracking southward, the disturbance steadily organized. As a result of wind shear, the system's low-level circulation center remained partially exposed, though the shearing conditions were expected to lessen At 00:00 UTC on 29 December, the disturbance was upgraded to a tropical depression. At 18:00 UTC that day, the depression intensified to moderate tropical storm intensity, thus receiving the name Bejisa by the Mauritius Meteorological Services. This coincided with the improving satellite appearance of the storm's central dense overcast. Intensification subsequently quickened, and at 06:00 UTC the next day Bejisa was considered to be a severe tropical storm. Concurrently a strengthening ridge in the mid-levels of the troposphere began to steer the storm towards the south-southeast. Following the development of a small pinhole eye, Bejisa was upgraded to tropical cyclone status at 12:00 UTC on 30 December, followed by intense tropical cyclone status six hours thereafter, with peak winds of 165 km/h (103 mph). In addition, the JTWC estimated 1-minute winds of 195 km/h (121 mph), utilizing the Dvorak technique to estimate the intensity. The agency noted that decreasing wind shear, favorable outflow, and warm sea surface temperatures allowed for the intensification. At that time of the peak winds, Bejisa was located about 825 km (513 mi) north-northwest of Réunion. The intensification phase of Bejisa was short-lived, as an eyewall replacement cycle resulted in a slight deterioration and fluctuation of the storm's organization and structure. By 31 December, the system weakened below intense tropical cyclone status as the eye became less organized. When the eyewall replacement cycle completed, the eye became larger and the winds increased. Later that day, Bejisa passed about 125 km (78 mi) west of Tromelin Island. On the next day, the cyclone attained a secondary peak intensity of 160 km/h (99 mph). However, increasing wind shear eroded the eyewall, which opened the eyewall in the northern periphery. Despite Météo-France assessing that Bejisa had weakened, at the same time the JTWC estimated that the cyclone had intensified further to reach peak 1-minute winds of 205 km/h (127 mph) on 2 January. That day, the storm's center passed within 155 km (96 mi) of Réunion while continuing to the southeast, and the eyewall passed within 15 km (9.3 mi) of the island. Continued wind shear stripped the convection, coupled with cooler water temperatures, and early on 3 January, Bejisa weakened below tropical cyclone status. By that time, the ridge to the southeast turned the storm to the southwest. A slight decrease in wind shear was expected to allow the convection to rebuild on 4 January, and the storm strengthened slightly. By 5 January, Bejisa began evolving into a post-tropical cyclone, with weaker convection over the center. That day, Météo-France reclassified Bejisa as a post-tropical depression, noting that the radius of maximum winds had expanded. On the same day, the JTWC discontinued warnings after assessing that the storm had become a subtropical cyclone. Increasing wind shear displaced the remaining convection west of the center, and Météo-France discontinued advisories on Bejisa on 6 January after the exposed circulation turned more to the south. The storm became extratropical and turned to the northeast, and was last noted on 7 January. ## Preparations and impact Upon designation as a tropical disturbance, the predecessor to Cyclone Bejisa dropped heavy rainfall across the Seychelles. A weather station on Mahé observed 164 mm (6.5 in) of rain over a 24-hour period beginning on 27 December. The Farquhar Group were particularly affected, as the storm's incipient central region of convection remained over the area for an extended period of time. Before the storm affected Réunion, Bejisa passed west of Tromelin Island, producing winds of 80 km/h (50 mph). The storm also produced heavy rainfall on Mauritius, reaching 156.3 mm (6.15 in) at Sans Souci. Bejisa spawned a tornado in Grand-Gaube and Poudre d’Or. Rainfall and gusty winds also affected portions of Madagascar. Later, Bejisa produced high waves along the coast of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. ### Réunion In advance of the storm striking Réunion, officials advised residents to remain inside. Officials ordered residents in Saint-Leu along the coast to evacuate inland, and at least 300 people evacuated island-wide. The airport at Saint-Denis was closed, but reopened after the storm passed the island; several flights were canceled as a result. The main port was also closed, as were most childcare facilities, and mail service was suspended. Officials issued a red alert for the island, the first since Cyclone Dumile a year prior. On Réunion, Bejisa produced strong wind gusts, averaging 130–150 km/h (81–93 mph) along the coast, and peaking in Saint-Louis. The winds downed numerous trees and power lines, leaving an estimated 181,000 people without electricity, and closing roads due to debris. All eight of the island's high tension lines were affected. Thirty percent of cell phone service was temporarily lost due to the outages. Torrential rains impacted much of the island, with a 24-hour total of 800 mm (31 in) measured at a volcano in Cilaos and 600 mm (24 in) measured in a nearby town. The rains caused rivers to rise, resulting in flooding. About 49 percent of homes lost their water supply. Tremendous agricultural damage occurred across Réunion, with some areas reporting 80–100 percent losses. Damage in the sector reached €62 million (US\$84.8 million) alone, mostly to sugar cane and vanilla. The commune of Saint-Paul sustained moderate damage, with losses estimated at €3 million (US\$4.1 million). Approximately €1 million (US\$1.4 million) of this stemmed from wind and water damage to homes; 121 residences qualified for relief aid. Along the coast, a pier was destroyed, several boats were damaged, and roads were impacted. One person died from head trauma while 16 people were injured in various incidents. Two of the injuries were severe due to falling off ladders while attempting to secure their homes during the high winds. In the wake of Bejisa, Électricité de France (EDF) deployed 500 personnel and 6 helicopters to restore power on the island. Within three days, roughly 160,000 residences were restored, considerably faster than previous restoration efforts in previous cyclones. By 9 January, all but a few dozen homes had power. In addition, water supply was largely restored within four days. A state of national disaster was declared for Réunion on 17 January, by Overseas Minister of France, Victorin Lurel. This declaration covered 16 towns on the island: Les Avirons, Cilaos, L'Entre-Deux, L'Étang-Salé, Petite-Île, La Plaine-des-Palmistes, Le Port, La Possession, Saint-Joseph, Saint-Leu, Saint-Louis, Saint-Paul, Saint-Pierre, Salazie, Le Tampon, and Trois-Bassins. Insurance estimates indicated that €25 million (US\$34.2 million) was needed for relief funding. Farmers were eligible for compensation under the disaster declaration; however, many voiced their skepticism following a lack of follow-through by the government to supply funds after Tropical Cyclone Dumile in January 2013. Ultimately, the affected farmers had to indicate their taxed losses by 26 February to receive the assistance. By April 2014, all farmers affected by the declaration were compensated. ## See also - Tropical cyclones in 2012 and 2013 - Cyclone Hollanda (1994) – a tropical cyclone which struck Réunion - Cyclone Dina (2002) – another tropical cyclone that hit Réunion
28,119,246	Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)	1,152,418,426	Byzantine emperor	[ "1050s births", "11th-century Byzantine emperors", "Byzantine junior emperors", "Doukid dynasty", "Sons of Byzantine emperors", "Year of death unknown" ]	Andronikos Doukas (Greek: Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας), Latinized as Andronicus Ducas, was the third son of Byzantine emperor Constantine X Doukas (r. 1059–1067) and younger brother of Byzantine emperor Michael VII Doukas (r. 1071–1078). Unlike his other brothers, he was not named junior co-emperor by his father, and was raised to the dignity only by Romanos IV Diogenes (r. 1068–1071). He is otherwise relatively insignificant, and was not involved in the affairs of state to any degree. ## Biography Andronikos Doukas was born circa 1057, the third son of Constantine X Doukas and Eudokia Makrembolitissa. He studied under Michael Psellos, and several works survive that were compiled by the prominent scholars of the day to aid him in his studies: one treatise on geometry by Psellos and two philosophical essays by John Italos. Psellos also compiled a laudatory monody on Andronikos after the latter's death. Unlike his other two surviving brothers (the elder, the future Michael VII Doukas, and the younger Konstantios Doukas, who was a porphyrogennetos), he was not raised by his father to the position of co-emperor. Thus, and unlike them, he did not participate in the short regency of Eudokia that followed his father's death in 1067. It was only Romanos IV, who married Eudokia and thus succeeded Constantine X, who raised him to co-emperor, perhaps at Eudokia's request. This was also done for political reasons: the multitude of co-emperors, which soon included the two sons of Eudokia by Romanos, weakened the position of Constantine X's children in favour of Romanos himself. Furthermore, during his absence from Constantinople on campaign in the East soon after his accession, Romanos took Andronikos with him as a virtual hostage. During the reign of his elder brother Michael VII, Andronikos continued as co-emperor, and was even possibly raised above Konstantios in precedence. Curiously, despite his apparent lack of ability and purely decorative function as co-emperor, Andronikos is included in some later lists of Byzantine emperors, coming between Romanos and Michael VII. It is unknown when he died; D. Polemis surmised that it was after 1081, but Thomas Conley argues that he died in early 1077, since he is not mentioned during Nikephoros Botaneiates's attack on Constantinople in the same year. According to Psellos's monody, Andronikos was married and his widow died soon after him. He had no descendants.
70,499,284	Warren Peacocke	1,172,714,023	British general	[ "1766 births", "1849 deaths", "British Army generals" ]	General Sir Warren Marmaduke Peacocke KCH CTS KC (21 September 1766–22 August 1849) was a British Army officer of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, most notable for his command of the Lisbon garrison during the Peninsular War. Peacocke joined the British Army in 1780, serving with a series of units before transferring to the Coldstream Guards in 1793. After having served as an aide de camp during the Irish Rebellion of 1798, Peacocke fought as a company commander with his regiment in the Egypt Campaign between 1800 and 1801, for which he was made a Knight of the Order of the Crescent by the Ottoman Empire. He subsequently served with the Coldstream Guards on the Hanover Expedition in 1805 and Copenhagen Expedition in 1807. Promoted to colonel in 1808, Peacocke served with his regiment at the beginning of the Peninsular War, fighting at the Second Battle of Porto. In June 1809 he left regimental service to take up post as Commandant of Lisbon, which he would hold until the end of the Peninsular War. Tasked with organising troops ready to join the Duke of Wellington's army, as well as with arranging the rehabilitation of injured soldiers and coordinating with the Portuguese government, Peacocke was promoted to brigadier-general in May 1811 and major-general in June. He was made a Knight Commander of the Tower and the Sword by Portugal and a Knight Bachelor by Britain for his services during the Napoleonic Wars. Not sent on active service again after the wars, Peacocke was promoted to lieutenant-general in 1821 and then appointed to the sinecure of the governorship of Kinsale in 1830. He was subsequently promoted to general in 1838 and became colonel of the 19th Regiment of Foot in 1843. He died at 49 Brook Street, London, aged 82, in 1849. ## Early life Warren Marmaduke Peacocke was born on 21 September 1766, the son of Marmaduke Peacocke, of London, and Mary Peacocke, of County Clare. His parents were cousins, and Peacocke their eldest child. He had four younger brothers who all had military careers, including Richard who became a vice-admiral and Thomas who became a general. ## Military career ### Early service Peacocke joined the British Army on 12 December 1780, being commissioned as an ensign in the 88th Regiment of Foot. While officially part of the regiment, at the time of his posting to the 88th it was serving in the West Indies. However, there is no evidence to say that he ever served there. Peacocke was promoted to lieutenant on 22 May 1782 and captain-lieutenant on 14 April 1783, but in the latter year the 88th was disbanded, the American Revolutionary War having ended. This left Peacocke on half pay, a position in which he stayed until 1 December 1786 when he was appointed a captain in the 17th Regiment of Foot. Peacocke was still serving in the 17th when, in 1789, the regiment was ordered to provide soldiers to temporarily serve as marines on board Royal Navy vessels. As such Peacocke served on the 74-gun ship of the line HMS Colossus, guardship at Portsmouth, for six months. He then returned to regular service with the 17th, continuing there until 3 April 1792 when he transferred to the 59th Regiment of Foot. Peacocke stayed with the 59th only briefly, moving to the command of an independent company on 22 October 1793. He in turn quickly exchanged this command for a place in the Coldstream Guards, joining the latter regiment in the rank of lieutenant (regimental rank) and captain (army rank) on 7 November of the same year. The Coldstream Guards became Peacocke's long term regiment, with him no longer attempting any exchanges or transfers. He was promoted to brevet major on 1 March 1794, and on 3 May 1796 was seconded from the regiment to become aide de camp to Major-General George Nugent in Ireland. Peacocke was still serving in Ireland on 1 January 1798 when he was promoted to brevet lieutenant-colonel, and later in the year he was present at and served during the Irish Rebellion there. As such he was present at the Battle of Ballynahinch on 12 June. Peacocke re-joined his regiment in the following year and travelled to fight in the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, but arrived there only after the fighting had ended and as the evacuation of the allied forces was occurring. Having returned to England, he was promoted to captain-lieutenant and lieutenant-colonel on 9 May 1800 and given command of a company within the 1st Battalion of the Coldstream Guards. Later in 1800 Peacocke's battalion was sent to serve in the Egypt Campaign, and he led his company through that campaign from the landings at the Battle of Abukir on 8 March 1801, where the battalion was in one of two brigades in the first wave of the attack. The Coldstream Guards fought at the Battle of Mandora on 13 March and then at the Battle of Alexandria on 21 March. In this latter battle Peacocke was given command of the advance guard of the army, attacking and forcing away the French gun batteries that were placed to the west of the city to guard a nearby flotilla of ships. Continuing on campaign, he was promoted to captain and lieutenant-colonel on 19 November. Peacocke returned to England towards the end of the year, the campaign having finished successfully. For his services in Egypt he was created a Knight of the Order of the Crescent by the Ottoman Empire. Peacocke stayed on garrison duty in England for several years after this, before in 1805 his battalion joined the Guards Brigade commanded by Major-General Edward Finch. This brigade was then sent to fight in the Hanover Expedition, arriving there in November. The expedition was not a success and Peacocke saw no action before returning to England in February 1806. ### Peninsular War Peacocke went on campaign as part of Finch's Guards Brigade again in August 1807, when his battalion joined the expedition to Copenhagen tasked with capturing or destroying the Danish fleet to ensure it was not taken intact by the French. With this completed, Peacocke returned to England in November. He was then promoted to brevet colonel on 25 April 1808, and continued to command his company. The battalion then joined Major-General John Sherbrooke's army sent to secure Cadiz, sailing on 15 January 1809, but the Spaniards refused to allow the British force to disembark and instead they went to Lisbon. Here the force joined Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Wellesley's Peninsular army and Peacocke fought with the Guards in a campaign to retake the city of Porto from the French. This culminated in the Second Battle of Porto on 12 May, where the city was finally recovered. Soon after this Peacocke's health began to deteriorate due to the rigors of service on campaign, and he retired to Lisbon to recuperate; while he went about this, he served as the temporary commander of the garrison there. Later in May Peacocke had recovered from his health setback, but instead of re-joining his battalion, he requested that he be assigned to Wellesley's staff so that he could serve in his army rank of colonel rather than in his regimental rank of captain. Initially Peacocke was not allowed to do this because there were several colonels in the army who were senior to him, who would therefore hold the rights to any staff position before him. However, by the middle of June the composition of the army had changed and Peacocke was now the second most senior colonel without a staff appointment. His request was finally granted, and on 14 June he was given command of the 4th Brigade. On 18 June divisions were formed within the army, and Peacocke's brigade was assigned to 4th Division. Peacocke himself, however, never had the chance to officially take charge of his new brigade, because in the meantime Wellesley had discovered a need for a permanent commander of the Lisbon garrison, who would necessarily need to be a senior officer, to manage operations in support of the army from that city. ### Commandant of Lisbon On 22 June Peacocke, with his previous experience of the Lisbon garrison, was appointed Commandant of Lisbon. Peacocke now commanded all British soldiers serving in the garrison as well as all those landing at Lisbon to join Wellesley's main army. He was in charge of housing the new arrivals and of inspecting them for readiness to start their active service. In the winter of 1810 Wellesley's army retreated to the Lines of Torres Vedras, defences that had been built to protect Lisbon, and Peacocke was involved in helping to hold the lines with his garrison. Working alongside units of militia and the Ordenanças, his command during this period was described by military engineer Major-General Sir John Jones as "an efficient as well as imposing force". As well as soldiers going to the army, Peacocke also had responsibility over those returning from the army for medical reasons, billeting them and monitoring their recovery. Many soldiers who were sent to recuperate in Lisbon attempted to accentuate their illnesses or injuries in order to spend more time away from the army, and this became one of Peacocke's most frequent problems. Peacocke was "disgusted" by these "useless officers", and on several occasions he requested that Wellesley find a different officer to fill the post at Lisbon so that he would not have to involve himself with them. Wellesley however had a great appreciation for the work Peacocke was doing for him in Lisbon, saying that "you are too valuable here to be replaced by anyone. I cannot possibly spare you". Captain Rees Howell Gronow echoed Wellesley's opinion of Peacocke, saying that he was "remarkable for his urbanity of manner, his untiring business habits, and a keen judgment which made him alike an accomplished statesman and an intelligent soldier". Wellesley appointed Peacocke a brigadier-general on 9 May 1811, backdating the promotion to 23 January. Then on 4 June Peacocke was promoted to major-general. Not all of the British were as positive towards Peacocke's work. When the 15th Hussars arrived at their barracks in Lisbon in February 1813 they found them in a very poor state. They recorded Peacocke's operations as "so excessive bad that nothing was to be procured without considerably delay and much difficulty; in general things appeared excessively mismanaged". As well as working with and commanding the British presence in Lisbon Peacocke was also one of the chief liaisons with the Portuguese government, corresponding between it, Wellesley, and the British government. The Portuguese were not always supportive of the military presence in their capital city, and Peacocke was often tasked with reconciling them to the situation. He only relinquished his command at Lisbon when the Peninsular War ended in April 1814 . The Portuguese rewarded Peacocke for his services by creating him a Knight Commander of the Tower and the Sword on 17 December, but he was not equally rewarded by the British government. While the majority of his contemporaries who had served as general officers under Wellesley were made Knight Commanders of the Order of the Bath, Peacocke was not. Instead, he was made a Knight Bachelor on 27 July 1815, which award historians Ron McGuigan and Robert Burnham suggest was only given to him because of the Portuguese knighthood he already held. ## Retirement Peacocke returned home in 1814 and was not employed during the Hundred Days campaign, or for a long time afterwards. He was promoted to lieutenant-general on 19 July 1821 and was then given the sinecure post of Governor of Kinsale on 3 August 1830, which provided him with an annual salary of £315 5s 4d. He was further rewarded for his services in 1832 when he was made a Knight Commander of the Royal Guelphic Order. His final promotion came on 28 June 1838 when he was made a general, and his final official army position was the colonelcy of the 19th Regiment of Foot, which he was appointed to on 31 May 1843. Peacocke spent his later life living in retirement at his family seat of Rivers Hall in Boxted, Essex. He died on 22 August 1849 at the age of 82 in the Coulson Hotel at 49 Brook Street, London. Unmarried, Peacocke left his estate to his nephew George Sandford. He was buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, where he is commemorated by an obelisk. ## Notes and citations
32,380	Politics of Vietnam	1,168,263,394	Political system of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam	[ "Government of Vietnam", "Politics of Southeast Asia", "Politics of Vietnam" ]	The politics of Vietnam is dominated by a single party under an authoritarian system, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV). The President of Vietnam is the head of state, and the Prime Minister of Vietnam is the head of government, both of these are separate from the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam who leads the CPV and is head of the Politburo and the Central Military Commission, thus the General Secretary is the de facto supreme leader of Vietnam. Executive power is exercised by the government and the President of Vietnam. Legislative power is vested in the National Assembly of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Quốc hội Việt Nam). The Judiciary is independent of the executive. The parliament adopted the current Constitution of Vietnam, its fifth, on 28 November 2013. The Vietnamese political system is authoritarian, with the freedom of assembly, association, expression, press and religion as well as civil society activism being tightly restricted. There are no freely elected national leaders, political opposition is suppressed, all religious activity is controlled by the CPV, and dissent is not permitted and civil rights are curtailed. Elections in Vietnam occur under a single-party authoritarian political system. Vietnam is among the few contemporary party-led dictatorships to not hold any direct multiparty elections at the national level. The competitive nature of the elections is highly constrained by the Communist Party's monopoly on power in Vietnam, limitations on free speech, and government interference with the elections. The National Assembly is a rubber stamp unicameral legislative body. The National Assembly has 500 members, indirectly elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The legislature is, according to the constitution, the highest organ of the state. Its powers includes the enactment and amendment of the constitution and laws; the adoption of the government budget; supervising the Government of Vietnam and other holders of public powers responsible to the National Assembly; and appointing members of the judiciary. The Vietnamese constitution and legislation de jure provides for regular elections for the office of the President of the Socialist Republic, the National Assembly and the People's Councils. The President (Chủ tịch nước) is elected by National Assembly for a five-year term and acts as the de jure commander-in-chief of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces and Chairman of the Council for Defence and Security. However, the president has the right to decide on executive brands. The government (Chính phủ), the main executive state power of Vietnam, is headed by the Prime Minister, who has several Deputy Prime Ministers and several ministers in charge of particular activities. The executive branch is responsible for the implementation of political, economic, cultural, social, national defence, security and external activities of the state. Vietnam has a judicial system governed by the Constitution of Vietnam and national legislation enacted by National Assembly. The Supreme People's Court (Tòa án Nhân dân Tối cao) is the highest court of appeal in Vietnam. There are other specialised courts in Vietnam, including the Central Military Court, the Criminal Court, the Civil Court and the Appeal Court. The Supreme People's Procuracy observes the implementation of state organs and makes sure that Vietnamese citizens follow the law. ## Legal framework Vietnam is a one-party socialist republic. The current Vietnamese state traces its direct lineage back to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the 1945 August Revolution led by Hồ Chí Minh. The current constitution was adopted on 28 November 2013 by the National Assembly of Vietnam. There have been four other constitutions in Vietnamese history: the 1946, 1959, 1980, and 1992 constitutions. The Communist Party of Vietnam, the leading non-State organ, operates in accordance with the laws. Government powers in Vietnam are divided into legislative, executive and judiciary powers. Vietnam's legal system is based upon socialist legality according to Article 12 of the constitution. ## State ideology Vietnam is a socialist republic with a one-party system led by the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV). The CPV espouses Marxism–Leninism and Hồ Chí Minh Thought, the political philosophy and ideology of the late Hồ Chí Minh. The two ideologies function as a firm ideological basis and serve as guidance for the activities of the Party and state. According to the Constitution, Vietnam is "in the period of transition to socialism". Marxism–Leninism was introduced to Vietnam in the 1920s and 1930s, and Vietnamese culture has been led under the banner of patriotism and Marxism–Leninism. Hồ Chí Minh's beliefs were not systematised during his life, nor quickly following his death. Trường Chinh's biography of "Chairman Hồ" in 1973 emphasised his revolutionary policies. The thoughts of Hồ Chí Minh were systematised in 1989, under the leadership of Nguyễn Văn Linh. Hồ Chí Minh Thought, alongside Marxism–Leninism, became the official ideology of the CPV and the state in 1991. The CPV's claim to legitimacy was retained following the collapse of communism in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 by its commitment to the thoughts of Hồ Chí Minh, according to Sophie Quinn-Judge. According to Pierre Brocheux, the author of Ho Chi Minh: a Biography, the current state ideology is Hồ Chí Minh Thought, with Marxism–Leninism playing a secondary role. While some claim that Hồ Chí Minh Thought is used as a veil for the Party leadership since they, according to this version, have stopped believing in communism, others claim this is not true considering that Hồ Chí Minh was an avid supporter of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Others see Hồ Chí Minh Thought as a political umbrella term whose main function is to smuggle in non-socialist ideas and policies without challenging socialist legality. Since its foundation, the key ideology has been Marxism–Leninism, but since the introduction of a mixed economy in the late 1980s and 1990s, it has lost its monopolistic ideological and moral legitimacy. As became clear because of the Đổi Mới reforms, the Party could not base its rule on defending only the workers and the peasants, which was officially referred to as the "working class-peasant alliance". In the constitution introduced in 1992, the State represented the "workers, peasants and intellectuals". In recent years, the Party has stopped representing a specific class, but instead the "interests of the entire people", which includes entrepreneurs. The final class barrier was removed in 2002, when party members were allowed to engage in private activities. In the face of de-emphasising the role of Marxism–Leninism, the Party has acquired a broader ideology, placing more emphasis on nationalism, developmentalism, and becoming the protector of tradition. ## Communist Party of Vietnam According to the official version, the Communist Party of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam) is leading the Vietnamese people "in carrying out the country's renovation, modernisation and industrialisation." According to the Party's statute, amended at the 9th National Congress on 22 April 2001, the CPV was "established and trained by President Hồ Chí Minh, has led the Vietnamese people to carry out successfully the August Revolution, establishing the Democratic Republic of Việt Nam, now the Socialist Republic of Việt Nam, to defeat foreign invaders, to abolish the colonial and feudalist regime, to liberate and reunify the country, and then carry out the cause of renovation and socialist construction and firmly defend national independence." It believes in socialist internationalism of the working class, and supports the "struggle for peace, national independence, democracy and social progress of the world's people." The CPV acts as the vanguard of the working people and the whole nation by representing their interests. Its aim is to create "a strong, independent, prosperous and democratic country with an equitable and civilized society, to realise socialism and ultimately, communism." The Party's ideological foundation is Marxism–Leninism and Hồ Chí Minh Thoughts. These ideologies guide the activities of the Party, while promoting "the nation's traditions, and absorbing other nations' essential ideas." The CPV is organised on the principles of democratic centralism. It practices "criticism, self-criticism, and strict discipline" and pursues "collective leadership and individual responsibility, and promoting comradeship and solidarity in line with the Party's political programs and statutes." The CPV is subject to Vietnamese laws and the Constitution. It is the country's ruling party and promotes the "mastery of the people over the country". The Party is under the supervision of the people. It is dependent on having the people contribute to the party, by strengthening, uniting, and leading the people in the revolutionary cause. The political system in Vietnam is led by the CPV, and it "leads, respects and promotes the role of the State, the Vietnamese Fatherland Front (VFF) and other socio-political organisations." ### Congress The National Congress is the party's highest organ. The direction of the Party and the Government is decided at the National Congress, held every fifth year. The Central Committee is elected by the National Congress. Delegates vote on policies and candidate posts within the central party leadership. Following ratification of the decisions taken at the National Congress, the National Congress dissolves itself. The Central Committee, which is elected by the National Congress every fifth year, implements the decisions of the National Congress in the five-year period. Since the Central Committee only meets twice a year, the Politburo implements the policies of the National Congress. ### Central Committee The Central Committee (CC) is the CPV's most powerful institution. It delegates some of its powers to the Secretariat and the Politburo when it is not in session. When the Vietnam War ended in 1975, the Vietnamese leadership, led by Lê Duẩn, began to centralise power. This policy continued until the 6th National Congress, when Nguyễn Văn Linh took power. Linh pursued a policy of economic and political decentralisation. The party and state bureaucracy opposed Linh's reform initiatives; because of this, Linh tried to win the support of provincial leaders. This caused the powers of the provincial chapters of the CPV to increase in the 1990s. The CPV lost its power to appoint or dismiss provincial-level officials in the 1990s; this is proven by the fact that Võ Văn Kiệt tried to wrestle this power back to the centre during the 1990s without success. These developments led to the provincialisation of the Central Committee; for example, more and more CC members have a background in provincial party work. Because of these changes, power in Vietnam has become increasingly devolved. The number of Central Committee members with a provincial background increased from a low of 15.6 percent in 1982 to a high of 41 percent in 2000. The former President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam Trương Tấn Sang (2011–2016) was directly elected from the provinces at the 8th Party Congress, held in 1996. Because of the devolution of power, the powers of the Central Committee have increased substantially; for instance, when a two-thirds majority of the Politburo voted in favour of retaining Lê Khả Phiêu as General Secretary (the leader of Vietnam), the Central Committee voted against the Politburo's motion and voted unanimously in favour of removing Lê Khả Phiêu from his post of General Secretary. The Central Committee did this because the majority of its members were of provincial background, or were working in the provinces; because of this, these members were the first to feel the pinch when the economy began to stagnate during Lê Khả Phiêu's rule. The Central Committee elects the Politburo in the aftermath of the Party Congress. Since the full Central Committee meets only once a year, the Politburo functions as the Party's leading collective decision-making body. The Secretariat is also elected by the Central Committee, and is headed by the General Secretary (Vietnamese: Tổng Bí thư Ban Chấp hành Trung ương Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam). It is responsible for solving organizational problems and implementing the demands of the Central Committee. The Secretariat oversees the work of the Commissions of the Central Committee. The General Secretary is the de facto leader of Vietnam. \\|General Secretary of the Central Committee \\|rowspan="2"\\| Nguyễn Phú Trọng \\|Communist Party \\|rowspan="2"\\| 19 January 2011 \\|- \\|Secretary of the Central Military Commission \\|Communist Party \\|- \\|Secretary of the Central Public Security Commission \\|Tô Lâm \\|Communist party \\| May 2016 \\|- \\|Executive Secretary of the Secretariat \\|Võ Văn Thưởng \\|Communist Party \\|2021 \\|- \\|Head of the Central Commission of Organization \\|Trương Thị Mai \\|Communist Party \\|5 April 2021 \\|- \\|Chairman of the Central Commission for Inspection \\|Trần Cẩm Tú \\|Communist Party \\|9 May 2018 \\|- \\|Head of the Central Commission of Propaganda \\|Nguyễn Trọng Nghĩa \\|Communist Party \\|2021 \\|- \\|Chairman of the Central Theoretical Council \\|Nguyễn Xuân Thắng \\|Communist Party \\|28 March 2011 \\|- \\|Head of the Central Commission of Popularization \\|Bùi Thị Minh Hoài \\|Communist Party \\|2021 \\|- \\|Head of the Central Office \\|Lê Minh Hưng \\|Communist Party \\|2021 \\|- \\|Head of the Central Commission of External Affairs \\|Lê Hoài Trung \\|Communist Party \\|2021 \\|- \\|Head of the Central Commission of Economy \\|Trần Tuấn Anh \\|Communist Party \\|2021 \\|- \\|Head of the Central Commission of Internal Affairs \\|Phan Đình Trạc \\|Communist Party \\|26 February 2016 (Acting Head since 2015) The following is the official order of precedence of the Politburo according to the 13th National Party Congress. 1. Nguyễn Phú Trọng, Party General Secretary 2. Nguyễn Xuân Phúc, State President 3. Phạm Minh Chính, Prime Minister 4. Vương Đình Huệ, Chairman of the National Assembly 5. Trần Tuấn Anh, Head of the PCC’s Commission of Economics 6. Nguyễn Hoà Bình, Chief Justice of the Supreme People's Court 7. Lương Cường, General, Chairman of the General Department of Politics of the Vietnam People's Army 8. Đinh Tiến Dũng, Secretary of Ha Noi Municipal Party Committee 9. Phan Văn Giang, Minister of National Defence 10. Tô Lâm, Minister of Public Security 11. Trương Thị Mai, Head of the Party's Central Committee's Commission of Organisational Affairs 12. Trần Thanh Mẫn, Deputy Chairman of the National Assembly 13. Phạm Bình Minh, Deputy Prime Minister 14. Nguyễn Văn Nên, Secretary of the Ho Chi Minh city Party Committee 15. Nguyễn Xuân Thắng, Director of the Ho Chi Minh National Academy of Politics, Chairman of the Central Theoretical Council 16. Võ Văn Thưởng, Standing Member of the Secretariat of the Party 17. Phan Đình Trạc, Head of the PCC’s Commission of Internal Affairs 18. Trần Cẩm Tú, Chairman of the PCC’s Commission of Inspection The Secretariat (term 13) includes some Politburo members assigned to join the Secretariat and 5 comrades elected at the first PCC meeting (term 13). 1. Nguyễn Phú Trọng, Party General Secretary 2. Võ Văn Thưởng, Standing Member of the Secretariat of the Party 3. Trương Thị Mai, Head of the Party's Central Committee's Commission of Organisational Affairs 4. Trần Cẩm Tú, Chairman of the PCC’s Commission of Inspection 5. Phan Đình Trạc, Head of the PCC’s Commission of Internal Affairs 6. Nguyễn Hòa Bình, Chief Justice of the Supreme People's Court 7. Đỗ Văn Chiến, Chairman of the Presidium of the Vietnamese Fatherland Front 8. Bùi Thị Minh Hoài, Head of the Central Commission of Popularization 9. Lê Minh Hưng, Chief of the Office of the PCC 10. Lê Minh Khái, Deputy Prime Minister 11. Nguyễn Trọng Nghĩa, Head of the Central Commission of Propaganda ## Fatherland Front The Vietnamese Fatherland Front (VFF) (Vietnamese: Mặt trận Tổ quốc Việt Nam) is an umbrella group of pro-communist movements. According to Article 9 of the Constitution, the VFF and its members constitute "the political base of people's power". The state must create a favorable environment for the VFF and its member organisations. The VFF is a voluntary mass organisation of political, socio-political and social organisations and "individuals from all classes, social strata, ethnic groups, and religions, including overseas Vietnamese." Its main objectives are to gather and build a people unity bloc, "strengthen the people's political and spiritual consensus, encourage the people to promote their mastership, to implement the CPV's guidelines and policies, and to abide by the Constitution and laws." The VFF is governed on the principles of "democratic consensus, coordinated and united action." Its organisation has been modelled after the state structure, and the VFF has its own independent statute. Notable member organisations of the VFF include the General Confederation of Labour, the Hồ Chí Minh Communist Youth Union and the Veteran Association, among others. \\|Chairman of the Central Committee \\|Đỗ Văn Chiến \\|Communist Party \\|2021 \\|- \\|Deputy Chairman of the Central Committee \\|rowspan="2"\\|Hầu A Lềnh \\|Communist Party \\|rowspan="2"\\|2017 \\|- \\|General Secretary of the Central Committee \\|Communist Party ## Executive The President of the Republic (Vietnamese: Chủ tịch nước Việt Nam) is the head of state, elected to a five-year term by the National Assembly, and is limited by the Constitution to a maximum tenure of 3 terms. In addition to being the Chairman of the Council for Defence and Security and commander-in-chief of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing or dismissing of the Vice Presidents, Prime Minister, Deputy Chief Judge of the Supreme People's Court and Head of the Supreme People's Procuracy, with the consent of the National Assembly through a simple majority vote. The President has influence on foreign policy, and has the right to declare a state of emergency and to declare war. The Government (Vietnamese: Chính phủ) It is headed by the president, prime minister and consists of deputy prime ministers, ministers and other members. The Government is a unified administration responsible for the implementation of political, economic, cultural, social, national defence, security and external activities of the state. It is also responsible for the effectiveness of the state apparatus itself from the top down, stabilisation in the country and the observance of the constitution. As with the President, the Government is elected by the deputies of the National Assembly for a five-year term. The Prime Minister of the Government (Vietnamese: Thủ tướng Chính phủ) is the head of government and is elected or dismissed by the National Assembly, at the request of the president. Since 5 April 2021, the prime minister of the government has been Phạm Minh Chính. \\|President \\|Võ Văn Thưởng \\|Communist Party \\|2 March 2023 \\|- \\|Vice President \\|Võ Thị Ánh Xuân \\|Communist Party \\| 6 April 2021 \\|- \\|Prime Minister \\|Phạm Minh Chính \\|Communist Party \\|5 April 2021 \\|- \\|Deputy Prime Minister \\|Phạm Bình Minh \\|Communist Party \\|2013 \\|- \\|Deputy Prime Minister \\|Lê Minh Khái \\|Communist Party \\| 2021 \\|- \\|Deputy Prime Minister \\|Vũ Đức Đam \\|Communist Party \\| 2013 \\|- \\|Deputy Prime Minister \\|Lê Van Thành \\|Communist Party \\| 2021 \\|- ## Legislative The National Assembly (Vietnamese: Quốc hội) is a unicameral legislative body, and is governed on the basis of democratic centralism. It is the highest representative organ and the highest state organ. The National Assembly is the only organ vested with constitutional and legislative powers. It is responsible for fundamental domestic and foreign policies, socio-economic policies, defence and security issues, and it exercises supreme control over all state activities. Delegates (or members) of the National Assembly are elected through secret ballots in democratic elections which are held every fifth year. The National Assembly is convened twice a year, and its Standing Committee represents it between sessions. The membership of the Standing Committee consists of the Chairman (Vietnamese: Chủ tịch Quốc hội), deputy chairmen and other members; these members are elected by the National Assembly. Standing Committee members cannot simultaneously be members of the Government. Members work on a full-time basis, and their terms of office correspond with the term of the National Assembly. The Standing Committee continues to function until a new National Assembly is elected. According to the constitution, the Standing Committee is responsible for 12 duties. Of these, the most important are the powers to announce, convene and chair the National Assembly sessions, to interpret the constitution, laws and ordinances, and to issue ordinances on those matters assigned by the National Assembly. It supervises and guides the People's Councils and their activities, and directs, regulates and coordinates the activities of the Ethnic Council and the committees of the National Assembly. There are seven committees of the National Assembly. Committee membership is determined by the National Assembly. They are responsible for the studying and examination of bills, legislative initiatives, drafts of ordinances and other drafts of legal documents and reports assigned by the National Assembly or the Standing Committee. The committees provide the National Assembly and its Standing Committee with their opinions on the legislative programme. The committees supervise and conduct investigations within their respective competency and exercise powers which are stipulated by law. The National Assembly elects the Ethnic Council, which consists of a Chairman, Deputy Chairmen and other members. The Ethnic Council studies and recommends actions to the National Assembly; the National Assembly has to consult with the Ethnic Council before issuing any decisions on ethnic policy. The Chairman of the Ethnic Council has to attend meetings of the Government which concern ethnic policy. The powers of the Ethnic Council are comparable to those of the committees. \\|Chairman \\|Vương Đình Huệ \\|Communist Party \\| 31 March 2021 \\|- \\|Deputy Chairman \\|Trần Thanh Mẫn \\|Communist Party \\| 2021 \\|- \\|Deputy Chairman \\|Nguyễn Khắc Định \\|Communist Party \\| 2021 \\|- \\|Deputy Chairman \\|Nguyễn Đức Hải \\|Communist Party \\| 2021 \\|- \\|Deputy Chairman \\|General Trần Quang Phương \\|Communist Party \\| 20 July 2021 \\|- \\|Chairman of the Ethnic Council \\|Y Thanh Hà Niê Kđăm \\|Communist Party \\| 21 July 2021 ## Judiciary The Vietnamese judicial system is based upon Socialist legality. The country's highest judicial organ is the Supreme People's Court (SPC) (Vietnamese: Tòa án Nhân dân Tối cao). The composition of the SPC includes the Chief Justice (Vietnamese: Chánh án Tòa án Nhân dân Tối cao), Deputy Chief Judge, jurors and court secretaries. The structure of the SPC (from the top down) is as follows: Council of Judges, Commission of Judges, Central Military Court, Criminal Court, Civil Court, Appeal Court, and assisting staff. The Chief Judge of the SPC is elected by the National Assembly, while the President of the Socialist Republic has the power to nominate and dismiss the Deputy Chief Judge and judges at the Chief Judge's request. The Central Committee of the Vietnamese Fatherland Front introduces People's Jurors, which are in turn appointed by the Standing Committee of the National Assembly. According to the Government Web Portal, the operating principles of the courts are, during hearings, that the "judges and jurors are independent and only obey the laws." Justice and democracy within the system is supposedly ensured because legal decision-making is an open process. Jurors play an essential role, and defenders have the right of defence and to hire a lawyer. The Supreme People's Prosecutor (SPP) (Vietnamese: Viện Kiểm sát Nhân dân Tối cao), the Vietnamese equivalent to an attorney general, observes the implementation process of the Ministries, ministerial-level agencies, government organs, local authorities, social and economic organisations, the armed forces, security forces and the Vietnamese citizens in general. The SPP respects the Constitution and state laws, practices public prosecution as stated by the law and ensures law enforcement. The head of the SPP is elected, dismissed, or removed from office by a proposal of the President. The Deputy Heads, prosecutors and inspectors appointed by the SPP head can be dismissed by the President on the Head's request. The SPC is the highest court for appeal and review, and it reports to the National Assembly, which controls the judiciary's budget and confirms the president's nominees to the SPC and SPP. The SPP issues arrest warrants, sometimes retroactively. Below the SPC are district and provincial people's courts, military tribunals, and administrative, economic and labor courts. The people's courts are the courts of first instance. The Ministry of Defence (MOD) has military tribunals, which have the same rules as civil courts. Military judges and assessors are selected by the MOD and the SPC, but the SPC has supervisory responsibility. Although the constitution provides for independent judges and lay assessors (who lack administrative training), the United States Department of State maintains that Vietnam lacks an independent judiciary, in part because the Communist Party selects judges and vets them for political reliability. Moreover, the party seeks to influence the outcome of cases involving perceived threats to the state or the party's dominant position. In an effort to increase judicial independence, the government transferred local courts from the Ministry of Justice to the SPC in September 2002. However, the Department of State saw no evidence that the move actually achieved the stated goal. Vietnam's judiciary is also hampered by a shortage of lawyers and by rudimentary trial procedures. The death penalty often is imposed in cases of corruption and drug trafficking. \\|Head of the Steering Committee of the Central Judicial Reform \\|Nguyễn Xuân Phúc \\|Communist Party \\|2021 \\|- \\|Chief Justice of the Supreme People's Court \\|Nguyễn Hòa Bình \\|Communist Party \\|8 April 2016 \\|- \\|Director of the Supreme People's Prosecutor \\|Lê Minh Trí \\|Communist Party \\|8 April 2016 ## Elections Article 6 of the Constitution states that "The people make use of state power through the agency of the National Assembly and the People's Councils, which represent the will and aspirations of the people, are elected by them and responsible to them". Deputies (members) of the National Assembly are directly elected on a democratic basis through secret ballots. All citizens who are 18 or older, regardless of ethnic group, gender, social position, belief, religion, level of education, occupation or length of residency have the right to vote, the exceptions being the mentally disabled and those people who have been deprived of the right to vote by law. People aged 21 or older have the right to stand as a candidate at elections. Three election commissions have been established to manage elections; at the central level is the Election Council, at the provincial level and in centrally-run cities the Election Committee is responsible for election monitoring and the Election Commission is responsible for election monitoring at constituencies. The current 500 members of the National Assembly were elected during the 2016 `parliamentary election, and they have a five-year term. Despite foreign criticism, it is generally believed that the National Assembly has become more powerful in recent years. The last election was held, according to the authorities, in a democratic, fair, lawful and safe manner and was considered a success. Voter turnout was 99.51 percent; nearly 62 million people voted. In their respective constituencies, Nguyễn Phú Trọng, the General Secretary, was elected to the National Assembly with 85.63 percent of the votes, Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng was elected with 95.38 percent and President Trương Tấn Sang was elected with 80.19 percent. Outside the ruling troika, it was Nguyễn Xuân Phúc, the Chairman of the Government Office, who was elected with the highest margin, with 94.59 percent of the votes. The number of self-nominated candidates was four times higher than the previous election. Fifteen out of the 182 candidates nominated by the central government and the central party leadership were defeated in the elections. Lê Thị Thu Ba, a member of the Party's Central Committee and Chairman of the Committee of Law during the 12th National Assembly (2007–2011), was not re-elected to the National Assembly. Several capitalists were elected to the assembly, but due to the socialist ideology of the state, they are not allowed to sit on the assembly's Committee on Economy and Budget.` Nguyễn Sinh Hùng, the Chairman of the National Assembly, nominated Trương Tấn Sang for the Presidency. 487 deputies of the National Assembly, meaning 97.4 percent, voted in favour of Trương Tấn Sang. In his victory speech, Trương Tấn Sang said, "I pledge to improve my moral quality and study the example of the late President Hồ Chí Minh to cooperate with the government to bring Vietnam to become a fully industrialized country by 2015." ### Latest parliamentary election ### Latest presidential election ## Local government Provinces and municipalities are subdivided into towns, districts and villages. Provinces and municipalities are centrally controlled by the national government. Towns, districts and villages are locally accountable to some degree through elected people's councils. Certain cities and provinces are under direct control of the central government. The provinces are divided into districts, provincial cities and towns; cities under direct rule are divided into towns, urban and rural districts. In turn, the district is divided into communes and townlets. In the words of Article 118 of the Constitution, the "provincial city and the town are divided into wards and communes; the urban district is divided into wards." The establishment of People's Council and People's Committees is determined by law. In the provinces, the People's Council is the "local organ of State power", and it represents the "aspirations, and mastery of the people". The People's Council is democratically elected, and is accountable to the people and to superior organs of the state. It must pass resolutions which are formal orders of superior organs of state, and it acts on behalf of the constitution. The People's Council decides the plans for socio-economic development, decides the budget and is responsible for national defence and security at the local level. The deputy (member) of the People's Council acts on the behalf of the people, and has the right to make proposals to the People's Council and other local State organs. In turn, officials of these local organs have the responsibility to receive and to examine them. The People's Council appoint a People's Committee, the executive organ of the People's Council. It is the People's Committee which has the responsibility to implement "the Constitution, the law, the formal written orders of superior State organs and the resolutions of the People's Council." The People's Committee is headed by a Chairman, who acts as the body's leader. All decisions of the People's Committee are taken through a collegial decision-making process, and have to "conform to the will of the majority." The chairman has the power to annul decisions of lower standing organs. Local officials of the Vietnamese Fatherland Front, its local head, and officials from other mass organisations in the locality have the right to attend the meetings of the People's Council and the People's Committee if relevant problems are discussed. According to Article 125 of the constitution, "The People's Council and the People's Committee shall make regular reports on the local situation in all fields to the Fatherland Front and the mass organisations; shall listen to their opinions and proposals on local power building and socio-economic development; shall cooperate with them in urging the people to work together with the State for the implementation of socio-economic, national-defence, and security tasks in the locality." ### List of provinces
4,521,048	Steel Vengeance	1,173,170,811	Roller coaster at Cedar Point	[ "1991 establishments in Ohio", "Best New Ride winners", "Cedar Point", "Hybrid roller coasters", "Roller coasters in Ohio", "Roller coasters operated by Cedar Fair" ]	Steel Vengeance, formerly known as Mean Streak, is a steel roller coaster at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio. The roller coaster, originally constructed by Dinn Corporation as a wooden roller coaster, was rebuilt by Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC) and opened to the public on May 5, 2018. It is a hybrid coaster, using RMC's steel I-Box track and a significant portion of Mean Streak's former support structure. Upon completion, Steel Vengeance set 10 world records, including those for the tallest, fastest, and longest hybrid roller coaster. Mean Streak opened to the public on May 11, 1991, as the tallest wooden coaster in the world with the longest drop height. After more than 25 years of operation, Cedar Point closed Mean Streak on September 16, 2016, casting doubt and uncertainty regarding the ride's future. Over time, the park dropped subtle hints about a possible track conversion, which was officially confirmed in August 2017. It was marketed as the world's first hybrid hypercoaster – a wooden and steel roller coaster at least 200 feet (61 m) in height – and reemerged as Steel Vengeance. ## History ### Wooden roller coaster Cedar Point revealed in 1990 that a new roller coaster would be built for the 1991 season. It was officially named Mean Streak on October 24, 1990. Construction began two months earlier in late August 1990 with land preparation. It continued through the rest of the year and spring of the following year. Mean Streak opened with the park's seasonal debut on May 11, 1991, in the Frontiertown section of the park behind one of Cedar Point & Lake Erie Railroad's stations. The ride's media day press conference was held on May 22, 1991. Mean Streak was one of eleven roller coasters designed and manufactured by Ohio-based Dinn Corporation before the company went out of business in 1992. It was a twister coaster model designed by Curtis D. Summers, and the ride cost \$7.5 million to construct. In September 2010, a small 5-foot (1.5 m) section caught fire, which was quickly contained by firefighters to a small portion of the ride. ### Hybrid refurbishment On August 1, 2016, Cedar Point announced that Mean Streak would offer its last rides to the public on September 16, 2016. Park officials, however, declined to confirm that the ride was being torn down. Following its closure, unconfirmed rumors emerged that the roller coaster was being refurbished by Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC), a manufacturing company well known for its restoration work on existing wooden roller coasters. Cedar Point began teasing the public on the ride's future with the release of an 18-second teaser video entitled "They're Coming" on April 1, 2017. Cedar Point showed video shots briefly panning several elements of the rumored conversion. Another similar video showing snippets of the new ride was released a few months later in June. Three more videos were released over the summer of 2017, with catchphrases "They're rollin' in like thunder", "There's a score to settle", and "They stake their claim." On August 16, 2017, Cedar Point held an official announcement for Steel Vengeance. It was also announced that a virtual recreation of the ride would be made available in the PC video game, Planet Coaster. Steel Vengeance opened to the public on May 5, 2018, but a minor collision between two trains forced Steel Vengeance to remain closed for most of its opening day. The coaster resumed operation with only a single train while RMC investigated the issue and made modifications. The ride was closed on certain weekday mornings to allow RMC to make repairs. The park temporarily removed the ride from its Fast Lane Plus lineup and considered timed boarding passes as a result of its limited capacity. Normal two-train operation resumed on June 1, 2018. Following an incident on Twisted Timbers at Kings Dominion, where a phone hit a rider in the face during the ride, Cedar Point issued a temporary ban on cell phones when entering the ride's queue beginning in August 2018. The ban was lifted the following season after zipper pouches were installed on the trains to safely secure loose items. Metal detectors were installed in the queue, ensuring that all loose articles were placed in these pouches. The pouches were removed in 2020 following the COVID-19 pandemic, and the previous ban was reinstated. ## Characteristics Mean Streak's wooden track was approximately 5,427 feet (1,654 m) in length and the height of the lift hill was approximately 161 feet (49 m). It was constructed from more than 1.5 million board feet (4,000 m3) of treated southern yellow pine. In 1994, a trim brake was installed on the first drop reducing its overall speed in an attempt to prevent abnormal track wear and increase ride comfort. Over the years, Mean Streak had been re-tracked several times. Some re-tracking was completed by Martin & Vleminckx. Prior to the 2012 operating season, many sections of track after the first drop were replaced. This was the most significant work done on the ride since it opened. Also, in 2012, a portion of the queue was removed to make room for a new building. The building is located in the infield of Mean Streak and is used for the HalloWeekends haunted house, Eden Musee. It is also used for storage during the off-season and summer. Philadelphia Toboggan Coasters (PTC) manufactured three trains for Mean Streak. Each train had seven cars with riders arranged two across in two rows for a total of 28 riders per train. The minimum height required to ride was 48 inches (120 cm), and guests were secured by an individual ratcheting lap bar and seat belt. During the 2011–2012 off-season, all three trains were sent to PTC's headquarters for maintenance and refurbishment. After the conversion to Steel Vengeance, the coaster's track length was extended to 5,740 feet (1,750 m) and the ride's peak height was increased to 205 feet (62 m). Its three new trains are each based on a character from the themed backstory of the ride: Jackson "Blackjack" Chamberlain, Chess "Wild One" Watkins, and Wyatt "Digger" Dempsey." ## Ride experience ### Mean Streak After leaving the station, the Mean Streak train passed through the storage tracks and made a 180-degree turn to the right, before ascending the 161-foot-tall (49 m) lift hill. After cresting the top of the hill, the train dropped 155 feet (47 m) at a 52-degree-angle, reaching a top speed of 65 miles per hour (105 km/h). While dropping, riders went through a set of trim brakes on the first drop. Riders then went through a 123-foot-tall (37 m) twisted turnaround followed by a small airtime hill, and then another twisted turnaround. The train maneuvered over the lift hill and dipped down to the right. After that, the train traveled through the ride's structure and down another hill, turning to the left into the mid-course brake run. The train then dipped down to the left into another airtime hill. Riders then went through several small airtime hills and turned through the ride's structure followed by the final brake run. One cycle of the ride lasted 3 minutes and 13 seconds, making it the former longest duration of any roller coaster at Cedar Point. When Mean Streak opened in 1991, it was the tallest wooden roller coaster in the world and featured the longest drop. Upon closure in 2016, Mean Streak had the seventh tallest lift, the tenth fastest speed, the fourth longest track-length and the seventh longest drop. ### Steel Vengeance After leaving the station, the train makes a 180 degree right turn, passes over two small bunny hills, and begins its ascent up the 205-foot-tall (62 m) chain lift hill. After cresting the top of the lift hill, the train drops 200 feet (61 m) at a 90-degree angle, reaching its maximum speed of 74 mph (119 km/h). After this drop, the train traverses a small airtime hill, followed by a climb into a larger airtime hill, which drops riders slightly to the right. Next, the train climbs up a 116-foot (35 m) left outward banked hill, dips slightly right, and passes over another small airtime hill, which leads to the first inversion, a zero-g roll. After this, the train dips right, passes underneath the lift hill, and traverses an overbanked right turn, which leads into the second inversion, a half stall, that sees the train pass through the lift hill structure for a second time. Then, the train dips straight, passes over a small airtime hill, and climbs up a hill. The train then makes an upward left-hand turn, which leads to the mid-course brake run. Following this, the train makes another sharp left turn into a short, steep drop slightly to the left. Next, the train navigates an upward, slightly overbanked turn to the left, traverses another airtime hill, then upward into a slightly overbanked left turn. This is followed by a small drop into a high-speed overbanked left turn, which leads into the third inversion, a zero-g roll. Next is a double-up into another high-speed overbanked left turn, which leads into the fourth inversion, a final zero-g roll. Next, another overbanked left turn into an airtime hill, followed by four more airtime hills, which lead to the final brake run back into the station. One cycle of the ride lasts 2 minutes and 30 seconds. ## World records Steel Vengeance broke 10 world records when it opened, some of which have since been broken. Past records: - World's tallest hybrid - World's fastest hybrid roller coaster at 74 miles per hour (119 km/h) - World's steepest drop on a hybrid roller coaster at 90 degrees - World's longest drop on a hybrid roller coaster at 200 feet (61 m) - Most inversions on a hybrid roller coaster at 4 Current records: - World's longest hybrid roller coaster at 5,740 feet (1,750 m) - Fastest airtime hill on a hybrid roller coaster at 74 miles per hour (119 km/h) - Most airtime on a hybrid roller coaster at 27.2 seconds - Most airtime on any roller coaster at 27.2 seconds - World's first "hyper-hybrid" roller coaster ## Incidents - During opening day on May 5, 2018, Steel Vengeance was temporarily closed following a minor collision between two trains. As a train was reentering the station, it "lightly bumped" another parked train. Four riders were treated for minor injuries and later returned to the park. - On July 21, 2018, a 17-year-old boy was arrested and charged with a misdemeanor for throwing a hot sauce packet at a moving train. Seven people were treated by the park's EMS after the packet exploded and hit them in the face and eyes. - On August 10, 2018, a tire from the drive system located near the brake run became detached and landed near the queue. The ride was then evacuated and reopened later that same evening. ## Reception Writers from The Pantagraph stated that Mean Streak was "the best-kept-secret at Cedar Point," as it was located at the very back of the park. The ride was also featured on the Today show in 1992 in connection with the 100th anniversary of roller coasters. Mean Streak had been ranked as one of the most popular wooden roller coasters in the world. Amusement Today magazine's Golden Ticket Awards ranked Mean Streak as one of the world's 50 best wooden roller coasters nine times from 1998 to 2012. Steel Vengeance received the Golden Ticket Award for Best New Ride in 2018. It has also been ranked among the top 50 steel coasters every year since its reopening, except in 2020, when the Golden Ticket Awards were not held. ## See also - Twisted Timbers – a roller coaster at sister park Kings Dominion that underwent a similar conversion.
48,823,025	French destroyer Pistolet	1,165,502,670	Destroyer of the French Navy	[ "1903 ships", "Arquebuse-class destroyers", "Ships built in France" ]	Pistolet was an Arquebuse-class destroyer built for the French Navy (Marine nationale) in the first decade of the 20th century. Completed in 1903, the ship was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron (Escadre du Nord) in the English Channel. She was transferred to French Indochina the following year and remained there for the next decade. She was present for the Battle of Penang during World War I, but was not able to engage the German cruiser SMS Emden. Pistolet returned to France in 1916 and patrolled the western Mediterranean Sea for the rest of the war. She was ultimately sold to ship breakers in 1920. ## Design and description The Arquebuse class was designed as a faster version of the preceding Durandal-class destroyers. The ships had an overall length of 56.58 meters (185 ft 8 in), a beam of 6.38 meters (20 ft 11 in), and a maximum draft of 3.2 meters (10 ft 6 in). They normally displaced 307 metric tons (302 long tons) and 357 t (351 long tons) at deep load. The two vertical triple-expansion steam engines each drove one propeller shaft using steam provided by two du Temple Guyot boilers. The engines were designed to produce a total of 6,300 indicated horsepower (4,700 kW) for a designed speed of 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph), all the ships exceeded their contracted speed during their sea trials. Pistolet reached a speed of 29 knots (54 km/h; 33 mph) from 6,573 ihp (4,901 kW) during her sea trials on 23 July 1903. The ships carried enough coal to give them a range of 2,300 nautical miles (4,300 km; 2,600 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Their crew consisted of four officers and fifty-eight enlisted men. The main armament of the Arquebuse-class ships consisted of a single Canon de 65 mm (2.6 in) Modèle 1891 gun forward of the bridge and six 47-millimeter (1.9 in) Hotchkiss guns in single mounts, three on each broadside. They were fitted with two single rotating mounts for 381-millimeter (15 in) torpedo tubes on the centerline, one between the funnels amidships and the other on the stern. ## Service history Pistolet (Pistol) was ordered from Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire on 22 May 1901 and the ship was laid down in September at its shipyard in Nantes. She was launched on 29 May 1903 and conducted her sea trials from June to August that year. The ship was commissioned on 21 September after their completion. She was assigned to the Northern Squadron before completion, on 9 September, to replace the old destroyer Escopette. She was shortly thereafter transferred to the Far East Squadron (escadre de l'Extrême-Orient) based in French Indochina, arriving there in April 1904. She traveled there in company with the protected cruiser D'Assas and several other Arquebuse-class destroyers. In June 1905, the destroyer was assigned to the newly formed 2nd China Sea Torpedo Boat Flotilla (2<sup>e</sup> Flotille des torpilleurs des mers de Chine) of the renamed Naval Division of the Far East (Division navale de l'Extrême-Orient). In 1911 the division consisted of the armored cruisers Dupleix and Kléber, the old torpedo cruiser D'Iberville, two other destroyers, six torpedo boats, and four submarines, along with a number of smaller vessels. ### World War I At the start of World War I in August 1914, the division included Pistolet, along with the armored cruisers Montcalm and Dupleix, D'Iberville, and the destroyers Mousquet, and Fronde. The unit was based in Saigon in French Indochina. The destroyers and D'Iberville were initially sent to patrol the Strait of Malacca while the armored cruisers were sent north to join the search for the German East Asia Squadron. D'Iberville and the destroyers conducted patrols in the strait for the German unprotected cruiser SMS Geier, which was known to be passing through the area at the time; the French ships failed to locate the German vessel. Pistolet was present in the harbor at George Town, Penang, on 27 October, moored alongside her sister Fronde. The other major Triple Entente ships in the harbor included D'Iberville and the Russian protected cruiser Zhemchug. In the early hours of 28 October, the German light cruiser SMS Emden entered the harbor to attack the Entente vessels there. In the ensuing Battle of Penang, Emden quickly torpedoed and sank Zhemchug before turning to flee. As the German ship departed, she encountered and sank Mousquet. Unlike the other French warships, Pistolet could not open fire on the raider, as she was moored inboard of Fronde and could not bring her guns to bear. In 1915, Pistolet received new boilers at Saigon. She returned home later that year, arriving back in Toulon on 19 January 1916. The ship was then assigned to the Western Mediterranean Patrol Division, where she operated for the next two years. On 21 May, she arrived in Toulon having escorted the submarine Gay-Lussac from Brindisi, Italy. The war having ended in November 1918, Pistolet was struck from the naval register on 30 October 1919 and eventually sold to ship breakers in Toulon on 6 May 1920.
9,679,918	Norwegian Police Service	1,152,024,902	Law enforcement organization in Norway	[ "13th-century establishments in Norway", "Law enforcement in Norway" ]	The Norwegian Police Service (Norwegian: Politi- og lensmannsetaten) is the Norwegian national civilian police agency. The service dates to the 13th century when the first sheriffs were appointed, and the current structure established in 2003. It comprises a central National Police Directorate, seven specialty agencies and twelve police districts. The government agency is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and Public Security and has 16,000 employees, of which 8,000 are police officers. In addition to police powers, the service is responsible for border control, certain civil duties, coordinating search and rescue operations, counterterrorism, highway patrolling, writ of execution, criminal investigation and prosecution. The directorate is led by National Police Commissioner Odd Reidar Humlegård. Each police district is led by a chief of police and is subdivided into several police stations in towns and cities, and sheriffs' offices for rural areas. The Governor of Svalbard acts as chief of police for Svalbard. Norwegian police officers do not carry firearms, but keep their Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns and Heckler & Koch P30 pistols locked down in the patrol cars. The Norwegian Prosecuting Authority is partially integrated with the police. Specialist agencies within the services include the National Criminal Investigation Service, the National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime (Økokrim), the National Police Immigration Service, the National Mobile Police Service, the Norwegian Border Commissioner, the National Police Computing and Material Service and the Norwegian Police University College. Several other national responsibilities are under the command of Oslo Police District, such as the police tactical unit Delta and the two police helicopters. The Police Security Service is separate from the National Police Directorate. ## History The police force in Norway was established during the 13th century. Originally the 60 to 80 sheriffs (lensmann) were predominantly used for writ of execution and to a less degree police power. In the cities the duties were originally taken care of by a gjaldker. The sheriffs were originally subordinate to the sysselmann, but from the 14th century they instead became subordinate to the bailiff (fogd) and the number of sheriffs increased. In the cities the police authority was transferred directly to the bailiff. By the mid-17th century there were between 300 and 350 sheriffs. With the introduction of the absolute monarchy in 1660 and subsequent strengthening of the civil service, the importance of the police increased. The bailiffs as such became part of the police structure, with their superiors, the county governor, receiving a similar role as that of chief of police. The first titled chief of police was hired in Trondheim in 1686, thus creating the first police district, although his jurisdiction only covered the city proper. Chiefs of police were hired in Bergen in 1692, Christiania (Oslo) in 1744 and Christianssand in 1776. From the 19th century, deputies were hired in larger areas to assist the sheriffs. Following the democratization in 1814, the Ministry of Justice was created in 1818 and has since had the primary responsibility for organizing the police force. The 19th century saw a large increase in the number of chiefs of police, reaching sixteen by the middle of the century. Christiania established the country's first uniformed corps of constables in 1859, which gave the force a more unified appearance. Similar structures were soon introduced in many other cities. From 1859 the municipalities would finance the wages of the deputies and constables, which made it difficult for the police to use those forces outside the municipal borders. The first organized education of police officers started in Christiania in 1889. In 1894 the authorities decided to abolish the position of bailiff and it was decided that some of its tasks would be transferred to the sheriffs. This resulted in 26 new chief of police positions, largely corresponding to the old bailiwicks. Some received jurisdiction over both cities and rural areas, other just rural areas. At the same time the existing police districts were expanded to include the surrounding rural areas. However, the individual bailiff were not removed from office until their natural retirement, leaving some bailiwick in place until 1919. The reform eliminated the difference between the rural and city police forces; yet the sheriffs were only subordinate to the chief of police in police matters—in civil matters and administration they remained under the county governors. The police school was established in 1920 and the Governor of Svalbard was created in 1925. To increase the police force's flexibility, the municipal funding was cut and replaced with state funding in 1937. That year also saw the first two specialty agencies were created, the Police Surveillance Agency (later the Police Security Service) and the Mobile Police Service. After a border agreement was reached between Norway and the Soviet Union in 1949, the Norwegian Border Commission was established the following year. The Criminal Investigation Service was established in 1959, and the search and rescue system with two joint coordination centers and sub-centers for each police district was created in 1970. The number of police districts was nearly constant from 1894 to 2002, although a few have been creased and closed. However, the organization in the various police districts varied considerably, especially in the cities. In particular, some cities had their civilian responsibilities taken care of by the municipality. This was confusing for the public, resulting in the police services reorganizing to a homogeneous organization during the 1980s, whereby the civil tasks being organized as part of the police stations. Økokrim was established in 1988 and in 1994 the administrative responsibilities for the sheriff's offices was transferred to police districts. Only once has the order to shoot to kill been issued, during the Torp hostage crisis in 1994. The police school became a university college in 1993 and introduced a three-year education; in 1998 a second campus opened in Bodø. Police Reform 2000 was a major restructuring of the police force. First the National Police Directorate was created in 2001, and from 2003 the number of police districts were reduced from 54 to 27. The Police Computing and Material Service and the Criminal Investigation Service were both established in 2004. Ten police officers have been killed in service since 1945. The Gjørv Report following the 2011 Norway attacks criticized several aspects of the police force, labeling the work as "unacceptable". National Commissioner Øystein Mæland withdrew following the criticism, in part because an internal report of the attacks had not found any criticism of the police force. ## Structure The National Police Directorate, located in Downtown Oslo, is the central administration for the Norwegian Police Service. It conducts management and supervision of the specialist agencies and police districts, including organizational development and support activities. The directorate is led by the National Police Commissioner, who, since 2012, has been Odd Reidar Humlegård. The National Criminal Investigation Service is a national unit which works with organized and serious crime. It both works as an assistant unit for police districts, with special focus on technical and tactical investigation, in addition to being responsible on its own for organized crime. It acts as the center for international police cooperation, including participation in Interpol and Europol. The National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime is responsible for complex cases of economic crime and acts as a public prosecutor for those cases. The National Police Immigration Service registers and identifies asylum seekers and returns those which have their applications rejected. The National Mobile Police Service is based in Stavern and operates throughout the country. Their primary role is as highway patrol and manages the police reserves, although they also assist police districts in extraordinary events where extra manpower is needed or where they are in the vicinity. The Norwegian Border Commissioner is located in Kirkenes and is responsible for managing the Norway–Russia border and upholding the border agreement. Special consideration is needed as it is the only non-Schengen Area land border of Norway. Border controls are the responsibility of the respective police district. The National Police Computing and Material Service is responsible for managing the police's information and communications technology, procurement, security and real estate. Norway has two joint rescue coordination centers, one for Northern Norway located in Bodø and on one for Southern Norway located in Sola. Their jurisdiction border goes at the 65th parallel north (Nord-Trøndelag–Nordland border). Organizationally they are directly subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police, although their operations are subordinate to the chiefs of police in Salten and Rogaland, respectively. The Police Security Service is Norway's security agency; although considered a law enforcement agency, it is not subordinate to the National Police Directorate nor part of the Norwegian Police Service. Metropolitan Norway is divided into 27 police districts. Each district is further subdivided into local police stations and rural police districts, the latter led by a sheriff. Each police district is headquartered at a main police station and is led by a chief of police. Police districts hold a common pool of resources and personnel and have a common administration and budget. Each also has a joint operations center which also acts as an emergency call center for 112. Many of the larger districts have their own execution and enforcement authority, while this in integrated in the smaller districts. The size of the police districts varies, from Oslo with 2,500 employees and covering a population of 570,000 to Eastern Finnmark which has 160 employees and 30,000 residents. Each districts has specially-trained mobile units for armed and other challenging missions, and dog units for narcotics and search and rescue missions. The police districts also have police boats for coastal waters and selected lakes, with focus on driving under the influence, speeding and environmental monitoring. In Troms and Finnmark, the Reindeer Police are responsible for monitoring and supervising reindeer husbandry and environmental supervision. As of 2009 there were 301 rural police districts, 68 local police stations and 10 execution and enforcement authorities. Oslo Police District has a series of special divisions and task forces which provide aid to all other police districts when necessary. It is responsible for the two police helicopters, which is mostly used for traffic motoring, search and rescue and apprehension. The tactical unit Delta is for terrorism, sabotage and hostage incidents, which is separate from the crisis and hostage negotiation service. Oslo's dog patrol service includes the national bomb squad. The departments further has a mobile deployment squad against demonstrations and riots, a Police Negotiation Unit for use against barricades and kidnapping, a mounted police, and the responsibility for protecting high-ranking government and royal officials. Svalbard is not part of the regular police districts—instead its law enforcement is handled by the Governor of Svalbard, who holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police, as well as other authority granted by the executive branch. Duties include environmental policy, family law, law enforcement, search and rescue, tourism management, information services, contact with foreign settlements, and abjudication in some areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations—albeit never in the same cases as acting as police. Jan Mayen is subordinate to Salten Police District. ## Jurisdiction and capabilities Norway has a unified police, which means that there is a single police organization and that police power and prosecutor power is not granted to other agencies within Norway. The sole exception is the military police, albeit which only has jurisdiction over military personnel and on military installations, except during martial law. The police are decentralized and generalized to allow a more flexible resource allocation, while remaining under political control. This entails that police officers have no geographical or sector limitations to their powers. The Police Act and several special laws regulate the agencies and the officer's powers and responsibilities. The police are required to assist other public institutions, including the healthcare authorities, and can be asked by other agencies to assist when it is necessary to enact a decision by force. Conversely, the police can ask for assistance from the Coast Guard when necessary. The police are responsible for all responses against terrorism and sabotage unless Norway is under armed attack. Responsibilities and functions related to security includes patrolling, continual emergency availability, highway patrolling, sea patrolling, coordination of search and rescue activities, embassy security and as a body guard service for members of the government, the royal family and other in need. The crime fighting responsibility is split between preventative measures, such as information, observation and controls, and consequential measures, such as investigation and prosecution. The police further have duties related to civilian court cases, such as writ of execution, evaluation of natural damage, assisting the courts after bankruptcies and functioning as a notary public. The police have a series of functions related to public management, such as the issuing of passports and national identity cards, firearms licenses, police certificates, permissions for lotteries and withdrawal of driving licenses, approval of security guard companies and bouncers, recommendations to municipal councils for issuing alcohol sales licenses, approval of second-hand shops and arrangements which are otherwise unlawful, dealing with unowned dogs and animals in the care of people sentenced unsuitable to hold animals. The police also have the responsibility for prisoner transport during detention, including transport to and from court. The police serve as border guards for the outer border of the Schengen Area. The busiest are Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, which has 130 man-years tied to it, Storskog on the Russian border and Sandefjord Airport, Torp. These are the only borders with designated border employees—all other are manned with regular officers. The police is not responsible for customs, which is the responsibility of the Norwegian Customs and Excise Authorities. Norway participates in a series of international police cooperation, such as Interpol, Europol, the Schengen Information System, Frontex, and the Baltic Sea Task Force on Organized Crime. Norway also has a close cooperation with the other Nordic police forces. The Norwegian Police Service occasionally participates in international operations. In 2011 the police force had 746,464 assignments, the most common with 180,000 assignments being investigation cases, such as reported deaths, controls and reports of motor vehicle theft. This was followed by traffic assignments, public disturbance of peace, animal cases, theft, private disturbance of peace, and sickness and psychiatry. Seventy-five percent of assignments are solved with a single patrol, while ninety percent are solved with one and two. In armed situations only twenty percent are solved with a single patrol. In 2010 the Norwegian Police Service had 13 billion Norwegian krone in costs, of which seventy percent was used on wages. It employed 13,493 man-years, or 1.6 man-years per 1000 residents. There were 394,137 reported offenses, or 81.1 per 1000 people, of which 46 percent were solved. There were 5,399 debt settlements, 226,491 applications for writ of execution, 195,345 immigration cases and 4,615 forced returns. ## Investigation and prosecution The Norwegian Prosecuting Authority is integrated into the Norwegian Police Service. The authority is divided into a higher and lower authority, with the higher authority (public prosecutor) being a separate government agency and the lower authority (police prosecutor) being members of the police. The latter includes chief of police, deputy chief of police, police prosecutors and deputy police prosecutors. In questions of prosecution the police districts are subordinate to the Norwegian Prosecuting Authority and in other matters subordinate to the National Police Directorate. The higher authorities will take decisions in serious criminal charges and for appeals. The Norwegian Persecuting Authority is led by the Director General of Public Prosecutions, which since 1997 has been Tor-Aksel Busch. The director general makes decisions of indictment in cases with a maximum penalty of twenty-one years and certain other serious crimes. There are twelve subordinate agencies, ten regional and two supporting Kripos and Økokrim, respectively. The regional public prosecution offices take decisions regarding cases not covered by the director general or the police prosecutors. If an offense is filed, the issue may be investigated by police on duty. Permission for search and seizure is issued by the police prosecutor on duty at the police district. Apprehended people are permitted a free defense counsel at the public's expense. If the police wish to keep apprehended people in detention, the issue is brought to the relevant district court, a process which may be repeated several times if the custody needs to be extended. Investigations are led by a police prosecutor. During investigation, the case may be concluded as a non-criminal offense, dismissed, or transferred to another police district. Minor cases with a positive finding may be resolved by police penalty notice, settlement by a conflict resolution board and withdrawal of prosecution. Criminal cases with an assumed perpetrator are sent to the public prosecutor, who will consider issuing an indictment. If positive, the trial will take place at a district court, with a police prosecutor presiding over the case. Cases with more than six years maximum penalty will normally be carried out with public prosecutors prosecuting. Either party can, on specified terms, appeal the outcome of the case to the court of appeal and ultimately the Supreme Court of Norway. ## Education and employment Education of police officers is the responsibility of the Norwegian Police University College, which is subordinate to the National Police Directorate. The main campus is located at Majorstuen in Oslo, while the secondary campus is located at Mørkved in Bodø. In addition the college has training centers in Kongsvinger and Stavern. Police officer training is a three-year bachelor's degree, where the first and third year take place at the college and the second year is on-the-ground training in police districts. In 2009, 1990 people applied for 432 places at the college. From 2010, admission is administrated through the Norwegian Universities and Colleges Admission Service. The college also has a three-year part-time master's degree in police science. As the chief of police and deputy chief of police are part of the prosecuting authority, they must be a candidate of law to act in such a position. Although there no longer is a formal requirement for such an education, the role as prosecutor effectively hinders others from holding the position. At the time of graduation all officers are qualified for operational service. However, each employee must undergo 40 hours of yearly training, including firearms practice, to keep their operational certification. Without this, they cannot patrol, use firearms or participate in actions. Forty-four percent of police officers in 2012 lacked such certification. The main reason is that the police districts see it as a waste of resources to train investigation and administrative staff which do not participate in operative duty, and that a higher quality is achieved through specialization of tasks, such as dedicated investigation personnel. Each police district may dictate that operational personnel have a higher amount of training, for instance 80 hours is required in Oslo. Officers are certified at five levels, of which the top four can use firearms. Level three consists of a call-out unit for each police district, consisting of a combined 646 people. This requires 103 hours of special training per year. Higher levels are required for body-guard service (55 officers) and the tactical unit Delta (73 officers). All certification curriculum is developed by and organized by the university college. The Norwegian Police Federation is the trade union which organizes employees from all levels within the police force. The federation is a member of the Confederation of Unions for Professionals, Norway and the European Confederation of Police. It is illegal for police officers to strike. The federation have nonetheless undertaken several actions, including collective sick leave to close a police station and by members sabotaging courses by not participating. Reports of misconduct and criminal offenses by officers during duty is investigated by the Norwegian Bureau for the Investigation of Police Affairs. Based in Hamar, it is directly subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police and is not part of the Norwegian Police Service. ## Equipment As of 2023 the police's new patrol cars are four-wheel drive Volvo V90CC with automatic transmission. New transport cars are Mercedes-Benz Vito for light transport and Mercedes-Benz Sprinter for heavy transport. The police force operates three AW169 helicopters, which are based at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. In addition, Delta can use the Royal Norwegian Air Force's Bell 412 helicopters. The police have two main types of uniforms, type I is used for personnel which primarily undertake indoor work, and type II is used for personnel which primarily undertakes outdoor service. Both types have summer and winter versions, and type I also has a dress uniform version. Both types use black as the dominant color with light blue shirts. Police officers are not armed with firearms during patrolling, but have weapons locked down in the patrol cars. Arming of the locked-down weapons requires permission from the chief of police or someone designated by him. The police use Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns and Heckler & Koch P30 semi-automatic pistols. Delta uses Diemaco C8 assault rifles. Norwegian police officers use electroshock weapons called Taser X2 and they started using it in 2018. Previously the police used a decentralized information technology system developed during the mid-1990s. As late as 2012 servers were still being run with Windows NT 4.0 from 1996 and log-on times were typically twenty minutes. The new IT-system D#2 was introduced in 2011 and will have been taken into use by all divisions by 2012. D#2 will be operated by ErgoGroup and will have two redundant server centers. Personnel have access to the system via thin clients. The police have a system to raise a national alarm to close border crossings and call in reserve personnel. The one time it was activated the message was not received by any of the intended recipients. Since 2009 it has been possible to report criminal damage and theft of wallets, bicycles and mobile telephones without a known perpetrator(s) online. The Norwegian Public Safety Radio has been installed in all districts. The system is uses Terrestrial Trunked Radio and allows for a common public safety network for all emergency agencies. Features include authentication, encryption and possibilities to transmit data traffic. ## Ranks ## See also - Crime in Norway - Incarceration in Norway - Royal Police Escort
36,202,029	DayZ (mod)	1,172,382,172	Arma 2 mod	[ "2013 video games", "First-person shooter multiplayer online games", "Multiplayer video games", "Open-world video games", "Post-apocalyptic video games", "Survival video games", "Tactical shooter video games", "Third-person shooters", "Video game mods", "Video games about zombies", "Video games developed in New Zealand", "Video games developed in the Czech Republic", "Video games set in Europe", "Video games with user-generated gameplay content", "Windows games", "Windows-only games" ]	DayZ is a multiplayer open world survival third-person shooter modification designed by Dean Hall for the 2009 tactical shooter video game Arma 2 and its 2010 expansion pack, Arma 2: Operation Arrowhead. The mod places the player in the fictional post-Soviet state of Chernarus, where a mysterious plague has infected most of the population, turning people into violent zombies. As a survivor with limited resources, the player must scavenge the world for supplies such as food, water, weapons and medicine, while killing or avoiding both zombies and other players, and sometimes non-player characters, in an effort to survive the zombie apocalypse. DayZ has been praised for its innovative design elements. The mod reached one million players in its first four months on August 6, 2012, with hundreds of thousands of people purchasing Arma 2 just to play it. In response to its popularity, Bohemia Interactive made a standalone game based on the mod. The mod itself remains in continued development by its community. During the alpha, designer Dean Hall became part of Bohemia Interactive, and the mod, retitled to Arma II: DayZ Mod, was officially released on February 21, 2013. ## Gameplay DayZ attempts to portray a realistic scenario within the gameplay, with the environment having different effects on the player. A character may receive bone fractures from damage to their legs, go into shock from bullet wounds or zombie bites, receive infections from zombies or diseased players, or faint due to low blood pressure. Thirst and hunger must be kept under control by finding sustenance in either cities or the wilderness, with body temperature playing a key part in the character's survival. The game focuses on surviving and the human elements of a zombie apocalypse by forcing the player to acknowledge basic human needs like thirst, hunger and shelter. These mechanics require the player to focus on immediate goals before they can consider long-term strategies. DayZ is praised for its level of emergent gameplay. BuzzFeed author Russell Brandom suggested that the mod has spawned the first photojournalist in a massively multiplayer online role-playing game, creating articles that are not only about a game world but journalism told from within it. Brandom claimed that DayZ is a unique example of the massively multiplayer online game genre in giving players the freedom to harm or murder each other, whilst adding no restrictions on how or why they may do it, quoting a player who described it as "the story of people". The mod has been compared by Kotaku to The Walking Dead and its focus on interactions between the characters when faced with desperate situations. The players in DayZ are forced to deal with dilemmas in similar ways as portrayed in both the comics and TV series for The Walking Dead. It has been proposed that DayZ provides some insight into people's motivations and behaviors when reacting to real crisis events, mirroring controlled experiments of a similar nature. However, some critics of this theory argue that participants do not react as they would in a real world situation in which their life is truly threatened. Despite the game being biased towards self-interested, hostile competition, many players enter the game with their own perceptions and priorities. These varied approaches and experiences within the game suggest that even in a system that should theoretically promote rational behaviour, people act in unexpected ways. It has been proposed that this dispels the idea that chaos is an objective and defining feature of the system, rather it is what players make of it. ## Development Dean Hall created the concept while he was a soldier in the New Zealand Army, as a suggestion for training soldiers through exposure to situations provoking emotion and relevant thought processes. He has stated he was inspired by experiences during jungle training while on exchange with the Singapore Armed Forces in Brunei, where he was badly injured in a survival skills exercise. Hall has stated that what he had endured then directly affected the development of DayZ, and the creation of immersion through forcing the player to experience emotion and tension as part of gameplay.[^1] Hall believed that early rapid success of the mod was largely due to social media and consumers' desire for games that provided significant challenge. Hall has described the mod as something of an "anti-game" as it broke what he felt were generally considered to be basic rules of game design such as balance and not frustrating users. First requiring manual installation, DayZ can now be downloaded, for free, from Steam. On August 7, 2012, Dean Hall announced on the game's development blog that the mod was going to be made into its own game, with Bohemia Interactive as the developer, and himself as the project leader. On October 29, 2012, development of the mod officially transferred to a largely community driven effort with the release of version 1.7.3. ## Reception DayZ acquired a large user base due to its unique gameplay. By August 2012, three months after release, the mod had registered more than one million unique users. IGN called it one of the most popular PC games in the world "right now" four months after release. It was credited for over 300,000 unit sales of Arma 2 within two months of the mod's release, putting this three-year-old title in the top seller charts on Steam for over seven weeks, much of this time as the top selling game. Marek Španěl, CEO of Arma 2 developer Bohemia Interactive, said the mod was directly driving sales of the game and applauded it for an addictive and thrilling experience, saying that it could stand as a gaming experience on its own. The mod was also praised by video game developers not involved with the series. Kristoffer Touborg from CCP (EVE-Online) said it was the best game he has played in several months and called it particularly innovative given the first-person shooter genre, which he considered to be one of gaming's least innovative genres. Game designers Erik Wolpaw and Tim Schafer stated at PAX Prime 2012 that they believe that player-driven experiences such as DayZ are the future of gaming, commenting on what the title achieved without having a driving narrative. ### Media reception The mod received widespread media acclaim. Edge called DayZ the mod of the year. Wired UK's Quitin Smith said it could be the most terrifying game of 2012, and Rock Paper Shotgun's Jim Rossignol called it the best game he had played so far in 2012. PC Gamer stated the game was one of the most important things to happen to PC gaming in 2012 and included it in their 2012 list of the top five scariest PC games of all time. Metro called it one of the best games to ever to come out of PC modding and one of the single most impressive experiences available on the system. Eurogamer called it the best zombie game ever made and the break out phenomenon of PC gaming in 2012. Kotaku called it possibly the greatest zombie game of all time and the most interesting PC game of 2012. PC PowerPlay said DayZ was the most important thing to happen to PC gaming in 2012. Eurogamer's Stace Harman suggested that the mod's designer Dean Hall might be responsible for some of the most emotive stories to come from playing a video game. Chris Pereiraa of 1UP.com called it a "shining example of PC gaming at its finest", stating the tension from interacting with other players leads to an experience unlike anything else he had experienced in gaming apart from making love in Heavy Rain, and cited the game as an example that PC gaming is not in decline, as the creation of such a mod is something that is only possible on a computer (as opposed to video game consoles). According to bit-tech's Joe Martin, no other game in the genre has offered so compelling take on a zombie apocalypse and its impact of the mod on the industry might be similar to that of Defense of the Ancients and Counter-Strike. ### Awards - The mod was nominated for the "Online Innovation" category at the Game Developers Conference Online Awards 2012. - PC Gamer gave DayZ the "Mod of the Year" 2012 award, calling it "one of the least-forgiving and most intimidating games of the year." - Good Game gave DayZ the "Quiet Achiever" award for 2012. - PC PowerPlay gave DayZ the "Game of the Year 2012" and named it number five on their list of top 100 games of all time. ## Standalone game The standalone title, also called DayZ, carries over many of the core gameplay mechanisms of the Arma 2 mod. DayZ has enhanced graphics, enhanced UI, and AI compared to the mod. DayZ'' launched on 8th generation consoles (PlayStation 4 and Xbox One) in 2019. [^1]:
7,904,283	Edward Rotheram	1,110,325,066	British Royal Navy officer	[ "1753 births", "1830 deaths", "Companions of the Order of the Bath", "People from Bildeston", "People from Hexham", "Royal Navy captains at the Battle of Trafalgar", "Royal Navy officers", "Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War", "Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars", "Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars" ]	Captain Edward Rotheram CB (27 December 1753 – 6 November 1830) was a senior officer of the British Royal Navy, who served for many years during the American War of Independence, French Revolutionary War and Napoleonic Wars. During his service, Rotheram saw action at several major naval engagements, including as a lieutenant at the Glorious First of June in 1794 and as captain of HMS Royal Sovereign at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Although he was highly praised for his actions at both battles, he was not well regarded in the service, being once described by his admiral at Trafalgar, Cuthbert Collingwood, as "a man of no talent as a sea officer" and "a stupid man". Rotheram gained a reputation as a difficult officer to serve with, and he rapidly alienated his fellow officers and the sailors who served under him. Ultimately this character trait resulted in his removal from service and overlooking for promotion in 1808 after being court martialled for inappropriate behaviour towards junior officers. The rest of his life was spent requesting the Admiralty, often in an aggressive manner, for both further service and the rewards he felt were his due. ## Early career Rotheram was born in 1753 at Hexham in Northumberland the son of Dr. John Rotheram, a local physician, and his wife Catherine Roberts. Rotheram was the second of the couple's seven children, his older brother being John Rotherham. He was educated, with his brothers, at Head School in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, where the family moved when Edward was seven. His elder brother John Rotheram was later a senior professor in natural philosophy at St Andrew's University. Edward Rotheram went to sea at a young age, joining a collier sailing from Newcastle and serving aboard merchant ships for several years. In 1777 however, Rotheram joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman during the American Revolutionary War. Initially serving on HMS Centaur, Rotheram moved to HMS Barfleur in 1780 and HMS Monarch shortly afterwards as a lieutenant, serving under Lord Howe. Monarch was heavily engaged in the West Indian campaign during the latter stages of the war, and Rotheram saw action at the Battle of Martinique in 1780, the Battle of the Chesapeake in 1781 and the Battle of St Kitts and the Battle of the Saintes in 1782. Following the end of the war at the start of 1783, Rotheram returned to Britain as a reserve officer on half-pay. ## Lieutenant and commander In 1785, Rotheram married Dorothy Harle of Newcastle, with whom he had three daughters. He returned to naval service in 1787 aboard HMS Bombay Castle and over the next four years moved between HMS Culloden and HMS Vengeance, all in the Channel Fleet. In 1792 Rotheram was made first lieutenant of HMS Culloden and was still in this position when the French Revolutionary War broke out a year later. Culloden was part of the Channel Fleet under Rotheram's old commander Lord Howe, and the ship was captained by Isaac Schomberg during the Atlantic campaign of May 1794, in which Howe pursued a French fleet deep into the Atlantic, bringing it to battle at the Glorious First of June. Culloden was not closely engaged in the opening stages of the battle, for which Schomberg would later be heavily criticised. Rotheram, however, gained acclaim in the battle's aftermath by organising the Culloden'''s boats and the boats of other nearby ships into a rescue party that saved hundreds of French sailors from the sinking Vengeur du Peuple. In recognition for this operation, Rotheram was promoted commander on 6 July 1794 and given command of the storeship HMS Camel in the Mediterranean Fleet. In 1797 Rotheram moved to the sloop HMS Hawke, which he commanded in the West Indies until 1800, returning to Britain in 1800 aboard HMS Lapwing to be made a post captain. Rotheram commanded Lapwing for the next two years, operating with the Channel Fleet and capturing several small French prizes. In 1802 Rotheram returned to reserve ashore during the Peace of Amiens. This retirement lasted until 1804, when Rotheram was recalled up to service as flag captain of HMS Dreadnought, a second rate ship of the line that flew the flag of Vice-Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood. Collingwood and Rotheram had a poor relationship, Collingwood commenting by letter to his brother that "He [Rotheram] is a man of no talent as a sea officer, and of little assistance to me." Nevertheless, when Collingwood moved to HMS Royal Sovereign in October 1805 as second-in-command of the fleet under Lord Nelson blockading the Franco-Spanish fleet in Cadiz, he brought Rotheram with him. Nelson was aware of the personal conflict between the men, and invited both Collingwood and Rotheram to dinner in a partially successful effort to reconcile them. ## Trafalgar At the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805, Royal Sovereign was the first ship in Collingwood's division to breach the enemy lines, and Collingwood and Rotheram appear to have reconciled some of their differences as they cooperated well in handling the ship. Collingwood even called to his captain; "Rotheram, what would Nelson give to be here!", Nelson's HMS Victory being several minutes behind Royal Sovereign in engaging the enemy. Rotheram was also noted during the action for refusing to remove his full dress uniform and large cocked hat, apparel which was not only impractical in a naval engagement but which also marked him as a target for enemy snipers. Royal Sovereign's main opponent was the large Spanish first rate Santa Ana, with whom she was engaged for several minutes at the start of the action without support. During this time, Royal Sovereign was at one point engaged with five different enemy ships, and suffered heavy damage and casualties during the engagement, finally subduing the 112-gun Santa Ana after a duel lasting several hours. Both ships were left unmanageable at the end of the engagement, Royal Sovereign being taken in tow by HMS Euryalus into which Collingwood transferred his flag. Royal Sovereign had suffered nearly 150 casualties, Santa Ana over 300 by the end of the battle. Santa Ana was later abandoned by her captors and ultimately fell back into Spanish hands, but Royal Sovereign reached the safety of Gibraltar soon after the battle. In the aftermath of the action, Rotheram left Royal Sovereign to take command of HMS Bellerophon, whose captain, John Cooke had been killed by a French sniper. Cooke had been targeted due to the dress uniform he had worn during the battle. Bellerophon escorted Victory carrying Nelson's body back to Britain, and Rotheram carried the guidon behind the coffin at Nelson's funeral in London. Rotheram was presented with a gold medal and sword of honour in recognition of his services in the action, and continued in command of Bellerophon. ## Retirement Rotheram remained in command of Bellerophon'' in the English Channel and the North Sea until 1808, when he was court martialled and reprimanded for unacceptable conduct towards his ship's junior officers and chaplain. Rotheram remained in the service, but was never again employed at sea. Collingwood summed the situation up in a letter to his sister, stating "Though I think him a stupid man I was in hope he might have gone on in the ship I put him in, which I believe was the only chance he had of being in a ship". Although his career was over, Rotheram continued to request sea service and honours from the Admiralty, becoming increasingly irate and intemperate in his demands. At the reorganising of the knightly orders in 1815, a number of senior naval officers were given knighthoods, but Rotheram was only made a Companion of the Order of the Bath, a step below knighthood. He retired to Bildeston in Suffolk and from there continued to request appointments, finally being made one of the captains of the Greenwich Naval Hospital in 1828. Rotheram died at Bildeston in 1830 and was buried in the churchyard of St Mary Magdelene just outside the village, where his grave and a memorial plaque are still legible today. Rotheram was never awarded any further honours or promoted to admiral, having lost his seniority in the court martial of 1808.
