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47,683,018	Louis F. Menage	1,150,478,659	American real estate developer	[ "1850 births", "1924 deaths", "Burials at Lakewood Cemetery", "Businesspeople from Minneapolis", "Businesspeople from Providence, Rhode Island" ]	Louis Francois Menage (August 3, 1850 – March 18, 1924) was a real estate speculator and prominent figure in early Minneapolis, Minnesota history. Born in Rhode Island, he settled in Minneapolis in 1874. Characterized as a "tycoon" and "robber baron," Menage earned a fortune developing land on the city's borders into residential housing and financing the mortgages to enable people to buy his properties. During the 1870s and 1880s, he developed large areas of South Minneapolis including much of the area around Lake Calhoun and Lake Harriet. He also developed a luxury resort on Lake Calhoun and built a corporate headquarters which was at the time the city's tallest skyscraper. After a costly legal battle over a real estate deal with William S. King and the financial downturn of the Panic of 1893, Menage's real estate empire collapsed and he fled the country to avoid prosecution on charges of embezzlement. The charges against Menage were eventually dropped after several key witnesses had died or become hesitant to testify against him. He spent the later portion of his life working in real estate in the New York City area and never worked in Minnesota again. ## Early life Menage was born in Providence, Rhode Island in 1850. His father, John Menage, was the descendant of French immigrants; his mother Mary was a descendant of Mayflower passenger John Howland. The family moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts, when Menage was young. While Menage was in high school, his father died of tuberculosis, leaving Louis and his brother to take over the family's confectionery business. In 1871, a doctor diagnosed Menage with "weak lungs" and suggested he move west to avoid falling ill with tuberculosis himself. Menage moved to Minnesota shortly thereafter. After a brief time teaching classes in shorthand at a Minneapolis business school, he found work as a business clerk in Northern Minnesota at a logging camp near Pokegama Lake. ## Real estate empire In 1874, Menage returned to Minneapolis and entered the real estate business with partner H. C. Brackett. Menage gradually built an empire by purchasing farmland at the fringes of the city, platting and developing the property into residential neighborhoods, then financing the mortgages for people to purchase the homes. He also worked with Thomas Lowry, head of the city's streetcar system, to ensure that new lines were built to serve the outlying areas he was developing. Much of the present day Prospect Park neighborhood, and the areas surrounding Lake Harriet and Lake Calhoun, were developed by Menage and his companies. A small inclusion in the title of every property Menage sold was a covenant stating that it would revert to Menage or his descendants if alcohol was ever sold there. Menage would release this covenant in exchange for a small cash payment.. This so-called "Menage forfeiture clause" remained in force on thousands of properties for decades. The cash payments to release it generated a significant side income for Menage and his successors. In 1937, the Minnesota Legislature passed a law nullifying the clause. On September 13, 1876, Menage married Amanda A. Bull, daughter of local businessman and Minneapolis pioneer Benjamin S. Bull. They had one daughter, Bessie (1877–1940). In June 1883, he opened the luxurious Lyndale Hotel near Lake Calhoun. One of the city's first luxury resorts, the hotel featured multi-room suites and luxurious common areas including a dining room, music hall and two verandas. The hotel's opening was celebrated with a gala attended by many of the city's leaders and elites. A streetcar was specially arranged to take guests back to Minneapolis after the night's festivities had ended. ## Lyndale Farm Menage ran into legal trouble with the purchase of a large plot of land south of Minneapolis known as "Lyndale Farm." Owned by William S. King, the land had been placed in trust with New York financier Philo Remington in 1875 after King had fallen into financial trouble. Remington (joined later by a partner, Robert Innes) advanced King a sum of money in exchange for managing the land and seeing that it was developed or sold for a fair price. When King declared bankruptcy in 1877, Remington and Innes purchased the Lyndale Farm land from King for a token sum but promised to honor their previous agreement. Remington and Innes later met with Menage and, in 1882, devised a plan to sell King's land to Menage for development without telling King. Menage also negotiated a separate deal with Innes (likely behind Remington's back) where he agreed to pay him one-third of the profits made from the land as a finder's fee and in exchange for Innes' help keeping Remington and King at bay. Menage proceeded to develop the land into housing and profited handsomely. By 1885, King became aware of the scheme and retained lawyer John Van Voorhis to sue Menage. Menage claimed ignorance of the first agreement between King, Remington and Innes and asserted that he had purchased the property outright from the two. After a lengthy trial in Minnesota District Court, Menage lost and was ordered to return the land to King along with all proceeds from the development of the land. Menage appealed to the Minnesota Supreme Court in 1886, however the lower court's decision was upheld. The total amount Menage paid to King was approximately \$2 million (\$ million in ). While at the time Menage maintained he was not burdened by the judgment, he later recalled the protracted legal battle and subsequent loss "threatened bankruptcy and ruin." ## Northwestern Guaranty Loan Company In 1889, Menage founded the Northwestern Guaranty Loan Company to handle the mortgage side of his