34,071,118	Give Me All Your Luvin'	1,166,317,993	2012 single by Madonna	[ "2012 singles", "2012 songs", "Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles", "Interscope Records singles", "M.I.A. (rapper) songs", "Madonna songs", "Nicki Minaj songs", "Number-one singles in Finland", "Number-one singles in Israel", "Record Report Pop Rock General number-one singles", "Song recordings produced by Madonna", "Song recordings produced by Martin Solveig", "Songs involved in plagiarism controversies", "Songs written by M.I.A. (rapper)", "Songs written by Madonna", "Songs written by Martin Solveig", "Songs written by Nicki Minaj" ]	"Give Me All Your Luvin'" is a song by American singer Madonna from her twelfth studio album, MDNA (2012). It features guest vocals by Trinidadian-American rapper Nicki Minaj and English rapper M.I.A. The song was written and produced by Madonna and Martin Solveig, with additional writing by M.I.A., Minaj and Michael Tordjman. After working with Solveig on one song, Madonna continued recording others including "Give Me All Your Luvin'". Madonna chose to work with M.I.A. and Minaj on the track since she felt they were both strong women with unique voices. She also liked their music and what they represented. A demo version of the song, titled "Give Me All Your Love", was leaked on November 8, 2011, resulting in a man from Spain being arrested for copyright violations. The final version of the song was released on February 3, 2012, as the lead single from MDNA. The track was her debut single from her three-album deal with Interscope Records. Backed by bouncing synthesizers, marching drums and a cheer, "Give Me All Your Luvin'" is a dance-pop song, with elements of new wave and disco. Madonna executes the chorus in high-pitched vocals while during its dubstep breakdown, Minaj raps her verse as her alter-ego Roman Zolanski, followed by M.I.A. rapping her verse. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" received mixed reviews from music critics. Its chorus was noted as a highlight by critics, who described it as catchy; however, they felt that the musical composition was inferior to Madonna's previous singles. Commercially, the song attained success, topping the charts in Canada, Finland, Hungary, and Israel while peaking within the top ten in several European countries. In the United States, it became Madonna's 38th top ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, extending her record as the artist with the most top-ten singles in the chart's history, a record that would be surpassed later by Drake in 2020. The song's accompanying music video featuring both Minaj and M.I.A. was directed by Megaforce. It shows Madonna, Minaj, and M.I.A. along with cheerleaders wearing animegao masks and football players. Madonna first performed the song with Minaj and M.I.A. at the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show. During the performance, M.I.A. extended her middle finger towards the camera while rapping her verse. She was criticized in the media and broadcaster NBC and the National Football League (NFL) issued apologies. They also fined the rapper which was resolved through a confidential agreement. Later that year, Madonna also performed "Give Me All Your Luvin'" on The MDNA Tour, where she wore a majorette outfit. ## Background and writing In December 2010, Madonna posted a message on her Facebook, exclaiming: "Its official! I need to move. I need to sweat. I need to make new music! Music I can dance to. I'm on the lookout for the maddest, sickest, most badass people to collaborate with. I'm just saying". One of the collaborators was French DJ and producer Martin Solveig, who was invited to a writing session by Madonna in London in July 2011. Originally, Madonna wanted to work with Solveig on one song, but eventually it turned into three tracks—"Give Me All Your Luvin'", "I Don't Give A", and "Turn Up the Radio". In an interview with Billboard, Solveig explained that Madonna had enough time for the project, hence after working on one song, they continued recording. Solveig described the sessions as fun and labeled them a "privileged time". "Give Me All Your Luvin'" was written by Madonna, Martin Solveig, Nicki Minaj, M.I.A., and Michael Tordjman, while production was helmed by Madonna and Solveig. Madonna had wanted to work with M.I.A. and Minaj on a song, since she felt that they are both "strong women with a unique voice". She paid tribute to the stars, saying "[Minaj and M.I.A. are] not conventional pop stars and I really admire them both". M.I.A. confirmed the collaboration on her Twitter account, saying that she had been asked to come to New York City on November 29, 2011. The rapper felt that the collaboration was an achievement her mother would be proud of, "way [more] than me putting 'Galang' out in a club." ## Release and leaks On November 8, 2011, a demo version of the song, named "Give Me All Your Love", was leaked. According to Keith Caulfield from Billboard, "Within a few hours, [the song and its leak] was one of the top 10 trending topics worldwide on Twitter." Madonna's manager, Guy Oseary, addressed the leak on Twitter adding the singer's statement on the situation: "My true fans wouldn't do this". Oseary also clarified that their initial plan was for new music to come out in 2012 itself. He was happy with the positive reaction to the demo, but asked fans to help him police any more leaks. The leaked demo lacked vocals from both Minaj and M.I.A. which Madonna reflected upon, "It's really disappointing because you don't want things to come out till you're done with them, till you're ready. It's like everybody looking at your unfinished painting. It's like, 'Wait a minute. I didn't finish that. That's not fair." On December 22, 2011, the police arrested a 31-year-old man from Spain who had reportedly leaked the demo. They confirmed the suspect's initials as J.M.R. and described him as "a big Madonna fan"; they found recordings of the song in his belongings. He was arrested in Zaragoza, charged and subsequently released, pending a trial. It was confirmed by WENN in The Huffington Post that the person did not seek to achieve a profit from the release. In 2014, several demos from Madonna's thirteen studio album Rebel Heart leaked and an Israeli hacker named Adi Lederman was arrested: the indictment papers said that Lederman was also responsible for the leak of "Give Me All Your Luvin'". A month later, Interscope Records announced that the song would be released on February 3, 2012, three days before she was to perform at the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show. The track was her debut single from her three-album deal with Interscope Records. Along with the announcement Madonna revealed the cover art for the single. It depicted three black-and-white images of the singer side-by-side, making faces and posing, while wearing a t-shirt emblazoned with the song title. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" was sent to United States Mainstream radio on February 7, 2012. Madonna partnered with Clear Channel media to launch radio support for the track, and from February 3 it was played across 95 Mainstream and Rhythmic radio stations owned by them. The single was also played in the United Kingdom through Clear Channel's partnership with UK's Capital radio networks. They played the track at the top of every hour throughout the day till February 5, along with a megamix of songs from MDNA. The single was also released for streaming on iHeartRadio websites with online contests and promotional drives for buying it from iTunes. ## Recording and composition "Give Me All Your Luvin'" was recorded at MSR Studios, New York City and Sarm West Studios, Notting Hill, London. Demacio "Demo" Castellon recorded and mixed the track. Philippe Weiss and Graham Archer assisted Castellon on the recording, while Angie Teo assisted on the mixing. Jason "Metal" Donkersgoed did the additional editing of the song and Jean Baptiste Gaudray played guitars. Alongside his producing duty, Solveig also arranged the synths and drums for the track. He recalled that the track was recorded in two days, with Madonna and him continuously discussing the chord progression and the music. The initial version of the song's breakdown was "too much" of dubstep, which Madonna asked him to change, while adding Minaj and M.I.A.'s rapping over them. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" is a dance-pop song, with elements of new wave and disco. The song starts with a cheer: "L-U-V Madonna, Y-O-U you wanna" with the vocal tone reminiscent off Gwen Stefani's single "Hollaback Girl" (2005) and "Mickey" (1982) by Toni Basil. A "polished 60s shakedown" succeeds the chant, which is backed by bouncing synthesizers and hard drums. Priya Elan of NME said that the composition resembled Madonna's own songs like "Beautiful Stranger" (1999), "Amazing" (2000) and the songs on her studio albums, Ray of Light (1998) and Hard Candy (2008). The chorus of the song follows, which Madonna performs in a high-pitched voice: "Don't play the stupid game / Cause I’m a different kind of girl / Every record sounds the same / You’ve got to step into my world / Give me all your luvin', give me your love / Give me all your love today." Entertainment Weekly's Lanford Beard observed that the song "blends Katy Perry-meets-Gwen Stefani chanting, echoes of Ashlee Simpson's regrettable foray into New Wave-y synth-guitar sounds, and a 'Hold It Against Me' redux breakdown." John Mitchell of MTV News commented that the instrumentation of the song consists of "glittery synths, marching band drums, claps and a catchy-as-hell chorus." Lewis Corner of Digital Spy called the song an "'80s-inspired electro-thumper complete with a cheerleader chant of 'L-U-V Madonna!'" "Give Me All Your Luvin'" is written in the key of D major and has a moderately fast tempo of 144 beats per minute. It follows a basic chord progression of D–G–A in the verses, and D–F–C–G in the chorus and intermediate bridge. Madonna's vocals span from the tonal nodes of C<sub>4</sub> to A<sub>4</sub>. After the leak of the song in November 2011, media reported on the similarities between the song and singer Nicola Roberts' "Beat of My Drum", due to the "cheerleader-style" verses in both. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" has the lyrics "L-U-V Madonna" while Roberts track features the lyrics "L.O.V.E/ Dance to the beat of my drum". Soon after, Roberts called Madonna a "copycat" for the alleged similarities between the songs. However, she later insisted that people had been "quick to jump the gun" and claimed she had not even heard the song. Brazilian music producer Joao Brasil alleged that the chorus of "Give Me All Your Luvin'" was plagiarized from his 2011 single "L.O.V.E Banana". Both songs start with the shouts of cheerleaders, who in Brazil's song say "L.O.V.E Banana" and in Madonna's song, "L.U.V. Madonna". ## Critical reception "Give Me All Your Luvin'" met with generally mixed reviews from music critics. Priya Elan from NME said the song "seems to soar effortlessly" and that "what Madonna's doing in this song is so much more impossibly fun than we could have imagined." She also stated the song was a progress from the sound of her previous album, Hard Candy. Jim Farber from the New York Daily News considered that the song is "a pure snap of bubble gum, closer to an early single like 'Burning Up' than any of her more recent club hits. Only the rap cameos from the quite camp Nicki Minaj, and the less so M.I.A., tell us what decade we're in." Michael Cragg from The Guardian felt that the track was not bad. "Musically it's a pretty joyful four minutes, featuring bouncing beats, acoustic riffs and Gwen Stefani-style cheerleader chants, but there's something a bit flat about Madonna's delivery. Given all the love she's demanding, you'd think she'd be more excited." Speaking of the rap part, he thought that "Minaj certainly does her best, her typically frantic rap an exercise in squeezing as many words into a 10-second space as possible, while MIA's more laconic drawl loses momentum." Chris Willman of Reuters called it "risible" and infectious: "Everything here is as dumb as the titular spelling, but the campiness has its charm, at least if you like the old musicals that some of the tracking shots here are paying homage to". MTV News journalist Bradley Stern wrote about the "Hey Mickey" comparisons, complimenting the guest rapping of Minaj and M.I.A. even though he felt it was "one of the album’s least compelling moments". In a review of MDNA, Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph felt that the prime purpose of the "lightest, frothiest track" from the album was to represent next generation's female pop stars. Emily Mackay of The Quietus wrote in detail about the song: > After the first play of this album, I sat down and had a hard think about which of those songs I'd want to play again first. The only one that stuck in the head most was 'Give Me All Your Luvin'', whose cheerleader chants and thrumming rhythm are kind of excruciating, but at least catchy. Minaj and M.I.A. are as effortlessly awesome as they can both be when limited to just a few lines. Say what you like about Maya, but she sounds a deal more plausible that Madonna herself on a line like 'Imma say this once, hey I don't give a shit'... Oddly, for a single so tame, Madonna seems to see it as a challenge 'Every record sounds the same, you've got to step into my world'? We're already in your bloody world! It was kind of your responsibility to step out of it and make a record that didn't sound the same, so don't bloody badger us about it. Andrew Hampp from Billboard negatively reviewed the signing of Minaj and M.I.A. as guest artists, adding that "It's a subpar effort from all parties, particularly Madonna, who hasn't sounded this robotic since the more tweaked-out moments on Hard Candy." In another review, Keith Caulfield from the same magazine deemed the track as a commercial for Madonna's Super Bowl appearance, rather than being a promotional tool for MDNA, criticizing it for misleading the listener about the vibe of the album. Gareth Grundy from The Guardian shared this view, while describing the track as "clumsy rave-pop". Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone rated it two out of five stars, describing its lyrics and composition as "dashed off" and "in the doldrums", and was displeased by the track's "aggressive, assaultive spunkiness". Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described the song as "decidedly vapid" and "catchy" but also stated that "its few charms—'60s surf-pop guitar, vintage video-game effects, and references to her past songs—are fleeting at best." He felt that Minaj and M.I.A. were "tacked on for added marketability" and that the song actually lacked "authenticity". While reviewing MDNA, The New York Times' critic Jon Pareles described the song as "one of the album's weakest tracks". Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle wrote that the song's "shiny-happy" sound is "nowhere near representative of the full album." Alexis Petridis from The Guardian listed the song as the weakest effort on MDNA, adding that "its position as the album's lead single seems to have had more to do with showing off the presence of Nicki Minaj and M.I.A. than its featherweight melody." A writer for Virgin Media gave the song three out of five stars, writing: "Like most Madonna singles, it skips along at a furious pace with a gleam in its eye, but the self-references get tiresome and ultimately she is just trying too hard." Nick Levine, writing for The National, relegated the track as a "lighter pop morsel". Matthew Parpetua from Pitchfork panned the song, saying that Solveig's production on the track was paired with equally "bland lyrics". Brad O'Mancey from Popjustice declared that the track was "proof that sometimes you can listen to something many, many times and still not have any idea whether it's any good or not." Chicago Tribune journalist Greg Kot was disappointed with the song and its lyrics, which he found to be meaningless, while Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald relegated it as "trite and disposable". Alex Macpherson from Fact found the song to be "sheer misconceived awfulness". Jude Rogers from The Guardian criticized its "unforgivable spelling" and pointed out that the "candy-pop chorus really fizzes, but [Minaj and M.I.A.’s] cheerleading whoops and raps quickly dissolve". She placed the song at number 66 on her ranking of Madonna's singles, in honor of her 60th birthday. In August 2018, Billboard picked it as the singer's 95th greatest single; "[Madonna's] undeniably the squad captain on this surf-rock-inspired workout, but her collaborators deserve a big thank Y-O-U for providing the catchiest part of the song with their cheerleader chants". ## Chart performance In the United States, "Give Me All Your Luvin'" was played from 9 am on February 3, 2012 by Clear Channel radio stations. It debuted at number 24 on the Billboard Mainstream Top 40 chart, with weekly accumulation of 2,766 plays (Clear Channel accumulated for 79% of those plays). It was Madonna's seventh top-25 debut on the chart, the most since its inception in 1992. Along with the debut on Mainstream Top 40, "Give Me All Your Luvin'" also debuted at number 33 on the Rhythmic airplay, number 35 on Adult Top 40 and number 20 on Dance/Mix Show Airplay chart. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" debuted at number seven on the Hot Digital Songs chart selling 115,000 copies, the amount sold in the first three days of its availability and end of Billboard's tracking week. It consequently debuted at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 with 44 million total radio airplay. Following the performance at the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show, digital downloads for the song increased by 44% the next week to 165,000 copies, and the song reached number 10 on the Hot 100. It became Madonna's first top-ten single since "4 Minutes" (2008) and was her 38th song to reach the top-ten, thereby extending her record as the artist with the most top-ten songs on the Hot 100. The record would remain until Drake's "Greece" and "Popstar", with DJ Khaled, broke the record in 2020, becoming his 39th and 40th Hot 100 top ten entries. The song plummeted to number 39 the next week as the promotional effects of the Super Bowl wore off. With the release of "Give Me All Your Luvin'", Madonna tied with Dionne Warwick and Connie Francis for amassing the second highest number (56) of Billboard Hot 100 entries by female artists, only behind Aretha Franklin who had 73 entries. Madonna also extended her record as the artist with the most number-one songs on the Dance Club Songs chart, when "Give Me All Your Luvin'" became her 41st song to top it. In June 2012, the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for sales of more than 500,000 copies. As of 2023, this song remains to be Madonna's latest entry on the Top 40 in the United States. In Canada, the song debuted at number 11 on the Canadian Hot 100 for issue date of February 10, 2012. The next week, the song jumped to number one, becoming both greatest digital and airplay gainer of the week. The song also reached number one on the Digital Songs chart, with a 76% download increase to 24,000 copies, and number 10 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart with a 143% audience increase to over 14 million. It became Madonna's 25th number-one hit in Canada and her second chart-topper in the Hot 100 era after "4 Minutes". In Japan, the song debuted at number 42 on the Japan Hot 100, and moved to a peak of number three after two weeks. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" had low chart placement in Australia, where the song debuted at its peak of number 25 for the issue dated February 19, 2012, before falling out of the chart from number 44 the next week. Similarly, in New Zealand, the song debuted and peaked at number 26 for only one week. In the United Kingdom, the song peaked at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart with sales of 8,577 copies, becoming Madonna's 67th entry on the chart. The low sales were due to two days worth of download sales being discounted by the Official Charts Company as a result of a promotional offer that allowed the song to be downloaded for free if pre-ordering the album MDNA. It resulted in her worst performance for a lead single since "Everybody" (1982). The song dropped down to number 51 the next week, selling a further 7,070 copies but climbed to a peak of number 12 on the UK Airplay Chart. With the release of the CD single, "Give Me All Your Luvin'" sold a further 1,460 copies reaching number two on the UK Physical Singles chart. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" debuted atop the charts in Finland, but it quickly dropped off within three weeks. In Italy, the song peaked at number two and was certified platinum by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry (FIMI) for shipment of 30,000 copies of the single. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" debuted at number four on the French Singles Chart and jumped to its peak of number three the next week. It was present on the chart for 21 weeks. The song peaked within the top ten in Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland, reaching a peak of number seven on Billboard's Euro Digital Songs chart. ## Music video ### Background On December 8, 2011, Minaj tweeted that she was on set with Madonna filming the music video for "Give Me All Your Luvin". She also said that Madonna kissed her on the lips, as a gift for her birthday. M.I.A. then tweeted about filming the video with Madonna, saying, "Madonna killed it! A legend! said she'd have me, I said ill have her too". Directed by the team Megaforce—which consists of Léo Berne, Charles Brisgand, Raphaël Rodriguez and Clément Gallet—the video has a football and cheerleader theme, inspired by her then-upcoming Super Bowl halftime performance. Rodriguez explained to MTV News that they discussed the song with Solveig and understood that the video should be "about happiness and something really sunny". The whole look was also dictated by the fact that Megaforce had never collaborated with Madonna, Minaj and M.I.A., feeling that it was a "different universe" for them. The video was shot for over two days in New York, with very strict timings which Megaforce found as challenging. Describing the process as like working with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Megaforce told Swiss newspaper 20 minutes that the set was surrounded by police patrol and security guards and mobile phones were not allowed. A total budget of US\$1.5 million was allotted for the video. Some of the sequences in the video was Madonna's idea like one scene featuring her dancing in front of a wall, which Megaforce felt would not go with the main narrative. However, the singer insisted on keeping it and by the second day of filming she wrapped up early and left. Retouching was applied during post-production where Minaj wanted her body to look like a plastic doll. Production for the music video was handled by US based company Bureau and UK based Riff Raff Films. Paris based visual effects, animation and motion design studio Mathematic was given the task of adding the graphics on the video. A team of 14 artists worked for two weeks in Paris to finish the task, accompanied by Megaforce. Different methods used included rotoscoping and keying for creating artificial fireworks and sparkling rain, 3D and 2D backgrounds, set-extensions, buildings, as well as the sky which they created using Autodesk Maya. Costumes worn in the video included Adidas uniforms for Minaj and M.I.A. and a retro inspired look for a sequence, wearing white lace dresses reminiscent of Madonna's look in her 20s, as well as Marilyn Monroe. Another ensemble for Madonna included a crop top, leopard printed bra and a huge cross across her neck. Dress designer for the video was Arianne Phillips with cloths provided by brands like Burberry, Dolce & Gabbana, Bebe, Norma Kamali and jewelry from Swarovski, vintage Yves Saint Laurent, Prada and Eddie Borgo. ### Release and synopsis Madonna had first previewed the video in an American Idol exclusive on February 2, 2012, and the full video premiered the next day on her YouTube channel. The video starts as the words "Fans can make you famous, a contract can make you rich, the press can make you a superstar, but only luv [sic] can make you a player" appear on a brick wall. Cheerleaders M.I.A. and Minaj then sing the opening lyrics in a suburban neighborhood alongside other cheerleaders wearing animegao masks. Madonna sings the first verse as she exits a house with a baby stroller and wears a trench coat and sunglasses, all of which are soon discarded. Emerging football players protect her from obstacles, golden raindrops and destroy a car that gets in her way. They hold her perpendicular to a wall and she walks horizontally. Throughout the video, Madonna can be seen dancing and singing in front of a brick wall, and in one scene she holds a baby doll. During the second verse, Madonna walks across the city with M.I.A. and Minaj and is still followed by cheerleaders and football players. She walks down a city street, as players are shot down by an unseen shooter who opens fire from a passing vehicle. She climbs a pyramid of football players and is eventually taken to a club with Minaj and M.I.A., who sing their parts in a room filled with other cheerleaders and football players. Madonna then falls from the building but two players catch her. She makes her way to a town square, then starts dancing with her cheerleaders as they bash heads off of football players using baseball bats, revealing a climactic firework spectacle. Madonna grabs one of the heads and proudly displays it to a cheering audience. The video ends with Madonna in front of a brick wall, laughing and throwing away the baby doll, as the word "Touchdown!" appears in front of a pink backdrop. ### Reception Writing for Spin Caryn Ganz was pleased by the video, saying "[Madonna's] attempt to find a bridge between sports, love, and fame falls a bit flat... but in the end, the football players and cheerleaders in the video are all literally faceless passersby. They, like the two high-profile MCs, are all here in service of [the singer]." Becky Bain Idolator found a number of topics to discuss about the video, including trick photography, golden rains and the appearance of the singers as "triple Marilyn or triple Madonna". Though she believed that it was not Madonna's best video, nevertheless it was successful as a release. Christopher John Farley from The Washington Post gave another positive review, saying that the singer "appears to be in better shape than many college students, which is crazy" and also complimented her for picking "M.I.A. and Nicki Minaj–and getting them to literally serve as cheerleaders for the Madonna brand." MTV News' Jocelyn Vena described it as "funky, fun and surreal (and almost cartoony)" as well as fun and light-hearted: "Madonna looks like she's having an incredibly fun time throughout the visual, smiling and shimmying her way through this fictional, hyper-fantasy world. Watching the clip, one may wonder what doesn't happen in the video." Nicole James from MTV News opined that the video gave another impression that although "Madonna's never been the cute and innocent homecoming queen, but those wholesome, all-American football players still wanna kick it with her." Cragg from The Guardian declared the video as a "hoot" with the "creepy cheerleaders and Madonna breastfeeding a doll". Bradley Stern from MuuMuse found similarities in the video with those of singer Björk's video for "It's Oh So Quiet" (1995) and Kylie Minogue's "Come into My World" (2002) with the "walk-talk and walk-crawl" formula in it. He added that the video is "self-aware, thoroughly modern, cheeky, sarcastic, glamorous and entirely camp all at the same time". Chris Wilman from TheWrap noted similarities to Madonna's own "Material Girl" (1985) video with the scenes showing her being carried off by the footballers, adding that "everything here is as dumb as the titular spelling, but the campiness has its charm, at least if you like the old musicals that some of the tracking shots here are paying homage to." A writer from Rolling Stone gave a mixed review for the video saying that "It's a goofy and fun clip, though the faceless cheerleaders in the background are more creepy than amusing." In a pre-release screening of MDNA, Matthew Todd from Attitude believed that the last scene showing Madonna throwing off a baby doll implied that she was moving away from domestic life and embracing a party attitude. Amanda Dobbins from New York found some "attempted weirdness" in the video with the scenes of the triple Marilyns and the baby on Madonna's lap, but added that "Madonna still looks crazy bonkers good". ## Live performances In February 2012, Madonna performed "Give Me All Your Luvin'" with M.I.A. and Nicki Minaj at the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana. Madonna collaborated with Cirque du Soleil in producing the show. 36 image projectors were utilized to create a spectacle of lights. The whole performance consisted of 500 total outfits including customized looks for musical guests LMFAO, Minaj, M.I.A. and Green as well as costumes for 100 drum line performers, 150 gladiators—who wore pairs of black underwear designed by Calvin Klein—and 200 choir singers. As the performance of "Music" ended, a group of female dancers in cheerleader uniforms joined Madonna onstage for performing "Give Me All Your Luvin'". Minaj and M.I.A. joined her onstage, both dressed in Egyptian inspired clothing. Together they danced as cheerleaders while holding pom-poms. During the intermediate section, all three of them stood on separate elevated platforms where Minaj and M.I.A. performed their respective verses. The performance gained widespread attention from the media after M.I.A. extended her middle finger to the camera near the end of her verse instead of singing the word "shit". Media criticized M.I.A. for the gesture and compared the incident to Janet Jackson's 2004 wardrobe malfunction. People said, "Call it a finger malfunction? Madonna was supposed to be the center of attention during the Super Bowl halftime show Sunday, but the Queen of Pop was upstaged by her collaborator M.I.A., who flipped off the camera at one point during the performance, prompting swift apologies from the NFL and NBC." Madonna herself expressed her disappointment during an interview with host Ryan Seacrest on his talk show, On Air with Ryan Seacrest. She felt that it was a "teenager... irrelevant thing" for M.I.A. to do during the show since it was "out of place". Brian McCarthy, spokesman for the NFL said, "Our system was late to obscure the inappropriate gesture and we apologize to our viewers. The NFL hired the talent and produced the halftime show. There was a failure in NBC's delay system. The obscene gesture in the performance was completely inappropriate, very disappointing, and we apologize to our fans." McCarthy also clarified that the gesture was not revealed during rehearsals, M.I.A. improvised it on stage. The league later fined the rapper a total of \$16.6 million as penalty, which was resolved through a confidential agreement in 2014. Madonna also performed "Give Me All Your Luvin'" the same year on The MDNA Tour. After the performance of "Express Yourself" ended, she began performing "Give Me All Your Luvin'" dressed as a drum majorette in a white-and-red uniform with tall white boots. Phillips explained that the ensemble was created and inspired by a 1940s majorette look, and she added Swarovski crystals to the dress. Madonna sang the song on stage while a drumline was suspended in mid-air, and M.I.A. and Minaj appeared on the video screen. Caryn Ganz from Spin called the performance as the "night's most innovative moment" while Brian McManus from Rolling Stone was impressed with the drumline levitation on top of the stage. Niv Elis from The Jerusalem Post declared the performance as one of the show's "wow" moments. The November 19–20, 2012, performance of "Give Me All Your Luvin'" at Miami's American Airlines Arena, was recorded and released in Madonna's fourth live album, MDNA World Tour. ## Track listings and formats \; Digital download 1. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (featuring Nicki Minaj and M.I.A.) – 3:22 \; Digital download – Party Rock Remix 1. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (Party Rock Remix; featuring LMFAO and Nicki Minaj) – 4:03 \; CD single 1. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (featuring Nicki Minaj and M.I.A.) – 3:22 2. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (Party Rock Remix; featuring LMFAO and Nicki Minaj) – 4:01 \; Digital Remix EP 1. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (Laidback Luke Remix) – 6:06 2. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (Nicky Romero Remix) – 5:54 3. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (Party Rock Remix; featuring LMFAO and Nicki Minaj) – 4:01 4. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (Sultan + Ned Shepard Remix) – 5:59 5. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (Oliver Twizt Remix) – 4:48 6. "Give Me All Your Luvin'" (Demolition Crew Remix) – 7:02 ## Credits and personnel ### Management - Recorded at MSR Studios, New York City and Sarm West Studios, Notting Hill, London - Nicki Minaj Appears Courtesy of Young Money Entertainment/Cash Money Records \\| M.I.A. Appears Courtesy of Interscope Records - Webo Girl Publishing, Inc. (ASCAP), EMI Music Publishing France (SACEM), Money Mack Music/Harajuku Barbie Music, adm. by Songs of Universal, Inc. (BMI), N.E.E.T. Noise/Imagem Music (PRS) ### Personnel - Madonna Ciccone – writer, singer and record producer - Martin Solveig – writer, record producer, synths, drums - Onika Maraj – writer, singer - Maya Arulpragasam – writer, singer - Michael Tordjman – writer - Demacio "Demo" Castellon – recording, mixing - Philippe Weiss – recording assistant - Graham Archer – recording assistant - Jason "Metal" Donkersgoed – additional editing - Jean Baptiste Gaudray – guitars - Angie Teo – mixing assistant - LMFAO – remixing, additional production Credits and personnel adapted from MDNA album liner notes. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## Release history ## See also - List of most expensive music videos - List of Billboard Dance Club Songs number ones of 2015 - List of Billboard Hot 100 top-ten singles in 2012 - List of Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles of 2012 - List of number-one pop hits of 2012 (Brazil) - List of number-one singles of 2012 (Finland) - List of top 10 singles in 2012 (France)
1,166,908	Alvin Dark	1,171,369,593	American baseball player and manager (1922–2014)	[ "1922 births", "2014 deaths", "American Christian writers", "American men's basketball players", "Baseball managers", "Baseball players from Oklahoma", "Boston Braves players", "Chicago Cubs coaches", "Chicago Cubs players", "Cleveland Indians executives", "Cleveland Indians managers", "Deaths from Alzheimer's disease", "Deaths from dementia in South Carolina", "Kansas City Athletics managers", "LSU Tigers baseball players", "LSU Tigers football players", "LSU Tigers men's basketball players", "Louisiana Ragin' Cajuns baseball players", "Louisiana Ragin' Cajuns football players", "Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners", "Major League Baseball shortstops", "Milwaukee Braves players", "Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players", "National League All-Stars", "New York Giants (NL) players", "Oakland Athletics managers", "People from Comanche, Oklahoma", "Philadelphia Phillies players", "San Diego Padres managers", "San Francisco Giants managers", "St. Louis Cardinals players", "United States Marine Corps officers", "United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II", "World Series-winning managers" ]	Alvin Ralph Dark (January 7, 1922 – November 13, 2014), nicknamed "Blackie" and "The Swamp Fox", was an American professional baseball shortstop and manager. He played fourteen years in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Boston/Milwaukee Braves (1946, 1948–49, 1960), the New York Giants (1950–56), the St. Louis Cardinals (1956–58), the Chicago Cubs (1958–59), and the Philadelphia Phillies (1960). Later, he managed the San Francisco Giants (1961–64), the Kansas City/Oakland Athletics (1966–67, 1974–75), the Cleveland Indians (1968–71), and the San Diego Padres (1977). He was a three-time All-Star and a two-time World Series champion, once as a player (1954) and once as a manager (1974). Born in Oklahoma, Dark grew up in Lake Charles, Louisiana. He played baseball, basketball, and football at Louisiana State University before transferring to Southwestern Louisiana Institute to engage in officer training for the United States Marine Corps. After serving in the Marines in 1945 and 1946, he signed with the Braves, debuting with them later that year. He spent 1947 in the minor leagues, then was named the major leagues' 1948 Rookie of the Year after batting .322 for the Boston Braves. Following the 1949 season, he was traded to the Giants, who were looking to improve their speed and fielding. Named the captain by Giants manager Leo Durocher, he hit .300 or more three times while playing for the Giants, and became the first National League (NL) shortstop to hit 20 home runs more than once. He batted over .400 in the 1951 World Series and the 1954 World Series, the latter of which New York won by sweeping the Cleveland Indians. Traded to the Cardinals in 1956, Dark served as their starting shortstop through the beginning of the 1958 season, when his diminished range caused him to be shifted to third base. He spent most of 1958 and all of 1959 with the Cubs, then played for the Phillies and Braves in 1960 before retiring as a player. Dark had 2,089 hits in his career. Of the three shortstops in New York following World War II, Dark had a higher batting average and more home runs than Phil Rizzuto or Pee Wee Reese, despite the fact that he is the only one not in the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. Traded to the Giants after the 1960 season, Dark was named the team manager for 1961. Now playing in San Francisco, the Giants had a winning record each of Dark's four years with them and reached the World Series in 1962, losing to the New York Yankees in a close seven-game contest. Dark became embroiled in controversy in 1964 after a Newsday article accused him of making racist comments. He was fired following the 1964 season, in which the Giants narrowly missed the pennant. After a year as the Cub's third base coach, he was hired to manage the Athletics in 1966. He only lasted two years with Kansas City before getting dismissed over a dispute with Charlie Finley about a player suspension. Hired to manage the Indians for 1968, Dark took on the dual role of general manager and field manager in 1969. The Indians finished third place in the American League (AL) in 1968 but had losing seasons the next three years, and Dark was fired in mid-1971 even though there were still two years remaining on his contract. Rehired to manage the Athletics in 1974, Dark became the third manager to win pennants in the NL and the AL. He led the team to its third straight World Series win and another playoff berth in 1975. During a church talk in 1975, he mentioned that Finley would be going to Hell if he did not accept Jesus Christ as his personal Savior, and the owner fired Dark after the season, saying he was "too busy with church activities." Dark was hired one last time as a manager for San Diego in the middle of 1977. Finishing out the year with them, he hoped to be retained for 1978, but new general manager Bob Fontaine Sr. elected to go with Roger Craig, firing Dark in the middle of 1978 spring training. Following his managerial career, Dark held jobs as a minor league director for the Cubs and Chicago White Sox in the 1980s. He moved to Easley, South Carolina, in 1983, where he lived before dying of Alzheimer's disease in 2014. ## Early life Dark was born in Comanche, Oklahoma, the third-oldest of four children of Ralph and Cordia Dark. Ralph was a tool pusher for oil drillers. After living in Oklahoma and Texas, the Darks moved to Lake Charles, Louisiana, where Alvin spent much of his formative years. Malaria and diphtheria prevented Dark from being able to attend school until he turned seven, but by the time he reached high school, he was playing baseball, basketball, and football. As a tailback, Dark was an All-State and All-Southern player for Lake Charles High School, and he captained the basketball team as well. The school did not have a baseball team, but Dark played American Legion baseball in his teens. He was offered a basketball scholarship from Texas A&M University, but he turned it down in favor of a baseball and basketball scholarship from Louisiana State University (LSU). ## College Dark was a member of Phi Delta Theta at LSU. During his sophomore year in 1942–43, he lettered in baseball, basketball, and football. Used as a halfback by the football team, he averaged 7.2 yards rushing, gaining 433 yards on 60 attempts. With World War II occurring, he transferred through the V-12 program to Southwestern Louisiana Institute (SLI, now the University of Louisiana at Lafayette), in order to train to be an officer in the United States Marine Corps. Playing tailback for the most successful football team in school history in 1943, he helped SLI to an undefeated season in 1943 and a New Year's Day victory in the Oil Bowl. Against Arkansas A&M College in the 24–7 victory, Dark ran for a touchdown, passed for another, and kicked a field goal as well as three extra points. Meanwhile, he batted .462 for the baseball team, also participating on the basketball and golf teams. Then, Dark went to Parris Island and Camp Lejeune, completing basic training for the Marines before getting sworn in as an officer at Quantico, Virginia, in 1945. He would ultimately complete his bachelor's degree at SLI in 1947, after his professional baseball career had already begun. ## Military service After receiving his Marine commission, Dark was sent to Pearl Harbor to await assignment. He was briefly sent to Saipan to be part of a machine-gun outfit, but after one day, he was sent back to Pearl Harbor because the military wanted him on the Marine Corps football team. In December, after the war was over, he was sent to China, where he helped support the Nationalist forces in the Chinese Civil War by guarding a supply station 45 miles south of Peking and transporting supplies to another station. Dark spent four months doing this, but he and his squad did not realize that one of the towns they passed through was Communist-controlled. "A month after I got back to the States, I received word that the Marines who took our place were ambushed in the Communist town and massacred," he wrote in his autobiography. Upon his return to the States in 1946, Dark discovered he had been drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the 1945 NFL Draft. He preferred baseball over football, however, and Ted McGrew, a scout for the Boston Braves, was impressed with Dark's "tenacity and competitive spirit in all sports," according to Eric Aron of the Society for American Baseball Research. Dark signed a \$50,000 contract with the Braves on July 4, 1946, joining them 10 days later when his military service ended. ## Baseball career ### Player #### Boston Braves (1946, 1948–49) Dark's Major League Baseball (MLB) debut came on July 14, 1946, when he was used as a pinch runner for Don Padgett in a 5–2 loss in the second game of a doubleheader against the Pittsburgh Pirates. On August 8, he had his first hit, doubling against Lefty Hoerst as the Philadelphia Phillies beat the Braves by a score of 9–8. Used strictly as a reserve player and only about once every five games, Dark made only 15 appearances for the Braves in 1946, getting three hits (all doubles) in 13 at bats. In 1947, Dark hoped to be the Braves' starting shortstop, but manager Billy Southworth elected to go with the veteran Sibby Sisti at the position. Dark was sent to the Milwaukee Brewers, an American Association team that was the Braves' top affiliate, for the only season he would spend in the minor leagues. As the starting shortstop for the Brewers, he was named an All-Star and Rookie of the Year, finishing third in American Association Most Valuable Player (MVP) voting. Dark led the league in runs scored (121) and doubles (49), also ranking among the league leaders in hits (186, third behind John Douglas's 195 and Bud Stewart's 189) and stolen bases (14, tied with Charlie Ray for ninth). He batted .303 with 10 home runs and 66 runs batted in (RBI). Defensively, though he led the league in errors, he earned a reputation for steady play at the shortstop position. Though he was not called up in 1947, Dark made the Braves' Opening Day roster in 1948 as a reserve infielder, as Sisti was still the starting shortstop – but this would soon change. "First I got cut up on a takeout at second base, and that knocked me out of the lineup for a couple of weeks," Sisti said. "Dark went in, and he didn't do too well. Then I went in and I didn't do too well, so they put Dark back in. This time he clicked, and he stayed there the rest of the year." In just his second game of the year, the second half of a doubleheader against the New York Giants, Dark had a season-high three RBI despite not entering the game until the third inning. By June, Dark and second baseman Eddie Stanky were showing their skill at turning double plays together. From June 20 through July 11, Dark had a 23-game hitting streak, three short of Guy Curtright's record for rookies. During that streak, he hit his first major league home run, against Elmer Singleton in a 12–3 win over the Pirates. In his first full major league season, Dark ranked among the NL leaders in batting average (.322, fourth), hits (175, fifth), and doubles (39, third behind Stan Musial's 46 and Del Ennis's 40). He scored 85 runs, hit three home runs, and had 48 RBI. Dark was named the MLB Rookie of the Year in 1948, the second winner of the award (after Jackie Robinson) and the last winner before the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) started giving separate awards for the best rookie in the American League (AL) and the National League (NL). Dark also finished third in MLB MVP voting in 1948 after playing a vital part of the Braves' run to the pennant, their first since 1914. He struggled in the World Series, though, hitting only .167 as the Braves dropped the World Series to the Cleveland Indians, four games to two. In Game 3, he committed an error that allowed Gene Bearden to score the first run of the game in a 2–0 loss to the Indians. Dark remained the Braves' starting shortstop in 1949. He had four hits on May 13 in a 10-inning, 6–5 win over the Brooklyn Dodgers. On May 18 and May 21, he had three-RBI games, in a 13–9 loss to the Cincinnati Reds and an 8–2 victory over the Pirates. On July 9, he had to be carried off the field after being hit in the head by a throw from Granny Hamner, but he was not seriously injured. He had two hits and three RBI on August 20, in a 4–0 victory over the Dodgers. In 130 games (529 at bats), Dark batted .276 with 74 runs scored, 146 hits, three home runs, and 53 RBI. He finished 25th in MVP voting after the season. After winning the pennant in 1948, the Braves fell to fourth place in the league, with a 75–79 record. The New York Giants, the fifth place team, were looking to become a more multidimensional team by trading some of their power hitters for faster players that were better at defense. On December 14, the Braves traded Dark and Stanky to the Giants for Sid Gordon, Willard Marshall, Red Webb, and Buddy Kerr. Giants fans were initially disappointed at the deal, as Gordon was a fan favorite and Stanky was notorious for having excelled with the Giants' rivals, the Dodgers. #### New York Giants (1950–56) Upon joining the Giants, Dark was immediately named team captain by manager Leo Durocher, a surprise to many sportswriters, who had speculated that the more veteran Stanky would get the role. An Associated Press article two years later called the move "smart," speculating that Durocher had made the decision because he expected the younger Dark to be with the club longer than Stanky. Dark said, "I think Leo chose me because he knew Stanky would be the way he was regardless, and he wanted me to develop more of that brashness Stanky had and Leo loved." In the first game of a doubleheader against the Reds on May 20, 1950, Dark had four hits in an 8–0 victory. He hit a three-run home run against Bud Podbielan in the second game of a doubleheader against the Dodgers on July 4, but that was all the scoring for the Giants as they lost 5–3. On July 23, against the Chicago Cubs in Game 2 of a doubleheader, he had a home run and a two-RBI single against Johnny Schmitz as the Giants won 3–0. In the second game of a doubleheader versus the Cubs on August 2, he had a bases-clearing triple against Johnny Klippstein and an RBI-sacrifice fly against Doyle Lade as the Giants won 8–6. On September 9, his home runs against Preacher Roe were the only scores in a 2–0 win over the Dodgers. In 154 games, Dark batted .279 with 79 runs scored, 164 hits, 16 home runs, and 67 RBI. His nine stolen bases tied with Stanky's total for eighth-best in the NL. In May 1951, Dark had four-RBI games on the first, the fifth, and the ninth, racking up four hits in each of the latter two contests; the Giants won each of the games. He had his third four-hit game of the month on May 25, adding two RBI in an 8–5 victory over the Phillies. Against the Cubs on June 9, Dark hit a three-run home run in the fourth-inning against Paul Minner, then delivered the second of back-to-back home runs off Bob Schultz in the fifth inning (with Stanky) as the Giants won 10–1. Dark made the NL All-Star team for the first time in 1951. Selected as the starting shortstop over Pee Wee Reese, he had a hit against Fred Hutchinson in the NL's 8–3 victory. In an 8–5 win over the Phillies on August 17, Dark again had four hits, this time scoring three runs. During Game 2 of a doubleheader against the Braves on September 5, he had four hits in a 9–1 victory. On September 16, in the second game of a doubleheader against the Pirates at Forbes Field, he had four hits, including an inside-the-park home run against Bill Werle as the Giants won 6–4. In 156 games, Dark had 14 home runs and 69 RBI. He led the NL with 41 doubles and also ranked among the league leaders in batting average (.303, eighth), runs scored (114, fourth, behind Musial's and Ralph Kiner's 124 and Gil Hodges's 118), hits (196, fourth, behind Richie Ashburn's 221, Musial's 205, and Carl Furillo's 197), and stolen bases (12, tied with teammate Monte Irvin for eighth). Although he led NL shortstops with 45 errors, Dark also led in putouts (295), assists (465) and double plays (114). Dark finished 12th in MVP voting after the season. Tied with the Dodgers at the end of the season, the Giants played a three-game tie-breaker series with Brooklyn to determine the NL pennant winner. In the deciding Game 3, with the Giants trailing 4–1 in the ninth inning, Dark led off with a single against Don Newcombe. As Dark recalled, "I must have fouled off six or seven pitches with two strikes before getting that hit." He then scored three batters later on a Whitey Lockman double. Bobby Thomson followed with the Shot Heard 'Round the World, a three-run home run against Ralph Branca that clinched the pennant for the Giants. In Game 1 of the 1951 World Series against the New York Yankees, Dark hit a three-run home run against Allie Reynolds, helping the Giants to a 5–1 victory. He had an RBI single against Vic Raschi in Game 3, which the Giants won 6–2. In Game 4, he had three doubles, though the Yankees won that game 6–2. Ultimately, Dark had a hit in every game of the series, batting .417, but the Giants fell to the Yankees in six games. The following year, 1952, Dark picked up where he'd left off. He had three hits and two runs scored, including a home run against Howie Pollet, on June 8, 1952, in a 9–1 victory over the Pirates. On June 29, he had three runs scored, three hits, and three RBI in a 12–3 victory over the Phillies. For the second year in a row, he was selected to the All-Star Game, though he did not play this time because Hamner started for the NL, and Durocher (the manager) let all the starting players (except the pitcher) play the whole game. In the first game of a doubleheader against the Cubs on July 30, his eighth inning three-run home run against Bob Rush gave the Giants three insurance runs in their 10–6 victory. He had three hits in each of three wins in a row over the Pirates on August 26, 27, and 28. On September 24, he had five hits and three runs scored, including a home run against Sheldon Jones as the Giants defeated Boston 11–8 in the first game of a doubleheader. In 151 games, Dark had 14 home runs and 73 RBI. He was seventh in the NL in runs scored (92), fourth in hits (177, behind Musial's 194, Red Schoendienst's 188, and Bobby Adams's 180), eighth in doubles (29, tied with Eddie Waitkus and Thomson), and seventh in batting average (.301). Though he lost Stanky as a double play partner (the second baseman had been traded to the Cardinals before the season), Dark still led the NL with 116 double plays turned as shortstop, now working with Davey Williams at second base. He also led the NL in putouts for the second straight year, with 324. Entering the 1953 season, the Giants considered shifting Dark to second base, with Williams and Daryl Spencer the candidates to be the new Giants shortstop. After having made \$25,000 the year before, Dark held out at the beginning of spring training, seeking a higher salary for 1953, as Reese of the Dodgers had made \$40,000 the year before. On March 3, he and the Giants finally agreed on a two-year-contract that reportedly paid somewhere between \$30,000 annually (what the Giants had wanted) and \$35,000 annually (what Dark had wanted). Once spring training was underway, there were reports that Dark was playing indifferently at second base, hoping to force the team to move him back to shortstop. Durocher held a press conference at his hotel room to address the rumors on March 20, and Dark barged in as it was going on. "I have told Leo I will play second, third, or anywhere else he wants me to if he thinks it will improve the club," Dark said, and Durocher concurred that there was no ill feeling between him and Dark. John Drebinger of The New York Times doubted that Dark had played indifferently, noting that his worst day as a fielder in spring training occurred in a game in which he was playing shortstop, a game he had insisted on playing even though he was "not feeling well" that day. Dark began the season at the shortstop position. Durocher shifted him to left field on June 21, then to second base on June 25, as Spencer began to get time at short. He scored four runs and had three RBI in a 20–6 victory over Brooklyn on July 5, including a two-run home run against Clem Labine. After spending much of July playing second base, Dark was shifted back to shortstop for the rest of the season on July 29, as Spencer's batting average had been low the past month. On August 26, he had five hits and five RBI, including a two-run home run against Harvey Haddix in a 13–4 victory over the Cardinals. He had back-to-back four-hit games in victories over the Cubs on August 31 and September 1. With the Giants out of playoff contention at the end of the 1953 season, Dark convinced Durocher to let him do something he had always wanted to do in the major leagues: pitch. Originally scheduled to throw the first two innings against the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 27, Dark completed only the first, giving up two runs before getting replaced by Ruben Gomez. Dark got a no decision, but the Giants lost 6–4. In 155 games, Dark batted .300 with 88 RBI. He led the NL in at bats (647) and ranked among the leaders in runs scored (126, third, behind Duke Snider's 132 and Musial's 127), hits (194, fourth, behind Ashburn's 205, Musial's 200, and Snider's 198), and doubles (41, second to Musial's 53). His 23 home runs were a record for NL shortstops at the time, though Ernie Banks would break it two years later by hitting 44. Spencer departed to serve in the United States Army in 1954, leaving the shortstop position unquestionably Dark's. He had five hits, two runs scored, and two RBI, including a home run against Rush, on May 14 in a 9–6 victory over the Cubs. On June 3, he had four hits and scored five runs in a 13–8 victory over the Cardinals. He had four hits against Cincinnati the next day, then had back-to-back four-hit games again against the Milwaukee Braves on June 8 and 9. In the first game of a doubleheader against the Phillies on July 5, Dark had four hits, three runs scored, and an RBI in a 10–0 victory. On July 10, he hit a grand slam against Max Surkont, but the home run came in a 10–7 loss to Pittsburgh. He was the starting shortstop in the All-Star Game, recording a single against Bob Keegan in the NL's 11–9 loss to the AL. On August 6, he hit a solo home run against Gene Conley of the Braves. An irate Conley returned to the Braves' dugout and thundered, "I'm gonna get that ––––. I'm gonna part his hair for that. That ––– is hitting me too good." Next time Dark batted, Conley threw a pitch towards his chin, leaving Dark face first on the ground as the hitter dove out of the way. His last time at bat that night, Dark hit another home run against Dave Jolly, but the Giants lost to the Braves by a score of 6–5. He had four-hit games on August 14 and September 1, but these both came in losses. In 1954, he batted .293 and was fifth in the MVP voting as the Giants won the pennant. He had 98 runs scored, 26 doubles, and 70 RBI. Dark led the NL in at bats (644) as well as games (tied for first with 154) and also finished seventh in hits (189). His 20 home runs made him the first NL shortstop to hit at least 20 home runs in multiple seasons. Defensively, though he led the league in errors (36), he provided solid play at the shortstop position. In the 1954 World Series, the Giants faced the Cleveland Indians, who had set an AL record with 111 wins. Dark batted .412 with a hit in every game. He had three hits and scored two runs in Game 4 as the Giants pulled off the sweep to win their first championship since 1933. In the World Series parade, Dark rode in the first car with Willie Mays in front of 500,000 parade-goers in New York City. On April 23, 1955, the Giants were playing the Dodgers at Ebbets Field. Sal Maglie had been throwing brushback pitches past the heads of several Brooklyn hitters, and irritated third baseman Jackie Robinson took revenge by hitting Williams with a shoulder block as he charged into first base in the fourth inning. Williams was knocked unconscious and had to be taken off the field on a stretcher, and Dark attempted to fight Robinson. Both benches cleared, but umpire Tom Gorman kept Dark from doing anything more than yelling. Between innings, Dark conferred with his teammates and issued a challenge: "Somebody's got to get him." It was decided that the first runner to reach third base would be charged with this task. Next inning, Dark got a hit against Carl Erskine and ran hard into Robinson at third base. The two exchanged words again, but umpire Babe Pinelli kept things from getting out of hand. On the following day, with the Giants trailing Brooklyn 5–3 in the ninth, Dark hit a two-run home run against Billy Loes to tie the game; the Giants won the next inning 11–10. In the second game of a doubleheader against the Cubs on May 15, Dark had four hits and scored two runs in a 9–4 victory. He hit a three-run home run against Murry Dickson on July 7 in an 8–5 victory over the Phillies. In the second game of a doubleheader against Cincinnati on August 7, Dark hurt his rib after colliding with first baseman Ted Kluszewski. He thought the injury was a bruise and tried to play again on August 14, but he had to leave that game early and was later diagnosed with a broken rib. The injury kept him out until September 1, but he only played two games upon his return before he tripped over a base in a game against the Phillies on September 2, separating his shoulder. That injury kept him out the rest of the season. Together, the injuries cost Dark 40 games. In 115 games, Dark batted .282 with 77 runs scored, 134 hits, 20 doubles, nine home runs, and 45 RBI. After the season, Dark was awarded the first Lou Gehrig Memorial Award, given to the player who best exemplified Gehrig's character and integrity both on and off the field. Recovered from his injuries by 1956, Dark was back in the lineup for Opening Day. He batted .364 in April but only hit .222 in his next 37 games, through June 15. That June, the Giants were searching for a second baseman. Meanwhile, the Cardinals wanted a shortstop and also desired to trade second baseman Red Schoendienst, as prospect Don Blasingame seemed ready to take over the position and St. Louis wanted to trade the veteran before his skills declined. On June 14, Dark, Lockman, Ray Katt, Don Liddle, and cash were traded to the Cardinals for Schoendienst, Bill Sarni, Dick Littlefield, Jackie Brandt, and two players to be named later (eventually Bob Stephenson and Gordon Jones). In 48 games with the Giants, Dark batted .252 with 19 runs scored, 52 hits, two home runs, and 17 RBI. #### Later years (1956–60) Facing the Giants on July 12, 1956, Dark hit a seventh-inning sacrifice fly against Marv Grissom to snap a 3–3 tie in a 5–3 victory. The next day, Dark had four hits and three RBI, including a tie-breaking two-run double in the eighth inning against Hoyt Wilhelm as the Cardinals defeated New York by a score of 7–5. In the third game of the series, he had three RBI in a 5–2 victory. Then, in the first game of a July 15 doubleheader against Philadelphia, he had three hits, two runs scored, and four RBI in St. Louis's 9–1 victory. On September 14, Dark had four hits and scored three runs, including a two-run home run against Mike McCormick, in a 9–4 victory over the Giants. In 100 games for St. Louis, Dark batted .286 with 54 runs scored, 118 hits, four home runs, and 37 RBI. His combined totals between the Giants and the Cardinals were a .275 batting average, 73 runs scored, 170 hits, 26 doubles, six home runs, and 54 RBI. By 1957, Dark's range was not as wide as it once had been; the season would be his last as a shortstop. "I got by knowing the hitters, knowing where to play, what to look for," he wrote in his autobiography. He hit only four home runs in 1957, three of which came against the Giants. In Game 1 of a doubleheader against Cincinnati on May 30, he had three RBI in a 7–2 victory. On June 11, he had four hits and an RBI in a 5–2 victory over the Phillies. He had four hits, two runs scored, and an RBI on July 3 in a 5–4 victory over the Cubs. On July 31, he had four hits and two RBI in a 5–1 victory over the Giants. He had three RBI in a 10–1 victory over the Braves on September 1. In 140 games, Dark batted .290 with 80 runs scored, 169 hits, 25 doubles, and 64 RBI. Despite his diminished range, he led the NL in putouts (276) and double plays (105) for the third time. Late in 1958 spring training, Dark had to be removed from a game after getting hit by a pitch from Dick Donovan, but he was back in the lineup by Opening Day. He started the year at shortstop but, after making two errors in his first four games, was moved to third base in favor of Ducky Schofield. After batting .297 in 18 games, Dark was traded to the Cubs on May 20 for Jim Brosnan. After the trade to the Cubs, Dark continued to play third base, as Banks was the shortstop. He had three hits, three RBI, and a run scored on May 23 in an 11–4 victory over the Phillies. On June 20, he had four hits and three RBI in an 11–3 victory over Cincinnati. Two days later, in the second game of a doubleheader against Cincinnati, he had two hits and three RBI in an 8–6 victory. In the second game of a doubleheader against the Phillies on July 13, he had four hits and scored both Cub runs in a 2–1 victory. His two-RBI single against Don Erickson in the 10th inning on September 16 snapped an 8–8 tie in a 10–8 victory over the Phillies. In 114 games with the Cubs, Dark batted .295 with 54 runs scored, 137 hits, 16 doubles, three home runs, and 43 RBI. He played 132 games combined for both teams, batting .295 with 61 runs scored, 156 hits, 16 doubles, four homes runs, and 48 RBI. In 1959, Dark remained at third base. He had three hits, scored three runs, and had two RBI on May 13 in a 10–0 win over Cincinnati. On June 30, in a game against the Cardinals, Dark had a role in one of baseball history's most unusual plays. Musial was at the plate, with a count of 3–1. Pitcher Bob Anderson threw a wild pitch that evaded catcher Sammy Taylor and rolled all the way to the backstop. Umpire Vic Delmore called ball four, but Anderson and Taylor contended that Musial foul tipped the ball. As the ball was still in play, and because Delmore was embroiled in an argument with the catcher and pitcher, Musial decided to try to advance to second base. Seeing that Musial was trying for second, Dark ran to the backstop to retrieve the ball. A ball boy had tossed it towards field announcer Pat Pieper, who was in charge of holding baseballs for the umpire, but Dark picked it up before it could get to Pieper. Absentmindedly, however, Delmore pulled out a new ball and gave it to Taylor. Anderson finally noticed that Musial was trying for second, took the new ball, and threw it to second baseman Tony Taylor. Anderson's throw flew over Tony Taylor's head into the outfield. Dark, at the same time that Anderson threw the new ball, threw the original ball to Banks. Musial did not see Dark's throw and tried to go to third base, having seen Anderson's ball fly over the second baseman's head. On his way there, he was tagged by Banks, and after a delay, Musial was ruled out. Still, the Cardinals won the game by a score of 4–1. Dark hit only six home runs in 1959, three of which came in consecutive games from August 11–13. In the third, on August 13, the home run was a grand slam against McCormick in a 20–9 victory over the Giants. His two-run double against Jack Sanford provided the only runs for Chicago in a 2–1 victory over the Giants on September 4. On September 26, he hit a three-run home run against Podres in a 12–2 victory over the Dodgers. In 136 games, he batted .264 with 60 runs scored, 126 hits, 22 doubles, a career-high nine triples, and 45 RBI. On January 11, 1960, Dark was traded with John Buzhardt and Jim Woods to the Phillies in exchange for Ashburn. "Trades tell you exactly which side of the hill you're on," he wrote in his 1980 autobiography, contrasting this deal with the trade that sent him and Stanky to New York, where four players were given up for those two. He began the year as Philadelphia's starting third baseman. Facing the Braves in the second game of the year, on April 14, he notched his 2,000th hit, a single against Don McMahon in a 10-inning, 5–4 victory. He hit back-to-back home runs against the Dodgers on May 6 and 7. After hitting .242 in 55 games, Dark was traded back to the Braves (now in Milwaukee) on June 23 for Joe Morgan. With Milwaukee, he served as a pinch hitter and utility player. In September, he got most of the starts for the Braves in left field. He appeared in his last major league game on October 2, playing left field in a 9–5 loss to Pittsburgh. Dark hit .298 in 50 games for Milwaukee. In 105 games combined between the teams, he batted .265 with 45 runs scored, 90 hits, 11 doubles, four home runs, and 32 RBI. After the season, Braves manager Charlie Dressen told Dark that if he returned for the 1961 season, "you'll be my utility infielder-outfielder." To Dark, playing the game was becoming more of an occupation than a joy, and he feared being sent to the minor leagues. Rather than try to hang on another year as a player, he decided to retire. Over a 14-year major league career, Dark recorded a .289 career batting average, 2,089 hits, 358 doubles, 126 home runs, 1,064 runs scored, and 757 RBI over 1,828 games played. Defensively, he recorded a .959 fielding percentage. ### Manager Dark was traded back to the Giants (who had moved to San Francisco after the 1957 season) for Andre Rodgers on October 30, 1960, a move made so the team could hire Dark as their new manager. Giants owner Horace Stoneham tried to fill coaching vacancies with former Giants players, rewarding loyalty to the organization. Upon becoming manager of the Giants, one of the first things Dark did was rearrange the team's locker assignments so that players were no longer grouped by race. Tex Maule of Sports Illustrated wrote in May 1961, "the Giants are no longer a conglomerate of stars, divided roughly along color lines, with no sense of being a team." During a fit of rage following a 1–0 loss to the Phillies on June 26, Dark threw a metal stool against the wall, then realized he'd lost part of the tip of his little finger. "I made up my mind two weeks ago not to take my anger out on the players. So, I guess I took it out on myself tonight," he quipped. In his first year as manager of the Giants, Dark oversaw a team that finished third in the NL with an 85–69 record. During the 1962 season, the Giants battled the Dodgers for the NL pennant, as both teams occupied the top two spots in the league starting May 10. One sore spot in the rivalry concerned infield dirt. The Dodgers used to pack the dirt at Dodger Stadium tightly, creating a hard infield that made it easier for Maury Wills, who would steal 104 bases in 1962, to run on. When Dark's complaints fell on deaf ears, he decided to get revenge at Candlestick Park. Before a Dodger series with three weeks to go in the season, Dark had the groundskeepers soak the infield around first base; the muddy soil prevented anybody from getting enough of a foothold to steal bases. For the incident, Dark earned the nickname "The Swamp Fox." The Dodgers had a four-game lead with seven games to go in the season, but San Francisco pulled into a tie on the final day of the season, necessitating another tie-breaker series. Prevailing in three games, the Giants faced the Yankees in the World Series. In a nailbiter, the teams forced the series all the way to its maximum seven games, with the Giants losing 1–0 in the series finale after Bobby Richardson snared a Willie McCovey line drive that likely would have won the series for the Giants had it been a hit. Dark had a rocky relationship with Orlando Cepeda, one of the Giants' most popular players. During 1963 spring training, while Cepeda was refusing to play in hopes of getting a higher-paying contract, Dark revealed to the press that he had a point system by which he rated the players. When asked about Cepeda, Dark responded, "He's got more minuses than anybody." "It may have been unfair for me to bring it up," Dark admitted later. The two squabbled over the next two seasons about Cepeda's supposed lack of hustle, with the player blaming a sore knee. In 1963, the Giants had a winning record all season but did not fare quite as well as in 1962, winning 11 fewer games and finishing 11 games behind the Dodgers for the pennant. In 1964, Dark named Willie Mays the captain of the Giants, making Mays the first African-American captain in Major League Baseball. "You should have had it long before this," Dark told the player. Sports Illustrated reported on July 6 that Stoneham was thinking of firing Dark amidst rumors that the two were not speaking. Dark later wrote in his autobiography that his relationship with Stoneham had been rocky ever since Stoneham discovered in 1963 that the manager was having an affair. "You can't handle your ball players if you can't handle yourself," he had told Dark. "You've got rules you are breaking." On July 23, Dark became embroiled in controversy when Stan Isaacs of Newsday quoted him as saying the number of black and Hispanic players on the team was a source of trouble: "They are just not able to perform up to the white player when it comes to mental alertness." Dark responded that he had been severely misquoted; Mays, whom he had named as team captain, met with several of the black and Hispanic players at the Carlton House in Pittsburgh (where the Giants were on a road trip) and calmed the team, reminding them that their best chance of winning came if Dark remained the manager the rest of the year. "I have known Dark for many years, and my relationships with him have always been exceptional," said Jackie Robinson. "I have found him to be a gentleman and, above all, unbiased." Dark considered suing the paper, but decided not to after he was told that Newsday would respond by publicizing his affair with Jackie Troy. "You don't have to be prejudiced if you are accused of it," Dark later wrote in his autobiography. "The accusation convicts you every time." The Giants were contenders for the pennant most of the season, and they ended the year just three games out of first place; however, in 1964, that was fourth place in a close three-way race. Stoneham fired Dark during the sixth inning of the last game of the season, after the Giants had been eliminated from playoff contention. After his dismissal from the Giants, Dark became a third base coach for the Cubs in 1965. He made it clear to the general manager John Holland that he was not interested in becoming the Cubs' manager, as he found the notion of coaching under a current manager while being readied to replace him "offensive." With a month to go in the season, Dark was hired as an assistant to Kansas City Athletics owner Charlie Finley. After the season, he was named manager of the last-place Athletics, who had lost 103 games in 1965. The ballclub lost 14 of its first 17 games in 1966 but was one game under .500 for the rest of the year, resulting in a 15-game improvement and a seventh-place finish in the ten-team American League. As the season progressed, Dark made sure he utilized the young starting pitchers to get them experience; entering the 1967 season, the Athletics had five starters with an average age of 21.8. Their seventh-place finish in 1966 was Kansas City's finest since Finley had purchased the team, and the grateful owner rewarded Dark with a Cadillac after the season. Their record was not quite as good in 1967, as Dark piloted them to a 52–69 record in their first 131 games. His second season with the Athletics ended in August, due to a disagreement over player discipline after Finley fined and suspended pitcher Lew Krausse Jr. for his behavior on a team flight. Dark believed, after talking to several of the other players, that Krausse had been playing little pranks on Athletics broadcaster Monte Moore, who then falsely reported to Finley that Krausse used "deplorable language" when talking to a pregnant woman on the flight. Because Dark refused to carry out the suspension, Finley asked to see him at his hotel room in Washington, D.C., where the Athletics had gone for a road trip against the Washington Senators. In a seven-hour meeting, Finley fired his manager, decided to rehire him, then fired him again when he was presented with a player's statement backing Dark and criticizing Finley's use of spies to keep tabs on the players. Additionally, Finley released first baseman Ken Harrelson, who had also stood up for Krausse. Harrelson dubbed Finley "a menace to the sport." Despite the dismissal, Dark remained in correspondence with Finley, who would often make long-distance phone calls to his ex-manager. Dark was hired to manage the Cleveland Indians in 1968 by Vernon Stouffer; the Indians had an 86–75 record in his first year, their best performance since 1959. Sam McDowell theorized that the team would have had an even better year if they had gotten more hits with runners in scoring position. After an initial third-place season, Dark requested and was given the additional duties of general manager, but having the field manager negotiate the players' contracts proved an untenable situation. Dark eventually concluded that the same person should not hold both roles, because the general manager's job is to make the player think he is worth less money, while the manager's job is to make him think he is more valuable to the team. Over the next two seasons, the team slumped to a 62–99 record in 1969 and a 76–86 finish in 1970. With the team in last place in the AL East in mid-1971 and attendance down by 60,000, Dark was fired on July 29. Because he had signed a five-year contract with the team in 1969, Cleveland had to continue to pay him through the 1973 season. In the meantime, the Athletics had moved to Oakland, and after manager Dick Williams resigned following consecutive World Series triumphs in 1972–73, Finley rehired Dark. A newscaster reporting on the move quipped, "The only thing worse than being hired by Charlie Finley is being hired by him a second time." Now taking his religion more seriously, Dark promised not to complain about players in public or demean them. Dark's hiring was met with resentment by some of the Athletics coaches, such as Irv Noren, the third base coach, who had hoped to be hired as manager himself. Noren and Vern Hoscheit, the bullpen coach, were replaced in July. Dark also had trouble earning the respect of Athletics pitchers such as Vida Blue and Ken Holtzman. Frequently, when he went out to the mound to replace the starter, the pitchers would disrespectfully flip the baseball to him instead of handing it over. In July, Dark had finally had enough. "I made up my mind to have a squad meeting [on July 14] at the park," he said. In the speech, he criticized the team for their attitudes, fining Blue \$250. Blue paid the fine in change: "I had a big old money bag that probably weighed about 75 pounds." The speech helped the players to be more responsive to Dark, and though they would get no-hit days later by Dick Bosman of the Indians, they went on to win the AL West. In the AL Championship Series (ALCS), the Athletics defeated the Orioles three games to one, holding Baltimore scoreless for 30 straight innings during the series. The series victory sent Oakland to the World Series and made Dark the third manager (after Joe McCarthy and Yogi Berra) at the time to win pennants in both leagues. (Sparky Anderson, Dick Williams, Tony La Russa, Jim Leyland, and Joe Maddon have since accomplished that feat.) In the World Series, the Athletics faced the Dodgers in the first World Series composed of only California teams. Oakland won the series in five games, becoming the first team to win three consecutive World Series since the Yankees won five straight from 1949 to 1953. Entering the 1975 season, the Athletics had to cope with the loss of pitcher Catfish Hunter, winner of 20 or more games four straight seasons, who had used a contract breach to become a free agent and sign with the Yankees. Still, the team posted a 55–32 record in the first half of the season, and seven Athletics were part of the AL All-Star Team, managed by Dark. The team won the AL West by seven games over the runner-up Kansas City Royals; however, they were swept in the ALCS by the Boston Red Sox. Though they made the playoffs both years under Dark, he was not re-hired as the Athletics manager in 1976. During a church talk that September, Dark had said, "To God, Charlie Finley is just a very little, bitty thing. If he doesn't accept Jesus Christ as his personal savior, he's going to hell." When Finley announced Dark would not return for 1976, he stated that the manager was "too busy with church activities." Dark spent 1976 out of baseball for the first time in 30 years. He was hired as a coach for the Cubs in 1977, working under Herman Franks, who had coached under and later replaced Dark as the manager of the Giants. While Dark had been disappointed at the replacement, the men had remained friends and were happy to work together again. His tenure with the Cubs was short-lived, as on May 28, he was hired to replace John McNamara as manager of the San Diego Padres. The Padres, who had a 21–28 record when he took over, had a 48–65 record for the rest of the season. Dark's contract called for him to manage for two years, but general manager Buzzie Bavasi was replaced with Bob Fontaine Sr. in 1978, and Fontaine preferred someone other than Dark to manage the ballclub. In the midst of spring training, on March 21, Dark was fired, replaced by Roger Craig. It was only the second time that a major league manager had been fired during spring training. Because his contract ran through 1979, the Padres still had to pay him for two years, much like the Indians had been obligated to do from 1971 to 1973. Dark ended his managerial career with a 994–954 record, good for a .510 winning percentage. During games he managed, Dark would stand in the front of his team's dugout with one foot up on the steps, drawing comparisons to Washington crossing the Delaware. He went beyond traditional statistics in evaluating players, using a point system to determine who his best were. Hits in key situations or hits that advanced a runner garnered points for players, but miscues such as overrunning a base or ignoring a sign would lead to a deduction. "There are winning .275 hitters and losing .310 hitters," Dark said of his system. Cepeda had a rather low score, which annoyed the player once he found out about it. Later in his managerial career, Dark stopped using the system, not wanting to cause resentment. Though Dark never managed again after 1978 spring training, he did hold two other baseball positions. In 1981, the Cubs hired him to be their farm system evaluator. Later, in 1986, the Chicago White Sox hired him to be their minor league director. He was thrilled that the White Sox were hiring former major league players to coach minor league teams, something not often seen at the time. #### Managerial record ## Legacy "Dark was a great hit-and-run guy, and very tough to strike out," Phil Rizzuto, shortstop for the Yankees in the early 1950s, recalled. "And he was a fiery ballplayer. He got into more fights than either Pee Wee or me." Richard Goldstein of The New York Times observed that, of the "three superb shortstops" in New York following the war, Dark had the best batting average and the most home runs, even though he is the only one not in the Hall of Fame. Joe DiMaggio said he was a "Red Rolfe type of hitter," noting that Dark could "bunt or drag, hit behind the runner, or push the ball to the opposite field," which made him useful in the number two position in the batting lineup. In a 1969 poll, Giants fans selected Dark as the greatest shortstop in team history. According to baseball writer Bill James, Dark may have lost a Hall of Fame career due to his debut being delayed by his military service. In 1976, Dark was inducted into the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame. Five years later, he was elected to the LSU Athletic Hall of Fame. Alvin Dark Avenue, located just south of LSU's campus in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, is named after him. Dark made an uncredited appearance in The Kid from Cleveland in 1949, as one of the Boston Braves shown in the film. Fifty-two years later, his 1961 Topps baseball card was featured in the 2001 film Skipped Parts, being thrown into a fire as part of a rite of passage/growing up event between a stern grandfather (R. Lee Ermey) and his grandson (Bug Hall). ## Personal life Dark was married twice. His first wife, Adrienne Managan, was his childhood sweetheart; the two had grown up going to the same church. They had four children: Allison, Gene, Eve, and Margaret. In 1962, however, he met Jacolyn Troy while she was serving as an airline stewardess on a flight he was on. Although it went against his Christian beliefs, he began having an affair with her. They tried multiple times to break it off, and Dark even told his wife about it in December 1962. This led to the Darks moving back to Lake Charles after the 1963 season, so Adrienne could be nearer her family in case the couple got divorced, though Robert Boyle of Sports Illustrated thought the move meant that Dark was trying to become manager of the Houston Astros. Finally, in November 1968, Adrienne filed for legal separation from Dark, as couples in Louisiana had to be legally separated for 14 months before they could get a divorce. The divorce was finalized early in the 1970 baseball season, and Alvin married Jackie the same day he signed the last divorce papers. Though he believed divorce was sinful, "we just weren't letting God get in our way," he said of his decision to remarry. "There are people in Lake Charles who have not spoken to me since, much less forgiven me," Dark wrote in 1980. After some initial struggles, Alvin and Jackie developed a happy marriage by 1974 and stayed together for 44 years until Alvin's death in 2014. Jackie had two children from a previous marriage, Rusty and Lori, whom Dark adopted as his own in October 1970. Dark's nickname was "Blackie." A Baptist, Dark had a reputation as a devout Christian. He said his parents took him to church "ever since I was old enough to breathe." During the 1960s, when he had the affair and his marriage fell apart, Dark wrote that "I had found it easier not to go to church. Easier not to take my Bible on road trips. Easier to jump on a player, or to cuss an umpire." After his time with the Indians, he began to take his faith more seriously when he started attending a Bible study with his wife. He would often quote scripture during press conferences. Dark also used to present his Christian testimony at churches, though he quit doing so from 1963 through the early 1970s because of his divorce. Finley once instructed Dark to "lay off the Bible," but the unpredictable Finley also once asked Dark to talk about his faith at a Chicago restaurant. Dark was a member of the Fellowship of Christian Athletes. Dark was good friends with Stanky, his roommate when the two played together on the Braves and Giants. As players, both dreamed of managing major league teams one day, and Dark spoke highly of Stanky's baseball intelligence. "Stanky knew so much more about the game than anybody else. If there were ten possible percentage plays to make, most guys would know four or five. Stanky would know ten." After their careers, the two did not correspond as much; Dark speculated this was because of the divorce, as Stanky was a devout Catholic. Dark's career in the major leagues as a player and manager spanned over 30 seasons. "Baseball is his life," said Lee Walls, who was Dark's roommate with the Cubs. "He lives, breathes and talks baseball most of the time." During offseasons, Dark would supplement his income by working for the Magabar Mud Company, which provided oil drillers with mud. Dark enjoyed golf, and Maule called him the best baseball-playing golfer "with the possible exception of...Paul Richards." He played in the Bing Crosby National Pro-Amateur in Pebble Beach, California, 12 times; and he also played in Jackie Gleason's Inverrary Classic in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida. After his dismissal from the Indians, he briefly played for money, charging as much as \$100 for someone to play against him. In 1980, Dark penned an autobiography (with John Underwood) entitled When in Doubt, Fire the Manager, published by E. P. Dutton, the back cover of which included endorsements by Ted Williams and Gene Mauch. In 1983, Dark and Jackie moved to Easley, South Carolina, where they would live for the rest of their lives. He started the Alvin Dark Foundation, which gives money to Christian ministries. On November 13, 2014, Dark died at his home in Easley, from Alzheimer's disease, at the age of 92. He was survived by his second wife, his children, 20 grandchildren, and three great grandchildren. ## See also - List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders - List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders - List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
31,671,342	Battle of Brunanburh (poem)	1,092,484,321	Old English poem	[ "Cotton Library", "Old English poems", "Works of unknown authorship" ]	The "Battle of Brunanburh" is an Old English poem. It is preserved in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a historical record of events in Anglo-Saxon England which was kept from the late ninth to the mid-twelfth century. The poem records the Battle of Brunanburh, a battle fought in 937 between an English army and a combined army of Scots, Vikings, and Britons. The battle resulted in an English victory, celebrated by the poem in style and language like that of traditional Old English battle poetry. The poem is notable because of those traditional elements and has been praised for its authentic tone, but it is also remarkable for its fiercely nationalistic tone, which documents the development of a unified England ruled by the House of Wessex. ## Historical background The Battle of Brunanburh was a culmination of the conflict between King Æthelstan and the northern kings. After Æthelstan had defeated the Vikings at York in 928, Constantine II, the Scottish King, recognised the threat posed by the House of Wessex to his own position, and began forging alliances with neighbouring kingdoms to attempt a pre-emptive strike against Æthelstan. He married his daughter to Amlaíb mac Gofraid (also called Olaf Guthfrithsson, and Anlaf in the poem), the Norse-Gael King of Dublin. Amlaíb had a claim to the throne of Northumbria, from which Æthelstan expelled his father in 927. Thus, the invading army combined "Vikings, Scots, and Strathclyde Britons." On the English side, Æthelstan was joined by his brother, the later King Edmund. In the ensuing battle, the combined forces of Wessex and Mercia won a decisive victory. ## The poem The poem is preserved in four of the nine surviving manuscripts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. In the Parker Chronicle, its verse lines are written out as poetry, following common Anglo-Saxon scribal practice. The 73-line long poem is written in "indeterminate Saxon," that is, the regular West-Saxon dialect in which most surviving Old English poetry is copied. It is referred to as a panegyric celebrating the victory of Æthelstan and Edmund I. The text begins by praising King Æthelstan and his brother Edmund I for their victory. It mentions the fall of "Scots and seafarers" in a battle that lasted an entire day, while "the battlefield flowed / with dark blood." "Norse seafarer[s]" and "weary Scot[s]" were killed by "West Saxons [who] / pursued those hateful people", killing them from behind with their swords; neither did "the Mercians...stint / hard handplay". "Five young kings" are killed in battle along with "seven / of Anlaf's earls". Amlaíb mac Gofraid ("Anlaf") flees by boat, and Constantine flees to: the north, leaving "his son / savaged by weapons on that field of slaughter, / a mere boy in battle." The poem concludes by comparing the battle to those fought in earlier stages of English history: Never, before this, were more men in this island slain by the sword's edge--as books and aged sages confirm--since Angles and Saxons sailed here from the east, sought the Britons over the wide seas, since those warsmiths hammered the Welsh, and earls, eager for glory, overran the land. ## Style and tone The style of the poem has been described as "sagalike in its sparse use of language combined with ample specific detail." According to George Anderson, since the poem comes so late in the Old English period, it gives evidence of the continuing attraction of the "warrior tradition": it is "clear and convincing testimony to the vitality of the Old English battle-epic tradition; the authentic ring sounds out years after the Beowulf Poet, Caedmon, and Cynewulf have been laid to rest." Donald Fry compares passages from Beowulf and Brunanburh (concerning the boarding of ships) and remarks on the "similar diction and imagery". According to Malcolm Godden, the language resembles that of the Old English Genesis A. The poem is not without its detractors: an early critic, Walter J. Sedgefield, in a 1904 study of the poems in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, said "even the longest and best written of their number, the Battle of Brunanburh, is but a simulacrum, a ghost of the older epos". That the poem should not be treated as a historical text, and that panegyric was the appropriate genre, was argued by Alistair Campbell: "The poet's subjects are the praise of heroes and the glory of victory. When this is realised, the oft-repeated criticism, that he does not greatly add to our knowledge of the battle, falls to the ground. It was not his object to do so. He was not writing an epic or a 'ballad.' He was writing a panegyric." Townend agrees, and notes that praise-poems on contemporary men are completely missing from the Anglo-Saxon period until a cluster of four panegyrics including Brunanburh in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Compared to "The Battle of Maldon", an Old English poem that commemorates a battle between English and Vikings half a century later, Brunanburh is notable for its nationalist overtones, whereas Maldon celebrates Christian over non-Christian values. Indeed, the poem is seen as celebrating a logical progression in the development of England as a unified nation ruled by the House of Wessex; the battle reports "the dawning of a sense of nationality, ....a crisis in which a nation is involved". In this respect, Brunanburh is closer to the Anglo-Saxon poem The Taking of the Five Boroughs, also found in the Chronicle under the year 942, celebrating King Edmund's recapture of the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw. But while the poet claims veracity, Michael Swanton notes, "it is ironic in view of his primarily historic concerns that he is in fact more successful than the Maldon-poet in transmitting the traditional poetic style." Peter Clemoes argues in Interactions of Thought and Language in Old English Poetry that Brunanburh, as opposed to Maldon, relies on "uncomplicated patriotic triumphalism". The poem does not treat "personal responsibility" as Maldon does, but leans on an expansive view of history which sees the battle, in line with the Chronicle's view of contemporary history as the "epitome of Anglo-Saxon, especially West Saxon, history with antecedents in the history of Britain", as "straightforwardly traditional". According to Patrick Wormald, the poem builds on the "sense of ideological identity that the English had been given by Bede." > This poet from the 10th century is recalling the Germanic conquest of England which occurred in the 5th century; he connects his memory of this present victory, which must have been very moving for the Saxons — for it was more common for the Norse to defeat them, and rare for them to be the victors — he linked it to the often secular victories enjoyed by the first Germanic peoples who arrived in England. Accompanying the combatants are the usual "beasts of battle" found in other Old English poems—the wolf, the raven, and the eagle. The Battle of Brunanburh, however, seems to include a fourth animal, the guþhafoc (literally Goshawk), or "war-hawk," in line 64. However, editors and scholars of the poem have suggested that graedigne guþhafoc, "greedy war-hawk", is actually a kenning for the hasu-padan, / earn æftan hwit, the "dusky coated, white-tailed eagle" of lines 62b-63a. Simon Walker suggests that was written at Worcester, under the influence of its bishop, Koenwald, and that the emphasis on Edmund's contribution suggests that it was written during his reign. Sarah Foot finds the arguments for the first suggestion convincing but not the second. ## Editions, adaptations, and translations "The Battle of Brunanburh" is edited, annotated and linked to digital images of all five of its manuscript witnesses, with modern translation, in the Old English Poetry in Facsimile Project: The poem is included in the Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records. The now-accepted standard edition of the poem is the 1938 edition by Alistair Campbell. The Battle of Brunanburh: A Casebook, edited by Michael Livingston, was published by the University of Exeter Press in 2011; it includes two alternative translations of the poem and essays on the battle and the poem. The twelfth-century Anglo-Norman chronicler Geoffrey Gaimar likely used the account in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for his treatment of Æthelstan in his L'Estoire des Engles. English poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson translated (or "modernized") the poem in 1880, publishing it as part of his Ballads and Other Poems (and his son Hallam Tennyson published a prose translation of the poem). In contrast to many other translations of poetry, Tennyson's is still praised as "a faithful, sensitive, even eloquent recreation of its source." The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges wrote a short poem, "Brunanburh 937 AD," a translation of which was published in The New Yorker. In a 1968 lecture at Harvard University, Borges praised Tennyson's translation, stating that in some locutions Tennyson sounds "more Saxon than the original." A translation by Burton Raffel is included in Alexandra Hennessey Olsen's anthology Poems and prose from the Old English.
28,977,017	Guepinia	1,033,822,190	Genus of fungi	[ "Auriculariales", "Edible fungi", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of North America", "Fungi of South America", "Monotypic Basidiomycota genera", "Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries" ]	Guepinia is a genus of fungus in the Auriculariales order. It is a monotypic genus, containing the single species Guepinia helvelloides, commonly known as the apricot jelly. The fungus produces salmon-pink, ear-shaped, gelatinous fruit bodies that grow solitarily or in small tufted groups on soil, usually associated with buried rotting wood. The fruit bodies are 4–10 cm (1.6–3.9 in) tall and up to 17 cm (6.7 in) wide; the stalks are not well-differentiated from the cap. The fungus, although rubbery, is edible, and may be eaten raw with salads, pickled, or candied. It has a white spore deposit, and the oblong to ellipsoid spores measure 9–11 by 5–6 micrometers. The fungus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, and has also been collected from South America. ## Taxonomy The species was first described and illustrated as Tremella rufa by Nicolaus Joseph von Jacquin in 1778. Elias Magnus Fries later (1828) called it Guepinia helvelloides in his Elenchus Fungorum, based on Augustin Pyramus de Candolle's Tremella helvelloides, both being names he sanctioned. This has made Tremella rufa and all names based on it unavailable for use, as they are conserved. Later, Lucien Quélet erected a separate monotypic genus Phlogiotis for Jacquin's species, whereas Julius Oscar Brefeld placed it (as Gyrocephalus rufa) in Persoon's small genus Gyrocephalus (rejected name for Gyromitra). The proper name for the fungus was debated for some time, as the name Guepinia is a homonym (pointed out by Fries in 1828), because it had been used by Toussaint Bastard in 1812 for a genus of flowering plants in the Cruciferae family. To further complicate matters, the generic name Teesdalia, originally considered to have priority over the name Guepinia for the plant genus, was later determined to have been validly published after Guepinia, rendering Teesdalia an illegitimate name. In 1982, changes in the International Code for Botanical Nomenclature gave protected status to all names adopted by Fries in the Elenchus Fungorum, and established Guepinia as the correct genus name. Guepinia is variously classified in the Auriculariales order, with uncertain familial position (incertae sedis), or as part of the Exidiaceae family. The genus is named after French mycologist Jean-Pierre Guépin (1779–1858). The mushroom is commonly known as the "red jelly fungus", or "apricot jelly". ## Description The fruit bodies of Guepinia helvelloides grow singly or in small clumps. Although they can appear to be growing in the soil, their mycelium lives in buried wood. They are 4–10 cm (1.6–3.9 in) tall and 3–17 cm (1.2–6.7 in) wide, spoon- or tongue-shaped, and twisted like a cornet or horn so that they look like a slender funnel, cut out on one side and often with a wavy margin. The fruit bodies are flexible, 2–3.5 mm (0.08–0.14 in) thick, and smooth on the outer side which they are usually attenuated on the underside into a cylindrical or depressed stem that is up to 5 cm (2.0 in) high and about 1.5 cm (0.6 in) thick. The stem is normally covered with a white tomentum at the base. The upper side (inside) of the fruit body is usually quite sterile or with a few isolated basidia and is slightly verrucose as a result of the densely crowded protruding ends of the hyphae. The sterile and fertile surfaces of the fruit body are almost the same color, transparent reddish-orange to flesh pink or flesh orange, at other times more purplish-red. The fruit bodies usually develop a slightly brownish tinge when they are old. The underside is usually slightly more vividly colored than the upper side. The flesh is gelatinous, softly so in the upper part of the fruit body and with a more cartilage-like consistency in the stem. It has a nondescript odor, and a watery, insignificant taste. The hymenium is developed on the under (outer) side of the fruit body. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) consist of a globular part (the hypobasidia) to which inflated or elongated epibasidia are attached. In Guepinia, the hypobasidia are egg-shaped to ellipsoid, measuring 12–16 by 9–12 μm, and attached to fibril-like epibasidia that are 20–45 by 3–4 μm. The spore deposit is white, while the spores are 9–11 by 5–6 μm, hyaline (translucent), cylindrical to elongated ellipsoid in shape, and have a large oil drop. ### Edibility Guepinia helvelloides is an edible, but bland, fungus. Older specimens are usually tough and indigestible. It can be used raw in salads, for pickling in vinegar and also for preserving in sugar like candied fruit. One source reports using it to prepare a wine by fermenting with wine yeast. ### Similar species Guepinia helvelloides has a rather unusual appearance, and is not likely to be mistaken for other fungi. However, the red chanterelle species Cantharellus cinnabarinus is superficially similar; unlike G. helvelloides, however, it does not have a rubbery and gelatinous texture, and its undersurface is wrinkled, not smooth. ## Habitat and distribution Guepinia helvelloides is saprobic, deriving nutrients by breaking down organic matter. The fruit bodies of G. helveloides typically grow solitarily or in small tufts on soil, usually in association with buried rotting wood. Although the fruit bodies sometimes appear in the spring, they are more commonly found in the summer and autumn months. In North America, it is associated with coniferous forests. It is also found throughout temperate North America, from Canada to Mexico. Europe, Iran, and Turkey. It is also known from Brazil and Puerto Rico. The fungus has also been collected from the Qinling region of China.
1,471,587	Gregory of Narek	1,169,642,567	Armenian monk and mystical poet (c. 950 – 1003/1011)	[ "10th-century Armenian poets", "11th-century Christian mystics", "11th-century Christian saints", "11th-century Christian theologians", "11th-century deaths", "950s births", "Andzevatsi family", "Armenian Oriental Orthodox Christians", "Armenian Roman Catholic saints", "Armenian male poets", "Armenian mysticism", "Armenian saints", "Christian poets", "Doctors of the Church", "Eastern Catholic poets", "Oriental Orthodox mystics", "Poet priests", "Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church", "Year of birth uncertain", "Year of death uncertain" ]	Grigor Narekatsi (Armenian: Գրիգոր Նարեկացի; anglicized: Gregory of Narek) (c. 950 – 1003/1011) was an Armenian mystical and lyrical poet, monk, and theologian. He is venerated as a saint in the Armenian Apostolic and Catholic Churches and was declared a Doctor of the Church by Pope Francis in 2015. The son of a bishop, Gregory was educated, ordained, and later stationed at Narekavank on the southern shores of Lake Van (modern Turkey). Scholars consider Gregory the most beloved and significant theological and literary figure of the Armenian religious tradition. He is best known for his Book of Lamentations, a significant piece of mystical literature which serves as a confessional prayer book in many Armenian religious households. His works have inspired many Armenian literary figures and influenced Armenian literature in general throughout the ages. ## Life and background Scholars place Gregory's birth and death dates circa 945–951 and 1003 or 1010–11, respectively. He lived in the Kingdom of Vaspurakan, a medieval Armenian kingdom, which is "notable for the high cultural level that it achieved." Vaspurakan, centered around Lake Van, is a region described by Richard Hovannisian as "the cradle of Armenian civilization". Little is known about his life. He was born in a village on the southern shores of Lake Van, in what is now eastern Turkey, to Khosrov Andzevatsi, a relative of the Artsruni royal family. Khosrov was ordained a bishop after being widowed and was appointed primate of the diocese of Andzevatsik. His father was suspected of pro-Byzantine Chalcedonian beliefs, a doctrine not accepted by the Armenian Apostolic Church, and was eventually excommunicated by Catholicos Anania Mokatsi for undermining the Armenian Church with his interpretation of the rank of Catholicos, the highest rank in Armenian church clergy, as being equivalent to that of a bishop, a lower rank in Christian churches, based on the works of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a fifth-century Greek Christian theologian and mysticist. Grigor and his elder brother Hovhannes were sent to the Narekavank (lit. the monastery of Narek), where he was given religious education by Anania Narekatsi (Ananias of Narek). The latter was his maternal great-uncle, a celebrated scholar and the monastery's founder. Being raised in an intellectual and religious fervor, Grigor was ordained priest in 977 and taught others theology at the monastery school until his death. Whether Gregory led a secluded life has become a debate among Armenian scholars. Both literary critic Arshag Chobanian and scholar Manuk Abeghian believe he did. In contrast, literary critic Hrant Tamrazyan [hy] argued that Gregory was very well aware of the secular world and his time, had a deep knowledge of both peasants and princes and the complexities of the world. Tamrazyan believes he could not have lived solely on literary ecstasy. Gregory was buried inside the walls of the monastery of Narek. A rectangular-shaped chapel-mausoleum was built on his tomb, which survived until the mid-20th century, when the monastery, abandoned in the aftermath of the Armenian genocide, was destroyed by the Turkish authorities, and later replaced with a mosque. ## Works ### Book of Lamentations (Narek) The Book of Lamentations (Classical Armenian: Մատեան ողբերգութեան, Matean voghbergut'ean) is widely considered Gregory's masterpiece. It is often simply called Narek (Նարեկ). Completed towards the end of his life, circa 1002–03, the work has been described as a monologue, a personal lyric and confessional poem, mystical and meditative. It comprises 95 chapters and over 10,000 lines. Almost all chapters (except two) are titled "Words unto God from the Depths of My Heart". The chapters, which are prayers or elegies, vary in length, but all address God. The central theme is the metaphysical and existential conflict between Gregory's desire to be perfect, as taught by Jesus, and his realization that it is impossible and between the divine grace and his sense of one's unworthiness to receive that grace. However, the love and mercy of God's all-embracing, all-forgiving, and amazing grace compensate for man's unworthiness. The book is considered a masterpiece of Christian spiritual literature. It has been described by Agop Jack Hacikyan et al. as the "most beloved work of Armenian literature." It has been historically kept in Armenian homes. Scholars have described its popularity among Armenians as second to the Bible. For centuries, Armenians have treasured the book as an enchanted treasure and have attributed to it miraculous powers. For instance, one passage has been read to the ill expecting a cure. Malachia Ormanian, scholar and Patriarch of Constantinople, wrote that Narek is "written in a florid and sublime style, is regarded as a potent talisman against all kinds of dangers." In the 21st century, psychiatrist Armen Nersisyan has claimed to have developed a unique type of therapy based on the book, which can cure many diseases, at least partly. The book's first complete publication was done by Voskan Yerevantsi in Marseille, France, in 1673. While the first complete commentary was published in Constantinople in 1745. The work has been translated into English, Russian, French, Arabic, Persian, Lithuanian, Latvian, Estonian. There are three English translations of the book, with the first one appearing in 1977. ### Commentary on the Song of Songs Gregory's second most known extant work is a commentary on the Song of Songs (Մեկնութիւն երգոց երգոյն Սողոմոնի, Meknutiun yergots yergoyn Soghomoni), written in 977, the year he was ordained a priest. The commentary was written at the behest of prince Gurgen-Khachik Artsruni of Vaspurakan. Gregory makes frequent use of St. Gregory of Nyssa's Letters on the Song of Songs. The commentary contains explicit condemnation of marriage and sexuality practices by Tondrakians, an Armenian Christian sect named as heretics by the Armenian Apostolic Church. Gregory may have been commissioned to counter these heretical teachings. Armenian author Ara Baliozian describes the commentary as a prose masterpiece. ### Other works There is also a single extant manuscript of a commentary by Gregory on chapters 38 and 39 of the Book of Job. Gregory also wrote hymns, panegyrics on various holy figures, homilies, numerous chants and prayers that are still sung today in Armenian churches. Scholars have noted that Gregory often departs from the standards of the Armenian and Greek traditions of panegyrics and encomia and innovates in interesting and distinctive ways. Of particular importance are his two recensions of the encomium on the Holy Virgin. In which he affirms the doctrines of Mary's bodily Assumption (Վերափոխումն), perpetual virginity, and perhaps the immaculate conception. The encomium on the Holy Virgin was written as part of a triptych requested by the bishop Step'anos of Mokk'. The other two panegyrics forming this set are the History of the Holy Cross of Aparank''', which commemorates the donation of a relic of the True Cross to the monastery of Aparank' by the Byzantine emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII, and the Encomium on the Holy Cross. By focusing on the cross, both of these panegyrics counter Tondrakian rejection of veneration of the cross and other material objects. Here again, as in the rest of Gregory's corpus, the saint defends orthodoxy against the Tondrakians and other heretical movements. Gregory also wrote a panegyric on St. Jacob of Nisibis, a fourth-century Syriac bishop who has been and remains today highly esteemed among Armenians. Gregory also has is an encomium on the Holy Apostles. Gregory also authored around two dozen tagher (lays or odes), which are the first documented religious poems in Armenian literature, and spiritual songs called gandz, both in verse and prose. Gregory also composed music for his odes, but they are not considered sharakans (chants). Many of the festal odes and litanies as well as the panegyrics have been translated to English and annotated by Abraham Terian. ## Outlook and philosophy The central idea of Gregory's philosophy is eternal salvation relying solely upon faith and divine grace, and not necessarily upon the institutional church, in which his views are similar to those of the 16th century Protestant Reformation. This interpretation of Gregory as a precursor of Protestantism has more recently been challenged. Gregory may have been suspected of heresy and being sympathetic to the Paulicians and Tondrakians—two major sects in medieval Armenia. He notably wrote a treatise against the Tondrakians in the 980s, possibly to clear himself of accusations of being sympathetic to their movement. In the treatise, he states some of his theological views. Although Gregory does not mention the Tondrakians in the Book of Lamentations, some scholars have interpreted certain chapters as containing anti-Tondrakian elements. Other scholars have pointed out that the Book of Lamentations is dominated by the theme of the centrality of the sacraments, especially baptism, reconciliation, and the Eucharist, and thus directly opposes Tondrakian deprecation of the sacraments. In his struggle against the antinomian Tondrakians, Gregory followed his predecessor at the monastery of Narek—his great-uncle Anania, who was condemned for his alleged Tondrakian beliefs. According to Ara Baliozian, Gregory broke from Hellenistic thought, which was dominant among the Armenian intellectual elite since the 5th-century golden age. He was instead profoundly influenced by Neoplatonism. In fact, the Narek school was instrumental in instilling Christian Neoplatonism in Armenian theology, particularly concepts such as divinization, the attainment of the power of spiritual vision or discernment through penitential purification of the inner and outer man, and a symbolic exegetical methodology. He may have been influenced by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a pivotal author in Christian Neoplatonism, although this view has been challenged. Vache Nalbandian argued that Gregory's outlook is essentially anti-feudal and humanistic. The tone of the Book of Lamentations has been compared to that of Confessions by Augustine of Hippo. Some scholars have compared Gregory's worldview, and philosophy to those of later Sufi mystic poets Rumi and Yunus Emre, and 19th century Russian writers Fyodor Dostoevsky and A. K. Tolstoy. Michael Papazian, a scholar of Gregory, opined that he is "what you'd get if you crossed Augustine and James Joyce. But his spirituality is also infused with the simple piety of the Desert Fathers; and, although he lived before him, there’s an element of St. Francis in him, too. He's a synthesis of so many strands of Christian tradition." ## Recognition Gregory was the first major Armenian lyrical poet and is considered the most beloved person in Armenian Christianity. Robert W. Thomson described him as the "most significant poet of the whole Armenian religious tradition," while Jos Weitenberg declared him the "most outstanding theological, mystical and literary figure of Armenian culture." James R. Russell lists Gregory as one of the three visionaries of the Armenian tradition, along with Mesrop Mashtots and Yeghishe Charents. According to Hacikyan et al. Gregory of Narek "deserves to be known as one of the great mystical writers of medieval Christendom." Vrej Nersessian considers him a "poet of world stature" in the "scope and breadth of his intellect and poetic inventiveness, and in the brooding, visionary quality of his language"—on a par with St Augustine, Dante, and Edward Taylor. Levon Zekiyan shares a similar view, describing Gregory as a unique figure not just in Armenian national and ecclesiastical culture, but also that of the entire globe. Nersessian argues that Gregory of Narek ranks with St. Augustine and Thomas à Kempis as "one the three greatest mystic writers in medieval Christendom, his monumental Lamentations joins the former’s Confessions, and the latter’s Imitation of Christ to form a natural trilogy." Armenian-Russian critic Karen Stepanyan [ru] writes that Gregory's genius makes him comparable with Shakespeare, Miguel de Cervantes, and Dostoevsky. Agop Jack Hacikyan et al. note that through his "lively, vibrant, and highly individual style" Gregory shaped, refined, and greatly enriched Classical Armenian through his works. According to Hrachik Mirzoyan, Gregory may have created more than 2,500 new Armenian words, including, լուսանկար, lusankar, a portrait or image, and օդաչու, odachu, a person who flies, pilot. Many of the words Gregory created are not actively used or have been replaced by other words. ### Critique France-based Western Armenian writer Shahan Shahnour has been Gregory's most prominent critic. Shahnour targeted him in his novel Retreat Without Song (Նահանջը առանց երգի, published in 1929) through one of his characters. The latter describes the Book of Lamentations as "the most immoral, unhealthy, poisonous book, a work that had debilitated the Armenians as a nation. The Armenians remain defeated in trying to emulate Grigor's miserable, maimed soul." Criticizing the book's influence on rooting the notion of fate in Armenian popular belief and for making Armenians "conventional, patient, tolerant, suffocating the freedom-loving spirit in [them]." Paruyr Sevak opined that the Narek has not been read by Armenians as much as it has been kissed. ## Veneration ### Armenian churches Gregory of Narek is a saint of both the Armenian Apostolic and Armenian Catholic churches. The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates his feast on the second Saturday of October, during the Feast of the Holy Translators (Սուրբ Թարգմանչաց, Surb T’argmanchats). Dedicated to him, Mesrop Mashtots, Yeghishe, Movses Khorenatsi, David the Invincible, and Nerses Shnorhali, it was declared a national holiday in Armenia in 2001. The exact date of his canonization by the Armenian Church is unknown, but he was already recognized as a saint by 1173, when Nerses Lambronatsi included, in the earliest extant manuscript of the Book of Lamentations, a biographical section on him entitled "The Life of the Holy Man of God Grigor Narekatsi". His contemporary, historian Ukhtanes (c. 940-1000) called Gregory a "Universal vardapet" («Տիեզերական վարդապետ»). In the 15th century, when the Catholicosate of Aghtamar was at the center of efforts to revive Armenian statehood, monks at the Cathedral of Aghtamar sought to construct a tradition that would link the Catholicosate to Gregory of Narek. One such tradition claimed that Gregory himself had founded the Catholicosate. In ritual books commissioned by Zakaria III and Stepanos IV, Gregory is depicted more than just equal-to-the-apostles. Gregory's relic is preserved at the Treasury Museum of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin. It was brought out to Etchmiadzin Cathedral on the feast in 2012. Several churches built in Armenia in the 21st century have been named after him. The St. Gregory of Narek Armenian Apostolic Church in Richmond Heights, Ohio, near Cleveland, was built in 1964. The Armenian Catholic eparchy of Buenos Aires is called the Eparchy of Saint Gregory of Narek. ### Catholic Church According to Donald Attwater, despite the schism over the Council of Chalcedon there have always been at least some Catholics using the Armenian Rite. For example, even though the Monastery of Narek was founded by Armenian monks fleeing religious persecution in Cappadocia under the Byzantine Emperor Romanus Lecapenus, the monks of Narek, including St. Gregory himself, were repeatedly accused of involvement in the Tsayt movement. The Tsayts were a school of thought within the Armenian Apostolic Church who accepted the teachings of the Council of Chalcedon while continuing to offer the Liturgy in Classical Armenian. To Armenians who viewed the Council of Chalcedon as a contradiction of St. Cyril of Alexandria and therefore as heresy, the Tsayts were accused of being, "Greeks but with an Armenian tongue", and even as, "half, insufficient, or inadequate Armenians". Meanwhile, criticisms of the Paulician Tondrakian movement by St Gregory of Narek have come down to us, but no similar criticisms of the Council of Chalcedon or of the Tsayts are known to exist by his hand. This would become vitally important centuries later, when the Mekhitarist Order was founded by Venerable Mkhitar Sebastatsi as part of a wider movement within the Armenian Apostolic Church towards acceptance of the Council of Chalcedon and reunification with the Holy See. Encouraged by French Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries in the Ottoman Empire, this movement eventually resulted in both the 1707 martyrdom of Blessed Gomidas Keumurdjian and the 1742 formation of the Patriarchate of Cilicia to head the Armenian Catholic Church. For many reasons, Sts. Gregory of Narek and Nerses Shnorhali were the only two Post-Chalcedon Armenian theologians used by the Mekhitarist monks to preach reunion through their publishing apostolate based at San Lazzaro Island in Venice. In his 1987 encyclical Redemptoris Mater, Pope John Paul II called him "one of the outstanding glories of Armenia." Article 2678 of Catechism of the Catholic Church, promulgated by John Paul II in 1992, mentions the tradition of prayer in his works. John Paul II referred to him in several addresses, and described Gregory as "one of Our Lady's principal poets" and "the great doctor of the Armenian Church" in his 18 February 2001 Angelus address. On 4 September 2014, Armenian Catholic Patriarch Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni appointed Archbishop Boghos Levon Zekiyan of the Mekhitarist Order as Postulator, with orders to argue for St. Gregory being named a Doctor of the Church. Proof was demanded from Archbishop Zekiyan that the Armenian Apostolic Church has never been Monophysite and only rejected the Council of Chalcedon due to a misunderstanding over semantics. Archbishop Zekiyan's investigation and arguments were successful and, on 23 February 2015 Pope Francis declared Gregory of Narek a Doctor of the Church. On 12 April 2015, on Divine Mercy Sunday, during a Mass for the centennial of the Armenian genocide at St. Peter's Basilica, Pope Francis officially proclaimed Gregory of Narek as Doctor of the Church in the presence of Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan, Catholicos of All Armenians Karekin II, Catholicos of Cilicia Aram I, and Armenian Catholic Patriarch Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni. During a Mass on 25 June 2016 in Vartanants Square in Gyumri, Francis stated that he had "wished to draw greater attention" to Gregory by making him a Doctor of the Church. In a 2023 address, Pope Francis said of Gregory: "What is most striking about him is the universal solidarity of which he is an interpreter." Gregory is the 36th and the first Armenian Doctor of the Church. He is also the "second saint coming out of the Eastern Church" to become a Doctor and the only Doctor "who was not in communion with the Catholic Church during his lifetime." St. Gregory's recognition as a Doctor of the Church was commemorated by the Vatican City state with a postage stamp put into circulation on 2 September 2015. On 5 April 2018 a two-meter-high bronze statue of Gregory, erected by Davit Yerevantsi [hy], was unveiled at the Vatican Gardens by Mikael Minasyan, Armenia's Ambassador to the Holy See. The ceremony was also attended by Pope Francis, Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan, and Armenian Apostolic leaders Karekin II and Aram I. In 2021 the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments established an optional memorial for him on 27 February on the General Roman Calendar. ## Legacy ### Literary influence Gregory influenced virtually all Armenian literature that came after him. Manuk Abeghian argued that his mark on Armenian Christian literature was "comparable to Homer for Greek and Dante for Italian." Grigor Magistros Pahlavuni (c. 990–1058) is considered his direct literary successor. Scholars have noted Gregory's influence on Armenian poets—medieval and modern ones alike. He inspired prominent medieval poets Hovhannes Imastaser (c. 1047–1129), Nerses Shnorhali (1102–1173) and Frik (c. 1230–1310), and in the modern period, Sayat-Nova (1712–95), Hovhannes Tumanyan (1869–1923), Misak Metsarents (1886–1908), Daniel Varoujan (1884–1915), Siamanto (1878–1915), Yeghishe Charents (1897–1937), and Paruyr Sevak (1924–1971). Charents lauds the "hallowed brows" of Gregory and Nahapet Kuchak in his 1920 poem "I Love My Armenia" («Ես իմ անուշ Հայաստանի»). In another poem, entitled "To Armenia" («Հայաստանին»), Charents lists Gregory, Nerses Shnorhali and Naghash Hovnatan as geniuses. Sevak describes the Book of Lamentations a "temple of poesy, on which the destructive action of time has had no effect." ### Tributes Narek (Western Armenian: Nareg) is highly popular male first name among Armenians. In 2018 it was the second most common name given to baby boys. It originates from the village and monastery of Narek and owns its popularity to Gregory of Narek and the Book of Lamentations, popularly known as "Narek." The village of Narek in Armenia's Ararat Province was named after Gregory in 1984. The Narekatsi Professorship of Armenian Language and Culture, established in 1969, is the oldest endowed chair of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). In Yerevan, a public school (established in 1967 and renamed in 1990) and a medical center (established in 2003) are named after Gregory. Gregory is depicted on a postage stamp issued by Armenia in 2001. The Naregatsi Art Institute (Նարեկացի Արվեստի Միություն), has its headquarters in Yerevan, Armenia (since 2004) and a center in Shushi, Karabakh (since 2006). A statue of Gregory was erected in Yerevan's Malatia-Sebastia district in 2002. A large stone resembling an old manuscript with inscribed lines and images from the Book of Lamentations was unveiled in the Narekatsi quarter of Yerevan's Avan district in 2010. Soviet composer Alfred Schnittke composed music for the Russian translation of the Book of Lamentations'' in 1985 named “Concerto for mixed chorus". ## See also - Doctors of the Church - Mystical theology - Exegesis - commentary on religious text - History of the Armenian literature
74,608,605	Edward A. McGurk	1,173,183,211	American Jesuit educator (1841–1896)	[ "1841 births", "1896 deaths", "19th-century American Jesuits", "Burials at the College of the Holy Cross Cemetery", "Clergy from Philadelphia", "Georgetown University alumni", "Pastors of St. Aloysius Church (Washington, D.C.)", "Pastors of St. Ignatius Church (Baltimore)", "Presidents of Gonzaga College High School", "Presidents of Loyola University Maryland", "Presidents of the College of the Holy Cross", "St. Joseph's Preparatory School alumni", "St. Stanislaus Novitiate (Frederick, Maryland) alumni", "Woodstock College alumni" ]	Edward A. McGurk (1841 – July 3, 1896) was an American Catholic priest and Jesuit who was the president of Loyola College in Maryland from 1877 to 1885 and the president of the College of the Holy Cross from 1893 to 1895. Born in Philadelphia, he entered the Society of Jesus in 1857. He taught at Holy Cross before becoming the president of Loyola College, where he liquidated some of the school's debt, which had accrued during the Civil War. In 1885, McGurk became the president of Gonzaga College (later a high school) in Washington, D.C. During his tenure, he constructed a new residence for the Jesuits and scholastics. In 1893, McGurk became the president of Holy Cross. He took office during a dispute over the construction of a new building. He oversaw the completion of the building, which required fundraising and the assumption of significant debt. The new building, O'Kane Hall, opened in 1895. McGurk died in office in 1896. ## Early life McGurk was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on October 6, 1841. He studied at St. Joseph's Preparatory School before entering the Society of Jesus on July 20, 1857, proceeding to the novitiate in Frederick, Maryland. While there, the Civil War broke out. The novitiate was converted into a hospital for Union soldiers, and McGurk tended to some of the soldiers. He pronounced his Jesuit perpetual vows in 1859 and then spent two more years studying at Frederick. In September 1861, McGurk was sent to the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts, for his regency, where he served as a teacher. He was the prefect of studies there from 1874 to 1876. In 1866, McGurk went to Washington, D.C., to begin his philosophical studies at Georgetown University. When the new Jesuit house of studies, Woodstock College, opened in September 1869 in Maryland, he continued his education there as a member of its first cohort. In the summer of 1872, McGurk was ordained a priest at Woodstock. McGurk was then sent to Boston College for two years. For some of this time, he was vice president of the college. Afterwards, he became the chair of rhetoric at the College of the Holy Cross. In 1876, McGurk went to the Frederick novitiate to complete his tertianship. He then professed his fourth vow on August 15, 1877. ## Loyola College In 1877, McGurk succeeded Stephen A. Kelly as the president of Loyola College in Maryland. At the same time, he became the pastor of St. Ignatius Church, which was attached to the college. When he assumed office, the school was burdened by significant debt, which had accrued during the Civil War. McGurk successfully liquidated some of this debt, which his predecessor had begun to do. He also raised the academic standards of the school and renovated St. Ignatius Church. McGurk remained president and pastor until 1885, when he was succeeded by Francis Smith. ## Gonzaga College On July 31, 1885, McGurk succeeded John J. Murphy as the president of Gonzaga College in Washington, D.C. (later known as Gonzaga College High School). At the same time, he became the pastor of St. Aloysius Church. In 1886, he began raising money from parishioners to construct a new residence for the priests and Jesuit scholastics of the church and school. On May 26 of that year, construction began on the new building, which opened on August 1, 1887. Enrollment remained low during his presidency, numbering 87 students during the academic year of 1886 and 1887. That number declined again to just 57 students at the start of the academic year of 1887 and 1888. Eventually, at the start of the 1889 academic year, the school discontinued its upper-level classes. McGurk's tenure as president and pastor came to an end on November 18, 1890, and he was succeeded by Cornelius Gillespie. From 1890 to 1893, McGurk engaged in pastoral work in Boston. ## College of the Holy Cross Disatisfied with Michael O'Kane's performance as the president of the College of the Holy Cross, the Jesuit provincial superior, Thomas J. Campbell, appointed McGurk in 1893 to replace him, given McGurk's experience as an administrator. During his tenure, he disbanded the college's varsity football team in 1894 because he did not want it to play outside of Worcester. In 1890, O'Kane had begun construction on a new building, without permission from the Jesuit superiors, to accommodate the school's growing student body. When they discovered this, the superiors ordered that work be paused. During McGurk's presidency, the consultors of the Jesuit province determined that the school would have to take on \$150,000 of debt to complete construction. The superiors eventually approved the completion of the exterior only, and work on the building resumed in 1894. McGurk attempted to raise funds for its completion. Around this time, McGurk's health began to deterioriate, and he took several leaves of absence to recuperate. He spent some time at Keyser Island in Connecticut and then three months in Europe. He continued to petition the Jesuit Superior General for permission to take on additional debt to complete the building, which stood unfinished for two years. McGurk eventually received permission and was directed to borrow from other Jesuit institutions, rather than from banks. In January 1895, he established a fundraising committee and had students raise funds for gymnasium equipment. In April 1895, the new building was officially dedicated and was named O'Kane Hall. Measuring 220 feet (67 m) long, 110 feet (34 m) wide, and 95 feet (29 m) tall, it substantially relieved overcrowding at the college. It contained a swimming pool, gymnasium, running track, the president's office, laboratories, classrooms, a museum, a library, dormitories, and an 800-seat theater. In total, the building cost \$182,000, and brought the college's total debt to a high of \$187,000 in 1894, equivalent to approximately \$ in . During the graduation ceremony of 1895, while trying to resume the exercises indoors after it had begun to rain, McGurk suffered a stroke. He survived the event but remained in very poor health. On July 3, 1896, at approximately 5:50 p.m., McGurk died at St. Theresa's, the Jesuit retreat house and villa in Fairhaven, Massachusetts, on what is now Pope Beach on Sconticut Neck. He was the first Jesuit to die at that institution. He was buried at the College of the Holy Cross cemetery. John F. Lehy was appointed vice rector of the college until a new president could be chosen.
1,234,937	Riverside Church	1,172,826,788	null	[ "1930 establishments in New York City", "Affirming Baptist churches in the United States", "Baptist churches in New York City", "Bell towers in the United States", "Buildings of the Rockefeller family", "Carillons", "Churches completed in 1930", "Churches in Manhattan", "Morningside Heights, Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York State Register of Historic Places in New York County", "Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan", "United Church of Christ churches in New York City" ]	Riverside Church is an interdenominational church in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. It is associated with the American Baptist Churches USA and the United Church of Christ. The church was conceived by philanthropist businessman and Baptist John D. Rockefeller Jr. in conjunction with Baptist minister Harry Emerson Fosdick as a large, interdenominational church in Morningside Heights, which is surrounded by academic institutions. The church occupies the block bounded by Riverside Drive, Claremont Avenue, 120th Street and 122nd Street near Columbia University's Morningside Heights campus and across from Grant's Tomb. The original building opened in 1930; it was designed by Henry C. Pelton and Allen & Collens in the Neo-Gothic style. It contains a nave consisting of five architectural bays; a chancel at the front of the nave; a 22-story, 392-foot (119 m) tower above the nave; a narthex and chapel; and a cloistered passageway that connects to the eastern entrance on Claremont Avenue. Near the top of the tower is the church's main feature, a 74-bell carillon—the heaviest in the world—dedicated to Rockefeller Jr.'s mother Laura Spelman Rockefeller. A seven-story wing was built to the south of the original building in 1959 to a design by Collens, Willis & Beckonert, and was renamed for Martin Luther King Jr. in 1985. The Stone Gym to the southeast, built in 1915 as a dormitory, was designed by Louis E. Jallade and was converted to a gymnasium in 1962. Riverside Church has been a focal point of global and national activism since its inception, and it has a long history of social justice in adherence to Fosdick's original vision of an "interdenominational, interracial, and international" church. Its congregation includes members of more than forty ethnic groups. The church was designated as a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 2000 and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2012. ## History ### Context #### Congregation Several small Baptist congregations, including the Mulberry Street Baptist Church that was established in 1823 by a group of 16 congregants, were founded in Manhattan after the American Revolutionary War. The Mulberry Street church occupied at least three locations in the Lower East Side and two locations on Broadway in Midtown Manhattan before moving to a more permanent site at Fifth Avenue and 46th Street in the 1860s. The businessman William Rockefeller was the first of several Rockefeller family members to attend the Fifth Avenue Baptist Church; he became a major financial backer of the church in the 1870s. William and his brother John D. Rockefeller later became trustees of the church and many of its services were held at the Rockefellers' home nearby. Cornelius Woelfkin, who became the church's minister in 1912, started leading the church in a more modernist direction. By the early 20th century, Fifth Avenue was experiencing increased commercial development and the church building became dilapidated. The congregation sold its old headquarters in 1919 and bought land at Park Avenue and 63rd Street the following year. John Rockefeller's son John D. Rockefeller Jr. funded half of the projected \$1 million cost. The new church, which was dubbed the "Little Cathedral", was designed by Henry C. Pelton in partnership with Francis R. Allen and Charles Collens. The final service in the Fifth Avenue location was held on April 3, 1922, and the renamed Park Avenue Baptist Church held its first class in the new location the next week. #### Progressive ideology In 1924, John D. Rockefeller Jr. donated \$500,000 to the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in Morningside Heights, which was further uptown from the Park Avenue location, in an unsuccessful attempt to influence the cathedral's ideology in a progressive direction. The following January, Harry E. Edmonds—leader of the International House in Morningside Heights for whose construction Rockefeller had provided funds—wrote to Rockefeller to propose creating a new church in the neighborhood. Edmonds suggested progressive pastor Harry Emerson Fosdick should head such a church. Rockefeller then told the Park Avenue Baptist Church's leaders about the plan and hired an agent to inspect the planned church site. Woelfkin quit in mid-May 1925 and Rockefeller Jr. immediately started looking for a new minister, ultimately deciding on Fosdick, who had declined Rockefeller's offers several times, saying he did not "want to be known as the pastor of the richest man in the country". Fosdick stated he would accept the minister position on the conditions that the church would move to Morningside Heights, follow a policy of religious liberalism, remove the requirement for members to be baptized, and become nondenominational. At the end of May 1925, Fosdick agreed to become minister of the Park Avenue Baptist Church. Only fifteen percent of congregants voted against Fosdick's appointment. Under Fosdick's leadership, the congregation doubled in size by 1930. The new members were diverse; of the 158 people who joined in the year after Fosdick became minister, about half were not Baptists. Though some existing congregants had doubts about whether the Park Avenue Baptist Church should move from its recently completed edifice, the church's board, which was in favor of the relocation, stated congregants would not have to pay any of the costs for the new church. ### Planning and construction #### Site selection Morningside Heights, where the new church was to be located, was being quickly developed as a residential neighborhood surrounded by numerous higher-education institutions, including Union Theological Seminary and International House of New York. The development had been spurred by the presence of Riverside Park and Riverside Drive nearby, as well as the construction of the New York City Subway's Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line—the modern-day —under Broadway. Rockefeller briefly considered a location on Morningside Drive on the eastern edge of Morningside Heights, between 117th and 118th Streets. He ultimately chose a larger site at the southeastern corner of Riverside Drive and 122nd Street on the neighborhood's western border, which overlooked Riverside Park to the west and Claremont Park to the north. Rockefeller felt the Riverside Drive site was more easily visible because it abutted the Hudson River and would be seen by recreational users of Riverside Drive. In May 1925, Rockefeller finalized his purchase of the new church's site at Riverside Drive. That July, he exchanged his previous purchase of a plot on Morningside Drive for another plot on Riverside Drive. Shortly afterward, he acquired yet more land, after which he had a frontage of 250 ft (76 meters) on Riverside Drive for the new church. At the time of the acquisition, three apartment buildings and two mansions occupied the church's future site. Rockefeller wished to keep the apartments in place for several years to fund the church's eventual construction. #### Planning Rockefeller was the chairman of the committee tasked with developing a new building for the church. Hoping to avoid publicity, rather than host an architectural competition, he privately asked several architectural firms to submit plans for the building. Rockefeller tried to downplay his role in the planning and construction process, asking for his name to be omitted from media reports and discussion of the church, though with little success. His role in the selection process raised concerns from church trustees, including Fosdick, who believed such close financial involvement could place the church in "a very vulnerable position". John Roach Straton, pastor of Calvary Baptist Church on 57th Street in Midtown Manhattan, criticized Rockefeller's involvement and mockingly suggested it be called the Socony Church after the oil company the Rockefellers headed. George S. Chappell, writing in The New Yorker under the pseudonym "T-Square", said the project "was known to most secular minds as the Rockefeller Cathedral". Neither Rockefeller nor Fosdick had strict requirements for the church's architectural style. Rockefeller asked for the new building to include space for the Park Avenue Baptist Church's carillon, which he had donated. Most of the plans entailed a church facing 122nd Street and wrapping around the existing apartment buildings on the site. The exception was a plan by Allen & Collens and Henry C. Pelton—who had designed Park Avenue Baptist Church—that called for a Gothic Revival church with its main entrance on the side, facing Riverside Drive, with a bell tower and apartment towers for the neighboring Union Theological Seminary. The building committee removed the apartment towers from the church plan and Allen, Collens, and Pelton were selected to design the new church in February 1926. As part of the plans, there would be a 375-foot (114 m)—later 392-foot (119 m)—bell tower, a 2,400-seat auditorium, and athletic rooms. The building would occupy a 100 feet (30 m) by 225 feet (69 m) lot. There was no room for a chapel in the original plans so Rockefeller proposed trading land with the Union Theological Seminary. In May 1926, Rockefeller gave Union an apartment building on 99 Claremont Avenue, to the northeast of the church. In exchange, Riverside Church received a small plot to its south, allowing for the construction of the chapel and a proposed cloister passage to Claremont Avenue. Rockefeller chose to delay the construction process until the leases of the site's existing tenants expired in October 1926. The official plans were filed with the New York City Department of Buildings in November that year. The following month, the congregation voted to approve the building plans at a cost of \$4 million. Pelton and Collens then went to France to look for churches upon which to model Riverside Church's design. They eventually selected the 13th-century Chartres Cathedral as their model. #### Construction Marc Eidlitz & Son, Inc. was hired as the contractor for the construction of the new Riverside Drive church. On November 21, 1927, the church's ceremonial cornerstone was laid, marking the start of construction. The cornerstone included items such as Woelfkin's Bible and New York Times articles about the new church. The Park Avenue church building and three adjacent rowhouses was sold for \$1.5 million in April 1928. The same month, Park Avenue Baptist Church's official monthly newsletter announced its existing 53-bell carillon would be expanded to 72 bells upon its relocation to Riverside Drive, making it the largest set of bells in the world. In late 1928, three fires occurred after wooden scaffolding around the new church was ignited. On December 22, 1928, one of these fires caused \$1 million in damage and almost completely destroyed the interior, though the exterior remained mostly intact. Much of the damage was covered by an insurance policy placed on the building. Shortly after the December 1928 fire, Rockefeller announced he would continue with construction after insurance claims were settled. The fire delayed the completion of the interior by six months. In February 1929, the congregation began seeking donations to continue construction; Rockefeller donated \$1.5 million, which when combined with the proceeds from the sale of the Park Avenue building, provided \$3 million in funds. Construction of a mortuary at the Riverside Drive church was approved in March 1929. While construction was ongoing, the congregation temporarily relocated to Temple Beth-El on Fifth Avenue and 76th Street for nine months starting in July 1929. The first portion of the new church building to be completed, the assembly hall under the auditorium, opened in October 1929. That December, Fosdick formally filed plans to rename the church from "Park Avenue Baptist Church" to "Riverside Church". The bell was hoisted to the top of the tower's carillon in early September 1930, the tower was completed later that month, and the first Sunday school class was held there on September 29. The church was completed on October 5, the same day the first service was held in the altar; it was attended by 3,200 people. All of the space in the nave and basement was filled and thousands more people wished to enter. The next month, officials received two oil paintings from Rockefeller Jr.'s collection. The first officers of Riverside Church were elected in December 1930 and the church was formally dedicated with an interdenominational service two months later. The total cost of construction was estimated at \$4 million. In the early years of the new building, journalists often referred to the church in association with either Rockefeller—who sought to reduce emphasis on his role at the church—or Fosdick. Riverside Church's completion sharply contrasted with the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, which remained incomplete after almost four decades. Allen & Collens's plan was described by architect Robert A. M. Stern as the culmination of a "craving for a tall cathedral among people of everyday tall ideas", which had started when St. John's was proposed in 1889. Despite the completion of Riverside Church, Rockefeller felt the surroundings still needed to be improved. In 1932, he announced he would pay for a \$350,000 landscaping of the adjacent, decrepit Sakura Park. Rockefeller hired the Olmsted Brothers to renovate the park and the project was completed two years later. When Union Theological Seminary announced it would build a new apartment building at 99 Claremont Avenue. Rockefeller offered to exchange his neighboring apartment building at 122nd Street and Claremont Avenue for the lots south of the church, which were owned by the seminary. The land was swapped in 1931 after Rockefeller offered to finance part of the dormitory's construction. In 1935, the land under the church was deeded to Rockefeller and he purchased a lot at Riverside Drive and 122nd Street from St. Luke's Hospital, after which he owned all of the land along the eastern side of Riverside Drive between 120th and 122nd Streets. Rockefeller spent a total of \$10.5 million on land acquisition and church construction. ### Use #### 1930s through mid-1960s The completion of the new church building at Morningside Heights resulted in a steady increase in the congregation's membership. By May 1946, the congregation had 3,500 members, an increase of 800 in twenty years. According to a brochure issued by the church, "soon every room ... was in use seven days a week", and enrollment at the church's Sunday school had correspondingly increased. Riverside Church became a community icon and a religious center of Morningside Heights. By 1939, the church had more than 200 staff in both part-time and full-time positions, and over 10,000 people a week were attending its social and religious services, athletic events, and employment programs. In addition to its well-attended Sunday morning service, Riverside Church hosted Communion services every first Sunday afternoon, as well as Ministry of Music services on other Sunday afternoons. The Riverside Guild, the young-adult fellowship, held worship services during Sunday evenings. Weddings and funerals were also hosted at the church. In 1942, the United States Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School at Columbia started using Riverside Church for services, drawing 2,000 attendees on average, and continued to hold its services at the church until October 1945. In June 1945, Fosdick announced he would step down as senior minister the following May. This spurred a search for a new pastor and in March 1946, Robert James McCracken was chosen for the position and officially became the senior pastor of Riverside Church that October. Fosdick and McCracken held each other in mutual respect so the transition between ministers went smoothly. Over the next two decades, McCracken continued Fosdick's policy of religious liberalism. In 1956, halfway through McCracken's tenure, the church conducted an internal report and found the organizational structure was disorganized and that most staff did not feel any single person was in charge. As a result, six councils were created and placed under the purview of the deacons and trustees. The councils partitioned power into "a series of mini-kingdoms", according to a later pastor, Ernest T. Campbell. Construction on the Martin Luther King Jr. Wing, to the south of the existing church, started in 1955. The seven-story wing was designed by Collens, Willis & Beckonert, successors to Allen & Collens; its \$15 million cost was funded by Rockefeller. The wing was dedicated in December 1959 and contained additional facilities for the church's programs. A 15-foot (4.6 m) dummy antenna had been placed on top of Riverside Church's 392-foot (119 m)-tall carillon earlier that year to determine whether it could be used by Columbia University's radio station, WKCR (89.9 MHz FM), despite strong opposition from parishioners and the local community. Nevertheless, the church decided to place an antenna atop the carillon for its own radio station, the top of the antenna being 440 feet (130 m) above ground level. Riverside Church started operating the radio station WRVR (106.7 MHz FM) in 1961 and continued to operate it until 1976. In 1960, Riverside Church's congregation voted to join the United Church of Christ, the successor denomination to the Congregational Christian Churches. Rockefeller purchased the Stone Gym, an existing Union Theological Seminary building southeast of the original church, and reopened it as a community facility in April 1962 after a five-year renovation. In April 1967, McCracken announced he would leave his position as senior minister, citing health issues. #### Late 1960s through 1990s Ernest T. Campbell became pastor in November 1968. Less than a year later, civil rights leader James Forman interrupted a sermon at Riverside Church, citing it as one of several churches from which Black Americans could ask for reparations for slavery. This led to the church releasing its financial figures in 1970 for the first time; the figures valued the building at \$86 million and the total financial endowment of \$18 million, as well as the creation of a \$450,000 Fund for Social Justice to disburse reparations over three years. Following a 1972 metropolitan mission study, several ministries aimed toward ameliorating social conditions in the New York City area were formed at Riverside Church. Campbell's tenure was marked by several controversial sermons and increasing conflicts among the church's boards, councils, and staff. In June 1976, Campbell suddenly resigned, having felt his style of leadership was not sufficient to reconcile these disagreements. The same month saw the installment of the church's first female pastor, Evelyn Newman. By a vote in August 1977, William Sloane Coffin was selected as the next senior minister of Riverside Church. Coffin officiated his first service in November 1977. At this point, the congregation's size had been declining for several years but after Coffin's selection as senior minister, membership increased to 2,627 by the end of 1979, and total annual attendance for morning services rose from 49,902 in 1976 to 71,536 in 1978. Coffin's tenure was also marked by theologically liberal sermons, many of which were controversial, though he was more traditional in his worship. This era also saw Channing E. Phillips, the first African-American major-party U.S. presidential nominee, being hired as minister of planning and coordination. Coffin announced his intention to resign in July 1987 to become the president of disarmament organization SANE/Freeze, and held his last sermon that December. Riverside Church formed a committee that conducted a nationwide search for its next senior minister over the next year. In February 1989, the committee chose James A. Forbes, a professor at nearby Union Theological Seminary, for the position. The congregation voted almost unanimously to approve Forbes's selection and he became the church's first black senior minister. At the time, between one-fourth and one-third of the congregation was Black or Hispanic. Tensions between Forbes and executive minister David Dyson soon developed over matters including the duration of Forbes's sermons and his musical choices. Tensions grew and a mediator was engaged after Forbes tried to fire Dyson. The dispute was resolved when Dyson resigned in October 1992. In 1996, Riverside Church started conducting a study on the building's current use and services, and the following October, Body Lawson, Ben Paul Associated Architects and Planners published the Riverside Church Master Plan. The plan included a major addition on Riverside Church's eastern side, consisting of the relocation of the Claremont Avenue entrance, paving of the forecourt, reconfiguration of the cloister lobby, and construction of a seven-story building over the gymnasium. This plan was controversial among congregants, some of whom petitioned the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (NYCLPC) to designate the church to prevent the alteration of the original appearance of the Claremont Avenue entrance. In December 1998, the congregation voted to officially nominate the church for landmark status. Only the original church building was nominated; the nomination excluded the Martin Luther King Jr. Wing, despite preservationists' requests for the entire structure to be considered for landmark designation. The NYCLPC approved landmark status for the original church in May 2000. #### 21st century Two controversies involving Riverside Church arose in the early 2000s; an allegation of sexual abuse by the director of a basketball program at the church and an allegation of financial mismanagement due to a \$32 million decrease in the endowment between 2000 and 2002. The accused basketball director resigned in 2002 while the accusation of financial mismanagement was prolonged through several years of court cases, although the New York Supreme Court had dismissed a lawsuit over the topic. Forbes announced his retirement in September 2006 and held his last sermon in June 2007. By that time, the church had 2,700 congregants, a large proportion of whom were black and Hispanic. The church had a \$14 million annual operating budget and a paid staff of 130. Another nationwide, year-long search for a new senior minister commenced and in August 2008, it was announced Brad Braxton had been selected as the sixth senior minister of Riverside Church. Braxton's tenure was marked by theological disputes; congregants disagreed whether the church should take a fundamentalist or progressive position, as well as a lawsuit over his salary, which a church spokesperson stated was \$457,000. In June 2009, Braxton submitted a letter of resignation due to these disputes. For the next five years, Riverside Church had no senior minister and in 2014, its congregation had decreased to 1,670, a loss of over a thousand since 2007. In 2012, the church and its annexes were listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In June 2014, Amy K. Butler was selected as the church's seventh senior minister, becoming the first woman to hold that job. In September 2018, it was announced Riverside Church would buy the neighboring McGiffert Hall at Claremont Avenue and 122nd Street for \$45 million. The dormitory was on land John Rockefeller Jr. had donated to the Union Theological Seminary, and under the donation agreement, the church had the right of first offer to buy the building should it ever be offered for sale. In July 2019, the church's governing council announced Butler's contract would not be renewed, and the Church Council and Butler released a joint letter stating Butler's resignation was mutual. A former Church Council member later said Butler was dismissed after she and several other female staff members had experienced sexual harassment by another former council member, Dr. Edward Lowe. Michael E. Livingston became the interim senior minister. ## Design Riverside Church occupies a 454-by-100-foot (138 m × 30 m) lot between Riverside Drive to the west, 122nd Street to the north, Claremont Avenue to the east, and 120th Street to the south. Riverside Church's main architects; Henry C. Pelton, Francis R. Allen, and Charles Collens; created the general plan for the church. Pelton was most involved with tactical planning while Collens was most involved with the Gothic detail. Sculptural elements were designed by Robert Garrison and constructed by local studios, including the Piccirilli Brothers. The church's interior was designed by Burnham Hoyt. The Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK) Wing to the south of the original building was designed by Collens, Willis & Beckonert and the Stone Gym to the southeast was designed by Louis E. Jallade. As of 2017, Riverside Church is the tallest church in the United States and is among the world's tallest churches, with a tower rising 392 feet (119 m). Pelton and Collens chose a Gothic architectural style for Riverside Church's exterior; by contrast, the internal structure incorporates modern curtain walls and a steel frame. Fosdick later said the exterior Gothic style is suited to "make people pray" and that the church had "not outgrown Gothic" in that regard. Riverside Church's design is partially derived from Chartres Cathedral in France but also incorporates designs of several Gothic churches in France and Spain. Pelton and Collens said Chartres would provide the "fundamental principles" for the design of Riverside Church but that Riverside would have a completely different outline. The features inspired by Chartres include the detailing of the three Riverside Drive entrances and the lack of decorative elements on the facade, except for the stained glass windows on the walls and the sculptural elements around each portal. The massive single bell tower was inspired by the two western towers at Chartres. The rest of the facade consists of Indiana Limestone. Upon Riverside Church's completion, its design received both praise and criticism. In mid-1931, The American Architect published pieces in mid-1931 that featured a critical viewpoint from Columbia architecture professor Walter A. Taylor and a rebuttal from architect Charles Crane, who had worked on the project with Pelton. While Taylor believed the design should have been more modernist, Crane defended Pelton's Gothic design as being "fundamentally Christian". The writers of the 1939 WPA Guide to New York City said the tower's features make the "building itself seem smaller than it is, so that its scale is scarcely impressive, even when seen at close range". Other critics called the building's exterior overly opulent; according to one critic, when considered along the progressive ideology, the Gothic design "can only be interpreted as an outward confession that religion is dead". The New York Sun referred to the building as one of the "most outstanding additions" to New York City's church architecture "in recent years". Eric Nash, in his book Manhattan Skyscrapers, called Riverside Church "Manhattan's last great eclectic skyscraper" while the AIA Guide to New York City dubbed the church "easily the most prominent architectural work along the Hudson [River] from midtown to the George Washington Bridge". ### Main building Riverside Church's main structure is centered around the nave, which is aligned on a north–south axis and is closer to Riverside Drive on the western portion of the block. The chapel and narthex are to the south, closer to 120th Street, while the chancel, which contains the altar, and the ambulatory are to the north, closer to 122nd Street. #### Facade The western facade of the church's nave is adjacent to Riverside Drive. At the time of Riverside Church's construction, the church did not own the lots along 120th Street to the south so the building's three entrances are on its western side facing Riverside Drive rather than on the southern side at the back of the nave, as is customary in most churches. The entrances are atop small flights of steps leading from the street. The building's main entrance faces west and is below the tower's base and is accessed through a set of double wooden doors with recessed wooden panels. The figures sculpted in the concentric archivolts of the doorway represent leading religious, scientific, and philosophical figures, and an elaborate tympanum is below the arches (see ). To the south is the entrance to the narthex, which is accessed through a single door. Directly south of the narthex entrance, another double-door entrance leads to the chapel; this entrance contains two archivolts and a simpler tympanum. The northern portion of the western facade adjacent to the nave has five sets of windows (see ). The view of the southern facade is mostly blocked by the MLK Wing to the south. The top portions of four narrow, arched stained-glass windows can be seen above the hip roof of the structure that connects the two sections. Above these stained-glass windows are three recessed, arched windows that are topped by a pediment containing a circular window. The eastern facade also has five groupings of windows facing the nave but much of this facade is obscured by McGiffert Hall, which faces directly onto Claremont Avenue and 122nd Street. On the eastern facade of the nave is a cloistered passageway leading to Claremont Avenue (see ). Above the cloister section is a rose window. The northern facade surrounds the chancel and ambulatory. An arched entrance called the Woman's Porch, which contains carvings of biblical women, is in the western portion of the north facade. Above the entrance arch is an ornate belt course and nearby are two lancet windows. Another entrance is in the eastern (right) portion of the north facade. Between the two entrances is the ambulatory, with two tiers of window groupings, each with a rose window above a pair of lancet windows. The lower section has three sets of windows while the upper clerestory section has five sets of windows. Vertical buttresses, which separate each window grouping, end in finials above the roofline. #### Nave The Gothic-themed nave was inspired by Albi Cathedral, France, and measures 100 feet (30 m) high, 89 feet (27 m) wide and 215 feet (66 m) long. The width between the overhanging clerestory walls is 60 feet (18 m). The low, wide form of the nave is inspired by those of southern French and Spanish churches. The nave has a metal roof, whose base is surrounded by a shallow arcade. The nave's interior contains a finish of Indiana limestone, the ceilings of its vaults are lined with Guastavino terracotta tiles, and its floor is made of marble. Three main vertical sections, which are split by buttresses, comprise the nave's eastern and western walls, each of which has five architectural bays along the portion of the nave adjacent to the aisles; each bay contains a pointed-arch window. Above the stained-glass windows of each bay is a triforium gallery with three colonettes, followed by two adjacent lancet windows in the clerestory, and topped with a rose window. Pointed arches resting on piers that contain engaged columns support each of the clerestory bays and serve as the bases for the ribs under the vaulted ceiling. The engaged columns are surmounted by Corinthian capitals that are decorated with scenes from the Book of Jeremiah. The ceilings of the vaults underneath the triforium galleries are faced with Guastavino tile and contain lighting. Above the clerestory, the nave's ceiling is eight stories high. It consists of several vaults, each of which is divided into four segments by diagonally interlocking transverse ribs that do not provide structural support. Eight iron lanterns hang from the transverse ribs and descend lower than the level of the triforium gallery. The vaults contain a finish of acoustic Guastavino tiles, which are mostly gray. The tiles above the chancel and the nave's northernmost two bays are brown because a sealant that was applied in 1953 to increase the organ's acoustical reach has turned yellow over time. The nave was built with a seating capacity of either 2,400, 2,408, or 2,500. The ground level contains 38 rows of oaken pews that have Gothic decoration; five additional rows of pews used to exist at the front of the nave. Two seating galleries overhang the southern portion of the nave. The lower gallery is made of carved wood, has rows of oaken pews on a downward slope, and contains a wooden ceiling with nine lamps. The upper gallery is also made of carved wood and contains oaken pews on a slope but there is no canopy above it. The upper gallery is illuminated with four lanterns that are similar to the eight above the main section of the nave. Behind the southern wall are six double-tiered niches with stone sculptures of ministers and Jacob Epstein's sculpture Christ in Majesty. The Trompeta Majestatis organ projects from the wall beneath the niches. #### Chancel, ambulatory, and apse The chancel is directly north of the nave, slightly raised above it and separated from the nave by a limestone railing with 20 quatrefoil medallions. The western portion of the rail contains a pulpit with a wooden canopy and three carved limestone blocks. A labyrinth composed of three types of marble; it was inspired by a similar design at Chartres Cathedral and is inlaid in the middle of the chancel floor. The labyrinth is flanked on both sides are four rows of oaken choir stalls with carvings of Psalms texts. To the north, behind the choir stalls, is the organ console. A communion table made of Caen stone is near the back of the chancel in the center, behind which is a baptismal pool. The back of the chancel contains a convex polygonal wall that includes seven bays, each with three vertical tiers that are a few feet above the corresponding tiers in the nave. The lowest tier contains pointed arches with an elaborate stone chancel screen; the middle tier contains cusped arches with colonettes; and the top tier serves as the clerestory. Each of the three center bays behind the chancel screen has one window group on the lower tier, each of which has two lancet windows topped by a rose window and is divided by vertical buttresses. The apse clerestory, the upper section of the ambulatory, is recessed slightly inward. The upper section's fenestration is similar in form; each window grouping contains a rose window above a pair of lancet windows but the window groupings are on five sides of the polygon. The vertical piers of the chancel wall converge above the clerestory level, creating an apse above the chancel and ambulatory. #### Narthex The narthex, which was designed in the late Gothic style with a Romanesque layout, is directly south of the nave and can be accessed from the church's West Portal. The narthex is split into four vaults that have Guastavino tiled ceilings that are supported by simple limestone columns. A stone spiral staircase on the west side of the narthex, directly south of the West Portal, leads to the basement. There are two grisaille windows and one rose window on each of the western and eastern sides of the narthex. The eastern wall has four 16th-century lancet windows that were previously in the Park Avenue Baptist Church; they are the only windows in Riverside Church that were not built specifically for the church. Stairs leading both upward and downward are on the eastern side of the narthex, and a mortuary chapel is on the northeastern corner. The mortuary chapel is known as the Gethsemane Chapel but prior to 1959, it was called the Christ Chapel. #### Chapel The chapel to the south of the narthex, which since 1959 has been known as the Christ Chapel, was inspired by the Basilica of Saints Nazarius and Celsus in France. Its design was inspired by the pointed Romanesque nave at Carcassonne Cathedral. The design, which was described by architectural historian Andrew Dolkart as "earlier than Gothic", is intended to give the impression the rest of the sanctuary was built after the chapel. The chapel is subdivided into four bays and has a barrel-vaulted ceiling with Guastavino tiles, and the walls and floor have a limestone finish. The southern wall, which is adjacent to the MLK Wing, has four arched, back-lit stained-glass windows; one in each bay. Double doors to the west lead to Riverside Drive and a passage to the south leads to the MLK Wing. There are engaged columns on the north and south walls between each of the four bays, and eight lanterns hang from the columns. The eastern end of the chapel contains an altar, four steps above the chapel's main level. There is a lectern to the right of the altar and a pulpit to the left. Several sculpted representations are above the altar. Behind the altar are a baptismal pool and a reredos, which are accessed through an arched opening. An alcove to the narthex is north of the altar. ### Tower and carillon The 392-foot (119 m) tower was named after Laura Spelman Rockefeller, the mother of John D. Rockefeller Jr. The tower contains 21 usable floors, which include 80 classrooms and office rooms. There are four elevators, of which two rise only to the 10th floor, whereas the other two rise to the 20th floor. The 20-floor elevators, which rise 355 feet (108 m), were described in 1999 as the world's tallest elevators inside a church. Two staircases ascend from ground level; one on the western side of the tower ends at the ninth floor, and the one on the eastern side continues to the carillon. Balconies are at the southern corners on the 8th floor and on all sides of the 10th floor except the north side. The tower's main entrance is on the western elevation of the tower's base and is flanked by projecting vertical piers (see ). Seven arched niches, each containing one statue of a king, are above the main entrance. A large rose window is above the statuary grouping. The apex of the tower is fitted with aircraft warning lights. Above the tenth floor are five tiers of window arrangements on each floor; the higher tiers become progressively narrower. From bottom to top, the successive tiers have two, three, four, and five windows on each side. There are narrow, canopied niches in each corner of the tower, with one statue inside each niche. At the top of the tower is a conical metal roof. #### Tower stories Most of the tower's stories have plaster floors, steel doors, steel window frames, and iron lighting fixtures hanging from each ceiling. There are elevator lobbies with vaulted ceilings on several stories of the tower. On the stories that contain common spaces, including the ninth and tenth floors, the floors are finished with stone, terrazzo, and wood, and are fitted with wooden doors. Several spaces in the tower have been used by outside entities, who carpeted floors and installed lighting fixtures in some office rooms. Originally, the fourth through fourteenth floors were occupied by Riverside Church's school while the fifteenth floor and above contained staff and clergy offices, as well as spaces for group activities. The second floor connects to the nave's lower seating gallery, while the third floor leads to the upper seating gallery. The fourth through eighth floors are below the height of the nave's ceiling; these housed the nursery, junior high, and high school departments of the church's school. The ninth and tenth floors housed the double-story school kitchen, school offices, and storage rooms over the nave. The ninth floor also houses a library, and there is wooden furniture in the kitchen and library. The main structure's roof is above the tenth floor, and the tower rises independently above that point. The eleventh through fourteenth floors originally contained the church's elementary school while the fifteenth and sixteenth floors respectively housed the young people's meeting room and the social room. These floors were later converted into office space, and several floors were subdivided and leased out. The seventeenth through twentieth floors include meeting rooms and the seventeenth floor also contains offices. The twenty-first floor includes the carilloneur's studio and the twenty-second floor is devoted to mechanical space. #### Carillon The 23rd floor of the tower contains a three-level belfry that houses a carillon whose final complement of 74 bronze bells, which at the time of its construction the largest carillon of bells in the world, includes the 20-ton, 122-inch-diameter (3.1 m) bourdon, the world's largest tuned bell. Though other carillons with more bells have been commissioned, Riverside Church's carillon is still the largest in the world by aggregate weight: the bells and associated mechanisms weigh a combined 500,000 pounds (230,000 kg). The bells themselves are cited as weighing approximately 100 short tons (89 long tons; 91 t) or over 100 short tons. Of the carillon's bells, 53 were made for the original Park Avenue church by English founders Gillett & Johnston and another 19 were made for Riverside Church when it opened. Two bells were added in 1955 and 58 treble bells were replaced by bell founders Van Bergen. The bells were replaced again by Whitechapel Bell Foundry in 2004. The bells can reportedly be heard from up to 8 miles (13 km) from the tower. The bourdon sounds one octave lower than other bourdons. A mechanical power room and control room are in the belfry, with the clavier cabin at the top, above the carillon. Due to the weight of the carillon, the heaviest steel beams used in the construction of Riverside Church were used in the tower. The north facade, which overhangs the nave, is supported by a single cross truss that weighs 60 short tons (54 long tons; 54 t). Outside the carillon, the tower's facade has ornate Neo-Gothic detailing that includes features such as gargoyles. On top of the carillon is a public observation deck; the deck was closed after the September 11, 2001, attacks due to security concerns but the church resumed tours in January 2020. ### Cloister passageway The cloister passageway leads from the southern portion of the nave to Claremont Avenue in the east. It has four pointed-arch bays, each with a Corinthian-style colonette topped by a grisaille window opening on the south wall. The north and south walls also contain stained-glass windows; the northern wall's windows are artificially illuminated. Inside the cloister passageway are five vaults, which are illuminated by six lanterns. The entrance to the passageway is a small, two-story structure with two arched doorways facing Claremont Avenue and a set of double doors facing a short wheelchair ramp to the south. The top of the cloister entrance's eastern facade contains three niches with figures of Faith, Hope, and Charity, and the southeastern corner contains a figure of Maaseiah. A gift shop is adjacent to the cloister passageway, and sculptures of the church's architects and builder are above the doorway leading to the tower's base. ### Martin Luther King Jr. Wing The Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK) Wing is a seven-story annex south of the main structure and facing 120th Street along the southern boundary of the plot. The long arm of this L-shaped building lies north–south adjacent to Riverside Drive and the short arm lies west–east next to 120th Street. The MLK Wing connects to the original church building to the north and the Stone Gym to the east. The area between the MLK Wing and the cloister forms a small courtyard or garth, which is enclosed on the eastern side by a metal fence. Inside the wing are children's chapels, space for the school, a rooftop recreation area, space for a radio station, community areas including a gymnasium and assembly room, and a basement with a parking lot. The structure, which was designed by Collens, Willis and Beckonert, and built by Vermilea-Brown, is a simplified version of Allen and Collens' original church design and was perceived as being "modern Gothic". The building was known as the South Wing until 1985, when it was renamed for civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. #### Facade The facade is clad with Indiana limestone, the foundation is made of stone and concrete, and the structure is supported by a steel frame. The main entrance is through the chapel doors on Riverside Drive to the west; there are also entrances to the basement from 120th Street. The basement, first and second floors of the western facade contains eight architectural bays, each with one small lancet window, which are recessed between projecting buttresses and below a set of arches. The two outermost bays project slightly outward and do not contain recessed arches. The section of the MLK Wing above the second floor is set back from Riverside Drive, and the windows on the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth floors are also recessed between buttressed arches. The seventh-floor windows are flush with the buttresses. The two outermost bays have two sets of windows rather than a single window on each floor, and project slightly outward. The wing's southern and eastern facades are designed in a similar fashion to the upper portion of the western facade; the seventh-floor windows are flush with the buttresses while the windows below are in recessed arched bays. The southern facade contains eight window bays, six of which are recessed. There are no windows into the first and second floors on the westernmost four bays of the southern facade but the eastern four bays do have windows into these floors. On the far eastern portion of the southern facade are two pointed-arched openings that lead to the church's underground parking garage (see ). The eastern facade is separated into two sections; the section at the end of the wing's short arm contains four recessed window bays. The section next to the north–south axis of the "L" contains six window bays, four of which are recessed. #### Interior The northern arm of the MLK Wing's first floor includes the South Hall Lobby, which has a two-story-high coffered ceiling that is supported by a pointed-arch arcade and its walls are made of gray plaster. To the south of the lobby lie an elevator bank and an auditorium called the South Hall. The South Hall's walls are made of wood paneling below limestone and it has nine stained-glass lancet windows on the western side. To the east of the auditorium are two mezzanine levels that lie below the South Hall's ceiling, while a sealed tunnel leading to the Interchurch Center across 120th Street is also accessible from the auditorium. The third-to-seventh floors include classrooms, except for the fifth floor, which contains offices. The hallway floors are made of terrazzo and individual rooms have resilient flooring, except for the fifth floor rooms, which contain carpeted rooms, and each level has dropped ceilings. Chapels for children are on the third floor's southwestern corner and on the sixth floor's southern side. The roof contains a solarium and a play area. ### Stone Gym The Stone Gymnasium is a 1+1⁄2-story English Gothic building at 120th Street and Claremont Avenue, east of the Martin Luther King Jr. Wing. The gym was built in 1912 to a design by Louis E. Jallade and was originally used by the Union Theological Seminary. Its architectural details include a facade of schist with limestone decoration and a metal hip roof. The structure measures five bays long on the eastern facade and one bay wide on the southern and northern facades. In 1957, Rockefeller donated the building to the church and five years later, it reopened as a gymnasium and community facility. The building's interior contains a basketball court with synthetic flooring, and there are offices and lockers in its northern end. ### Basement Riverside Church's basement includes several modern amenities such as a 250-seat movie theater and a gymnasium with a full-size basketball court. The section of the basement under the nave has a double-height ceiling; an assembly hall is on the southern side of this space while the gymnasium is on the northern side. The assembly hall has a stone floor and walls, and there are six arched stained-glass windows on the eastern wall and one rectangular stained glass window on the south wall, as well as cabinets that contain two Heinrich Hofmann paintings (see ). It also has a wooden ceiling that is supported by stone arches, with lanterns suspended from the ceiling and a stage in the northern portion. A kitchen is east of the stage, and a corridor runs adjacent to the western wall of the assembly room and gymnasium. The basement originally included a four-lane bowling alley that was adjacent to the assembly floor. It was later removed and converted into storage space. There is a two-story, 150-space parking lot underneath the MLK Wing. ## Organs The two Riverside Church organs are located in the chancel and the seating gallery. The chancel organ is the 14th largest in the world as of 2017. It was furnished in 1930 by Hook and Hastings, and was originally criticized as mediocre. Aeolian-Skinner built an organ console in the chancel in 1948 and replaced the chancel organ in 1953–1954, and the ceiling above the chancel and the front of the nave was coated with sealant to improve the chancel's acoustic qualities. The chancel organ was opened with a concert in March 1955 with a concert by Virgil Fox and the New York Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra, attended by 3000 people. In 1964, another Aeolian-Skinner organ was installed within the eastern wall of the nave's seating gallery; three years later, Anthony A. Bufano installed a five-manual console for the gallery organ. M. P. Moller built another stop for the gallery organ, the Trompeta Majestatis, in 1978. Two years later, the chancel organ received a new principal chorus with the addition of the Grand Chorus division. In the 1990s, the console was rewired, the chancel organ was cleaned, and the ceiling was covered with ten layers of sealant. The Director of Music and organist is Christopher Johnson as of 2019. Past organists at the Riverside Church include Virgil Fox (1946–1965), Frederick Swann (1957–1982), John Walker (1979–1992), and Timothy Smith (1992–2008). ## Art and sculpture ### Paintings Paintings by Heinrich Hofmann that were purchased by Rockefeller Jr. and donated to the church in November 1930 are displayed in the building. Christ in the Temple (1871) and Christ and the Young Rich Man (1889) are displayed in the assembly hall beneath the nave, and are usually locked within the cabinets there. Hofmann's Christ in Gethsemane (1890) is displayed the Gethsemane chapel. ### Stained glass Riverside Church's main building contains 51 stained glass windows, excluding small grisaille windows. These were created in a mosaic style, which was becoming more popular at the time of the church's construction. Of these, 34 windows are in the nave; most of them include religious iconography. Generally, the richly colored windows are on the building's western side, which is considered the "light" side, while those with muted colors are on the eastern "dark" side. French glassmakers Jacques Simon from Reims Cathedral and Charles Lorin from Chartres Cathedral were hired to create the glass for the clerestory windows in the nave. Lorin designed the stained-glass windows on the western side of the clerestory while Simon designed those on the eastern side. Both sets of windows depict general religious and governmental themes, and also incorporate secular iconography and depictions of non-Christians. The clerestory windows closely resemble those at Chartres and include a rose with lancet windows. The other windows in the nave were created by Boston-based firm Reynolds, Francis and Rohnstock and depict 138 scenes with both religious and non-religious contexts. The three groups of stained glass windows in the apse and the nine stained glass windows in the South Hall were created by Harry Wright Goodhue. ### Mosaics Gregor T. Goethals created two mosaics for the fourth and seventh floors of the MLK Wing. The fourth-floor mosaic depicts events described in the Old Testament while the seventh-floor mosaic depicts the Creation story. ### Sculpted elements #### Exterior elements The building's most prominent sculptural details are on the Riverside Drive facade. The main entrance beneath the tower is topped with five concentric archivolts with sculptures of Jesus's followers and prophets inlaid within each section. The third arch of the main entrance has depictions of philosophers including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Immanuel Kant, and Pythagoras, while the second arch depicts scientists including Albert Einstein, Charles Darwin, and Hippocrates. Other figures depict the months of the year. The columns framing the door jambs beneath the archivolts are decorated with capitals and gargoyles at the top and bottom, and a single figure in the middle. In the tympanum above the doors and below the archivolts is a figure of Christ seated, which is flanked by the symbols of the Evangelists. When Riverside Church was completed, there was controversy over the inclusion of Einstein, a living Jewish man, because the other figures represented people who had since died. According to the publication Church Monthly, during construction, the committee tasked with the church's iconography had proposed depicting 20 scientists, not including Einstein, on the facade. The faculty, however, unanimously decided Einstein should be included because he was indisputably one of 14 "leading scientists of all time". The chapel entrance on Riverside Drive south of the main entrance contains two archivolts that are supported by two sets of columns. The archivolts depict symbols of the zodiac and the second archivolt contains an elaborate decorative molding. A tympanum relief below the archivolts depicts the Virgin Mary flanked by two angels who are mirror images of each other. Sculpted elements are also placed within niches that are spread across the church's facade. Above the main entrance on the western facade are sculptures of seven kings. Statues are also included in the tower's niches, as well as in niches on the facade of the cloister entrance to the east. The facade also has gargoyles, which are outside the carillon near the top of the tower. The northern section of the nave's roof contains Angel of the Resurrection, a bronze statue of a trumpeter atop a pedestal. #### Interior elements The carvings inside the church correspond to the respective uses of the areas in which they are sited. For instance, the 20 quatrefoil medallions inscribed on the chancel railing depict the typical "interests, emphases, activities, rites, and ceremonies" that are conducted within the chancel. Around the pulpit are sculptures of ten Old Testament prophets. Above the nave, the southern wall of the upper seating gallery contains multi-tiered niches, whose upper tiers contain sculpted figures of ministers. The two central niches contain a cast of Epstein's gilded-plaster sculpture Christ in Majesty. There seven-paneled chancel screen at the back of the chancel is carved from Caen stone. It depicts influential figures including the composer Johann Sebastian Bach, the U.S. president Abraham Lincoln, the artist Michelangelo, the social reformer Florence Nightingale, and the author Booker T. Washington. The panels depict physicians, teachers, prophets, humanitarians, missionaries, reformers, and lovers of beauty. Above the doorway between the cloister and the tower base are statues of architects Henry Pelton and Charles Collens, as well as general contractor Robert Eidlitz. ### Sculpture When the Martin Luther King Jr. Wing was built, Jacob Epstein's sculpture Madonna and Child, which was commissioned in 1927, was placed in the courtyard between the MLK Wing and the cloistered entrance. ## Social services Riverside Church was conceived as a complex social-services center from the outset; the building has meeting rooms, classrooms, a daycare center, a kindergarten, library, auditorium, and a gymnasium. It was described by The New York Times in 2008 as "a stronghold of activism and political debate throughout its 75-year history ... influential on the nation's religious and political landscapes". Riverside Church provides various social services, including a food bank, barber training, clothing distribution, a shower project, and confidential HIV tests and HIV counseling. In 2007, The New York Times'' said Riverside Church has frequently "been likened to the Vatican for America's mainstream Protestants". ### Social justice ministries #### Charity and shelter Riverside Church's prisoner-related ministries, Riverside's Prison Ministry and Family Advocacy Program, conduct worship services in the New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision, help prisoners and their families, links prisoners to their communities, workshops, support groups, and events, and lobby for prison reform and humane legislation. Riverside's Coming Home ministry, which was founded in 1985, helps ex-prisoners after they have been released. The prison ministries began in 1971, when the Council on Christian Social Relations created a prison reform and rehabilitation task force. It also deals with homelessness in New York City. Riverside's advocacy of the homeless originated from a similar ministry, the Clothing Room and Food Pantry, which was a subdivision of the Social Services Department. The church began sheltering homeless people overnight from 1984 until 1994, when it was closed due to the decreasing homeless population and a staff shortage. Riverside participated in the Sanctuary movement during the 1980s, and was among numerous congregations nationwide that sheltered and assisted undocumented immigrants. As part of the New Sanctuary Coalition, volunteers at Riverside Church assist detained asylum seekers and those on parole from immigration detention. In 2011, as part of the Occupy Faith movement, Riverside Church donated tents to Occupy Wall Street protesters and sheltered them during cold and inclement weather, and after the evacuation of Zuccotti Park. #### Social and cultural Riverside Church's LGBT ministry is named Maranatha. It was founded in 1978 in response to growing demand from gay and lesbian congregants. Maranatha hosts several activities, workshops, and events, and marches annually in the NYC Pride March. In the 1980s, when the HIV/AIDS epidemic in New York City was at its peak, there was a backlash against Maranatha because the LGBT community was negatively associated with the epidemic. These events led to the founding of the separate HIV/AIDS ministry, which hosts a support forum, provides testing, counseling, and referral programs, and collaborates with several other programs. Riverside Church's African Fellowship and Ministry sponsors educational forums about issues facing Africa, advocates on behalf of African diasporas with an active Facebook page. The Sharing and Densford Funds advocate on behalf of Native Americans in the United States. Other ministries at Riverside include support groups for South Africans, and for Hispanic and Latino Americans. #### Other activism Riverside Church has several other social justice ministries. The environmentalist Beloved Earth ministry has a focus on climate change activism. The Wellbotics ministry helps the families of cancer patients. The church also has several pacifist task forces, including the Anti-Death Penalty Task Force and the "Overcoming Violence" task force, which is dedicated to fostering dialogue with the New York City Police Department. Riverside Church also participates in the National Religious Campaign Against Torture. ### Former programming When it was completed in 1959, Riverside Church's MLK Wing included space for a radio station that was planned by the church. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) granted the church an FM broadcasting license in 1960, and the following year, the church started operating the radio station WRVR (later WKHK, now WLTW), which broadcast on 106.7 MHz. WRVR originally broadcast from the church's carillon but was relocated to the Empire State Building in 1971 to increase the range of its broadcast signal. WRVR, which was originally a noncommercial station, broadcast sermons and programming from cultural and higher-education institutions in New York City. WRVR incurred an annual net loss for Riverside Church and in 1971, it was turned into a "limited commercial operation", which also failed to pay for itself. The church decided to sell its radio station in 1975, and the sale was finalized the following year. Starting in November 1976, Riverside Church hosted the Riverside Dance Festival, which was a continuation of previous dance ministries hosted by the church and normally offered 34 weeks of programming from over 60 dance companies. The program ended in June 1987 because of a \$900,000 funding shortfall. A link to 106.7 FM's days as Riverside Church-owned WRVR remains on WLTW in the present day. A recorded sermon from Riverside Church airs on the station from 5:00 to 6:00 a.m. on Sunday mornings, as part of WLTW's non-music public affairs programming. ## Called senior ministers While Riverside Church is interdenominational, it is associated with the American Baptist Churches USA and the United Church of Christ. In chronological order, the called senior ministers at Riverside Church have been: - Harry Emerson Fosdick (1925–1945) - Robert J. McCracken (1946–1967) - Ernest T. Campbell (1968–1976) - William Sloane Coffin (1977–1987) - James A. Forbes (1989–2007) - Brad R. Braxton (2008–2009) - Amy Butler (2014–2019) - Adriene Thorne (2022–Present) ## Notable speakers On April 4, 1967, a year before his assassination, Martin Luther King Jr. gave a speech called Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence, in which he voiced his opposition to the Vietnam War, at Riverside Church. The Rev. Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy at Jackie Robinson's funeral service in 1972. In 1991, Nelson Mandela, anti-apartheid activist and later South African president, spoke at Riverside following his release from prison. Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan spoke there after the September 11, 2001, attacks, and former U.S. president Bill Clinton spoke at the church in 2004. Speakers at Riverside Church have also included theologians Paul Tillich—who taught nearby— and Reinhold Niebuhr; civil-rights activists Cesar Chavez and Desmond Tutu; Cuban president Fidel Castro; the 14th Dalai Lama; and Abdullah II of Jordan. ## See also - List of Baptist churches - List of carillons in the United States - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan above 110th Street - National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan above 110th Street
1,724,430	Romancing SaGa	1,164,427,284	1992 video game	[ "1992 video games", "Android (operating system) games", "IOS games", "Nintendo Switch games", "PlayStation 2 games", "PlayStation 4 games", "PlayStation 5 games", "SaGa", "Single-player video games", "Super Nintendo Entertainment System games", "Video game remakes", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games featuring female protagonists", "Video games scored by Kenji Ito", "Virtual Console games", "Virtual Console games for Wii U", "Windows games", "WonderSwan Color games" ]	Romancing SaGa is a 1992 role-playing video game developed and published by Square for the Super Famicom. It is the fourth entry in the SaGa series. It was subsequently released for the WonderSwan Color in 2001 and mobile phones in 2009. A remake for the PlayStation 2, subtitled Minstrel Song in Japan, was released in both Japan and North America in 2005 by Square Enix. A remaster of Minstrel Song was released worldwide in 2022 for Android, iOS, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5 and Windows. The storyline follows eight different protagonists on quests through the world of Mardias, all culminating in a fight against the dark god Saruin. Gameplay features nonlinear exploration of the game world, with the turn-based battles featuring group formations. As with other SaGa titles, there are no experience points and character attributes and skills are dependent on actions taken in battle. Production began in 1990, with Nintendo requesting Square develop a new SaGa entry for the in-production Super Famicom after the success of SaGa titles on the Game Boy. Series creator Akitoshi Kawazu acted as director, designer and scenario writer. The character designers were created by Tomomi Kobayashi in her first work for the series. The music was solely composed and arranged by Kenji Ito, who had previously co-composed music for Final Fantasy Legend II. Later versions included cut content and features from later SaGa titles. The PS2 remake included redrawn artwork by Yusuke Naora and a redone soundtrack from Ito. The Super Famicom version sold over one million copies, and met with positive reception in the region. The PS2 remake sold 500,000 units across Japan and North America, seeing mixed reviews in the West due to its difficulty and art style. The remaster saw some praise for its updates, but several found it unwelcoming for series newcomers. Two more Romancing SaGa titles were developed, and gameplay elements from Romancing SaGa would be used in subsequent SaGa titles. ## Gameplay Romancing SaGa is a role-playing video game where the player takes on the role of eight different protagonists, playing through their narratives and an overarching story in a nonlinear style. After choosing a protagonist, the player explores the game's overworld freely, triggering narrative events, engaging in battles, and performing side activities. Over the course of the game a party of characters is built up, with some recruitable members being the unchosen protagonists. Progression of the main narrative is based on the number of events the player completes, their current strength, and speaking to certain characters. This free exploration is dubbed the Free Scenario System. Battles trigger when the player encounters enemy sprites in field and dungeon environments. The party engages the enemy in a preset formation arranged on a 3x3 grid, which impacts both attack range and defence from enemies. Equipment for playable characters includes their current weapon and armour. Abilities use a pool of Battle Points (BP). There are no experience points, with character statistics raising at random based on actions in battle. New abilities are unlocked by using weapons enough times in battle. Winning the battle also grants the player money, used to buy items and equipment. If a party member falls, they will return to low health at the end of battle. If the entire party falls, the game ends. The PlayStation 2 (PS2) remake Minstrel Song retains the original narrative and many gameplay concepts including non-linear exploration, but all environments are rendered in 3D and elements from later SaGa titles are incorporated. As with the original, once the protagonist is chosen, they can progress as they like through the scenario. The game uses a quick save function, creating a temporary save when the party is in field or dungeon environments. Hard saves can only be done in towns, where merchants selling new weapons and equipment can be utilised. The player can customise their party through which characters they recruit, and character classes that impact abilities and statistics, magical schools that allow the blending of different elemental magic types, and weapon forging. In addition to statistics rising depending on battle actions, a character learns or upgrades their skills by using it multiple times in battle. If several party members focus on one enemy, they unlock a Combination attack. Character health is two-layered, with standard health and Life Points. LP are limited in number and only renewed by resting at an inn. A character loses LP by being knocked out enough times or through attacks which target LP; if the player character loses all LP, the game ends. ## Synopsis Romancing SaGa is set in the fictional world of Mardias. 1000 years before the game's opening, a war raged between three evil gods—Death, Saruin, and Schirach—and the benevolent deity Elore. By the end, Death and Schirach are stripped of their powers, while Saruin is imprisoned through the combined effort of ten Fatestones and the sacrifice of the hero Mirsa. The Fatestones become scattered through the world, and the powers of darkness gather themselves to free Saruin from his imprisonment. The game focuses on eight characters, each with their own narrative who are drawn into the quest to recover the Fatestones and defeat Saruin once more. They are Albert, heir to a noble lord in the region of Rosalia; Aisha, a peace-loving member of the nomadic Taralians; Jamil, a thief operating in the city of Estamir; Claudia, a woman raised by a witch in the land of Mazewood; Hawk, a notorious pirate; Sif, a warrior from the snow-covered region of Valhalland; Gray, a treasure-seeking adventurer; and Barbara, member of a travelling band of entertainers. While each character has their own personal quest, they are drawn into the quest for the Fatestones. In Minstrel Song, the characters are overseen in their quest by the Minstrel, a figure who is secretly an avatar of Elore. Once enough Fatestones are collected, the chosen protagonist faces the reawakened Saruin, defeating him for good. If Minstrel Song is cleared with all eight characters, a final scene shows them talking together, then setting out as a group watched over by the Minstrel. ## Development Production of Romancing SaGa began in 1990, when Nintendo approached series developer Square about developing a new SaGa title for their in-development Super Famicom. The request was due to the success of the previous SaGa titles on the Game Boy. Series creator Akitoshi Kawazu was pleased at Nintendo's request, as he could make substantial improvements to his gameplay design on better hardware. There was also demand for a third Game Boy SaGa, so two projects began in parallel; Kawazu led a team on Romancing SaGa, while Square's new Osaka studio developed Final Fantasy Legend III (known in Japan as SaGa 3: Jikuu no Hasha). During early production, Kawazu wanted to break away from the SaGa brand and call the game something different, but ultimately it retained the SaGa name. The game's "Romancing" title was suggested by Nobuyuki Inoue, inspired by the adventure movie Romancing the Stone. Kawazu was a little mixed on the impression given by the title, but the illustrations and music helped make the game more in line with the "romantic" style implied by the title. Kawazu acted as director, lead designer, and scenario writer. The producer was Masafumi Miyamoto, founder and former president of Square. Production was difficult, as while Kawazu had a larger team to work with, they also faced new technical and design issues. Kawazu's aim was to change the gameplay style of having a single path players had to travel, instead creating multiple stories for players to experience at their own pace, giving birth to the Free Scenario System. The Free Scenario System was designed as a direct contrast to the linear story structure of Square's Final Fantasy series. The eight protagonists, with their own stories within the same world, drew inspiration from taiga dramas, with the number referencing the Japanese novel Nansō Satomi Hakkenden. Albert's scenario was the first to be written. The number of characters was also due to Kawazu's wish for the formation system. The narrative was difficult for Kawazu, as he needed to create a central plotline while crafting eight independent narratives. Due to Nintendo's strict cart size limitations, several planned elements had to be cut from the final product. The characters were designed by artist Tomomi Kobayashi. Kawazu had been looking for a suitable illustrator for some time, and when he saw samples of Kobayashi's work contacted her about working with him. Romancing SaGa was Kobayashi's first video game work, so she had to get used to the large amount of creative freedom she had compared to her previous projects. She was only ever sent a name and some elements from Kawazu, but otherwise left to her own devices. Kawazu had a lot of input on what the characters were like, such as Albert being the only left-handed character, but could not have as much influence as he wanted due to other development needs. Hawk's design was inspired by the character Blood from Princess Knight. Kobayashi's favorite characters were Hawk and main antagonist Saruin. Kobayashi designed 40 unique characters, and at the height of her work was designing six per day. The sprites were designed by Kazuko Shibuya, who had worked for the company since the 1980s and designed character sprites for the Final Fantasy series. She created the character sprites based on Kobayashi's designs. Due to their deep narrative connections, Kawazu asked Kobayashi to design the characters before any sprite work was done. An important part of the sprite design was keeping the "delicate" colours within the limited pixel art style of the game. The game made extensive use of kanji characters, as hiragana writing would take up too much space, but Kawazu needed to make sure the kanji was legible, making them extra-large and going against standard 8x8 pixel limit for writing. Yoshinori Kitase acted as the game's field map designer, creating the world map. The graphic design staff included Inoue, Tetsuya Takahashi and Hiroshi Takai, the latter of whom would work as a designer on future SaGa titles. ## Release and versions Romancing SaGa released on January 28, 1992. It was the second Super Famicom title released by Square, following Final Fantasy IV in 1991. Three guidebooks for the game were published by NTT Publishing under Square's supervision between February and May 1992. A further guidebook, Romancing SaGa Destiny Guide, was published on December 20, 2001, by DigiCube. The game received Virtual Console re-releases on the Wii in 2009, the Wii U in 2015, and the Nintendo 3DS in 2016. Gaming magazine GamePro reported that Romancing SaGa was going to be localised in 1993, releasing under a different title. Ultimately the Super Famicom version of Romancing SaGa went unreleased outside Japan, due to a combination of its potentially off-putting complexity and the amount of text needing translation. An English fan translation, which required an official retail cartridge to run, was released online in 2015. In September 2000, Square announced it had begun development on an enhanced version of Romancing SaGa for the Bandai WonderSwan Color handheld system. The game was ported to the platform by Kan Navi. Square was one of the major supporters for the WonderSwan platform during its tenure. Its non-appearance on the equivalent Game Boy Advance was due to Square and Nintendo's long-standing enmity over Square's break from them to develop for Sony's PlayStation. According to the company, some of the original Super Famicom version's planned material was unable to be added during its original release due to memory restrictions, and that the new hardware would allow for a more "complete" version of the game. The gameplay balance was identical, but they added the ability to dash, avoiding enemy encounters. The newly added material includes an additional story scenario, as well as a side-quest that allows the player to gather all ten "Destiny Stone" items where previously only a few were accessible. The game was released in Japan on December 20, 2001. It formed part of a series dubbed "Square Masterpiece", a series of their classic titles for the WonderSwan platform. Romancing SaGa was also ported to mobile platforms by Square Enix. This version was based on the WonderSwan port, with some of the graphics adjusted for mobile platforms. It released on March 5, 2009, for i-mode models, March 18 for SoftBank, and July 9, 2009, for EZweb. The mobile version closed in 2018, when the services for older mobile titles were shut down. ### Romancing SaGa: Minstrel Song A remake for the PlayStation 2, titled Romancing SaGa: Minstrel Song in Japan, was developed by Square Enix. Kawazu decided to produce the remake following the release of Unlimited Saga, which had received much feedback due to its experimental gameplay. The remake was developed by Square Enix's Product Development Division 2, carrying over the original staff while aiming to make the game more approachable than the original version. After the approach used in Unlimited Saga, Kawazu designed the game to be a more traditional role-playing experience. Kawazu added in many elements for the remake that he originally planned for Romancing SaGa. The remake featured a number of aesthetic and mechanical changes, originating after Kawazu told the team they could make as many changes as they pleased. Adjustments were made so that players could easily experience all eight character narratives. There were also additional tutorials to explain game mechanics. Kawazu described the purpose of the remake as "a functional compilation of the whole SaGa series" that would combine elements from previous SaGa titles into one definitive game. Kawazu acted as producer and director. Takai returned to help with the game's design. The art style referenced the sprite design of the original game, which Kawazu called more original than the prevalent realistic style of series like Final Fantasy. It also emerged as an expression of the team's taste, without intending to appeal to the Japanese or international market. It was also described as more "explosive" and expressive than the graphical style of Unlimited Saga. The characters were redrawn by Yusuke Naora, lead artist of Unlimited Saga. A notable added character was the assassin Darque; Kawazu originally meant him as a new protagonist, but he ultimately became a new recruitable character. The graphical style made use of the "sketch motion" techniques used in Unlimited Saga, with the original artwork mapped onto 3D models. Kobayashi returned to create new art, including character sketches based on Naora's redesigns. The game's logo made reference to the Minstrel, a recurring figure in the game. The game was announced in September 2004 via an issue of Jump, and released in Japan on April 21, 2005. A dedicated guidebook in Square Enix's Ultimania was released on July 17, containing gameplay explanations, a strategy guide, interviews with the production team, and a gallery of promotional and concept art. The Ultimania also included a novella written by Benny Matsumaya, a long-standing contributor to the SaGa series' additional media. The game later re-released through PlayStation Network for PlayStation 3 on April 9, 2015, as a PS2 Classic. Its release, together with a special edition which included a download code and a jigsaw with an artwork by Kobayashi, formed part of the company's 25th anniversary celebrations of the SaGa series. A North American release was announced at E3 2005, featuring alongside other major titles from the company including Dragon Quest VIII, Final Fantasy XII and Kingdom Hearts II. The game released in North America on October 11. For its Western release, the "Minstrel Song" subtitle was dropped as the original had never released outside Japan. The English dub was handled by New Generation Pictures, who had collaborated with Square Enix on several titles within the Final Fantasy and Valkyrie Profile series. The localized version received no European release. Due to the existence of Minstrel Song and its Western release, the original title was not remastered as later Romancing SaGa titles were. A remaster of Minstrel Song was announced in May 2022 for Android, iOS, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5 and Windows. The remaster includes upscaled graphics, improved gameplay and additional elements. The game was released on December 1, 2022. ## Music The music of Romancing SaGa was composed and arranged by Kenji Ito, who had previously worked as co-composer for Final Fantasy Legend II (known in Japan as SaGa 2: Hihō Densetsu) alongside Nobuo Uematsu. Ito had helped with the sound design of Final Fantasy IV, and knew that much of the cartridge space had been taken up with the graphics, impacting the music's quality. Kawazu gave no specific instructions about songs, but often requested rewrites. Ito delivered most of the score before the final four months of production, and then had more rewrite requests. When creating the score, Ito broke away from the musical style of Final Fantasy IV, which had emulated fingerstyle playing, instead emulating slapping with help from sound designer Minoru Akao. Compared to the "smooth" sound of Final Fantasy, Ito described the score of Romancing SaGa as "rough", using different instruments to Uematsu's work. Ito was left completely burnt out after his work on the game. Two soundtrack albums were released in by NTT Publishing; the original soundtrack, and an arrange album. A remaster of the original album was reissued in 2019. Ito returned as composer and arranger for the PS2 remake. Ito found returning to Romancing SaGa both enjoyable and painful due to the fan expectations and love surrounding the title. A part he enjoyed was allowing tracks to sound as they were intended outside the hardware limitations of the Super Famicom. Ito worked on the revised score for two years, joined in his work by Tsuyoshi Sekito and Kenichiro Fukui. The battle theme "Passionate Rhythm" featured vocal contributions from Kyoko Kishikawa, who had previously worked with Ito and other composers including Yasunori Mitsuda and Yoshitaka Hirota. Square Enix hired singer-songwriter Masayoshi Yamazaki to perform the remake's theme song "Minuet". ## Reception ### Original Upon release, the game topped the Famitsu sales charts from February 1992 to March 1992. By 2002, Romancing SaGa had sold 970,000 copies in Japan, ranking as the fifth best-selling SaGa title at the time. As of 2004, the Super Famicom original has sold over 1.3 million copies worldwide; over 1.1 million were sold in Japan, with further overseas sales adding 150,000. Famitsu magazine's panel of four reviewers faulted the game's graphics as inferior to those of Final Fantasy, but lauded the freedom of choice given to players through its narrative and gameplay progression. Super Famicom Magazine praised the game's Free Scenario System, which allowed players to repeatedly enjoy the game however they wished. In March 2006, readers of Famitsu voted it the 53rd best video game of all time as part of the magazine's "All Time Top 100" poll. Writing in a 2017 retrospective on the original game, Tristan Ettleman of Vice praised the game's ambitious open-ended structure compared to other titles of the time, but faulted its execution and confusing battle mechanics. ### Remake Minstrel Song was the top-selling game in that country between the weeks of May 2 and May 26, 2005. During the first week, it sold around 217,000, coming in ahead of Fire Emblem: Path of Radiance and Nintendogs, and completely selling out in some stores. The game sold enough copies to qualify for Sony's Ultimate Hits label, and was re-released in May 2006 at a budget price. As of January 2006, the game had sold 500,000 units; 450,000 were sold in Japan, and 50,000 in North America. Famitsu was generally positive, noting the battle system's unconventional mechanics compared to other RPGs and enjoying the remake's faith to the original. While Minstrel Song met with positive reviews in Japan, in the West it saw a mixed response. The game holds a score of 58 out of 100 on review aggregate website Metacritic based on 23 reviews. The gameplay met with a mixed response, with praise going to the world's open-ended nature and battle system, but faulting many design elements and battle mechanics. The reworked character designs were often questioned, with a few critics calling them unsettling or ugly. The music and voice acting divided opinion, with some critics enjoying it, and others faulting it as poor quality. Jane Pinckard 1Up.com praised the environments, but faulted many other elements from art to mechanics as poorly or confusingly designed, feeling it did little to improve on the mixed reputation of Unlimited Saga. The three reviewers for Electronic Gaming Monthly saw potential in its battle system and world design, but generally faulted it as a poorly-constructed RPG. Game Informer's Joe Juba was highly critical, saying there were too many faults and unusual design choices to make the game worth playing. Andrew Reiner, in a second opinion, was still less positive and called the game "a measureless disaster". GamePro praised the art design, but faulted the soundtrack, and found the progression system and design confusing and difficult to enjoy. GameSpot's Greg Mueller called Romancing SaGa "a role-playing game without any substance", faulting its lack of narrative and confusing mechanics. Meghan Sullivan of IGN said the game would appeal to fans of the series, but thought that its unorthodox style and design would likely put off many gamers. By contrast with many reviews, RPGFan's Patrick Gann called it a refreshingly original RPG compared to the majority of titles on the market at the time. Reviewing the remaster, Chris Shive of Hardcore Gamer noted that several elements of its design once innovative now appeared dated, additionally noting some outdated features such as the fixed camera angle that had not been addressed; he called the game a good offering for SaGa fans but a hard sell for many modern genre gamers. Nintendo World Rerport's Neal Ronaghan disliked the visuals and found some of its mechanics confusing, but praised the soundtrack and battle gameplay, calling it a good entry point into the SaGa series. Murillo Zerbinatto of RPGamer praised its replayability and updates for the remaster, but noted that some of its progression and mechanics would be offputting for casual gamers, summing Minstrel Song Remastered up as "a title packed with nuances and peculiarities that still stand the test of time." ## Legacy Romancing SaGa proved to be a popular and influential title within the series, popularising the SaGa series and introducing mechanics and a scenario structure which would be repeated by later entries. Following the success of Romancing SaGa, two further titles were released for the Super Famicom: Romancing SaGa 2 in 1993, and Romancing SaGa 3 in 1995. A manga series based on Romancing SaGa was released in two volumes by Tokuma Shoten in 1994 and 1995, written and illustrated by Saki Kaori.
5,313,814	Al Wistert	1,167,990,384	American football player (1920–2016)	[ "1920 births", "2016 deaths", "All-American college football players", "American football tackles", "American people of Lithuanian descent", "College Football Hall of Fame inductees", "Eastern Conference Pro Bowl players", "High school football coaches in New Jersey", "Michigan Wolverines football players", "National Football League players with retired numbers", "Philadelphia Eagles players", "Players of American football from Chicago", "Steagles players and personnel" ]	Albert Alexander "Ox" Wistert (December 28, 1920 – March 5, 2016) was an American professional football player who was an offensive tackle, guard and defensive tackle in the National Football League (NFL) for the Philadelphia Eagles. He played his entire nine-year NFL career for the Eagles and became their team captain. He was named to play in the NFL's first Pro Bowl as an Eagle. During most of Wistert's career there were no football All-star games, although he was named to the league All-Pro team eight times. Wistert played college football at the University of Michigan. He is one of the three brothers—along with Whitey and Alvin— who were named All-American tackles at Michigan and later inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. He was the first Michigan alumnus to be selected to the National Football League Pro Bowl. The Wistert brothers all wore jersey No. 11 at Michigan and are among the seven players who have had their numbers retired by the Michigan Wolverines football program. Their number will be put back into circulation starting on November 10, 2012, before a Michigan home game against Northwestern as part of the Michigan Football Legend program. ## Early life Wistert, who was born in Chicago, Illinois, was from a Lithuanian family. His father, Kazimer Wistert, was a Spanish–American War veteran who was later killed in the line of duty while working for the Chicago Police Department. The story of the Wistert brothers at Michigan began when Whitey's Carl Schurz High School classmate John Kowalik was invited to visit the University of Michigan. At the time, Whitey Wistert had a factory job where he was involved with building Majestic radios. Kowalik took Whitey with him on his visit to Ann Arbor, and according to Alvin, "that's how it started: the Wisterts of Michigan." ## College football > And if I'm not mistaken I think this is unprecedented in the annals of college football: that three brothers all would go to the same school, all played football. All played tackle, all wore the same number 11, all made All-American. Two of us played on four national championship teams. And all were inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. – Alvin Wistert After graduating from Foreman High School, Wistert became the second of the Wistert brothers to play for Michigan where he wore number 11 like his brothers and played from 1940 to 1942. He was a consensus All-American and team MVP in 1942. He played in the 1943 East–West Shrine Game. He is well remembered, among other things, for his exploits in a 1942 game against the Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team, and he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1968, one year after his brother Francis. In 1981, he was named to the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in the fourth class of inductees alongside his brothers. Only five Michigan football players earned this honor before him. Michigan posted a 20–5–1 record during Wistert's three years on the team. In 1940, the team's only loss in its eight-game season was to the eventual national champion Minnesota Golden Gophers football. The Wolverines followed that season with 6–1–1 and 7–3 marks in the next two years. Wistert served as captain of the College All-star team that beat the Sammy Baugh-led National Football League champion Washington Redskins, 27–7, in Chicago. He was the only one of the three brothers not to play on a national championship squad at Michigan. ## Professional football After being drafted in the fifth round by the Philadelphia Eagles and signing for \$3800 (\$ today), he encountered animosity from veteran players for having signed such a large contract (though they thought he signed for \$4500). He earned All-Pro honors in eight (four by consensus) of his nine seasons. As a two-way player, he played his entire nine-year career for the Philadelphia Eagles (who operated as a merged team with the Pittsburgh Steelers for one season during World War II.) The National Football League had no All-Star games between 1943 and 1950. Thus, although Wistert was a perennial All-Pro selection, it is difficult to compare him to more modern players who are often measured by Pro Bowl invitations. He served as Eagles captain for five consecutive seasons, from 1946 to 1950, and was named All-Pro in each season. In Wistert's next to last season he was selected to the first Pro Bowl. In his final season, he recovered three fumbles. The Eagles won the 1948 and 1949 National Football League Championships with Wistert. These were the only consecutive National Football League champions to win by shutout. His number 70 was retired by the Eagles in 1952. According to his College Football Hall of Fame biography, during his career he started every game the Eagles played except for the 1950 season opener against the Cleveland Browns. However, according to other statistical databases he started 84 of his career 95 games. His jersey number is one of nine retired by the Eagles. In 2005, Wistert lamented not having been enshrined in the Professional Football Hall of Fame and on Philadelphia Eagles Honor Roll: > The two things that would really make my career complete is to be inducted into both the Pro Football Hall of Fame and the Philadelphia Eagles Honor Roll. Wistert was inducted into the Philadelphia Eagles Honor Roll on September 29, 2009, along with Randall Cunningham. In 2003, he was named to the Pro Football Researchers Association Hall of Very Good in the association's inaugural HOVG class; he is one of two players that the Association officially supports for induction into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. He was named as a senior finalist for the class of 2020's "blue ribbon panel" but also missed out. In 2023, he was named as a senior semifinalist for the class of 2024. ## Later life and family After football, Wistert became a successful life insurance salesman. He sold insurance for 40 years. Among the places he has lived since retirement are California and Grants Pass, Oregon. He was married to his late wife Ellie for 61 years and has three daughters (Pam, Dianna and Kathy) and three grandchildren. At one point he was both coaching football at Riverside High School in Riverside Township, New Jersey and playing professionally. According to brother Alvin, their father "was born Casmir Vistertus and he Anglicized it when he came to America to Wistert." Wistert died on March 5, 2016, in Grants Pass, Oregon at the age of 95. ## See also - List of Michigan Wolverines football All-Americans - University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor
11,153,388	Selarang Barracks incident	1,146,716,161	British prisoner-of-war revolt	[ "1942 in Japan", "1942 in Singapore", "August 1942 events", "British rule in Singapore", "Indian National Army", "Japanese occupation of Singapore", "Japanese war crimes", "Massacres in Singapore" ]	The Selarang Barracks incident, also known as the Barrack Square incident or the Selarang Square Squeeze, was a revolt of British and Australian prisoners-of-war (POWs) interned in a Japanese camp in Changi, Singapore. The events started on 30 August 1942 after the Japanese recaptured four POWs escaped from the Selarang Barracks camps, and required that the other prisoners sign a pledge not to escape. After they refused, they were forced to crowd in the areas around the barracks square for nearly five days with little water and no sanitation. The executions of the recaptured POWs failed to break the men. The commanders, however, finally capitulated on 5 September when their men started to fall ill and die from dysentery. Upon signing the pledge, the men were allowed to return to the barracks buildings. ## History ### Changi Built in 1938, the Selarang Barracks was part of the Changi Garrison, a heavily fortified coastal defence where most of the British forces were based during the Battle of Singapore. The Selarang Barracks housed the 2nd Battalion Gordon Highlanders, a British Army infantry regiment which recruited its soldiers mainly from North East Scotland. The Royal Engineers and the 9th Coastal Artillery Regiment of the Royal Artillery were based in nearby Kitchener Barracks and Roberts Barracks respectively. After the British surrender of Singapore on 15 February 1942, Allied POWs were ordered by the Japanese to march to Changi for internment. As the British-built Changi Prison was already crowded with Allied POWs and civilians, the surrounding barracks including Selarang Barracks were used by the Japanese as a holding area for Australian and British POWs. On 30 August 1942, as a pre-emptive measure, the newly arrived Japanese Commander General Shimpei Fukuye wanted the wholly British and Australian POWs interned at Selarang Barracks in Changi to sign a "No Escape Pledge" after the recapture of four escaped prisoners from Changi Prison earlier. The four escapees were Australian Corporal Rodney Breavington and Private Victor Gale, and English soldiers, Private Harold Waters and Private Eric Fletcher. The pledge reads: "I the undersigned, hereby solemnly swear on my honour that I will not, under any circumstances, attempt to escape." With three exceptions, everyone refused to sign, because the prisoners saw it as their duty to escape if they could. Under the Geneva Convention, POWs had the right to attempt to escape and they were not supposed to be punished if they were recaptured. However, at that time, Japan was not a signatory to the Geneva Convention although it was the signatory of the 1907 Hague Convention, which provided humane treatment of prisoners of war (POWs) and it had also signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1929, thereby rendering its actions liable to charges of crimes against peace. General Fukuye was furious at the mass display of insubordination and the following day he ordered all prisoners, except the three who had agreed to sign, to congregate at the parade square in Selarang Barracks. What ensued was to become known as the "Selarang Barracks Incident". The Selarang Barracks, originally built to accommodate 800 men, consisted of a parade ground surrounded on three sides by three-storey buildings. A number of smaller houses for officers and married couples were spread out in the spacious grounds. Nearly 17,000 men crammed into a parade ground of about 128 by 210 metres and in the surrounding areas. An Australian POW, George Aspinall documented the situation: > The first and most urgent problem we had to face up to was the lack of toilet facilities. Each barracks building had about four to six toilets, which were flushed from small cisterns on the roofs. But the Japanese cut the water off, and these toilets couldn't be used. The Japanese only allowed one water tap to be used, and people used to line up in the early hours of the morning and that queue would go on all day. You were allowed one water bottle of water per man per day, just one quart for your drinking, washing, and everything else. Not that there was much washing done under the circumstances. ### Executions When there were no signs of the POWs backing down on the third day, General Fukuye ordered the Commander of the British and Australian troops in Changi, Lt-Col E. B. Holmes and his deputy, Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Galleghan, to attend the execution of the four recent escapees: Breavington, Gale, Waters and Fletcher. One of the Australians, Breavington, pleaded to no avail that he was solely responsible for the escape attempt and should be the only one executed. Their executions were carried out by the Indian National Army guards with rifles on 2 September. The initial volley was non-fatal, and the wounded men had to plead to be finished off. Despite the executions, the prisoners remained firm as the days ensued. Without food and little water available and coupled with latrine pits, kitchens and hospital beds crowded into an area of about a square kilometre, dysentery broke out quickly and the sick began to die. Realising that more would die needlessly, the prisoners' commanders decided that they and their men would sign the pledge "under duress". On 4 September, Lt-Col Holmes issued a written order to his men: > The requirement by the Imperial Japanese Army, issued under their Order No.17 dated 31 August '42 that all ranks of the POW Camp Changi, should be given the opportunity to sign a certificate of promise not to escape, has now been amended in a revised Imperial Japanese Army Order No.17 dated 2 September '42 to a definite order that all officers, NCOs, and Men of the POW Camp shall sign this undertaking. > > I therefore now order that these certificates will be signed by all ranks, and handed by Area Commanders to Command Headquarters by 1100 hrs on 5 September '42. The circumstances in which I have been compelled to issue this order will be made the subject of Selarang Special Order No. 3 which will be issued later. As the Japanese were not familiar with British names, the POWs signed using false or meaningless names. One of the most common signatures among the Australians was that of folk hero Ned Kelly. After the signing was completed, the Japanese allowed the prisoners back to their former areas on 5 September, thus ending the incident. Dr. Frank Murray recorded in his diary that the medical staff signed on medical grounds only because of diphtheria and dysentery epidemics. ### Singapore War Crimes Trial During the Singapore War Crimes Trial in 1946, General Fukuye was sentenced to death on 28 February and executed by firing squad on 27 April at the spot where the four POWs had been shot three years earlier. Fukuye died instantly after shouting "Banzai". ### Epitaphs The four executed POWs were later honoured and buried at the Kranji War Memorial after the war. ## Selarang Barracks today After the war, the Selarang Barracks became the home for most of the Australian Army units of ANZUK, a tripartite force formed by Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom to defend the Asia-Pacific region, until its disbandment in 1974. Today, Selarang Barracks is the headquarters for the 9th Division of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF), and access to the camp is restricted. ### Remembrance In order to honour the deeds and inspirational stories that unfolded in Changi during the war, the Changi Chapel and Museum was built in 1988 as a dedication to all those who lived and died in Singapore during the years of World War II. It also serves as an important educational institution and resource centre with documentation of significant events of the Japanese Occupation in Singapore. The Selarang Barracks Incident, Double Tenth Incident and other similar stories that were mentioned by the survivors of Changi Prison are retold on the storyboard displays for posterity. There are also showcases containing tools, materials and personal belongings of POWs and other artefacts related or used during World War II. The items displayed in the showcases were donated from organizations, POWs and their families, as well as other visitors. On 19 April 1996, Australian Foreign Minister Alexander Downer and his wife, Nicky, made a personal pilgrimage to Changi Prison, to see the cell his father was kept in as a prisoner-of-war during World War II. His father, Sir Alexander Downer, was interned in Selarang Barracks from 1942 to 1943 and then in Changi Prison from 1943 to 1944. Downer also visited the Changi Memorial Chapel, where Sir Alexander had worshipped during his internment, the Selarang Barracks, and the camp parade square, where 17,000 Allied POWs were ordered to assemble in 1942. ## See also - Double Tenth Incident - Changi Murals - Kempeitai East District Branch - John Mennie – prisoner who pictured life in the camps and the Selarang Square Squeeze.
9,388,131	Type Ib and Ic supernovae	1,172,635,648	Types of supernovae caused by a star collapsing	[ "Supernovae" ]	Type Ib and Type Ic supernovae are categories of supernovae that are caused by the stellar core collapse of massive stars. These stars have shed or been stripped of their outer envelope of hydrogen, and, when compared to the spectrum of Type Ia supernovae, they lack the absorption line of silicon. Compared to Type Ib, Type Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have lost more of their initial envelope, including most of their helium. The two types are usually referred to as stripped core-collapse supernovae. ## Spectra When a supernova is observed, it can be categorized in the Minkowski–Zwicky supernova classification scheme based upon the absorption lines that appear in its spectrum. A supernova is first categorized as either a Type I or Type II, then subcategorized based on more specific traits. Supernovae belonging to the general category Type I lack hydrogen lines in their spectra; in contrast to Type II supernovae which do display lines of hydrogen. The Type I category is subdivided into Type Ia, Type Ib and Type Ic. Type Ib/Ic supernovae are distinguished from Type Ia by the lack of an absorption line of singly ionized silicon at a wavelength of 635.5 nanometres. As Type Ib and Ic supernovae age, they also display lines from elements such as oxygen, calcium and magnesium. In contrast, Type Ia spectra become dominated by lines of iron. Type Ic supernovae are distinguished from Type Ib in that the former also lack lines of helium at 587.6 nm. ## Formation Prior to becoming a supernova, an evolved massive star is organized like an onion, with layers of different elements undergoing fusion. The outermost layer consists of hydrogen, followed by helium, carbon, oxygen, and so forth. Thus when the outer envelope of hydrogen is shed, this exposes the next layer that consists primarily of helium (mixed with other elements). This can occur when a very hot, massive star reaches a point in its evolution when significant mass loss is occurring from its stellar wind. Highly massive stars (with 25 or more times the mass of the Sun) can lose up to 10<sup>−5</sup> solar masses () each year—the equivalent of every 100,000 years. Type Ib and Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have been produced by core collapse of massive stars that have lost their outer layer of hydrogen and helium, either via winds or mass transfer to a companion. The progenitors of Types Ib and Ic have lost most of their outer envelopes due to strong stellar winds or else from interaction with a close companion of about . Rapid mass loss can occur in the case of a Wolf–Rayet star, and these massive objects show a spectrum that is lacking in hydrogen. Type Ib progenitors have ejected most of the hydrogen in their outer atmospheres, while Type Ic progenitors have lost both the hydrogen and helium shells; in other words, Type Ic have lost more of their envelope (i.e., much of the helium layer) than the progenitors of Type Ib. In other respects, however, the underlying mechanism behind Type Ib and Ic supernovae is similar to that of a Type II supernova, thus placing Types Ib and Ic between Type Ia and Type II. Because of their similarity, Type Ib and Ic supernovae are sometimes collectively called Type Ibc supernovae. There is some evidence that a small fraction of the Type Ic supernovae may be the progenitors of gamma ray bursts (GRBs); in particular, type Ic supernovae that have broad spectral lines corresponding to high-velocity outflows are thought to be strongly associated with GRBs. However, it is also hypothesized that any hydrogen-stripped Type Ib or Ic supernova could be a GRB, dependent upon the geometry of the explosion. In any case, astronomers believe that most Type Ib, and probably Type Ic as well, result from core collapse in stripped, massive stars, rather than from the thermonuclear runaway of white dwarfs. As they are formed from rare, very massive stars, the rate of Type Ib and Ic supernova occurrence is much lower than the corresponding rate for Type II supernovae. They normally occur in regions of new star formation, and are extremely rare in elliptical galaxies. Because they share a similar operating mechanism, Type Ibc and the various Type II supernovae are collectively called core-collapse supernovae. In particular, Type Ibc may be referred to as stripped core-collapse supernovae. ## Light curves The light curves (a plot of luminosity versus time) of Type Ib supernovae vary in form, but in some cases can be nearly identical to those of Type Ia supernovae. However, Type Ib light curves may peak at lower luminosity and may be redder. In the infrared portion of the spectrum, the light curve of a Type Ib supernova is similar to a Type II-L light curve. Type Ib supernovae usually have slower decline rates for the spectral curves than Ic. Type Ia supernovae light curves are useful for measuring distances on a cosmological scale. That is, they serve as standard candles. However, due to the similarity of the spectra of Type Ib and Ic supernovae, the latter can form a source of contamination of supernova surveys and must be carefully removed from the observed samples before making distance estimates. ## See also - Type Ia supernova - Type II supernova
21,201	Nobel Prize	1,172,212,946	Prizes established by Alfred Nobel in 1895	[ "1895 establishments in Sweden", "Academic awards", "Alfred Nobel", "Articles containing video clips", "Awards established in 1895", "International awards", "Nobel Prize", "Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences", "Science and technology awards", "Science and technology in Sweden", "Swedish science and technology awards" ]	The Nobel Prizes (/noʊˈbɛl/ noh-BEL; Swedish: Nobelpriset ; Norwegian: Nobelprisen ) are five separate prizes that, according to Alfred Nobel's will of 1895, are awarded to "those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind." Alfred Nobel was a Swedish chemist, engineer, and industrialist most famously known for the invention of dynamite. He died in 1896. In his will, he bequeathed all of his "remaining realisable assets" to be used to establish five prizes which became known as "Nobel Prizes." Nobel Prizes were first awarded in 1901. Nobel Prizes are awarded in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, Economics, and Peace (Nobel characterized the Peace Prize as "to the person who has done the most or best to advance fellowship among nations, the abolition or reduction of standing armies, and the establishment and promotion of peace congresses"). In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank (Sweden's central bank) funded the establishment of the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, to also be administered by the Nobel Foundation. Nobel Prizes are widely regarded as the most prestigious awards available in their respective fields. The prize ceremonies take place annually. Each recipient (known as a "laureate") receives a green gold medal plated with 24 karat gold, a diploma, and a monetary award. In 2021, the Nobel Prize monetary award was 10,000,000 SEK. A prize may not be shared among more than three individuals, although the Nobel Peace Prize can be awarded to organizations of more than three people. Although Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize is presented. The Nobel Prizes, beginning in 1901, and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, beginning in 1969, have been awarded 609 times to 975 people and 25 organizations. Five individuals and two organisations have received more than one Nobel Prize. ## History Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers. He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth coming from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled "The Merchant of Death Is Dead", in a French newspaper. It was Alfred's brother Ludvig who had died; the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old. Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. To widespread astonishment, Nobel's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US\$186 million, €150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Owing to skepticism surrounding the will, it was not approved by the Storting in Norway until 26 April 1897. The executors of the will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of the fortune and to organise the awarding of prizes. Nobel's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organizations were designated. These were Karolinska Institute on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved. ### Nobel Foundation #### Formation of Foundation According to his will and testament read in Stockholm on 30 December 1896, a foundation established by Alfred Nobel would reward those who serve humanity. The Nobel Prize was funded by Alfred Nobel's personal fortune. According to the official sources, Alfred Nobel bequeathed most of his fortune to the Nobel Foundation that now forms the economic base of the Nobel Prize. The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organization on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel's will, the primary task of the foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludvig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan, and according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archive, it was this "decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established". Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953). Since the 1980s, the foundation's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US\$560 million). According to the statutes, the foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize-awarding institutions. An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members, a deputy director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the executive director and the deputy director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize-awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors. #### Foundation capital and cost The capital of the Nobel Foundation today is invested 50% in shares, 20% bonds and 30% other investments (e.g. hedge funds or real estate). The distribution can vary by 10 percent. At the beginning of 2008, 64% of the funds were invested mainly in American and European stocks, 20% in bonds, plus 12% in real estate and hedge funds. In 2011, the total annual cost was approximately 120 million kronor, with 50 million kronor as the prize money. Further costs to pay institutions and persons engaged in giving the prizes were 27.4 million kronor. The events during the Nobel week in Stockholm and Oslo cost 20.2 million kronor. The administration, Nobel symposium, and similar items had costs of 22.4 million kronor. The cost of the Economic Sciences prize of 16.5 Million kronor is paid by the Sveriges Riksbank. ### Inaugural Nobel prizes Once the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently, they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize-awarding institutions. The Nobel Committee's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize. In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the academy "was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize". The academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van 't Hoff. Van 't Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics. The Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists, and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman's explanation is that most of the academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then had been causing thousands of deaths each year. The first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization. ### Second World War In 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes. They were all later able to receive the diploma and medal. Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940 to 1942, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace. During the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden. These members kept the work of the committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again. ### Prize in Economic Sciences In 1968, Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honour of Alfred Nobel. The following year, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes". The board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes. ## Award process The award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes, the main difference being who can make nominations for each of them. ### Nominations Nomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates, and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award. The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names. The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize. ### Selection The Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize-awarding institutions. There are four awarding institutions for the six prizes awarded: - Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences – Chemistry; Physics; Economics - Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute – Physiology / Medicine - Swedish Academy – Literature - Norwegian Nobel Committee – Peace The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which cannot be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote. A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals. ### Posthumous nominations Although posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented. On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize "was made in good faith", it would remain unchanged, and the prize would be awarded. ### Recognition time lag Nobel's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made "during the preceding year". Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries. However, some of those early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer. To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time. According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, "the criterion 'the previous year' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident." The interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts. However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords. A recent controversy was caused by awarding the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize to Barack Obama during his first year as US president. Awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades – for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution. Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died. ## Award ceremonies Except for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events. The Prizes awarded in Sweden's ceremonies are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947–1989), and at Oslo City Hall (1990–present). The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway and the Norwegian royal family. At first, King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. It is said that he changed his mind once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden. ### Nobel Banquet After the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests. The Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the president of the Storting, on occasion the Swedish prime minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend. ### Nobel lecture According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize. The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format. These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize, but some have happened even later. For example, US President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office. The lectures are organized by the same association which selected the laureates. ## Prizes ### Medals The Nobel Foundation announced on 30 May 2012 that it had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Between 1902 and 2010, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint), Sweden's oldest company, which ceased operations in 2011 after 107 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design. All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 grams (0.386 lb) for each medal. The diameter is 66 millimetres (2.6 in) and the thickness varies between 5.2 millimetres (0.20 in) and 2.4 millimetres (0.094 in). Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, Hungarian chemist (and Nobel laureate himself) George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast. ### Diplomas Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden, or in the case of the peace prize, the chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them. The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas. ### Award money The laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded. The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880,000 SEK per prize (c. 2.6 million SEK altogether, US\$350,000 today). In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US\$1.4 million). In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK. If two laureates share the prize in a category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others. It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes. ## Controversies and criticisms ### Controversial recipients Among other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize. Peace Prize Among the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973 during the Vietnam War. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities. Critics sympathetic to the North announced that Kissinger was not a peace-maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war. Those hostile to the North and what they considered its deceptive practices during negotiations were deprived of a chance to criticise Lê Đức Thọ, as he declined the award. The satirist and musician Tom Lehrer has remarked that "political satire became obsolete when Henry Kissinger was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize." Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine. Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned. Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers. Another controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009. Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President of the United States, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months. Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award, or worthy of the company in which it would place him. Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a liberal bias. Literature Prize The award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art". He alleged that Jelinek's works were "a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure". The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post, many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work. This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric. The 2019 Literature Prize to Peter Handke received heavy criticisms from various authors, such as Salman Rushdie and Hari Kunzru, and was condemned by the governments of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Turkey, due to his history of Bosnian genocide denialism and his support for Slobodan Milošević. Science prizes In 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year, Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or "lobotomy" became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz's receipt of the Prize. ### Overlooked achievements Although Mahatma Gandhi, an icon of nonviolence in the 20th century, was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times, in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated on 30 January 1948, he was never awarded the prize. In 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, the Norwegian Nobel Committee decided to make no award that year on the grounds that "there was no suitable living candidate". In 1989, this omission was publicly regretted, when the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize, the chairman of the committee said that it was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi". Geir Lundestad, 2006 Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee, said, > The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace Prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace Prize. Whether the Nobel committee can do without Gandhi, is the question. Other high-profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been overlooked. In 2009, an article in Foreign Policy magazine identified seven people who "never won the prize, but should have". The list consisted of Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro-Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh, Corazon Aquino, and Liu Xiaobo. Liu Xiaobo would go on to win the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize while imprisoned. In 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permanent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant. The Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism. The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors. This tendency towards European authors still leaves many European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J. R. R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, Karel Čapek, the New World's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa's Chinua Achebe. Candidates can receive multiple nominations the same year. Gaston Ramon received a total of 155 nominations in physiology or medicine from 1930 to 1953, the last year with public nomination data for that award as of 2016. He died in 1963 without being awarded. Pierre Paul Émile Roux received 115 nominations in physiology or medicine, and Arnold Sommerfeld received 84 in physics. These are the three most nominated scientists without awards in the data published as of 2016. Otto Stern received 79 nominations in physics 1925–1943 before being awarded in 1943. The strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial. When a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt. According to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honor in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles. Hagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years. Similarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honor in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black's key role. Political subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power. The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognised until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award. ### Emphasis on discoveries over inventions Alfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind". He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given "to the person who shall have made the most important 'discovery' or 'invention' within the field of physics". Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77% of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23% to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society. ### Gender disparity In terms of the most prestigious awards in STEM fields, only a small proportion have been awarded to women. Out of 210 laureates in Physics, 181 in Chemistry and 216 in Medicine between 1901 and 2018, there were only three female laureates in physics, five in chemistry and 12 in medicine. Factors proposed to contribute to the discrepancy between this and the roughly equal human sex ratio include biased nominations, fewer women than men being active in the relevant fields, Nobel Prizes typically being awarded decades after the research was done (reflecting a time when gender bias in the relevant fields was greater), a greater delay in awarding Nobel Prizes for women's achievements making longevity a more important factor for women (one cannot be nominated for the Nobel Prize posthumously), and a tendency to omit women from jointly awarded Nobel Prizes. Despite these factors, Marie Curie is to date the only person awarded Nobel Prizes in two different sciences (Physics in 1903, Chemistry in 1911); she is one of only three people who have received two Nobel Prizes in sciences (see Multiple laureates below). Malala Yousafzai is the youngest person ever to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. When she received it in 2014, she was only 17 years old. ### Status of the Economic Sciences Prize Peter Nobel describes the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel as a "false Nobel prize" that dishonours his relative Alfred Nobel, after whom the prize is named, and considers economics to be a pseudoscience. ## Statistics - Youngest person to receive a Nobel Prize: Malala Yousafzai; at the age of 17, received Nobel Peace Prize (2014). - Oldest person to receive a Nobel Prize: John B. Goodenough; at the age of 97, received Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2019). - Only person to receive more than one unshared Nobel Prize: Linus Pauling; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1954) and Nobel Peace Prize (1962). - Country with most Nobel laureates: : United States; 403 Nobel laureates, as of 2022. - Laureates who have received multiple Nobel Prizes: (by date of second Prize) 1. Marie Curie; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Physics (1903) and Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911). 2. International Committee of the Red Cross; received the prize three times. Nobel Peace Prize (1917, 1944, 1963). 3. Linus Pauling; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1954) and Nobel Peace Prize (1962). 4. John Bardeen; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Physics (1956, 1972). 5. Frederick Sanger; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1958, 1980). 6. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees; received the prize twice. Nobel Peace Prize (1954, 1981). 7. Karl Barry Sharpless; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2001, 2022). - Posthumous Nobel Prizes laureates: 1. Erik Axel Karlfeldt; received Nobel Prize in Literature (1931). 2. Dag Hammarskjöld; received Nobel Peace Prize (1961). 3. Ralph M. Steinman; received Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2011). - Married couples to receive Nobel Prizes: \# Marie Curie, Pierre Curie (along with Henri Becquerel). Received Nobel Prize in Physics (1903). \# Irène Joliot-Curie, Frédéric Joliot. Received Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1935). \# Gerty Cori, Carl Cori. Received Nobel Prize in Medicine (1947). \# Gunnar Myrdal received Nobel Prize in Economics Sciences (1974), Alva Myrdal received Nobel Peace Prize (1982). \# May-Britt Moser, Edvard I. Moser. Received Nobel Prize in Medicine (2014) \# Esther Duflo, Abhijit Banerjee (along with Michael Kremer). Received Nobel Prize in Economics Sciences (2019). - Years without prizes: \* Physics: 1916, 1931, 1934, 1940, 1941, 1942 \* Chemistry: 1916, 1917, 1919, 1924, 1933, 1940, 1941, 1942 \* Physiology or Medicine: 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1921, 1925, 1940, 1941, 1942 \* Literature: 1914, 1918, 1935, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943 \* Peace: 1914, 1915, 1916, 1918, 1923, 1924, 1928, 1932, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1948, 1955, 1956, 1966, 1967, 1972 ## Specially distinguished laureates ### Multiple laureates Five people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium, making her the only person to be awarded a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling was awarded the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling was also awarded the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA. Karl Barry Sharpless was awarded the 2001 Chemistry Prize for his research into chirally catalysed oxidation reactions, and the 2022 Chemistry Prize for click chemistry. Two organizations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has been awarded the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981. ### Family laureates The Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes awarded to five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her. Their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when he accepted the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 on that organisation's behalf. Although no family matches the Curie family's record, there have been several with two laureates. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the husband-and-wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori in 1947 Prize, and by the husband-and-wife team of May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe). The Physics Prize in 1906 was won by J. J. Thomson for showing that electrons are particles, and in 1937 by his son, George Paget Thomson, for showing that they also have the properties of waves. William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing X-ray crystallography. Niels Bohr was awarded the Physics Prize in 1922, as was his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975. The Physics Prize was awarded to Manne Siegbahn in 1924, followed by his son, Kai Siegbahn, in 1981. Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970. C. V. Raman was awarded the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was awarded the same prize in 1983. Arthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959; Kornberg's son Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006. Arthur Schawlow received the 1981 Physics prize, and was married to the sister of 1964 Physics laureate Charles Townes. Two members of the Hodgkin family received Nobels in consecutive years: Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin shared in the Nobel for Physiology or Medicine in 1963, followed by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, the wife of his first cousin, who won solo for Chemistry in 1964. Jan Tinbergen, who was awarded the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize. Gunnar Myrdal who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974, was the husband of Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982. Economics laureates Paul Samuelson and Kenneth Arrow were brothers-in-law. Frits Zernike, who was awarded the 1953 Physics Prize, is the great-uncle of 1999 Physics laureate Gerard 't Hooft. In 2019, married couple Abhijit Banerjee and Esther Duflo were awarded the Economics Prize. Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard was awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995, and her nephew Benjamin List received the Chemistry Prize in 2021. Sune Bergström was awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1982, and his son Svante Pääbo was awarded the same prize in 2022. Edwin McMillan, who was awarded the Prize in Chemistry in 1951, is the uncle of John Clauser, who was awarded the Prize in Physics in 2022. ## Refusals and constraints Two laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize, but refused, stating, "A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form." Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords, declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam. George Bernard Shaw attempted to decline the prize money while accepting the 1925 Literature Prize; eventually it was agreed to use it to found the Anglo-Swedish Literary Foundation. During the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II. In 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying "this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award." The academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it back until 1989 when Pasternak's son accepted the prize on his behalf. Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012. Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners, and he was unable to accept the prize in his lifetime. ## Cultural impact Being a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that is recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films like The Prize (1963), Nobel Son (2007), and The Wife (2017) about fictional Nobel laureates, as well as fictionalised accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a 2012 film based on the theft of Rabindranath Tagore's prize. The statue and memorial symbol Planet of Alfred Nobel was opened in Alfred Nobel University of Economics and Law in Dnipro, Ukraine in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles. Despite the symbolism of intellectual achievement, some recipients have embraced unsupported and pseudoscientific concepts, including various health benefits of vitamin C and other dietary supplements, homeopathy, HIV/AIDS denialism, and various claims about race and intelligence. This is sometimes referred to as Nobel disease. ## See also - List of Nobel laureates - List of female Nobel laureates - List of Nobel laureates by country - List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry - List of Nobel laureates in Literature - List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates - List of Nobel laureates in Physics - List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine - List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economics - Nobel Prize medal - List of prizes known as the Nobel of a field - Lists of science and technology awards
3,306,341	Tropical cyclone scales	1,171,971,678	Scales of the intensity of tropical cyclones	[ "Hazard scales", "Tropical cyclone meteorology", "Wind" ]	Tropical cyclones are ranked on one of five tropical cyclone intensity scales, according to their maximum sustained winds and which tropical cyclone basins they are located in. Only a few scales of classifications are used officially by the meteorological agencies monitoring the tropical cyclones, but other scales also exist, such as accumulated cyclone energy, the Power Dissipation Index, the Integrated Kinetic Energy Index, and the Hurricane Severity Index. Tropical cyclones that develop in the Northern Hemisphere are unofficially classified by the warning centres on one of three intensity scales. Tropical cyclones or subtropical cyclones that exist within the North Atlantic Ocean or the North-eastern Pacific Ocean are classified as either tropical depressions or tropical storms. Should a system intensify further and become a hurricane, then it will be classified on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, and is based on the estimated maximum sustained winds over a 1-minute period. In the Western Pacific, the ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee uses four separate classifications for tropical cyclones that exist within the basin, which are based on the estimated maximum sustained winds over a 10-minute period. The India Meteorological Department's scale uses 7 different classifications for systems within the North Indian Ocean, and are based on the systems estimated 3-minute maximum sustained winds. Tropical cyclones that develop in the Southern Hemisphere are only officially classified by the warning centres on one of two scales, which are both based on 10-minute sustained wind speeds: The Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale is used to classify systems within the Australian or South Pacific tropical cyclone basin. The scale used to classify systems in the South-West Indian Ocean is defined by Météo-France for use in various French territories, including New Caledonia and French Polynesia. The definition of sustained winds recommended by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and used by most weather agencies is that of a 10-minute average at a height of 10 m (33 ft) above the sea surface. However, the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale is based on wind speed measurements averaged over a 1-minute period, at 10 m (33 ft). The scale used by Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC) New Delhi applies a 3-minute averaging period, and the Australian scale is based on both 3-second wind gusts and maximum sustained winds averaged over a 10-minute interval. These differences make direct comparisons between basins difficult. Within all basins tropical cyclones are named when the sustained winds reach at least 35 kn (40 mph; 65 km/h). ## Background Tropical cyclones are defined as being warm cored, non-frontal synoptic cyclones, that develop over tropical or subtropical waters, with organized atmospheric convection and have a definite cyclonic surface wind circulation. They are classified by the wind speeds located around the circulation centre and are ranked, by the World Meteorological Organization's Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers on one of five tropical cyclone scales. The scale used for a particular tropical cyclone depends on what basin the system is located in; with for example the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale and the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scales both used in the Western Hemisphere. All of the scales rank tropical cyclones using their maximum sustained winds, which are either observed, measured or estimated using various techniques, over a period between one and ten minutes. ## Atlantic, Eastern and Central Pacific Tropical cyclones that occur within the Northern Hemisphere to the east of the anti-meridian, are officially monitored by either the National Hurricane Center or the Central Pacific Hurricane Center. Within the region a tropical cyclone is defined to be a warm cored, non-frontal synoptic disturbance, that develops over tropical or subtropical waters, with organized atmospheric convection and a closed well defined circulation centre. The region also defines a subtropical cyclone as a non-frontal low pressure disturbance, that has the characteristics of both tropical and extratropical cyclones. Once either of these classifications are met, then advisories are initiated and the warning centers will classify the system as either a tropical or subtropical depression, if the one-minute sustained winds estimated or measured as less than 34 kn (39 mph; 63 km/h). Also, it will be assigned a tropical cyclone number (or TC number for short) comprising an officially spelled-out number (from ONE to THIRTY or less; these numbers are not recycled until next year) followed by (except for North Atlantic systems) a hyphen and a suffix letter ("-E" for East Pacific, "-C" for Central Pacific); However, if a tropical disturbance is capable of producing tropical storm or hurricane conditions on land within 48 hours, then advisories will be initiated and it will be classified as a potential tropical cyclone (PTC) with a two-digit PTC number (for example, PTC-09 or PTC-15E) that otherwise looks identical to a TC number. Should the system intensify further or already have one-minute sustained winds of 34–63 kn (39–72 mph; 63–117 km/h), then it will be called either a tropical or subtropical storm and assigned a name (which replaces the spelled-out TC number; the two-digit number is still kept for purposes like the Automated Tropical Cyclone Forecasting System, as in 2018's TS 12 (KIRK)). Should the tropical system further intensify and have winds estimated or measured, as greater than 64 kn (74 mph; 119 km/h), then it will be called a hurricane and classified on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The lowest classification on the SSHWS is a Category 1 hurricane, which has winds of between 64 and 82 kn (74 and 94 mph; 119 and 152 km/h). Should the hurricane intensify further then it will be rated as a Category 2 hurricane, if it has winds of between 83 and 95 kn (96 and 109 mph; 154 and 176 km/h). When a system becomes a Category 3 hurricane with winds of between 96 and 112 kn (110 and 129 mph; 178 and 207 km/h), it is considered to be a major hurricane by the warning centers. A Category 4 hurricane has winds of 113 to 136 kn (130 to 157 mph; 209 to 252 km/h), while a Category 5 hurricane has winds of at least 137 kn (158 mph; 254 km/h). A post tropical cyclone is a system that has weakened, into a remnant low or has dissipated and formal advisories are usually discontinued at this stage. However, advisories may continue if the post tropical cyclone poses a significant threat to life and property. They may also continue if the remnants of the system have a chance of regeneration and producing tropical storm or hurricane-force winds over land within 48 hours. The SSHS was originally created using both wind speed and storm surge, but since the relationship between wind speed and storm surge is not necessarily definite, the scale was changed to the "Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale" (SSHWS), based entirely on wind speed. Historically, the term great hurricane was used to describe storms that possessed winds of at least 110 knots (130 mph; 200 km/h), large radii (over 160 km / 100 mi) and that caused large amounts of destruction. This term fell into disuse after the introduction of the Saffir–Simpson scale in the early 1970s. A minor change to the scale was made ahead of the 2012 hurricane season, with the wind speeds for Categories 3–5 tweaked to eliminate the rounding errors that had occurred during previous seasons, when a hurricane had wind speeds of 115 kn (130 mph; 215 km/h). ## Western Pacific Tropical cyclones that occur within the Northern Hemisphere between the anti-meridian and 100°E are officially monitored by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA, RSMC Tokyo). Within the region a tropical cyclone is defined to be a non-frontal synoptic scale cyclone originating over tropical or sub-tropical waters, with organized convection and a definite cyclonic surface wind circulation. The lowest classification used by the Typhoon Committee is a tropical depression, which has 10-minute sustained winds of less than 34 kn (17 m/s; 39 mph; 63 km/h). Should the tropical depression intensify further it is named and classified as a tropical storm, which has winds speeds between 34–47 kn (17–24 m/s; 39–54 mph; 63–87 km/h). Should the system continue to intensify further then it will be classified as a severe tropical storm, which has winds speeds between 48–63 kn (25–32 m/s; 55–72 mph; 89–117 km/h). The highest classification on the Typhoon Committee's scale is a typhoon, which has winds speeds greater than 64 kn (33 m/s; 74 mph; 119 km/h). The China Meteorological Administration, the Hong Kong Observatory (HKO), PAGASA and the JMA, all divide the typhoon category further for domestic purposes. The JMA divides the typhoon category into three categories, with a 10-minute maximum wind speed below 84 kn (43 m/s; 97 mph; 156 km/h) assigned for the (strong) typhoon category. A very strong typhoon has wind speeds between 85–104 kn (44–54 m/s; 98–120 mph; 157–193 km/h), while a violent typhoon has wind speeds of 105 kn (54 m/s; 121 mph; 194 km/h) or greater. The HKO and the CMA also divide the typhoon category into three categories, with both assigning a maximum wind speed of 80 kn (41 m/s; 92 mph; 150 km/h) to the typhoon category. A severe typhoon has wind speeds of 85–104 kn (44–54 m/s; 98–120 mph; 157–193 km/h), while a super typhoon has winds of 100 kn (51 m/s; 120 mph; 190 km/h). In May 2015, PAGASA introduced the term Super Typhoon and used it for systems with winds greater than 120 kn (62 m/s; 140 mph; 220 km/h), but later adjusted to at least 99.9 kn (51.4 m/s; 115.0 mph; 185.0 km/h) on March 23, 2022. In addition to the national meteorological services of each nation, the United States' Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) monitors the basin, and issues warnings on significant tropical cyclones for the United States Government, assigning them two-digit TC numbers (with suffix "W"). These warnings use a 1-minute sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale; however, the JTWC uses their own scale for intensity classifications in this basin. These classifications are Tropical Depression, Tropical Storm, Typhoon, and Super Typhoon. The United States' Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) unofficially classifies typhoons with wind speeds of at least 130 knots (150 mph; 240 km/h)—the equivalent of a strong Category 4 storm on the Saffir–Simpson scale—as super typhoons. Also, when a tropical depression is upgraded to tropical storm and named by the JMA, the JTWC appends the international name (parenthesized) to its TC number (i.e., 2018 tropical depression TWENTY-W, abbr. TD 20W, became Tropical Storm Bebinca, but was referred to as TS 20W (BEBINCA) in JTWC advisories); however, in cases when the JTWC upgrades a depression to tropical storm without the JMA following suit (due to the differences between JTWC and JMA wind-speed scales), the spelled-out number (without the suffix) is parenthesized and appended to the TC number as placeholder name, as in TS 16W (SIXTEEN), until JMA upgrades and names it, on which case the name replaces the placeholder. In addition, the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau has its own scale in Chinese but uses the Typhoon Committee scale in English. ## North Indian Ocean Any tropical cyclone that develops within the North Indian Ocean between 100°E and 45°E is monitored by the India Meteorological Department (IMD, RSMC New Delhi). Within the region a tropical cyclone is defined as being a non frontal synoptic scale cyclone, that originates over tropical or subtropical waters with organized convection and a definite cyclonic surface wind circulation. The lowest official classification used in the North Indian Ocean is a Depression, which has 3-minute sustained wind speeds of between 17 and 27 kn (20 and 31 mph; 31 and 50 km/h). Should the depression intensify further then it will become a Deep Depression, which has winds between 28 and 33 kn (32 and 38 mph; 52 and 61 km/h). The system will be classified as a cyclonic storm and assigned a name by the IMD, if it should develop gale-force wind speeds of between 34 and 47 kn (39 and 54 mph; 63 and 87 km/h). Severe Cyclonic Storms have storm force wind speeds of between 48 and 63 kn (55 and 72 mph; 89 and 117 km/h), while Very Severe Cyclonic Storms have hurricane-force winds of 64–89 kn (74–102 mph; 119–165 km/h). Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storms have hurricane-force winds of 90–119 kn (104–137 mph; 167–220 km/h). The highest classification used in the North Indian Ocean is a Super Cyclonic Storm, which has hurricane-force winds of above 120 kn (140 mph; 220 km/h). Historically, a system has been classified as a depression if it is an area where the barometric pressure is low compared with its surroundings. Other classifications historically used include: cyclonic storm where the winds did not exceed force 10 on the Beaufort scale and a Cyclone where the winds are either force 11 and 12 on the Beaufort scale. Between 1924 and 1988, tropical cyclones were classified into four categories: depression, deep depression, cyclonic storms and severe cyclonic storms. However, a change was made during 1988 to introduce the category "severe cyclonic storm with core of hurricane winds" for tropical cyclones, with wind speeds of more than 64 kn (74 mph; 119 km/h). During 1999 the categories Very Severe Cyclonic Storm and Super Cyclonic Storm were introduced, while the severe cyclonic storm with a core of hurricane winds category was eliminated. During 2015 another modification to the intensity scale took place, with the IMD calling a system with 3-minute maximum sustained wind speeds between 90 and 119 kn (104 and 137 mph; 167 and 220 km/h): an extremely severe cyclonic storm. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center also monitors the basin, and issues warnings on significant tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government, also assigning them TC numbers as in all other basins above (albeit in an unofficial manner for this and subsequent basins; cyclones originating in the Arabian Sea are assigned suffix "A" while those in the Bay of Bengal get suffix "B"). These warnings use a 1-minute sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, however, regardless of intensity in this basin the JTWC labels all systems as tropical cyclones with TC numbers (optionally appended with international names or placeholders in parentheses, as done for typhoons above). ## South-West Indian Ocean Any tropical cyclone that develops within the Southern Hemisphere between Africa and 90°E is monitored by Météo-France's La Réunion tropical cyclone centre (MFR, RSMC La Réunion). A tropical disturbance is MFR's generic term for a non-frontal area of low pressure that has organized convection and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation. The system should be estimated to have wind speeds of less than 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph). A system is designated as a tropical depression or a subtropical depression when it reaches wind speeds above 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph). If a tropical depression reaches wind speeds of 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph) then it will be classified as a moderate tropical storm and assigned a name by either the Sub Regional Center in Mauritius or Madagascar. No matter how strong a subtropical system is in this basin, it is always designated as a subtropical depression. If the named storm intensifies further and reaches winds speeds of 48 knots (89 km/h; 55 mph), then it will be classified as a severe tropical storm. A severe tropical storm is designated as a tropical cyclone when it reaches wind speeds of 64 knots (119 km/h; 74 mph). If a tropical cyclone intensify further and reaches wind speeds of 90 knots (170 km/h; 100 mph), it will be classified as an intense tropical cyclone. A very intense tropical cyclone is the highest category on the South-West Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclone scale, and has winds of over 115 knots (213 km/h; 132 mph). At the tenth RA I tropical cyclone committee held during 1991, it was recommended that the intensity classifications be changed ahead of the 1993–94 tropical cyclone season. Specifically it was decided that the classifications: Weak Tropical Depression, Moderate Tropical Depression and Severe Tropical Depression would be changed to Tropical Depression, Moderate Tropical Storm and Severe Tropical Storm. This change was implemented ahead of the 1993–94 tropical cyclone season. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center also monitors the basin, and issues warnings on significant tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government; these systems are unofficially assigned TC numbers with suffix "S" (which spans the whole South Indian Ocean, including both BMKG and BoM areas of responsibility west of 135°E). These warnings use a 1-minute sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, however, regardless of intensity in this basin the JTWC labels all systems as tropical cyclones with TC numbers (plus any parenthesized names or placeholders, like typhoons and North Indian Ocean cyclones above). ## Australia and Fiji Tropical cyclones that occur within the Southern Hemisphere to the east of 90°E are officially monitored by one or more tropical cyclone warning centres. These are run by the Fiji Meteorological Service, New Zealand's MetService, Indonesia's Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, dan Geofisika, Papua New Guinea's National Weather Service and the Australian Bureau of Meteorology. Within the region a tropical cyclone is defined as being a non-frontal low-pressure system of synoptic scale that develops over warm waters, with a definite organized wind circulation and 10-minute sustained wind speeds of 34 kn (63 km/h; 39 mph) or greater near the centre. Once this definition has been met then all of the centres name the system and start to use the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale, which measures tropical cyclones using a five category system based on 10-minute maximum sustained winds. A Category 1 tropical cyclone is estimated to have 10-minute sustained wind speeds of 34–47 kn (39–54 mph; 63–87 km/h), while a Category 2 tropical cyclone is estimated to have 10-minute sustained wind speeds of 48–63 kn (55–72 mph; 89–117 km/h). When a system becomes a Category 3 tropical cyclone it is reclassified as a Severe tropical cyclone and has wind speeds of 64–85 kn (74–98 mph; 119–157 km/h). A Category 4 severe tropical cyclone has winds of 86–110 kn (99–127 mph; 159–204 km/h), while the maximum rating is a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone, which has winds of at least 108 kn (124 mph; 200 km/h). For systems below tropical cyclone strength there are various terms used, including Tropical Disturbance, Tropical Low and Tropical Depression. A tropical disturbance is defined as being a non-frontal system of synoptic scale originating over the tropics, with persistent enhanced convection or some indication of a circulation. A tropical depression or tropical low is a disturbance with a defined circulation, where the central position can be estimated, and the maximum 10-minute average wind speed is less than 34 kn (39 mph; 63 km/h) near the centre. The FMS numbers these systems when they have a potential to develop into a tropical cyclone or persist to cause significant impact to life and property, within its area of responsibility and have been analysed for the previous 24 hours. The Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale was introduced by the BoM, ahead of the 1989–90 cyclone season. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center also monitors the basin, and issues warnings on significant tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government; these systems are unofficially assigned TC numbers with either suffix "S" (if originating west of 135°E; spans the whole South Indian Ocean, including MFR's area of responsibility) or suffix "P" (if east of 135°E; spans the whole South Pacific Ocean, merging BoM, PNG-NWS, FMS, and MSNZ AORs together). These warnings use a 1-minute sustained wind speed and can be compared to the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, however, regardless of intensity in these basins the JTWC labels all systems as tropical cyclones with TC numbers (plus any names or placeholders parenthesized, as for typhoons and Indian Ocean cyclones above). ## Alternative scales There are other scales that are not officially used by any of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres or the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres. However they are used by other organizations, such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. An example of such scale is the Integrated Kinetic Energy index, which measures the destructive potential of the storm surge on the coast; it works on a scale that ranges from one to six, with six having the highest destructive potential. Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) is used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and other agencies to express the activity of individual tropical cyclones that are above tropical storm strength and entire tropical cyclone seasons. It is calculated by taking the squares of the estimated maximum sustained velocity of every active tropical storm (wind speed 35 knots or higher) at six-hour intervals. The numbers are usually divided by 10,000 to make them more manageable. The unit of ACE is 10<sup>4</sup> kn<sup>2</sup>, and for use as an index the unit is assumed. As well as being squared for ACE, wind speed can also be cubed, which is referred to as the Power Dissipation Index (PDI). The Hurricane Severity Index (HSI) is another scale used and rates the severity of all types of tropical and subtropical cyclones based on both the intensity and the size of their wind fields. The HSI is a 0 to 50 point scale, allotting up to 25 points for a tropical cyclone's intensity and up to 25 points for wind field size. Points are awarded on a sliding scale, with the majority of points reserved for hurricane force and greater wind fields. ## See also - Rapid intensification - Tropical cyclone naming
606,452	Chard, Somerset	1,172,651,813	null	[ "Chard, Somerset", "Civil parishes in Somerset", "Market towns in Somerset", "Towns in South Somerset" ]	Chard is a town and a civil parish in the English county of Somerset. It lies on the A30 road near the Devon and Dorset borders, 15 miles (24 km) south west of Yeovil. The parish has a population of approximately 14,000 and, at an elevation of 121 metres (397 ft), Chard is the southernmost and one of the highest towns in Somerset. Administratively Chard forms part of the district of South Somerset. The name of the town was Cerden in 1065 and Cerdre in the Domesday Book of 1086. After the Norman Conquest, Chard was held by the Bishop of Wells. The town's first charter was from King John in 1234. Most of the town was destroyed by fire in 1577, and it was further damaged during the English Civil War. A 1663 will by Richard Harvey of Exeter established Almshouses known as Harvey's Hospital. In 1685 during the Monmouth Rebellion, the pretender Duke of Monmouth was proclaimed King in the Town prior to his defeat on Sedgemoor. Chard subsequently witnessed the execution and traitor's death of 12 condemned rebels, who, tried by Judge Jeffreys, were hanged near the present Tesco roundabout. The Chard Canal was a tub boat canal built between 1835 and 1842. Chard Branch Line was created in 1860 to connect the two London and South Western Railway and Bristol and Exeter Railway main lines and ran through Chard until 1965. The town has a very unusual feature, a stream running along either side of Fore Street. One stream eventually flows into the Bristol Channel and the other reaches the English Channel. Chard Reservoir, approximately a mile north east of the town, is a Local Nature Reserve, and Snowdon Hill Quarry a geological Site of Special Scientific Interest. Major employers in the town include Numatic International Limited. There are a range of sporting and cultural facilities, with secondary education being provided at Holyrood Academy; religious sites including the Church of St Mary the Virgin, which dates from the late 11th century. ## History The earliest evidence of settlement near Chard is the Iron Age fort of Cotley Castle overlooking the Town near Bound's Lane. There was a small Saxon settlement centred round the Church and the area is still known as 'Old Town'. Chard's name was Cerden in 1065 and Cerdre in the Domesday Book of 1086 and it means "house on the chart or rough ground" (Old English: ćeart + renn). Before the Norman Conquest Chard was held by the Bishop of Wells. The town's first charter was from King John and another from the bishop in 1234, which delimited the town and laid out burgage holdings in 1-acre (4,000 m<sup>2</sup>) lots at a rent of twelve pence per year. The parish of Chard was part of the Kingsbury Hundred, Most of the town was destroyed by fire in 1577. After this time the town was largely rebuilt including Waterloo House and Manor Court House in Fore Street which were built as a house and courtroom, and have now been converted into shops and offices. In 2023, the historic Court House building was acquired by Somerset Council to safeguard its future. Further damage to the town took place during the English Civil War with both sides plundering its resources, particularly in 1644 when Charles I spent a week in the town. A 1663 will by Richard Harvey of Exeter established Almshouses which became Harvey's Hospital. These were rebuilt in 1870 largely of stone from previous building. In 1685 during the Monmouth Rebellion, the pretender James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, was proclaimed King in the Town and several locals joined his forces. Commander of the pursuing Royalist army, John Churchill, made a severe cautionary speech to the townsfolk in St Mary's. After the rebellion collapsed, Chard witnessed the execution and traitor's death of 12 of the Duke of Monmouth's rebels, who were summarily tried and condemned at Taunton Castle by Judge Jeffreys. They were hung, drawn and quartered by the 'Handcross tree' whose site was near the present Tesco roundabout. The tree was removed by the railway in 1864 amid loud local protests. There was a fulling mill in the town by 1394 for the textile industry. After 1820 this expanded with the town becoming a centre for lace manufacture led by manufacturers who fled from the Luddite resistance they had faced in the English Midlands. Bowden's Old Lace Factory and the Gifford Fox factory are examples of the sites constructed. The Guildhall was built as a Corn Exchange and Guildhall in 1834 and is now the Town Hall. On Snowdon Hill is a small cottage which was originally a toll house built by the Chard Turnpike trust in the 1830s, to collect fees from those using a road up the hill which avoided the steep gradient. Chard is indeed the birthplace of powered flight, as it was here in 1848 that the Victorian aeronautical pioneer John Stringfellow (1799–1883) first demonstrated that engine-powered flight was possible through his work on the Aerial Steam Carriage. James Gillingham (1839–1924) from Chard pioneered the development of articulated artificial limbs when he produced a prosthesis for a man who lost his arm in a cannon accident in 1863. Chard Museum has a display of Gillingham's work. Chard was a key point on the Taunton Stop Line, a World War II defensive line consisting of pillboxes and anti-tank obstacles, which runs from Axminster north to the Somerset coast near Highbridge. In 1938 a bomb proof bunker was built behind the branch of the Westminster Bank. During the war it was used to hold duplicate copies of the bank records in case its headquarters in London was destroyed. It was also used to store the emergency bank note supply of the Bank of England. There has also been speculation that the Crown Jewels were also stored there, however this has never been confirmed. Action Aid, the International Development Charity, had their headquarters in Chard when they started life in 1972 as Action in Distress. The Supporters Services department of the charity is still based in Chard. Every year, the annual Chard Eating Competition is held with many residents turning out to see who can eat the most. In 2016, local resident Harley Richards, was the winner managing a consecutive 37 hot dogs and nettles. Harley later came back for a second helping after COVID-19 restrictions were lessened in 2021. This time consuming 39 hot dogs and nettles. ## Governance Chard was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, and remained a municipal borough until the Local Government Act 1972, when it became a successor parish in the Non-metropolitan district of South Somerset. (Somerset will be a unitary authority from 1 April 2023). The town council (a parish council with the status of a town) has responsibility for local issues. It evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. It initiates projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, and consults with the district council on the maintenance, repair and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council. It sets an annual precept (local rate) to cover its operating costs and produces annual accounts for public scrutiny. The council has a reception and offices in the Guildhall, a Grade II\* listed building. The building was built in 1834 as a corn exchange, replacing an earlier 16th-century building that used to be situated perpendicular to where the current road is in the high street outside the Phoenix Hotel: a dig of the High Street in the late 1980s revealed the original footprint of the old guildhall. In 2006 Chard Town Council came to the attention of the National Press when Mayor Tony Prior was found guilty of sexual discrimination and victimisation of the Town Clerk. He was ordered to pay £33,000 in compensation. Prior was banned from holding public office for nine months but was returned to council (as an independent Councillor) in a 2010 by-election. The South Somerset district council is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism. Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, the library, roads, public transport, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning, although fire, police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service, Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service. The civil parish of Chard Town (its formal name) contains five electoral wards – Avishayes, Coome, Crimchard, Holyrood, and Jocelyn. Chard is part of the Yeovil county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election. Prior to Brexit in 2020, it was part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament. ### Twinnings Chard is twinned with Helmstedt in Germany (since 12 April 1980), Morangis, Essonne in France (since 29 May 1994) and Șeica Mare in Transylvania, Romania. ## Geography At an altitude of 121 metres (397 ft), Chard is one of the highest towns in Somerset, and is also the southernmost. The suburbs include: Crimchard, Furnham, Glynswood, Henson Park and Old Town. Local folklore claims that the town has a very unusual and unique feature, a stream running along either side of Fore Street. One stream eventually flows into the Bristol Channel and the other reaches the English Channel. This situation changed when the tributary of the Axe was diverted into the Isle; the gutter in Holyrood Street, though, still flows into the River Axe and therefore it is still true it lies on the watershed and that two gutters within the town eventually drain into the Bristol Channel and the English Channel. The 36.97 hectares (91.4 acres) Chard Reservoir, around a mile northeast of the town, is a Local Nature Reserve. It is used for dog walking, fishing and birdwatching, with a bird hide having been installed. Species which are seen regularly include grey herons, kingfishers, great cormorants, little grebes, ducks and also a wide range of woodland songbirds. Others include the great white egret, cattle egret, and spotted redshank. Snowdon Hill Quarry is a 0.6 hectare (1.3 acre) geological Site of Special Scientific Interest on the western outskirts. The site shows rock exposures through the Upper Greensand and Chalk, containing fossil crustaceans which are both unique and exceptionally well-preserved making it a key locality for the study of palaeontology in Britain. The unit has been dated to the subdivision of the Chalk known as the Turrilites acutus Zone, named after one of the characteristic fossils, which was laid down in the Middle Cenomanian era between 99.6 ± 0.9 MA and 93.5 ± 0.8 MA (million years ago). There are also caves in Chard, first recorded in a charter of 1235 as being used by stonemasons, which provided local building stone. The cave is smaller than when it was used as a quarry as part of the roof has fallen in but a cave 20 feet (6.1 m) below ground still exists with the remains of the supporting pillars left when it was being worked. ### Climate Along with the rest of South West England, Chard has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country. The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 °C (50.0 °F). Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures. The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 °C (69.8 °F). In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 or 2 °C (33.8 or 35.6 °F) are common. In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south-west of England, however convective cloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the number of hours of sunshine. Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1,600 hours. In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton. Most of the rainfall in the south-west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection. Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions, which is when they are most active. In summer, a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms. Average rainfall is around 700 mm (28 in). About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, and June to August have the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the south-west. ## Economy Textile manufacture was important to the town during the Middle Ages. Chard is the birthplace of powered flight as in 1848 John Stringfellow first demonstrated that engine-powered flight was possible. Percy and Ernest Petter, who formed Westland Aircraft Works, witnessed some of Stringfellow's demonstrations in Chard and often asked for help in the formation of Westland's first aircraft development factory on the outskirts of Yeovil. AgustaWestland now holds the Henson and Stringfellow lecture yearly for the Royal Aeronautical Society. James Gillingham developed articulated artificial limbs. Chard is a key point on the Taunton Stop Line, a World War II defensive line. Chard is the home of Numatic International Limited, notable for its 'Henry' vacuum cleaners with the characteristic large smiling face. The company employs over 700 people. In contrast to competitors such as Hoover and Dyson the firm continues to manufacture in Britain. The site occupies an area of more than 10 hectares and operates continuously, producing over 4,000 products per day. Another large employer in Chard was Oscar Mayer, a producer of own-brand packaged ready-meals. (It is distinct from the American company of the same name owned by Kraft Foods). Oscar Mayer employed many Portuguese and, more recently, Polish workers. In 2007 it was announced that the factory would be bought by Icelandic company the Alfesca Group, which owns Lyons seafoods. However this deal fell through and the company announced 250 job losses. Oscar Mayer announced on 22 October 2020 that it was considering ending production at its Chard sites. Following collective consultation with its employees, the company decided to close the Chard sites, with most of the staff employed there becoming redundant. It was expected that the transfer of Oscar Mayer's Chard manufacturing business to its other UK sites would be complete by the end of September 2021. Chard is also home to Brecknell Willis, one of the world's oldest and leading specialists in the design, construction and installation of railway electrification systems, most notably metro and light rail systems. Its largest customer, London Underground, purchases both train-borne equipment and infrastructure. Brecknell Willis occupies a site at the bottom of the hill next to the site of the old LSWR station, which is now a Tesco store. At the time of writing (August 2014) the company was preparing to move into a new purpose-built building from which all of its operations will be based. In early July 2014 the company was bought by WABTEC, bringing it into the Wabtec Rail Group as well as the Falstand Electric Group. ## Transport From 1842 Chard was the terminus of the Chard Canal, a tub boat canal that joined the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal at Creech St. Michael. It had four aqueducts, three tunnels and four inclined planes along its 13.5-mile (21.7 km) length. It took seven years to construct and cost about £140,000 (£ in ). In the 1860s the town became the terminus of two railway lines. The first was opened in 1863 by the London and South Western Railway (LSWR) as a short branch line from their main line. This approached the town from the south. The second and longer line was opened by the Bristol and Exeter Railway (B&ER) in 1866 and ran northwards, close to the route of the canal, to join their main line near Taunton. From 1917 they were both operated by one company, but services were mostly advertised as though it was still two separate lines. It was closed to passengers in 1962 and freight traffic was withdrawn a few years later. The LSWR's station (later known as Chard Town) opened in 1860 with a single platform, and the B&ER's (variously known as Chard Joint or Chard Central) in 1866. For five years LSWR trains continued to call at Chard Town and then reversed to the connecting line and then resumed their forward journey to the Joint station. In 1871 a new platform was opened on the connecting line; this closed to passengers on 1 January 1917 but the town station was the main goods depot for the town until it finally closed on 18 April 1966. Passenger trains ceased to operate to Chard Central on 11 September 1962, and private goods traffic on 3 October 1966. The station building and train shed still stand and are in use by engineering companies. The town's public transport links to Taunton are now provided by First Group's Buses of Somerset. Two routes go between the towns. Route 30 and route 99, which both run hourly during weekdays. There is also a service to Yeovil via Crewkerne provided by South West Coaches ## Sport Chard has a number of local sport clubs. Chard Town F.C. play football in the Somerset County League, whilst a number of Chard football clubs play in the Perry Street and District League. The Rugby union club, Chard RFC, was formed in 1876. The Club runs 3 Senior sides, with the 1stXV playing currently in South West One (west) achieving promotion to National League 3 South West on 26 April 2014 beating Old Towcestrians in the playoff final. Chard Hockey Club was established in 1907 and it now runs three male and three female sides. There are also facilities for cricket, tennis, bowls, darts and golf. The Wessex Pool League is also played in a number of Pubs in Chard, along with the Chard and District Darts League. Resident Sports Photographer, Peter O'Shea QIS LRPS TMIET, often captures the many sports leagues in and around the Chard area, and has had work published in the Chard and Ilminster News (Newsquest), Sunday Independent Newspaper (Tindle Newspaper Group) and Photographic Magazines. ## Local media Television signals are received from either the Mendip or Stockland Hill TV transmitters. Radio stations for the area are BBC Radio Somerset on 95.5 FM, Heart West on 97.1 FM, Greatest Hits Radio South West on 106.6 FM and Radio Ninesprings on 104.6 FM. Local newspapers are the Chard and Ilminster News, Somerset County Gazette, Somerset Guardian and Standard and Somerset Live. ## Education The original school building in Fore Street was built in 1583 a private residence for William Symes of Poundisford. In 1671 his youngest son, John, conveyed the property to 12 trustees so that it should be converted into a grammar school – according to his father's wish. Today, it is known as Chard School, a private school for children ages 4 to 11. Avishayes Community Primary School, Manor Court Community Primary School, Tatworth Primary School and The Redstart Primary School all offer primary education, while Holyrood Academy offers secondary education. The school, as of 2019, has 1,276 pupils between the ages of 11 and 18. ## Religious sites The Anglican Church of St Mary the Virgin dates from the late 11th century and was rebuilt in the 15th century. The tower contains eight bells, of which two were made in the 1790s by Thomas Bilbie of the Bilbie family in Cullompton. The three-stage tower has moulded string courses and an angle stair turret in the north-west corner. The church has been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building. There is a church room, built in 1827. The Baptist Church in Holyrood Street was built in 1842. ## Notable residents - John Strong, New England colonist, politician, and one of the founders of Windsor, Connecticut and Northampton, Massachusetts. - William Samuel Henson, aviation engineer and inventor, who worked with fellow Chard resident John Stringfellow to achieve the first powered flight, in 1848, in a disused lace factory, with a 10-foot (3.0 m) steam-driven flying machine. - It was the birthplace of James Gillingham who pioneered the development of articulated artificial limbs - Corporal Samuel Vickery who was awarded the VC in 1897 for his actions during the attack on the Dargai Heights, Tirah, India during the Tirah Campaign. - Margaret Bondfield, a Labour politician and feminist and the first woman Cabinet minister in the United Kingdom was born in Chard in 1873. - Artist and curator Lucy Cox has exhibited work nationally and internationally and curated exhibitions in London. ## See also - South West England - West Country dialects
2,208,235	The Oval (Belfast)	1,160,418,185	Football stadium in Belfast, Northern Ireland	[ "Association football venues in County Down", "Association football venues in Northern Ireland", "Buildings and structures in the United Kingdom destroyed during World War II", "Glentoran F.C.", "Sports venues completed in 1892", "Sports venues in Belfast", "Wikipedia Did you know articles that are good articles" ]	The Oval (currently known as The BetMcLean Oval for sponsorship reasons) is a football stadium in Belfast, Northern Ireland, which has been home to Glentoran F.C. since 1892. In 1941, the stadium was severely damaged by aerial bombing during the Belfast blitz of World War II and was unusable until 1949. A new main stand was constructed in 1953. The stadium was refurbished with a new stand built in 2000, but requires consistent maintenance to fulfill health and safety requirements and its total capacity is currently restricted to 6,050. The Oval has occasionally hosted the final of the Irish Cup as well as hosting the final of the County Antrim Shield and the Setanta Cup. As of August 2021, the Oval has been sponsored by bookmakers A. McLeans in a five-year, £250,000 deal, with the name of the Oval becoming the BetMcLean Oval. ## History From 1882 to 1886, Glentoran used Ormeau Park as their home ground. They moved to Westbourne in Ballymacarrett for six years until 1892. They then moved to The Oval. Initially it was on Dee Street, however in 1903 The Oval's pitch was rotated 90 degrees to its current location. During the early 20th century, the land on which The Oval stood was given in perpetuity to Glentoran by the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Daniel Dixon. Due to its proximity to the Belfast shipyards, the Oval suffered severe bomb damage during the Belfast Blitz in 1941. Aerial bombing destroyed both grandstands, causing the loss of Glentoran's club assets, and also left a large crater in the pitch. As a result, the ground was flooded repeatedly by the Connswater River; the water pumps were insufficient to drain the pitch. The ground was out of use until 1949 when it was rebuilt by the Glentoran club along with supporters, who had jointly formed the 'Back to the Oval' committee. During their exile, the club played games at the ground of fellow Belfast club, Lisburn Distillery – Grosvenor Park. In 1953, the main grandstand was built. In September 1995, Glentoran had an advertising board with "JESUS" in white letters on a black background erected at the Oval. This became known colloquially as the "Jesus sign". It remained at the ground until 2010 when Glentoran officials removed it, saying that they needed the space to sell advertising because of the club's serious financial troubles and because "The sign had garnered no income for Glentoran for several years." In 2000, the Oval received funding for the refurbishment of the railway stand, by bolting seats on to the old terracing to create a 1,600-capacity stand. It was funded by a small grant as part of the much bigger £2,000,000 investment in Northern Irish sports announced by Sports Minister Michael McGimpsey. Other than new floodlights and a small section of terrace refurbishment, the ground has not applied for nor received any public investment since. In 2005, after a match between Glentoran and rival team Linfield, Linfield fans broke down a gate in The Oval to access the pitch and throw objects at Glentoran fans in the main stand after both sets of fans had been throwing missiles at each other beforehand. Two people were charged with rioting. In 2008, The Oval was the site of a protest by the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster against a decision by the Irish Football Association to allow football matches to be played on Sundays, a first in Northern Ireland due to traditional sabbatarianism. The protesters were concerned that regular Sunday matches would attract churchgoers away from attending church. The protest was led by Reverend David McIlveen, who said "Fundamentally, it is a desecration of God's day." In October 2010 the neo-Nazi British National Party (BNP), who were trying to gain electoral support, held a rally outside the Oval. Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) Member of the Legislative Assembly, Robin Newton described the BNP's presence outside The Oval as "nauseous". In July 2011, an incendiary bomb was discovered outside The Oval requiring evacuation of surrounding streets. In October 2011 during an Irish Cup match between Glentoran and Portadown, a Portadown fan threw fireworks onto the pitch, injuring Glentoran's assistant manager Pete Batey and goalkeeping coach Davy McClelland. In the 21st century, with the continued lack of investment, the Oval has become comparatively dilapidated and has required constant temporary repairs to fulfill health and safety requirements for Glentoran to continue hosting its home matches there. In 2009, Glentoran's Irish Cup match against Limavady United was abandoned after the stadium's floodlight pylons started shaking in the high winds and the referee deemed it too dangerous for the match to continue. In 2012, after considering selling naming rights to The Oval, Glentoran unveiled plans to move the club to a new stadium in the Titanic Quarter of Belfast. The Oval was sold to property developers in March 2013 for £4 million. Glentoran's chairman suggested that the Oval might be redeveloped into social housing. In March 2021, Glentoran submitted plans to Belfast City Council for a major revamp for the football ground. The plans include an entire revamp of the ground, this would include building two new stands totalling 4,000 seats, and two standing terrancings at each end of the pitch with capacity 1,000 each, bringing the stadium capacity to 6,000 spectators, it is estimated to cost between £8 and £10 million. ## Location and design The Oval is located near the Port of Belfast, and Harland and Wolff's Samson and Goliath cranes are visible from inside the stadium. It is viewed as a historic ground by football fans because of its concrete terraces and steel fencing. This limits its capacity in UEFA-sanctioned matches to the 3,000 seats in the two main stands as terracing has not been permitted in UEFA matches since 1998. The stadium's capacity is 26,556, but was estimated in 2010 by the Northern Ireland Assembly to have a safe capacity of 5,056 under safety legislation. However, since 2011, the safe capacity permitted by Health and Safety authorities is 5,300; before 2010 the stadium could hold more than 8,000. Linfield's manager David Jeffrey criticised these restrictions and said that they were "murdering local football." The main stand holds 2,720 and the Railway stand holds 2,070. The Oval's record attendance is 55,000 for a European Cup Winners Cup match against Rangers on 27 September 1966. The design of the main stand is very similar to the one at Springfield Park, former home of Wigan Athletic. This was also built in 1953. ## Finals In previous years, the Oval was used to host the final of the Irish Cup as one of Northern Ireland's biggest stadiums along with Windsor Park, with the location of the final often being decided on a coin toss. During the 1985 Irish Cup final, Glentoran supporters released a cockerel and a pig that had been painted blue onto the pitch to antagonize Linfield supporters. The Oval was used to host the final of the County Antrim Shield in 2012. The Oval has also been used to host the Setanta Cup final. It hosted the 2012 final between Belfast's Crusaders representing the IFA Premiership, and Derry City, representing the League of Ireland. The 2015 Irish Cup Final between Glentoran and Portadown was played at The Oval.
72,757,762	Women of Britain Say 'Go!'	1,172,406,093	British World War I recruitment poster	[ "1915 in the United Kingdom", "1915 works", "British Army recruitment", "British women in World War I", "Cultural history of World War I", "Political posters of the United Kingdom", "Propaganda in the United Kingdom", "Propaganda posters", "Quotations from military" ]	"Women of Britain Say 'Go!' is a British World War I recruitment propaganda poster created in 1915. It depicts two women and a young boy looking out of an open window at soldiers marching past. Across the top of the poster is the text: "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'". The poster was designed by artist E. J. Kealey and published by the Parliamentary Recruitment Committee, which produced the majority of early World War I recruitment posters. The intent of the poster was to encourage women to tell men they should sign up to the army at a time when British voluntary recruit numbers were declining. The poster utilises gender, guilt and emasculation to emphasise its message. Although "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'" has become an iconic image of World War I, its sentiment was not universally accepted by contemporary British society. ## Background At the outbreak of World War I, Britain did not have a policy of conscription. The government relied on propaganda to persuade men to enlist in the army, and posters were an important medium to achieve this. The approach to propaganda taken by the first recruitment posters was a simple "call to arms" encouraging men to sign up to fight. The method of propaganda started to change around 1915 when the number of volunteer soldiers fell. Propaganda began to draw heavily on themes of gender. Some focused on female imagery by highlighting the innocent vulnerability of mothers, wives and daughters, the strength and resilience of a worker taking part in the war effort embodying the spirit of Britannia, or by depicting women as objects of desire. Historian Karyn Burnham suggests that from a masculine perspective, some posters attempted to guilt men by implying they would be emasculated if they did not fight. ## Publication history "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'" was produced in March 1915. It was printed by Hill, Siffken and Co Ltd, London, and published by the Parliamentary Recruitment Committee, who produced the majority of the early recruitment posters in World War I. It was one of a collection of posters commissioned by the Committee which were targeted towards women. The poster's design was by artist E. J. Kealey. ## Design ### Description The poster is an ink illustration of two women and a young boy looking out of an open window at a countryside landscape with soldiers marching away. The two women hold on to each other with proud expressions as the boy holds on to one of the women. The text at the top and upper left-hand corner of the poster, "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'", is white and outlined in black. Like other early recruitment posters, "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'" is stylised in a Victorian realist illustrative aesthetic which would have been familiar to contemporary audiences. The colour palette of the poster is indicative of commercial advertising posters of the time. Art historian Stephen J. Eskilson describes the imagery of the poster as "striking" with the text only serving to emphasise the underlying intent. ### Propaganda "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'" relies on gender to present its message. Prior to World War I, the Women's Suffrage Movement had begun to call into question the power balance between men and women. World War I recruitment posters used these anxieties to their advantage, reinforcing the gender stereotypes of women staying at home and men as protectors. "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'" was part of this attempt to ignore pre-war advances by women. It displays two distinct areas to the viewer: indoors and outdoors. This duality of space is reminiscent of the Victorian idea of separate spheres for men and women. The women and young boy in the poster are positioned within a domestic sphere and the male soldiers occupy a public sphere, which matches the perceived roles of men and women in the Victorian ideology. The clear separation of space and gender in the poster highlights that women and children were vulnerable and needed to be protected, and that the men were expected to protect them; it is implied that a husband of one of the women is included in the group of soldiers marching away. "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'" appealed to women, who played an important part in army recruitment. The directive "Go!" serves not only as a commandment to men, but as an instruction to women to say this to men. However, the poster presents an ideal scenario: it does not call attention to the potential consequences of losing a male family member at war, and the figures depicted on the poster were not representative of the average family's financial situation nor their security. Not all women in Britain shared the sentiment depicted in the poster and many tried to recall family members from the army. Academic Debra Rae Cohen describes "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'" as a "guilt-inducing slogan". The imagery and text of the poster forced men to come to terms with their loyalty towards their country and family. The countryside landscape in the background, evocative of the green and pleasant land described by the English poet William Blake, emphasised the fact that men were expected to protect this element of the country. Additionally, the instruction to "Go!" is seemingly attributed to all women and implies a unanimous call to action directed at men. The government was aware of the influence that women had in the lives and decisions of men at the time: in 2023, brand communication executive Farhan Urfi summarised the poster's message as "if your mum, your wife, your daughter is saying 'Go to war!', how can you say no?" Along with guilt, the poster also implies emasculation. It uses to its advantage the fact that many potential younger recruits would in all likelihood have been living at home with their mothers: the child in the image, positioned in the domestic sphere, is a boy, suggesting that the men who stayed at home were small and vulnerable—the same as young boys. ## Legacy and impact Cohen describes "Women of Britain Say 'Go!'" as "one of the most iconic images of the Great War" and one of the most frequently cited images within the context of World War I propaganda. The Imperial War Museum describes the poster as an example of one of the more sophisticated and nuanced ways the British government tried to recruit men to the army. There is evidence that the poster also encouraged women to take part in the war effort themselves. The message of the poster was not shared among all contemporary viewers. Among those who criticised the sentiment that women would want men to fight were the poets Richard Aldington, Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon. ## See also - "Daddy, what did you do in the Great War?" - Women in World War I - White Feather Campaign
68,185,747	Conversations with Waheeda Rehman	1,143,295,286	Biography by Nasreen Munni Kabir	[ "2014 non-fiction books", "Biographies about actors", "Indian biographies", "Indian non-fiction books", "Penguin Books India books" ]	Conversations with Waheeda Rehman is a biography by the producer of television documentaries and author Nasreen Munni Kabir, documenting Kabir's extensive conversations with the actress Waheeda Rehman about the actress' life and career. The biography details Rehman's birth in 1938 in Chingleput (present-day Chengalpattu), her 54-year-long film career, and her 1974 marriage to the actor Kamaljeet, with whom she has two children. It was published on 19 February 2014 by Penguin Books. The book generated positive reviews from book critics; most of the praise was directed towards the book's question-and-answer format, and Kabir's and Rehman's style in questioning and answering, respectively. In 1988, Kabir met Rehman while researching on Guru Dutt's life. She met Rehman—his then frequent collaborator—to find more information about him for a documentary releasing the next year, In Search of Guru Dutt. During these interactions, Kabir conceived the idea to write a book on the actress which later became Conversations with Waheeda Rehman. Over the next decades, Kabir tried persuading Rehman to get involved in the book but was always rejected since Rehman believed her life was not interesting enough. While Kabir was nearly about to give up of the project, Rehman finally agreed to do so in 2012. Writing took place in Bandra from December 2012 to November 2013. ## Summary The book begins with Waheeda Rehman telling Nasreen Munni Kabir about her early life and work. It includes her birth in 1938 in Chingleput (now Chengalpattu), her father Mohammed Abdur Rehman's death in 1951, and her appearance in the item number "Eruvaaka Sagaroranno Chinnanna" from the Telugu-language film Rojulu Marayi (1955). The book later details how she got the opportunity, the shooting, and the song's popularity. Its success led a first meeting between her and the filmmaker Guru Dutt, who would become her frequent collaborator. The two subsequently played starring roles in the romantic films Pyaasa (1957), Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959), Chaudhvin Ka Chand (1960), and Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam (1962)—she was nominated for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress for the first and last of these. After Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam, she stopped collaborating with him and later starred in Guide (1965) and Neel Kamal (1968), both of which won her two Best Actress trophies at Filmfare. Rehman married to the actor Kamaljeet in 1974 and had two children. The book ends with information of her latest release, Delhi-6 (2009), in which she portrayed a grandmother. ## Development and writing Kabir was researching for Dutt's life, which resulted in two books—Guru Dutt: A Life in Cinema (1996) and Yours Guru Dutt (2006)—and the documentary In Search of Guru Dutt (1989), when she had a desire to meet Rehman for the first time. According to Kabir, Rehman was an important part in the research regarding Dutt, as she had collaborated with him in most films he made. In 1987, having returned from London, Kabir went to Bombay (now Mumbai) and attempted many failed calls to Rehman through her telephone. When Rehman finally responded in mid-1988, Kabir explained about the documentary she would make and Rehman agreed to hold a meeting with her. In Conversations with Waheeda Rehman's foreword, Kabir stated that Rehman, however, was initially reluctant about the project, since documentaries on Indian film personalities were rare at the time. Soon, Kabir arrived in Rehman's apartment in Bandra. She wrote of her experience, "When Waheeda Rehman opened the door, I was overwhelmed by images of her lifelike screen character ... [She] has had such an emotional impact of us all that it took a few minutes for the sheer excitement to settle." Kabir said that the purpose was to find more information on Dutt and an interview of hers would be featured in the documentary. Rehman spoke of her days with the filmmaker enthusiastically. Kabir met Rehman once more in 1990 for a documentary on the playback singer Lata Mangeshkar. Fifteen years later, she asked Rehman if she could write a book about her life, but the idea was later disapproved by the actress, thinking that it would not be interesting. Kabir kept trying to persuade Rehman and, in 2012, she finally gave her permission while the two were having meal at an Iranian restaurant in Edgware Road, London, telling her: "Maine kaafi taal diya, Nasreen ko" ("I have postponed it too many times, Nasreen"). The author sent copies for her Lata Mangeshkar ...in Her Own Voice (2009) and In the Company of a Poet (2012), so Rehman could know what book they would do. The conversations took place from December 2012 to November 2013 in Bandra, with more than twenty-five meetings and a two-hour duration for each sessions. Kabir noted Rehman's strong memory, adding, "... her insight into the craft of film-making shows a keen and alert intelligence." The material—in Hindustani and English—were recorded on her MacBook Pro and later transcribed. Conversations with Waheeda Rehman was announced by the Mumbai Mirror in 2013. ## Critical reception Critics received the book positively. Bollywood Hungama gave it three stars, writing that it chronicles well enough Rehman's journey from being a dancer in item numbers to an established actress. However, the critic was disappointed as the book mostly details her collaboration with Dutt only and lacks of information about her personal life. Reviewing for India Today, Sharla Bazliel agreed its content primarily describes her works with Dutt, but praised Rehman for her honest and humorous speaking style. Rajeev Masand described it as a free-flowing question-and-answer biography and "an engaging and revealing account of her times". While suggesting Kabir to add more pictures of Rehman, Ramya Sarma from The Hindu wrote a positive review, stating that "she [Rehman] is not just a treasure that Indian cinemagoers have been fortunate enough to watch on screen, but from her conversations, a delightful person to know with a memory that is rich and varied ... " Saba Shabbir, who did a review for Dawn, referred to the book as "candid, real, and personal", and praised its vivid details on Rehman's life and career. Saibal Chatterjee noted in his review for the magazine Tehelka that the book is a "befitting document of a glorious career", explaining that it is "as much a tribute to the eventful life of an exceptional actress as it is a lucid record of a period of moviemaking that set the bar so extraordinarily high that it has rarely been touched since." Scroll.in's Gautam Chintamani concluded the book is a "fascinating insight into ... one of Indian cinema's all-time greats ... and the greatest period of Hindi cinema". Vikas Datta of the Indo-Asian News Service wrote Conversations with Waheeda Rehman is not a biography nor an autobiography, "but goes far beyond their limitations to provide a fairly comprehensive account of a remarkable actress whose ethereal beauty has lit the screen in the many unforgettable roles she has essayed—but always on her terms." Datta felt the book was easy to read as well and appreciated Kabir's effort to collect Rehman's rare photographs. Calling it "a valuable addition to film lovers", Pallab Bhattacharya of The Daily Star, a newspaper based in Bangladesh, acclaimed the book for its "refreshing" format and revealing much unknown information of the subject. The Free Press Journal's P. P. Ramachandran said, "A slice of cinema history told through compelling anecdotes and observations, it provides a rare glimpse of the real Waheeda." Sidharth Bhatia of The Pioneer stated that Rehman was often associated with Dutt before the latter's death in 1964, and believed that it was the main reason why Kabir made the book partially focuses on their professional life. Bhatia took note of Kabir's gentle and understandable questioning style, claiming that those made the conversations were not boring and convoluted. In a review in The Tribune, Aradhika Sharma likened reading the book with looking at an old family album with pictures of familiar family members. Outlook's Sathya Saran praised Kabir to be the only biographer who succeeded to make Rehman agreed for being interviewed, and Shubhra Gupta from The Indian Express labelled the book as an "intimate yet lively" work about her. Vivek Tejuja of News18 mentioned that the conversations was done clearly, candidly, and politely. In The New Indian Express, Indrajit Hazra elaborated, "To hear her speak in this book can only force us to rewatch the Waheeda Rehman that still holds us in a trance." In her end-year column for the Hindustan Times, Saudamini Jain declared it as "the first book about one of Bollywood's most beautiful actresses ever". ## Publication history
15,769,423	Immortality in fiction	1,153,436,783	Immortality applied as an element in works of fiction	[ "Fiction about death", "Fiction about immortality", "Fiction about superhuman features or abilities" ]	Immortality is a common theme in fiction. The concept has been depicted since the Epic of Gilgamesh, the oldest known work of fiction. Originally appearing in the domain of mythology, it has later become a recurring element in the genres of horror, science fiction, and fantasy. For most of literary history, the dominant perspective has been that the desire for immortality is misguided, albeit strong; among the posited drawbacks are ennui, loneliness, and social stagnation. This view was challenged in the 20th century by writers such as George Bernard Shaw and Roger Zelazny. Immortality is commonly obtained either from supernatural entities or objects such as the Fountain of Youth or through biological or technological means such as brain transplants. ## History The oldest known fictional account of immortality is also the oldest surviving work of fiction: the Epic of Gilgamesh, an ancient Sumerian tale from c. 2100 BCE. Several Greek myths of antiquity depict mortals such as Ganymede and Tithonus being granted everlasting life by the gods. Influenced by Taoist philosophical thought, Chinese fiction has featured immortality since at least the 1500s. Several historical figures have been portrayed as immortals after their deaths, including Nicolas Flamel and the Count of St. Germain. In Arthurian literature, Sir Galahad attains immortality through the Holy Grail. In medieval Europe, the Christian legend of the Wandering Jew emerged, wherein a man is cursed to live forever for a slight against Jesus. This story was then reworked over and over again by numerous authors across the centuries, well past the end of the Middle Ages and into the 1800s, with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Alexandre Dumas each making their own version which both remain unfinished. The 1800s also saw several Gothic stories of the downsides of immortality. Progress in the field of medicine inspired science fiction stories about immortality in the late 1800s and early 1900s; most of these took a dim view of the prospect of eternal life but more positive attitudes also appeared. By the 1930s, opinions were divided into camps with favourable and unfavourable views on immortality, with authors such as Neil R. Jones and Laurence Manning writing stories where it presents opportunities and others such as D. D. Sharp and Damon Knight depicting it as a cause of stagnation. This division continued at least until the 1960s. Following research into biotechnology and cryonics, the conception that not having to die of old age might soon be a medical reality gained popularity—reflected in the non-fiction works The Prospect of Immortality by Robert Ettinger from 1964 and Conquest of Death by Alvin Silverstein from 1979—and since at least the 1980s, there has been a trend of more analytical treatments of immortality in fiction, as well as contes philosophiques. ## Types Depictions of immortality vary in a number of ways. The common feature across all types is indefinitely prolonged lifespans. The absence of ageing—i.e. eternal youth—is typically also involved, though some exceptions such as the Greek myth of Tithonus and the Struldbruggs of Jonathan Swift's 1726 novel Gulliver's Travels exist. It may or may not entail being insusceptible to dying from injuries; to distinguish between the concepts, immortality without this property may be referred to by other terms such as emortality, a term used by Alan Harrington and Alvin Silverstein, or postmortality, a term used by Michael Hauskeller. Carol Zaleski distinguishes between several different types of immortality, principally physical immortality—or "everlasting longevity"—and immortality of the soul, where the latter is further subdivided by other features such as whether it is inherent or needs to be acquired. It is mainly physical immortality that appears in fiction, immortality of the soul being mostly found in the domains of religion and philosophy. The most common form of immortality is that of one individual living a single life, but there are also stories featuring multiple beings fusing into an immortal entity—such as Greg Bear's 1985 novel Blood Music—and stories of one individual living multiple lives in succession in a manner akin to reincarnation. Complete immunity to death is uncommon outside of religious contexts and is usually non-corporeal in nature. Science fiction occasionally features immortality not of living beings, but of the entire universe by overcoming the issues caused by entropy preventing self-perpetuation; the 1972 novel The Gods Themselves by Isaac Asimov is one example. Undeath, seen for instance in zombies and vampires, is sometimes considered a form of immortality, and sometimes viewed as a separate concept. Occasionally, vampires are considered immortal in contrast to zombies being viewed as undead. Vampiric immortality is characterized by being conditional, inasmuch as continued access to human blood is necessary to sustain it. Zombie immortality, on the other hand, is characterized by the loss of personhood. Works of fiction featuring immortality can be classified by the number of immortals: one, several, or everyone. Works with lone immortals can be further subdivided into those where the immortality is a secret and those where it is not. Conversely, the 1990 novella Outnumbering the Dead by Frederik Pohl features a lone mortal in a world where everyone else is immortal, as does the 2009 film Mr. Nobody. ## Narrative function Authors often use immortality as a theme in fictional narratives to explore its consequences on society and the individual as a thought experiment. For many of these stories, the purpose is to serve as a cautionary tale. It is also used for social commentary and as the basis for both utopian and dystopian fiction. In other works it functions as a MacGuffin, providing motivation for characters as a goal to strive towards. Immortality is sometimes used to enable telling stories that span a period of time longer than a normal human lifespan without replacing the main characters. Occasionally, it is only a background feature used to suggest high levels of scientific and technological advancement. ## Means The means by which immortality is obtained are varied, ranging from the traditional Fountain of Youth and elixir of life to advanced medicine and technology. Some authors assume that scientific progress will eventually lead to immortality, and for this reason humans living in the far future are often depicted as having attained this goal, including in Arthur C. Clarke's 1956 novel The City and the Stars. A common motif is that of immortality obtained through the deaths of others. Examples include numerous vampire stories where the vampires' immortality is sustained by drinking human blood, the 2011 film In Time where lifetime is transferred from the multitude of poor to the wealthy elite such that the immortality of the few depends on the deaths of the many, and Norman Spinrad's 1969 novel Bug Jack Barron where the source of immortality is derived from the tissues of murdered children. ### Biological and medical Immortality is accomplished by selective breeding and eugenics in works like the 1942 novel Methuselah's Children by Robert A. Heinlein and the 1930 novel Last and First Men by Olaf Stapledon. Prior to the first successful blood transfusions, some stories in the late 1800s featured the idea that such procedures would have a rejuvenating effect granting extended lifespans, including Robert Duncan Milne's A Man Who Grew Young Again from 1887; Georges Eekhoud's 1884 story Le coeur de Tony Wandel (Tony Wandel's Heart) uses heart transplants in a similar manner. Blood is also the source of immortality in James E. Gunn's 1962 novel The Immortals, where a genetic mutation gives rise to blood that confers immortality, which others consequently seek to obtain. Other works have also occasionally depicted immortality as being obtained congenitally or unintentionally; certain fantasy creatures such as the Elves in the works of J. R. R. Tolkien are inherently immortal, the title character of the 2007 film The Man from Earth is an otherwise ordinary human who stopped ageing for unknown reasons some 14,000 years ago, and René Barjavel's 1973 novel Le Grand Secret revolves around the discovery of a highly contagious virus that confers immortality on those who are infected. In the 2005 short story "The Reincarnated Giant" by Chinese author Wang Jinkang [zh], immortality is attainable by replacing aged body parts one at a time. Symbiosis with other lifeforms, typically alien ones, causes immortality in some stories. Examples include George R. R. Martin's 1974 short story "A Song for Lya", F. Paul Wilson's 1976 novel Healer, and Anne McCaffrey's 1982 novel Crystal Singer. Drugs that extend life indefinitely by stopping the process of ageing are depicted in James Blish's 1956 novel They Shall Have Stars, Frank Herbert's 1965 novel Dune, and Poul Anderson's 1966 novel World Without Stars, among others. ### Technological Immortality is accomplished by way of medical nanobots in Jeffrey Carver's 1989 novel From a Changeling Star. In Joe Haldeman's 1974 novel The Forever War, immortality is caused by paradoxes arising from time travel. Immortality of the mind is sometimes accomplished by periodically moving it to a new physical body, transferring either just the consciousness as in A. E. van Vogt's 1948 novel The World of Null-A or transplanting the entire brain as in Michael G. Coney's 1974 novel Friends Come in Boxes; the new body is a clone of the original person in some works such as John Varley's 1977 novel The Ophiuchi Hotline and an entirely different person in others such as the 2017 film Get Out. Similarly, personality traits are transferred from one person to another using the malaria parasite as a vector to attain a form of immortality in Indian author Amitav Ghosh's 1995 novel The Calcutta Chromosome. #### Digital A common theme in cyberpunk is digital immortality, achieved by transferring a person's consciousness to a computer. One version of this concept involves the uploaded mind being conscious inside the machine, as in William Gibson's Sprawl trilogy starting with the 1984 novel Neuromancer. Attitudes towards this kind of existence vary between and within stories. The argument that it should be no more unappealing than having artificial body parts is made in Damien Broderick's 2002 novel Transcension, while in John Crowley's 1979 novel Engine Summer it is viewed as a type of imprisonment. In Frederik Pohl's 1977–2004 novel series the Heechee Saga, one character enjoys the capabilities afforded by having vast computational power available directly to the mind, whereas another dreads the prospect of serving the entirety of a millennia-long prison sentence. In Greg Egan's 2002 novel Schild's Ladder the digital existence is so convincing it can be mistaken for the physical world, and Egan's 1994 novel Permutation City raises the issue of whether an uploaded mind is the same person or merely a copy. Another version of the concept is seen in Arthur C. Clarke's The City and the Stars, where the uploaded minds are kept in storage without consciousness for transfer to a new body as one becomes available and then uploaded again when the body dies, allowing for an unlimited number of sequential lifetimes. #### Cryonics Cryonic freezing is used as a means to extend life until such a time that immortality is expected to be available in some stories such as Brian Stableford's 1986 short story "And He Not Busy Being Born...". Science fiction writers have generally had a pessimistic outlook on this idea, foreseeing various problems; immortality does not become available within the promised time frame in Clifford D. Simak's 1967 novel Why Call Them Back from Heaven?, everything works as intended but society has changed for the worse in the intervening period in Anders Bodelsen's 1969 novel Frysepunktet (Freezing Point), and the preserved bodies are exploited for their organs in Larry Niven's 1973 short story "The Defenseless Dead". ### Supernatural and magical The alchemical substance known as the philosopher's stone is credited with being able to grant everlasting life in stories such as William Godwin's 1799 novel St. Leon. In Natalie Babbitt's 1975 novel Tuck Everlasting, a family becomes immortal after drinking from a magical spring. Magic users are often immortal, and magic itself may be the cause of their immortality. The magical Land of Oz in L. Frank Baum's Oz series confers immortality on those living there, and similarly the towns of Tukwan and Levensvale in Ghanaian author Kojo Laing's 1988 magical realist novel Woman of the Aeroplanes are immortal by virtue of existing outside of ordinary time. Immortality is sometimes bestowed upon humans by deities (as in the Greek myth of Ganymede) or aliens (as in Clifford D. Simak's 1963 novel Way Station), or received through a deal with the Devil; the title character of Oscar Wilde's 1890 novel The Picture of Dorian Gray has a portrait that ages in his stead as the result of inadvertently making such a deal. The legend of the ghost ship the Flying Dutchman involves immortality being handed down as divine retribution for the captain's blasphemy. Several stories exist in which universal immortality is caused by the personification of Death being (temporarily) incapacitated in some way, including T. F. Powys' 1931 novel Unclay and the 1939 film On Borrowed Time. ## Outcomes The outcomes of immortality range from a blessing to a curse for the individual, and from utopian to dystopian for society. Science fiction tends to explore the means by which immortality is attained and occasionally the consequences for individual people, whereas fantasy usually delves more into the enduring societal effects and questions of morality. ### Negative For the most part, immortality is portrayed as strongly desired yet not truly desirable, and the stories it appears in commonly function as a kind of cautionary tale. Some stories such as Argentinian author Jorge Luis Borges' 1947 short story "The Immortal" and Patrick O'Leary's 2002 novel The Impossible Bird go so far as to show immortals seeking to regain their mortality. Says Brian Stableford, "When the immortal condition seems perfectly satisfactory in itself, however, the world tends to be found wanting". #### Physical and psychological Overwhelming ennui or restlessness is often depicted as an inevitable consequence of everlasting life. Satirical treatments of the lengths immortal beings might go to in order to stave off boredom are found in Michael Moorcock's 1970s The Dancers at the End of Time series and Douglas Adams' 1982 novel Life, the Universe and Everything; in the latter, the character Wowbagger the Infinitely Prolonged spends eternity travelling the universe to insult every living being to their face in alphabetical order. Another issue faced by immortals in some works is physical deterioration, either due to ongoing natural senescence or as a direct side-effect of immortality itself, the latter appearing in Aldous Huxley's 1939 story After Many a Summer Dies the Swan where the immortals slowly transform into ape-like creatures and Bob Shaw's 1970 novel One Million Tomorrows where immortality causes impotence. While remaining forever childlike in spirit as well as body makes J. M. Barrie's Peter Pan carefree and joyful, it also leaves him self-centred and unable to form meaningful lasting relationships. On the other hand, the mismatch of having an ageing mind in an eternally youthful body is a cause of distress in multiple stories of child vampires, and the 1996 novel Holy Fire by Bruce Sterling similarly portrays regaining youth in old age by means of rejuvenation as having unsettling effects on the psyche. A different psychological side-effect of immortality depicted in some works such as the aforementioned In Time, the works of Roger Zelazny, and Andrei Irkutov's 1924 short story "Immortality" is an increased fear of death, immortal life being "too precious to risk". The Nameless One, the player character in the 1999 Dungeons & Dragons video game Planescape: Torment, has amnesia along with immortality; injuries that would have been fatal were it not for his immortality instead cause him to lose consciousness to later awaken without any memories. Regularly recurring (and thus, functionally, anterograde) amnesia is a side-effect of immortality in a different way in John R. Pierce's 1944 short story "Invariant", the consequence of restoring both the body and the mind to a previous state, while one-time (and thus functionally retrograde) amnesia is a side-effect of an immortality treatment in Christopher Priest's 1981 novel The Affirmation, and continuous loss of the oldest memories due to the brain's storage capacity being exceeded appears in Michael Flynn's 1994 short story "Melodies of the Heart". #### Religious In Richard Cowper's 1983 short story "The Tithonian Factor", it is discovered that the afterlife is real, to the chagrin of those who had already acquired immortality when the discovery was made. Similarly, the aforementioned Le Grand Secret depicts a character having a strong aversion to the prospect of immortality because it would preclude the reincarnation necessary to attain enlightenment according to their Hindu faith. Immortality also conflicts with reincarnation in the 1967 short story "The Vitanuls" by John Brunner; the lack of death results such a shortage of souls that children are eventually born without a soul. #### Social and political In works where immortality is not universal, the immortal ones encounter the drawback of outliving their loved ones, depicted for instance in Mary Shelley's 1833 short story "The Mortal Immortal", whereas fictional societies with universal immortality are inherently susceptible to overpopulation, as seen in Le Grand Secret and Richard Wilson's 1965 short story "The Eight Billion". Authors often couple immortality with infertility to get around the latter problem. On the other hand, the absence of reproduction among immortals is also depicted as causing population-wide problems in some works—one example being societal stagnation in Algis Budrys' 1954 short story The End of Summer—and in David H. Keller's 1934 novel Life Everlasting the people demand an antidote to restore mortality and fertility both. Neil Bell's 1930 novel The Seventh Bowl depicts dire societal consequences when immortality drugs are introduced—not due to immortality itself, but rather due to the actions of those in power in response to the new technology as they seek to further their own goals. In the 1888 novel The Inner House by Walter Besant, these problems are combined: a life-extending treatment intended to provide additional yet still limited time for a select few instead results in the emergence of an authoritarian society where everyone's life is prolonged indefinitely and strict population control is enforced where the only births that are allowed are those replacing accidental deaths, resulting in social stagnation in the centuries that follow. In José Saramago's 2005 novel Death at Intervals, the unexpected cessation of all death in a society accustomed to its presence causes demographic problems, economic disruption, and shortages of both resources and space. In Moroccan author Mohammed Aziz Lahbabi's 1974 novel The Elixir of Life, the invention of the titular elixir results in exacerbated inequality, class conflict, and social unrest, in part because the poor are convinced that only the social elite will receive the elixir. In Egyptian author Tawfiq al-Hakim's 1947 short story "In the Year One Million", a future society that has eliminated death and disease is also devoid of love and the arts, leading the populace to rise up to reverse these developments in order to regain meaning; al-Hakim's 1958 play Voyage to Tomorrow was based on the short story and expands on its themes. #### Moral In works of horror, the cost of immortality is typically the loss of one's humanity. The moral cost of attaining immortality is viewed as unacceptable in some works where it hinges on the deaths of others. In Larry Niven's 1967 short story "The Jigsaw Man", immortality is achieved by organ transplants, but there is a chronic shortage of organs. For this reason, organs are harvested from executed criminals, which leads to use of the death penalty being expanded to include a wider variety of crimes to meet the demand, eventually including traffic violations. #### Alienation Alienation is a common consequence of immortality. Immortals in otherwise mortal societies often feel the need to hide their immortality lest they be locked up in a laboratory for study. This problem is faced by the immortal group of people in the aforementioned The Immortals by James Gunn as well as in the 1970 television series The Immortal inspired by Gunn's novel. The lone immortal title characters in the aforementioned The Man from Earth and the 2015 film The Age of Adaline additionally experience the loneliness of having to uproot their lives and move every ten years or so to keep the people around them from noticing that they do not age. In the 1974 novella "Born with the Dead" by Robert Silverberg, immortality is attained by being resurrected after death, and those that have gone through that procedure become estranged from the rest of society due to the emotional effects. ### Positive There are also works with enthusiastic or outright utopian visions of immortality, such as the 1928 novel My First Two Thousand Years by Paul Eldridge and George Sylvester Viereck which portrays the life of a lone immortal as being a position of privilege. In these positive depictions, immortality is typically not universal. A notable exception is George Bernard Shaw's 1921 story Back to Methuselah, which was repudiated by Karel Čapek who included a counterargument in the preface to his 1925 play The Makropoulos Secret. Eden Phillpotts' 1916 story The Girl and the Faun takes the position that the costs of immortality are outweighed by its benefits. Soviet author Andrei Irkutov envisioned the advent of a proletarian revolution as a result of an immortality treatment being invented in his 1924 short story "Immortality". In the story, immortality is granted to those in power and their enforcers, whereas the workers have no interest in it as they do not wish to carry on their labour forever. Consequently, the immortals dare not fight back against the revolution for fear of losing their immortal lives. In feminist science fiction, immortality presents an opportunity for women to overcome the constraints imposed on them by patriarchal structures. In the 1978 novel Up the Walls of the World by Alice Sheldon (pen name James Tiptree Jr.), an immortal cyborg uses her powers to promote feminist values. Octavia E. Butler's 1980 novel Wild Seed contrasts the different forms of immortality of its two immortal characters representing masculinity and femininity, respectively; the former relies on killing other people and taking over their bodies whereas the latter is a regenerative kind of immortality which can be used to help others. In both Up the Walls of the World and Wild Seed, immortality is portrayed as desirable provided that it is combined with love and togetherness. ### Other Other works take a more dispassionate and analytical view of immortality. The immortal life of The Man from Earth is portrayed as neither a curse nor a blessing, in contrast to writer Jerome Bixby's previous work on immortality—the 1969 Star Trek episode "Requiem for Methuselah". Robert Reed's 2004 alternate history work A Plague of Life examines the consequences of universal immortality on human evolution. Kate Wilhelm's 1983 novel Welcome, Chaos depicts the effects of immortality on the then-ongoing Cold War. Poul Anderson's 1989 novel The Boat of a Million Years posits that rather than immortals being stagnant and mortals changing, both can be either. While there are a large number of stories where immortality enables the unscrupulous to consolidate power, the 1954 novel They'd Rather Be Right ( The Forever Machine) by Mark Clifton and Frank Riley envisions a scenario where that cannot happen. In the story, there is a computer which can confer immortality on individuals. In doing so, it also alters their minds in a way that removes negative qualities and preconceived notions. The end result is that most people turn it down because they are not willing to give up their prejudices. Jack Vance's 1956 novel To Live Forever reflects the author's belief that immortality is not inherently either good or bad, but rather that it depends on the surrounding circumstances. In the novel, immortality is only granted to those who have made the greatest contributions to society in order to avoid overpopulation. As a result, citizens spend their lives struggling to prove themselves worthy of this reward, and those who have received it subsequently lead cautious lives so as not to risk losing their hard-earned deathlessness to violence or accidents. An alternative to the constraints of this society is proposed within the story: using immortality to explore the cosmos. With regard to the effect of immortality on one's personality, a couple of works have been suggested to demonstrate immortals being enabled to develop their masculine and feminine sides alike, and in contrast to the more common depiction of immortals as overcome with ennui, the works of Roger Zelazny portray them as insatiably curious. Zelazny likewise eschews the notion that stagnation is an inevitability for immortals, taking the opposite view that previous experiences enhance future ones and that there is consequently always more to learn and experience in order to grow as a person. ## See also - List of fictional immortals - Reincarnation in popular culture - Transhumanism in fiction
4,437,430	Grand Theft Auto clone	1,165,274,166	Video game subgenre	[ "Criticisms of software and websites", "Grand Theft Auto", "Video game clones", "Video game genres", "Video game terminology" ]	A Grand Theft Auto clone (often shortened to GTA clone) is a subgenre of open world action-adventure video games, characterized by their likeness to the Grand Theft Auto series in either gameplay, or overall design. In these types of open world games, players may find and use a variety of vehicles and weapons while roaming freely in an open world setting. The objective of Grand Theft Auto clones is to complete a sequence of core missions involving driving and shooting, but often side-missions and minigames are added to improve replay value. The storylines of games in this subgenre typically have strong themes of crime, violence and other controversial elements such as drugs and sexually explicit content. The subgenre has its origins in open world action adventure games popularized in Europe (and particularly the United Kingdom) throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The release of Grand Theft Auto (1997) marked a major commercial success for open-ended game design in North America, and featured a more marketable crime theme. But it was the popularity of its 3D sequel Grand Theft Auto III in 2001 that led to the widespread propagation of a more specific set of gameplay conventions consistent with a subgenre. The subgenre now includes many games from different developers all over the world where the player can control wide ranges of vehicles and weapons. The subgenre has evolved with greater levels of environmental detail and more realistic behaviors. As usage of the term "clone" often has a negative connotation and can be seen as controversial, reviewers have come up with other names for the subgenre. Similar terminology for other genres, such as "Donkey Kong-type" and "Doom clone", has given way to more neutral language. Names such as "sandbox game," however, are applied to a wider range of games that do not share key features of the Grand Theft Auto series. ## Definition A Grand Theft Auto clone is a video game that falls within the genre popularized by the 2001 title Grand Theft Auto III, where players are given the ability to drive any vehicle or fire any weapon as they explore an open world. These games are sometimes treated as a 3D action-adventure game, or third-person shooter. They are noted for frequently bearing strong violent or criminal themes, though exceptions like The Simpsons: Hit & Run and American McGee Presents: Scrapland have copied its gameplay and structure with a Teen rating. ### Other terminology Calling a game a "Grand Theft Auto clone" is sometimes considered unfair or insulting. This is because reviewers sometimes use this term to suggest that the "clone" is a mere imitation, which commonly occurs in the video game industry, designed for the sole purpose of capitalizing on the success of the Grand Theft Auto series. However, this term can also be used as a neutral description of a game, which can range from good to bad. Reviewers have used "Grand Theft Auto clone" to describe games that rest on their own merits, and do not necessarily dismiss the entire class of games as mere imitators. Games of this type are sometimes defined under the broader terminology "open world games" or "sandbox games". However, many games that predate Grand Theft Auto III, such as Metroid from 1986, are also called open world games. Conflictingly, games such as Grand Theft Auto III and Body Harvest are credited with inventing this genre more than a decade later. Furthermore, reviewers have stated that this genre does not include every game with a freely explorable world and that this genre is much more specific, thus excluding the free-roaming titles Spider-Man 2 and The Incredible Hulk: Ultimate Destruction from this class of games. The terminology is inconsistent, sometimes including any game with open level design, while other times focusing on a specific genre created at the turn of the century. Without clear classifications to describe the genre popularized by Grand Theft Auto, reviewers have created a number of alternate names for this genre. Some reviewers have focused on the pervasive criminal themes and mature content in the genre, using terminology such as "crime games", "crime-based action games", and what CNN called the "gangsta genre". Other journalists have emphasized gameplay by describing the genre as "free roaming action adventure games", "driving-and-shooting games", and "driving action hybrids". ## Game design ### Driving and shooting Grand Theft Auto clones offer players the ability to steal and drive a number of vehicles. Games have included all kinds of vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, helicopters, boats, fixed-wing aircraft, and military vehicles. Reviewers have compared these games based on the number of vehicles they offer, with greater choice resulting in better reviews. Players can also use vehicles as weapons, either by driving into enemies, or by damaging the vehicle until it explodes. Some games allow vehicles to perform stunts. Games in the genre thus incorporate elements of driving simulation games. Some games even allow players to customize their vehicles. Players can engage in combat using a range of weapons depending on the game setting, such as firearms, explosives, close-range melee weapons, or even exaggerated fictional weapons (e.g. laser weapons or a hand-held minigun) . As such, several reviewers have stated that games in this genre are partially third-person shooters. Players can find weapons scattered throughout the game world, and may buy weapons in shops or take them from dead enemies. Virtually anyone in the game world can be attacked by the player. In many games, excessive violent behavior will provoke a reaction by police authorities, who the player may then choose to fight or evade. Players must also keep track of their health and ammunition in order to succeed in combat. These games have employed a variety of aiming mechanisms, such as free look aiming or a "lock-on" button. Several games have been criticized for difficult or burdensome controls when it comes to shooting, and thus video game designers have tried to refine the aiming and shooting controls in these games. ### Open world and missions Grand Theft Auto clones allow players to freely explore the game world, which is typically on the scale of an entire city. Some games base their level design on real world cities, such as London, New York City, and Los Angeles. Players are usually able to navigate by vehicle or on foot. Some games put greater emphasis on leaping, climbing, and even swimming. Exploring the world is not just necessary to complete objectives, but also to gain valuable items, weapons, and vehicles. Different parts of the game world may be controlled by different enemy factions, who will attempt to stop the player in a variety of ways. However, more recent games in this genre allow players to acquire their own territory. The freedom of navigating a huge game world may be overwhelming or confusing for new players. Game designers have come up with a variety of navigational aids to solve this problem. A mini-map feature is common, while Saints Row and Grand Theft Auto IV go so far as to offer a GPS service. Games without these navigation tools are sometimes criticized as confusing. The player's freedom to explore may be limited until they complete certain objectives and advance the game plot. Players must visit specific locations and complete specific missions in order to win the game, such as racing, tailing, couriering, robbing, stealing, shooting, assassinating, and driving to specific checkpoints. There may be multiple ways to complete these missions as the game environment is designed to facilitate shortcuts, experimentation, and creative ways to kill enemies. Completing a core mission will unlock further missions and advance the storyline, and if the player fails a mission they will be able to resume the game from before the mission began. In addition, these games usually offer optional side missions, which allow players to gain other rewards. These side missions improve the game's replay value. These games are also known for incorporating numerous minigames into the game world, such as circuit races. Ultimately, this allows the player to follow or ignore the game's storyline as they see fit. ## History ### Origin Open world, 3D action-adventure games existed for years prior to the release of any similar game from the Scottish developer DMA Design. Mercenary (1985) has been described as a major ancestor to the Grand Theft Auto series, because it featured an open world which the player could explore freely. Turbo Esprit, the first free-roaming driving game, featured an explorable city with traffic, pedestrians and working traffic lights and has been cited as a major influence on the Grand Theft Auto series. The Terminator, released in 1991, was a free-form, open world game that set its action in a modern-day city that extended for miles, and included the ability to fire at civilians and steal cars. This game was also among the first American-developed games to feature these elements. Hunter (1991) has been described as the first sandbox game featuring full 3D, third-person graphics, thus making it an important precursor to the Grand Theft Auto series. The game consisted of a large, open world in which there were numerous possibilities to complete different missions. The character could travel on foot, or steal different vehicles such as cars, tanks, or even bicycles, boats, helicopters and hovercraft. Moreover, Hunter also had many unique features such as day and night lighting, fuel modelling, a log book, aerial observation units, tank traps, land mines and computer-controlled rocket batteries and tracer guns. It was also possible to ride a bicycle, swim, windsurf or even make a parachute jump from a helicopter. DMA Design began pursuing open world game design with the first Grand Theft Auto, which allowed players to commandeer various automobiles and shoot various weapons within a mission-based structure. Unlike later games in the series, and indeed many earlier influences, the first two GTA games were 2D, using a top-down perspective. In 1998, DMA moved many of these design concepts into a 3D world, with Body Harvest, a Nintendo 64 game developed by DMA Design. This title featured an open world with nonlinear missions and side-quests, as well as the ability to commandeer and drive a variety of vehicles. As such, it has been retroactively called "GTA in space" (despite the fact that most of the game takes place in various settings on Earth), and is credited with making Grand Theft Auto III possible. Dan Houser has also cited the 3D Mario and Zelda games on the Nintendo 64 as major influences. In 1999, Midtown Madness was released by Angel Studios. This driving game was 3D and featured an open world in an urban environment like Grand Theft Auto. It was however not a sandbox game, as the player could only choose one of the pre-defined gameplay modes. Travelling on foot or switching cars during gameplay was not possible. Rockstar Games approached Angel Studios with a long-term partnership in 1999, which resulted in the creation of video game series Midnight Club (another open world 3D race game) and Smuggler's Run. In November 2000, almost a year before Grand Theft Auto III, Driver 2 by Reflections came out. Set in a 3D open world in an urban environment with the ability to traverse on foot and commandeer other vehicles, Driver 2 featured many aspects of what would later become known as a Grand Theft Auto clone, though violence was restricted to cutscenes. Grand Theft Auto III took the gameplay foundation of the first two Grand Theft Auto games and expanded it into a 3D world, and offered an unprecedented variety of minigames and side-missions. The title was a much greater commercial success than its direct precursors, and its influence was profound. As such, Grand Theft Auto III is credited with popularizing this genre, let alone inventing it. Its release is sometimes treated as a revolutionary event in the history of video games, much like the release of Doom nearly a decade earlier. GamePro called it the most important game of all time, and claimed that every genre was influenced to rethink their conventional level design. IGN similarly praised it as one of the top ten most influential games of all time. Subsequent games that follow this formula of driving and shooting in a free-roaming level have been called Grand Theft Auto clones. Other critics, however, likened Grand Theft Auto III to The Legend of Zelda and Metroid, as well as Shenmue in particular, and noted how GTA III had combined elements from previous games and fused them together into a new immersive experience. For instance, radio stations had been implemented earlier in games such as Sega's Out Run (1986) and Maxis' SimCopter (1996), open-ended missions based on operating a taxi cab in a sandbox environment were the basis for Sega's Crazy Taxi (1999), the ability to kill non-player characters dated back to action role-playing games like Hydlide II (1985), and Final Fantasy Adventure (1991), and the way in which players run over pedestrians and get chased by police has been compared to Pac-Man (1980). ### Recent history One of the first games to be compared to Grand Theft Auto's foray into the 3D video game landscape was Mafia. Its development during the same time and release a year later in 2002 had a few review websites draw comparisons, notably comparing the open world city and driving. These comparisons were mostly positive, with Game Informer writing "This is a lot like GTA III. Awesome!" and "There's no shame in taking a proven gameplay formula and changing it a little bit" in its review. Rockstar North finished development of Grand Theft Auto: Vice City later that year, which expanded on the open world concept by letting players explore the interior of more than sixty buildings. The game featured an expanded soundtrack and the voice talent of several Hollywood actors, including Ray Liotta. This set a new standard for the genre, making studio talent a pre-requisite for success. Other game developers entered the field that year, with releases such as The Getaway. The Simpsons: Hit & Run in 2003 applied the concept to a cartoon world, while True Crime: Streets of LA reversed the Grand Theft Auto formula by putting the player in the role of a police officer. Some reviewers began warning parents of the growing number of games in this genre, due to the violent themes intended for mature audiences. Ultimately, rival developers were unable to match the reception of the Grand Theft Auto series. Rockstar North released Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas in 2004, which featured an open world on the scale of three distinct cities. The game also allowed players to customize the player-character and vehicles, as well as compete for turf by fighting with rival gangs. The continued success of the Grand Theft Auto series led to successful spin-offs, including Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories in 2005, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories in 2006, and the 2D Grand Theft Auto Advance for the Game Boy Advance handheld game console. A market analysis in early 2006 found that new games in this genre would have more difficulty than new first-person shooters or racing games, and noted that overall revenue for this genre declines during periods without a new Grand Theft Auto game. By 2006, developers were producing fewer games in this space, estimated at half the number seen in 2005. Grand Theft Auto clones for mobile phones were also released by a number of developers, most notably those from Gameloft's Gangstar series, the first being Gangstar: Crime City in 2006. With the arrival of the seventh generation of video game consoles, the first "next-gen" Grand Theft Auto clones were released in 2006, beginning with Saints Row from 2006 and Crackdown from 2007 both introduced online multiplayer to the genre, a feature that had been requested by many fans. Crackdown attracted attention for being created by David Jones, the developer of the original Grand Theft Auto, and featured the ability to develop the player character's superpowers in a semi-futuristic setting. Meanwhile, The Godfather: The Game and Scarface: The World Is Yours entered the market in 2006, and attempted to apply the Grand Theft Auto formula to popular movie franchises. Still, reviewers continued to measure these games against the standard set by the Grand Theft Auto series. Grand Theft Auto IV was released in April 2008 and featured a large, detailed environment, redefining gameplay and even adopted the GPS navigation system seen in Saints Row. The game broke numerous sales records, including the record for the fastest selling game in its first 24 hours. Since its inception, this genre has evolved to include larger settings, more missions, and a wider range of vehicles. In 2010, Rockstar Games published Red Dead Redemption, an open world Western themed game. Later that year, the second entry in the Mafia series, Mafia II, was released and met with a few comparisons to Grand Theft Auto as well. On the day of Grand Theft Auto V's release on September 17, 2013, Volition released a free downloadable content pack for Saints Row IV titled "GATV", purposely playing the similarity in the abbreviated titles to promote their game due to the confusion raised on various social networks. Variations of the Grand Theft Auto formula have also been applied to games aimed at children and younger audiences, most notably with Lego City Undercover, first released in 2013 for the Wii U with a remastered version for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One released in 2017. As is with the True Crime and later Sleeping Dogs'' games, the game is role-reversed with the player taking on the role of a police officer enforcing the law, rather than of a criminal, although the player is required to commit criminal acts on some occasions in order to infiltrate criminal gangs. ## See also - Vehicle simulation game - Racing game
819,116	Two Trees of Valinor	1,172,041,587	Fictional symbols of divine light in J.R.R. Tolkien's legendarium	[ "Cherry blossom", "Fiction about the Sun", "Fictional trees", "Literary duos", "Middle-earth locations", "Moon in culture" ]	In J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium, the Two Trees of Valinor are Telperion and Laurelin, the Silver Tree and the Gold Tree, which bring light to Valinor, a paradisiacal realm where angelic beings live. The Two Trees are of enormous stature, and exude dew that is a pure and magical light in liquid form. The craftsman Elf Fëanor makes the unrivalled jewels, the Silmarils, with their light. The Two Trees are destroyed by the evil beings Ungoliant and Melkor, but their last flower and fruit are made into the Moon and the Sun. Melkor, now known as Morgoth, steals the Silmarils, provoking the disastrous War of the Jewels. Descendants of Telperion survive, growing in Númenor and, after its destruction, in Gondor; in both cases the trees are symbolic of those kingdoms. For many years while Gondor has no King, the White Tree of Gondor stands dead in the citadel of Minas Tirith. When Aragorn restores the line of Kings to Gondor, he finds a sapling descended from Telperion and plants it in his citadel. Commentators have seen mythic and Christian symbolism in the Two Trees; they have been called the most important symbols in the entire legendarium. Their origins have been traced to the medieval Trees of the Sun and the Moon. Parallels have also been identified with Celtic mythology, where several pairs of trees appear. The White Tree of Gondor, too, has been traced to the medieval Dry Tree, a symbol of resurrection. Verlyn Flieger has described the progressive splintering of the light of the Two Trees through Middle-earth's troubled history, noting that light represents the Christian Logos. Tom Shippey links the sundering of the Elves into different groups to the Two Trees and to the Prose Edda which speaks of light and dark Elves; Tolkien treats the difference between these as whether they have made the journey to Valinor and seen the light of the Two Trees. ## Creation and destruction The first sources of light for all of Tolkien's imaginary world, Arda, are two enormous Lamps on the central continent, Middle-earth: Illuin, the silver one to the north, and Ormal, the golden one to the south. They are created by the Valar, powerful spirit beings, but are cast down and destroyed by the Dark Lord Melkor. The Valar retreat to Valinor to make their home on the western continent, and there one of them, Yavanna the Vala of living things, sings into existence the Two Trees to provide a new pair of light-sources. Of the two, Telperion is male and silver, while the other, Laurelin, is female and golden. The Trees stand on the hill Ezellohar, outside Valimar, the city of the Valar. They grow in the presence of all the Valar, watered by the tears of the Vala of pity and mourning, Nienna. Telperion's leaves are dark green above and silver below. His flowers are white like cherry blossom, and his silvery dew is collected as a source of water and of light. Varda used the dew to form stars in the sky, in preparation for the arrival of the Elves. Laurelin has leaves of a young green, like newly opened beech leaves trimmed with gold, and her dew is collected by the Vala of light Varda. Each Tree, in turn, gives off light for seven hours (waxing to full brightness and then slowly waning again), with the ends of their cycles overlapping, so that at one hour each of "dawn" and "dusk" soft gold and silver light are given off together. Each "day" of first silver then gold light lasts twelve hours. Countless "days" pass, until Melkor reappears. He enlists the help of the giant spider Ungoliant to destroy the Two Trees. Concealed in a cloud of darkness, Melkor strikes each Tree and the insatiable Ungoliant devours whatever life and light remains in it. Yavanna and Nienna attempt a healing, but they succeed only in reviving Telperion's last flower (to become the Moon) and Laurelin's last fruit (to become the Sun). These are turned into flying ships crossing the sky, and each is steered by spirits of the same 'genders' as the Trees themselves: male Tilion and female Arien. This is why, in The Lord of the Rings, the Sun is called "she" and the Moon "he". The true light of the Trees now resides only in the three Silmarils, jewels created with the light of the Two Trees before their destruction, by the Elf Fëanor. Because the Elves that first come to Valinor especially love Telperion, Yavanna takes a cutting from the tree and makes a second tree like it to stand in their city of Tirion. This tree, named Galathilion, is identical to Telperion except that it does not emit light. It has many seedlings, one of which is named Celeborn, and grows on the isle of Tol Eressëa. In the Second Age, a seedling of Celeborn is brought as a gift to the Men who live on the island of Númenor. It is Nimloth, the White Tree of Númenor. When the dark lord Sauron takes control of the island, he makes king Ar-Pharazôn cut it down. The hero Isildur saves a single fruit of Nimloth, and plants seedlings in Middle-earth. During the rule of the Stewards of Gondor, the White Tree of Gondor, a descendant of Nimloth, stands dead in the citadel of Minas Tirith. On Aragorn's return as King at the end of the Third Age, he finds a seedling in the snow on the mountain behind the city, and brings it back to the citadel, where it flourishes. Tolkien never mentioned any tree made in the likeness of Laurelin, writing that "of Laurelin the Golden no likeness is left in Middle-Earth". In the First Age, however, the Elvish King Turgon of the city of Gondolin creates a non-living image of Laurelin, named Glingal, 'Hanging Flame', which stands in his court. ## Origins The Tolkien scholar John Garth traces the mythology and symbolism of the Two Trees to the medieval Trees of the Sun and the Moon. Tolkien stated in an interview that the Two Trees derived from them rather than from the World Tree Yggdrasil of Norse myth. The Wonders of the East, an Old English manuscript in the same Codex as Beowulf and probably written around 1000 AD, tells that Alexander the Great travelled beyond India to Paradise, where he saw the two magical trees. They drip down a wonderful balsam, and have the power of speech. They tell Alexander that he will die in Babylon. Garth writes that Tolkien's trees emit light, not balsam; and instead of prophesying death, their own deaths bring Arda's era of immortality to an end. Marie Barnfield, writing in Mallorn, states that the male/female pair of trees has numerous parallels in Celtic mythology, including the pine trees of Deirdre and Naoise, and the paired rose bush of Esyllt and vine of Trystan. Further, the hill of Ezellohar in front of Valimar's western gate matches the "sacred centre of Ireland", the hill of Uisnech "to the west of Tara". The Two Trees of Valinor, in this context, align with the "feminine" Ash tree of Uisnech, and the "masculine" Lia Fáil, the standing stone on the hill of Tara. Lastly, the dews of Telperion and the rains from Laurelin that served "as wells of water and of light" match up, according to Barnfield, with Connla's Well and the Well of Segais. Tolkien is known to have read the Finnish Kalevala closely. Its central symbol is the magical Sampo, a device that brought wealth and good fortune to its owner, but whose mechanism is described only vaguely. Jonathan Himes, writing in Mythlore, has suggested that Tolkien found the Sampo complex, and chose to split the Sampo's parts into desirable objects. Its pillar became the Two Trees of Valinor with their Tree of life aspect, illuminating the world. Its decorated lid became the brilliant Silmarils, which embodied all that was left of the light of the Two Trees, thus tying the symbols together. ## Significance Matthew Dickerson writes in the J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia that the Two Trees are "the most important mythic symbols in all of the legendarium". He quotes Tolkien's words in The Silmarillion that "about their fate all the tales of the Elder days are woven". They have that central place because they are the source of the light for the world of Arda while they live, and they are the ancestors of the various trees that symbolise the Kingdoms of Númenor and later of Gondor. Further, they contain the "thought of things that grow in the earth", placed in them by the Vala Yavanna when she sang them into being. Angelica Varandas likewise comments that the Two Trees are "the most significant symbols of peace, prosperity and order" in the legendarium, and calls them axis mundi trees, like those in the Garden of Eden or the Norse world-tree, Yggdrasil. Cynthia Cohen writes in Tolkien Studies that the White Tree of Gondor in The Lord of the Rings stands for "the deeper history of Men in Tolkien's Secondary World, reaching back to [its ancestors,] the Two Trees of Valinor". During most of the action of the novel, the tree is dead, and has been for over a century, but all the same it serves as a symbol of Gondor's strength and national identity, and of hope for the Kingdom's renewal. She suggests that the White Tree parallels the Dry Tree mentioned in the 14th century text Mandeville's Travels. The Dry Tree had been alive in the time of Christ, and was prophesied to come to life again when a "great lord from the western part of the world" returned to the Holy Land, just as Aragorn brings the line of Kings back to Gondor. Cohen comments that the dead White Tree's replacement by a living sapling "upholds the metaphor of resurrection and enables Tolkien to draw an implicit connection between Aragorn and Christ". Finally, she remarks on the verse that Aragorn recites when he sees the White Mountains of Gondor: "West Wind blew there; the light upon the Silver Tree / Fell like bright rain in gardens in the Kings of old," which she states links Telperion, the Silver Tree of Valinor, to the White Tree. Since it is ambiguous whether the Silver Tree of the verse, the place where the West Wind blew, or where the "bright rain" fell, are in long-ago Valinor or present-time Gondor, the ancestry of the tree and the lineage of the Kings merge into a continuum. Patrick Curry, in the J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, writes that the importance that Tolkien gives to the Two Trees shows "the iconic status of trees in both his work and his life." Richard Goetsch adds that the Two Trees are "central to many of the crucial plot developments of the entire saga, from the beginning of the First Age to the end of the Third Age", and further that they "function as the ultimate expression of the natural world in Tolkien's mythos." ### Light Tolkien, as a Roman Catholic, knew the significance of light in Christian symbolism; he equated it with the Christian Logos, the Divine Word. The scholar Lisa Coutras states that transcendental light is an essential element of his subcreated world. In it, the Two Trees embody the light of creation, which in turn reflects God's light. Verlyn Flieger describes the progressive splintering of the first created light, down through successive catastrophes. After the destruction of the twin lamps of Arda, Yavanna recreates what she can of the light in the Two Trees; Varda catches some of the light, and Fëanor creates the Silmarils, filled with the light. They are the unrivalled jewels that give The Silmarillion its name, and serve as the centrepiece of its narrative. The whole of the history of Tolkien's First Age is strongly affected by the desire of many characters, including the dark lord Morgoth (as Melkor is now known) to possess the Silmarils that contain the only remaining unsullied light of the Trees. Morgoth desires them for himself, and manages to steal them, provoking the world-changing War of the Jewels. One of the Silmarils survives, and Varda puts it in the sky to symbolise hope: it is Venus, the Morning and Evening Star. Tom Shippey, like Tolkien a philologist, analyses Tolkien's treatment of the light and dark elves mentioned in the 13th century Prose Edda: in Old Norse, Ljósálfar and Dökkálfar. Tolkien makes the distinguishing feature between these two groups whether the Elves had seen the light of the Two Trees of Valinor, or not. To make this work, Tolkien creates a story in which the Elves awaken in Middle-earth, and are called to undertake the long journey to Valinor. The Elves of the Light, Tolkien's Calaquendi, are those who successfully complete the journey, while the Elves of the Darkness, the Moriquendi, are those Elves who, for whatever reason, do not arrive in Valinor. ### Elves and Men Matthew Dickerson writes that in the Second and Third Ages, the White Trees of Númenor and of Gondor, whose likeness descends from that of Telperion, have a mostly symbolic significance, standing both for the kingdoms in question, and also as reminders of the ancestral alliance between the Men who had lived on Númenor and the Elves. The destruction of one of these trees precedes trouble for each kingdom in question. Martin Simonson describes the destruction of the Two Trees as setting a "mythical precedent" for the transfer of the stewardship of Arda (Earth) from the Valar to Elves and Men. In his view, this stewardship is central to the moral battle, as the Two Trees, like Men and Elves, are composed of both matter and spirit. Dickerson and Jonathan Evans note that Tolkien calls the Elves "stewards and guardians of [Middle-earth's] beauty"; they are constantly preoccupied with maintaining the beauty of nature, something they inherited from Yavanna's making of the Two Trees. ## See also - Galadriel - Quenta Silmarillion - Tolkien's legendarium - Cosmology of Middle-earth
43,955,132	Bone Tomahawk	1,172,732,901	2015 American Western film	[ "2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2010s Western (genre) horror films", "2015 directorial debut films", "2015 films", "American Western (genre) horror films", "American splatter films", "Films about Native Americans", "Films about cannibalism", "Films directed by S. Craig Zahler", "Films set in the 1890s", "Films shot in California" ]	Bone Tomahawk is a 2015 American Western cannibal horror film written and directed by S. Craig Zahler in his directorial debut, and starring Kurt Russell, Patrick Wilson, Matthew Fox, Richard Jenkins, Lili Simmons, Evan Jonigkeit, David Arquette and Sid Haig. It was produced by Jack Heller and Dallas Sonnier. The film is about a small-town sheriff who leads a posse into a desolate region to rescue three people who were abducted by a cannibalistic Native American clan. Development of the film started when Zahler's friend and manager Sonnier recommended to create a film adaptation of Zahler's Western novel Wraiths of a Broken Land. Realizing that such a project could not be adapted on a low budget, Zahler opted to write a rescue Western instead. Casting began in October 2014, with Peter Sarsgaard, Timothy Olyphant, and Jennifer Carpenter signed on to play before being replaced by Wilson, Fox, and Simmons respectively due to scheduling conflicts. Principal photography took place in California over a course of 21 days in October 2014. The premiere of Bone Tomahawk took place at Fantastic Fest on October 1, 2015. RLJ Entertainment gave the film a limited release on October 23, grossing over \$480,000 in theater sales and \$4.32 million in home media sales against a \$1.8 million budget. The film received mainly positive reviews, with praise for Zahler's screenplay and direction and the performances of the ensemble cast, and has since become a cult classic. ## Plot In the 1890s, brigands Purvis and Buddy encounter a Native American burial site. They are ambushed and Buddy is killed while Purvis escapes. Purvis reaches the nearby town of Bright Hope and buries his loot; seeing this, Deputy Chicory reports him to Sheriff Franklin Hunt, who shoots Purvis (who tells the sheriff his name is Buddy) in the leg when he attempts to escape. Hunt sends the confident gunslinger John Brooder to fetch the town's doctor, but ends up fetching Samantha O'Dwyer, the doctor's daughter and assistant, who is caring for her injured husband Arthur. Hunt leaves Samantha in the sheriff's office with his other deputy, Nick, to tend to Purvis' wounds. That night, a nearby stable boy is killed. Hunt learns of the murder and goes to his office finding it empty, with an arrow left behind. The Professor, an educated Native American, links the arrow to a tribe that he refers to as "Troglodytes" and locates the valley they inhabit on a map, warning Hunt that they are a group of inbred cannibals shunned and avoided by other native tribes. Certain that Samantha, Nick, and 'Buddy' (actually Purvis) have been captured by them, Hunt forms a rescue party with Chicory and Brooder. Arthur insists on accompanying them to find his wife, despite his injury. Days into their ride, two strangers stumble across the rescue party's camp and are killed by Brooder, who fears they are scouts for a raid. The rescue party set up a new camp, but are ambushed by raiders who injure Brooder's horse and steal the rest. The following day, a fight breaks out between Brooder and Arthur, exacerbating Arthur's leg wound. Chicory leaves him to recover while he, Hunt, and Brooder continue on foot. Reaching the valley, the rescue party are ambushed by the Troglodytes. The rescuers kill three, but Brooder is injured, choosing to sacrifice himself, rather than live as 'a cripple'. Hunt and Chicory are captured and imprisoned. Hunt and Chicory find Samantha and Nick in a different cell and learn the Troglodytes have already killed and eaten Purvis. The group witnesses Nick stripped, brutally scalped, bisected alive, and then consumed. Hunt tricks several Troglodytes into drinking liquor laced with opium tincture, with one dying while another becomes unconscious. Arthur follows the men's trail and discovers the valley. He kills two Troglodytes and discovers they use an animal bone in their windpipes as a whistle. He blows on it, luring another Troglodyte, then kills him. In the cave, the Troglodyte leader grows angry at the poisoning. The Troglodytes cut open Hunt's abdomen, shove the heated opium flask into the wound, and shoot him. Arthur arrives and aids Hunt in killing the leader, and frees Samantha and Chicory. A mortally wounded Hunt stays behind with a rifle, promising to kill any surviving Troglodytes when they return, to prevent them from terrorizing Bright Hope. As the three leave the cave, they see two pregnant Troglodyte women, who have had all their limbs amputated and stakes driven into their eyes to blind them. After the party is at a distance from the valley, Arthur blows on the Troglodyte whistle, with no response. They then hear three gunshots. ## Cast ## Production ### Development Bone Tomahawk is the directorial debut of screenwriter and novelist S. Craig Zahler, who wrote the script in 2011. Zahler had previously completed more than forty original screenplays for Hollywood, including The Brigands of Rattleborge, which topped The Black List in 2006. However, only one film was produced: the 2011 low-budget horror film Asylum Blackout. Zahler had previously written four Westerns, making Bone Tomahawk his fifth work in the Western genre. Back in 2005, Zahler watched nineteen films in two weeks at a Westerns festival at the Film Forum. On seeing a film he didn't like, he began to think about how he would improve it, and decided to write novels and screenplays in the Western genre. The concept of Bone Tomahawk arose when Zahler's manager, producer and friend Dallas Sonnier proposed he make a film adaption of his novel Wraiths of the Broken Land, directed by Zahler himself. However, Zahler believed the novel could not be adapted on a low budget and opted to write a rescue Western, Bone Tomahawk, instead. Bone Tomahawk was described by Alex Godfrey of The Guardian as "a western with horror trimmings," but has been described by Zahler as just a direct Western, with references to lost race fiction such as H. Rider Haggard's King Solomon's Mines. Zahler incorporated some details of his personal life into the script, such as when Brooder says, "Smart men don’t get married", to reflect his own disinterest in marriage. Zahler includes humor in every work he writes, stating: "It’s one of these things where you’re dealing with a serious situation, but if everyone is frowning and dour all the time, and you don’t see life or love in these characters, I don’t know why you care." When selling the movie to investors, Zahler used directors such as John Cassavetes, Larry Clark, Wong Kar-wai, and Takeshi Kitano as stylistic reference points, despite none being filmmakers in the Western genre. Despite Sonnier's assurances that there will be no intervention in the script, investors still wanted the script to be changed due to conflicting interpretations of the film’s genre, and the film being Zahler’s directorial debut. Zahler refused to compromise on full creative control and reducing the film length to ninety minutes. Zahler and Sonnier finally accumulated a \$1.8 million budget, half provided by Sonnier and the other half provided by British company The Fyzz Facility. Due to budget constraints, a substantial amount of content in the script did not make it into the final film. Production of the film was made public on October 30, 2012 and was funded by Caliber Media Company, owned by Sonnier and Jack Heller, with French company Celluloid Dreams handling international sales. ### Casting Kurt Russell's agent handed over the script to Peter Sarsgaard, who enjoyed the script and signed on to the movie, leading to him passing the script off to Russell. Zahler thought that Russell was a good fit for the role of Sheriff Franklin Hunt, who read the script and quickly agreed to perform. Russell got along well with Zahler, and had also read Zahler's novel Wraiths of the Broken Land. In his interview with Collider, Russell appreciated Zahler's script and his "sparse" writing style, stating that Bone Tomahawk is a graphic Western rather than a straight Western or a horror Western. On October 31, 2012, Russell, Sarsgaard, Richard Jenkins and Jennifer Carpenter signed on to play a sheriff, a cowboy, an oldster, and one of the captives of troglodyte cannibals, respectively. On September 24, 2014, Patrick Wilson and Matthew Fox joined the cast of the film to star along with Russell and Jenkins. On September 29, Lili Simmons, David Arquette, Sid Haig, Kathryn Morris and Evan Jonigkeit joined the film with Simmons replacing Carpenter. The other ensemble cast added by the director includes Sean Young, Geno Segers, Fred Melamed, James Tolkan, Raw Leiba, Jamie Hector, Jamison Newlander, Michael Paré, Zahn McClarnon, David Midthunder, Jay Tavare, Gray Wolf Herrera, Robert Allen Mukes, and Brandon Molale. In addition, both Sarsgaard and Timothy Olyphant, who were originally scheduled to star in the film, withdrew. Russell praised Zahler's skills as a director, especially since Bone Tomahawk is his directorial debut. Russell described Sheriff Franklin Hunt as a stubborn and simple good man, whose behavior and tone were very in line with the era in the film. In his comparisons of Hunt to Wyatt Earp, he thought that Hunt and Earp will respect each other, but Earp will be uninterested in him due to Hunt being a low-profile person. In addition, since Russell was also involved in The Hateful Eight at about the same time, he had to look different between the two films in regards to the style of hair and beard, remarking: "I had to cheat it. So the look I have in Bone Tomahawk was sort of a halfway house thing, halfway to where I was going for Hateful Eight. It's in full blown maturity in Hateful Eight!" Jenkins was Zahler's primary choice for the role of Deputy Chicory, who ended up becoming Zahler's favorite character to write. Although Chicory was written with Jenkins' voice in mind, Jenkins decided to give Chicory an accent and a raspy voice, and though he ended up in acting in a normal voice, he still pushed the accent on-screen. ### Filming Principal photography occurred over 21 days at the Paramount Ranch in California. Previously, the crew scouted filming locations at New Mexico, Utah, and Romania. Before filming began, experts told Zahler that shooting could take sixty days and cost \$10 million, so Zahler kept a close eye on the schedule while filming and relying on staff to get the job done in a short amount of time. The actors performed their roles in the shortest amount of time possible, with one of the scenes using two takes; Russell also gave advice on shooting the violent scenes of the film. During filming, there were multiple firearms malfunctioning, as well as problems regarding special effects, makeup, personnel, and positioning. In order to shoot scenes with multiple characters on-screen, Bone Tomahawk was shot with a RED Dragon camera at a ratio of 2.35:1. In October 2017, Zahler reflected that he did not like that camera due to it being visually noisy, which led him to switch to the RED Weapon camera in his next film Brawl in Cell Block 99. Zahler avoids using too many close-ups in the film, remarking that "most of the time you interact with people, you’re not looking just their faces from a close distance unless you’re intimate." He believes that modern filmmaking's use of close-ups misses a lot of body language, especially the hands. Bone Tomahawk is well-known for its violent scenes in the troglodytes' cave, with the most notable being Hunt and Chicory watching Nick get torn in half by the cannibals. The troglodytes' cave was shot in California and was a setting in the TV series Weeds and the movie Iron Man (2008). Zahler shows a dry presentation of violence in his films, using long shots to capture horrific violent acts on people, similar to Cannibal Holocaust (1980). Zahler explained that violence enhances the characters, stating: "By showing all that violence and showing him talking the guy through it—for me it was always a real scene of strength for Sheriff Hunt, to not just cower away or start blubbering—he’s talking a person through the worst moment of his life. As hideous as the violence is in that scene, it’s a real showing of character strength for Sheriff Hunt. He endures that and does something during those actions that most people couldn’t do." Zahler did not fully focus the camera on the troglodytes, wanting to make their culture more mysterious. ### Music The film's soundtrack was composed by Zahler's friend Jeff Herriott. Herriott made the music accompany "long shots, rather than close-ups" and function as mood-setting or establish scenes and make transitions when there was no dialogue. Lakeshore Records released the soundtrack in Digital on October 23, 2015 and in Vinyl formats. ## Release In August 2015, RLJ Entertainment acquired distribution rights to the film, which had its world premiere at the Fantastic Fest on October 1, 2015. It later screened at the Charlotte Film Festival on October 3, 2015 and later at the London Film Festival on October 10, 2015. The first trailer of Bone Tomahawk was released on October 2, 2015. On October 23, 2015, Bone Tomahawk was given a limited release in the United States, and later was released on Blu-ray and DVD on December 29, 2015. Bone Tomahawk was released in a few theaters in the United States, grossing \$475,846, plus a total of \$4.28 million in home media sales. The Blu-ray disc includes behind-the-scenes production footage, theatrical trailers, a collection of posters, a Q&A session with the director and cast and a deleted scene lasting for about two and a half minutes. The deleted scene is an extended version of the ending: Arthur, Chicory, and Samantha spend the night by a campfire, with Chicory naming Arthur as the new sheriff of Bright Hope before Arthur tries to read a "poem" to Samantha he wrote while he was working as a foreman. ## Reception ### Critical response Bone Tomahawk received positive responses from critics and at festivals for its acting (particularly for Kurt Russell, Richard Jenkins and Matthew Fox), grittiness, Zahler's direction, and dialogue, which is stated to be a combination of The Searchers and various cannibal films. Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 91% of critics gave the film a "Certified Fresh" rating, based on 93 reviews with an average score of 7.2/10, with a consensus of: "Bone Tomahawk's peculiar genre blend won't be for everyone, but its gripping performances and a slow-burning story should satisfy those in search of something different." Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 17 reviews from mainstream critics, considered to be "generally favorable." Praise was given to the story and script, of which Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian enjoyed the mix of horror and Western genres, a sentiment that Kim Newman of Empire agrees to. Other reviewers such as Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times and Tom Huddleston of Time Out London enjoyed the comedy that was intertwined within the horror and Western elements of the film. Catsoulis stated that the "absymal racial politics" in the film is authentic to the time period. Reviewers such as Jeremy Aspinall from Radio Times called Bone Tomahawk for being a refreshing entry to the Western genre. Guy Lodge of Variety praised the film as "the wayward digressions of Zahler's script — navigated with palpable enjoyment by an expert, Kurt Russell-led ensemble — that are most treasurable in a film that commits wholeheartedly to its own curiosity value." John DeFore from The Hollywood Reporter offered the film similar praise, commending the film's performances, production design, cinematography, score, and screenplay, with the sentiment shared by Huddleston, Brian Tallerico of RogerEbert.com, and Don Kaye of Den of Geek. Criticism was directed towards the film's runtime. Conversely, Oliver Lyttelton of IndieWire found Zahler's writing to be engaging and unhurried, and the length to be not an issue. Other criticisms included Kevin Maher of The Times believing that the violence in the film was a copycat of Quentin Tarantino's use of brutality in his films while Piers Marchant of the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette called the film racist, calling it "the equivalent of having as villains a sect of Orthodox Jews." ### Accolades
23,895,943	Trials HD	1,161,216,937	2009 video game developed by RedLynx	[ "2009 video games", "Microsoft games", "Motorcycle video games", "Racing video games", "RedLynx games", "Trials (series)", "Video games developed in Finland", "Video games with 2.5D graphics", "Video games with expansion packs", "Video games with user-generated gameplay content", "Xbox 360 Live Arcade games", "Xbox 360 games" ]	Trials HD is an Xbox Live Arcade game developed by RedLynx and published by Microsoft Game Studios. It was released on August 12, 2009 as part of the second annual Xbox Live Summer of Arcade and was later re-released in a retail pack alongside Limbo and 'Splosion Man in April 2011. It is a 2.5D puzzle/racing game. The player must guide a trial motorcycle with exaggerated physics through various obstacles to reach each stage's finish line. On September 6, 2012 it was announced that a Microsoft Windows version of Trials HD would be bundled inside a special version of Trials Evolution, dubbed Trials Evolution: Gold Edition—although this version changes the physics of the game. It is the third game in the series. On February 11, 2016, Microsoft added Trials HD as part of its backwards compatibility program for Xbox One. ## Gameplay In Trials HD the player controls a rider on a physics-based motorcycle from the start of the level to the end while navigating a number of obstacles. The objective is to complete the course as fast as possible and with as few crashes, known in the game as faults, as possible. The game uses 3D graphics, but is played on a 2D plane, so the rider can only move forwards and backwards. Players can also control the bike's pitch at slow speeds or while in the air. The game has a variety of courses in a range of difficulties from beginner to extreme. There are a total of thirty-five courses in the game, and players can replay completed courses to attempt a faster time. Tournament mode sees the player attempt to complete a number of courses in sequence, trying to achieve a fast overall time with minimal faults. Twelve skill games can also be unlocked which place the player in different challenges. These include things such as riding inside or on top of a large spherical cage, achieving as many flips as possible within a set time limit, or towing a trailer with two large bombs as far as possible while keeping them from exploding by impact. Players earn medals based on their completion time, number of faults, and in the case of skill games, other specialized criteria. When connected to Xbox Live, the player can view their performance in relation to players in their friends list. This is done by an in-game meter which displays the closest friend to the player's time which adjusts based on whether the player is leading or trailing the friend's course time. Trials HD includes a level editor that allows players to construct their own courses and share them with players in their friends list. Every course in the game was created using the level editor, which allows users to create professional-quality levels. It also features leaderboards for each of the game's courses and modes. For each course the fastest five thousand times are able to be viewed as replays. During the replay the viewer can view that recorded player's controller presses, allowing them to learn patterns and skills from it. ## Development and marketing Trials HD is the second 2.5D game in the Trials series, following Trials 2: Second Edition. The game is based on the popular flash games from the same series. It was released on August 12, 2009 as part of the second annual Xbox Live Summer of Arcade. RedLynx developed Trials HD using an in-house engine coupled with a modified version of Bullet Physics Library which was optimized to utilize the Xbox 360's CPU and vector units. RedLynx applied the physics system to give a realistic feel, but to maintain the enjoyment of a video game, they tweaked the physics to "bend the reality in just the proper way." RedLynx saw this as a "crucial thing in making Trials such a fun and addictive game" Previous Trials games used a much simpler in-house physics engine, however for Trials HD developers opted to use the Bullet library and devote one of the 360's cpu cores entirely to physics. Developers also improved on the Trials 2 engine by adding more advanced lighting and real time soft shadows. Levels created for Trials HD were designed using the same in-game level editor that allows players to make user-based content. All of the tools and abilities the developers had at their disposal can be used by the community. In an interview with Eurogamer, RedLynx's Lead Programmer Sebastian Aaltonen stated that there were no plans to port the game to other platforms, adding "Trials HD technology has been specially designed for the Xbox 360 feature-set." The voice work for the game was done by three Pennsylvanian voice actors, Rake Yohn, Brandon DiCamillo, and Art Webb. Trials HD was announced June 1, 2009 at a Microsoft luncheon during E3 2009. It was released August 12, 2009 as part of the Xbox Live Summer of Arcade. On December 23, 2009 the first downloadable content, known as the Trials HD Big Pack, was released. The content features twenty three new courses, new objects for the game's built-in level creator and new achievements. A second downloadable content pack was announced for the game in July 2010. The Trials HD Big Thrills Pack features forty new courses made by RedLynx, but unlike the Trials HD Big Pack it also features ten user created courses. These ten courses are to be decided from entries to the Big Thrills Track Creation Competition. The top three contestants were awarded prizes of \$5,000, \$3,000, and \$1,000, respectively. Winners were announced on November 15, 2010. The Big Thrills Pack was released December 1, 2010. ## Reception and sales Trials HD received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. In its first month, the title sold over 300 thousand units. On September 14, 2010 RedLynx announced that Trials HD had surpassed 1.3 million units in sales. Sales of the first downloadable content pack had also exceeded 360 thousand, with the second pack selling over 90 thousand units. On May 27, 2011 RedLynx announced that sales have exceeded two million units. In 2009, Trials HD received two awards voted on by the Xbox 360 community, Best Overall Arcade Game and Best Innovation. In a September 2010 ranking, IGN listed Trials HD sixteenth in their top twenty-five Xbox Live Arcade titles of all time. It was also awarded a perfect score by Xbox World 360. Reviewers generally praised the game's replay value. IGN's Daemon Hatfield remarked that Trials HD had "truckloads of content" adding that the game's features "really take advantage of what can be done with Xbox Live." GameTrailers staff also praised the amount of content in the game stating that it was an excellent value for the price. Eurogamer stated that "it's a game built for endless replay and community expansion beyond that." The game's leaderboards, especially the ability to have a view of where other players were at a certain time during a run, were widely praised by Brad Shoemaker of Giant Bomb. One of the primary criticisms given by critics was Trials HD's steep difficulty curve. Brad Shoemaker of Giant Bomb stated that he wished the difficulty curve was "a little smoother." Daemon Hatfield of IGN further commented on the game's difficulty, stating "It's when you get stuck trying to get over some small hill and you see that fault counter in the top left corner counting up [...] that the game starts being more frustrating than fun." GameSpy's Anthony Gallegos added that the "limited number of tries per track feels arbitrary." He was also critical of the game's file sharing system, noting that instead of a repository from which to download tracks that sharing is limited to those in the player's friends list. Tom McShea of GameSpot also agreed that the difficulty on the latter tracks was "ridiculously hard" and shared disappointment in the file sharing system. ## See also - Trials Evolution
2,120,494	Godzilla, King of the Monsters!	1,172,062,574	1956 Japanese-American monster film	[ "1950s American films", "1950s English-language films", "1950s Japanese films", "1950s disaster films", "1950s monster movies", "1950s science fiction films", "1950s science fiction horror films", "1956 films", "1956 horror films", "Alternative versions of films", "American black-and-white films", "American disaster films", "American remakes of Japanese films", "American science fiction films", "Films about nuclear war and weapons", "Films directed by Ishirō Honda", "Films directed by Terry O. Morse", "Films produced by Tomoyuki Tanaka", "Films scored by Akira Ifukube", "Films scored by Fabio Frizzi", "Films set in Tokyo", "Films set on fictional islands", "Films using stop-motion animation", "Giant monster films", "Godzilla films", "Japan in non-Japanese culture", "Kaiju films", "Natural horror films" ]	Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (Japanese: 怪獣王ゴジラ, Hepburn: Kaijū Ō Gojira) is a 1956 kaiju film directed by Terry O. Morse and Ishirō Honda, with special effects by Eiji Tsuburaya. It is a heavily re-edited American localization, or "Americanization", of the 1954 Japanese film Godzilla. The film was a Japanese-American co-production, with the original footage produced by Toho Co., Ltd., and the new footage produced by Jewell Enterprises. The film stars Raymond Burr, Takashi Shimura, Momoko Kōchi, Akira Takarada, and Akihiko Hirata, with Haruo Nakajima and Katsumi Tezuka as Godzilla. In the film, an American reporter covers a giant reptilian monster's attack on Japan. In 1955, Edmund Goldman acquired the 1954 film from Toho and enlisted the aid of Paul Schreibman, Harold Ross, Richard Kay, and Joseph E. Levine to produce a revised version for American audiences. This version dubbed most of the Japanese dialogue into English, and altered and removed key plot points and themes. New footage was produced with Burr interacting with body-doubles and Japanese-American actors in an attempt to make it seem like Burr was part of the original Japanese production. Godzilla, King of the Monsters! was theatrically released in the United States on April 27, 1956, and was followed by an international release. The film was responsible for introducing Godzilla to a worldwide audience, as the 1954 film remained unavailable officially outside of Japan until 2004. ## Plot Injured American reporter Steve Martin is brought from the ruins of Tokyo to a hospital filled with maimed and wounded citizens. A recent acquaintance, Emiko, discovers him by chance among the victims and attempts to find a doctor for him. Martin recalls in flashback stopping over in Tokyo, where a series of inexplicable offshore ship disasters catches his attention. When a victim of those disasters washes up on Odo Island, Martin flies there for the story, along with security officer Tomo Iwanaga. There he learns of the island inhabitants' long-held belief in a sea monster god known as "Godzilla", which they believe caused the ship disasters. That night, a heavy storm strikes the island, destroying houses and killing some villagers. The islanders believe that Godzilla was actually responsible for the destruction. Martin returns to the island with Dr. Yamane, who is leading a team to investigate the damage. Huge radioactive footprints and prehistoric trilobite are discovered. An alarm rings and Martin, the villagers, and Dr. Yamane's team head up a hill for safety. Near the summit, they encounter Godzilla, and they quickly flee downhill. Upon Dr. Yamane's later return to Tokyo, he deduces that Godzilla is 400 feet (122 m) tall and was resurrected by the repeated hydrogen bomb testing in the Pacific. To Yamane's dismay, the military responds by attempting to kill the monster using depth charges. Martin contacts his old friend, Dr. Daisuke Serizawa, for dinner, but Serizawa declines due to a previous commitment with his fiancée, Emiko, Dr. Yamane's daughter. Emiko goes to Serizawa's home to break off her arranged engagement with him because she is actually in love with Hideo Ogata, a salvage ship captain. Dr. Serizawa, however, gives her a demonstration of his secret project, which horrifies her. She is sworn to secrecy and unable to bring herself to break off the engagement. Godzilla surfaces from Tokyo Bay, unharmed by the depth charges, and attacks the city, destroying a train before returning to the bay. The next morning, the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) supercharges the tall electrical towers along Tokyo's coast to repel the monster. Godzilla resurfaces that night and breaks through the electrical towers and JSDF defense line using his atomic heat breath. Martin documents Godzilla's rampage via tape recorder and is injured during the attack. Godzilla returns to the sea and the flashback ends. Martin wakes up in the hospital with Emiko and Ogata. Horrified by the destruction, Emiko reveals to them the existence of Dr. Serizawa's Oxygen Destroyer, which disintegrates oxygen atoms in saltwater and causes all marine organisms to die of acidic asphyxiation. Emiko and Ogata go to Dr. Serizawa to convince him to use his powerful weapon on Godzilla, but he initially refuses. After watching a television broadcast showing the nation's continuing plight, Serizawa finally gives in to their pleas. A ship takes Ogata, Serizawa, Yamane, Martin, and Emiko out to the deepest part of Tokyo Bay. In hardhat diving suits, Ogata and Serizawa are lowered down by lifelines near Godzilla to plant the weapon. Ogata is pulled up, but Serizawa delays his ascent and activates the device. He radios the surface of its success and wishes Emiko and Ogata happiness together. Serizawa cuts his lifelines, taking the secret of his invention to the grave. Godzilla succumbs to the Oxygen Destroyer, which dissolves its body and bones. All aboard the ship mourn the loss of Dr. Serizawa. Martin reflects that the world can "live again" due to Serizawa's ultimate sacrifice. ## Cast Cast taken from Japan's Favorite Mon-star. ## Production ### Crew - Terry O. Morse – co-director, writer, supervising editor - Joseph E. Levine – executive producer - Terry Turner – executive producer - Ed Barison – executive producer - Ira Webb – assistant director - Art Smith – sound - George Rohrs – sets, sound effects - Guy Roe – cameraman Personnel taken from A Critical History and Filmography of Toho's Godzilla Series. ### Development In 1955, Edmund Goldman approached Toho International Inc., (a Los Angeles-based subsidiary created to distribute Toho films overseas) about purchasing the rights to Godzilla. Toho had shown Goldman advertising materials, which interested him in a screening of the film. Goldman then made Toho an offer of \$25,000 for the theatrical and television rights, which they accepted quickly. The contract was signed on September 27, 1955. The contract stipulated that Toho and Goldman agreed that the film would be "narrated, dubbed in English and completed by the revisions, additions, and deletions," with final approval by Toho. Paul Schreibman assisted in the film's acquisition. Samuel Z. Arkoff of American International Pictures also made a bid for the film, negotiating with Toho for three months until he discovered the rights had already been sold to Goldman. Goldman enlisted the help of Harold Ross (sometimes credited as Henry Rybnick) and Richard Kay of Jewell Enterprises to distribute the film. According to Goldman, Ross and Kay's idea was to dub the film and hire Raymond Burr. Goldman would later sell his interest to Jewell Enterprises. Ross and Kay turned to Joseph E. Levine to further finance the project. The duo arranged a screening of the film for Levine in Los Angeles. The film's possibilities excited Levine and paid \$100,000 for half of the rights. This arrangement allowed the rights to Godzilla to be split between Jewell Enterprises and Levine's Embassy Pictures. Levine enlisted Edward Barison to create Trans World Releasing Corp., to distribute the film. Levine also enlisted producer Terry Turner to develop promotional strategies, which cost \$400,000. Turner managed to get the film mentioned by Steve Allen on The Tonight Show. Levine and Turner initially considered the title Godzilla, the Sea Beast, but eventually settled on Godzilla, King of the Monsters. Ross and Kay hired Terry O. Morse to direct the film. Schreibman had arranged for Burr to participate in the film. Morse was paid \$10,000 for re-writing and directing the film and Burr was paid the same amount for a single day's work. ### Filming and dubbing Alterations and new footage with Burr interacting with body doubles were produced to appeal to American audiences, as foreign films held no appeal to the mainstream public at the time. Morse viewed the original Japanese cut, with an English translation of the script, to find key scenes in which Burr could be inserted. Rather than dub the entire film, Morse chose to retain most of the original Japanese dialogue and have Frank Iwanaga translate, albeit inaccurately, those scenes and alternate with Burr narrating. Burr worked with body-doubles, who were filmed over their shoulder to conceal their faces. Editing techniques were also used to mask the body doubles and the original Japanese actors. Asian-American extras were hired to play minor roles. The new footage was filmed in three days on a rented soundstage at Visual Drama Inc. Burr shot his footage over six days although he later said it was one day and he worked twenty-four hours. Set decorator George Rohr provided mock-up sets that resembled the sets in the original Japanese cut. Overt references to the atom bomb and hydrogen bomb, such as the bombing of Nagasaki, the Bikini Island tests, radioactive contamination of tuna by American and Russian bomb tests, were omitted. The dubbing required for the entire film was recorded in under five hours. James Hong and the other voice actors have not given any details of the film's production. The voice actors were locked in a room with Morse and were told to read for every role. Each line was recorded at different speeds and the best one was chosen to match the footage. The voice actors never saw the film as they recorded their lines. The voice actors dubbed the entire film sitting at a table with a microphone before them. Hong confirmed that several Japanese actors auditioned for the voice-over job. However, Hong and Sammee Tong were hired due to their versatility. Tong recorded voices for six older characters, while Hong recorded for seven younger characters. ## Release and reception ### Theatrical and box office Godzilla, King of the Monsters! opened on April 4, 1956, in Loew's State Theater in New York City. It was theatrically released in the United States on April 27, 1956, to 283 theaters as a double-feature with Prehistoric Women. The film earned more than \$2 million in rentals during its initial theatrical run. The film earned a \$200,000 profit for its producers. The TV rights were sold to RKO, and it made its television broadcast debut in 1959 on KHJ-TV in Los Angeles. The film was theatrically released in Japan on May 29, 1957, as Kaijū Ō Gojira (Monster King Godzilla) to a positive reception from Japanese audiences, with the English dialogue subtitled in Japanese and the film cropped in Toho Pan Scope 2:1. It was the first Japanese feature to become a commercial success in the United States and was, at the time, the fourth foreign film to have grossed more than \$1 million at the American box office. Goldman originally acquired the film to distribute in the American and Canadian markets. Due to the film's commercial success, however, foreign distributors became interested in acquiring the American cut. Trans World, therefore, renegotiated with Toho to license the American version to foreign markets. This version of the film became an international hit across the Western world. It was released in France on February 14, 1957, where it became the 79th top-grossing film of 1957, selling 835,511 tickets. ### Critical response The film received mixed reviews from critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 83% based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 6.70/10. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 60/100 based on 7 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". New York Times film critic Bosley Crowther disparaged Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, dismissing it as "an incredibly awful film". After complaining about the dubbing, the special effects ("a miniature of a dinosaur") and the similarity to King Kong, he concluded, "The whole thing is in the category of cheap cinematic horror-stuff, and it is too bad that a respectable theater has to lure children and gullible grown-ups with such fare". On the film's alterations, critic Danny Peary accused the producers of making "deletions that arouse suspicions regarding the cover up of references to damage done by the A-bomb". Film critic Tim Lucas noted, "Much has been done to Americanize the Godzilla series over the decades, much of it inane and destructive, but the craft and cleverness that went into Godzilla, King of the Monsters! is immediately apparent". Over the years, original director Ishirō Honda was asked by film historians if the alterations made by the American version without his permission had offended him. Honda found the alterations amusing, stating that his film was "trying to imitate American monster movies". In writing for Ritual and Event, Aaron Kerner stated, "the 1956 Godzilla, King of the Monsters transforms Gojira into a run of the mill science fiction film". William Tsutsui criticized the film for watering down the original themes, stating, "although Gojira was not exactly eviscerated in this transition, with the terrifying charm of the monster thankfully surviving the cinematic surgery, much of the emotional power, intellectual depth, social relevance, and visceral impact of Gojira was lost in its translation to US movie screens". Film historian David Kalat felt that Burr's narration during Godzilla's rampage improves upon the original scene, stating, “Burr’s speeches here are chilling and memorable”. Kalat further praised how the narration renders Burr's character as impotent, stating, “not even the American hero can save the day this time”. Film historian Steve Ryfle called the film's flaws "obvious" when compared with the Japanese version. However, when judged on its own merits, Ryfle commented, "the film is one of the best American atomic-monster movies of the 1950s, on par with – or even better than – the classic giant-ant thriller Them!." Ryfle added that the film's scripting, directing, and special effects were "far superior" than other American monster films of the same period. ### Home media Vestron Video released Godzilla, King of the Monsters on all available home media formats (VHS, Betamax, CED, and LaserDisc) simultaneously in mid-1983. In 1994, footage of Toho's faux widescreen version was included in Toho Video's 40th anniversary special edition LaserDisc. The film was released on DVD and VHS by Simitar Entertainment in 1998 and on DVD and VHS by Classic Media in 2002. In 2006, Classic Media and Sony BMG released a two-disc DVD set titled Gojira: The Original Japanese Masterpiece. This release features both the 1954 film and the 1956 American version, making the original Japanese version of the film available on DVD in North America for the first time. This release features theatrical trailers, audio commentaries by film historians Steve Ryfle and Ed Godziszewski, two 13-minute documentaries titled "Godzilla Story Development" and "Making of the Godzilla Suit", and a 12-page essay booklet by Ryfle. This release also restores the original ending credits of the American film which, until recently, were thought to have been lost. In 2012, the Criterion Collection released a "new high-definition digital restoration" of Godzilla on Blu-ray and DVD. This release includes a remaster of the 1956 American version, Godzilla, King of the Monsters, as well as other special features such as interviews with Akira Ikufube, Japanese film critic Tadao Sato, actor Akira Takarada, Godzilla performer Haruo Nakajima, effects technicians Yoshio Irie and Eizo Kaimai and audio commentaries on both films by David Kalat, author of A Critical History and Filmography of Toho’s Godzilla Series. In 2014, Classic Media reissued Gojira and Godzilla, King of the Monsters! in a 2-disc DVD release, to commemorate the release of Legendary's Godzilla film. This release retained the same specs and features as the 2006 DVD release. In 2017, Janus Films and the Criterion Collection acquired the film, as well as other Godzilla titles, to stream on Starz and FilmStruck. In 2019, the film was included as part of a Blu-ray box set released by the Criterion Collection (their 1000th release), which included all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era. In May 2020, the film became available on HBO Max upon its launch. ### Italian re-release In 1977, Italian filmmaker Luigi Cozzi released to Italian theaters a further modified and colorized version of Godzilla, King of the Monsters, with a soundtrack that used a magnetic tape process similar to Sensurround. Though the Italian colorized version was released as Godzilla, it is referred to by fans, and by Cozzi himself, as Cozzilla. Cozzi coined that title as a pen name when he was writing for magazines, later adopting it as the production company name for re-releasing the film. According to Cozzi, Toho had licensed the colorized version to Turkey. Cozzi noted that his colorization was the first attempt ever done at colorizing a black-and-white feature. Due to the success of the 1976 remake of King Kong, Cozzi attempted to cash in on the film's success by re-releasing Gorgo. Cozzi, however, was unable to acquire the film because "the King Brothers asked for too much money". Cozzi then selected Godzilla as his second option. He originally intended to acquire the original 1954 film, but Toho was only able to provide negatives for the 1956 American version. Cozzi's regional distributors refused to release it after discovering that the film was in black-and-white, so he chose to colorize it to secure its release. Cozzi renegotiated with Toho, gaining their approval. Included in the new deal was that Toho retained sole ownership of the colorized negative. Cozzi had final approval over the stock footage, music, and colorization. At the time, theatrical films were required to run for 90 minutes. Therefore, Cozzi was forced to add stock footage to extend the film's runtime: > "The decision to insert extra footage was because the original film was 1 hour and 20 minutes. While this was the normal length in the fifties, a film to be shown theatrically had to run 1 hour and 30 minutes in the mid-seventies. So we were forced to add material to it to reach that length. Its final length was 1 hour and 45 minutes". The decision by Cozzi to specifically add real footage of death and destruction from war-time film reels was intentional. He wanted to give such an old feature an "up-to-date and more violent look". While editing the film, Cozzi was aware that certain stock footage did not match the Godzilla footage, but he chose to proceed anyway, feeling that the "effect would have been stronger than the defects". Additional footage was recycled from The Train and The Day the Earth Caught Fire. As tributes, Cozzi added brief clips from The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms and Godzilla Raids Again, taken from his personal 16mm prints. He coined the term "Spectrorama 70" for advertising purposes, referring to the film's colorization and for a feeling of 70mm. Cozzi stated that it "helped to give a 'bigger' look to my Godzilla theatrical re-release advertising materials". For the soundtrack, Cozzi reprocessed the original 1956 soundtrack, turning it into a magnetic band eight-track stereophonic variation by adding new music and sound effects. Cozzi later added Sensurround effects and special giant loudspeakers to the theaters playing the film. Using the pseudonym "Magnetic System", Vince Tempera composed the film's additional score alongside Fabio Frizzi and Franco Bixio using his personal electric piano. Cozzi hired Tempera after he expressed interest in collaborating on a project. Tempera, a fan of Godzilla, immediately accepted. Cozzi selected synth music because he wanted the score to give his version of the film a "modern look" and have audiences see the difference between the new scenes and the originals. During the film's opening weekend, Tempera's additional score was released as a 45 rpm record (it was later released as a 33 rpm LP). Cozzi hired Enzo Nistri to paint a new poster for Cozzi's colorized release (Nistri's poster was later used on the first issue cover of Fangoria magazine). Cozzi hired Armando Valcauda to do the colorization of the film, while Alberto Moro, Cozzi's mentor, was hired to edit the film. It was colorized frame-by-frame using stop motion gel photography. The process took only three months, as they were in a rush to release the film. Valcauda did all the colorization himself, while Cozzi edited the film with Moro. Cozzi noted that Yamato Video in Milan owns one new 35mm print of the colorized version and an original colorized 35mm film negative, acquired from Toho. Yamato planned to release the original 1954 version, the 1956 American cut, and the 1977 Italian color cut on DVD. Those plans, however, were abandoned after the DVD release of the 1954 film flopped financially. ## Legacy While the 1954 film is credited for starting the franchise and establishing the template for tokusatsu filmmaking, Godzilla, King of the Monsters! was responsible for introducing international audiences to the character of Godzilla; the Japanese version remained officially unavailable overseas until 2004, but was screened at New York and Chicago film festivals in 1982 honoring Takeshi Shimura's work. After the release of the 1956 American version, Toho adopted the moniker "King of the Monsters" in publicity materials. The moniker was used as the title for the 1983 unproduced American film and as the title for Legendary's Godzilla sequel. Subsequent Godzilla films featured reporters as the leads. Kalat credits Burr for this trend, stating, "these reporter heroes may owe their prominence to the legacy of Raymond Burr's Steve Martin". Similarly, journalist Jason Notte credited the film for heralding foreign films to a wider Western audience, proclaiming Godzilla, King of the Monsters! as "the most important foreign film in American history." In 2018, NECA released a repainted Godzilla figure based on the theatrical poster of Godzilla, King of the Monsters!. ### Sequel In 1985, New World Pictures released Godzilla 1985, an American localization of the 1984 Japanese film The Return of Godzilla. Like Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, new footage was filmed for the American version, scenes and themes re-edited or omitted, and the entire dialogue dubbed in English. Burr reprised his role as Steve Martin, acting as an adviser to the Pentagon, but did not interact within the Japanese characters as he had done in King of the Monsters. The Return of Godzilla was a sequel to the 1954 film, and Godzilla 1985 served as a sequel to Godzilla, King of the Monsters!. ## See also - List of American films of 1956 - Godzilla (franchise) - Godzilla (1954 film) - Godzilla (1998 film) - Godzilla (2014 film) - The Return of Godzilla - Godzilla: King of the Monsters (2019 film)
15,483,363	Better in Time	1,157,157,053	2008 song by Leona Lewis	[ "2000s ballads", "2007 songs", "2008 singles", "Charity singles", "Comic Relief singles", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "J Records singles", "Leona Lewis songs", "Music videos directed by Sophie Muller", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by J. R. Rotem", "Songs written by Andrea Martin (musician)", "Songs written by J. R. Rotem", "Syco Music singles" ]	"Better in Time" is a song recorded by English singer Leona Lewis for her debut studio album Spirit (2007). It was written by J. R. Rotem and Andrea Martin and was produced by Rotem. Lyrically, the song tells the story of a woman who cannot forget her ex-partner, and who knows that "it will all get better in time". It was released as the second single from Spirit on 10 March 2008, as a double A-side with "Footprints in the Sand", by Syco Music and J Records. Critically acclaimed, "Better in Time" was nominated for the Brit Award for British Single. It peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart, reaching the top ten in Australia, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Italy and New Zealand. Lewis promoted the song on several live television programmes, such as Good Morning America, Live with Regis and Kelly, and on the 2008 American Music Awards, also being included on the set list of her debut concert tour The Labyrinth (2010). The song's accompanying music video was directed by Sophie Muller at the Hampton Court House School in London in February 2008, and shows Lewis performing in front of several photographic set-ups and events behind the scenes. ## Composition and release "Better in Time" is a pop and R&B song set in common time composed in a moderate tempo of eighty beats per minute, in the key of G flat major with a vocal range from the tone of C<sub>4</sub> to the note of B<sub>5</sub>. The song has a sequence of G–Bm–Em–G/D–C as its chord progression. Lyrically the song talks about someone who cannot forget her ex-partner, and at the end the protagonist knows that "it will all get better in time". Andrea Martin and J. R. Rotem wrote the song, and Rotem composed and produced it. On 29 January 2008, Lewis announced on her website that "Better in Time", along with "Footprints in the Sand", would be released as a double A-side single on 10 March 2008, as her third single in the United Kingdom, with 2008 Sport Relief, a biennial charity organised by Comic Relief and BBC Sport, selecting "Footprints in the Sand" as their official single. It was also her second international single. A new remix of the song was created for the single release. The double A-side was released with another song, "You Bring Me Down", as a B-side. ## Critical reception "Better in Time" received generally positive reviews from music critics. In his review of the album, Chung Ah-young of The Korea Times described the single as "one of the best tracks [on the album] with impressive piano sounds harmonized with [Lewis] powerful vocals". Alex Fletcher from Digital Spy gave a mixed review to the double A-side. He called the single a "placid affair" with "its plinky-plonky piano and R&B groove resting uncomfortably next to Lewis's creamy vocal style". The BBC's reviewer Fraser McAlpine gave "Better in Time" three stars out of five commenting that "The tune's quite nice, fairly hummable without ever actually going anywhere and despite the floaty, Mariah-esque qualities of Leona's vocals, it never goes completely mental in the throat-breakdancing department". Chuck Taylor of Billboard gave a positive review, stating that the song is of "equal caliber to its predecessor ["Bleeding Love"], with a one-listen hook, elegant chug-along melody, a lyric about healing and Lewis' unquestionably emotive vocal versatility". Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe called it a "'love takes time' rumination", and along with another song of the album ("I Will Be"), described it as "predictable". Sean Fennessey for Vibe noted that the track "is the best thing [on the album], is mannered and takes nearly three minutes to get off the ground". It ranked at number four on the "10 Best Singles of 2008" list by American magazine Entertainment Weekly. "Better in Time" was nominated at the 2009 BRIT Awards in the category of Best British Single, and later the song was included on the awards' compilation album. ## Chart performance The double A-side "Better in Time" and "Footprints in the Sand" debuted at number 74 on the UK Singles Chart on 1 March 2008; rising 36 places, it debuted in the top 40 the following week, at number 38. On its fourth week, the song reached its peak position at number two, selling 40,476 copies and being beaten to the number one spot by Duffy's "Mercy". With this it became the third single by Lewis to reach the top five in the country. "Better in Time" and "Footprints in the Sand" was certified as silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). In the Australian charts, "Better in Time" debuted at number 32 on 27 April 2008, reaching the top ten two weeks later, her second single to achieve this feat. On 25 May 2008 the single reached its peak position, at number six, and remained within the top fifty for eighteen weeks. The song was later certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). It debuted at number 34 on New Zealand's RIANZ Chart on 17 March 2008, eventually reaching number nine after five weeks, and by its seventh week had climbed to number six, thereby becoming her second consecutive top ten hit in the country. "Better in Time" and "Footprints in the Sand" debuted in the German charts on 16 June 2008 at number five. Although it fell out the top ten the following week, it managed to reach the top five in the issue ending 27 July 2010, and rose to its peak position, at number two, in subsequent days. "Better in Time" entered the German chart on 22 February 2009 at number seventy-nine, where it stayed for three weeks. It achieved a gold certification by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI). In Denmark "Better in Time" entered the charts at number twenty-nine on 9 May 2008, and managed to rise twenty-three places in the next two weeks. On 6 June 2008 the single reached its peak position, number three. Next week, it fell out two places, but it retook its peak the following issue, and the song continued in this position for three weeks. "Better in Time" and "Footprints in the Sand" debuted and peaked at number eight on the European Hot 100 Singles in the issue ending 29 March 2008, becoming the highest debut of the week. Moreover, "Better in Time" was also a success in the chart, the single eventually reached number seven on the chart in the week ending 2 August 2008. In Switzerland, the single entered at number thirteen, becoming the highest release of the week. On 27 July 2008, its ninth week, it reached its peak position at number five, becoming Lewis's second top five in the country. It managed to stay within the top ten for eleven weeks and it was last seen in the chart on 22 March 2009, forty-two weeks after its debut. In the week ending 26 April 2008, "Better in Time" debuted at number sixty-two on the Billboard Hot 100, in the same week that her previous single, "Bleeding Love", topped the chart. Next week it dropped out of the chart but later re-entered the Hot 100 at number seventy-five, becoming the best comeback of the week. The song reached its peak position at number eleven on its fourteenth week, where it stayed for another week. In other charts of the United States, "Better in Time" peaked at number four on the Adult Top 40, ninety-nine on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, three at the Mainstream Top 40, and at number four on the Adult Contemporary chart, where it spent fifty-two weeks on the chart. The single became the seventeenth best-selling single of 2008 in Austria, as well as the twenty-second in Germany and Switzerland, the thirty-sixth in New Zealand, the thirty-seventh in the UK, the fifty-fifth of Australia, the sixty-fourth in the Netherlands, and the seventy-second in Flanders, a region in Belgium. ## Music video and promotion The music video was filmed at Hampton Court House School in London by the British director Sophie Muller in February 2008, and was released at the end of the same month. The video is inspired by fashion design, with Lewis performing in front of "unrelated photographic set-ups", and shows what goes on behind the scenes. In some parts of the video Lewis is shown with a horse. Lewis first performed the song live on the television programme Dancing on Ice on 9 March 2008. Lewis also performed both sides of the single on BBC One's Sport Relief on 14 March 2008, Good Morning America on 4 April 2008, and on the Jimmy Kimmel Live! show along with "Bleeding Love". On 3 September 2008 Lewis performed the song on Live with Regis and Kelly, and on 1 October 2008 on the season finale of America's Got Talent. The song was featured in the 90210 episode "Lucky Strike", originally aired on 9 September 2008. On 24 November 2008, Lewis performed the song at the 2008 American Music Awards. In May 2010, the song was added to the setlist of her The Labyrinth tour, performed as the fourth song of the show. "Better in Time" was included on the tour's live album and Blu-ray The Labyrinth Tour Live from The O2, released on 29 November 2010. In 2011, Lewis performed a reggae version of the song at BBC Radio 1 segment Live Lounge, where she mashed up the single with "Man Down", a song by Rihanna. It is also one of thirty-eight songs included on the benefit album Songs for Japan, a compilation album released in response to the aftermath of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Tōhoku, Japan), released on 25 March 2011. "Better in Time" was used in the American television series Pretty Little Liars, for the second season finale "unmAsked", in the masquerade ball scene. In 2013, Lewis performed the song along with "Man Down" during her Glassheart Tour. ## Track listings and formats Australian Maxi single and UK Sport Relief CD single 1. "Better in Time" – 3:55 2. "Footprints in the Sand" – 4:09 3. "You Bring Me Down" – 3:54 CD single (Syco), CD single (RCA), Maxi single, and Swiss CD single 1. "Better in Time" (Single Mix) – 3:55 2. "Footprints in the Sand" (Single Mix) – 3:58 German Premium single 1. "Better in Time" (Single Mix) – 3:55 2. "Footprints in the Sand" (Single Mix) – 3:58 3. "Bleeding Love" (Moto Blanco Remix Radio Edit) – 3:40 4. "Better in Time" (Video) – 3:58 Sony single; Swiss Maxi single 1. "Better in Time" (Single Mix) – 3:55 2. "Footprints in the Sand" (Single Mix) – 3:58 3. "Bleeding Love" (Moto Blanco Remix Radio Edit) – 3:40 ## Credits and personnel "Better in Time" - Leona Lewis – vocals - J. R. Rotem – instruments, musical arranger, writer and producer - Greg Ogan – recorder - Andrea Martin – writer - Vlado Meller – mastering - Serban Ghenea – mixer - Lyndell Fraser – Pro–tools engineer - Tim Roberts – Pro–tools engineer assistant "You Bring Me Down" - Leona Lewis – vocals, writer - Salaam Remi – bass, piano, drums, writer - Vincent Henry – saxophone, flute, clarinet - Bruce Purse – trumpet, bass trumpet, flugelhorn - Vlado Meller – mastering - Manny Marroquin – mixer - Taj Jackson – vocal producer, writer - Gleyder "Gee" Disla – recorder - Franklin "Esoses" Socorro – recorder ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
26,885,053	Ganteaume's expeditions of 1801	1,168,970,035	Operations in the French Revolutionary Wars	[ "Conflicts in 1801", "Expeditions from France", "Military expeditions", "Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars" ]	Ganteaume's expeditions of 1801 were three connected major French Navy operations of the spring of 1801 during the French Revolutionary Wars. A French naval squadron from Brest under Contre-amiral Honoré Ganteaume, seeking to reinforce the besieged French garrison in Ottoman Egypt, made three separate but futile efforts to reach the Eastern Mediterranean. The French army in Egypt had been trapped there shortly after the start of the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt in 1798, when the French Mediterranean Fleet was destroyed at the Battle of the Nile. Since that defeat, the French Navy had maintained only a minimal presence in the Mediterranean Sea, while the more numerous British and their allies had succeeded in blockading and defeating several French bases almost unopposed. The despatch of Ganteaume's squadron was a direct effort to restore balance to the situation in the Mediterranean by First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte and on the first cruise it reached Toulon on 19 February 1801, providing vital reinforcements to the remnants of the fleet there. The second expedition, launched from Toulon a month later, was forced back to the port by a combination of bad weather and the British blockade. The third expedition actually reached the Eastern Mediterranean and a fruitless attempt was made to land troops at Benghazi, before British ships from the blockade of Egypt successfully drove Ganteaume's forces away. The French squadron returned to Toulon by 22 July, at which point the expedition was called off. Despite his failure to land troops in North Africa, Ganteaume did win a series of minor victories over lone British warships, including the frigate HMS Success and the ship of the line HMS Swiftsure, and several of his ships detached during the third expedition were subsequently involved in the Algeciras Campaign in July. Ultimately the inability of the French to break through the British blockade of Egypt resulted in the defeat and surrender of the garrison there later in the year. ## Background In May 1798, a large French fleet of warships and transports crossed the Mediterranean Sea with an army of more than 35,000 men under General Napoleon Bonaparte, intent on an invasion of Egypt, then nominally held by the neutral Ottoman Empire. Pausing to capture Malta, the French force then pressed on eastwards aware that a fleet under Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson had entered the Mediterranean and was in pursuit. Successfully avoiding Nelson's forces, the fleet reached Alexandria on 29 June and immediately invaded, rapidly advancing inland and defeating the Mamluk rulers of Egypt at the Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July. While the army had pushed inland, the fleet, under Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers, had anchored in Aboukir Bay near Alexandria, and was found there in the afternoon of 1 August by Nelson's fleet. Despite the growing darkness, Nelson attacked at once and in the three-day Battle of the Nile destroyed or captured eleven ships of the line and two frigates. Just two ships of the line and two frigates escaped and among the more than 3,000 casualties was Admiral Brueys, killed on his flagship Orient. With his route back to France suddenly closed, Bonaparte consolidated his position in Egypt and then attacked north into Ottoman Syria. The operation achieved some initial success, but British dominance at sea heavily influenced the campaign: the siege train was captured on its coastal barges, all supplies had to be brought overland and any French operations near the shoreline came under heavy fire from Royal Navy warships, particularly at the culminating Siege of Acre. An attempt by the French Atlantic Fleet to intervene in the Mediterranean, known as the Croisière de Bruix, failed in July 1799. Defeated at Acre and driven back to Egypt, Bonaparte decided to return to France in November 1799 in order to take charge of the deteriorating situation in the War of the Second Coalition. He could only evacuate a small number of advisors with him on the frigates Muiron and Carrère, but promised the army remaining in Egypt under General Jean Baptiste Kléber that he would send support and reinforcements from Europe. Bonaparte successfully reached France without interception by British forces and on 9 November 1799 seized power in the coup of 18 Brumaire and proclaimed himself First Consul. While Bonaparte was preoccupied in the Middle East and then with French politics, the Royal Navy had returned to the Mediterranean in force. British forces had withdrawn from the region in 1796 after France and Spain became allies in the Treaty of San Ildefonso, but Nelson's victory at the Nile had eliminated the French threat, allowing a large scale redeployment in the second half of the year. Malta was besieged, the Ionian Islands were captured by a joint Turkish and Russian force and successive efforts to reach the trapped garrison of Egypt were defeated at sea. Negotiations to return the French troops to Europe collapsed and although Kléber defeated an Ottoman attack at the Battle of Heliopolis on 20 March 1800, he was assassinated in June. As morale fell, the situation in Egypt became increasingly desperate for the French garrison and the British planned an invasion for March 1801. News of British intentions reached France where Bonaparte, who had successfully reorganised the French Army and driven back allied advances in Italy thus bringing the continental war to an end, ordered a squadron from the French Atlantic Fleet, based at Brest, to reinforce the garrison in Egypt. ## First expedition The squadron selected for the reinforcement of Egypt was placed under the command of Contre-amiral Honoré Ganteaume, a survivor of the Battle of the Nile and therefore an officer with experience of service in the Eastern Mediterranean. Under Ganteaume's command were three 80-gun and four 74-gun ships of the line, two frigates and a lugger which between them carried 5,000 troops as reinforcements for the Army in Egypt under General Jean Sahuguet. Rumours were spread that the expedition was destined for the Caribbean to oppose the Haitian Revolution, and demonstrations were arranged at every French Atlantic and Channel port, intended to confuse the British blockade squadrons as to which ships were actually sailing and which were only giving the impression of doing so. Ganteaume's squadron was ordered to sail from Brest on 7 January 1801, but the diversion plan was not successful, as the British squadron that was permanently maintained off Brest under Rear-Admiral Henry Harvey immediately gave chase to Ganteauame's ships as they emerged from the Passage du Raz. Within hours, Ganteaume had been forced to take shelter under the batteries at the mouth of the River Vilaine, pretending that his voyage had only been a feint like the other operations along the coast. A few days later he managed to slip back into Brest harbour. On 23 January a heavy storm struck the Brittany coast, fierce northerly winds driving the British out to sea and leaving the entrance to Brest clear for Ganteaume's escape. Driving out through the Iroise, the French ships were scattered by the storm and several suffered damage to their masts. The squadron broke into two bodies: a main force of six ships of the line, one frigate and the lugger under Commodore Moncousu and a smaller force under Ganteaume, with one ship of the line and one frigate. Unobserved by the absent British, these forces passed southwest over the following five days, hoping to rendezvous at Cape Spartel. Both had encounters with scattered British warships: the larger body encountered the British frigate HMS Concorde under Captain Robert Barton at 09:00 on 27 January approximately 75 nautical miles (139 km) northeast of Finisterre. Concorde was towing a seized Swedish merchant vessel, but abandoned the ship as soon as a ship of the line and the frigate Bravoure closed to investigate. Concorde initially retreated before the advancing ships, but at 6 nautical miles (11 km) distant from the squadron turned to meet Bravoure, which was now advancing alone. As he approached, Captain Louis-Auguste Dordelin demanded that Barton surrender but was met with musket fire and both ships commenced a close range engagement with their main broadsides. For half an hour the battle continued until wreckage was seen falling from Bravoure and Barton ordered his ship to ceasefire on the assumption that the French ship had surrendered. In fact, Dordelin was hastily turning his ship back towards the squadron for support and although Concorde gave chase, Barton's rigging was too severely damaged to continue the operation, Concorde turning back towards Europe at 03:00 on 28 January. Although Bravoure could still be seen in the distance the following morning, the continued presence of Moncousu's ships rendered any further efforts to attack Bravoure too dangerous. The British ship had lost four killed and 19 wounded from a total of 244 crew members, the French ten killed and 24 wounded, including Captain Doredelin, who had lost a hand. ### Entering the Mediterranean On 30 January, shortly before the separated squadron was reunited off Cape Spartel, Ganteaume's ships also encountered a British vessel, chasing down the small fireship HMS Incendiary under Commander Richard Dalling Dunn. Incendiary was unable to resist the larger warships and after they had removed her crew her captors set fire to Incendiary, scuttling her. After passing southwards together, the united squadron reached the Straits of Gibraltar on 9 February and passed through them without resistance. As most of the British fleet was operating in the Mediterranean Sea and no news of Ganteaume's operation had yet reached the authorities at Gibraltar, the only Royal Navy ship on hand to observe the French squadron was the 32-gun frigate HMS Success under Captain Shuldham Peard that lay at anchor off the British base. Peard correctly assumed that the French squadron was sailing for Egypt and decided to follow them, shadowing the French during 10 February. That day the French captured and scuttled the 10-gun cutter HMS Sprightly. In the evening, Ganteaume called his ships to a halt off Cape de Gata in the Alboran Sea and Peard unwittingly passed them in the night, so that by the morning of 11 February the French were in a position to pursue his frigate. For three days Peard sailed north and east, on several occasions believing that he had lost the French only for Ganteaume's ships to reappear over the horizon once more as light winds hampered his escape. At dawn on 13 February, Peard realised that he would eventually be caught and defeated, and swung Success back towards the west, hoping that by doing so he would lead the French straight into any British forces that might now be searching for Ganteaume. The plan failed when the wind disappeared completely at noon, and by 15:00 two French ships of the line had approached within gunshot. Hopelessly outnumbered, the frigate surrendered without further resistance and was attached to the French squadron as Succès, the crew provided by detachments from other vessels. Peard and his men joined the prisoners taken from Incendiary and Sprightly on Ganteaume's flagship Indivisible and were closely questioned as to British movements in the Mediterranean. When interrogated, Peard informed Ganteaume that the invasion of Egypt was already underway, that the Eastern Mediterranean was controlled by a powerful fleet under Lord Keith and that a squadron under Sir John Borlase Warren was actively hunting the French and could appear at any moment. The information that Ganteaume gleaned from his captive was largely false. A large expeditionary force and fleet under Lord Keith was in the Mediterranean but would not arrive in Egypt for more than two weeks, British landings eventually going ahead on 8 March. At the time Ganteaume questioned Peard, the force was anchored at Karamania on the southern coast of Anatolia, struggling with reluctant Ottoman allies and bad weather. In addition, there was little active pursuit of his squadron during February: when Concorde reached Plymouth on 3 February, urgent messages were sent to Earl St Vincent at the Admiralty who ordered the despatch of a fast squadron of six ships of the line, two frigates and a brig in search of Ganteaume's ships. However, attached to command this force was Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Calder, who traveled in a slow second rate ship of the line that significantly delayed the passage of his squadron. In any case, a miscalculation of Ganteaume's intentions at the Admiralty resulted in orders for Calder's squadron to sail to the West Indies, and they played no further part in the campaign. Warren, whose squadron was stationed off Cádiz, had learned of Ganteaume's passage on 8 February and sailed to Gibraltar in pursuit before continuing to Menorca on 13 February, arriving on 20 February without seeing any sign of the French and subsequently sailing for Sicily in March after hearing news of the impending Treaty of Florence between France and the Kingdom of Naples. Despite the lack of genuine pursuit, Ganteaume was unnerved by the information gleaned from Peard, and ordered the squadron to sail for Toulon, arriving on 19 February without any further contact with the Royal Navy. ## Second expedition When Bonaparte learned that Ganteaume was anchored in Toulon rather than off the Egyptian coast, he was furious and ordered the squadron to return to sea and complete its mission as ordered. His anger was amplified by the news that the frigate Africaine, despatched from Rochefort with the same orders to resupply Egypt, had been captured at the action of 19 February 1801 by the British frigate HMS Phoebe in the Western Mediterranean. To emphasise his instructions, Bonaparte sent General Jean-Gérard Lacuée to deliver them in person. Ganteaume was ordered to sail to Alexandria immediately, and if the Egyptian port was under attack by British forces, the troops were to be landed anywhere practical between Cape Rasat and Tripoli and make their way to Alexandria overland. Ganteaume sailed on 19 March, as soon as Lacuée had delivered the orders, with seven ships of the line, three frigates and three merchant ships carrying supplies. Within hours of departing from Toulon, the squadron was struck by a heavy gale. One of the ships of the line lost its mainmast and turned back for Toulon, and the remainder of the force was scattered. The British blockade force sighted the disparate squadron on the following morning and although the French escaped pursuit, HMS Minerve succeeded in capturing one of the isolated merchant vessels. By 25 March, all but three of Ganteaume's ships had been recovered and the force was limping southwards through the Tyrrhenian Sea when it ran directly into Warren's squadron as it returned from Sicily. Ganteaume turned southeastwards to escape and Warren gave chase, the faster vessels in his squadron gaining on the French but the slower ships, particularly HMS Gibraltar and HMS Athenienne, falling far behind. Concerned that this placed his squadron in danger of becoming separated during the night, Warren ordered his faster ships to slow down and gradually lost sight of the French during the evening. Ganteaume took advantage of the respite to turn northwards in the darkness, and once again returned to Toulon. ## Third expedition When news reached Bonaparte that Ganteaume had returned to Toulon for a second time, he once again issued orders for the admiral to go to sea and fulfill his original orders to resupply the Egyptian garrison. On 27 April, the French force sailed for the third time, with seven ships of the line, two frigates, a corvette and two storeships. Before sailing to Egypt Ganteaume first cruised off Elba in the Ligurian Sea, achieving regional superiority long enough that a force was able to cross to the island from Piombino, rapidly subduing all but the fortress of Porto Ferrajo, which was besieged. Ganteaume's ships bombarded the fortress on 6 May, but an outbreak of typhus in the squadron significantly reduced its operational effectiveness. Ganteaume therefore divided his force, taking four ships with healthy crews south, while Formidable, Indomptable and Desaix, and the frigate Créole were all too undermanned to perform efficiently, and were sent back to Toulon. Having reorganised his force, Ganteaume passed through the Straits of Messina on 25 May. On 5 June off Brindisi, the squadron sighted and chased the British frigate HMS Pique under Captain James Young, which was able to effect an escape to Alexandria and warn Keith of Ganteaume's approach. A planned rendezvous off Brindisi with three Neapolitan frigates did not occur, and by 7 June the squadron was close enough to Egypt for Ganteaume to send his corvette Héliopolis to investigate the situation at Alexandria. On 9 June, Héliopolis reached the Egyptian coast and immediately came under pursuit from the British ships of the line HMS Kent and HMS Hector and a brig that had been detached from Lord Keith's fleet the previous day. Under pressure, the captain of Héliopolis sought safety in Alexandria harbour, which was still in French hands, and became trapped there. Keith meanwhile, acting on the report of Captain Young who had arrived on 7 June, had turned the remainder of his ships to the west in search of Ganteaume. When the corvette did not return to his squadron, Ganteaume assumed that it had been captured and that a powerful enemy presence lay off the harbour. Believing that a landing in Egypt itself would be impossible, he searched for an alternative site, and determined that the soldiers aboard should be landed at Benghazi, a small town situated between Tripoli and Alexandria. On sighting the French the inhabitants formed a militia, their control of the available beaches rendering a landing impractical. Even as the French squadron dropped anchor off Benghazi, the first ships of Keith's fleet appeared to the east. Ganteaume panicked and instructed his captains to cut their anchor cables and flee to the west. The two storeships, much slower than the rest of the squadron, were abandoned by the warships and were subsequently seized by the fast frigate HMS Vestal under Captain Valentine Collard. Ganteaume's surviving squadron gradually outran Keith's pursuit and on 24 June was sailing off Cape Derna when a sail was sighted to the northeast. Ganteaume ordered his ships to pursue, and the strange ship was discovered to be the British ship of the line HMS Swiftsure under Captain Benjamin Hallowell, which had been despatched by Keith to warn Warren's squadron that Ganteaume was in the Eastern Mediterranean. Although he attempted a series of increasingly desperate manoeuveres in his efforts to escape, Hallowell's ship was in poor repair and under-crewed and after a short exchange of fire, was forced to surrender. Without any warning, Warren was not able to intercept Ganteaume's return, and the French squadron was able to reach Toulon unharmed on 22 July. ## Aftermath Heliopolis was the only one of Ganteaume's ships to reach the Egyptian garrison, joining the frigate Régénérée and the corvette Lodi that had each made the passage independently and had arrived on 1 March. It was the last reinforcement for the Army of Egypt: without Ganteaume's supplies and with the Royal Navy dominant in the Eastern Mediterranean, the French forces in Egypt were outnumbered by the British expeditionary force and defeated in a campaign during the summer of 1801, surrendering at the Capitulation of Alexandria in August. Although he totally failed to achieve his primary objective, Ganteaume's naval forces had significantly reinforced the battered French Mediterranean fleet: the ships that were detached at Elba in May were subsequently engaged at the Battles of Algeciras in July, at which another British ship of the line was captured but the Franco-Spanish force suffered severe losses. Although he was the subject of severe criticism by Bonaparte, historian William Laird Clowes, writing in 1900, considered that Ganteaume had done well to prevent his squadron being overwhelmed by the British, particularly during the attempt to land at Benghazi when he almost suffered a repeat of the situation at the Nile in 1798, with his ships anchored close inshore as a British fleet bore down on them. This precarious position, described by Clowes as a "mad idea", was not one of Ganteaume's choosing: it had been dictated by Bonaparte before he departed Toulon for the second time. Clowes considered that Ganteaume's "caution was, after all, less dangerous to his country than the rash and infatuated naval strategy of his master". Ganteaume did not hold another sea command, but was made commander of the Mediterranean and governor of Toulon following the Peace of Amiens in March 1802. ## Order of battle
470,260	Night Trap	1,170,591,761	1992 interactive movie	[ "1990s horror video games", "1992 video games", "3DO Interactive Multiplayer games", "Classic Mac OS games", "DOS games", "Digital Pictures", "Full motion video based games", "Interactive movie video games", "Nintendo Switch games", "Obscenity controversies in video games", "PlayStation 4 games", "PlayStation Vita games", "Sega 32X games", "Sega CD games", "Sega video games", "Single-player video games", "Video games about vampires", "Video games developed in the United States", "Virgin Interactive games", "Windows games" ]	Night Trap is a 1992 interactive movie developed by Digital Pictures and published by Sega for the Sega CD. Presented primarily through full-motion video (FMV), Night Trap tasks the player to observe teenage girls having a sleepover visiting a house which, unbeknownst to them, is infested with vampires. The player watches live surveillance footage and triggers traps to capture anyone endangering the girls. The player can switch between different cameras to keep watch over the girls and eavesdrop on conversations to follow the story and listen for clues. The Night Trap concept originated in a 1986 prototype game developed by Axlon to demonstrate their Control-Vision game console to Hasbro. The system used VHS tape technology to present film-like gaming experiences. With the system picked up by Hasbro, the production of Night Trap commenced. The video footage was recorded in 1987, followed by six months of editing and game programming. Hasbro suddenly canceled the Control-Vision in 1989, which prompted the game's executive producer, Tom Zito, to purchase the film footage and found Digital Pictures to complete Night Trap. Night Trap was eventually released in October 1992 as the first interactive movie on the Sega CD. Night Trap received mixed reviews; critics praised the B movie-esque quality, humor, and video animation, but criticized the gameplay as shallow. The game was one of the principal subjects of a 1993 United States Senate committee hearing on violent video games, along with Mortal Kombat. Night Trap was cited during the hearing as promoting gratuitous violence and sexual aggression against women, prompting toy retailers Toys "R" Us and Kay-Bee Toys to pull the game from shelves that December, and Sega to cease producing copies in January 1994. The Senate hearing led to the creation of the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB), the North American video game ratings board still used today. After the controversy subsided, Night Trap was ported to other consoles, including the 32X, 3DO Interactive Multiplayer, MS-DOS, and Mac OS. It was re-released in 2017 and 2018 for eighth-generation consoles to mark its 25th anniversary. Retrospective reviews of Night Trap were negative, owing to FMV's aging appeal as a game medium, and it has been cited as one of the worst video games of all time. ## Gameplay Night Trap is an interactive movie video game that uses full motion video (FMV) to present the story and gameplay. The player is instructed by the in-game police squad to watch live surveillance footage of the Martin household and trigger traps to capture anyone that is seen endangering the house guests. Cameras are situated in eight locations in and around the house: the entryway, living room, kitchen, bedroom, bathroom, driveway, and two hallways. A map is available as well so the player can see how the rooms are connected. The player can freely switch between viewing the different cameras to keep up with house activities and pick up clues from conversations. Kelli, an undercover agent, will also provide clues to the player. The player must avoid trapping her, any other agent, or the house guests. When someone is within range of a trap, a sensor bar will move into a red zone. Activating the trap at this moment will capture them. If the trap is activated when the bar is not in the red zone, the trap will not work and will become disabled for a short period of time. The traps will also only work if the access code is correct. There are six possible access codes, and the player can eavesdrop on conversations to find out when the Martins change the code. When a new code is learned, the player must wait until the speaker leaves the room before changing the access code to the correct color to maintain control of the traps. Counters on the screen indicate how many perpetrators have entered the house and how many have been captured. ## Cast - Dana Plato as Kelly - Tracy Matheson as Cindy - Debra Parks as Lisa - Allison Rhea as Ashley - Christy Ford as Megan - Jon Rashad Kamal as Victor Martin - Marion "Molly" Starr as Sheila Martin - Suzy Cote as Sarah Martin - Andras Jones as Jeff Martin - Giovanni Lemm as Tony - William Bertrand as Eddie ## Plot The opening exposition to Night Trap is presented to the player by Cmdr. Simms of the Sega Control Attack Team (S.C.A.T.) on Sega CD, or Special Control Attack Team in other versions. He explains that the team was alerted to the disappearance of five teenage girls who were last seen at the Martin winery estate. The Martin family consists of Victor Martin, his wife Sheila, their children Jeff and Sarah, and cousin Tony. The missing girls were reportedly invited to stay for the night. Police questioned the Martin family, but they claimed the girls had left safely, and they refused to let the police search the property. The police then handed over the case to S.C.A.T., which investigated the house and discovered a series of traps, security cameras, and an operational unit in the basement to control the apparatus. The S.C.A.T. agents spliced an override cable onto the control system and connected it to a control panel in the back hallway of the house. The player is given the role of an internal S.C.A.T. operative charged with controlling the traps and cameras from this back hallway. Five more teenage girls head towards the estate, Kelli, Ashley, Lisa, Cindy, and Megan. S.C.A.T. has placed agent Kelli Medd within the group as an undercover agent. The girls are not aware of her true identity. Also with the girls is Danny, Lisa's younger brother. The house is invaded by Augers, vampiric beings that need blood to survive. The Martin family themselves are full vampires. The following events and the ending vary widely depending on which characters the player saves from the Augers. ## Development ### Concept Rob Fulop, developer of Demon Attack (1982) and other Atari games, began working with Atari founder Nolan Bushnell at his company Axlon shortly after the video game crash of 1983. James Riley was also working with Bushnell at the time on a series of interactive retail advertising campaigns. Riley received a call from Fulop, his neighbor, who explained that an engineer presented an interesting device to another one of Bushnell's employees, Tom Zito. The system used VHS technology to create movie-like gaming experiences and allowed four video tracks to be played simultaneously. The team dubbed this system "NEMO" (Never Ever Mention Outside). Zito wanted to put together some demos to present the technology to Hasbro. Riley wanted to create an environment the player could move freely about, leading to the idea of surveillance cameras. Fulop and Riley were inspired by the play Tamara (1981) which ran parallel stories running in 13 different rooms. The audience would need to decide for themselves which stories they wanted to follow. Fulop and Riley watched the play three times over the course of a weekend in 1985. Fulop and Riley liked the design model and thought it would make a good basis for an interactive media experience. A prototype game titled Scene of the Crime was produced to demonstrate the new technology to Hasbro and test the surveillance camera gameplay. It was a short five-minute demo where the player follows suspicious characters around a house to find who stole a stash of money. The player switches between cameras to observe the characters and eavesdrop on their conversations; all the characters have a plot to steal the money. At the end of the game, the player must guess who stole the money. In December 1986, the team flew to Hasbro headquarters in Pawtucket, Rhode Island and pitched the technology to Hasbro CEO Stephen Hassenfeld and a boardroom of 22 executives who liked the system and gave funding to support further development for the technology and games. Ready to begin work on a full game, the NEMO team returned to the idea of surveillance cameras but wanted to make a more interactive and engaging experience. Zito originally had a plan for an interactive movie based on the A Nightmare on Elm Street film series. After negotiations with the film studio fell through, Zito hired Terry McDonell to write an original script. A cross-functional team of writers, directors, game designers, and programmers discussed how to blend the art of film with the interactivity of video games to create a compelling interactive narrative. The initial idea was to take the basis of Scene of the Crime to an extreme with a billionaire leaving an extremely large sum of money alone in a large house, guarded by a state-of-the-art security system. In this concept, the billionaire's daughter is staying at the house with her teenage friends when the house is attacked by ninja burglars who are attempting to steal the money. Through much deliberation, the game evolved into the final vampire concept seen in Night Trap. Hasbro was concerned that the game may feature "reproducible violence". As a result, Hasbro did not want the vampires, later dubbed Augers, to bite or move too quickly. In addition, the device used by the Augers to drain blood from their victims was purposely designed to pass Hasbro's non-reproducible violence requirements. ### Production and release Night Trap was developed over six months and was part movie shoot and part programming. The film was shot on 35 mm film in Culver City, CA across 16 days in 1987, with editing taking another few months. The film was directed by James Riley. The director of photography was Don Burgess, who later went on to shoot the award-winning Forrest Gump (1994). Originally the set was going to be darker, but it was made brighter for fear the footage would pixelate in-game. The script was unusual because it was built around the multi-linear gameplay. Riley was focused on timing the shoots correctly to sync the movement of actors among the rooms. There were four scenes occurring simultaneously at any given time, although there were eight rooms (the other four being still images). Dana Plato was the most famous actor involved, known for her work on the American sitcom Diff'rent Strokes (1978–86). Plato's career was spiraling downward at the time, partially due to her personal problems with drugs and alcohol. Fulop recounted that at first, she was very professional, but later she began showing up late and did not want to rehearse. The Augers were played by stuntmen. They developed a hobbling walk so that they would always be prepared to fall when the traps dropped under their feet. The software was developed concurrently with the filming and editing. Through developing Night Trap, Fulop and his team came to realize their old-fashioned development methods did not always work with interactive movies. The team could not go back and "tweak" on-screen elements and other assets, such as inserting new scenes or changing the time an actor comes into view. They had to work with the video footage they were handed over. Night Trap was ready for the launch of the NEMO in 1989 alongside another interactive movie, Sewer Shark. Both games had a combined budget of about US\$4.5 million (\$1.5 million for Night Trap, and \$3 million for Sewer Shark) making them two of the most expensive video games of the era. However, just before the launch of the NEMO in early 1989, which was now called the Control-Vision, Hasbro canceled the system release. The company cited high hardware costs as the reason. The system was originally intended to sell for \$199, but the high manufacturing costs of the system's DRAM drove it to US\$299 (equivalent to \$705.88 in 2022). In contrast, the market-leading Nintendo Entertainment System sold for around \$100 in 1989. Riley also cited the high cost of filmmaking for deterring Hasbro. Fulop went on to form PF Magic, which later created the Petz virtual pet simulation series. Zito purchased the rights to the abandoned Control-Vision games, and after learning that Sony was considering Sewer Shark for a release on its forthcoming Super NES CD-ROM, he founded his own company to bring them to the system, Digital Pictures. When the Super NES CD-ROM failed to materialize, Zito began working with Sega for a release on the Sega CD. Night Trap transitioned from VHS to CD-ROM and was released in 1992 for the Sega CD, five years after it was originally filmed. In May 1993, British censors banned the game from being sold to children under 15 years old in the United Kingdom, which led to Sega creating the Videogame Rating Council (VRC) age rating system. Sega also released the Sega CD version in Japan on November 19, 1993. ## United States congressional hearings On December 9, 1993, a United States Senate committee held a hearing on the subject of video game violence. The hearing was led by senators Joe Lieberman and Herb Kohl and was covered in major newspapers including USA Today, The Washington Post and The New York Times. At the hearing, the committee scrutinized Night Trap along with Midway's Mortal Kombat (1992). Lieberman claimed Night Trap featured gratuitous violence and promoted sexual aggression against women. One game over scene considered particularly offensive involved the nightgown-clad character Lisa being captured by Augers attempting to drain her blood. Tom Zito attempted to explain the context of the nightgown scene in defense of the game, but he claims he was silenced. In the short documentary Dangerous Games (included with PC versions), the producers and cast explained the plot was to prevent the trapping and killing of women. In addition, the blood draining device was intended to look unrealistic to mitigate the violence. There are scenes in which the girls are grabbed or pulled by enemies, but no nudity or extreme acts of violence. Fulop was irked that Night Trap was compared to Mortal Kombat, which features ultraviolent gore, such as a character ripping the heart out of an opponent. During the hearings, Nintendo of America senior vice president Howard Lincoln testified that Night Trap would never appear on a Nintendo system because it did not pass its guidelines. Fulop believed Lincoln was referring to technical guidelines—Night Trap could not run on a Nintendo system due to the lack of a CD-ROM drive—but Lincoln made it sound as if the game was unworthy of Nintendo's moral standards. Critics noted this as a deliberate move from Nintendo to distance itself from the scandal and make Sega look unfavorable. As a result of the publicity generated by the hearings, retailers sold 50,000 copies of Night Trap the following week. Two weeks before Christmas, the game was removed from store shelves in the United States' two largest toy store chains, Toys "R" Us and Kay-Bee Toys, after receiving numerous complaints that were suspected to be part of an organized telephone campaign. Both stores continued to stock Mortal Kombat. The Night Trap box art was also criticized by interest groups for what many believed to be a sexist depiction. In January 1994, Sega withdrew Night Trap from the market. Bill White, Sega Vice President of Marketing, stated that Night Trap was pulled because the continuing controversy surrounding it prevented constructive dialogue about an industry-wide rating system. He also stated that the game was misunderstood and was developed as a parody of vampire melodramas. Sega also announced in January the upcoming release of a censored version. The hearings led to the creation of the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) in 1994, the video game ratings board in North America still used today. After the controversy subsided, the game was ported to the 3DO, Sega 32X, MS-DOS, and Mac OS, each with a different cover from the original. Virgin Games released the 3DO version in Japan on June 25, 1994. ## Reception Initial reviews for Night Trap on the Sega CD were mixed. It was the first interactive movie on the system and was thus seen as breaking new ground in both genre and technology. Critics were quick to point out the game's B movie qualities that were reminiscent of teen horror movies. The staff at Sega Force said that playing the game was like "directing your own B movie. Night Trap makes you feel part of the game." Critics identified the "warped" and "tacky" sense of humor as helping the game's appeal and adding to its charm. From a technological perspective, the video was praised for being high-quality and smooth, although the Sega CD's low color capabilities were identified as a weakness. The most common point of complaint was the gameplay. Some critics cited it for being boring and shallow because it mostly involved pressing one button at the right time to trap the enemies. The staff at Computer and Video Games said Night Trap was reminiscent of Dragon's Lair (1983) and Space Ace (1984) and shared the same issues those games had with gameplay just being a matter of hitting buttons in the right moments. Reviewing the game in Wizard magazine, Glenn Rubenstein said that Night Trap "could be called the best game ever. Well maybe not the best, but it certainly is the most entertaining, that's for sure." He particularly praised the use of live actors and the need to play through the game multiple times in order to see everything. Ports of Night Trap to other platforms received more harsh reviews; critics said the game did not age well. Staff at GamePro said it was "innovative at one time, but Trap's graphics and sounds now play like standard stuff." Reviewers at GameFan blamed the game's extensive publicity for making it seem better than it truly was, saying "it's a so-so game that got a lot more attention than it deserved." Critics overwhelmingly found the game to be boring and dull. Next Generation called it "one of the most crashing bores ever released...this is a nongame." Critics agreed that the 3DO and 32X provided a larger color palette and higher-quality video than the Sega CD original. Night Trap was a commercial success, with sales totaling 400,000 copies by 1998. In retrospect, Night Trap is viewed negatively and is mostly remembered for the controversy it stirred. It was ranked the 12th worst video game of all-time by Electronic Gaming Monthly editor Seanbaby in 2001. He and other game journalists also featured the game in a 2007 episode of Broken Pixels, a comedy web series that covers bad and obscure games. Yahoo! Games listed it among the most controversial games of all-time in 2007, saying: "If it weren't for controversy...this throwaway Sega CD game would have drifted into obscurity as merely another failed attempt at marrying gameplay with live-action video." Game Informer listed the game among the worst horror games of all time in 2008. It was ranked number 59 on GamesRadar's 100 worst games of all time in 2014, in which they believed it was "less of a game and more a test of patience". In 1996, Computer Gaming World listed Night Trap at number six of 50 worst games of all time, saying that it was "the ultimate experience of FMV gone bad". ## Re-release In May 2014, Night Trap designer James Riley announced that he was in talks to re-release the game with improved resolution and gameplay. That August, a Kickstarter campaign appeared for the game's original creators, who formed a company titled Night Trap LLC. The developers said that if the campaign was successful, they would be looking into re-releasing other Digital Pictures titles. Furthermore, the company was also considering making a sequel to the original game. The Kickstarter failed, only gaining \$39,843 of its \$330,000 goal. Two years later, in May 2016, game developer Tyler Hogle created a tech demo of Night Trap being played on a smartphone. Hogle had previously worked on official ports for two other Digital Pictures games, Double Switch (1993) and Quarterback Attack (1995). He posted a short video of his Night Trap demo online anonymously, and some gaming websites published stories on the video and contacted Tom Zito to ask if he was involved. Hogle got into contact with Zito, and the two began working towards a full release. The original source code and 1987 master footage are lost. Riley, however, possessed a copy of the timed master footage and provided it to Hogle. Because the footage was already timed, it was easier for Hogle to develop; however, he had to replay the original game multiple times to learn what actions triggered which scenes. Night Trap: 25th Anniversary Edition was announced in April 2017 to commemorate the game's 25th anniversary. The game was released on PlayStation 4 and Windows on August 15, 2017, with an Xbox One release planned for the future. The game was developed and published by Hogle's Screaming Villains, and a limited-edition physical release by Limited Run Games was made available for the PlayStation 4 with three different cover art variations available that mimic the packaging of the original Sega CD release, the later Sega CD release, and the 32X version. The ESRB gave the re-release a "Teen" rating, a grade lower than the original's "Mature" rating. The anniversary edition of Night Trap uses the full uncompressed video footage with various new additions: deleted scenes including an introduction and a death scene featuring Danny, a behind-the-scenes developer commentary, a "theater mode" to watch all the story-related videos, a "survivor mode" which places Augers randomly in the house, and a playable version of Scene of the Crime. The anniversary edition was released on the Nintendo Switch on August 24, 2018. Some journalists found the Switch release ironic, given Lincoln's statement that "Night Trap will never appear on a Nintendo system" during the 1993 congressional hearings. A version for the PlayStation Vita was also released.
22,991,206	Como Duele (Ricardo Arjona song)	1,169,707,164	2008 single by Ricardo Arjona Perez	[ "2000s ballads", "2008 singles", "2008 songs", "Bachata songs", "Pop ballads", "Record Report Top Latino number-one singles", "Ricardo Arjona songs", "Songs written by Ricardo Arjona", "Spanish-language albums", "Warner Music Latina singles" ]	"Como Duele" (English: How Much It Hurts) is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona, released on 4 November 2008 as the lead single from his eleventh studio album, 5to Piso (2008). The song was written and produced by Arjona along with longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos, with additional production work and background vocals from Puerto Rican singer-songwriter Tommy Torres. "Como Duele" is the first single Arjona releases after signing a record deal with Warner Music in 2008, after being signed to Sony Music since 1993. Lyrically, "Como Duele" was intended to show "the monotony that attacks the couples that have many years together, the lack of passion and regretted love that seems to pose over them." The song became an commercial success for Arjona, becoming his first top ten single in the US Billboard Top Lating Songs since 2005 and, with a peak of No.2, his highest entry on that list since "El Problema" in 2002. It also became his sixth song to top the Latin Pop Songs chart, as well as reaching the top in Mexico and Venezuela. "Como Duele" was critically praised by media outlets, receiving comparisons to Arjona's previous song "Olvidarte", and being considered as his "biggest hit in years". An accompanying music video for "Como Duele" was released in September 2008. It was directed by Ricardo Calderón and filmed in Mexico City. In the clip, focused on a department which rooms are being moved, Arjona is shown inside a room that goes empty, and everything that gave life to the place is going away until the department is finally demolished. "Como Duele" was included in the set list of Arjona's Quinto Piso Tour (2009) and Metamorfosis World Tour (2012). ## Background After spending the majority of his career signed to Sony, and later, Sony BMG, Arjona signed a long-term recording deal with Warner Music Latina. The deal was closed in September 2008. Iñigo Zabala, chairman of Warner Music Latin America commented that "He's an artist that fits perfectly with our company," and that "We are a label that has a major catalog of songwriters and quality pop and rock from the likes of Maná, Alejandro Sanz, Laura Pausini, and now, Arjona." In an interview, the singer commented that while composing 5to Piso he "tried to recoup some of the freshness" of his past releases, stating that "it makes so good to the songs". He further stated that he believes "all albums are result of an evolution, and contradictions either", also stating that he celebrated contradictions as part of life. Arjona begun working on the album as early as 2005. Talking about the process of recording the album, he stated that "We must work to make the albums comfortable to us", further commenting that "The rest is a matter of how good or bad the albums defend themselves." ## Composition "Como Duele" is a latin pop ballad about "the monotony that attacks the couples that have many years together, the lack of passion and regretted love that seems to pose over them." Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic called the song "phenomenal", and considered it as to be "his biggest hits in years". He also named it, alongside "Sin Ti.. Sin Mi" and "El Del Espejo", to be a standout track from the album. An editor from El Mercurio Online commented that "Como Duele" is "a ballad of merciless chords and lyrics plagued of contradictions made metaphors." He also stated that "Is the logic of [past Arjona's single] 'Olvidarte', that song in which the guatemalan talked about making something as difficult as 'pulling the hair out of a bottle'," and compared it to his past song "Olvidarte", from Sin Daños a Terceros. ## Chart performance "Como Duele" became a commercial success for Arjona. In the United States, the song reached number two and became Arjona's first top ten single in the Billboard Top Latin Songs since "Acompañame A Estar Solo", which reached number seven in 2005, and his highest-charting single there since "El Problema", which reached number one back in 2002. "Como Duele" became Arjona's sixth song to reach number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart after debuting at number eight, and is the first to do so since "Acompañame A Estar Solo". Additionally, the song appeared on the Latin Regional Mexican Airplay chart at number 33, and at number 69 on the Radio Songs chart, being the only song ever by the artist to chart on the latter. "Como Duele" became a hit in Latin America, reaching number one position in Mexico and Venezuela. On the Billboard year-end charts for 2009, "Como Duele" finished at number 40 on the Top Latin Songs chart, and at number 14 on the Latin Pop Songs chart. ## Music video The music video for "Como Duele" was shot in Mexico City in September 2008, in a forum and some other places in the city. It was released on 20 October and was directed by the Mexican filmmaker Ricardo Calderón, who later in 2012 joined Arjona on his own record label, Metamorfosis. The story takes place in a department which rooms are being moved, and in where Arjona lived with his couple. As the video progresses, the room goes empty, and everything that gave life to the place is going away until the department if finally demolished. ## Credits and personnel The credits are taken from the iTunes exclusive digital booklet. Personnel - Arrangements – Chris McDonald, Dan Warner, Lee Levin, Tommy Torres - Backing Vocals – Tommy Torres - Bass, Guitar – Dan Warner - Cello – Anthony LaMarchina, Carole Rabinowitz - Drums, Percussion – Lee Levin - Recording engineer (Assistant) – Matt Helman - Keyboards – Peter Wallace - Mixing engineer(s) – David Thoener - Piano – Matt Rollings - Producer – Dan Warner, Lee Levin, Tommy Torres - Recording engineer(s) – Andres Saavedra, Bernard Levin, Dan Warner, Isaías García, Lee Levin, Randy Poole, Tommy Torres - Viola – Kristin Wilkinson, Monisa Angell - Violin – Alan Umstead, Carolyn Bailey, Cathy Umstead, Conni Ellisor, David Angell, Mary Katheryn VanOsdale, Pamela Sixfin - Violin, Concertmaster – Carl Gorodetzky ## Track listing - Digital Download 1. "Como Duele" – 3:30 - Bachata Version 1. "Como Duele" (featuring Voz a Voz) – 3:20 ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Yearly charts ## Release history
70,698,159	Ludwig Schaerer	1,155,744,030	Swiss clergyman and lichenologist	[ "1785 births", "1853 deaths", "19th-century Swiss scientists", "Scientists from Bern", "Swiss lichenologists", "Swiss theologians" ]	Ludwig Emanuel Schaerer (11 June 1785 – 3 February 1853) was a Swiss pastor and lichenologist. Interested in natural history from a young age, Schaerer trained as a teacher and studied theology in Bern. During his career as a teacher, orphanage director, and pastor, he researched extensively and maintained correspondence with foreign botanists interested in cryptogams. Schaerer was best known for his multi-volume work Lichenum Helveticorum Spicilegium ("Anthology of Swiss Lichens"), published in 12 parts from 1823 to 1842. This series catalogued and described the lichens of Switzerland, particularly those in the Alps, where he often went on collecting excursions. In another series, he compiled and distributed dried herbarium specimens acquired from his collections. Several lichen taxa have been named in honour of Schaerer. ## Early life and education Ludwig Schaerer was born on June 11, 1785, in Bern. His father, Johann Rudolf, was a professor of biblical studies and Hebrew and also a pastor in Bümpliz; his mother's name was Magdalena Rudolf. From a young age, Schaerer was interested in investigating the native flora of his home town. His early interest in natural history was later enhanced through his association with several botanists that lived in his home town. Despite his interests, he thought he had to obey the wishes of his parents and pursue an ecclesiastical career, and he devoted himself to the study of ancient languages and theology. He trained as a teacher and studied theology in Bern. From 1806 to 1808 he was a teacher at a primary school in Bern. He was ordained as part of the evangelical ministry in 1808. During this time, he had not forgotten about botany, and devoted his leisure time to its study. Because of the vastness of the field, he decided to specialize in the study of lichens, which were abundant in the nearby Alps, and which were relatively little known compared to the plant flora. He was a student of the botanist Nicolas Charles Seringe. ## Career A travel grant enabled him to visit the Universities of Halle and Berlin from 1811 to 1812. There he met several prominent botanists, such as Heinrich Funck, Carl Sprengel, Gustav Flörke, Carl Willdenow, and Heinrich Schrader. In particular, Flörke helped him with his study of lichens. Schaerer also traveled to the Harz and the Ore Mountains. Upon his return to Switzerland in 1814, Schaerer became a high school teacher and vice-principal (conrector) in Bern, but he kept up his botanical research as much as his other duties would allow. During his annual vacations, he would make collecting trips to the Alps, particularly to Bernese Oberland, Valais, Graubünden, and Ticino. These trips began in 1807 and continued almost uninterruptedly until near the end of his life. Both Nicolas Seringe and Albrecht von Haller initially helped him with identifying his collections. Schaerer was one of the founders of the Bern Society of Natural Sciences (Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Bern) in 1815. In 1817, Schaerer married Rosina Henzi, the daughter of Rudolf Jakob, a Bernese businessman. Their marriage resulted in a son and four daughters. It was around this time that he began publishing the results of his research. In 1819 he was administrator of the bourgeois orphanage in Bern. From 1826 to 1836, he was a pastor in Lauperswil (Canton of Bern) and from 1836 to 1852, in Belp. Schaerer researched extensively and maintained correspondence with foreign botanists interested in cryptogams, including Erik Acharius, Olof Swartz, Elias Magnus Fries, and Heinrich Gustav Flörke. He undertook the publication of an extensive work, Lichenum Helveticorum Spicilegium, which was published in 12 sections from 1823 to 1842. He simultaneously published Lichenes Helvetici exsiccati, a collection of dried herbarium specimens; this exsiccata series he continued working on until his death. By the time of his death, 650 collections were included in this exsiccata series. In 1836, Schaerer exchanged the post of orphanage administrator in Lauperswil for that of Belp, which brought him closer to Bern and his friends. He continued his frequent excursions in the surroundings and the neighbouring Alps, and was often visited and accompanied by foreign scholars. His contacts sometimes afforded him access to specimens from exotic or otherwise inaccessible locales. For example, in 1841, the already famous paleontologist and glaciologist Louis Agassiz led a group that climbed to the peak of the mountain Jungfrau in the Swiss Bernese Alps – an elevation of 4,158 m (13,642 ft). There they collected some high-altitude lichens found growing on exposed rocks; these specimens were later sent to Schaerer for further study. He determined that several of the species were already known from other alpine locations, but a new species he named Umbilicaria virginis to refer to the type locality (Jungfrau means "maiden" or "virgin" in German). The summer of 1847 was devoted to a trip to the Pyrenees, with the aim of comparing the vegetation of these mountains with that of the Alps. Enriched with his new observations, Schaerer began the publication of his Enumeratio Critica Lichenum Europaeorum ("Enumeration of the European lichens"), an illustrated work that depicted the type species of each genus. Because of the simple and natural classification proposed, and the precise and clear descriptions of the taxa, the work was well received by his contemporaries. As was noted more than a century later, this classification system was the last based mainly on external anatomy, without any consideration of spore structure. Schaerer had made known his thoughts regarding the use of microscopic characters as taxonomic characters in previous criticism of works by Kurt Sprengel and Ernst Meyer. He censured the abandonment of the old system of classification established by Erik Acharius, and doubted the usefulness of using the microscope to determine generic placement among the lichens. His skepticism towards microscopy is understandable considering that the defects of chromatic and spherical aberration were prevalent at the time – flaws that would not be resolved until better lenses were available in the 1830s. Schaerer's own observations on lichen structure were consequently of limited utility. For example, in a short paper published in 1820, although he correctly reported that the lichen thallus could comprise several superimposed layers, he misinterpreted the nature of the green cells in the lichen (the photobiont algal cells), calling them "globules" that he erroneously believed could function independently as propagules. ## Later life and death After completing his Enumeratio, Schaerer began another book of lichen exsiccati, but soon his health started to deteriorate. He complained of a weakening of memory, which made his work laborious. However, he followed with interest the new research of Charles and Edmond Tulasne and Carl Nägeli, on the anatomy and reproduction of lichens, and even undertook to observe the results by microscopic observations. His rapidly worsening bowel disease forced him to suspend his work. Schaerer died in his sleep, surrounded by his family, in Belp on February 3, 1853, at the age of 67 years and 8 months. In his obituary of Schaerer, his colleague Ludwig Fischer wrote of his character: "The uprightness of his character, the kindness of his heart and the great modesty with which he spoke of his own knowledge, leave a memory of regret and affection in all who lived in his privacy". Heinrich Guthnick wrote: "Schärer was a man of sublime character, adorned with a loving soul, therefore full of goodwill towards his fellow men, deeply loved by his family and all who had recognized these precious qualities in him." In a description of Schaerer's lichen exsiccata at the herbarium at the Montpellier Botanical Garden, Hervé Harant wrote "Segments of sentences in Latin, reminds us that he was one of those many clergymen who were passionate about lichenology". As of 1979, Schaerer's herbarium collections were mostly held at the Conservatory and Botanical Garden of the City of Geneva, with some held at the University of Glasgow. ## Recognition An lithograph image (created by Hubert Meyer [de]) and brief biography of Schaerer appeared in the journal Taxon's Portraits of Botanists series in 1973. In his analysis of the history of Swiss lichenology, Philippe Clerc considers Schaerer's output to mark the end of the "classic period" (dating before 1800 to 1840) where the Swiss lichen flora was still in its early days of documentation, and use of the microscope was not yet prevalent. In a 2007 publication, Geir Hestmark [no] analysed Schaerer's contribution to the knowledge of the genus Umbilicaria. He noted that in general, Schaerer published "many valuable observations on the morphology and reproductive structures of these lichens", but that "with regard to the delimitation of Umbilicaria species, their variation and nomenclature, he appears to have been very confused". ### Eponymy The genus Schaereria Körb. (1855) honours Schaerer. He has also had several lichen species named after him, including: Arthonia schaereri A.Massal. (1855); Buellia schaereri De Not. (1846) Calicium schaereri De Not. (1846); Cyphelium schaereri De Not. (1846); Lecanora schaereri Ach. (1839); Lecidea schaereri Flörke (1881); Nephroma schaereri De Not. (1851); Ochrolechia schaereri Hafellner; Pannaria schaereri A.Massal. (1852); Parmelia schaereri Fr. (1831); Pertusaria schaereri Hafellner (2001); Physcia schaereri Hepp (1854); Pyrenula schaereri A.Massal. (1854); Sphaeria schaereri A.Massal. (1853); Sporoblastia schaereri Trevis. (1856); Sporodictyon schaererianum A.Massal. (1852); Sticta schaereri Mont. & Bosch (1856); Thelotrema schaereri Hepp (1853); and Verrucaria schaereriana Servít (1948). ## Selected works - Lichenes Helvetici exsiccati, fasc. 1–26, nos. 1–650. Bern 1823–1852. (Exsiccata) ## See also \: Category:Taxa named by Ludwig Schaerer \: Commons:Category:Neuchâtel Herbarium Schaerer Project – contains images of many specimens in the Lichenes Helvetici series
3,277,002	Jeff Heath	1,153,729,102	American baseball player	[ "1915 births", "1975 deaths", "American League All-Stars", "Baseball people from Ontario", "Baseball players from Seattle", "Boston Braves players", "Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame inductees", "Canadian emigrants to the United States", "Cleveland Indians players", "Cleveland Indians scouts", "Garfield High School (Seattle) alumni", "Major League Baseball left fielders", "Major League Baseball players from Canada", "Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players", "Seattle Rainiers players", "Sportspeople from Thunder Bay", "St. Louis Browns players", "Washington Huskies baseball players", "Washington Senators (1901–1960) players", "Zanesville Greys players" ]	John Geoffrey Heath (April 1, 1915 – December 9, 1975) was a Canadian-born American left fielder in Major League Baseball (MLB) who played most of his career for the Cleveland Indians. He was one of the American League's most promising power hitters of the late 1930s and early 1940s, twice led the AL in triples, and batted at least .340 with over 100 runs batted in (RBIs) each time. In 1941 he was selected to his first All-Star Game and that same season became the first player from the American League to become a member of the 20–20–20 club when he hit 20 each of doubles, triples and home runs in the same season. His other All-Star Game selections were in 1943 and 1945. Heath played for the Washington Senators and St. Louis Browns during the 1946 season and the National League's (NL) Boston Braves beginning in 1948. He incurred a compound fracture to his ankle in late September 1948 in a game in Brooklyn shortly after Boston had clinched the pennant. Subsequently, the Braves were without their starting left fielder for the 1948 World Series. In 1949, Heath's last season in the majors, sportswriter Franklin Lewis wrote, "There was the inimitable Heath who...should have been one of the greatest players in history. But there were no valves on his temper. He grinned in the manner of a schoolboy or he snarled with the viciousness of a tiger." ## Early life Heath was born April 1, 1915, in Fort William, Ontario. His family moved to Victoria, British Columbia before settling in Seattle, Washington. He attended Garfield High School in Seattle where he played baseball and football. As a freshman, he made the varsity baseball squad. Heath was a multi-sport athlete and was offered scholarships from various schools to play American football. University of Washington head coach Jimmy Phelan said Heath was the best fullback in the country. Heath chose a future in baseball, however, and in 1935, he signed with the Yakima Bears of the semipro Northwest League, where he hit .390. He was selected as an All-American amateur team member, managed by Les Mann and played games in Japan. For the tour his batting average was .483. Heath faced difficulties being allowed re-entry upon the team's arrival to the U.S. and became a naturalized U.S. citizen. Cleveland Indians scout Willie Kamm helped sign Heath to a contract with the organization in 1936. Kamm said, "If this kid isn't a big leaguer I've wasted a lot of time learning baseball." He reported to spring training with the New Orleans Pelicans of the Southern Association. One of his hands became infected and the Indians moved him to their Class C Mid-Atlantic team, the Zanesville Greys. With the Greys, he hit league-bests with 187 RBIs and a .383 average, while his 28 home runs were second-most. He was called up to join the Indians before the 1936 season ended. ## Cleveland Indians Heath batted left-handed and threw right-handed and was listed as 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m) tall and 200 pounds (91 kg) (14 stone, 4). He broke in with the Indians in 1936 at the age of 21, appeared in 12 games with the club and recorded a .341 batting average and seven extra-base hits. During spring training leading up to the 1937 season, Heath was describing as getting "as much attention as the backline of a Broadway chorus." He appeared in 20 games and hit .230 for the season. During spring training before the 1938 season, Indians manager Oscar Vitt said Heath was "the best natural hitter I've seen since Joe Jackson." One columnist described Vitt's decision to employ Heath: "Vitt finally decided to use Jeff Heath, the chap with the bulging muscles, in his left pasture. There are few better hitters in the American league than the husky from Washington. Jeff is not the most graceful ballhawk in captivity and he may toss to the wrong base, but put a bat in his hands and the opposition's pitcher will tremble." In his first full season in 1938, he batted .343 – behind only batting champion Jimmie Foxx's .349 – while leading the league with 18 triples. Upon the conclusion of the season, Heath joined fellow American League (AL) players, and Indians teammate Bob Feller, in exhibition games played around the country (also known as barnstorming), mostly in cities which did not have a major league team. He had 21 home runs and 112 RBIs, collected 58 hits in August alone, and was among the league leaders in slugging average and total bases for the 1938 season. In January 1939, he married Theabelle Callard. He finished with a .292 batting average in 1939. The season also included a late-season punch to a fan from Heath during a home game in Cleveland. "It was just another blunder in a bad season that has been full of mistakes", Heath said of the incident. Before the 1940 season, Heath said, "I'm going to show 'em I'm no flash in the pan. Last year I was overswinging and taking my eye of the ball. I'm not going to do that this season." During the season, Heath was one of 12 reported players who presented a list of grievances against Vitt to Indians President Alva Bradley. Bradley called a meeting with the players and by the end of it, a statement of support from the players for Vitt was released. Twenty-one Indians signed the document, while Heath was one of four who did not, as he was one of two in the hospital at the time of the meeting. Instances between Vitt and his players, including Heath, continued past June, however. Heath was suspended by Vitt after a game in August after the two exchanged words following a strikeout by Heath, who was put in the game as a pinch-hitter. Indians Vice President C.C. Slapnicka withdrew the suspension. The Indians finished the regular season with an 89–65 record in Vitt's last season as manager and Heath a career-low .219 average. The Indians lost the AL pennant by one game to the Detroit Tigers and Heath received much of the blame, although Vitt was released as the team's manager and replaced by Roger Peckinpaugh. Peckinpaugh announced in December 1940 Heath would remain a starting outfielder with the club. Heath came back in 1941 with a season campaign in which he again led the AL with 20 triples, batted .340 (fourth in the league), and was third in slugging behind Ted Williams and Joe DiMaggio. He also finished second in total bases and RBIs (behind DiMaggio) as well as second in hits, made his first All-Star team, and finished eighth in the Most Valuable Player award voting. He became the first AL player to make the 20-20-20 club, having recorded 20 doubles, triples and home runs in one season. In 1941, Heath became the first player in American League history to record a 20-20-20 season. Heath had 32 doubles, 20 triples, and 24 home runs. This feat would not be equaled until George Brett accomplished the feat in 1979. Heath worked as a draftsman for Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation during the off-season leading up to 1943. In years previous, Heath had been described as "lazy" and "lacking aggressiveness" but the 1943 season appeared to be different, including investing extra time in batting practice. He was selected for the All-Star Game and finished fourth in the AL in home runs with 18. Heath was rejected in 1944 for military duty due to knee problems. During the 1944 season Heath was mainly used as a pinch-hitter. In the off-season he underwent knee surgery and entered a contract dispute with the Indians. He did not join the team until June of the 1945 season after a two-month holdout. Despite missing the beginning part of the season, he was still named an All-Star although the game was not played due to travel restrictions during World War II. He finished the season with a batting average of .305 and his 15 home runs were fifth in the AL. In 1943 he became the second player born outside the U.S. to hit 100 home runs, and he surpassed George Selkirk with his 109th home run in 1945. Heath, who had acquired the nickname "Lord Jeff", was called a "problem child" by Indian player-manager Lou Boudreau. Peckinpaugh once said that Heath "could have been one of the greatest players. He had the ability to do about anything. He could run, he could throw, and he could hit. But he just had no hustle, no nothing. If a ball went by him, he just might walk after it." In December 1945 the Indians traded Heath to the Washington Senators where he started in right field. ## Washington Senators and St. Louis Browns In 1946, Senators' President Clark Griffith agreed to send outfielder George Case to Cleveland in exchange for Heath. Of the trade, Griffith said, "We've sacrificed plenty of speed for a man of tremendous hitting power." During spring training, the addition of Heath led to the Senators being described as a "dark horse." The Associated Press continued: "Heath's performance may be the key to the Senators' fate. The husky Canadian is the kind of slugger Washington was crying for last fall. He can break up a ball game with one mighty swish of his bat but, to put it mildly, there always has been an uncertain quality about him. Big Jeff was dissatisfied in Cleveland, didn't like the ballpark, didn't like the management, didn't like anything. Still, he has been a most valuable hitter, perhaps one of the best in the game when he is settled down to business." But Heath would appear in just 48 games with the Senators. He finished with the team hitting .283 with four home runs and 27 RBIs, his last game on June 15 before he was traded to the St. Louis Browns in mid-June for Al LaMacchia and Joe Grace. In his first game with the Browns on June 17 he went 1-for-3 with one RBI. The Browns, who were 23–32 at the time Heath joined the club, finished the 1946 season 66–88. Heath finished with 12 home runs and 57 RBIs in 86 games with the Browns. Again, the Heath tendency for resentment and trouble led to the Browns trade. Washington had a utility infielder, Sherry Robertson, who was the nephew of owner Clark Griffith. During games, Heath would ride Robertson on the bench, calling him "owner's pet", in reference to the possibility that Robertson was only on the team due to that relationship, and the possibility that Robertson was better paid than Heath. This was the subject of a column in the Washington Post after Heath was gone by longtime sports writer Shirley Povich, who hated to see the Heath bat leave Washington. The Browns were the second team in the AL to add black players to their roster after the Indians signed Larry Doby in July 1947. Willard Brown and Hank Thompson were teammates of Heath's during the 1947 season, but Heath was described as committing a "petulant display of prejudice" towards Brown after Brown hit a home run with one of Heath's old bats. Brown preferred to use a heavy bat and did not bring his own after being told by the Browns the team would supply him with bats. Brown found one of Heath's damaged bats and applied tape to the affix the knob to the end of the bat. When he tried to use the bat during a game, the umpire told him he could not use the bat with tape applied, so Brown discarded the loose fragments of the bat and proceeded to hit a home run during the at-bat. When he returned to the dugout, however, Heath destroyed the bat when he hit it against the dugout wall. Heath had a career-high 27 home runs during the 1947 season, but the Browns finished in eighth and last place in the AL. In the Browns' final game, Heath was already in the clubhouse showers when it was his turn to bat in the ninth inning. Upon the conclusion of the season, Browns management was looking to overhaul the team roster. Browns General Manager Bill DeWitt tried to shop Heath to a National League team rather than leave him in the AL. On December 4 it was announced the Boston Braves of the National League had acquired Heath. ## Boston Braves Unlike the Browns, the Braves were contenders all the way to the end of the 1948 season. In a game against the Philadelphia Phillies on September 3, and with the Braves tied for the NL lead, Heath hit a two-run home run and the Braves went on to win the game, 3–1, and stayed in first place for the remainder of the regular season. With the Braves up five games in the NL standings and four games remaining on their regular season schedule, the Braves had a match-up with the Brooklyn Dodgers on September 29 but according to teammate Clint Conatser, Heath asked Braves manager Billy Southworth for the night off but his request was denied. During the game, Heath attempted to score from second base and slid towards home plate to try and beat the tag by Dodgers catcher Roy Campanella. As he slid, his foot got caught in the dirt which caused his ankle to twist. "I began to slide about five feet from the plate. Funny thing, I generally get my spikes up off the ground, but this time I didn't. I looked at my foot, which was twisted all the way around, and honestly I thought it would come right off", Heath said the next day from a local hospital. After playing in the majors for parts of 12 years, he would be forced to miss the World Series as it was later diagnosed he fractured his ankle. He called the broken ankle "the biggest disappointment of my life." A widely published newspaper photograph of the play showed Heath sliding toward the plate, mouth open in shock, with his leg bent mid-ankle with the lower ankle rotated ninety degrees to the upper ankle. He was quoted asking himself "Why did I slide?" when he was carried off the field on a stretcher and later put in an ambulance. In 1964, Heath said: "I guess I didn't tuck my leg while sliding. Carl Furillo (Dodger rightfielder) made the throw. He had a great arm and I was out a mile. They (sportswriters) said it was an unnecessary slide in a game that didn't mean anything. The hell it was, you always slide. Besides Johnny Sain (Braves pitcher) was after his 23rd win and we wanted to shove Brooklyn into third place." Heath's regular season came to an end, as he batted .319 with 20 home runs on the season. The Braves' season came to an end after six games in the World Series as they lost to the Indians, four games to two. Heath played in the minors the following season before eventually rejoining the Braves during the 1949 season. In a game on August 28, Heath helped tie the Cincinnati Reds with a home run in the ninth inning and helped win the game for the Braves with another in the 10th inning. He ended his final major league season after 36 games into the 1949 season. He batted .306 with nine homers and 23 RBIs. In October 1949, the Braves placed Heath on waivers and general manager John Quinn offered him a managing position with a team in the Braves farm system, but he never accepted Quinn's offer to manage. Baseball historian Bill James when summarizing the 1940s listed Heath as the recipient for his designation of "A Better Ballplayer Than a Human Being." Southworth said, "They told me when I got him from the American League that Heath was a troublemaker. If he is, I'd sure like to have eight other troublemakers like him." ## Retirement Before he retired from professional baseball, Heath appeared in 57 games for the Seattle Rainiers of the Pacific Coast League. He was later fired from the team. In 1951, he was given a trial basis with the Rainiers but was never signed. Sportswriter Franklin Lewis interviewed Heath and asked if he would do anything differently in his career if he was given the chance. Heath responded, "I wouldn't gag around as much. I shouldn't have popped off. It's all right for little guys to talk loud, but not a big ox like me." In his 14-season major league career, Heath posted a .293 batting average and a .509 slugging average, with 194 home runs, 1,447 hits, 887 RBIs, 777 runs, 279 doubles, 102 triples and 56 stolen bases in 1,383 games played. Defensively, he recorded a .972 fielding percentage as an outfielder. Bobby Thomson surpassed him in 1955 to become the major leagues' home run leader among foreign-born players. Heath was the first player to hit a home run in all AL and NL ballparks. He was named as one of the "Top 100 Greatest Indians." In 1988 he was inducted into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame. He worked briefly as a scout for the Cleveland Indians. He later worked as a color commentator with the Rainiers and did advertising work in the Seattle area. During one game while Heath provided commentary, he cursed into the microphone on-air and later apologized. A station manager later approached him regarding the incident and Heath responded by throwing the manager down a flight of stairs. Heath died of a heart attack in Seattle at age 60. He had suffered a heart attack in 1957 at the age of 43. He was survived by two daughters and one son. ## See also - List of Major League Baseball players from Canada - 20–20–20 club - List of Major League Baseball career triples leaders - List of Major League Baseball annual triples leaders
127,169	Adele Astaire	1,165,355,468	American dancer and entertainer (1896–1981)	[ "1896 births", "1981 deaths", "20th-century American women", "Actresses from Omaha, Nebraska", "American entertainers", "American expatriates in the Republic of Ireland", "American female dancers", "American people of Austrian descent", "American people of Austrian-Jewish descent", "American people of German descent", "Austerlitz family", "Burials at Oakwood Memorial Park Cemetery", "Cavendish family", "Dancers from Nebraska", "Entertainers from Nebraska", "Musicians from Omaha, Nebraska", "Vaudeville performers" ]	Adele Astaire Douglass (born Adele Marie Austerlitz, later known as Lady Charles Cavendish; September 10, 1896 – January 25, 1981), was an American dancer, stage actress, and singer. After beginning work as a dancer and vaudeville performer at the age of nine, Astaire built a successful performance career with her younger brother, Fred Astaire. The brother and sister act initially worked their way through vaudeville circuits, finally achieving a breakthrough with their first Broadway roles in 1917. Astaire became known for her talents as a skilled dancer and comedienne, starring in hit Broadway musicals such as Lady, Be Good! (1924), Funny Face (1927) and The Band Wagon (1931). The siblings took several of their more popular shows to Britain's West End during the 1920s, where they were soon international celebrities, meeting members of the British royal family and prominent figures from contemporary arts and literature circles. In 1932, after a 27-year partnership with her brother, Astaire retired from the stage to marry Lord Charles Arthur Francis Cavendish, the second son of Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire. The couple moved to the Cavendish estate of Lismore Castle in Ireland. Despite offers of both stage and film roles from producers eager to see her return to acting, Astaire declined to come out of retirement. Following Cavendish's death in 1944, Astaire remarried and moved back to the United States. She divided her time between properties in the United States; Round Hill, Jamaica; and her old home of Lismore Castle, where she spent her summers up until the end of her life. In 1972, Astaire was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. In 1975, Astaire was inducted into the International Best Dressed Hall of Fame List. ## Early life and vaudeville (1896–1917) Adele Marie Austerlitz was born on September 10, 1896, in Omaha, Nebraska. Her parents were Johanna "Ann" Geilus, an American-born Lutheran of German descent, and Frederic "Fritz" Austerlitz, an Austrian-born Roman Catholic of Jewish descent. Adele's younger brother, Fred Austerlitz, was born three years after her. After Adele showed an early propensity for dance, she was enrolled in a local dance school. She soon stood out for her natural ability as a dancer, and began making appearances at local recitals and parties. Her parents decided to enroll Fred as well — a somewhat frail child in his earliest years — with the intention of having him build strength through dance training, and he, too, showed the beginnings of aptitude. When Adele was eight and Fred was five, a teacher suggested that the two children might have a stage career if they received proper training. This prompted the family to move from Omaha to New York, though the father returned to Omaha to work. Adele, Fred and their mother lived in a boarding house, and the children began attending the Alviene Master School of the Theatre and Academy of Cultural Arts. Adele and Fred adopted the more American-sounding surname Astaire after trying several variations on the original Austerlitz, and their mother Ann also adopted the new surname. In late 1905, with the assistance of her dance instructor Claude Alvienne, Adele Astaire began a professional vaudeville act with Fred. Alvienne helped them develop a routine involving two large, elaborate set pieces in the form of wedding cakes. Astaire and her brother, dressed up as a small bride and groom, danced up and down the cakes and activated small electric lights and musical bells with their feet. They played a simple waltz through their dance steps. The siblings performed intermittently at first, with their mother Ann acting as their manager and costume designer. They gained additional training from the ballet school of the Metropolitan Opera and from American choreographer Ned Wayburn. Ann Astaire home schooled her children, with the exception of a stint in New Jersey, when Adele and Fred put their performance career on hold and attended regular school for two and half years. The adolescent Adele had grown so tall at the time that her smaller, younger brother, still catching up in height, looked awkward dancing with her. After returning to the vaudeville circuit in 1911, Astaire and her brother struggled to find steady work for the next couple of years. Agents were initially uninterested in representing the relatively unknown pair. In 1913, Astaire's father introduced the siblings to Aurelio Coccia, an experienced dance instructor and showman. He taught several new dances to the young Astaires and developed a new, more mature vaudeville routine for them. Bookings became more frequent after this, as the pair gradually improved their act and reputation. In 1916, the siblings encountered a difficult year when the White Rats of America, a union of vaudeville performers, staged a workers' strike that spread nationally, creating tense working relations between performers and vaudeville managers. Astaire and her brother, although not union members, lost valuable income nonetheless, and their father, unlucky enough to be working at a Nebraska brewery when state-wide prohibition was approved, was unable to offer financial support. When the union strike finally ended, the Astaire siblings returned to work at last, achieving a highly successful season. As they grew older, the contrasting personalities of the siblings grew more distinct. Adele was a "perennial live wire": lively, gregarious, and known for her raw frankness, along with her colorful swearing. Fred, the hardworking perfectionist, was quieter and constantly anxious about all the details of their day-to-day work. While Fred might come to a venue two hours early to prepare for their show, Adele was more likely to arrive only minutes before she was due on stage. Despite their differences in temperament, the siblings were close. Astaire affectionately nicknamed her younger brother "Moaning Minnie" for his tendency to worry about every possible thing that could go wrong. ## Broadway career (1917–1932) In 1917, after Fred carefully purchased a full-page advertisement on the back cover of Variety, the siblings landed a part in their first Broadway show, Lee Shubert's Over the Top. Adele was 21, while her brother was 18. The show opened on November 28, 1917, and the siblings received a weekly salary of \$250 (equivalent to \$ in ) for their assigned dance numbers and comedy skits. A critic from The New York Globe commented that the dancing of Adele and her brother was "one of the prettiest features of the show", and the production ran for 78 performances. To prepare for her work singing in Broadway musicals during the late 1910s and 1920s, she took voice lessons with Estelle Liebling who was the voice teacher of many famous singers at the Metropolitan Opera and on Broadway. Adele and Fred performed in The Passing Show of 1918, which ran for 125 performances. Astaire was given an opening solo, singing "I Really Can't Make My Feet Behave". In November 1919, the Astaires appeared in the operetta Apple Blossoms, beginning a professional relationship with Broadway producer Charles Dillingham. The show was successful, running for 256 performances. Fritz came to see his children perform. Their weekly salary was now \$550, which rose to \$750 (equivalent to \$ & \$ in ) when Apple Blossoms began its post-Broadway tour from September 1920 to April 1921. Unlike her brother, who struggled with shyness offstage, Astaire's outgoing personality made it easy for her to speak to reporters. Although their next show The Love Letter was a commercial flop, opening in October 1921 and running for only 31 performances, Astaire and her brother continued to garner appreciation from audiences, and here they introduced what would become one of their signature exit moves, the Runaround. Standing shoulder to shoulder at the end of a dance number, the siblings would put their arms out as if grasping the handlebars of bicycles, running around the stage together in ever-growing circles while the orchestra played "a series of oompahs". At last, Adele and Fred would disappear into the wings. Audiences loved it. Fred attributed the popularity of the Runaround to his sister's comedic timing and expressions, and the siblings found ways to incorporate the move into almost every show of their subsequent career together. While visiting New York for the first time that year, English playwright Noël Coward saw The Love Letter and was impressed by the Astaires. He came to meet them backstage, urging them to consider taking their performances to London. In 1922, Adele and Fred landed their first proper speaking roles in the Broadway musical For Goodness Sake, playing the best friends of the lead characters. They received positive reviews from critics, and sang the hit song "The Whichness of the Whatness", concluding the piece with their increasingly popular Runaround exit. With the success of this show, Fred began taking more of a lead in choreographing their routines. The siblings finally received star billing in the short-lived The Bunch and Judy, earning \$1000 (equivalent to \$ in ) weekly. Drama critic Heywood Broun called the Astaires "the most graceful and charming young dancers in the world of musical comedy". As the siblings continued to rise professionally, Adele quickly became known for her comedic expressions and "adorably squeaky" soprano voice. She often ad-libbed onstage. She gave high-spirited performances, delighting audiences with her zany humor; Fred developed his own more understated style in response, dancing with a characteristic "pretence of nonchalance" that he would carry on using throughout his dancing career. Adele and her brother developed a dancing style involving complex steps performed rapidly and gracefully, often compared to "a whirlwind" by critics and audiences. After the idea of performing overseas was suggested, Adele and Fred agreed to take For Goodness Sake (renamed Stop Flirting) to the West End in London. On May 30, 1923, their show opened at the Shaftesbury Theatre and received a standing ovation. Stop Flirting ran for 418 performances. It moved to the Queen's Theatre, followed by the Strand Theatre. The Prince of Wales attended the show ten times, and both he and his brother the Duke of York became friends with the siblings. Adele taught Edward some new tap dance steps, and the pair once danced together at a club. As the Astaires' popularity grew, both Adele and Fred were featured in major advertising campaigns. While in London, Peter Pan creator J. M. Barrie asked Adele to play his creation on stage, but contractual reasons forced her to turn down the part. In early 1924, Adele received word that her father, Fritz, had died from cancer. Returning to New York in late 1924, Adele and her brother starred in Lady, Be Good!, the first Broadway musical scored entirely by George and Ira Gershwin. It was a hit with audiences, running for 330 performances. The siblings earned \$1750 per week. One critic called Adele the most charming and entertaining musical actress seen "in many a moon". In the spring of 1926, Adele and her brother took Lady, Be Good! to London, opening at the Empire Theatre to enthusiastic reception. The siblings renewed their acquaintance with the British royal family, receiving an invitation from the Duke and Duchess of York to meet the newborn Princess Elizabeth. King George V and Queen Mary also made a special visit to see the Astaires perform. In 1927, Adele and Fred joined forces with the Gershwin brothers again in New York for their new musical Funny Face. The show was another hit. Shortly after the opening, the Astaires arranged for a film screen test with Paramount Pictures. The film studio hoped to feature Adele and her brother in a film version of Funny Face, but the siblings were both unsatisfied with the initial screen test results, and the project never went ahead. On the Broadway stage, Funny Face ran for 250 performances, closing only due to a summer heatwave in 1928 that made theaters too hot for audiences and performers. That summer, Adele was injured in an accident on Long Island when a motorboat engine exploded, scalding her upper body with burning oil. Although her career was put on hold for a few months, she made a full recovery. The Astaires' London debut of Funny Face took place in November 1928. The show ran for 263 performances, and British newspapers hailed "another outbreak of 'Astairia'" as audiences embraced the American duo once again. On the night of their final performance in London, Adele was introduced to Lord Charles Cavendish, the second son of the 9th Duke of Devonshire. Cavendish was several years younger than Adele. The pair were quickly attracted to each other, spending time together in Paris before Adele returned to America with Fred. They met again soon afterwards when Cavendish came to New York and took a position with J.P. Morgan & Co. Although their next show, Smiles (1930), was a commercial flop, Adele and her brother soon made their comeback with another hit, starring in their final Broadway show together, The Band Wagon, which opened on June 3, 1931, and ran for 260 performances. Other members of The Band Wagon's cast included Tilly Losch, Helen Broderick and Frank Morgan. Critics applauded the creative, decidedly modern writing and set design of the show, which included a custom-built "double revolve" turntable stage: the turntable revolved in two directions at once, revealing new scenes quickly and smoothly while the performers danced and sang. ## Retirement and first marriage (1932–1944) After the two had been courting for some time, Adele proposed marriage to Charles Cavendish at a speakeasy named 21, and he accepted. She was tired of the relentless travel and rehearsals required of a performer, and had been considering retirement. For her, theatrical life had always been "an acquired taste... like olives". In Chicago on March 5, 1932, after one final performance with Fred in The Band Wagon, Adele officially retired from the stage. She had been performing with her brother for 27 years. American drama critic Ashton Stevens declared her departure from theater a sad occasion, commenting that "Heaven doesn't send every generation an Adele Astaire". Following a farewell party, Adele and her mother boarded the and sailed for London, while Fred remained in the United States to continue his career. Adele renewed a friendship with fellow passenger Winston Churchill, whom she had earlier met while performing in England, and the pair enjoyed games of backgammon together during the voyage. Upon the ship's docking in Plymouth, reporters attempted to ambush Adele and were deterred only by Churchill, who distracted them until Adele and her mother could disembark without harassment. In April of that year, after rejoining Charles, Adele met the rest of the Cavendish family for the first time. Her future sister-in-law, Lady Mary Gascoyne-Cecil, later gleefully recollected Adele's colorful entrance: Adele was formally announced, quietly entered the room where the Cavendish family was waiting, and then launched herself into a series of cartwheels across the floor until she had reached her new relatives. Despite the initial reservations of Charles's mother, the Duchess of Devonshire, Adele was welcomed by the family. The wedding was briefly postponed when Charles was hospitalized for appendicitis, his ill health exacerbated by heavy drinking, but on May 9, 1932, Adele Astaire married Lord Charles Cavendish in the family's private chapel at Chatsworth, receiving the courtesy title of "Lady Charles". The couple moved to County Waterford in Ireland, where they lived at the family estate of Lismore Castle. Adele paid for the installation of several new, modern bathrooms to replace the castle's antiquated facilities, joking that this was her gift to the family in place of the more traditional dowries brought by rich, aristocratic heiresses. Back in the United States, Fred initially struggled to adjust to his new dancing partners; Adele sent Fred a teasing telegram right before the first performance of his new show, The Gay Divorce: "Now Minnie, don't forget to moan". In 1933, Adele gave birth prematurely to a daughter, who did not survive. Two years later, she gave birth to stillborn twin sons. She struggled with periods of depression and an increasingly difficult home life. Charles grappled with severe alcoholism, spending periods of time in hospitals, nursing homes and German spas as he tried unsuccessfully to conquer his addiction. In 1936, American film producer David Selznick offered Adele a supporting role in his film Dark Victory, but she was unsatisfied with the screen tests and preoccupied with caring for her husband, ultimately declining the job offer. She turned down another film role from Selznick a year later. In 1939, Adele, aged forty-two, suffered a miscarriage in her third and final pregnancy. In 1942, as Adele searched for ways to contribute to the wartime effort, she met Colonel Kingman Douglass, the American chief of U.S. Air Force Intelligence who was stationed in London. Douglass suggested that Adele work at the American Red Cross's 'Rainbow Corner' canteen, located near Piccadilly Circus. Adele agreed to his suggestion. Her mother, who had remained in Ireland to be near her daughter, now stayed home at Lismore to care for the often bed-ridden Charles, sending Adele regular updates. In London, Adele wrote letters home for soldiers, writing and posting up to 130 letters in a single week. She took shifts at the information desk, danced with soldiers, and helped the men shop for necessities while in London. After the London Blitz began, she increased her work hours and served at the Rainbow Corner seven days per week. Adele's wartime work gave her a renewed sense of purpose and fulfillment, helping her cope with recent personal difficulties. In March 1944, Charles died as a result of long-term alcohol poisoning, aged 38. Adele received compassionate leave to attend his funeral at St. Carthage's, where Charles was buried near his children. Following his death, Adele turned down an offer from Irving Berlin to return to the stage in Annie Get Your Gun. ## Second marriage and later life (1947–1980) In April 1947, Adele remarried, this time to her old American acquaintance from the war, Kingman Douglass. Douglass, who had previously been married and divorced, now worked as an investment banker. He later briefly served as assistant director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Initially lacking the personal funds necessary to move back to America, Adele broke the news of her engagement to the Cavendish family in Ireland, and received their financial support to move on to the next stage of her life. She was also given permission to continue spending three months a year at Lismore Castle, provided that she helped contribute towards the upkeep of the property. Adele gained three stepsons from her marriage to Douglass. Aside from returning to Lismore Castle periodically, Adele and her new husband lived in New York, Virginia, and eventually Round Hill, Jamaica. Adele often entertained family and friends at her Jamaica home. Adele remained retired from stage life. In 1953, authors P. G. Wodehouse and Guy Bolton, both fans of Adele, wrote a teasing epilogue for her and her brother Fred, who had successfully transitioned to film work after his Broadway career. > Adele closed her career with a triumphant performance in The Band Wagon ... She then married the Duke of Devonshire's second son and retired to Lismore Castle, leaving a gap that can never be filled. Fred struggled on without her for a while, but finally threw his hand in and disappeared. There is a rumour that he turned up in Hollywood. It was the best the poor chap could hope for after losing his brilliant sister. In 1968, Douglass received injuries after being struck by a bus. Soon afterwards, he was injured again in a car accident. He died in 1971 due to a brain hemorrhage. Afterward, Adele moved to the Phoenix, Arizona area. Until 1979, she continued to spend summers at the castle in Ireland which she had shared with her first husband. Adele was known for her robust health, regularly jogging nearly every morning well into her late seventies. According to her relatives, Adele quickly overcame illnesses, soon getting back on her feet "and in Marine-type English, telling what she thought of the world." She remained close with her brother, Fred. They constantly exchanged letters, packages, and long-distance phone calls, often chatting about their favorite soap operas. In November 1972, Adele and her brother were both inducted into the newly created American Theater Hall of Fame. In 1975, the Astaires' mother died at the age of 96. ## Death and legacy Adele Astaire died on January 25, 1981, in Scottsdale Memorial Hospital, Scottsdale, Arizona, after suffering a stroke. She was 84. Some of her ashes were scattered in Ireland, by Lismore Castle and the graves of her children and first husband, while the rest were buried near her mother's grave in Chatsworth, California. In the early 1980s, the Anglo-American Contemporary Dance Foundation created the Fred and Adele Astaire Awards to recognize outstanding Broadway dancers and choreographers. The Gottlieb Storz House in Omaha includes the "Adele and Fred Astaire Ballroom" on the top floor, which is the only memorial to the siblings' roots in Omaha. Although there is no surviving film footage of Astaire's Broadway performances, recordings do exist of her duets with Fred, George Vollaire and Bernard Clifton.
18,199,195	Brancasaurus	1,170,320,976	Extinct genus of reptiles	[ "Cretaceous plesiosaurs of Europe", "Early Cretaceous plesiosaurs of Europe", "Fossil taxa described in 1914", "Sauropterygian genera" ]	Brancasaurus (meaning "Branca's lizard") is a genus of plesiosaur which lived in a freshwater lake in the Early Cretaceous of what is now North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. With a long neck possessing vertebrae bearing distinctively-shaped "shark fin"-shaped neural spines, and a relatively small and pointed head, Brancasaurus is superficially similar to Elasmosaurus, albeit smaller in size at 3.26 metres (10.7 ft) in length as a subadult. The type species of this genus is Brancasaurus brancai, first named by Theodor Wegner in 1914 in honor of German paleontologist Wilhelm von Branca. Another plesiosaur named from the same region, Gronausaurus wegneri, most likely represents a synonym of this genus. While traditionally considered as a basal member of the Elasmosauridae, Brancasaurus has more recently been recovered as a member, or close relative, of the Leptocleididae, a group containing many other freshwater plesiosaurs. ## Description Brancasaurus was a medium-sized plesiosaur, with the holotype specimen measuring 3.26 metres (10.7 ft) in length; this specimen likely belongs to a subadult, judging by the unfused sutures in the vertebrae as well as the development of processes on the limbs and pubis. Gregory S. Paul estimated its adult size at 4.1 m (13 ft) in length and 350 kg (770 lb) in body mass. ### Skull The skull of the holotype, which measures 23.7 centimetres (9.3 in) long, is long and narrow, with a tapered snout that slopes downwards at an angle of 15°. The eye sockets were roughly the same size as the temporal openings immediately behind them. A narrow, rounded ridge along the middle of the top surface of the skull extends from near the front of the premaxilla to the back of the eye sockets. The frontal bones form a rectangular bar that separates the eye sockets down the middle. A ridge running across the bar intersects with the forward-extending ridge to produce a dagger-shaped protrusion. The jugal bone, which extends from the bottom of the eye socket back to the level of the temporal openings, is entirely bordered on its bottom by the maxilla. The squamosal bones arch around to form the curved back of the skull, and bear a ridge on top for attachment of neck muscles. There is also a ridge at the point where the two bones fuse. A cast of the braincase shows impressions of the semicircular canals and membranous inner ear, as well as canals of the hypoglossal, accessory, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves, which can also be observed on the bony exoccipital-opisthotic of the braincase. On the imperfectly-preserved lower jaw, the coronoid eminence seems to be relatively low, judging by the narrow and slightly curved top edge of the surangular bone. While the teeth have been lost, they were initially described as long, slender, and awl-shaped, with rough ridges on the outer surfaces. Although it has been suggested that Brancasaurus had very reduced tooth sockets in the premaxilla, as in Leptocleidus, this is impossible to verify because of damage to this portion of the skull. ### Vertebral column The entire neck bears 37 cervical vertebrae, and is approximately 1.18 metres (3 ft 10 in) long. The centra of the vertebrae are wider than they are tall or long. Both ends of each vertebra are slightly concave, meaning that the vertebrae are amphicoelous. The sides of the vertebrae are likewise weakly concave; unlike many other long-necked plesiosaurs, they did not bear a ridge on the side (although this may be affected by age). The neural spines of the vertebrae are distinctively shaped like shark fins, being high and triangular. There are three pectoral vertebrae at the neck-body transition, which are weakly concave, taller than they are long, and have rectangular-shaped neural spines that are directed slightly backwards. The cervical and pectoral vertebrae have deep indentations through which the notochord passed. The 19 dorsal vertebrae are similar to the pectoral vertebrae, being weakly concave and taller than long, but the neural spines are proportionally taller than the centra. The single-headed dorsal ribs are rounded but slightly flattened in cross-section, and some have a prong-like projection at the top end; their articular surfaces are slightly concave. Underneath, there are at least ten pairs of gastralia, each of which tapers to the sides and has a central groove on the bottom surface. The three sacral vertebrae are similar, but have much smaller, blunter, more oval-shaped ribs. The comparatively smaller first sacral rib is directed further outwards and backwards than the other two ribs. There initially were 25 caudal vertebrae preserved, with 22 still being accounted for. The last several caudal vertebrae are partially fused into a pygostyle-like structure. The preserved caudal ribs are flattened, triangular, and taper towards the tip of the tail. ### Limbs and limb girdles The interclavicle is a large plate with a smooth upper surface and a prominent groove on the bottom surface. It also bears a small, pointed projection at its back end. The scapulae have prominent shelves on each side (diagnostic of leptocleidids and polycotylids, but not strongly differentiated in elasmosaurids), and their glenoids are clearly concave, with roughened attachments for cartilage. The two coracoids curve outwards in the middle and contact at their ends, forming a hole in the middle, although the exact morphology of this hole is uncertain. The regions where the coracoids contact is vaulted and thickened to form a weak, ridge-like projection, comparable to but probably convergently acquired from elasmosaurids. The pubes form a somewhat rectangular dish, with a convex front edge and concave outer edge, while the ischia are flat, triangular, and plate-like. The edges of the pubes where they meet the ischia curve inwards from the midline to each side. The corresponding edges of the ischia are similarly-shaped, with the curved edges of the bones collectively forming two rounded fenestrae that are connected in the center by a small rhombus-shaped opening, as also seen in Futabasaurus. The ilia are rod-shaped and bent, with blunt projections halfway along their outer rims; at the top end, they are flattened into a fan-like shape. The humeri, which have a length of about 24 centimetres (9.4 in), are oval in cross-section, and about half as wide as they are long at the widest point. Their leading edges are curved in an S-shape, a trait also seen in Leptocleidus, Hastanectes, polycotylids, and the elasmosaurid Wapuskanectes, but not in Nichollssaura. The only femur that is presently available is 21.5 centimetres (8.5 in) long; it is concave on one edge, whereas the other edge is straight near the top but curves sharply near the bottom. The rest of the long bones of the limb have been lost. Allegedly, the radius was similar to but smaller and straighter than the tibia, and there was a hole present between the tibia and fibula. The 14 preserved phalanges, which likely include elements from both the forelimbs and the hindlimbs, are long and hourglass-shaped. ### Possible soft tissue Soft tissue was apparently preserved with the specimen, but was subsequently removed during preparation. Covering the limbs and the rest of the body was a layer of smooth, multilayered calcite, which was originally interpreted as preservation of decaying skin. Additionally, an accumulation of sediment in the abdominal region may have represented gut contents, with both gastroliths and digested bones. However, since both samples of the alleged soft tissue are no longer available, it is impossible to verify these interpretations. ## Discovery and naming The holotype specimen of Brancasaurus brancai is GPMM A3.B4, stored at the University of Münster. It originates from a clay pit near the city of Gronau, North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. The specimen was discovered in July 1910 by workers in the clay pit, who dug it out using pickaxes; in doing so, they damaged the specimen (in particular, the pubis had been broken into 176 pieces), and left behind a number of small fragments that were later personally collected by paleontologist Theodor Wegner, who in 1928 described the specimen in detail. The skeleton is fairly complete, consisting of various parts of the skull, most of the vertebrae, several isolated ribs and gastralia, parts of the pectoral and pelvic girdles, both humeri, one femur, and various foot bones from the flippers. Over time, a number of parts have been lost, including several pieces of the skull, teeth, gastralia and caudal vertebrae, a second femur, and a radius, tibia, and fibula. A wax endocast of the brain of the type specimen is stored as SMF R4076 in the Naturmuseum Senckenberg. The clay pit from which the type specimen originates is part of the Isterberg Formation in the Bückeberg Group, also known in the past as the "German Wealden facies". The Bückeberg Group, which is divided into six zones, belongs to the Berriasian of the Cretaceous, with the boundary between the Berriasian and the Valanginian being at the top of the group. The parts of the Isterberg Formation exposed at Gronau belong to the zones "Wealden 5" and "Wealden 6", which correspond to the uppermost-Berriasian. A second, more fragmentary subadult individual, GZG.BA.0079, consists of the pubis, ischium, and several vertebral components; it originates from the slightly lower Deister Formation ("Wealden 3") in the Bückeberg Group, and can only be referred to Brancasaurus sp., since it is relatively incomplete and differs in several minor vertebral characteristics from the type of B. brancai. Other probable but isolated Brancasaurus elements come from outcrops of the Isterberg and Fuhse Formations in Lower Saxony; the latter formation is also in the Bückeberg Group. ### Synonyms The specimen GPMM A3.B2 consists of teeth, parts of the jaws, the braincase and other fragmentary parts of the skull, vertebrae, pieces of ribs, part of the pectoral girdle, the entire pelvic girdle, one complete and one partial humerus, an ulna, two femora, a fibula, and various foot bones. While this specimen was originally assigned to Brancasaurus, Hampe (2013) referred it to a new genus and species, Gronausaurus wegneri. It was discovered some 8 metres (26 ft) higher in the stratigraphic column than the type specimen of Brancasaurus. Later analysis found that this specimen, which was mature, was virtually indistinguishable from the type of Brancasaurus with the exception of the length of the ischium, the height of the cervical neural spines, the width of the cervical centra, and whether the dorsal neural spines are constricted at their base. These minor differences can probably be attributed to either individual-based or age-based variation, supporting G. wegneri as a junior synonym of B. brancai. E. Koken named Plesiosaurus limnophilus in 1887 based on isolated cervical vertebrae from outcrops of the Bückeberg Group in Lower Saxony. From the same locality, Koken subsequently named two further species of Plesiosaurus, P. degenhardti and P. kanzleri, and also referred some material to P. valdensis. All of this material is not particularly diagnostic, and has been partially lost; thus, they have been considered nomina dubia. Sachs et al. considered all of these to represent remains of Brancasaurus, with the exception of P. degenhardti, which was retained as a nomen dubium on account of lacking the distinctive cervical neural spines of Brancasaurus. ## Classification Initially, Brancasaurus was assigned to the Elasmosauridae by Wegner. He noted, however, that it had a shorter neck and a narrower head, as well as various distinctive morphologies of the skull roof, teeth, and vertebrae (especially the "shark fin"-shaped neural spines of the cervical vertebrae) compared to other members of the group known at the time. A number of subsequent studies have considered Brancasaurus as a basal member of the Elasmosauridae, with some even using Brancasaurus to define the clade. Nevertheless, a number of contrary taxonomic opinions have been expressed; in particular, Theodore E. White created a new family, Brancasauridae, to contain Brancasaurus, Seeleyosaurus, and "Thaumatosaurus", a defunct genus with species now belonging to Rhomaleosaurus and Meyerasaurus. An alternative phylogenetic hypothesis that has gained substantial traction places Brancasaurus in the clade Leptocleididae, along with other leptocleidids including Leptocleidus itself, Vectocleidus, Umoonasaurus, Nichollssaura, and also possibly Hastanectes. This result has been recovered by the phylogenies of Benson et al., who have also noted a number of morphological traits which ally Brancasaurus with the more general Leptocleidia. A 2016 phylogenetic analysis conducted by Sachs et al. found two equally strong alternative placements of Brancasaurus (including Gronausaurus): within the Leptocleididae; or as the sister taxon of a clade containing both Leptocleididae and Polycotylidae, with the clade containing all of the aforementioned taxa being the sister taxon of Elasmosauridae. The study concluded that, currently, no phylogenetic dataset is sufficient to resolve the relationships of Brancasaurus. In addition to the fact that the type specimen is a subadult, this inconsistency in results can be attributed to the mix of leptocleidid, polycotylid, and elasmosaurid characteristics that is seen in Brancasaurus. The cladograms below illustrate the alternate arrangements. Topology A: Brancasaurus in the Leptocleididae, based on Benson et al. (2013) Topology B: Brancasaurus outside Leptocleididae, based on Benson & Druckenmiller (2014) ## Paleoecology The Bückeberg Group, from which Brancasaurus originates, likely represented a large, continental freshwater lake that the surrounding uplands drained into. In turn, the lake itself was temporarily connected to the Boreal Sea via a passage to the west. During the time at which the layers of "Wealden 5" and "Wealden 6" were deposited, the lake expanded and became more brackish as a result of marine transgression. The deposited sediments probably represent the oxygen-poor bottom portion of the lake, with the plesiosaurs of the Bückeberg Group being presumably preserved after they sank through the water column to the bottom. Asides from Brancasaurus, other constituents of the Bückeberg Group are benthic invertebrates, including neomiodontid bivalves; hybodont sharks, including Hybodus, Egertonodus, Lonchidion, and Lissodus; the actinopterygian fish Caturus, Lepidotes, Coelodus, Sphaerodus, Ionoscopus, and Callopterus, which Brancasaurus would have preyed on in surface waters; the turtle Desmemys; crocodilians, including Goniopholis, Pholidosaurus, and Theriosuchus; the theropod Altispinax; the marginocephalian Stenopelix; and an ankylosaur referred to Hylaeosaurus. Other indeterminate remains have been assigned to pterosaurs; the crocodilian clades Hylaeochampsidae and Eusuchia; and the dinosaurian clades Dryosauridae, Ankylopollexia, Troodontidae, and Macronaria. ## See also - Timeline of plesiosaur research - List of plesiosaur genera
167,857	The Usual Suspects	1,167,618,245	1995 neo-noir mystery film directed by Bryan Singer	[ "1990s American films", "1990s English-language films", "1990s German films", "1990s heist films", "1990s mystery films", "1995 crime thriller films", "1995 drama films", "1995 films", "American crime thriller films", "American heist films", "American mystery films", "American neo-noir films", "American nonlinear narrative films", "Anthony Award-winning works", "BAFTA winners (films)", "Bad Hat Harry Productions films", "Edgar Award-winning works", "Fiction about familicide", "Fiction with unreliable narrators", "Filicide in fiction", "Films about con artists", "Films directed by Bryan Singer", "Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award-winning performance", "Films produced by Bryan Singer", "Films scored by John Ottman", "Films set in Los Angeles", "Films set in New York City", "Films shot in California", "Films shot in New York City", "Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award", "Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay BAFTA Award", "Films with screenplays by Christopher McQuarrie", "German nonlinear narrative films", "Gramercy Pictures films", "PolyGram Filmed Entertainment films", "Spelling Films films" ]	The Usual Suspects is a 1995 neo-noir mystery film directed by Bryan Singer and written by Christopher McQuarrie. It stars Stephen Baldwin, Gabriel Byrne, Benicio del Toro, Kevin Pollak, Chazz Palminteri, Pete Postlethwaite, and Kevin Spacey. The plot follows the interrogation of Roger "Verbal" Kint, a small-time con man, who is one of only two survivors of a massacre and fire on a ship docked at the Port of Los Angeles. Through flashback and narration, Kint tells an interrogator a convoluted story of events that led him and his criminal companions to the boat, and of a mysterious crime lord—known as Keyser Söze—who controlled them. The film was shot on a \$6 million budget and began as a title taken from a column in Spy magazine called The Usual Suspects, after one of Claude Rains' most memorable lines in the classic film Casablanca, and Singer thought that it would make a good title for a film. The film was shown out of competition at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival and then initially released in a few theaters. It received favorable reviews and was eventually given a wider release. The praise was towards the mystery elements, the screenplay, the plot twist and Spacey's performance. McQuarrie won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay and Spacey won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance. The Writers Guild of America ranked the film as having the 35th greatest screenplay of all time. ## Plot Career criminal Dean Keaton (Byrne) lies badly wounded on a ship docked in San Pedro Bay. He is confronted by a mysterious figure he calls "Keyser," who shoots him dead and sets fire to the ship. The next day, the police recover 27 bodies and only two survivors: Arkosh Kovash ("Ákos Kovács"), a Hungarian mobster hospitalized with severe burns, and Roger "Verbal" Kint, a physically disabled con artist. U.S. Customs agent Dave Kujan flies to Los Angeles from New York City to interrogate Verbal. The men are left alone in a borrowed office belonging to LAPD police sergeant Jeff Rabin while FBI agent Jack Baer visits a hospitalized Kovash. The events that led Keaton, Verbal, and their associates onto the ship are then described by Verbal via flashback. Six weeks earlier in New York City, Keaton and Verbal are arrested alongside fellow criminals Michael McManus, Fred Fenster, and Todd Hockney and placed in a police lineup as suspects in a truck hijacking that none of them admits to participating in. Believing the police were unfairly harassing them, McManus proposes they pull a heist to get revenge on the NYPD. Trying to go straight, Keaton initially refuses but eventually agrees to help rob a jewel smuggler being escorted by corrupt cops, netting millions in emeralds and getting over fifty cops arrested after leaking their activities to the press. They then go to California to fence the jewels through a man named Redfoot, who connects them with another jewel heist, but it goes badly and the contents are instead revealed to be China White (synthetic heroin). The men learn that the job was arranged by a lawyer named Kobayashi, who says he arranged for their arrests in New York and that his employer, mysterious Turkish crime lord Keyser Söze, from whom each of the men has unwittingly stolen, has ordered them to raid a ship holding Argentinian drug dealers and destroy \$91 million worth of cocaine being sold on board. The cash brought for the exchange will be their reward. During Kujan's interrogation, he learns that there was no cocaine on the ship, and Söze was seen onboard. At the hospital, Baer learns that Kovács has seen Söze and has a sketch artist begin making a picture. Verbal then tells Kujan a legend about Söze: he was a small-time drug runner who murdered his own family when they were being held hostage by Hungarian mobsters, then massacred the mobsters and their families before disappearing, and from then on conducted business only indirectly through underlings who are mostly unfamiliar with their true employer. Söze thus became a fearsome urban legend, "a spook story that criminals tell their kids at night." Concluding his story, Verbal reveals that Fenster was killed after trying to flee; the men then threatened Kobayashi, only to accept the assignment when he threatened their loved ones. The men attacked the ship during the night, killing several Argentinian and Hungarian gangsters before discovering that there was no cocaine. An unseen assailant killed Hockney, McManus, Keaton, and a prisoner in one of the ship's cabins. The mysterious figure then set fire to the ship as Verbal looked on from a hiding place on the dock. Kujan deduces that Keaton must be Söze, as the prisoner killed on the ship was Arturo Marquez, a smuggler who escaped prosecution by claiming that he could identify Söze. Marquez was represented by lawyer Edie Finneran, Keaton's girlfriend, who was recently murdered. Kujan claims that the Argentinians took Marquez to sell him to Söze's Hungarian rivals. Keaton then used the assault so that he could kill Marquez personally and fake his own death. Verbal finally confesses that Keaton had been behind everything, but refuses to testify in court. Verbal's bail is posted, and he is released. Moments later, Kujan realizes Verbal seemingly fabricated his entire story, improvising on the spot by piecing together details from random items in Rabin's cluttered office. Verbal walks outside, gradually losing his limp and flexing his supposedly disabled hand. As Kujan pursues Verbal, a fax arrives at the police station with the artist's facial composite of Söze. The picture resembles Verbal, revealing that he was Söze the entire time. Verbal/Söze enters a car driven by "Kobayashi" and leaves, moments before Kujan arrives on the scene. ## Cast - Kevin Spacey as Roger "Verbal" Kint / Keyser Söze Singer and McQuarrie sent the screenplay for the film to Spacey without telling him which role was written for him. Spacey called Singer and told them that he was interested in the roles of Keaton and Kujan but was also intrigued by Kint who, as it turned out, was the role McQuarrie wrote with Spacey in mind. - Gabriel Byrne as Dean Keaton: Kevin Spacey met Byrne at a party and asked him to do the film. He read the screenplay and turned it down, thinking that the filmmakers could not pull it off. Byrne met screenwriter Christopher McQuarrie and Singer and was impressed by the latter's vision for the film. However, Byrne was also dealing with some personal problems at the time and backed out for 24 hours until the filmmakers agreed to shoot the film in Los Angeles, where Byrne lived, and make it in five weeks. - Chazz Palminteri as Agent Dave Kujan: Singer had always wanted Palminteri for the film, but he was always unavailable. The role was offered to Christopher Walken and Robert De Niro, both of whom turned it down. The filmmakers even had Al Pacino come in and read for the part, but he decided not to do it because he had just played a cop in Heat. Pacino would later say it was the one film he has regretted turning down the most. Palminteri became available, but only for a week. When he signed on, this persuaded the film's financial backers to support the film fully because he was a sufficiently high-profile star, thanks to the recent releases of A Bronx Tale and Bullets Over Broadway. - Stephen Baldwin as Michael McManus: Baldwin was tired of doing independent films where his expectations were not met; when he met with director Bryan Singer, he went into a 15-minute tirade telling him what it was like to work with him. After Baldwin was finished, Singer told him exactly what he expected and wanted, which impressed Baldwin. - Benicio del Toro as Fred Fenster: Spacey suggested del Toro for the role. The character was originally written with a Harry Dean Stanton-type actor in mind. Del Toro met with Singer and the film's casting director and told them that he did not want to audition because he did not feel comfortable doing them. After reading the script, del Toro realized that his character's only purpose was to be killed to demonstrate Söze's power, and did not have any meaningful impact on the story. As a result, del Toro developed Fenster's unique, garbled speech pattern to make him more memorable as a character. - Kevin Pollak as Todd Hockney: He met with Singer about doing the film, but when he heard that two other actors were auditioning for the role, he came back, auditioned, and got the part. - Pete Postlethwaite as Kobayashi - Suzy Amis as Edie Finneran - Giancarlo Esposito as FBI Agent Jack Baer - Dan Hedaya as Sergeant Jeff Rabin - Cástulo Guerra as Arturo Marquez - Peter Greene as Redfoot (uncredited) - Scott B. Morgan as Keyser Söze (in flashbacks) (uncredited) ## Production ### Origins Bryan Singer met Kevin Spacey at a party after a screening of the young filmmaker's first film, Public Access, at the 1993 Sundance Film Festival, where it won the Grand Jury Prize. Spacey had been encouraged by a number of people he knew who had seen it, and was so impressed that he told Singer and his screenwriting partner Christopher McQuarrie, that he wanted to be in whatever film they did next. Singer read a column in Spy magazine called "The Usual Suspects" after Claude Rains' line in Casablanca. Singer thought that it would be a good title for a film. When asked by a reporter at Sundance what their next film was about, McQuarrie replied, "I guess it's about a bunch of criminals who meet in a police line-up," which incidentally was the first visual idea that he and Singer had for the poster: "five guys who meet in a line-up," Singer remembers. The director also envisioned a tagline for the poster, "All of you can go to Hell." Singer then asked the question, "What would possibly bring these five felons together in one line-up?" McQuarrie revamped an idea from one of his own unpublished screenplays — the story of a man who murders his own family and disappears. The writer mixed this with the idea of a team of criminals. Söze's character is based on John List, a New Jersey accountant who murdered his family in 1971 and then disappeared for almost two decades, assuming a new identity before he was ultimately apprehended. McQuarrie based the name of Keyser Söze on one of his previous supervisors, Kayser Sume, at a Los Angeles law firm where he worked, but decided to change the last name because he thought that his former boss would object to how it was used. He found the word söze in his roommate's English-to-Turkish dictionary, which translates as "talk too much". All the characters' names are taken from staff members of the law firm at the time of his employment. McQuarrie had also worked for a detective agency, and this influenced the depiction of criminals and law enforcement officials in the script. Singer described the film as Double Indemnity meets Rashomon, and said that it was made "so you can go back and see all sorts of things you didn't realize were there the first time. You can get it a second time in a way you never could have the first time around." He also compared the film's structure to Citizen Kane (which also contained an interrogator and a subject who is telling a story) and the criminal caper The Anderson Tapes. ### Pre-production McQuarrie wrote nine drafts of his screenplay over five months, until Singer felt that it was ready to shop around to the studios. None were interested except for a European financing company. McQuarrie and Singer had a difficult time getting the film made because of the non-linear story, the large amount of dialogue and the lack of cast attached to the project. Financiers wanted established stars, and offers for the small role of Redfoot (the L.A. fence who hooks up the five protagonists with Kobayashi) went out to Christopher Walken, Tommy Lee Jones, Jeff Bridges, Charlie Sheen, James Spader, Al Pacino, and Johnny Cash. However, the European money allowed the film's producers to make offers to actors and assemble a cast. They were able to offer the actors only salaries that were well below their usual pay, but they agreed because of the quality of McQuarrie's script and the chance to work with one another. That money fell through, and Singer used the script and the cast to attract PolyGram to pick up the film negative. About casting, Singer said, "You pick people not for what they are, but what you imagine they can turn into." To research his role, Spacey met doctors and experts on cerebral palsy and talked with Singer about how it would fit dramatically in the film. They decided that it would affect only one side of his body. According to Byrne, the cast bonded quickly during rehearsals. Del Toro worked with Alan Shaterian to develop Fenster's distinctive, almost unintelligible speech patterns. According to the actor, the source of his character's unusual speech patterns came from the realization that "the purpose of my character was to die." Del Toro told Singer, "It really doesn't matter what I say, so I can go really far out with this and really make it uncomprehensible." ### Filming The budget was set at \$5.5 million, and the film was shot in 35 days in Los Angeles, San Pedro and New York City. Spacey said that they shot the interrogation scenes with Palminteri over a span of five to six days. These scenes were also shot before the rest of the film. The police lineup scene ran into scheduling conflicts because the actors kept blowing their lines. Screenwriter Christopher McQuarrie would feed the actors questions off-camera and they improvised their lines. When Stephen Baldwin gave his answer, he made the other actors break character. Byrne remembers that they were often laughing between takes and "when they said, 'Action!', we'd barely be able to keep it together." Spacey also said that the hardest part was not laughing through takes, with Baldwin and Pollak being the worst culprits. Their goal was to get the usually serious Byrne to crack up. They spent all morning trying unsuccessfully to film the scene. At lunch, a frustrated Singer angrily scolded the five actors, but, when they resumed, the cast continued to laugh through each take. Byrne remembers, "Finally, Bryan just used one of the takes where we couldn't stay serious." Singer and editor John Ottman used a combination of takes and kept the humor in to show the characters bonding with one another. While Del Toro told Singer how he was going to portray Fenster, he did not tell his cast members, and in their first scene together none of them understood what Del Toro was saying. Byrne confronted Singer and the director told him that for the lockup scene, "If you don't understand what he's saying maybe it's time we let the audience know that they don't need to know what he's saying." This led to the inclusion of Kevin Pollak's improvised line, "What did you say?" The stolen emeralds were real gemstones on loan for the film. Singer spent an 18-hour day shooting the underground parking garage robbery. According to Byrne, by the next day Singer still did not have all of the footage that he wanted, and refused to stop filming in spite of the bonding company's threat to shut down the production. In the scene in which the crew meets Redfoot after the botched drug deal, Redfoot flicks his cigarette at McManus' face. The scene was originally to have Redfoot flick the cigarette at McManus's chest, but the actor missed and hit Baldwin's face by accident. Baldwin's reaction is genuine. Despite enclosed practical locations and a short shooting schedule, cinematographer Newton Thomas Sigel "developed a way of shooting dialogue scenes with a combination of slow, creeping zooms and dolly moves that ended in tight close-ups," to add subtle energy to scenes. "This style combined dolly movement with "imperceptible zooms" so that you'd always have a sense of motion in a limited space." In December 2017, amid several sexual misconduct allegations against Spacey, Byrne said that, at one point during shooting, production was shut down for two days because Spacey made unwanted sexual advances toward a younger actor. Singer, who has himself been accused of sexual misconduct against minors, has denied that Spacey behaved inappropriately on the set of the film. However, Kevin Pollak, in a 2018 episode of his podcast Kevin Pollak's Chat Show, told another version of the story involving Spacey engaging in sexual acts with Singer's young French boyfriend with only several days left in the production, which disrupted filming and led to a bitter ruination of their relationship. ### Post-production During the editing phase, Singer thought that they had completed the film two weeks early, but woke up one morning and realized that they needed that time to put together a sequence that convinced the audience that Dean Keaton was Söze — and then do the same for Verbal Kint because the film did not have "the punch that Chris had written so beautifully." According to Ottman, he assembled the footage as a montage but it still did not work until he added an overlapping voice-over montage featuring key dialogue from several characters and had it relate to the images. Early on, executives at Gramercy had problems pronouncing the name Keyser Söze and were worried that audiences would have the same problem. The studio decided to promote the character's name. Two weeks before the film debuted in theaters, "Who is Keyser Söze?" posters appeared at bus stops, and TV spots told people how to say the character's name. In contrast with these efforts, all the actors in the film consistently mispronounce his name as "Soze", one syllable with a silent e, instead of "Söze". Singer wanted the music for the boat heist to resemble Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1. The ending's music was based on a k.d. lang song. ## Release Gramercy ran a pre-release promotion and advertising campaign before The Usual Suspects opened in the summer of 1995. Word of mouth marketing was used to advertise the film, and buses and billboards were plastered with the simple question, "Who is Keyser Söze?" The film was shown out of competition at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival and was well received by audiences and critics. The film was then given an exclusive run in Los Angeles, where it took a combined \$83,513, and New York City, where it made \$132,294 on three screens in its opening weekend. The film was then released in 42 theaters where it earned \$645,363 on its opening weekend. It averaged a strong \$4,181 per screen at 517 theaters and the following week added 300 locations. It eventually made \$23.3 million in the United States and Canada. It grossed \$43.6 million internationally for a worldwide total of \$66.9 million. ## Reception On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has received a rating of 88%, based on 81 reviews, with an average rating of 7.80/10. The site's consensus reads, "Expertly shot and edited, The Usual Suspects gives the audience a simple plot and then piles on layers of deceit, twists, and violence before pulling out the rug from underneath." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 77 out of 100, based on 22 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Roger Ebert, in a review for the Chicago Sun-Times, gave the film one and a half stars out of four, writing that it was confusing and uninteresting: "To the degree that I do understand, I don't care." He also included the film in his "most hated films" list. USA Today rated the film two and a half stars out of four, calling it "one of the most densely plotted mysteries in memory—though paradoxically, four-fifths of it is way too easy to predict." Rolling Stone praised Spacey, saying his "balls-out brilliant performance is Oscar bait all the way." In his review for The Washington Post, Hal Hinson wrote, "Ultimately, The Usual Suspects may be too clever for its own good. The twist at the end is a corker, but crucial questions remain unanswered. What's interesting, though, is how little this intrudes on our enjoyment. After the movie you're still trying to connect the dots and make it all fit—and these days, how often can we say that?" In her review for The New York Times, Janet Maslin praised the performances of the cast: "Mr. Singer has assembled a fine ensemble cast of actors who can parry such lines, and whose performances mesh effortlessly despite their exaggerated differences in demeanor ... Without the violence or obvious bravado of Reservoir Dogs, these performers still create strong and fascinatingly ambiguous characters." The Independent praised the film's ending: "The film's coup de grace is as elegant as it is unexpected. The whole movie plays back in your mind in perfect clarity—and turns out to be a completely different movie to the one you've been watching (rather better, in fact)." ### Accolades At the 68th Academy Awards, Kevin Spacey won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and Christopher McQuarrie won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. In his acceptance speech, Spacey said, "Well, whoever Keyser Söze is, I can tell you he's gonna get gloriously drunk tonight." ### Legacy On June 17, 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "AFI's 10 Top 10"—the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. The Usual Suspects was acknowledged as the tenth-best mystery film. Verbal Kint was voted the \#48 villain in "AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains" in June 2003. Entertainment Weekly cited the film as one of the "13 must-see heist movies". Empire ranked Keyser Söze \#69 in their "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters" poll. In August 2016, James Charisma of Paste ranked The Usual Suspects among Kevin Spacey's greatest film performances. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked the screenplay \#35 on its list of 101 Greatest Screenplays ever written. ## Remake In India, a critically panned Hindi-language adaptation of The Usual Suspects, titled Chocolate, was released in 2005. ## See also - Heist film
25,371,055	Växjö Cathedral	1,159,104,551	Swedish cathedral	[ "Buildings and structures in Växjö", "Churches in Kronoberg County", "Churches in the Diocese of Växjö", "Lutheran cathedrals in Sweden", "Roman Catholic cathedrals in pre-Reformation Sweden", "Växjö" ]	Växjö Cathedral (Swedish: Växjö domkyrka) is a cathedral in Växjö, Sweden. It is the seat of the Bishop of Växjö within the Church of Sweden. According to legend, the cathedral was founded by Saint Sigfrid of Sweden. The first stone church on the site, parts of which are incorporated into the current cathedral, was built in the 1160s. The cathedral has been much altered over time, and its appearance today is largely the result of a far-reaching restoration carried out in the 1950s under the guidance of architect Kurt von Schmalensee. Växjö Cathedral is a hall church with a western tower and a square choir. It was built on a location which was probably used as a marketplace during pre-Christian times. Very few of the cathedral's furnishings have survived from earlier centuries; most of the works of art adorning the cathedral date from the 20th or 21st centuries and many of them are made of glass. ## History ### Middle Ages The legend of Saint Sigfrid of Sweden relates how Sigfrid, a missionary from England, chose Växjö as the site to build a cathedral. He was said to also have been buried in the cathedral that he founded. While the legend is largely unreliable as a historical source, it is probable that a wooden church was built on the same site as the current cathedral in the 11th century, during the Christianization of Scandinavia. Coins from the 11th century have been found during excavations within the church, and a preserved Christian runestone from the same century (Rundata number Sm 10), today located next to the choir wall, may be further indication of the early presence of a wooden church on the site. The Diocese of Växjö was formed at the end of the 1160s, and the construction of a stone church was most likely initiated at approximately the same time. The stone church was probably built around the wooden church, so that it could continue being used while the new building was erected. The foundations of this first stone church were unearthed and examined during a thorough restoration of the cathedral in 1957–58. It consisted of a nave of the same width as the current nave excepting the aisles, a more narrow choir with an apse and an auxiliary building to the north (and possibly also to the south) of the choir. The western tower was added slightly later. Both structurally and stylistically the earliest church was evidently influenced by the architecture of Lund Cathedral, and it was probably similar to Rydaholm Church [sv]. The earliest cathedral contained the relics of Saint Sigfrid, who supposedly founded the cathedral and was buried within it. During the Middle Ages, the church was dedicated to Saint Sigfrid and John the Baptist. The tower of the cathedral was damaged by fire during the latter part of the 13th century, probably during a conflict between King Valdemar of Sweden and his brother Magnus in 1276, or in 1277 when the deposed Valdemar and Eric V of Denmark ravaged the province. The tower had probably been used as an improvised fortification, and suffered damage as a result of the fighting. Afterwards, a repentant Valdemar supplied funds for its reconstruction. The choir and apse were also rebuilt into a square choir and a transept during the 13th century. This probably coincided with the establishment of a proper cathedral chapter in Växjö. A sacristy was also added, probably in the early 14th century; it was robbed by Danish and German soldiers in 1318 and thus clearly existed by then. During the first half of the 14th century, a chapel was added to the south side of the building, and two transepts were also built during the same century. The increased building activity coincided with the expansion of the town of Växjö, which received town privileges in the 14th century. At the end of the century, the shape of the cathedral had become rather irregular as a result of these successive additions and rebuilding schemes. Major changes were made during the 15th century. The different parts of the church were united into a single coherent room in the form of a hall church; the tower was raised and probably acquired double spires (this is possibly depicted on an altarpiece from c. 1500 in Långemåla Church [sv]); a church porch was added in front of the north portal and a new chapel was added to the south. Inside, uniform vaults were built to support the ceiling. The rib vaults that were constructed are of a type which drew on examples from Vadstena Abbey and the earlier architecture of the Teutonic Order. Very similar vaults exist in Saint Lawrence's Church in Söderköping. An inscription in the church, which has since vanished, stated that the vaults were finished in 1509 and made by a mason from Linköping. These changes were likely to have been carried out between approximately 1460 and 1500. A chantry chapel was added in an extension south of the tower in the 15th century . ### Changes after the Reformation Following the Reformation in Sweden, the cathedral was converted into a Lutheran cathedral. In the process, it lost many of its sources of income. Furthermore, the church was plundered and burnt by Danish troops in 1570, during the Northern Seven Years' War. King John III of Sweden granted the citizens of Växjö three years of reprieve from taxation following the attack, so that they would have funds to repair the cathedral. Nevertheless, repairs took six years, and the tower was not fully repaired until 1585. During the reparations, the spires of the church were redesigned, and a mechanical clock was installed on the west façade of the church. By the end of the 16th century, the cathedral had attained approximately the size and appearance it has today. In 1612, Danish troops again entered Växjö and used the cathedral as their quarters; during this time the pews were destroyed and the archive of the cathedral burnt, and in 1629 the spires were damaged in a storm and again had to be replaced. In 1740, one of the spires was struck by lightning, which led to another devastating fire. The entire roof and the uppermost part of the tower were destroyed, as were the vaults in the east part of the church. The last remaining medieval furnishings were also lost. Repairs started in 1741 and would last into the 1770s. The medieval roof was not reconstructed but replaced with a hipped roof, and the two spires of the tower replaced with a single tower in a Classical style. The new tower was designed by Carl Hårleman and somewhat altered by Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz after Hårleman's death in 1753. ### Changes by Carl Georg Brunius and Carl Möller Following several fires in Växjö during the late 18th and early 19th century, concerns were raised about the fire safety of the cathedral. The roof was considered to be particularly at risk. The bishop, writer Esaias Tegnér, together with county governor Count Carl Mörner [sv], decided to hire architect Carl Georg Brunius to draw up plans for a reconstruction. Brunius proposed a radical change to the exterior of the church: placing the nave and choir under a low gable roof while at the same time replacing the roof over the aisles with several gable roofs in an angle to the nave, and ending in stepped gables. The tower spire and the choir were also to be decorated with stepped gables. The inspiration for this design came from German architecture and medieval city churches in Scania. Despite opposition from the government agency for the administration of state buildings (Överintendentsämbetet [sv]), Brunius' plans were largely executed and the cathedral was rebuilt between 1849 and 1854. Further repairs and minor changes were made in the 1860s and 1880s. Additional far-reaching changes were made 1898–99, when the interior was re-decorated to designs by architect Carl Möller. A new sacristy was built, a new clock installed and stained glass windows inserted. At the same time all the vaults and walls of the church were painted with murals, and Gothic Revival pews, choir stalls, an altarpiece and altar rail were made for the church by local artisans to designs by Möller. The new interior gave the cathedral a consistent medievalist appearance. ### Renovation 1958–1960 Brunius had predicted that his renovation would last for 100 years, which proved to be right; by 1940 the need for repairs was again imminent. An initial plan to restore the cathedral was prepared by architect Erik Fant [sv] and was limited to repairing the roof and walls and installing a new heating system. After the death of Fant in 1953, architect Kurt von Schmalensee took over the responsibility and presented several proposals, including an idea for a more thorough reconstruction of the cathedral. This proposal was accepted in 1958. Between 1958 and 1960 the cathedral was substantially rebuilt in an effort to recreate some of the cathedral's earlier, medieval appearance. New floors were laid, the walls and vaults were strengthened and partially rebuilt, a new southern portal was erected, the windows were changed, the tower was altered and two new spires were built. The exterior was painted red, traces of which had been discovered when repairing the walls. The reconstruction was largely seen as a success at the time. Less extensive repairs were also carried out in the late 20th century. ## Location and surroundings Växjö Cathedral lies at the outskirts of the oldest part of the town of Växjö. When the cathedral was built, its south façade was less than 20 metres (22 yd) from the shore of Växjö Lake. It is possible that this was the location of a marketplace during pre-Christian times, and that the unusually low-lying location of the cathedral was chosen so it would be close to a well-established place of gathering. Due to water control measures taken during the 18th and 19th centuries, the shore is now considerably further away from the cathedral, which now stands in a park laid out in 1879. From the Middle Ages until the 19th century, the cathedral was surrounded by several buildings related to the church, but only the former home of the cathedral school remains, dating from the 17th century. In the park surrounding the cathedral, on ground which was formerly a cemetery, there is a bronze statue commemorating Bishop Esaias Tegnér, created in 1926 and designed by sculptor Arvid Källström; it is located north of the cathedral, between the cathedral and the former school house. In front of the cathedral there is a statue commemorating Saint Sigfrid, installed in 1999 and designed by sculptor Peter Linde. ## Architecture The oldest parts of the current building are the base of the tower and the pillars of the nave; they incorporate building material from the 12th century. The walls of the upper part of the tower largely date form the end of the Middle Ages, though as noted above, the appearance of the tower has changed substantially throughout the centuries. North of the tower is an addition from the 1750s, while the southern extension of the tower is medieval. The choir walls are also medieval, the remnants of an originally larger choir from the 13th century. The easternmost parts of both aisles date from 1849 to 1850, and the southern annex to the choir was built as a sacristy in 1898–99. The exterior of the cathedral is predominantly painted red, with the dressed stone around windows, blind arcades and other stone elements painted white. The building consists of a nave with two aisles with a rectangular floor plan, a broad western tower and a square choir. The large windows in the south and north walls date from Brunius' reconstruction. The west façade is decorated with blind arcades created during the major restoration in the 1950s. The tower supports two tall spires and has nine bell openings. The main entrance to the cathedral is located in the base of the tower, in the west façade. Its current appearance dates from the middle of the 19th century; the copper-covered doors and the ornamental window in the tympanum are from the 1950s. A second entrance, built in the 1950s, is located in the south wall. A single copper roof covers both the nave, the aisles and the choir. ### Interior and furnishings Växjö Cathedral is a hall church, with nave and aisles of equal height. It is three bays wide and four bays long. The interior is painted white and uniformly lit by windows of approximately equal size, all except one dating from the 1950s renovation. The ceiling is supported by 13 vaults, of which 7 are medieval. The medieval vaults are mostly located in the westernmost part of the church. Traces of medieval murals have been restored in the south-west corner (the former chantry chapel). Inside the main entrance is a windbreak with glass doors decorated by artist Irene Jarz [sv] and installed in 1996. The entrance also contains a memorial stone from the 18th century, containing a brief history of the cathedral, and above the doorway leading to the nave there is a stucco relief depicting Christ giving a blessing, by artist Kajsa Mattas [sv]. Inside the nave, a stone marker decorated with a stylised "S" and three crosses has been placed in the crossing, where it is likely that the body of Saint Sigfrid would have been interred. The present altarpiece of the cathedral was installed in 2002. It is made of glass, and designed by glass artist Bertil Vallien [sv]. A former altar painting, from 1733 by Georg Engelhard Schröder, hangs in the north aisle. The baptismal font is also a work in glass, by artist Göran Wärff [sv]. Another piece of glass art is a candle holder located to the west of the entrance to the nave; it was made in the late 20th century by Erik Höglund [sv] with metal parts by Lars Larsson. The pulpit and the former baptismal font were made by Jan Brazda [sv] in connection with the restoration in the 1950s. The former chantry chapel is screened off from the rest of the church by glass doors, also decorated by Irene Jarz, and contains an altar and cross by Jan Brazda. There are also two stained glass windows designed by Bo Beskow [sv] in the chantry chapel. The church chandeliers are from several different periods; in the westernmost part of both aisles are Gothic Revival chandeliers which were probably donated by opera singer Christina Nilsson. There are two wooden sculptures from the 20th century depicting Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the nave, the work of sculptor Eva Spångberg. The cathedral has a carillon installed in 1962 and inaugurated the next year; it consists of 27 bells. The cathedral also has five church bells. Växjö Cathedral has three church organs. The largest has a façade made in the 1770s, though the mechanism of the organ dates from 2002, when it was last renovated. Two smaller organs are in the north aisle (from 1984) and in the south aisle (from 2001). ## Use and heritage status Växjö Cathedral is the seat of the Bishop of Växjö within the Church of Sweden, and also serves as a parish church within the parish of Växjö (Växjö stads- och domkyrkoförsamling [sv]). The cathedral hosts regular services and is used as a concert venue as well. It is a listed building in the buildings database of the Swedish National Heritage Board.
2,071,559	Borneo campaign	1,156,088,146	Last major Allied campaign in the South West Pacific Area during World War II	[ "1945 in British Malaya", "1945 in the Dutch East Indies", "August 1945 events in Asia", "Battles and operations of World War II involving Australia", "Battles and operations of World War II involving Japan", "Battles and operations of World War II involving the Netherlands", "Battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom", "Borneo campaign", "British Borneo", "British Malaya in World War II", "Campaigns of World War II", "Conflicts in 1945", "History of Borneo", "Indonesia in World War II", "Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies", "July 1945 events in Asia", "June 1945 events in Asia", "May 1945 events in Asia", "Military history of Brunei", "Military history of Malaya during World War II", "South West Pacific theatre of World War II", "World War II operations and battles of the Pacific theatre" ]	The Borneo campaign or Second Battle of Borneo was the last major Allied campaign in the South West Pacific Area during World War II to liberate Japanese-held British Borneo and Dutch Borneo. Designated collectively as Operation Oboe, a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July 1945 were conducted by the Australian I Corps, under Lieutenant-General Leslie Morshead, against Imperial Japanese forces who had been occupying the island since late 1941 – early 1942. The main Japanese formation on the island was the Thirty-Seventh Army under Lieutenant-General Masao Baba, while the naval garrison was commanded by Vice-Admiral Michiaki Kamada. The Australian ground forces were supported by US and other Allied air and naval forces, with the US providing the bulk of the shipping and logistic support necessary to conduct the operation. The campaign was initially planned to involve six stages, but eventually landings were undertaken at four locations: Tarakan, Labuan, North Borneo and Balikpapan. Guerilla operations were also carried out by Dayak tribesmen and small numbers of Allied personnel in the interior of the island. While major combat operations were concluded by mid-July, localised fighting continued throughout Borneo until the end of the war in August. Initially intended to secure vital airfields and port facilities to support future operations, preparatory bombardment resulted in heavy damage to the island's infrastructure, including its oil production facilities. As a result, the strategic benefits the Allies gained from the campaign were negligible. ## Background Prior to World War II, Borneo was divided between British Borneo, in the north of the island and Dutch Borneo in the south; the latter formed part of the Netherlands East Indies (NEI). As of 1941, the island's population was estimated to be 3 million. The great majority lived in small villages, with Borneo having less than a dozen towns. Borneo has a tropical climate and was mainly covered by dense jungle at the time of World War II. Most of the coastline was lined with mangroves or swamps. Borneo was strategically important during World War II. The European colonisers had developed oil fields and their holdings exported other raw materials. The island's location was also significant, as it sat across the main sea routes between north Asia, Malaya and the NEI. Despite this, Borneo was under-developed, and had few roads and only a single railroad. Most travel was by watercraft or narrow paths. The British and Dutch also stationed only small military forces in Borneo to protect their holdings. Borneo was rapidly conquered by the Japanese in the opening weeks of the Pacific War. The purpose of this operation was to capture the oilfields and guard the flanks of advances into Malaya and the NEI. Japanese troops landed at Sarawak on 16 December 1941, where a single battalion of British Indian troops fought a delaying action over several weeks, damaging vital oil installations. Meanwhile, on 11 January 1942, Japanese troops landed on the island of Tarakan, while parachute troops carried out a drop on the Celebes the following day; the small Dutch garrison managed to destroy some of the infrastructure before eventually being overwhelmed. The destruction of these facilities led to harsh reprisals against civilians, particularly at Balikpapan where between 80 and 100 Europeans were executed. In the aftermath, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) administered the occupied British North Borneo and the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was responsible for Dutch Borneo. The garrison forces on the island were very small until mid-1944. During the occupation, the local population was subjected to harsh treatment. For example, on Tarakan large numbers of people were conscripted as labourers, the economy was disrupted, and food became increasingly scarce. In October 1943, an open revolt by local Dayak tribesmen and ethnic Chinese initiated the Jesselton revolt which was violently suppressed with hundreds being executed. In the aftermath, many more died from diseases and starvation as Japanese policies became even more restrictive on the local population. Japanese forces conducted a number of other massacres during their occupation of Borneo. ## Planning The plans for the Allied attacks were known collectively as Operation Oboe. The invasion of Borneo was the second stage of Operation Montclair, which was aimed at destroying Imperial Japanese forces in, and re-occupying the NEI, Raj of Sarawak, Brunei, the colonies of Labuan and British North Borneo, and the southern Philippines. Borneo in particular was considered at the time a strategic location for its natural resource; oil and rubber. Tarakan was also seen to offer a forward airbase to support future operations in the region, while Brunei Bay was intended to be used as naval base. Planning for the operation began in late 1944 and early 1945 through the General Headquarters of General Douglas MacArthur's South West Pacific Area. As a result of the commitment of US forces to the recapture of the Philippines, the task of recapturing Borneo was allocated primarily to Australian ground forces. By this time the Australian I Corps, the Australian Army's main striking force, had not engaged in combat for over a year. The corps had been assigned to MacArthur, but he had chosen to not use it in the Philippines despite the Australian Government pressing for this. The initial Allied plan comprised six stages: Operation Oboe 1 was to be an attack on Tarakan; Oboe 2 against Balikpapan; Oboe 3 against Banjarmasin; Oboe 4 against Surabaya or the capital of the NEI, Batavia (modern-day Jakarta); Oboe 5 against the eastern NEI; and Oboe 6 against British North Borneo (Sabah). In the end only the operations against Tarakan, Balikpapan and British North Borneo – at Labuan and Brunei Bay – took place. These operations ultimately constituted the last campaigns of Australian forces in the war against Japan. In the planning phase the commander of the Australian Military Forces, General Thomas Blamey recommended against the landing at Balikpapan, believing that it would serve no strategic purpose. After much consideration, the Australian Government agreed to provide forces for this operation at MacArthur's urging. Blamey was able to frustrate MacArthur's plans for Australian troops to make follow-on landings in Java by convincing Prime Minister John Curtin to withhold the 6th Division. Prior to the main landings in British North Borneo the Allies undertook a series of reconnaissance operations, codenamed Agas (northern Borneo) and Semut (Sarawak); these operations also worked to arm, train and organise the local population to undertake guerilla warfare against the Japanese to support conventional operations. The Japanese military began to prepare for the defence of Borneo from mid-1944, as Allied forces rapidly advanced towards the island. IJA reinforcements were allocated to Borneo, but did not arrive until between September and November that year. In late 1944 the Japanese command judged that Australian forces were likely to attack the Brunei area and then capture the west coast of Borneo as part of a campaign aimed at liberating Singapore. Accordingly, most of the IJA units in north-eastern Borneo were ordered to move overland to the west coast; this required them to undertake gruelling marches over rugged terrain. Two other battalions were transferred from north-eastern Borneo by sea to south Borneo between February and March 1945. After United States forces liberated key areas of the Philippines, which cut the rest of South-East Asia off from Japan, on 27 January 1945 the IJA's General Staff ordered the forces in this area to defend the territory they held and not expect reinforcements. ## Opposing forces The main Allied ground forces assigned to the campaign came from the Australian I Corps, under Lieutenant-General Leslie Morshead. The main elements of this force consisted of two infantry divisions: the 7th and 9th. For the operation, the Australian corps was assigned as a task force directly under MacArthur's command rather than as part of the Eighth Army, which was controlling operations in the Philippines. Allied naval and air forces, centred on the U.S. 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid, the Australian First Tactical Air Force, and the U.S. Thirteenth Air Force also played important roles in the campaign. A small number of Dutch personnel also took part in the operations. Over 74,000 Allied troops were assigned to the initial landings of the campaign. The bulk of the logistic support was provided by the US, particularly provision of the shipping that was required to transport the vast amounts of troops, stores and equipment required for the operation. Allied forces were resisted by IJN and IJA forces in southern and eastern Borneo, under Vice-Admiral Michiaki Kamada, and in the north-west by the Thirty-Seventh Army, led by Lieutenant-General Masao Baba, which was headquartered in Jesselton. The main elements of the Thirty-Seventh Army were the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade (northern Borneo), 71st Independent Mixed Brigade (southern Borneo) and 25th Independent Mixed Regiment; these units had been raised in Japan during the second half of 1944 and arrived in Borneo late that year. The IJN's 2nd Naval Guard Force was also stationed in Borneo. Allied intelligence assessed that there were about 32,000 Japanese troops in Borneo, with 15,000 of these being combat troops. Most of the units which had been ordered from north-eastern Borneo to the west coast were still in transit when the Australian landings began and had been greatly weakened by the difficult conditions experienced during their cross-island march. The transfers left only single battalions in place at Tarakan and Balikpapan. Japanese air power in the region, except in Java and Sumatra, was ineffective. ## Battles ### Tarakan The campaign opened with Oboe 1, which consisted of a landing on the small island of Tarakan, off the north-east coast on 1 May 1945. This operation was undertaken to capture the island's airstrip so that it could be used to support the subsequent landings on the mainland of Borneo. Using Australian-built MK III folboats, small parties of reconnaissance troops paddled into the Tarakan region to obtain useful information and observe the Djoeta oilfields prior to an invasion. The landing on Tarakan was assigned to the heavily reinforced 26th Brigade, under the command of Brigadier David Whitehead. This brigade's three infantry battalions were augmented with two battalions of pioneers as well as commandos and engineers. American amphibious engineers and a Dutch infantry company (made up of soldiers from Ambon Island) and civil affairs unit were also placed under Whitehead's command. Overall, the 26th Brigade had a strength of just under 12,000 troops. The Australian assault was preceded by a heavy aerial bombardment commencing 12 April, and undertaken by RAAF and US aircraft operating from Morotai Island and the Philippines; these aircraft interdicted Japanese shipping, attacked airfields, reduced obstacles around the landing beaches and suppressed artillery and defensive positions; in addition, a preliminary landing was undertaken on Sadau Island by a group of commandos and an artillery battery. Naval assets assigned to provide fire support during the operation include three cruisers, seven destroyers and several landing craft fitted with rockets and mortars. Three days prior to the assault, a force of minesweepers worked to clear the area of naval mines. During the main landing, the battery on Sadau Island provided fire support to the Australian engineers who were landed at Lingkas to clear obstacles on the landing beaches. Assault troops from the 2/23rd and 2/48th Infantry Battalions came ashore under the cover of a strong naval barrage. Initially, they encountered no opposition before they began to advance north towards Tarakan town. Opposition around Lingkas Hill was overcome and by the end of the first day a strong beachhead had been established. The brigade reserve, the 2/24th Infantry Battalion, was landed the next day as the advance towards the airfield continued. Japanese resistance grew, and the advance was hindered by large numbers of mines and booby traps, which had to be cleared by engineers and pioneers; however, finally, on 5 May the airfield was captured by the Australians. Meanwhile, operations continued into June as isolated pockets of Japanese resisted the Australians in tunnels and on high features across the island. The final major objective, Hill 90, was secured on 20 June, but small scale clashes continued after this. Ultimately, the airfield was so heavily damaged that it took eight weeks to repair, by which time the war was essentially over. As a result, most historians, including the Australian official historian Gavin Long, believe that the invasion of Tarakan did not justify the casualties suffered by the Allied forces; these included 225 Australians killed and 669 wounded. Japanese casualties were even heavier, with 1,540 being killed and 252 captured. ### North Borneo The landings in north-west Borneo had several goals. These included securing the Brunei Bay area for use as a naval base and capturing oil and rubber facilities. A total of 29,000 personnel were assigned to the operation, just over 1,000 of these were US and British personnel, while the rest were Australian. Almost 6,000 were air force personnel, while 18,000 were ground troops and 4,700 were base area personnel. Major General George Wootten's 9th Division was the main element of this force, and consisted of two infantry brigades – the 20th and 24th; the division's third brigade – the 26th Brigade – had been detached for operations on Tarakan. The troops were supported by large number of American and Australian warships and air units. In preparation for the landing, a reconnaissance party including Sergeant Jack Wong Sue, was inserted into Kimanis Bay, British North Borneo, for close reconnaissance work using a Hoehn military folboat deployed from a Catalina aircraft. Oboe 6 began on 10 June with simultaneous assaults by the 24th Brigade on the island of Labuan and the 20th Brigade on the coast of Brunei in the north-west of Borneo. As Japanese forces were holding positions away from the coast, these landings were unopposed. The 20th Brigade encountered little resistance. After the town of Brunei was secured on 13 June, the brigade continued its advance along the coast towards the south-west. Its objective was the Miri–Lutong area, with the 2/17th Battalion moving by land while the 2/13th Battalion made an amphibious landing at Lutong on 20 June. The Japanese forces withdrew as the Australians advanced, and there was little fighting during these operations. Patrols into the interior made by the 20th Brigade with the assistance of local Dayaks into the interior were involved in several sharp engagements. While the 24th Brigade rapidly captured Labuan's airfield and town, it encountered sustained resistance from the Japanese garrison which was located in a well-defended stronghold. After heavy casualties were sustained during the 2/28th Battalion's initial attack against this position on 16 June it was decided to subject the area to a sustained bombardment. The battalion attacked again on 21 June with the support of tanks and rapidly defeated the Japanese forces. The fighting on Labuan cost the 24th Brigade 34 killed and 93 wounded. The Australian soldiers counted 389 Japanese dead and took 11 prisoners. A week after the initial landing on Labuan, the Australians followed up with attacks on Japanese positions around Weston on the north-eastern part of Brunei Bay. The Australians then pushed inland along the single track railway that ran from Weston towards the junction at Beaufort, 23 kilometres (14 mi) north-west of Brunei Bay, and then on to Jesselton. The heaviest fighting of the operations on the mainland took place on 27/28 June during the Battle of Beaufort, during which more than 100 Japanese defenders were killed. After this engagement the 24th Brigade undertook limited further advances in order to push the Japanese forces into the hills; the brigade's limit of exploitation was the Beaufort–Tenom railway and during this period the Australian commanders adopted a cautious approach to limit casualties. Nevertheless, clashes continued into August; on 3 August, the Japanese attempted to counterattack a position held by the 2/28th Battalion. At least 11 Japanese were killed in the fighting, for the loss of one Australian. The operations in North Borneo also involved a substantial civil affairs effort to assist the liberated civilian population; this was the largest such task undertaken by Australian forces during World War II. The 9th Division was heavily involved in providing aid to civilians and rebuilding houses and infrastructure which had been destroyed by the pre-invasion bombardments and subsequent fighting. ### Guerilla warfare The conventional operations on British North Borneo were accompanied by a guerilla warfare campaign organised by Special Operations Australia (SOA). This involved two operations; Operation Agas in British North Borneo and Operation Semut in Sarawak. These operations succeeded the unsuccessful Operation Python which had been undertaken between October 1943 and January 1944. Five SOA parties were inserted in North Borneo between March and July 1945. The Agas 1 and 2 parties established networks of agents and guerrillas in north-western Borneo. The Agas 4 and 5 parties were landed on the east coast of Borneo, and achieved little. The Agas 3 party investigated the Ranau area on the request of I Corps. The results of Operation Agas were mixed; its parties established control over their areas of operation, provided intelligence of variable quality and killed less than 100 Japanese. As part of Operation Semut over 100 Allied personnel organised into four parties were inserted by air into Sarawak from March 1945. Most of these personnel were Australian. The Semut parties were tasked with collecting intelligence and establishing guerilla forces. The inhabitants of Sarawak's interior, who were known as Dayaks, enthusiastically joined the guerilla groups and SOA personnel led small private armies. No. 200 Flight RAAF and the Royal Australian Navy's Snake-class junks played important roles in this campaign by inserting SOA personnel and supplies. The guerilla forces launched attacks to gain control of the interior of Sarawak while the 9th Division focused on the coastal area, the oilfields, plantations and the ports in North Borneo. The guerillas operated from patrol bases around Balai, Ridan and Marudi, as well as in the mountains, along several key waterways including the Pandaruan and Limbang Rivers, and along the railway that ran between Beaufort and Tenom. They sought to disrupt the Japanese troops' freedom of movement and interdicted forces as they withdrew from the main combat zone. The RAAF flew air strikes to support the lightly armed guerillas, who at times had to evade better-armed Japanese units. The campaign was highly successful, and it is estimated that over 1,800 Japanese were killed in north Borneo through guerilla actions. ### Balikpapan The attention of the Allies then switched back to the central east coast, with Oboe 2. The last major amphibious assault of World War II was at Balikpapan on 1 July 1945. The landing was preceded by a heavy aerial bombardment over the course of 20 days, while minesweepers worked to clear the area for 15 days, establishing safe lanes for the invasion fleet to pass and clearing proposed anchorages. These operations were undertaken inside the range of Japanese coastal guns; to protect the minesweepers, naval gunfire and aerial bombardment was used to suppress and neutralise the Japanese guns. Due to the unavailability of the Tarakan airfield, air support for the operation was provided by RAAF and US units based in the southern Philippines. Three minesweepers were lost during the clearance operations. The invasion fleet sailed from Morotai Island on 26 June, arriving off Balikpapan on 29 June. The landing area was then subjected to over 45,000 rounds of preparatory fire from the Australian, US and Dutch warships supporting the landing. A deception plan was enacted to draw Japanese attention towards Manggar, with the Australians undertaking pre-landing operations and spreading disinformation. US underwater demolition teams cleared obstacles along the landing beach, as well as off Manggar, as part of the deception plan. For the landing operation, a total of 33,000 personnel were assigned, 21,000 of which were from the Australian 7th Division, under the command of Major General Edward Milford. This formation consisted of three brigades – the 18th, 21st and 25th – fighting together as a formation for the first time during the war. Three beaches were chosen for the landing on the southern coast between Klandasan in the east and Stalkoedo in the west; the initial assault was undertaken by three infantry battalions: the 2/10th on the extreme left, the 2/12th in the centre and the 2/27th Battalion on the right. The troops were landed at the wrong location as smoke from the pre-landing bombardment made navigation difficult, but the landing was unopposed and a beachhead was quickly established as follow on forces arrived. Operating on the left, the 18th Brigade fought to capture several high features around Klandasan and to gain control of the town and secure the harbour and port facilities in Balikpapan north-west of the landing beaches, while the 21st Brigade landed on the right, tasked with advancing east towards several Japanese airfields at Sepinggang and Manggar, along the main coastal road. The 25th Brigade was held in reserve, but after landing on 2 July, pushed inland towards Batuchampar, 10 miles (16 km) from the initial landing site. Balikpapan town and the port were captured on 3 July, but mopping up continued into 4 July. Along the coast, the 21st Brigade crossed the Batakan Ketjil River, where it was held up on 3 July by strong Japanese resistance, which was overcome with naval gunfire support. The following day, after crossing the Manggar Besar, the brigade came up against even stronger Japanese opposition, supported by coastal artillery and mortars defending the airfield; despite landing tanks around the river, the Australians were held up for several more days until some of the guns were captured, and heavy air strikes overwhelmed the defenders. Meanwhile, on 5 July, one of the 18th Brigade's infantry battalions – the 2/9th – along with the 2/1st Pioneer Battalion, was landed at Panadjam to clear the western shore of Japanese artillery, prior to the Allies opening the port. Against only limited opposition, the area around Panadjam was cleared within two days. Meanwhile, the airfields were secured by 9 July, but Japanese resistance was strong, utilising delaying tactics including booby traps, mines, sniping and small-scale raids. Strong resistance was met around Batuchampar where a Japanese battalion had established a stronghold, while others fought resolutely in tunnels around Manggar. Australian engineers were heavily tasked, working to clear over 8,000 mines and booby traps, as well as destroying over 100 tunnels. Once Manggar airfield was secured, the 21st Brigade continued their advance towards Sambodja. Moving inland along a north-east road dubbed the "Milford Highway" by the Australians, the 25th Brigade advanced to contact with the Japanese rearguard, which was reduced with artillery support and then outflanked, triggering a withdrawal to a secondary position 3 miles (4.8 km) back on 9 July. Air strikes and artillery helped reduce this position, while infantry worked to surround the position; this was not fully achieved and by the evening of 21/22 July, the remaining defenders withdrew further inland. Opposition in these areas was largely overcome by the end of July, but mopping-up operations around Balikpapan continued until the end of the war in August as Japanese troops withdrew to the rough high ground further inland. Operations to secure Balikpapan cost the Australians 229 killed and 634 wounded, while Japanese losses were placed at 2,032 killed. A further 63 were captured. ## Aftermath In the aftermath of the campaign, Australian personnel remained in Borneo until late 1945 to restore civilian administration, oversee reconstruction efforts, supervising the surrender of Japanese troops, and liberating former Allied prisoners of war held in camps around Borneo. It has been claimed that Australian forces near Beaufort encouraged local fighters to massacre surrendered Japanese troops after the war in revenge for the Sandakan Death Marches, with almost 6,000 Japanese being killed. The historian Ooi Keat Gin states though that no documentary evidence supports these claims. The amphibious operations undertaken by Australian forces throughout the Borneo campaign were, according to the historian Eustace Keogh the "outstanding feature" of the campaign, and represented the largest such operations that the Australians undertook during the war. They required vast amounts of naval and air support, as well as complex planning and co-operation between air, land and naval forces from several nations. A significant amount of time and resources were invested prior to the operation to train the forces assigned. The historian Peter Dennis assesses that the operations were of "doubtful value strategically...[but]...they were skillfully conducted". Casualties during the campaign on the Allied side amounted to about 2,100, while the Japanese suffered about 4,700 casualties. A considerable number of civilians were killed or wounded; for instance, the pre-invasion bombardment of Tarakan resulted in least 100 civilian casualties. Despite the success of the Allied landings, because of the strategic situation, the Borneo campaign was criticised in Australia at the time and in subsequent years, as pointless or a "waste" of the lives of soldiers, especially following the first operation in Tarakan. In assessing the necessity of the campaign, historians such as Max Hastings have said that attacking these forces, already cut off from Japan, was a waste of resources. According to Hastings, "Any rational strategic judgment would have left them to their own devices screened by token allied forces until their nation's defeat enforced their surrender". It has been argued that the campaign did, however, achieve a number of objectives, such as increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the NEI, capturing major oil supplies, and freeing Allied prisoners of war, who were being held in increasingly worse conditions in the Sandakan camp and Batu Lintang camp.
6,775,197	Having Fun with Elvis on Stage	1,169,126,389	null	[ "1974 live albums", "Comedy albums by American artists", "Elvis Presley live albums", "RCA Records live albums", "Spoken word albums by American artists", "Unauthorized albums" ]	Having Fun with Elvis on Stage is a 1974 spoken word concert album by American singer and musician Elvis Presley consisting entirely of dialogue and banter, mostly jokes, by Presley between songs during his live concerts, with the songs themselves removed from the recordings. The album was created as a ploy by Presley's manager Colonel Tom Parker to release a Presley album through his own label, Boxcar Records, without using content that contractually belonged to RCA Records, so that Parker could earn 100% of the profits. Having Fun with Elvis on Stage was first sold at Presley's concerts, but RCA later claimed rights to the recordings and began to package and distribute it. Having Fun with Elvis on Stage has been considered Presley's worst album; many critics felt that the compilation of banter was incoherent and lacked context with the removal of the songs. In their 1991 book, Jimmy Guterman and Owen O'Donnell named Having Fun with Elvis on Stage the worst rock-and-roll album of all time, noting its lack of actual "rock and roll." Though Presley hated the album and insisted that it be withdrawn, RCA reissued it shortly after his death in 1977. Having Fun with Elvis on Stage reached number 130 on the Billboard 200 and peaked at number 9 on the Billboard Hot Country LPs. ## Content and release The album is unique in Elvis Presley's discography as it does not contain any actual music or songs; it consists entirely of Presley talking between numbers, recorded during live concerts. Presley is frequently heard humming or singing "Well ...", which, during the actual performances, led into songs that were edited out of the recording. Much of the album consists of Presley making jokes, although the recording is devoid of context. Despite the seeming randomness of the audio, from 8:01–11:55 on side A, Presley speaks about his early life and career aspirations before becoming a singer, as well as his early appearance on The Steve Allen Show. The album was the idea of Colonel Tom Parker, Presley's manager. Parker wished to release an Presley album through Boxcar Records, a company that he formed to manage Presley's commercial rights, so that he could profit directly from it. However, because Presley was signed to RCA Records, the recordings legally belonged to RCA. In an attempt to circumvent this restriction, Parker compiled audio of Presley talking, rather than singing, material for which he erroneously believed RCA could not claim rights. Initially, the album was sold only at Presley's concerts. Parker was soon informed that any sound recording made by Presley while under contract to RCA Records legally belonged to the label. RCA soon claimed legal rights to the recordings and the album was later packaged and reissued on the RCA Victor label, with the same cover art as the Boxcar release and message reading "A Talking Album Only" on the front cover. Presley is credited on the back cover as the album's executive producer. ## Reception Having Fun with Elvis on Stage has been described as the worst album of Elvis Presley's career. Many critics felt that the album's material was spliced in a manner lacking continuity and nearly devoid of comprehensibility or humor. Mark Deming of AllMusic states that "some have called Having Fun with Elvis on Stage thoroughly unlistenable, but actually it's worse than that; hearing it is like witnessing an auto wreck that somehow plowed into a carnival freak show, leaving onlookers at once too horrified and too baffled to turn away." Nick Greene, a writer for Mental Floss, felt that the material presented on the record is "so incoherent, you don't really get an idea of his stage presence, despite the fact that all the audio comes from his shows." Rock critics Jimmy Guterman and Owen O'Donnell, writing in their 1991 book The Worst Rock and Roll Records of All Time, named it the worst rock album ever. The album peaked at number 130 on the main Billboard album chart and peaked at number 9 on the Billboard Hot Country LPs chart. The album was deleted in the US in the early 1980s. RCA has never reissued the original album on compact disc, although unofficial pirated CD editions have been available, as well as a series of three 10" records released in the United Kingdom. ## Track listing 1. Side A – 18:06 2. Side B – 19:00 ## Personnel - Elvis Presley – speeches ## Charts ## See also - List of music considered the worst
21,437,322	Maiden Castle, Cheshire	1,083,720,092	Hillfort in Cheshire, England	[ "Hill forts in Cheshire", "National Trust properties in Cheshire", "Scheduled monuments in Cheshire" ]	Maiden Castle is an Iron Age hill fort, one of many fortified hill-top settlements constructed across Britain during the Iron Age, but one of only seven in the county of Cheshire in northern England. The hill fort was probably occupied from its construction in 600 BC until the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD. At this time the Cornovii tribe are recorded to have occupied parts of the surrounding area but, because they left no distinctive pottery or metalworking, their occupation has not been verified. Since then it has been quarried and used for military exercises. It is protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and is owned by the National Trust. The hill fort is open to visitors, but unrestricted access to the site has resulted in it being classified as "at high risk" from erosion. ## Location Although there are over 1,300 hill forts in England, they are concentrated in the south of the country, with only seven in Cheshire. There are two groups of hill forts in Cheshire, each with three members, but Maiden Castle is the outlier, about 9 miles (14 km) south-south-west of the southernmost group. Located at , Maiden Castle lies on the central ridge that runs north–south through the county, as do all of the hill forts in Cheshire. Maiden Castle sits on a slight promontory which is the highest point of a plateau on Bickerton Hill, 694 ft (212 m). The ground to the west and north of the hill fort is steeply sloping, making artificial defences unnecessary and providing a commanding view of the Cheshire Plain. To the east of Maiden Castle, the plateau continues for about 1 mile (2 km) and 0.5 miles (800 m) wide, where ramparts were constructed in lieu of natural defences. ## Layout Maiden Castle has no artificial defences on its northern and western sides because of the naturally steep slope of the hill, but there are two artificial banks, 35 ft (11 m) apart. The banks are similar in dimension, both are 40 ft (12 m) wide, and because the ground they are on slopes, the exterior side of each bank is higher than the side on the inside of the fort; they are 5 ft (1.5 m) high on the inside of the fort and 7 ft (2.1 m) on the exterior face. There is no evidence that Maiden Castle was protected by a ditch along with the banks. The main entrance is on the east side of the fort where the inner bank turns in towards the fort, and while there is a gap in the outer rampart it does not turn in. There may also be two other entrances to the site where the banks meet the cliffs to the north and south; the outer ditch runs inwards at both ends, possibly indicating an in-turned entrance abutting the edge of the cliff – similar to the entrance at the Helsby hill fort also in Cheshire – or perhaps an attempt to make the banks run flush to the cliff-edge to ensure there were no gaps in the site's defences. ## History Radiocarbon dating indicates that the ramparts defending Maiden Castle were built in around 600 BC. Built from earth and timber, the inner rampart was originally 20 ft (6.1 m) wide, with a revetment of dry stone walling behind the bank, and at least 10 ft (3.0 m) high. The outer bank was originally 25 ft (7.6 m) wide and about 10 ft (3.0 m) high. It was built from sand and had a dry stone facing at the front and no revetment behind. The outer bank was later enlarged: the outer face was extended 8 to 10 ft (2.4 to 3.0 m) away from the fort and the revetment moved. Its height was probably increased to 12 ft (3.7 m). The defences cover about 1.66 acres (6,700 m<sup>2</sup>) out of the entire 3 acres (12,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of the Maiden Castle site. According to archaeologist James Forde-Johnston, who conducted a study of the hill forts of Lancashire and Cheshire in 1962, this was an unusually strong defence for such a small site. Few artefacts have been recovered from the site; they include a piece of Iron Age pottery. Maiden Castle was probably occupied until the Roman conquest of Britain in 1st century AD, and the outer bank may have been reconstructed around this time. The name Maiden Castle is not unique to the site and occurs in several other places in Britain, such as Maiden Castle in Dorset, and probably means a "fortification that looks impregnable" or one that has never been taken in battle. Despite quarrying in the 17th century and 20th-century military exercises on the site, Maiden Castle survives well. Maiden Castle was excavated between 1932 and 1935 by W. J. Varley, who also undertook excavations at Eddisbury hill fort, as part of his investigation into the origin of Cheshire's hill forts. Further excavations were undertaken in 1980–1981. The structure was made a Scheduled Ancient Monument in 1995, giving Maiden Castle protection against unauthorised change. The environment of the hill fort is a mixture of heathland, heather, and bracken. The site is owned by the National Trust and is open to the public. Unrestricted access has led to problems such as erosion. Maiden Castle has been damaged by animal burrows and is designated as "at high risk" due to erosion caused by visitors and the spread of bracken. Five of Cheshire's seven hill forts have been assessed as being "at high risk" compared to 15% of North West England's Scheduled Monuments. ## See also - Hillforts in Britain - List of hill forts in England - Scheduled Monuments in Cheshire (pre-1066)
37,395,136	Sampson Mathews	1,173,155,723	American politician	[ "1737 births", "1807 deaths", "Mathews family of Virginia and West Virginia", "People from Augusta County, Virginia", "People of Virginia in the French and Indian War", "University and college founders", "Virginia lawyers", "Virginia militiamen in the American Revolution", "Virginia sheriffs", "Virginia state senators", "Washington and Lee University trustees" ]	Sampson Mathews (c. 1737 – January 20, 1807) was an American merchant, soldier, and legislator in the colony (and later U.S. state) of Virginia. A son of John and Ann (Archer) Mathews, Mathews was an early merchant in the Shenandoah Valley region, where he and his brother George Mathews ran a series of stores across the valley with contacts extending to Atlantic trade networks. Mathews also took part in the Indian Wars and colonial revolutionary efforts. He was a member of the Augusta County Committee of Safety that drafted the Augusta Resolves, a precursor to the Declaration of Independence, and the Augusta Declaration, a precursor to the Articles of Confederation. Mathews was elected to the inaugural Virginia State Senate in 1776. During the American Revolution, he toured the western frontier to fortify the colonial border from Indian attacks, and oversaw sail manufacture for the Continental Navy's Virginia fleet. When turncoat Benedict Arnold enacted a surprise raid on Richmond in January 1781, Mathews led Virginia militia forces in defense. Mathews was an original trustee of Liberty Hall (later Washington and Lee University), when it was made into a college in 1776. This is the nation's ninth-oldest institution of higher education. Mathews was a member of the Mathews political family, which saw numerous members take part in state and national affairs over successive generations. ## Early life and Indian Wars Sampson Mathews was born c. 1737 in Augusta County, Virginia to Ann (Archer) and John Mathews. His parents were among the first European settlers of Augusta County, likely having immigrated to America during the Scotch-Irish immigration of 1710–1775. His father was a notable member of the early Augusta County community, serving as a militia captain and public officer, and as a member of the Augusta Parish vestry. The Mathews were among the Anglican minority in the predominantly Presbeterian county. Sampson Mathews was educated at the Augusta Academy, a classical school founded in 1749. In his adolescence he worked in crews to build roads in the county. On the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1755, Mathews was elected captain in the Augusta County militia, and accompanied George Washington under British General Edward Braddock on his ill-fated Braddock expedition. Up to four of Mathews' siblings, as well as his father, also took part in the expedition. Braddock's expedition met with the French and Indians in a meeting engagement, from which the French and Indians gained the advantage. After suffering devastating casualties, the British retreated in disarray. On returning home, Mathews was elected sheriff of Augusta County in 1756, and also assumed the functions of chancellor of the county. For a time he worked as a reader for the Augusta Parish Anglican Church, though this was apparently suspended due to a thinning of the population following the French and Indian War. He was elected to the vestry for Augusta Parish in 1961, and served as such until 1770, when a shift in political population caused the minority Anglicans to lose control of the vestry. Mathews married Mary Lockhart in 1759, with whom he had four children: John, Sampson, and two daughters who went on to be Mrs. Samuel Clark and Mrs. Alexander Nelson. By 1762, Mathews and his brother George Mathews had gone into a mercantile business in Staunton, Virginia. Quick success lead them to open numerous other stores and outposts in the Upper Valley, and to accumulate thousands of acres of land in the region. In their outposts they sold basic supplies but also specialty items including "spelling books, silk, hats, “ozgn”, handkerchiefs, silver, and even a tailor-made suit," and acted as unofficial bankers. Their enterprise grew to involve an extensive Atlantic trade network, and included the buying and selling of convict servants from Britain, and a small number of African slaves. The brothers were among the "soul-drivers" in Virginia who bought convict servants wholesale from British transport ships at port, and traveled along established routes selling the convicts to farmers, planters, and others. Lodine-Chaffey suggests that the brothers' treatment of both convict servants and slaves was suspect, due to the frequency in which the servants and slaves escaped them; the brothers reported three slaves missing in 1769, and ten convicts missing in 1773. In total, their dealings in all ventures accounted for a "great share" of the trade in the region. Mathews was appointed a justice of the peace for Augusta County in 1764, and in that role he presided over misdemeanors and other civil cases in the county. He also served as a member of the vestry for Augusta Parish around this time, with the vestry being the de facto local government for the county. Mathews was granted a liquor license in 1765, and his tavern and inn in Staunton, a "long frame building, a story and a half high, with dormer windows," soon became the most fashionable of its kind in Staunton. In 1768, Mathews became the guardian ad litem for a niece, Martha Mathews, on the premature death of her father, Joshua Mathews. She would later marry Thomas Posey, whose father had been a guest at Mathews' inn and probably arranged their meeting. In 1773, Mathews and others solicited subscriptions for a new academy in the Valley. This academy, named Liberty Hall and located in Lexington, Virginia, was officially incorporated by the Commonwealth of Virginia in 1782, with Mathews serving as an original trustee. Liberty Hall was eventually renamed Washington and Lee University, and is the nation's ninth oldest institution of higher education. In the fall of 1774, Royal Governor Lord Dunmore assembled a 1000-man invasion of Indian territory, culling recruits from Augusta County. Mathews' tavern served as headquarters for the local militia during preparations. A possibly apocryphal story arose that the men of George Mathews' regiment marked their height on a wall of Sampson Mathews' tavern, revealing that all but two men were over six feet tall. For the expedition, Mathews served as chief procurement officer for General Andrew Lewis, and oversaw the driving of 500 pack horses, 54,000 pounds of flour, and 108 cattle for the march from Augusta to Point Pleasant, for which the troops gave him the nickname "Master Driver of Cattle." An early Ohio historian said of Mathews' march: > His route lay wholly through a trackless forest. All his baggage, his provisions, and even his ammunition, had to be transported on pack-horses, that were clambering about among tall cliffs, or winding their way among dangerous defiles, ascending or descending the lofty summits of the Alleghenies. . . During nineteen entire days, this gallant band pressed forward descending from the height of the Allegheny mountains to the mouth of the Kenawha [sic], a distance of one hundred and sixty miles. October 10, 1774, The Battle of Point Pleasant was fought between the Virginia militia and Indians from the Shawnee and Mingo tribes along the Ohio River. Various sources credit either Colonel Andrew Lewis or Captain George Mathews with a flanking maneuver that initiated Shawnee Chief Cornstalk's retreat and secured victory for the colonial militia. ## American Revolution The months following the Dunmore's War saw tension rise between the British and the colonies. The Virginia House of Burgesses began to resist the Crown, and in retaliation Lord Dunmore dissolved it in May 1774. This lead the Burgesses to form the extralegal Virginia Conventions. ### Revolutionary activities On February 22, 1775, Mathews took part in the first documented revolutionary meeting in Augusta County, as a member of the county's Committee of Safety. These county committees were an outgrowth of the Virginia Committee of Correspondence, the state's patriotic shadow government. The Augusta County committee met in Staunton, Virginia, and drafted the Augusta Resolves to assert their county's commitment to "enjoy the free exercise of conscience, and of human nature." The committee then elected delegates to the Second Virginia Convention in March 1775, with Mathews among those who drafted instructions for the delegates. The Augusta Resolves were endorsed in a meeting of freeholders of Augusta County and published in Pinkney's March 16, 1775 Virginia Gazette. Historian Jim Glanville states that the resolutions of Virginia's four western counties (Augusta, Botetourt, Fincastle, and Pittsylvania) are best viewed as a whole and were "by far the most significant statements in favor of American liberty" of the county resolutions that were a direct precursor to the Declaration of Independence. Mathews, with two other representatives of the Augusta County committee, met with members of the counties of Albemarle, Amherst, and Buckingham in September 1775 to organize militia units in preparation for war against Britain. Augusta County resolved to raise four companies of fifty men each, with the other counties raising two companies of fifty men each. George Mathews was given command of the ten companies. By the time of the Fifth Virginia Convention in May 1776, many its delegates knew the issue of independence would be addressed, and some came with prepared statements on the subject. However, over the first several sessions, the subject was postponed as the Convention dealt with other matters. On May 10, 1776, Thomas Lewis broached the independence issue when, on behalf of the Augusta County Committee of Safety, he introduced the Augusta Declaration to the Convention. This was the first official proposal for the creation of a permanent and independent union of states and national government from any of the Thirteen Colonies. Virginia history scholar Hugh Blair Grigsby states the Augusta Declaration "deserves to be stereotyped as the Magna Charta of the West" for its precedent in calling for this governmental mode, which was adopted in the creation of the United States of America. The proposals for independence, a confederation of colonies, and a national government were passed by the Virginia Convention on March 15 and forwarded to the Second Continental Congress, which then initiated the drafting of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Model Treaty. ### Virginia State Senate and war efforts Mathews was elected to the Virginia State Senate, the successor to the Virginia Governor's Council, for its inaugural session of 1776, representing Augusta and Dunmore counties. He remained a member of the state senate through 1780, representing Augusta, Rockingham, Rockbridge, and Shenandoah counties from 1778 to 1780. During its inaugural session, the senate sought to improve the Continental Navy's Virginia fleet. At this time, Virginia had more land and manufactories devoted to naval purposes than any of the colonies, but it faced a distinct lack of materials needed to create linen sail cloth. Mathews, along with Alexander St. Clair, was therefore appointed to erect and superintend a factory in Staunton, Virginia to make sail material from flax grown by Augusta County farmers. However, other matters soon drew Mathews elsewhere. In the fall of 1777, Shawnee Chief Cornstalk made a diplomatic visit to the American Fort Randolph, on the site present-day Point Pleasant, West Virginia. Virginia militiamen took Cornstalk hostage at the fort, and on November 10, 1777, killed him without cause. This led to an immediate backlash from the Shawnee. Congress, sensing the urgency of the situation, passed a resolution on November 20 to send commissioners out west with the aim of restoring friendly relations between the Shawnee and the colonists that had been years in the making. Mathews was appointed to represent Virginia, and George Clymer for Pennsylvania. The men arrived at Fort Pitt in mid-March, and reported back to Congress in late-April that the British in Detroit were aiding the Shawnee and nearby Delaware tribes in their attacks. Further, they believed the colonists may well be able to restore friendly relations with the Indians by capturing Fort Detroit from the British, and thus weakening the Indians' position. They proposed a force of 3,000 be dedicated to this cause. Congress, however, deferred the recommendation, considering it too costly, and instead sent troops to fortify their western borders. ### Military service Mathews was appointed lieutenant colonel of Augusta County militia in May 1778, giving him command of the county militia and a field commission of colonel. This was a position normally given to the most prominent leader of the county. Mathews called out the militia for a three month expedition in April 1779, on account of Indian threats in Tygart Valley, Virginia. The expedition resulted in several scouting missions, but no battle. In October 1780, Mathews requested leave from the Virginia State Senate. On January 1, 1781, British Brigadier General Benedict Arnold launched a surprise invasion of Virginia. For five days he sailed up the James River to virtually no resistance. Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson fled the capitol of Richmond as Arnold approached, and Arnold's forces thereafter burned and looted the city. Jefferson called out militia commanders throughout the state to help to repel the invasion. He directed Mathews to march to Fredericksburg, and report to Brigadier General George Weedon. Mathews wrote to the governor the next day, confirming that he and a company of 250 would head to Fredericksburg in the morning. Mathews also recruited his son-in-law Major Thomas Posey to join him with his troops for the march. Mathews made the approximately 100 mile march from Staunton to Fredericksburg in four days. After spending an additional four days in Fredericksburg, Mathews was directed by Major General Peter Muhlenberg to turn to Bowling Green about 30 miles south. There Mathews wrote to Jefferson urging that he make materials available "for the repair of the arms of the militia." `Muhlenberg then directed Mathews to Cabin Point in Smithfield, Virginia, some 80 miles southeast to the mouth of the James. Mathews wrote to Jefferson on the 29th that his march had been delayed at the James River for several days due to poor weather and insufficiency of the transport boats. He described the lack of basic provisions in his camp, including tents and ammunition, and the poor health of many from exposure to the winter elements, which lead him to fear mutiny.` Jefferson responded on the 31st, relaying that there were some 150 tents "somewhere," and that he would attempt locate and direct them toward Mathews, acknowledging that Mathews' position "nearest the enemy's lines" validated the expediency of these supplies. By February 15, the Virginia militia had bottled up Arnold's forces in Portsmouth, Virginia, with Mathews commanding the advanced post alongside 350 riflemen. Nothing else is known of the Mathews' regiment during this expedition, and the Augusta County militia returned home in mid-April. The Virginia General Assembly, having fled Arnold's force in Richmond, met in the Trinity Episcopal Church in Staunton, Virginia from June 7 to 23. On June 12, the Assembly voted to elect Thomas Nelson Jr. as the 4th governor of Virginia. Mathews, who remained a justice of the peace for Augusta County, administered the oath of office to Nelson the following week, on June 19. Mathews quickly left again for eastern Virginia, bringing a regiment to James City, Virginia where it saw action in the Battle of Green Spring. Mathews' field lieutenant colonel, William Boyer, was captured during the battle. On August 8, Mathews went to Yorktown, Virginia, where the siege of Yorktown proved to be the last major battle of the war. By November 1781 Mathews had returned from battle and resumed his duties in the Virginia State Senate, being appointed to the Privy Council on November 30. Mathews stepped down as lieutenant colonel of Augusta County militia on November 18, 1783. ## Later life Mathews served a final term in the Virginia State Senate in 1790, representing Augusta, Rockingham, Rockbridge, Shenandoah, and Pendleton counties. He then served as a justice of the peace and the first high sheriff of Bath County when it was formed from Augusta County in 1791. He also served as an original trustee for Hot Springs, Virginia on its formation in 1793. He lived in Bath County about ten years at his estate, Cloverdale. On the death of his wife Mary, he married again to a Mary Warwick. He resided in Staunton, Virginia in later life, in a log house at the intersection of Beverly and Water Streets. He died in Staunton in 1807. Mathews' son, Sampson Mathews II, served as a Virginia Delegate from Bath County for the 1809–1810 session of the Virginia General Assembly, representing the Federalist party.
28,060,576	A New System of Domestic Cookery	1,163,792,132	19th century British cookbook	[ "1806 non-fiction books", "19th-century British cookbooks", "Catering education in the United Kingdom", "History of British cuisine", "John Murray (publishing house) books" ]	A New System of Domestic Cookery, first published in 1806 by Maria Rundell (1745 – 16 December 1828), was the most popular English cookbook of the first half of the nineteenth century; it is often referred to simply as "Mrs Rundell", but its full title is A New System of Domestic Cookery: Formed Upon Principles of Economy; and Adapted to the Use of Private Families. Mrs Rundell has been called "the original domestic goddess" and her book "a publishing sensation" and "the most famous cookery book of its time". It ran to over 67 editions; the 1865 edition had grown to 644 pages, and earned two thousand guineas. ## Book The first edition of 1806 was a short collection of Mrs Rundell's recipes published by John Murray. It went through dozens of editions, both legitimate and pirated, in both Britain and the United States, where the first edition was published in 1807. The frontispiece typically credited the authorship to "A Lady". Later editions continued for some forty years after Mrs Rundell's death. The author Emma Roberts (c. 1794–1840) edited the 64th edition, adding some recipes of her own. Sales of A New System of Domestic Cookery helped to found the John Murray publishing empire. Sales in Britain were over 245,000; worldwide, over 500,000; the book stayed in print until the 1880s. When Rundell and Murray fell out, she approached a rival publisher, Longman's, leading to a legal battle. ### Contents The 1865 edition is divided into 35 chapters over 644 pages. It begins with a two-page preface. The table of contents lists each recipe under its chapter heading. There is a set of tables of weights, measures, wages and taxes before the main text. There is a full index at the end. - The domestic ready reckoner, consisting of useful tables for calculating household expenses ### Approach In contrast to the relative disorder of English eighteenth century cookery books such as Eliza Smith's The Compleat Housewife (1727) or Elizabeth Raffald's The Experienced English Housekeeper (1769), Mrs Rundell's text is strictly ordered and neatly subdivided. Where those books consist almost wholly of recipes, Mrs Rundell begins by explaining techniques of economy ("A minute account of the annual income and the times of payment should be kept in writing"), how to carve, how to stew, how to season, to "Look clean, be careful and nice in work, so that those who have to eat might look on", how to choose and use steam-kettles and the bain-marie, the meanings of foreign terms like pot-au-feu ("truly the foundation of all good cookery"), all the joints of meat, the "basis of all well-made soups", so it is page 65 before actual recipes begin. The recipes are written as direct instructions. Quantities, if given, are incorporated in the text. For example, "Gravy to make Mutton eat like Venison" runs: > Pick a very stale woodcock, or snipe, cut it to pieces (but first take out the bag from the entrails), and simmer with as much unseasoned meat gravy as you will want. Strain it, and serve in the dish. Basic skills like making pastry are explained separately, and then not mentioned in recipes. Under "Pastry", Mrs Rundell gives directions for "Rich Puff Paste", "A less rich Paste", and "Crust for Venison Pasty", with variations such as "Raised Crusts for Custards or Fruit". A recipe for "Shrimp Pie, excellent" then proceeds with the bare minimum indication of quantities and a passing mention of "the paste": > Pick a quart of shrimps; if they are very salt, season them with only mace and a clove or two. Mince two or three anchovies; mix these with the spice, and then season the shrimps. Put some butter at the bottom of the dish, and over the shrimps, with a glass of sharp white wine. The paste must be light and thin. They do not take long baking. Advice is given on choosing the best supplies in the market. For instance: > Fowls.—If a cock is young, his spurs will be short; but take care to see they have not been cut or pared, which is a trick often practised. If fresh, the vent will be close and dark. ## Reception ### Contemporary The Monthly Review wrote in 1827 that A New System of Domestic Cookery > is almost too well known to require notice [i.e. a review]. Its chief object is, to teach economy in the management of the table; and this, we think, it accomplishes. We cannot speak in praise of its receipts for the higher kinds of cookery, but we dare say that they will be very much admired by precisely that class of gastronomes whose judgement is worth nothing. The review concluded that "though we have no respect for Mrs. Rundell's salmis, we cordially admire her practical good sense, and applaud her for the production of a useful book" which had been "the pattern of all that have since been published." By 1841 the Quarterly Literary Advertiser was able to give as the "Opinions of the Press", on the 64th edition, paragraphs of favourable reviews from the Worcestershire Guardian ("the standard work of reference in every private family in English society"), the Hull Advertiser ("most valuable advice upon all household matters"), the Derby Reporter ("a complete guide ... suited to the present advanced state of the art"), Keane's Bath Journal ("it leaves no room to any rival"), the Durham Advertiser ("No housekeeper ought to be without this book"), the Brighton Gazette ("if further proof be wanting, it may be found in the fact that Mrs. Rundell received from her publisher, Mr. Murray, no less a sum than Two Thousand Guineas for her labour!!"), the Aylesbury News ("the peculiarity of the present work is its scientific preface, and an attention to economy as well as taste in giving its directions"), the Bristol Mirror ("far surpasses all its predecessors, and continues to be the best treatise extant concerning the art"), the Midland Counties Herald ("ought to be in the hands of every lady who does not consider it vulgar to look after the affairs of her own household"), the Inverness Herald ("enriched with the latest improvements in gastronomic science") and The Scotsman, which said > The sixty-fourth edition! So much for Mrs. Rundell's portion of the work. Of that portion, after this, we need say nothing. ... Of the additions made by her successor [Emma Roberts], ... she appears to have brought a large amount of experience in the art of cookery to the task, and her name alone is a sufficient guarantee for the utility and excellence of her new receipts. In 1844, the Foreign Quarterly Review commented on the 67th edition that > it is exclusively a middle class book, and intended for the rich bourgeoisie. The compiler, Mrs. Rundell, had spent the early part of her life in India, and the last edition of the work is enriched with many receipts of Indian cookery. It is on the whole a succinct and judicious compilation... For many years, if report speaks truly, it has produced 1000£. a year to the publisher. ### Modern Severin Carrell, writing in The Guardian, calls Mrs Rundell "the original domestic goddess" and her book "a publishing sensation" of the early nineteenth century, as it sold "half a million copies and conquered America", as well as helping to found the John Murray publishing empire. For all that, Carrell notes, both "the most famous cookery book of its time" and Rundell herself vanished into obscurity. Elizabeth Grice, writing in The Daily Telegraph, similarly calls Mrs Rundell "a Victorian domestic goddess", though without "Nigella's sexual frisson, or Delia's uncomplicated kitchen manners". Grice points out that "at 61, she was too old to act the pouting goddess" to sell her book, but "sell it did, in vast numbers, as a lifeline to cash-strapped middle-class English households that were desperate to keep up appearances but were having trouble with the staff." She says that compared to Eliza Acton "who could write better" (as in her 1845 book, Modern Cookery for Private Families), and the "ubiquitous" Mrs Beeton, Mrs Rundell "has unfairly slipped from view". Alan Davidson, in the Oxford Companion to Food writes that "It did not include many novel features, although it did have one of the first English recipes for tomato sauce." ## Editions There have been over 67 editions, success leading to constant revision and extension: the first edition had 344 pages, while the 1865 edition runs to 644 pages including the index. Some landmarks in the book's publication history are: - "By a Lady." 1st edition. London: John Murray, 1806. - (no title page) Boston: W. Andrews, 1807. - "By a Lady." Philadelphia: Benjamin C. Buzby, 1807. - "By a Lady." "Second edition". Boston: Andrews & Cummings, and L. Blake, 1807. - "By a Lady." New edition, 1808. "Price Seven Shillings and Sixpence." - "By a Lady." New-York: R. McDermut & D. B. Arden, 1814. - "By a Lady." 1816 edition, reprinted by Persephone Books, 2008. - "By a Lady." New edition, 1824. - "By a Lady." London: Thomas Allman, 1840. - "By a Lady." 66th edition, John Murray, 1842. - "By Mrs. Rundell." From the Sixty-Seventh London Edition. Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1844. - "By a Lady." New edition, "245th thousand", John Murray, 1865.
54,787,346	East Redmond, Washington	1,043,400,780	null	[ "Former municipalities in Washington (state)", "Towns in King County, Washington" ]	East Redmond was a short-lived town in King County, Washington that existed from 1956 to 1965. The town, then located to the east of Redmond in the Seattle metropolitan area, was formed as a result of a land use dispute between neighbors. East Redmond, with a population of fewer than 400 people, was found to have not met the state's minimum population requirement for incorporation and was dis-incorporated by a decision of the Washington Supreme Court in 1965. ## History The King County government entered into an agreement with the Dincov family in 1954 to operate a gravel mine on their East Redmond property for use in constructing Interstate 405. The Dincovs' neighbors, in opposition to the gravel mine, proposed to form an incorporated town in order to halt operations. A special election was held on August 14, 1956, and 108 residents voted in favor of incorporating East Redmond as a fourth-class town, while 67 opposed. The town's government passed an ordinance that prohibited the county's gravel mine operations, leading King County to seek a restraining order against the town. East Redmond officials threatened to arrest county employees violating the ordinance, and the requested temporary restraining order was denied by a Superior Court judge. The county was eventually denied an injunction that removed the town from interfering with the mine, due to expired and lapsed permits. In February 1957, the King County Board of Commissioners received a petition signed by Snoqualmie Valley residents asking for the dis-incorporation of East Redmond. The petition concerned the maintenance of Novelty Hill Road, which ran through East Redmond towards the Snoqualmie Valley, which would be too expensive for East Redmond to maintain; the petition also alleged that the town had created a speed trap on the road. Another petition was presented to the town council that month, signed by 125 of its 375 residents hoping to trigger a dis-incorporation election. The election was called off after a ruling by a Superior Court judge after the discovery of signatures that did not match voter registrations, as well as withdrawn signatures, which reduced the number of petitioners to below the majority of registered of voters. Residents of the Novelty Hill Road area unsuccessfully attempted to secede from East Redmond through a special election in May 1957; The Seattle Times reported that some residents had voted in favor of staying in East Redmond in order to be eligible to vote for dis-incorporation at a later date. A petition to dis-incorporate a majority of the town was certified in June, and the county scheduled a vote on the matter in October. East Redmond voted 164 to 24 to dis-incorporate three-fourths of the town, leaving only 50 residents and 0.87 square miles (2.3 km<sup>2</sup>). The town annexed 350 acres (140 ha; 0.55 sq mi) the following month, including the Dincov gravel mine, to extend the city's boundaries to Lake Sammamish. In March 1962, King County Prosecutor Charles O. Carroll filed a court action on the request of a Superior Court judge and 42 East Redmond residents that challenged the validity of East Redmond's fourth-class status. Two years later, on March 10, 1964, the Superior Court ruled that the incorporation was invalid for several reasons: the incorporated town was 4.5 square miles (12 km<sup>2</sup>), but state law limited fourth-class towns to a size of one square mile (2.6 km<sup>2</sup>); the town did not meet the minimum population of 300 required for the status; and the incorporation vote had taken place outside of the proposed town, in neighboring Redmond. East Redmond's government, then conducting a regular election, appealed to the State Supreme Court, who heard the case in early 1965. The State Supreme Court affirmed the Superior Court's decision on July 1, 1965, declaring that the town was illegally incorporated and thus invalid. East Redmond became the second town in King County history to be dis-incorporated, following Ravensdale in the 1920s. The area remains unincorporated, as part of the Union Hill-Novelty Hill census-designated place. ## Geography At the time of its incorporation, East Redmond had a total size of 4.5 square miles (12 km<sup>2</sup>); it was three times larger than the neighboring town of Redmond. By the end of 1957, the town shrunk to just over one square mile (2.6 km<sup>2</sup>), due to residents voting to dis-incorporate. ## Demographics The 1960 census counted a population of 203 people in East Redmond. At the time of its dis-incorporation, the population of East Redmond had declined to 185. An unofficial population count by the Washington Secretary of State in 1956 estimated that the town had 516 residents, but after the 1957 dis-incorporation vote, the town's population was reduced to 225 by 1958. The town was the smallest incorporated place in King County for most of its existence. ## Government The town operated under a council–manager government, with a town manager and honorary mayor chosen from the five-member elected town council. East Redmond was the only fourth-class town to operate under the government, whilst others used a mayor–council government. ## See also - Elberton, Washington, another Washington town which was dis-incorporated in the 1960s
72,177,482	The One for You	1,168,033,784	1965 single by Tages	[ "1965 singles", "1965 songs", "Platina Records singles", "Swedish hard rock songs" ]	"The One for You" is a song written by Swedish guitarist Danne Larsson and recorded by his group Tages in 1965. Following an intensive tour of the Sweden, while also previously having composed songs for the band, Larsson wrote the song inspired by their trip to London, allegedly about a girl he had met there. It was the first recording by Tages produced by Anders Henriksson, who would come to produce the majority of their coming output, along with being their first single recorded at Europafilm Studios in Bromma, Stockholm. Released by Platina Records on 15 August 1965, the song was backed by a rendition of the Muddy Waters standard "I Got My Mojo Working" as the group's fourth single release. In November of that year, the single was included on their debut album, Tages, and has appeared on multiple compilation albums of the band's music. Lyrically, the song tackles the subject of love from a narrator's perspective. Upon release, "The One for You" received warm reviews in the Swedish music press, who noted the apparent change in genres, praising the hard rock sound. American guitarist Chuck Berry's appraisal of the song in an issue of Bildjournalen gave Tages confidence. Though it was a large commercial success in Sweden, reaching the top-10 on the music charts Tio i Topp and Kvällstoppen, it underperformed in the charts compared to their earlier singles. Retrospectively, the song has been considered one of the group's best singles, with many critics noting the musical style. ## Background During the first half of 1965, Tages had achieved commercial success with the three singles they had released up until that point; "Sleep Little Girl" (1964), "I Should Be Glad" and "Don't Turn Your Back" (both 1965), of which the first reached number one on Tio i Topp for a week, while the two others also saw success on Tio i Topp and Kvällstoppen. All three had one thing in common; they were all melodically soft rock songs largely driven by acoustic guitars with only occasional electric guitar during the guitar solos. They were also largely based on contemporary songs by pop acts the Searchers and Gerry and the Pacemakers. Though "Sleep Little Girl" had been "savagely criticized in the Swedish press", both "I Should Be Glad" and "Don't Turn Your Back" had received favourable reviews. Because of these successful singles, Tages had developed a following which the media would compare to Beatlemania, taking a toll on the member's health as they were still in school at the time. The group members songwriting abilities were also rapidly developing in favour of rhythm and blues based music inspired by their idols such as Muddy Waters and John Lee Hooker. Though the A-sides of their singles had been soft melodic rock, the B-sides were by contrast focused on rhythm and blues. In June 1965, Tages' record label Platina released an eponymous EP with the group, which showcased the members' songwriting talent and a venture into a harder rock sound. At the same time, they embarked on their summer tour, which according to Göran Lagerberg came as a shock; "we had just learnt the basics of the show business and suddently we were the most booked band of the summer". Towards the end of July 1965, Tages had performed at roughly 140 venues in the span of just one and a half months, allowing for them to take a trip to London for a week, during which the band managed to gain new musical influenses and clothes; it is also likely that rhythm guitarist Danne Larsson composed "The One for You" based on this trip. ## Composition and recording According to author Lennart Wrigholm, "The One for You" showcased the English influences Tages had received, primarily through the "biting guitar solo". According to Wrigholm and Göran Brandels, "The One for You" drew parallels with groups such as the Who and the Kinks though the primary concept in the end was "something undeniably original". They also note that Larsson composed the song in the key of E minor, mirroring their earlier single, "I Should Be Glad" which was composed by him and Lagerberg. During the verses, drummer Freddie Skantze drums in a traditional time signature of 4/4, though this changes to 4/6 during the choruses and bridges of the song. The harmonial elements of the song also allude to their previous music, which is "interrupted by a song musically distant from their previous material". Wrigholm and Brandels cite the song as an early example of hard rock and a nod to their rhythm and blues inspirations. The lyrics are traditional in the sense that they regard love, though from the perspective of a pursuing narrator attempting to convince their partner to return. Lyrically, Larsson was allegedly inspired by a woman he had met in London. The song was recorded shortly after the group's return to Stockholm from London on 5 August 1965. It was their first session together with experienced producer Anders Henriksson, whom they had met during their summer tour. Henriksson, who was a seasoned producer, had been working with groups such as the Shanes and the Mascots, producing hits on Tio i Topp and Kvällstoppen for them. He was allegedly allocated as the producer for Tages on orders by EMI Records, who were distributing Platina's records. In a later interview, the producer stated that "they sent me to the studio in order to keep watch on them [Tages]". It was also their first session held at Europafilm Studios in Bromma; the previous recordings had been held at various studios throughout Stockholm or Gothenburg. Nonetheless, the session produced "The One for You" and "I Got My Mojo Working", a cover of the Muddy Waters song. ## Release and commercial performance The day after the song had been recorded, Tages were arranged by Lars-Åke Thuresson to be featured in a film which was supposed to be broadcast on Sveriges Television, tying in with the release of "The One for You", in order to ensure that it would become a hit. During filming in Mariestad however, the band ended up in trouble with the police force for blocking an intersection, which led to the project being abandoned by Thuresson and them. It nonetheless sparked the interest of Tages to continue pursuing ambitions in film, which would result in further short videos by the group. Ten days after being recorded, Platina released "The One for You" on 15 August 1965 with "I Got My Mojo Working" on the B-side. Initially, only 2,000 copies of the single were pressed. Due to demand it would see, the song was eventually re-issued in November of that year with a different picture sleeve. The single entered Kvällstoppen almost a month after release, on 14 September 1965 at a position of number 15. It would peak at number 6 on 12 October before dropping out of the chart on 30 November at a position of number 14, having spent 11 weeks on the chart. It fared even better on Tio i Topp, debuting at number 2 on 25 September, before dropping out of the chart at number 12 the following week. The relative short stay on Tio i Topp and placing on Kvällstoppen came as a shock for the band; their previous singles had all peaked in the top-three on both charts, for a period of at least five weeks or more. However, Kjell Wiremark believes that the relatively poor commercial performance of the song was due it having a different sound compared to their earlier singles, something the fanbase were not accustomed to nor expecting. However, Wrigholm claims that the single charting on Tio i Topp was still "honoring". As it was custom to feature a recent hit single on an album, both sides of the singles were included on Tages' eponymous debut album, released on 3 November 1965. On the album, "I Got My Mojo Working" is sequenced in the middle of side 1, between "Dimples" and "Naggin'", while "The One for You" is sequenced as the opening track of side 2. After the band left Platina for Parlophone, the former included "The One for You" on the EP Tages-Hits Vol. 1 along with the album The Best of Tages in August 1967. The first release of the song on CD came with the re-issue of Tages compilation album Tages 1964-1968! on 18 November 1992. Both sides of the single were additionally also released on the career-spanning box set This One's for You! on 28 November 1994 together with the rest of their recorded output. ## Reception and legacy Upon release in Sweden, the single was met with primarily positive reviews from critics. In Göteborgs-Posten, the staff writers suggests that "The One for You" might be an "easily comprehensible" composition owing to the lyrics, though they note the sudden change in genres for the group. They end by noting that the single most likely will become a hit for Tages. In Expressen, the staff describe the song as "singalong" with a catchy guitar solo by Anders Töpel. They write that the song was a sudden and drastic difference for the group, while simultaneously claiming that it "has the harmonies" found in "I Should Be Glad" and "Don't Turn Your Back". They nonetheless state that the single has the potential of reaching number one on Tio i Topp. A reviewer for Aftonbladet states that Tages manage to "pour hits after hits" from their brains, declaring the song may be "musically international", praising the production by Anders Henriksson. The reviewer claims that it might be the group's best performance yet. However, the greatest acclaim for the single, which Tages also took to heart, came from Chuck Berry. Reviewing singles for teen magazine Bildjournalen, Berry writes "The One for You" was the best record he had heard in Sweden, stating that Tages "were Sweden's greatest band", and should have a "cemented" placement under the Beatles and the Rolling Stones. According to Wrigholm and Brandels, Tages and Chuck Berry had already established a relationship, as bassist Göran Lagerberg and drummer Freddie Skantze both had backed him during a Swedish tour on 27 October 1965. Wiremark states that this was "one of the first times" an internationally famous musician and musicians from Sweden had recorded together. Retrospectively, "The One for You" has been considered one of the best singles in Sweden of the 1960s. Wrigholm states that Tages were in a different league compared to the other Swedish pop-groups at the time, primarily due to the recording of "The One For You", while Brandels believes that it is a "pop-classic from start to end". They note that the musical crescendo performed on guitar in the opening was unique to the song and put it in a "dimension" away from other bands during the time. According to Harry Amster, "The One for You" could've been put on the legendary compilation Nuggets: Original Artyfacts from the First Psychedelic Era, 1965–1968, owing to the raunchy guitar sound. According to music critic Richie Unterberger, "The One for You" was an "accomplished mod rocke[r] on par with some of the best material of the sort being produced in Britain", while he also stated that it was vicious. ## Personnel Personnel according to the box set This One's for You! - Tommy Blom – percussion - Anders Töpel – lead guitar - Danne Larsson – rhythm guitar, harmony lead vocals - Göran Lagerberg – bass guitar, harmony lead vocals - Freddie Skantze – drums ## Charts
8,702,942	Bhakta Prahlada (1932 film)	1,160,121,714	1932 film by H. M. Reddy	[ "1930s Telugu-language films", "1932 films", "1932 lost films", "Films about Hinduism", "Films about Prahlada", "Films based on the Bhagavata Purana", "Films directed by H. M. Reddy", "Films scored by H. R. Padmanabha Sastry", "Films shot in Mumbai", "Hindu mythological films", "Indian black-and-white films", "Lost Indian films" ]	Bhakta Prahlada () is a 1932 Indian Telugu-language Hindu mythological film directed by H. M. Reddy and produced by Ardeshir Irani of Imperial Film Company. It is the first sound film of Telugu cinema. It features Sindhoori Krishna Rao as the titular Prahlada, along with Munipalle Subbayya, Surabhi Kamalabai, Doraswamy Naidu, Chitrapu Narasimha Rao, and L. V. Prasad. No complete synopsis of the film that is known to survive, but it is an adaptation of a play of the same name. Having achieved success in Hindi cinema by releasing India's first sound film Alam Ara in 1931, Irani wanted to expand his scope to South Indian cinema. Bhakta Prahlada was released on 6 February 1932, and was positively received by the audience but variedly by critics, who panned its resemblance to the stage version, poor sound recording, and low-quality images. It is now lost; surviving artefacts include a few stills, advertisements, and reviews. ## Plot The film is about the Hindu legendary figure Prahlada. ## Cast The cast is adapted from The Hindu: - Munipalle Subbayya as Hiranyakashipu - Surabhi Kamalabai as Leelavathi - Sindhoori Krishna Rao as Prahlada - Doraswamy Naidu as Indra - Chitrapu Narasimha Rao as Brahma and Chandamarkulu - L. V. Prasad as Modhabbai ## Production Following his success in Hindi cinema with India's first sound film Alam Ara (1931), the producer Ardeshir Irani decided to expand his career to South Indian cinema; his plan was to release one film each in Telugu and Tamil, which would later be titled Bhakta Prahlada and Kalidas (1931) respectively, in the same year. He entrusted their direction to his associate H. M. Reddy, a former English teacher at Jagirdars' College, Hyderabad, who in 1927 moved to Bombay (present-day Mumbai) due to a plague spreading in Hyderabad. Reddy later worked as a reflector man for Sarada Film Company; Irani spotted him there and employed Reddy for his Imperial Film Company. Reddy adapted the story of a popular play of the same name, written either by Dharmavaram Ramakrishnamacharyulu or Surabhi Nataka Samajam. M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu reported in 2011 that Surabhi Theatres, who produced the play, was initially hesitant of the decision without mentioning the rationale. The same cast, all Telugus, was used for the film adaptation. In the history of Telugu sound films, Sindhoori Krishna Rao, who played the titular role of Prahlada, was the first protagonist; meanwhile, L. V. Prasad, also an assistant director, appeared as Prahlada's classmate and was the first actor to be given a comical role. With a budget of between ₹15,000 (equivalent to ₹4.6 million or US\$57,000 in 2023) and ₹18,000 (equivalent to ₹5.5 million or US\$69,000 in 2023), Bhakta Prahlada was shot over 18 or 20 days at Imperial Studios, Bombay. Principal photography was done by Adi M. Irani using the Parvo camera. H. R. Padmanabha Sastry from Prabhat Film Company composed the soundtrack, and the lyrics were provided by Ramakrishnamacharyulu and Chandala Kesavadasu, including poems by the 15th-century writer Pothana. Because playback singers were unpopular back then, actors were required to sing their lines with an orchestra located far from the camera. The film's duration was 108 minutes. ## Release, reception, and legacy Bhakta Prahlada was believed to have been released on 15 September 1931, but the film historian Rentala Jayadeva found out that it actually premiered on 6 February 1932 (in Bombay). Jayadeva said it was impossible for the film to release before its 22 January 1932 censorship date. Bhakta Prahlada was released on 2 April 1932 in Madras (present-day Chennai). It was a commercial success but generated varied opinions from critics, owing to its resemblance to the stage version, poor sound recording, and the picture's low quality. The journalist Maddali Sathyanarayana Sarma, who saw the film twice, said the film has almost no differences with the stage version, but praised the sound and songs. Now a lost film, surviving artefacts include a few stills, advertisements, and contemporary reviews. All early films were shot on highly flammable and silver-containing nitrate film. According to the archivist P. K. Nair, who founded the National Film Archive of India, 70 percent of pre-1950 Indian films are unavailable for archiving, probably due to fire or being stripped for the silver. It was only after 1951 that film producers started using cellulose acetate film, which is considered more fire-resistant. Bhakta Prahlada is regarded as the first released Telugu-language sound film. The story of Prahlada was adapted twice more in Telugu cinema in 1942 and 1967.
1,011,843	Doune Castle	1,159,535,651	Castle in Scotland	[ "Buildings and structures completed in 1400", "Castles in Stirling (council area)", "Clan Stewart", "Dower houses", "Historic house museums in Stirling (council area)", "Hunting lodges in Scotland", "Kilmadock", "Royal residences in Scotland", "Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Stirling" ]	Doune Castle is a medieval stronghold near the village of Doune, in the Stirling council area of central Scotland and the historic county of Perthshire. The castle is sited on a wooded bend where the Ardoch Burn flows into the River Teith. It lies 8 miles (13 kilometres) northwest of Stirling, where the Teith flows into the River Forth. Upstream, 8 miles (13 kilometres) further northwest, the town of Callander lies at the edge of the Trossachs, on the fringe of the Scottish Highlands. Recent research has shown that Doune Castle was originally built in the thirteenth century, then probably damaged in the Scottish Wars of Independence, before being rebuilt in its present form in the late 14th century by Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany (c. 1340–1420), the son of King Robert II of Scots, and Regent of Scotland from 1388 until his death. Duke Robert's stronghold has survived relatively unchanged and complete, and the whole castle was traditionally thought of as the result of a single period of construction at this time. The castle passed to the crown in 1425, when Albany's son was executed, and was used as a royal hunting lodge and dower house. In the later 16th century, Doune became the property of the Earls of Moray. The castle saw military action during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and Glencairn's rising in the mid-17th century, and during the Jacobite risings of the late 17th century and 18th century. By 1800 the castle was ruined, but restoration works were carried out in the 1880s, prior to its passing into state care in the 20th century. It is now maintained by Historic Environment Scotland. Due to the status of its builder, Doune reflected current ideas of what a royal castle building should be. It was planned as a courtyard with ranges of buildings on each side, although only the northern and north-western buildings were completed. These comprise a large tower house over the entrance, containing the rooms of the Lord and his family, and a separate tower containing the kitchen and guest rooms. The two are linked by the great hall. The stonework is almost all from the late 14th century, with only minor repairs carried out in the 1580s. The restoration of the 1880s replaced the timber roofs and internal floors, as well as interior fittings. ## History The site at the confluence of the Ardoch Burn and the River Teith had been fortified by the Romans in the 1st century AD, although no remains are visible above ground. Ramparts and ditches to the south of the present castle may be the site of an earlier fortification, as the name Doune, derived from Gaelic dùn, meaning "fort", suggests. The earliest identifiable work in the castle dates from the thirteenth century, but it assumed its present form during one of the most creative and productive periods of Scottish medieval architecture, between 1375 and 1425, when numerous castles were being built and remodelled, including Dirleton and Tantallon in Lothian, and Bothwell in Lanarkshire. ### Regent Albany In 1361, Robert Stewart (c. 1340–1420), son of King Robert II (reigned 1371–1390), and brother of King Robert III (reigned 1390–1406), was created Earl of Menteith, and was granted the lands on which Doune Castle now stands. Building may have started any time after this, and the castle was at least partially complete in 1381, when a charter was sealed here. Robert was appointed Regent in 1388 for his elderly father, and continued to hold effective power during the reign of his infirm brother. He was created Duke of Albany in 1398. In 1406, Robert III's successor, James I, was captured by the English, and Albany became Regent once more. After this time, the number of charters issued at Doune suggest that the castle became a favoured residence. ### Royal retreat Albany died in 1420, and Doune, the dukedom of Albany, and the Regency all passed to his son Murdoch (1362–1425). The ransom for James I was finally paid to the English, and the King returned in 1424, taking immediate steps to gain control of his kingdom. Albany and two of his sons were imprisoned for treason, and then executed in May 1425. Doune Castle became a royal possession, under an appointed Captain, or Keeper, and served as a retreat and hunting lodge for the Scottish monarchs. It was also used as a dower house by Mary of Guelders (c. 1434–1463), Margaret of Denmark (1456–1486), and Margaret Tudor (1489–1541), the widowed consorts of James II, James III and James IV respectively. In March 1500, before his marriage to Margaret Tudor, James IV gave the keeping of Doune Castle and extensive lands in Menteith to his mistress Janet Kennedy, in consideration of the "hartlie luve and invict favoris he has and beris to her". In 1528, Margaret Tudor, now Regent of Scotland for her infant son James V, married Henry Stewart, 1st Lord Methven, a descendant of Albany. His brother, Sir James Stewart (c. 1513–1554), was made Captain of Doune Castle, and Sir James' son, also James (c. 1529–1590), was created Lord Doune in 1570. Lord Doune's son, another James (c. 1565–1592), married Elizabeth Stuart, 2nd Countess of Moray around 1580, becoming Earl of Moray himself. The castle thus came to be the seat of its keepers, the Earls of Moray, who owned it until the 20th century. Mary, Queen of Scots, (reigned 1542–1567) stayed at Doune on several occasions, occupying the suite of rooms above the kitchen. Doune was held by forces loyal to Mary during the brief civil war which followed her forced abdication in 1567, but the garrison surrendered to the Regent, Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, in 1570, after a three-day blockade. George Buchanan and Duncan Nairn, Deputy Sheriff of Stirling presided over the torture and interrogation of a messenger, John Moon, at Doune on 4 October 1570. Moon was carrying letters to Mary, Queen of Scots and Mary Seton. King James VI visited Doune on occasion, and in 1581 authorised £300 to be spent on repairs and improvements, the works being carried out by the master mason Michael Ewing under the supervision of Robert Drummond of Carnock, Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland. In 1593, a plot against James was discovered, and the King surprised the conspirators, who included the Earls of Montrose and Gowrie, at Doune Castle. ### Prison and garrison In 1607, the minister, John Munro of Tain, a dissenter against the religious plans of James VI, was imprisoned with a fellow minister at Doune, though he escaped with the contrivance of the then Constable of the Castle, who was subsequently imprisoned for aiding the dissenters. The Royalist James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose occupied Doune Castle in 1645, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In 1654, during Glencairn's rising against the occupation of Scotland by Oliver Cromwell, a skirmish took place at Doune between Royalists under Sir Mungo Murray, and Cromwellian troops under Major Tobias Bridge. The castle was garrisoned by government troops during the Jacobite rising of 1689 of Bonnie Dundee, when repairs were ordered, and again during the rising of 1715. During the Jacobite rising of 1745, Doune Castle was occupied by Charles Edward Stuart, "Bonnie Prince Charlie", and his Jacobite Highlanders. It was used as a prison for government troops captured at the Battle of Falkirk. Several prisoners, held in the rooms above the kitchen, escaped by knotting together bedsheets and climbing from the window. Escapees included the author John Home, and a minister, John Witherspoon, who later moved to the American colonies and became a signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence. ### Ruin and restoration The castle deteriorated through the 18th century, and by 1800 Doune was a roofless ruin. It remained so until the 1880s, when George Stuart, 14th Earl of Moray (1816–1895) began repair works. The timber roofs were replaced, and the interiors, including the panelling in the Lord's Hall, were installed. The castle is now maintained by Historic Environment Scotland, having been donated to a predecessor organisation by Douglas Stuart, 20th Earl of Moray, in 1984, and is open to the public. The castle is a Scheduled Ancient Monument. ## Description Doune occupies a strategic site, close to the geographical centre of Scotland, and only five miles (eight kilometres) from Stirling Castle, the "crossroads of Scotland". The site is naturally defended on three sides by steeply-sloping ground, and by the two rivers to east and west. The castle forms an irregular pentagon in plan, with buildings along the north and north-west sides enclosing a courtyard. It is entered from the north via a passage beneath a tower containing the principal rooms of the castle. From the courtyard, three sets of stone external stairs, which may be later additions, lead up to the Lord's Hall in the tower, to the adjacent Great Hall, and to the kitchens in a second tower to the west. The main approach, from the north, is defended by earthworks, comprising three ditches, with a rampart, or earthen wall, between. Also outside the castle walls is a vaulted passage, traditionally said to lead into the castle, but in fact accessing an 18th-century ice house. There are no openings within the lower part of the castle's walls, excepting the entrance and the postern, or side gate, to the west, although there are relatively large windows on the upper storeys. Windows in the south wall suggest that further buildings were intended within the courtyard, but were never built. The stonework is of coursed sandstone rubble, with dressings in lighter Ballengeich stone. ### The Lord's tower The principal tower, or gatehouse, is rectangular in plan 18 metres (59 ft) by 13 metres (43 ft), and almost 29 metres (95 ft) high, with a projecting round tower on the north-east corner, beside the entrance. It comprises the Lord's Hall, and three storeys of chambers above, located over the entrance passage. The vaulted, cobbled passage, 14 metres (46 ft) long, was formerly defended by two sets of timber doors, and a yett, or hinged iron grille, remains. Guardrooms on either side overlook the passage via gunloops, and also on the ground floor is a well, in the basement of the round tower. There is no direct communication between the ground floor and the Lord's Hall above, which occupies the whole first floor. This is accessed via an enclosed and gated stair from the courtyard. The hall is vaulted, and has an unusual double fireplace. The floor tiles, timber panelling, and minstrels' gallery are additions of the 1880s. It was originally thought that the connecting door to the Great Hall was also of this date, but is now accepted as being original. Side rooms on the hall level include a chamber in the round tower, with a hatch above the well, and a small chamber within the south wall which overlooks both hall and courtyard. A machicolation below the hall's north window allows objects to be dropped onto attackers in the passage. Above the hall is a second hall, forming part of the Duchess' suite of rooms. An oratory in the south wall, overlooking the courtyard, contains a piscina and credence niche. The oratory gives access to mural passages leading to the walkway along the curtain wall. The timber ceiling of the Duchess' hall, and the timber floors and roof above, are of the 1880s. The upper parts of the stonework are among the repairs dating from 1580. ### Great Hall and kitchen tower West of the Lord's tower is the Great Hall, 20 by 8 metres (66 by 26 ft), and 12 metres (39 ft) high to its timber roof, again a 19th-century replacement. The hall has no fireplace, and was presumably heated by a central fire, and ventilated by means of a louvre like the one in the modern roof. No details of the original roof construction are known, however, and the restoration is conjectural. Large windows light the hall, and stairs lead down to the three cellars on ground level. The hall is accessed from the courtyard via a stair up to a triangular lobby, which in turn links the hall and kitchens by means of two large serving hatches with elliptical arches, unusual for this period. The kitchen tower, virtually a tower house in its own right, is 17 by 8 metres (56 by 26 ft). The vaulted kitchen is on the hall level, above a cellar. One of the best-appointed castle kitchens in Scotland of its date, it has an oven and a 5.5-metre-wide (18 ft) fireplace. A stair turret, added in 1581 and possibly replacing a timber stair, leads up from the lobby to two storeys of guest rooms. These include the "Royal Apartments", a suite of two bedrooms plus an audience chamber, suitable for royal visitors. ### Courtyard and curtain wall Projecting stones on the south wall of the kitchen block, known as tuskings, and four pointed-arched windows in the south curtain wall, suggest that further ranges of buildings were planned. The large, easternmost window, may have been intended for a chapel, and it is recorded that a chapel dedicated to the 8th-century monk Saint Fillan was located at Doune Castle, but the lack of foundations suggest that there was no large building in this part of the castle. The foundations which do exist were excavated in September 2002, revealing a structure which was interpreted as a kiln or oven against the south wall. The central well is around 18 metres (59 ft) deep. The curtain wall is 2 metres (6+1⁄2 ft) thick, and 12 metres (39 ft) high. A walkway along the top of the wall is protected by parapets on both sides, and is carried over the pitched roofs of the hall and gatehouse by steep steps. Open, round turrets are located at each corner, with semicircular projections at the midpoint of each wall. A square turret with machicolations is located above the postern gate in the west wall. ### Interpretation of the layout The Lord's tower is a secure, private set of rooms, probably intended for the sole use of the Lord and his family, and with its own lines of defence. The architectural historian W. Douglas Simpson interpreted this arrangement as being the product of the "bastard feudalism" of the 14th century. During this period, Lords were required to defend their castles by means of mercenaries, rather than the vassals of the earlier feudal system, and Simpson suggested that the Lord of Doune designed his tower to be defensible against his own, potentially rebellious, garrison. This interpretation is no longer widely accepted by historians, and the castle is instead seen as a development towards more integrated courtyard buildings, such as the royal palace of Linlithgow, which was constructed through the 15th and early 16th century. The layout of Doune has similarities with those of the contemporary castles at Tantallon and Bothwell, and appears, at various scales, in other buildings of the period. ### Grounds The castle is surrounded by woodland and parkland along the banks of the River Teith and Ardoch Burn. In 2022 a new footbridge was constructed, spanning the Ardoch Burn. It was built using locally sourced larch timbers and provides a link from the immediate grounds of the castle to the site of an old mill. ## In fiction and drama Doune Castle has featured in several literary works, including the 17th-century ballad, "The Bonny Earl of Murray", which relates the murder of The 2nd Earl of Moray, by The 6th Earl of Huntly, in 1592. In Sir Walter Scott's first novel, Waverley (1814), the protagonist Edward Waverley is brought to Doune Castle by the Jacobites. Scott's romantic novel describes the "gloomy yet picturesque structure", with its "half-ruined turrets". The castle was used as a location in MGM's 1952 historical film Ivanhoe, which featured Robert Taylor and Elizabeth Taylor. The BBC adaptation of Ivanhoe in 1996 also featured Doune as a location. The castle was used as a set for Winterfell in the first season of the TV series Game of Thrones (2011–2019), an adaptation of the A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels by George R. R. Martin. The castle depicted the fictional "Castle Leoch" in the TV adaptation of the Outlander series of novels. The castle was also used as a location in Outlaw King, a 2018 historical action drama film about Robert the Bruce, the 14th-century Scottish King who launched a guerilla war against the larger English army. The film is largely set in the 3 years from 1304, when Bruce decides to rebel against the rule of Edward I over Scotland, thus becoming an "outlaw", up to the 1307 Battle of Loudoun Hill. ### Monty Python and the Holy Grail The British comedy film Monty Python and the Holy Grail – a parody of the legends of King Arthur by the Monty Python team – was filmed on location in Scotland in 1974. The film's producers had gained permission from the National Trust for Scotland to film scenes at several of their Scottish castles, as well as the permission of Lord Moray to film at Doune Castle. However, the National Trust later withdrew their permission, leaving the producers with little time to find new locations. Instead, they decided to use different parts of Doune Castle to depict the various fictional castles in the film, relying on tight framing of shots to maintain the illusion. Scenes featuring Doune Castle include: - At the start of the film, King Arthur (Graham Chapman) and Patsy (Terry Gilliam) approach the east wall of Doune Castle and argue with soldiers of the garrison. - The song and dance routine "Knights of the Round Table" at "Camelot" was filmed in the Great Hall. - The servery and kitchen appear as "Castle Anthrax", where Sir Galahad the Chaste (Michael Palin) is chased by seductive girls. - The wedding disrupted by Sir Lancelot (John Cleese) was filmed in the courtyard and Great Hall. - The Duchess' hall was used for filming the Swamp Castle scene where the prince (Terry Jones) is being held in a tower by ignorant guards (Graham Chapman and Eric Idle). - The Trojan Rabbit scene was filmed in the entryway and into the courtyard. The only other castles used for filming were Castle Stalker in Argyll, also privately owned, which appears as "Castle Aaaaarrrrrrggghhh" at the end of the film, and (briefly) Kidwelly Castle in Wales and Bodiam Castle in East Sussex. The DVD version of Monty Python and the Holy Grail includes a documentary, In Search of the Holy Grail Filming Locations, in which Michael Palin and Terry Jones revisit Doune and other sites used for filming. Doune Castle has become a place of pilgrimage for fans of Monty Python and the film. It used to hold an annual "Monty Python Day".
24,438,556	Joshua King (footballer)	1,173,689,085	Norwegian football player (born 1992)	[ "1992 births", "AFC Bournemouth players", "Blackburn Rovers F.C. players", "Borussia Mönchengladbach II players", "Borussia Mönchengladbach players", "Bundesliga players", "English Football League players", "Everton F.C. players", "Expatriate men's footballers in England", "Expatriate men's footballers in Germany", "Footballers from Oslo", "Hull City A.F.C. players", "Living people", "Manchester United F.C. players", "Men's association football forwards", "Norway men's international footballers", "Norway men's under-21 international footballers", "Norway men's youth international footballers", "Norwegian expatriate men's footballers", "Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in England", "Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in Germany", "Norwegian men's footballers", "Norwegian people of Gambian descent", "Premier League players", "Preston North End F.C. players", "Regionalliga players", "Vålerenga Fotball players", "Watford F.C. players" ]	Joshua Christian Kojo King (born 15 January 1992) is a Norwegian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Fenerbahçe and the Norway national team. King was signed by Manchester United from Vålerenga in 2008. After loan spells with Preston North End, Borussia Mönchengladbach, Hull City and Blackburn Rovers, he signed permanently with Blackburn in January 2013, before switching to AFC Bournemouth in May 2015. In February 2021, in a deadline day deal, he returned to the top flight with a move to Everton. After representing Norway at under-15, under-16, under-18, under-19 and under-21 levels, King made his senior international debut against Iceland in 2012, and scored his first international goal against Cyprus later that year. ## Early life Born in Oslo, to a Gambian father and a Norwegian mother, King grew up in the suburb of Romsås. He began his career with the local club, Romsås IL, before switching to Vålerenga when he was 15. While at Vålerenga, King trained with English side Manchester United on multiple occasions, but UEFA rules prevented him from signing a contract with the club until he was 16. He also had trial offers from Chelsea, Sunderland and Ipswich Town, but rejected those in favour of Manchester United. ## Club career ### Manchester United King signed for Manchester United when he turned 16 in January 2008, and made his debut for the under-18 side in a 5–1 home defeat to Sunderland on 29 March 2008. He played just once more in the league that season, as well as making five substitute appearances in the Blue Stars Youth Cup in May 2008. He began the following season by scoring four goals in four matches as the Manchester United Under-17s won the 2008 Milk Cup. He then played in two matches at the start of the 2008–09 Premier Academy League season before an injury in October 2008 kept him out until January 2009. Two games after his comeback, King scored twice in a 5–0 win over Bolton Wanderers on 31 January 2009. The following week, he was named as an unused substitute for the reserves in a Manchester Senior Cup match against Stockport County, before making his reserve debut as a substitute for Robbie Brady in a Premier Reserve League match against Bolton Wanderers three days later. He then made his first start of the season for the Under-18s against Manchester City on 14 February, only to miss the next two months of the season. He returned at the start of April 2009, just in time to play in the run-in to the end of the Under-18 league season, as United finished in second place, 19 points behind winners Manchester City. At the start of the 2009–10 season, King came on as a substitute for Zoran Tošić in the final of the Lancashire Senior Cup, a 1–0 win over Bolton Wanderers. He then started the reserves' first three league games of the season, and was rewarded for his performances by being given a place on the bench for the first team's League Cup third round match against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 23 September 2009. He was given the number 41 jersey and came on as an 81st-minute substitute for goalscorer Danny Welbeck. Although King had two opportunities to add to United's lead, the match finished 1–0 and United progressed to the fourth round of the competition. He was again named as a substitute for the fourth round match against Barnsley, but he did not take to the field. King was an integral part of the under-18s side for the remainder of the season, scoring six goals in 14 appearances as the team won Group C of the 2009–10 Premier Academy League; they were drawn against Arsenal in the play-off semi-finals, and although King scored his penalty in the shoot-out after the match finished in a 1–1 draw, Arsenal ultimately won 5–3. ### Preston North End After impressing for Manchester United in the 2010–11 pre-season, King joined Championship side Preston North End – managed by Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson's son, Darren – on a three-month loan deal on 7 August 2010, becoming Preston's 1,000th player and linking up with fellow United loanee Matty James. He made his debut the next day, coming on as a 70th-minute substitute for Paul Hayes in Preston's 2–0 defeat by Doncaster Rovers on the opening day of the 2010–11 season. King's first goal for Preston came in his second match, a League Cup first round tie against Stockport County on 10 August; after coming on as a 72nd-minute substitute for Chris Brown, he intercepted a goal kick from Andy Lonergan and curled the ball past the Stockport goalkeeper, making the final score 5–0. He had earlier added an assist after running 60 yards down the right wing and crossing for Paul Hayes' second goal – the fourth of the match. King made his first start for Preston on 21 August, playing the full 90 minutes of the team's 1–0 home win over Portsmouth; King was named man of the match for his performance, in which he repeatedly threatened the Portsmouth goal. King played in seven of Preston's first 12 league games, but suffered an ankle injury at the end of October 2010 that ruled him out for the rest of the loan, and he returned to Manchester United. After his recovery towards the end of November, King returned to Preston on another loan until 4 January 2011; however, he made just one more appearance for the club before being recalled by Manchester United a few days early. Some sources suggested that Alex Ferguson recalled King and fellow loanees Matty James and Ritchie De Laet in retaliation for Preston sacking his son, Darren, but Alex later indicated that King and De Laet had not enjoyed their time at Preston and did not want to return to the club. ### Return to Manchester United After his return to Manchester United, King was a regular in the reserve team, playing in 17 of the last 18 games of the season; his only absence came against Arsenal on 28 April 2011. He was also regularly on the scoresheet, particularly in the Manchester Senior Cup, in which he scored twice in an 8–0 win over Bury and three times in a 6–1 win over Rochdale. He also hit two against Oldham Athletic in the quarter-finals of the Lancashire Senior Cup and against Chelsea in the Premier Reserve League to finish the season with 11 goals as the team won the Manchester Senior Cup and the Premier Reserve League North. In among these performances, King was also named on the bench for three first-team matches, including Manchester United's 4–0 away league win over Wigan Athletic and their FA Cup wins over Crawley Town and Arsenal, as well as travelling with the team for the first leg of their Champions League round of 16 tie with Marseille. In recognition of his performances in the second half of the season, King was rewarded with a new two-year contract with Manchester United, keeping him at the club until the summer of 2013. In August 2011, King joined German club Borussia Mönchengladbach on loan for the duration of the 2011–12 season. The loan agreement between Borussia and Manchester United was first announced by Borussia's director of sport, Max Eberl, at the club's general meeting on 29 May 2011, but the move was held up when King suffered a groin injury requiring surgery while on international duty with the Norway Under-21 side. Borussia confirmed the loan transfer on 22 July 2011, the terms of which were undisclosed by either club, although it was still subject to King passing a medical examination on 1 August. He began individual training with Borussia on 2 August, before linking up with the rest of the squad shortly afterwards. King made his first appearance for Borussia Mönchengladbach as a substitute on 19 August 2011, in Borussia's 4–1 win against VfL Wolfsburg. After just one more substitute appearance and a total of 19 minutes on the field, a recurrence of King's groin injury resulted in his loan spell being terminated early. Having returned to England, King joined Hull City on loan for the rest of the 2011–12 season on 16 January 2012. He made his debut as an 86th-minute substitute for Liam Rosenior in a 1–0 away win at Reading on 21 January. King played in four consecutive matches at the start of his spell at Hull, but on 9 February 2012, he appeared for the Manchester United reserves in their 4–2 Manchester Senior Cup defeat at home to Manchester City; he played for 61 minutes of the match before being replaced by Reece Brown. It took until 9 April for King to score his first goal for Hull, scoring the equaliser as Hull came from behind to beat Middlesbrough 2–1; King also provided the assist for Matty Fryatt's winning goal. King returned to Manchester United on 1 May and went straight back into the reserve team for their Lancashire Senior Cup semi-final against Blackpool; Manchester United won 5–4 on penalties after neither side could produce a goal in normal time, with King scoring United's first penalty. Another penalty shoot-out followed in King's next match for the reserves, the Premier Reserve League play-off match against the winners of the south section, Aston Villa; after coming on as a substitute for captain Davide Petrucci, King was one of three scorers for Manchester United in the shoot-out as they won 3–1 to take the title. ### Blackburn Rovers At the start of the 2012–13 season, King found himself a regular in the Manchester United reserve team, and scored the team's last goal in the 90th minute of their 4–0 win over Accrington Stanley in the final of the Lancashire Senior Cup on 8 August 2012. However, despite playing in seven of the reserves' first nine games of the season, he was unable to make the step up to the first team – he was an unused substitute in the League Cup third round match against Newcastle United on 26 September, and came on as a substitute for Danny Welbeck in the 85th minute of the dead rubber Champions League group match against Galatasaray on 20 November. In search of first-team football, King was allowed to join Blackburn Rovers on loan until 31 December 2012, with a view to eventually making the move permanent. Despite competition up front from Jordan Rhodes, Colin Kazim-Richards, Rubén Rochina and Nuno Gomes, he made his debut two days later, coming on as a 55th-minute substitute for Marcus Olsson in a 2–0 defeat at home to Millwall. He scored his first goal for the club at home to Cardiff City on 7 December, an equaliser after Mark Hudson had put Cardiff in front; however, Cardiff scored a further three goals and won 4–1. After scoring two goals in eight appearances, King's transfer to Blackburn was made permanent as he signed a two-and-a-half-year contract on 2 January 2013, with the option of extending the deal by a further year. In an FA Cup match against Derby County on 26 January, he was forced to come off with a hamstring injury; he had also missed the three games prior to that with the same injury. He went on to make a total of 20 appearances for Blackburn that season. His first goal of the 2013–14 season came on 24 August in Blackburn's 5–2 victory over Barnsley, where he converted a Todd Kane pass into a goal from six yards out. On 14 February 2015, King scored his first Rovers hat trick in a 4–1 win against Stoke City in the FA Cup 5th round. He did not net any other goals that season. ### AFC Bournemouth On 28 May 2015, after turning down a new contract at Blackburn, King switched to AFC Bournemouth ahead of their first-ever season in the Premier League. He credited the ethos of manager Eddie Howe and the opportunity to be a top-flight regular as his reasons to sign. He made his debut for Bournemouth on 8 August as they began the season with a 0–1 home defeat against Aston Villa. King's first goal for the Cherries came on 21 November, when he opened a 2–2 draw at Swansea City; on 12 December he scored the winning goal from a corner kick routine as Bournemouth beat his former club United 2–1 at Dean Court. King finished the season as Bournemouth's top scorer, scoring seven times in all competitions, with six of those coming in the Premier League. King went on a sensational scoring run in 2017, from late February to March 2017, King scored five goals in three Premier League matches, including an equalising goal on his return to Old Trafford, and concluding with a hat-trick in a 3–2 home win over West Ham despite missing a spot-kick in the first ten minutes of that match. He became the sixth Norwegian player to score three times in a Premier League match. On 29 August 2017, King signed a new four-year contract with Bournemouth. King enjoyed another productive campaign in the 2018–19 season, netting 12 times in 35 Premier League appearances. ### Everton On 1 February 2021, the last day of the winter transfer window, Everton announced the signing of King from Bournemouth for a nominal fee. He agreed to a deal until the end of the season with an option to extend the deal. He made his debut away against Leeds United on 3 February, coming on in the 87th minute. Everton won the game 2–1. King was announced to be leaving the club upon the expiration of his contract, one of four first-team players to not be having their contracts renewed. ### Watford On 9 July 2021, King joined newly promoted Premier League side Watford on a free transfer, a two-year deal with the option of a third. On 23 October 2021, King scored his first goals for Watford, which subsequently was a hat-trick in Watford’s 5–2 away win against Everton. On 28 June 2022, King was released following the club's immediate relegation back to the Championship. ### Fenerbahçe King signed a two-year contract with Turkish club Fenerbahçe on 13 July 2022. ## International career After representing Norway at youth international level, Egil Olsen called up King to Norway's squad for two World Cup qualifiers in September 2012. He made his debut against Iceland on 7 September 2012, when he replaced Mohammed Abdellaoue after 65 minutes. King had the ball in the back of the net eight minutes later, but the goal was disallowed. Four days later in Norway's next match, he replaced Abdellaoue at half time against Slovenia. King replaced Alexander Søderlund as a substitute at half time against Cyprus in Larnaca on 16 October 2012, then won a penalty and scored the last goal in Norway's 3–1 victory. He was included in the Norway squad for the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship, but as he was a regular member of the senior squad he had to play the World Cup qualifying match against Albania, along with his under-21 teammates Valon Berisha, Håvard Nordtveit and Markus Henriksen before they traveled to the championship in Israel. King appeared in the under-21 team's matches against Italy U-21 and Spain U-21 during the championship. He scored his second full international goal in his next appearance, scoring the second goal in a 2–0 victory over Cyprus on 6 September 2013. On 10 October 2014, he scored two goals against Malta in a 3–0 away win in UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying, but was dropped by manager Per-Mathias Høgmo from their play-off against Hungary in place of Veton Berisha, Marcus Pedersen and Alexander Søderlund. ## Career statistics ### Club ### International Scores and results list Norway's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each King goal. ## Honours Fenerbahçe - Turkish Cup: 2022–23 Individual - Gullballen: 2017
26,993,173	Italian battleship Regina Elena	1,170,058,588	Pre-dreadnought battleship of the Italian Royal Navy	[ "1904 ships", "Regina Elena-class battleships", "Ships built in La Spezia", "World War I battleships of Italy" ]	Regina Elena was the lead ship of her class of pre-dreadnought battleships built for the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy). The ship was built by the La Spezia shipyard between 1901 and 1907, and was armed with a main battery of two 305 mm (12 in) guns and twelve 203 mm (8 in) guns. She was quite fast for the period, with a top speed of nearly 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). Regina Elena was active in both the Italo-Turkish War with the Ottoman Empire in 1911–1912, where she participated in the Italian conquest of Cyrenaica, and World War I in 1915–1918, where she saw no action due to the threat of submarines in the narrow confines of the Adriatic Sea. She was retained for a few years after the war, but was ultimately stricken in February 1923 and broken up for scrap. ## Design The design for the Regina Elena class was prepared by the noted naval engineer, Vittorio Cuniberti, then the Chief Engineer of the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy). The Navy specified a vessel that would be more powerful than contemporary armored cruisers and faster than foreign pre-dreadnought battleships on a displacement of no more than 13,000 long tons (13,210 t). The first two vessels—Regina Elena and Vittorio Emanuele—were ordered for the 1901 fiscal year, and the final pair—Roma and Napoli—were authorized the following year. ### Characteristics Regina Elena was 144.6 meters (474 ft) long overall and had a beam of 22.4 m (73 ft) and a maximum draft of 8.58 m (28.1 ft). She displaced 13,807 long tons (14,029 t) at full load. The ship had a slightly inverted bow and a long forecastle deck that extended past the main mast. Regina Elena had a crew of 742–764 officers and enlisted men. Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a screw propeller. Steam for the engines was provided by twenty-eight coal-fired Belleville boilers that were vented into three funnels. The ship's propulsion system was rated at 19,299 indicated horsepower (14,391 kW) and provided a top speed of 20.8 knots (38.5 km/h; 23.9 mph) and a range of approximately 10,000 nautical miles (19,000 km; 12,000 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). As built, the ship was armed with a main battery of two 305 mm (12 in) 40-caliber guns placed in two single gun turrets, one forward and one aft. The ship was also equipped with a secondary battery of twelve 203 mm (8 in) 45-cal. guns in six twin turrets amidships. Close-range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 76 mm (3 in) 40-cal. guns in casemates and pivot mounts. Regina Elena was also equipped with two 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline. Regina Elena was protected with Krupp steel manufactured in Terni. The main belt was 250 mm (9.8 in) thick, and the deck was 38 mm (1.5 in) thick. The conning tower was protected by 254 mm (10 in) of armor plating. The main battery guns had 203 mm thick plating, and the secondary gun turrets had 152 mm (6 in) thick sides. ## Service history Regina Elena was laid down at the Arsenale di La Spezia shipyard in La Spezia on 27 March 1901, and was launched on 19 June 1904. After fitting-out work was completed, she was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 11 September 1907. She thereafter served in the Mediterranean Squadron, and was ready for the annual maneuvers in late September and early October, under the command of Vice Admiral Alfonso di Brocchetti. In April 1908, Regina Elena participated in a naval demonstration off Asia Minor in protest of the Ottoman decision to prohibit Italian post offices in Ottoman territory. The ship was at that time commanded by Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi. The ship went to Messina in the aftermath of the 1908 Messina earthquake. Regina Elena remained in the active duty squadron through 1910, by which time her three sisters had been completed, bringing the total number of front-line battleships to six, including the two Regina Margherita-class battleships. ### Italo-Turkish War On 29 September 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya. For the duration of the conflict, Regina Elena was assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron along with her three sisters, under the command of Vice Admiral Augusto Aubry. She joined the squadron late, on 5 October. On 18 October, Regina Elena and her three sisters, along with three cruisers and several destroyers and torpedo boats escorted a convoy that carried half of the 2nd Infantry Division to Benghazi. When the Ottomans refused to surrender the city before the amphibious assault, the Italian fleet opened fire on the Turkish defenders at 08:00, while landing parties from the ships and the Army infantry went ashore. The Italians quickly forced the Ottomans to withdraw into the city by evening. After a short siege, the Ottoman forces withdrew on 29 October, leaving the city to the Italians. By December, Regina Elena and the other ships of the 1st Squadron were dispersed in the ports of Cyrenaica. Regina Elena, Roma, and the armored cruiser San Marco were stationed in Benghazi, with Regina Elena recently arriving from Tobruk. While there, they supported the Italian Army as it occupied the city and surrounding area by contributing landing parties and providing fire support to the ground troops. The gunfire support supplied by Regina Elena contributed to the defeat of a major attack on the city by an Ottoman army on 14–15 December. In early 1912, most of the fleet had withdrawn to Italy for repairs and refit, leaving only a small force of cruisers and light craft to patrol the North African coast. In March 1914, Regina Elena was involved in experiments with wireless telegraphy in Syracuse, Sicily. The tests were conducted by Guglielmo Marconi and were supervised by the Duke of the Abruzzi. ### World War I Italy declared neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, but by July 1915, the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers. The primary naval opponent for the duration of the war was the Austro-Hungarian Navy; the Naval Chief of Staff, Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel, believed the threat from submarines in the confined waters of the Adriatic was too serious to permit an active fleet policy. He therefore planned a distant blockade with the battle fleet, while smaller vessels, such as the MAS boats conducted raids. The heavy ships of the Italian fleet would be preserved for a potential major battle in the event that the Austro-Hungarian fleet should emerge from its bases. As a result, the ship's career during the war was limited. During the war, Regina Elena and her three sisters were assigned to the 2nd Division. They spent much of the war rotating between the bases at Taranto, Brindisi, and Valona, but did not see combat. In February 1916, Regina Elena and Roma sortied briefly in response to mistaken reports that the Austro-Hungarian fleet was at sea. On 14–15 May 1917, three light cruisers of the Austro-Hungarian Navy raided the Otranto Barrage; in the ensuring Battle of the Strait of Otranto, Regina Elena and her sisters raised steam to assist the Allied warships, but the Italian commander refused to permit them to join the battle for fear of risking their loss in the submarine-infested Adriatic. Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty, Italy was permitted to retain Regina Elena and her three sisters. The Italian Navy could have kept the ships in service indefinitely, but they could not be replaced by new battleships under the normal practice of the Treaty system. Nevertheless, she was stricken from the naval register on 16 February 1923 and subsequently broken up for scrap.
1,615,897	First Battle of Springfield	1,171,515,949	Battle of the Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War	[ "1861 in Missouri", "1861 in the American Civil War", "Battles of the American Civil War in Missouri", "Battles of the Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War", "History of Greene County, Missouri", "History of Springfield, Missouri", "October 1861 events", "Operations to control Missouri (American Civil War)", "Union victories of the American Civil War" ]	The First Battle of Springfield was a battle of the American Civil War that took place on October 25, 1861, near Springfield, Missouri. Following the Battle of Wilson's Creek, the Missouri State Guard, a pro-Confederate militia organization, drove north and defeated a Federal (Union) force in the Siege of Lexington. Following the fighting at Lexington, Federal Major General John C. Frémont began a campaign that drove into southern Missouri. The main body of the Missouri State Guard fell back to Neosho, but a body of roughly 1,000 new recruits commanded by Colonel Julian Frazier was at Springfield. On October 24, Frémont sent a force raised as his bodyguard commanded by Major Charles Zagonyi on a scouting mission towards Springfield. After joining a cavalry force known as the Prairie Scouts at Bolivar, Zagonyi moved on towards Springfield on October 25. Having lost the element of surprise in a clash with a small group of Missouri State Guardsmen, Zagonyi detoured his men to the west. At around 4:00 p.m., Zagonyi's men encountered Frazier's command. The Missouri State Guardsmen had taken up a defensive position on a partially wooded ridge. The exact details of the battle are unknown, but Zagonyi's men drove off Frazier's troops before entering Springfield and withdrawing north at around the time darkness fell. Zagonyi's post-battle report was intentionally inaccurate and was designed to inflate the contributions of his own troops at the expense of the Prairie Scouts. The action accomplished very little, and Federal troops occupied Springfield again two days later. Frémont was relieved of command in early November, and his successor called off the campaign and withdrew, allowing the Missouri State Guard to reoccupy Springfield, although they were driven out of Missouri in early 1862. ## Prelude Early in the American Civil War, conflict broke out between United States Federal (Union) forces and state authorities in Missouri. On May 10, 1861, Federal Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon captured a militia encampment sent by Missouri's pro-Confederate governor Claiborne Fox Jackson in the Camp Jackson affair. Jackson responded by creating a new pro-Confederate militia force, the Missouri State Guard, and named Sterling Price the Guard's commander. Price, Lyon, and Jackson attended a meeting at the Planter's House Hotel on June 11, at the end of which Lyon declared that a state of open war had begun. Lyon then began an offensive that took control of the state capital of Jefferson City, and drove the Missouri State Guard from the Missouri River Valley. For a time Federal operations in Missouri were part of the purview of the Department of the Ohio, but on July 1 the Department of the West, which included Missouri, was created, and placed under the command of Major General John C. Frémont two days later. Frémont arrived in Missouri on July 25. He brought with him a number of foreign-born officers, one of whom was the Hungarian Major Charles Zagonyi, who recruited a cavalry unit intended to serve as a bodyguard for Frémont. While Frémont focused on events near Cairo, Illinois, Lyon operated in southwestern Missouri. On August 10, Lyon was killed and his army defeated while fighting a mixed Confederate States Army and Missouri State Guard force at the Battle of Wilson's Creek. While the Confederate forces returned to Arkansas after Wilson's Creek, Price moved his militia north to the Missouri River town of Lexington. Frémont's response to Price's incursion was ineffective, and the Siege of Lexington ended with a Federal surrender on September 20. In response to the fall of Lexington, Frémont developed an unrealistic offensive plan that involved a thrust all the way down to New Orleans, Louisiana. His force outnumbered Price about 38,000 men to 18,000 men. As Federal troops gathered at Georgetown, Missouri, Price fell back, pursued by Frémont's army. On October 20, Price's men reached Neosho, Missouri, while the middle of October saw Frémont reach the Pomme de Terre River. Leading part of Frémont's advance had been Major Frank J. White and his Prairie Scouts, a cavalry force drawn from two companies of the 3rd Illinois Cavalry Regiment and one from the 23rd Illinois Infantry Regiment. ## Battle As the advance neared Springfield, Missouri, the Body Guard unit led the offensive. Late on October 24, Zagonyi and the Body Guard left camp to move towards Springfield. Reaching Bolivar the next day, Zagonyi joined forces with the Prairie Scouts, although White was sick and followed in a carriage. Defending Springfield was a collection of new Missouri State Guard recruits commanded by Colonel Julian Frazier. The historian Louis Gerteis state that Frazier had an effective force of about 1,000 badly armed and trained men, although Zagonyi believed he faced 2,000 to 2,200 enemy soldiers. Zagonyi led about 300 men in his movement. While still 8 miles (13 km) away from Springfield, the Federals ran into a small party of Missouri State Guardsmen, one of whom escaped back to Springfield to sound the alarm. With the element of surprise now lost for an attack from the north, Zagonyi swung his troops to approach Springfield from the west. Unaware that Zagyoni had changed course, White later arrived from the north and was captured. At around 4:00 p.m., the Federal cavalry encountered Frazier's position, which was on partially wooded ridge. To the north of the Missouri State Guard position was a road, to the south was a lane with fences along the sides, and in front of it was Crane Creek. Zagonyi aligned his men for a charge and, according to the historian Robert E. Miller, Zagonyi told his men that any who did not want to participate in the attack would be excused. Miller also states that Zagonyi gave "Fremont and the Union" as a watchword, although the historian Stephen Z. Starr does not believe Zagonyi's claim to have used this battle cry. Writing of the ensuing engagement, Starr states that "The truth of what happened in Springfield on this October day is lost beyond recovery", and Miller notes that Zagonyi's account of the action was intentionally inaccurate to glorify his troops at the expense of the Prairie Scouts. Gerteis describes the sequence of the battle as Zagonyi's men, accompanied by Captain Patrick Naughton and the Prairie Scouts, destroying a fence to make a path for their charge while under Missouri State Guard fire, with the attack driving Frazier's cavalry into Springfield and Frazier's infantry into some woods. Gerteis then has Zagonyi's men pursuing Guardsmen through the streets of Springfield, with Zagonyi gathering his scattered men before dark, deciding that he did not have enough men to hold the city, and then withdrawing back north. Miller's account of the battle has two companies charging with Zagonyi through a gap in the fence, while another company commanded by a Captain Foley had to tear down a portion of the fence to attack. Miller then has Foley repulsed in a charge, Zagonyi's column driving off Frazier's cavalry but then being repulsed by his infantry, and a third charge driving off the Guardsmen. Under Miller's account, the Guardsmen fled toward Neosho, with Zagonyi's men entering Springfield, but withdrawing north towards Bolivar at dark, having abandoned his wounded. The historians Phillip W. Steele and Steve Cottrell describe the battle as an unsuccessful charge by Zagonyi followed by a second successful one, and then the Federals chasing the Guardsmen through both Springfield and the surrounding rural areas. Zagonyi claimed after the battle that the Prairie Scouts had not participated in the charge, but the official report of the Prairie Scouts states that two companies of that unit fought under Captain Charles Fairbanks near the Missouri State Guard's rear and made three flanking attacks against Frazier's line. Evidence also points to Naughton's company fighting with Foley, and Foley reported that a portion of the Prairie Scouts fought with his command instead of Zagonyi's two companies because of a misunderstanding. Zagonyi's report also claimed that he had raised a United States flag in Springfield, but Miller notes that there is evidence that suggests this is inaccurate. ## Aftermath Zagonyi admitted to a loss of 15 killed, 27 wounded, and 10 missing in action. A postwar secondhand account written by Confederate officer William Preston Johnston claimed that Frazier had lost only two or three men. Miller notes the existence of a Federal claim that the Missouri State Guard had lost at least 116 men. Steele and Cottrell state that the Body Guards suffered 53 casualties and the Prairie Scouts 31. Zagonyi's official report claimed that at least 106 guardsmen were dead, with 27 captured and more wounded; the report also stated that 45 horses had been killed or incapacitated during the action, that the men's weapons had been "seriously damaged" by enemy fire, and that the Federal troops' uniforms and spare clothes had been "so riddled with bullets as to be useless". Preservationist Frances E. Kennedy places Federal losses at 85 and Frazier's loss at 133. The fight had accomplished very little, but it was celebrated in the Federal press and known as "Zagonyi's death-attack". George Boker wrote a poem about it, and Frémont compared the action to the Charge of the Light Brigade. Federal troops occupied Springfield two days after the battle. Previously, Frémont had upset the Federal government with the impolitic Frémont Emancipation, and political troubles dogged his campaign. Accusations of contractor graft during the mobilization of his army, opposition from supporters of Francis Preston Blair Jr., and a negative report from Adjutant General of the U.S. Army Lorenzo Thomas made the situation worse for Frémont. He was relieved of command in early November, and replaced by Major General David Hunter. Hunter called off Frémont's offensive and withdrew from Springfield, allowing Price to reoccupy the city. About a week after taking command, Hunter was reassigned to Kansas and replaced by Major General Henry W. Halleck. A Federal offensive in early 1862 drove Price out of Missouri, and the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862 secured Federal control of Missouri. Frémont and Zagonyi were assigned east to what is now West Virginia, and fought in Jackson's Valley campaign. Zagonyi left active military service in late June 1862. In the city of Springfield's Zagonyi Park is a 1931 monument commemorating the charge, although the accuracy of the text on the monument has been challenged.
8,702,834	David Beharall	1,164,002,952	English association football player (born 1979)	[ "1979 births", "Carlisle United F.C. players", "English Football League players", "English men's footballers", "Footballers from Newcastle upon Tyne", "Grimsby Town F.C. players", "Living people", "Men's association football central defenders", "National League (English football) players", "Newcastle United F.C. players", "Oldham Athletic A.F.C. players", "Premier League players", "Stockport County F.C. players" ]	David Alexander Beharall (born 8 March 1979) is an English former professional footballer who played as a defender. Beharall started his football playing career for Newcastle United in 1996 and graduated to the first team in 1998. While at St James' Park he had loan spells at Grimsby Town and Oldham Athletic in 2001 and 2002 before joining Oldham for a fee of £150,000 in March 2002. He left Oldham in February 2005 to join Carlisle United on a free transfer and a year later in February 2006 Beharall joined Stockport County. He retired from football at the age of 27 due to a knee injury in 2006. ## Career ### Newcastle United Beharall started off his playing career at hometown club Newcastle United in 1996 where he graduated to the first team in 1998 after being captain to the youth and reserve teams. Beharall made his first Premier League start and his debut for Newcastle in the 3–1 loss against Everton on 17 April 1999. Beharall started another 3 Premier League games during the 1998–99 season. During the 1999–2000 season, Beharall played 2 more Premier League games; the 3–3 draw against Wimbledon and the 5–1 loss at Manchester United. The match against Manchester United turned out to be his last match for the club. After two years without a first team appearance, Beharall wanted to join Preston North End on loan after spending two days at Deepdale in early January 2001, but Preston's manager David Moyes decided against the move. ### Grimsby Town With first team opportunities running out at Newcastle, Beharall joined Grimsby Town in August 2001 originally on trial, with a view to a loan move due to Grimsby's lack of centre backs. After his trial he joined The Mariners on loan in August 2001 for 3 months and made his début in a 1–0 win against Crewe Alexandra on 11 August. David played another 15 league and cup games for Grimsby Town, including the 2–1 cup upset they inflicted on Liverpool in the League Cup 3rd round at Anfield on 9 October 2001. Beharall gave away the penalty that Liverpool midfielder Gary McAllister scored as he was judged to have handled the ball in the penalty box. That goal gave Liverpool the lead with 19 minutes left but goals from Marlon Broomes and Phil Jevons in stoppage time cancelled out Beharall's mistake and Grimsby pulled off a big cup upset. Beharall ended his loan spell in November 2001. ### Oldham Athletic Ten days after leaving Grimsby Town, Beharall was on the move again, this time to Oldham Athletic on a loan deal to the end of the season. Beharall made his dèbut in a 0–0 draw against Stoke City on 21 November 2001. He played 17 league games, two FA Cup and two Football League Trophy matches during his loan spell at Oldham, scoring one goal in the 89th minute in a 1–1 draw against Wigan Athletic on 15 December 2001. Beharall was bought by Oldham Athletic on 6 March 2002 for £150,000 on a three-year contract after impressing during his loan deal. David played one more league game for The Latics during the 2001–02 season against Wigan on 9 March, a match which Wigan won 1–0. In the 2002–03 season Beharall played 32 league, 4 League and 3 FA Cup games for Oldham under the management of Iain Dowie, who replaced Mick Wadsworth in the summer of 2002. In the pre-season of the 2003–04 season, he suffered an injury which left him out of action until October 2003. During this time in August 2003 Beharall was a victim of a carjacking when he and teammate Adam Griffin were attacked when they stopped at a cash machine with Beharall leaving Griffin in the passenger seat and his £21,000 Mercedes-Benz R230 car parked at a Texaco garage in Oldham. Griffin was left defenseless with one of the attackers holding him at knifepoint and another man hit Griffin's left arm with an iron bar, then dragging and throwing Griffin to the ground. Beharall left his wallet and mobile phone in the car but was relieved that he and Griffin were OK. During the 2003–2004 season Beharall played 7 league, 2 FA Cup and 2 Football league games, he also scored 2 league goals against Plymouth Argyle on 1 November 2003. After playing only 6 league games during the 2004–05 season new manager Brian Talbot, Beharall left the club on 24 January 2005 after agreeing a settlement figure. ### Carlisle United Nine days after leaving Oldham, Beharall joined Carlisle United, with him signing a contract until July 2006. This was the first time in his career he played for a non-league club. Beharall made his debut for the club in the 2–2 draw against Gravesend & Northfleet on 12 February 2005. In the 2004–05 season, Beharall was part of Carlisle's return to the Football League, playing 14 matches (3 of these being playoff matches) and playing 1 FA Trophy match. He scored one Conference goal, in the 2–1 win at Farnborough Town on 2 April 2005. Beharall's pre-season preparations were ruined by an injury which made him miss the start of Carlisle's season, but the MRI scan revealed he had not suffered a tear to any of the major knee ligaments. When he returned from injury in October 2005, Beharall played 6 League and 2 Football League Trophy matches. Most of these appearances came in October and November. However, with the lack of opportunities, Beharall left Carlisle by mutual consent on 1 February 2006. ### Stockport County After being released by Carlisle, Beharall decided to join League Two strugglers Stockport County until the end of the 2005–06 season, after playing well in a reserve match for County prior to his move, he had high hopes of saving the club from relegation and also hoped to impress the County manager Jim Gannon enough to earn a new contract for the following season. Beharall made his début for County in the 2–1 away victory against Chester City. Beharall played another 11 league games during the 2005–06 for Stockport and was starting contract negotiations the managed Jim Gannon, but in May 2006 Beharall retired due to an ongoing bad knee injury. ## Personal life Since retiring Beharall has gone on to set up and run digital agency CandidSky based in Manchester city centre. He has won North West Entrepreneur of the year as well as an award for his work within social media. In June 2016 CandidSky won 'Best Use of Search & CRO' at the 18th annual Big Chip Awards. It is the longest-running digital industry awards in the UK.
37,204,609	Kiss You (One Direction song)	1,161,178,072	2013 single by One Direction	[ "2012 songs", "2013 singles", "Music videos directed by Vaughan Arnell", "One Direction songs", "Song recordings produced by Carl Falk", "Song recordings produced by Rami Yacoub", "Songs about kissing", "Songs written by Albin Nedler", "Songs written by Carl Falk", "Songs written by Kristian Lundin", "Songs written by Kristoffer Fogelmark", "Songs written by Rami Yacoub", "Songs written by Savan Kotecha", "Songs written by Shellback (record producer)", "Syco Music singles" ]	"Kiss You" is a song recorded by English-Irish boy band One Direction for their second studio album, Take Me Home (2012). It was released as the record's second single in Germany and the third and final single on 7 January 2013. The song was composed by Kristoffer Fogelmark, Kristian Lundin, Albin Nedler, Savan Kotecha, Shellback and its producers, Carl Falk and Rami Yacoub. "Kiss You" is an upbeat power pop song with electronic effects; the lyrics detail the narrator's infatuation with a significant other. Critics praised the song for its production, calling it a stand-out track on Take Me Home. The track became the group's sixth top-ten hit in Ireland and the United Kingdom while attaining top-forty positions in both Belgian territories (Flanders and Wallonia), as well as in Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, New Zealand, and the Netherlands. The single peaked at number 46 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 500,000 copies. One Direction performed "Kiss You" on both the UK and US versions of The X Factor and 3 major concert tours: Take Me Home Tour (2013), Where We Are Tour (2014) and On the Road Again Tour (2015). An accompanying music video, designed to display the group's comedic timing, was directed by Vaughan Arnell, who had previously worked with the group on two other music videos. The clip depicts the band shooting various scenes via a green screen, which include sequences reminiscent of iconic music videos of songs such as the Beach Boys' "Surfer Girl", Elvis Presley's "Jailhouse Rock" and Rammstein's "Mein Land". The music video received 10.4 million views in a 24-hour period and positive commentary from reviewers, who appreciated its carefree, jubilant nature. The song was included in the dancing game Just Dance 2014, and is also one of the select songs available on the demo version. Additionally, it is the final main track on the US edition of Now That's What I Call Music! 46. ## Background and release "Kiss You" was written by Kristoffer Fogelmark, Kristian Lundin, Albin Nedler, Savan Kotecha, Shellback, and its producers, Carl Falk and Rami Yacoub. Falk, Kotecha, and Yacoub had collaboratively composed One Direction's previous hit singles, "What Makes You Beautiful", "One Thing", and "Live While We're Young". In April 2012, The Independent reported that Simon Cowell, the group's manager, had challenged prominent songwriters to compete for space on One Direction's second album. Falk said, "It's important to get their personalities on the music." In addition, the article reported that Syco Records was working on candidates that included Max Martin and Lundin. "Kiss You" was chosen as the second US single and third international from their second studio album, Take Me Home. Liam Payne, a group member, in a November 2012 interview with MTV News, explained why they chose "Kiss You" as the album's second single in the US. Payne was quoted as saying: "With the album, that's the first one that we listened to and we were like, 'Yeah, we love this song'". According to an MTV News article, the number was released digitally in the United States on 17 November 2012. By 18 January 2013, the song had not been officially promoted to US radio stations. The track, however, was released by Sony Music Entertainment on 8 February 2013, as the record's second single in Germany. ## Composition and reception "Kiss You" is an uptempo, upbeat power pop song which runs for a duration of 3:04 (3 minutes, four seconds). The track features electronic effects, colossal hooks, a "na na na" breakdown, and a Motown-tinged melody. One Direction's vocal range in the song span from the note of E<sub>4</sub> to C<sub>6</sub>. Instrumentation includes guitar strings, piano lines and vocals. Written in the key of E major, the beat is set in common time and moves at a quick 90 beats per minute, according to the digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony/ATV Music Publishing. Likewise, Matt Collar from Allmusic noted that the track is "frenetically hyper". The lyrical content regards the protagonist's infatuation with a significant other, and incorporates euphemisms for sexual intercourse in the lines "If you don’t wanna take it slow/And you just wanna take me home/Baby say yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah." "Kiss You" was well received by contemporary music critics, who centred on its quality of production. Both Rolling Stone's Jon Dolan, who praised its effectiveness, and Chris Payne of Billboard, who appreciated the melody, described "Kiss You" as one of the album's highlights. Alexis Petridis for The Guardian commended the track's chorus as "hard to dislodge from your brain". Robert Copsey of Digital Spy noted the song's possibility to become an international hit, applauding it sonically. A reviewer for MTV News described the track's lyricism as "butterflies-inducing", and Sam Lansky of Idolator wrote that "Kiss You" is noticeably a stand-out track on its parent album. Melinda Newman, writing for HitFix, regarded the song as "a bouncy, electronic infectious ditty," while Chris Younie, a critic from 4Music, deemed it an "amazing pop song", lauding the group's falsetto and its "head-banging anthemic" chorus. ## Commercial performance The single made its Irish Singles Chart debut at number 24 on the week ending 13 December 2012. It peaked at number seven on the week ending 17 January 2013, marking their sixth top ten appearance in Ireland. "Kiss You" entered at number 152 in the UK Singles Chart on 24 November 2012. It peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Chart on 26 January 2013, becoming One Direction's sixth top ten hit in the United Kingdom. On the week ending 18 November 2012, "Kiss You" debuted at number 90 on the United States Billboard Hot 100 due to digital download sales from its parent album. As a result of an "end-of-year download rush" on the week ending 30 December 2012, the track re-entered the Hot 100 at number 83. After the accompanying music video was released, the song re-entered the Hot 100 at number 65. "Kiss You" had sold 207,000 digital downloads in the US by 18 January 2013. The single ultimately peaked at number 46 on the Hot 100 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on 25 April 2013, denoting shipments of 500,000 copies. The song became One Direction's fourth top-forty hit on the Canadian Hot 100, peaking at number 30. The single bowed at number 13 on the Australian Singles Chart on 27 January 2013, marking its peak position and the group's fourth top twenty hit in Australia. The song has been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 copies. The track entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 17 on 11 January 2013. It peaked at number 13 in its third and fourth charting weeks, becoming the group's sixth top-forty appearance in New Zealand. "Kiss You" has received a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ), indicating sales of 7,500 copies. The track also reached the top 40 in both Belgian territories (Flanders and Wallonia), as well as in the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, and South Korea. In addition, "Kiss You" received gold certifications from the IFPI Norway association ## Music video The accompanying music video, directed by Vaughan Arnell, who had previously directed One Direction's music videos for "Live While We're Young" and "Little Things", was designed to showcase the group's comedic timing. Inspired by the Beach Boys, cult surfing films, old Hollywood, and British cinema, the music video incorporates "a technicolor vibe and a British kind of romp", as noted by Arnell in an MTV News interview. Shot by November 2012, the music video was characterised, in several MTV News interviews, as "bigger than anything we've done before" by Zayn Malik, as "a lot of hard work" by Payne, as "pure stupidity" by Louis Tomlinson, and as "I wouldn't say [it's] comedy, it's all tongue-in-cheek" by Arnell. Premiering worldwide on Vevo on 7 January 2013, the music video depicts the band shooting different scenes via a green screen, dressed as sailors, surfers, skiers and jailers. The video features scenes reminiscent of the films South Pacific, To Catch a Thief, Jailhouse Rock and Beach Blanket Bingo, as well as the iconic music videos of songs such as The Beach Boys' "Surfer Girl", Elvis Presley's "Blue Hawaii" and Rammstein's "Mein Land", among others. The music video garnered 10.4 million views in a 24-hour period, failing to attain the Vevo record held by Justin Bieber's "Beauty and a Beat" music video (10.6 million). Despite a 34 per cent gain in weekly activity to their Vevo channel, with the clip's success and preceding teaser videos earning 38 million views during the week, One Direction held at number two on the Billboard's Social 50 chart A 15 per cent rise in Facebook reaction gave way to a 154,000 increase in Facebook likes during the week. 191,000 Twitter followers added contributed to their overall fan base increase as well. Melinda Newman, a contributor for HitFix, favoured the clip as having "everything a video by a boy band should be" and found the group's careless tone delightful. Rebecca Macatee of E! Online praised its "intentionally cheesy and utterly adorable" sequences, and MTV News's Jocelyn Vena described the clip as "conquering old Hollywood". Molly Chance, writing for Zap2it, was convinced that upon watching the "adorable" music video, the viewer should have a hard time disliking the group. Mikael Wood, the critic for Los Angeles Times, commended the group for "having a genuinely great time", rather than going through the motions. ## Live performances As part of its promotion, One Direction performed the song on televised programmes and during their worldwide Take Me Home Tour (2013). One Direction performed the track on The Today Show at the Rockefeller Center on 13 November 2012. "Kiss You" was included in the set list of the group's 3 December 2012 sold-out show at New York City's Madison Square Garden. One Direction delivered a performance of "Kiss You", in front of a video game-themed set, on the final of the ninth series of The X Factor UK on 10 December 2012. On 12 December 2012, the group also performed the number on the final of the second season of The X Factor USA. Considering One Direction the "franchise's biggest success story", an editor for The Huffington Post opined that the boy band's prominent presence on both the US and UK versions of The X Factor seemed fitting. Not only Take Me Home Tour, they also performed in Where We Are Tour (2014) & On the Road Again Tour (2015) ## Usage in other media - South Korean television network MBC used Kiss You as background music in a promotional video for its March 2018 drama lineup (Tempted, My Contracted Husband, Mr. Oh, Hold Me Tight and The Rich Son). ## Track listing - CD single 1. "Kiss You" – 3:04 2. "Little Things" – 3:42 ## Credits and personnel - Carl Falk — writing, production, programming, instruments, guitar, background vocals - Kristoffer Fogelmark — background vocals - Niall Horan — additional guitar - Savan Kotecha — writing, background vocals - Kristian Lundin — writing - Albin Nedler — writing, background vocals - Shellback — writing - Rami Yacoub — writing, production, programming, instruments, bass Credits adapted from Take Me Home's liner notes. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
25,918,997	Psilocybe yungensis	1,013,903,851	Psychedelic mushroom in the family Strophariaceae	[ "Entheogens", "Fungi described in 1958", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Colombia", "Fungi of North America", "Fungi of South America", "Fungi of the Caribbean", "Psilocybe", "Psychedelic tryptamine carriers", "Psychoactive fungi", "Taxa named by Alexander H. Smith", "Taxa named by Rolf Singer" ]	Psilocybe yungensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. In North America, it is found in northeast, central and southeastern Mexico. In South America, it has been recorded from Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador. It is also known from the Caribbean island Martinique, and China. The mushroom grows in clusters or groups on rotting wood. The fruit bodies have conical to bell-shaped reddish- to orangish-brown caps that are up to 2.5 cm (1.0 in) in diameter, set atop slender stems 3 to 5 cm (1.2 to 2.0 in) long. The mushrooms stain blue when bruised, indicative of the presence of the compound psilocybin. Psilocybe yungensis is used by Mazatec Indians in the Mexican State of Oaxaca for entheogenic purposes. ## Taxonomy and classification The species was described as new to science by American mycologists Rolf Singer and Alexander H. Smith, based on specimens collected in Nor Yungas Province, Bolivia, on the road to La Paz to Coroico. They published a short description in Latin in a 1958 Mycologia publication, followed by a more detailed description in English later that year. According to Psilocybe specialist Gastón Guzmán, the species Psilocybe acutissima (described by Roger Heim in 1959), and Psilocybe isauri (described by Singer in 1959) are synonyms, as both the macroscopic and microscopic features are the same in the type material of all three. Singer considered P. isauri a species distinct from P. yungensis because of differences in the hairiness of the stem surface. Smith named the variety P. yungensis var. diconica for specimens he found with conical, rather than obconical (the form of an inverted cone) papilla. Similarly, the main distinguishing feature that Heim ascribed to P. acutissima was a papillate cap (somewhat resembling the shape of a female human breast). Later studies showed that these morphological variations did not warrant individual recognition, because of the variable nature of these characteristics, and the existence of intermediate forms. Guzmán places P. yungensis in the section Cordisporae, a grouping of Psilocybe species characterized primarily by having rhomboid spores less than 8 micrometers long. The specific epithet yungensis refers to the name of the type locality. The natives of Huautla de Jiménez and Mixe natives call P. yungensis a hongo adivinador ("divinatory mushroom"), hong que adormece ("soporific mushroom"), or hongo genio ("genius mushroom"). ## Description The P. yungensis fruit bodies have caps that are conical to bell-shaped in maturity, and reach a diameter of up to 2.5 cm (1.0 in). The cap surface is smooth and sticky, and, in moist specimens, has faint radial striations (grooves) that extend almost to the margin. The color of fresh caps ranges from dark reddish-brown to rusty brown to orangish-brown. Additionally, the cap is hygrophanous, meaning it will change color depending on its state of hydration; a dry cap fades to become dull yellowish-brown or the color of "dingy straw". The cap frequently has a prominent umbo. The gill attachment ranges from adnate (broadly attached to the stem) to adnexed (narrowly attached). The spacing of the narrow gills is close to crowded, and the gill color is initially dull gray before maturing spores cause the color to change to purplish-brown. The stem is 3 to 5 cm (1.2 to 2.0 in) long and 1.5 to 2.5 mm (0.06 to 0.10 in) thick, and more or less equal in width throughout its length or slightly larger near the base. The hollow, brittle, stem is pale brown on the upper part, and reddish-brown near the bottom. The stem is densely covered with whitish fibrils that are pressed flat against the surface; the fibrils slough off in maturity to leave a smooth surface. The mushroom has a cortinate partial veil (resembling the webby cortina produced by species of Cortinarius) but it does not last for long; it occasionally leaves behind sparse remnants of tissue hanging on the cap margin and the upper part of the stem. No ring remains on the stem after the veil disappears. All parts of the mushroom will stain blue when injured; these stains will blacken as the mushroom dries. The spore print is dark purplish-brown. Spores range in shape from roughly rhomboid to roughly elliptical, and typically have dimensions of 5–6 by 4–6 μm. They are thick-walled and have a large germ pore. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club-shaped to swollen, hyaline, usually four-spored (although rarely two- or three-spored forms are present), and measure 13–19 by 4.4–6.6 μm. The pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face) are ventricose (swollen) near the base and often mucronate (ending abruptly in a short sharp point) at the apex, and measure 14–25 by 4.4–10.5 μm. The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) are variable in shape, and measure 14–40 by 4.4–7.7 μm. Pleurocystidia are relatively sparse, while cheilocystidia are abundant. Clamp connections are present in the hyphae. The application of a drop of potassium hydroxide solution turns both the cap and the stem from brown to blackish. ### Similar species The species Psilocybe subyungensis, known only from Venezuela, is roughly similar in form, although somewhat smaller, with a cap width of up to 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter and stem lengths of up to 3.5 cm (1.4 in). In addition to differences in distribution, it can be clearly distinguished from P. yungensis by the larger cystidia: the pleurocystidia measure 8.8–11 by 3.8–5.5 μm, and the cheilocystidia 16.5–25 by 7.7–12 μm. Stamets notes that "Few species resemble P. yungensis", while Michael Beug considers the orangish-brown cap color unusual for a Psilocybe, and compares it to Conocybe. ## Habitat and distribution Psilocybe yungensis is a saprobic species, and contributes to the degradation of organic matter deposited in soils and nutrient cycling in forests where it grows. It typically grows in clusters or groups on rotting wood (rarely on humus); it is less frequently found growing solitarily. It is often reported from coffee plantations, subtropical, or cloud forests, especially those occurring at elevations between 1,000 and 2,000 m (3,300 and 6,600 ft). The species occurs in northeast, central and southeastern Mexico, and has been recorded from several locations in the states of Oaxaca, Puebla, Tamaulipas and Veracruz. It is also known from Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador, as well as the Caribbean island Martinique. In 2009, it was reported from China. In Mexico and Colombia, the fungus usually fruits between June and July; in Bolivia, it was recorded appearing during January. ## Uses The fruit bodies of Psilocybe yungensis are used for entheogenic, or spiritual, ritualistic purposes by the Mazatec Indians in the Mexican State of Oaxaca. Some authorities have suggested that P. yungensis is the "tree fungus" reported by Jesuit missionaries of the 17th and 18th centuries, a reddish mushroom that was apparently the source of an intoxicating beverage used by the Yurimagua Indians of Amazonian Peru. There is, however, no established record of hallucinogenic mushroom use in that area, and it is possible that the mushroom could instead be a psychedelic species of the wood-dwelling genus Gymnopilus. ## See also - Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms - List of Psilocybin mushrooms - List of Psilocybe species
16,762,962	Auburn station (Sound Transit)	1,159,229,040	Commuter train station in Auburn, Washington	[ "2000 establishments in Washington (state)", "Buildings and structures in Auburn, Washington", "Railway stations in King County, Washington", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 2000", "Sounder commuter rail stations" ]	Auburn station is a train station in the city of Auburn, Washington, United States, served by S Line of the Sounder commuter rail network. It is located southwest of downtown Auburn and consists of two train platforms, a bus station, a parking garage, a public plaza, and a pedestrian bridge. The station has 633 parking spaces and is also served by Sound Transit Express, King County Metro, and Pierce Transit buses. Auburn station opened in 2000 and was built on the site of a former railroad station that was demolished in 1979. The parking garage and pedestrian bridge opened in 2003, and a second parking garage is planned to be built by 2027. ## Description Auburn station is located at the intersection of Main Street and B Street in the southwestern part of downtown Auburn. The station's two side platforms run north–south along a triple-track segment of the BNSF Railway's Seattle Subdivision and are connected by an at-grade crossing on Main Street. Adjacent to the east platform are several bus bays and a public plaza, which includes seating areas, a clock tower, and public art. The station's canopies and clock tower were designed to match buildings on Auburn's Main Street using brick pillars, painted steel canopies, and glass rooftops. Since 2009, the plaza has also served as the venue for the city's farmers' market, which runs seasonally from June to September. The station has 633 parking spaces, including a parking garage with 520 spaces that is shared with the City of Auburn, and 113 surface stalls on the west side of the station. The six-story parking garage, located east of the platform and bus bays, also includes retail spaces and a pedestrian bridge that connects the two Sounder platforms. The station also has a drop-off area for 37 vehicles, 32 bicycle rack spaces, and 26 bicycle lockers. Sound Transit commissioned three pieces of art for the station through their public art program: Bruce West's sculptures Standing Pear & Friends and Strawberry Duo in the plaza represent the city's agricultural history through halved pears and strawberries; and a series of metal vines by Jean Whitesavage and Nick Lyle hang on the corner of the parking garage and personify "luxuriant growth". The City of Auburn also commissioned a separate art installation, Paul Sorey's Running Figures, which consist of eleven stainless steel figures between the station and the downtown core. ## History Auburn, initially named Slaughter, received its first staffed train station in October 1889 on the Puget Sound Shore Railroad, part of the Northern Pacific Railway. A large station was built in 1902, near the intersection of C Street and Main Street to the north of the current Sounder platforms. Auburn served as the Northern Pacific's main junction in the Puget Sound region, with trains diverting to either Seattle or Tacoma from Stampede Pass, and a large railyard was built in 1913 for freight operations south of downtown Auburn. The wooden station was nearly destroyed in 1969 by a fire that was started by a passing train's burning soot, creating a 5-foot (1.5 m) hole in the roof. Passenger service at Auburn station continued under Burlington Northern in 1970 and later Amtrak until May 1978, when the depot was vacated. Despite discussions with local business groups to preserve the building by moving it to another site, Burlington Northern demolished the depot in February 1979. Amtrak also stopped transcontinental trains at a separate East Auburn station until the Empire Builder was rerouted away from Stampede Pass in 1981. In the late 1980s, officials in King County proposed a modern commuter rail system running 22 miles (35 km) between King Street Station in Downtown Seattle and Auburn, where it would terminate near Ellingson Road south of downtown. Metro Transit, the countywide transit operator, began preliminary studies for the commuter rail system in 1987 and identified a site on West Main Street as a potential alternative to the Ellingson Road terminus. The 1993 regional transit plan published by Metro and other transit agencies proposed an extended version of the commuter rail line to Tacoma, with up to three stations in the city of Auburn. The Downtown Auburn site near Main Street was identified in 1994 as the city's preferred location for a commuter rail station, along with an alternative on the Union Pacific Railroad near the Supermall. The station was included in the rejected 1995 ballot measure and successful 1996 ballot measure that would fund a commuter rail system managed by Sound Transit. The location of Auburn station was approved by the Sound Transit Board in March 1998 and a design contract with Anil Verma Associates was signed in August. On August 12, 1999, Sound Transit broke ground on Auburn station, marking the beginning of Sounder commuter rail construction. Construction of the station was delayed for several months while Sound Transit negotiated a long-term track lease with BNSF Railway, causing Auburn station's cost to exceed its budget by \$3.2 million. The station was opened on September 17, 2000, with a ceremonial inaugural ride to Seattle, and regular Sounder service began the following day. The parking garage and pedestrian bridge were opened in March 2003, as part of the second phase of station construction. The \$30 million garage was designed with input and funding from the City of Auburn, who signed a 99-year lease on its retail spaces and several parking stalls that were later converted to paid commuter parking. In 2009, the state legislature funded a Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) study on the feasibility of a short commuter rail service connecting Auburn station to Covington and Maple Valley. A separate WSDOT study in 2013 proposed adding Auburn station to Amtrak Cascades, the region's intercity passenger train, as a replacement for Tukwila station. The study concluded that Auburn would not be a desirable intercity rail stop and recommended against adding it to Cascades service. In 2017, part of the station's west platform was removed for the installation of a third track by BNSF Railway, as part of improvements to the rail corridor. In response to high demand at Auburn station's parking garage, where stalls are filled before late morning trains, a second garage was proposed as part of transit ballot measures in 2007 and 2008. The 2008 measure was passed by voters and allocated \$30 million for a new garage, but the project was deferred in 2010 due to a decline in sales tax revenue collected by Sound Transit. Funding for the project was restored in early 2016, along with funding for pedestrian and bicycle improvements in downtown Auburn. In late 2017, Sound Transit and the City of Auburn selected a former lumber store two blocks west of city hall as the preferred location for the parking garage. The 500-stall garage and other improvements were expected to cost \$60 million and be completed by 2024, but the garage's opening was later delayed to 2027. ## Services Auburn station is served by 13 daily round-trips on the Sounder S Line, which travel north to King Street Station in Downtown Seattle and south to Tacoma Dome Station or Lakewood station on weekdays. Sounder trains travel from Auburn to Seattle in approximately 35 minutes and to Tacoma in 28 minutes. The station is also a major transit hub for South King County and has six bus bays that are served by Sound Transit Express, King County Metro, and Pierce Transit. Sound Transit Express route 566 begins in Auburn and travels north on State Route 167 to Kent station, Renton, Bellevue Transit Center, and Overlake Transit Center; Auburn is an intermediate stop for route 578, which connects Puyallup station to Downtown Seattle, via Sumner station and Federal Way Transit Center. King County Metro's routes 180, 181, and 186 connect the station to Green River College, Enumclaw, Federal Way, Kent, and Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. King County Metro also runs several dial-a-ride routes from the station to Algona, Pacific, Enumclaw, northern Auburn, and The Outlet Collection Seattle (formerly the Supermall). Pierce Transit's Route 497 is a shuttle between the station and a park and ride in the Lakeland Hills neighborhood, with timed connections to Sounder trains. During horse racing season at Emerald Downs, Sound Transit also operates the Pony Express shuttle from Auburn station.
354,264	Kleptoparasitism	1,173,002,447	Type of animal feeding strategy	[ "Articles containing video clips", "Parasitology" ]	Kleptoparasitism (originally spelt clepto-parasitism, meaning "parasitism by theft") is a form of feeding in which one animal deliberately takes food from another. The strategy is evolutionarily stable when stealing is less costly than direct feeding, which can mean when food is scarce or when victims are abundant. Many kleptoparasites are arthropods, especially bees and wasps, but including some true flies, dung beetles, bugs, and spiders. Cuckoo bees are specialized kleptoparasites which lay their eggs either on the pollen masses made by other bees, or on the insect hosts of parasitoid wasps. They are an instance of Emery's rule, which states that insect social parasites tend to be closely related to their hosts. The behavior occurs, too, in vertebrates including birds such as skuas, which persistently chase other seabirds until they disgorge their food, and carnivorous mammals such as spotted hyenas and lions. Other species opportunistically indulge in kleptoparasitism. ## Strategy Kleptoparasitism is a feeding strategy where one animal deliberately steals food from another. This may be intraspecific, involving stealing from members of the same species, or interspecific, from members of other species. The term denotes a form of parasitism involving theft, from Greek κλέπτω (kléptō, 'steal'). The strategy has been widely studied in birds; in four families, all seabirds, the Fregatidae, Chionididae, Stercoraridae, and Laridae, it occurs in more than a quarter of the species. Such a strategy should only be followed if it is evolutionarily stable, meaning that it offers a selective advantage to individuals that practise it. Kleptoparasitism costs time and energy which could otherwise be spent directly on feeding, so this cost must be outweighed by the benefit in energy gained from the stolen food. Mathematical modelling suggests that when food is abundant, ordinary feeding is the best strategy; when food abundance falls below a critical level, kleptoparasitism suddenly becomes advantageous, and aggressive interactions become common. Similarly, when potential victims are rare or widely dispersed, the time needed to find them may not be justified by the food that might be stolen from them, resulting in frequency-dependent selection. ## Taxonomic distribution ### Arthropods #### Bees and wasps There are many lineages of cuckoo bees, all of which lay their eggs in the nest cells of other bees, often within the same family. Bombus bohemicus, for example, parasitises several other species in its genus, including B. terrestris, B. lucorum, and B. cryptarum. These are instances of Emery's rule, named for the Italian entomologist Carlo Emery, which asserts that social parasites among insects, including kleptoparasites, tend to be closely related to their hosts. The largest monophyletic lineage of kleptoparasitic bees is Nomadinae (a subfamily of Apidae), which comprises several hundred species in 35 genera. The cuckoo wasps (Chrysididae) lay their eggs in the nests of potter and mud dauber wasps. Other families of wasps have "cuckoo" species that parasitise related species, as for example Polistes sulcifer, which parasitises a related species, P. dominula. Numerous other wasp families have genera or larger lineages of which some or all members are kleptoparasitic (e.g., the genus Ceropales in Pompilidae and the tribe Nyssonini in Crabronidae). Some of these species are inquilines and brood parasites rather than kleptoparasites. Others are dubbed kleptoparasitoids, namely parasitoids that select hosts that have been parasitized by another female. Kleptoparasitoids may make use of the punctures made by previous parasitoids on their hosts; may follow the trails or traces left by parasitoids to locate hosts; or use hosts already weakened by other parasitoids. #### Flies Some true flies (Diptera) are kleptoparasites; the strategy is especially common in the subfamily Miltogramminae of the family Sarcophagidae. There are also some kleptoparasites in the families Chloropidae and Milichiidae. Some adult milichiids, for example, visit spider webs where they scavenge on half-eaten stink bugs. Others are associated with robber flies (Asilidae), or Crematogaster ants. Flies in the genus Bengalia (Calliphoridae) steal food and pupae transported by ants and are often found beside their foraging trails. Musca albina (Muscidae) reportedly shows kleptoparasitic behaviour, laying eggs only in dung balls being interred by one of several co-occurring dung-rolling scarab species. #### Dung beetles Scarab dung beetles relocate large amounts of vertebrate dung, rolling balls of the material to their nests for their larvae to feed on. Several smaller species of dung beetle do not gather dung themselves but take it from the nests of larger species. For example, species of Onthophagus enter dung-balls while Scarabeus beetles are making them. #### True bugs Many semiaquatic bugs (Heteroptera) are kleptoparasitic on their own species. In one study, whenever the bug Velia caprai (water cricket) took prey heavier than 7.9 g, other bugs of the same species joined it and successfully ate parts of the prey. #### Spiders Kleptoparasitic spiders, which steal or feed on prey captured by other spiders, are known to occur in five families: - Theridiidae (Argyrodes species) - Dictynidae (Archaeodictyna ulova) - Salticidae (species of Portia and Simaetha) - Symphytognathidae (Curimagua bayano) - Mysmenidae (Isela okuncana, Kilifia inquilina, and Mysmenopsis species). ### Vertebrates #### Birds A few bird species are specialist kleptoparasites, while many others are opportunistic. Skuas (including jaegers) and frigatebirds rely heavily on chasing other seabirds to obtain food. Other species—including raptors, gulls, terns, coots, and some ducks and shorebirds—do so opportunistically. Among opportunists such as the roseate tern, parent birds involved in kleptoparasitism are more successful in raising broods than non-kleptoparasitic individuals. Bald eagles have been seen attacking smaller raptors, such as ospreys, to steal fish from them. Among passerine birds, masked shrikes have been recorded stealing food from wheatears, and Eurasian blackbirds have been recorded stealing smashed snails from other thrushes. During seabird nesting seasons, frigatebirds soar above seabird colonies, waiting for parent birds to return to their nests with food for their young. As the returning birds approach the colony, the frigatebirds, which are fast and agile, swoop in to pursue them vigorously; they sometimes seize tropicbirds by their long tail plumes. The name frigatebird, as well as many of the frigatebirds' colloquial names, including man-o'-war bird and pirate of the sea, denote this behaviour. However, the amount of food obtained by kleptoparasitism in the magnificent frigatebird may be marginal. Gulls are both perpetrators and victims of opportunistic kleptoparasitism, particularly during the breeding season. While the victim is most often another member of the same species, other (principally smaller) gulls and terns can also be targeted. In the Americas, Heermann's gulls, and laughing gulls steal food from brown pelicans; as the pelicans surface and empty the water from their bills, the gulls lurk nearby and grab escaping food items. Great black-backed gulls are skilled kleptoparasites, stealing from other gulls and from raptors. Several species of gull steal food from humans, for example takeaway food at seaside resorts. #### Mammals The relationship between spotted hyenas and lions, in which each species steals the other's kills, is a form of kleptoparasitism. Cheetahs are common targets. Bears, coyotes and wolves are very opportunistic and all have this behavior. All hyena species engage in this behavior when they can, as do jackals. Human hunters may commonly take the remains of fresh kills from other carnivores, such as lions and Eurasian lynx. Risso's dolphins have been observed charging "head-on" at sperm whales, causing them to open their mouths; it has been suggested that the observed harassment results in some regurgitation, and that the food is then eaten by the Risso's dolphins. The behaviour is rare and may be opportunistic. ## See also - Evolutionary models of food sharing
849,597	Elmo's World	1,173,656,822	Segment shown at the end of the children's television program Sesame Street	[ "1990s American children's comedy television series", "1990s preschool education television series", "1998 American television series debuts", "2000s American children's comedy television series", "2000s preschool education television series", "2009 American television series endings", "2010s American children's comedy television series", "2010s preschool education television series", "2017 American television series debuts", "2020s American children's comedy television series", "2020s preschool education television series", "2021 American television series endings", "American preschool education television series", "American television shows featuring puppetry", "Sesame Street", "Sesame Street segments", "Television controversies in the United States", "Television series about children" ]	Elmo's World is a segment that is shown at the end of the long-running American children's television program Sesame Street which premiered on November 16, 1998, as part of a broader structural change to the show. It originally lasted fifteen minutes at the end of each episode. The segment ran until 2009, and then returned in 2017. The segment was designed to appeal to younger viewers and to increase ratings, which had fallen in the past decade. The segment is presented from the perspective of a three-year-old child as represented by its host, the Muppet Elmo, performed by Kevin Clash in the original series and Ryan Dillon in the 2017 reboot. The segment was developed out of a series of workshops that studied changes in the viewing habits of Sesame Street's audience, and the reasons for the show's lower ratings. Elmo's World used traditional production elements, but had a more sustained narrative. In 2002, Sesame Street's producers changed the rest of the show to reflect its younger demographic and the increase in their viewers' sophistication. Long-time writer Judy Freudberg came up with the concept of Elmo's World, and writer Tony Geiss and executive producer Arlene Sherman helped develop it. In contrast with the realism of the rest of the show, the segment presented Elmo moving between and combining a live action world and a computer-generated animated world, which looked like "a child's squiggly crayon drawing come to life", with "a stream-of-consciousness feel to it". Elmo's pet goldfish Dorothy and the members of the Noodle family were silent to allow Elmo to do all the talking, and to give children the opportunity to respond to what they saw on the screen. A brief clip from Elmo's World appears in Sesame Street'''s 2002–2006 intro. In 2009, Elmo's World temporarily ceased production. It was replaced by Elmo: The Musical in 2012, and returned in 2017. The show is alternated by another Elmo-centered segment, Elmo & Tango’s Mysterious Mysteries, which was produced entirely with animation, in Sesame Street's 52nd season in 2021. ## Background By the early 1990s, Sesame Street had been on the air for over 20 years and was, as author Michael Davis put it, "the undisputed heavyweight champion of preschool television". The show's dominance began to be challenged throughout the decade by other television shows for preschoolers such as Barney & Friends and Blue's Clues, by the growth of the children's home video industry, and by the increase of thirty-minute children's shows on cable. Sesame Street's ratings declined, so the Children's Television Workshop (CTW) (now Sesame Workshop), the organization responsible for putting the show on the air, responded by researching the reasons for their lower ratings. For the first time since the show debuted, the producers and a team of researchers analyzed Sesame Street's content and structure, and studied how children's viewing habits had changed. The analysis was conducted during a series of two-week-long workshops and was completed in time for the show's 30th anniversary in 1999. The CTW found that although the show was produced for children between the ages of three and five, their viewers had become more sophisticated since its debut and began to watch the show sooner, as early as ten months of age. The producers found that the show's original format, which consisted of a series of short clips similar to the structure of a magazine, was not necessarily the most effective way to hold young viewers' attention. They also found that their viewers, especially the younger ones, lost attention with Sesame Street after 40 to 45 minutes. The first way the CTW addressed the issues brought up by their research was by lowering the target age for Sesame Street, from four years to three years. In late 1998, they created a new 15-minute segment entitled Elmo's World, hosted by the Muppet Elmo, that was shown at the end of each episode. The segment used traditional elements (animation, Muppets, music, and live-action film), but had a more sustained narrative. Elmo's World followed the same structure each episode, and depended heavily on repetition. It focused on child-centered topics such as balls and dancing, from the perspective of a three-year-old child, and was "designed to foster exploration, imagination, and curiosity". Instead of an adult providing narration, Elmo led the child through the action. In 2002, Sesame Street's producers went further in changing the show to reflect its younger demographic and increase in their viewers' sophistication. They decided, after the show's 33rd season, to expand upon the Elmo's World concept by, as San Francisco Chronicle TV critic Tim Goodman called it, "deconstructing" the show. They changed the structure of the entire show to a more narrative format, making the show easier for young children to navigate. Arlene Sherman, a co-executive producer for 25 years and one of the creators of Elmo's World, called the show's new look "startlingly different". ## Development and filming Long-time Sesame Street writer Judy Freudberg came up with the idea of creating a segment with "an entirely different format" from the rest of the show during the CTW's workshops, and writer Tony Geiss further developed the idea with her. Freudberg stated that the concept "was radical because we had never veered from that magazine mosaic and had never given any character more than another character to do". Animator Mo Willems came up with the idea of creating a less-realistic setting compared to the rest of the show. The segment presented Elmo, first portrayed by Kevin Clash and then by Ryan Dillon after its revamp in 2017, moving between and combining two worlds of live action and computer-generated animation, which looked like "a child's squiggly crayon drawing come to life" created by the host, and with "a stream-of-consciousness feel to it". The segment was filmed at a different time than the rest of the season, much of it in front of a blue screen, with animation and digital effects added later. For more complicated shots that showed Elmo's entire body, a puppet called "Active Elmo" was operated with assistance from other puppeteers; the puppet was also filmed in front of a blue screen and edited later. In addition to Freudberg and Geiss, other writers of Elmo's World included Emily Kingsley and Molly Boylan. The theme song was based upon a song Geiss wrote called "Elmo's Song", with lyrics changed to fit the segment. Writer Louise Gikow and The New York Times called it "a show within a show". Clash called it "a playdate between the child and Elmo", and felt that its intimacy provided an effective teaching tool. He also called it "an instant success". Davis compared Elmo's World with the Saturday Morning children's TV show Pee-wee's Playhouse. The CTW, as it has done throughout its existence and for all the shows it produced, conducted extensive studies on Elmo's World. They found that the segment had high appeal for children, regardless of their age, sex, and socioeconomic background. Attention and participation such as hand-clapping, moving along with the music, and counting along with the characters increased with repeated viewing. ## Characters The Muppet Elmo, who represented the three-year-old child, was chosen as host of Elmo's World because he had always tested well with Sesame Street's younger viewers. Elmo was created in 1979 and was performed by various puppeteers, including Richard Hunt, but did not become what his eventual portrayer Kevin Clash called a "phenomenon" until Clash took over the role in 1983. Elmo became, as writer Michael Davis reported, "the embodiment" of Sesame Street, and "the marketing wonder of our age" when five million "Tickle Me Elmo" dolls were sold in 1996. Clash believed the "Tickle Me Elmo" phenomenon made Elmo a household name and led to the Elmo's World segment. Clash called Elmo's World "a colorful, lively celebration of creativity" and "one of the most imaginative endeavors I've ever been involved in". He stated that the segment provided him with new challenges and opportunities for "creative risk-taking". According to Clash and Gikow, Elmo's pet goldfish Dorothy and the members of the Noodle family were silent in order to allow Elmo to do all the talking, and to give children the opportunity to respond to what they saw on the screen. Dorothy's silence allowed children to fill in the blanks, and her curiosity, which was created and enhanced by Elmo's imagination, allowed the writers and researchers to insert the curriculum lessons they want to convey. Up to nine goldfish were used per episode, so they could be replaced when necessary. Several fish were needed each season, and the surviving Dorothys were given good homes afterwards. Mr. Noodle was played by Broadway actor Bill Irwin, who had previously worked with Sherman in short films for Sesame Street. When he became unavailable, Sherman asked her friend Michael Jeter to replace Irwin as Mr. Noodle's brother Mr. Noodle. Jeter was in the role beginning in 2000, until his death in 2003. Kristin Chenoweth played Mr. Noodle's sister Ms. Noodle, and Sarah Jones played Mr. Noodle's other sister Miss Noodle. As of January 2017, Daveed Diggs and comedian Daniel Koren, have played two more of Mr. Noodle's brothers. According to Freudberg, "Mr. Noodle, who never speaks, is all about trial and error. When you throw him a hat, he acts like he's never seen one before. Kids feel empowered watching him because they can do what he can't." ## End of production and return After Elmo's World temporarily wrapped production in 2009, on the tenth and final season, the producers of Sesame Street began taking steps to increase the age of their viewers and to increase their ratings. By the end of the show's 40th anniversary in 2009, 3-year-old viewers had increased by 41 percent, 4-year-olds by 4 percent, and 5-year-olds by 21 percent. According to The New York Times, executive producer Carol-Lynn Parente "was itching to revamp the final segment" even before production of Elmo's World ended, but was prevented by the apparent satisfaction of the viewers and by tight budgets. They were also reluctant to replace the segment; as writer Joey Mazzarino explained, it was "an emotionally charged process" because Freudberg had become ill and was not present for the discussions about it. Elmo's World was replaced by Elmo: The Musical in 2012. Elmo's World continued to appear on repeats of Sesame Street, on DVDs, and on the show's website, which sold products related to the segment. In 2017, the 47th season of Sesame Street began airing on the cable subscription service HBO; Elmo's World'' returned, in a newly designed segment that ran five minutes at the end of each episode. Steve Youngwood, the Sesame Workshop's CEO, called it "fresh, contemporary".
8,092,057	HMS London (1899)	1,136,555,293	Pre-dreadnought battleship of the British Royal Navy	[ "1899 ships", "London-class battleships", "Ships built in Portsmouth", "World War I battleships of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS London was the lead ship of the London class of pre-dreadnought battleships built for the British Royal Navy. The Londons were near repeats of the preceding Formidable-class battleships, but with modified armour protection. The ship was laid down in December 1898, was launched in September 1899, and was completed in June 1902. Commissioned the same month, she served with the Mediterranean Fleet until early 1907. She was assigned to the Nore Division of the Home Fleet for nearly a year before transferring to the Channel Fleet. Rendered obsolete with the emergence of the new dreadnoughts in late 1906, she underwent an extensive refit in 1909, after which she served with the Atlantic Fleet. She was assigned to the Second Home Fleet in 1912 as part of the 5th Battle Squadron, and was temporarily fitted with a makeshift ramp for experiments with naval aircraft until 1913. Following the outbreak of World War I, the squadron was attached to the Channel Fleet before London was detached in March 1915 to participate in the Dardanelles Campaign, supporting ANZAC forces as they landed at Gaba Tepe and Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915. She remained in the Mediterranean, supporting the Italian Royal Navy in the Adriatic Sea until October 1916. Returning to the United Kingdom, she was inactive until being converted to a minelayer in early 1918, which entailed the removal of her main armament. She served with the Grand Fleet's 1st Minelaying Squadron until the end of the war. Placed in reserve in 1919, she was eventually broken up for scrap in 1920. ## Design The five ships of the London class were ordered in 1898 in response to increased naval construction for the Russian Navy. The design for the London class was prepared in 1898; it was a virtual repeat of the preceding Formidable class, though with significant revision to the forward armour protection scheme. Rather than a traditional transverse bulkhead for the forward end of the main belt armour, the belt was carried further forward and gradually tapered in thickness. Deck armour was also strengthened. London was 431 feet 9 inches (131.60 m) long overall, with a beam of 75 ft (23 m) and a draft of 26 ft (7.9 m). She displaced 14,500 long tons (14,700 t) normally and up to 15,700 long tons (16,000 t) fully loaded. Her crew numbered 714 officers and ratings. The Formidable-class ships were powered by a pair of 3-cylinder triple-expansion engines that drove two screws, with steam provided by twenty Belleville boilers. The boilers were trunked into two funnels located amidships. The Formidable-class ships had a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph) from 15,000 indicated horsepower (11,000 kW). London had a main battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) 40-calibre guns mounted in twin-gun turrets fore and aft; these guns were mounted in circular barbettes that allowed all-around loading or elevation. The ships also mounted a secondary battery of twelve 6-inch (152 mm) 45-calibre guns mounted in casemates, in addition to sixteen 12-pounder guns and six 3-pounder guns for defence against torpedo boats. As was customary for battleships of the period, she was also equipped with four 18-inch (457.2 mm) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull. The tubes were placed on the broadside, abreast of the main battery barbettes. London had an armoured belt that was 9 inches (229 mm) thick; the transverse bulkheads on the aft end of the belt was 9 to 12 in (229 to 305 mm) thick. Her main battery turrets sides were 8 to 10 in (203 to 254 mm) thick, atop 12 in (305 mm) barbettes, and the casemate battery was protected with 6 in of Krupp steel. Her conning tower had 14 in (356 mm) thick sides as well. She was fitted with two armoured decks, 1 and 2.5 in (25 and 64 mm) thick, respectively. ## Service history HMS London was laid down at Portsmouth Dockyard on 8 December 1898, launched on 21 September 1899, and completed in June 1902. London commissioned at Portsmouth Dockyard on 7 June 1902 for service in the Mediterranean Fleet, with Captain James Goodrich in command. Before departure from home waters, she was scheduled to serve as flagship for the Coronation Review for King Edward VII at Spithead planned for 28 June 1902, but the King fell ill and the coronation and review was rescheduled for August 1902, without the London. She thus left Portsmouth in early July, stopping at Gibraltar, and arrived at Malta on 14 July. In September 1902 she visited the Aegean sea with other ships of the station for combined manoeuvres near Nauplia. While in the Mediterranean, she underwent refits at Malta in 1902–1903 and 1906. Starting in 1905, the ship began to have her 3-pounder guns gradually removed. In March 1907, London transferred to the Nore Division, Home Fleet, at the Nore, then to the Channel Fleet on 2 June 1908, serving as Flagship, Rear Admiral, Channel Fleet. She underwent a refit at Chatham Dockyard in 1908, which included the transfer of her last two 3-pounder guns from her foremast to her aft bridge and a flying bridge was installed aft. She was paid off there on 19 April 1909 to undergo another extensive refit, which saw the removal of the flying bridge. Her refit complete, London commissioned at Chatham on 8 February 1910 to serve as Second Flagship, Rear Admiral, Atlantic Fleet. Later that year, she had the last two of her 3-pounder guns removed. Under the fleet reorganisation of 1 May 1912, she became part of the Second Home Fleet at the Nore, reduced to a nucleus crew and assigned to the 3rd Battle Squadron. She collided with the merchant steamer SS Don Benite on 11 May 1912. She transferred to the 5th Battle Squadron and was used in experiments with flying off aircraft from May 1912 until 1913, employing a ramp built over her forecastle which had been transferred from the battleship Hibernia. During these experiments, Commander Charles Rumney Samson—who had made the world's first takeoff from a moving ship in May 1912 from Hibernia using a Short Improved S.27 biplane and the same ramp—repeated his feat by taking off in the same aeroplane from London on 4 July 1912 while London was underway. In 1913, London had her anti-torpedo nets removed. ### World War I Upon the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the 5th Battle Squadron was assigned to the Channel Fleet and based at Portland. Their first task was to escort the British Expeditionary Force across the English Channel. A number of experimental paint schemes were tried during the first month of the war but these were quickly abandoned in favour of battleship grey. It was briefly planned to deploy the squadron to replace the ships lost during the action of 22 September 1914 but the orders to transfer to the Medway were rescinded. The squadron transferred to Sheerness on 14 November 1914 to guard against a possible German invasion. While there, London was present when the battleship Bulwark exploded. London's crew joined in the attempts to rescue survivors. The enquiry into the explosion was carried out aboard London. The squadron returned to Portland on 30 December 1914. In January 1915, the British and French navies began to draw ships to the eastern Mediterranean to begin operations against the Ottoman Empire, including several ships from the 5th Battle Squadron. By the end of the month, only London, the battleships Queen, Prince of Wales, and Implacable, and the light cruisers Topaze and Diamond were at Portland. In March 1915, as the British and French fleets waging the Dardanelles campaign were preparing to launch a major attack on 18 March, the overall commander, Admiral Sackville Carden, requested two more battleships of the 5th Squadron, Implacable and Queen, to be transferred to his command in the expectation of losses in the coming operation. By the time they arrived, the British had lost two battleships in the 18 March attack, prompting the Admiralty to finally disband 5th Squadron and send London and Prince of Wales to join the fleet. Before they departed, they were modified slightly for operations off the Dardanelles, including the installation of a pair of 3-pounder anti-aircraft guns on their quarterdecks and the re-installation of anti-torpedo nets. London arrived at Lemnos on 23 March 1915, and over the next month, she took part in preparations of the British and French fleet for the landings at Cape Helles and at Anzac Cove, the beginning of the land portion of the Gallipoli Campaign. On her arrival in the eastern Mediterranean, London joined the 2nd Squadron, commanded by Rear Admiral Cecil Thursby. She supported the main landings at Gaba Tepe and Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915. London arrived off the landing beach at about midnight, along with Queen and Prince of Wales; they were tasked with supporting the landing of the 3rd Australian Brigade. London covered the left side of the beach. Over the course of the landing, London and the other covering ships provided covering fire as the ANZAC troops advanced inland and helped to suppress Ottoman artillery. London, along with battleships Implacable, Queen, and Prince of Wales, was transferred to the 2nd Detached Squadron, organised to reinforce the Italian Navy in the Adriatic Sea when Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. She was based at Taranto, Italy, and underwent a refit at Gibraltar in October 1915 during her Adriatic service. In October 1916, London returned to the United Kingdom, paid off at Devonport Dockyard to provide crews for antisubmarine vessels, and was laid up. While inactive, she underwent a refit in 1916–1917. The work included removing her main deck 6-inch guns and the upper deck 12-pounder guns and moving four of the 6-inch weapons to the upper deck battery where the 12-pounder guns had been located. In February 1918, London moved to Rosyth and began conversion to a minelayer. The conversion included removal of all four of her 12-inch (305-mm) guns and her anti-torpedo nets, replacement of her after main-battery turret with a 6-inch gun, and installation of minelaying equipment on her quarterdeck, including rails for 240 mines, and of a canvas screen to conceal the entire quarterdeck from external view. She also received an experimental dazzle camouflage paint scheme. The conversion was completed in April 1918, and on 18 May 1918 London recommissioned at Rosyth for service in the Grand Fleet's 1st Minelaying Squadron. Before the war ended on 11 November 1918, London had laid 2,640 mines in the Northern Mine Barrage. ### Postwar In January 1919, London was reduced to reserve at Devonport as a depot ship and repainted gray. As part of a post-war fleet organisation, she was assigned to the 3rd Fleet there. London was placed on the disposal list at Devonport in January 1920, and on the sale list on 31 March 1920. She was sold for scrapping to Stanlee Shipbreaking Company on 4 June 1920. She was resold to Slough Trading Company, then again resold to a German firm. She was towed to Germany for scrapping in April 1922.

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