real estate business. Among the members of the company's board were: John S. Pillsbury, William D. Washburn, Thomas Lowry, William Henry Eustis, Loren Fletcher, and many other important political and business figures. His real estate business was handled by a separate company called the Menage Realty Company. In 1890, Menage further cemented his place in the city by building the Northwestern Guaranty Loan Building (more commonly known as the Metropolitan Building), the city's tallest skyscraper, at a cost of more than \$1 million (\$ million in ). The building was home to all of Menage's various companies as well as other offices, a rooftop restaurant, and a private law library. While Minneapolis was the center of Menage's empire, he also owned land and property elsewhere in the Midwest and western states including Bozeman, Montana, Galveston, Texas, Gary, Indiana, and Madison, Wisconsin. ## Philanthropy Menage contributed to various charitable and philanthropic causes in Minneapolis. He donated funds toward the construction of the first Minneapolis Public Library building, provided a temporary home for the Ripley Memorial Hospital, and also sponsored a new bell in the First Baptist Church which he attended. In 1890, Menage sponsored a scientific expedition to the Philippines in partnership with the Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences. The expedition, led primarily by Dean Conant Worcester and Frank Swift Bourns, collected thousands of specimens of birds and animals; some, such as the Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) and the Sulu bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba menagei), were named in honor of Menage. While many of the specimens from the expedition appear to have been lost or discarded, some remain in the collections of the Bell Museum of Natural History and the Field Museum of Natural History. ## Financial collapse and later life In the early 1890s, Menage had begun to purchase land near Puget Sound in Washington, accumulating several thousand acres which he planned to develop into an iron mine, smelter and steel mill, along with housing for the workers. To finance the development he sold an early form of mortgage-backed security to investors in New England and Europe. When the Panic of 1893 occurred, investors found that Menage's properties were fraudulent. Many of the deeds were held by random names taken from the Minneapolis and Saint Paul telephone books, the properties themselves were unimproved, and the payments to investors were being made out of the bank's funds. His Northwestern Guaranty Loan Company (and, by the law of the era, its shareholders) were liable for the losses. Menage was indicted on charges of embezzlement but fled to Guatemala before a warrant for his arrest was issued. Menage's assistant, Donald Streeter, was tried twice but both trials ended with a hung jury. In an 1895 letter, Menage protested his innocence, blaming the Lyndale Farm lawsuit for hurting his finances and also noting (correctly) that: "the practice of using another's name on a note or mortgage is not unknown in the business world." In 1899, the charges against Menage were dropped after several key witnesses had died and others appeared reluctant to testify. By some accounts Menage was present in the courtroom at the time; others suggest he never returned to Minneapolis. Menage spent the rest of his life living in New Jersey and working in real estate in the New York City area. He died in 1924. He is buried in Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis.
71,675,782	Jazz kissa	1,170,471,086	Japanese jazz cafés	[ "1920s establishments in Japan", "Coffee culture", "Coffee in Japan", "Food and drink in Japan", "History of jazz", "Japanese culture", "Japanese jazz", "Japanese music history" ]	Jazz kissa (Japanese: ジャズ喫茶), sometimes transliterated as jazu kissa, are cafés that specialise in the playing and appreciation of recorded jazz music. Unique to Japan, jazz kissa are spaces where jazz music is played for dedicated listening rather than as background music. A typical jazz kissa features a high-quality stereo system, a large music collection and dim lighting, and serves coffee and alcoholic drinks. The first cafés focussed on playing recorded jazz opened in Japan in the late 1920s as part of a wider enthusiasm for Western culture and music. Before World War II there were about 80 jazz kissa, but during the war many of them closed. The post-war period saw jazz kissa return in even greater numbers. Jazz kissa served as places to hear imported jazz records that were too expensive for individuals to buy. They were an important musical resource for musicians, journalists and jazz enthusiasts, and, at their peak, there were around 600 jazz kissa operating across Japan. Starting in the 1970s, easier and cheaper access to personal stereo equipment and jazz music challenged the role of the jazz kissa. Jazz kissa numbers greatly reduced and the remaining kissa were mainly visited for nostalgic reasons. However, jazz kissa continue to operate in Japan and new kissa are still being opened. Jazz kissa played a role in the reception of jazz music and modern Western culture in Japan. Their influence extends beyond Japan with listening bars inspired by jazz kissa opening in many other countries in the 21st century. ## History ### Pre-war beginnings The popularisation of coffee, cafés and jazz music in Japan began in the 1920s and 1930s as part of a wider middle-class enthusiasm for Western ideas. It was common for cafés to play music from phonographs. Some cafés employed waitresses who offered sexual services and would sing and dance to the phonograph. The loud music also disguised private conversations between patrons and waitresses. Other cafés eschewed this eroticism and installed phonographs, low lighting and sofas to create a sophisticated and relaxed atmosphere. The first music cafés, called ongaku kissa (a shortening of kissaten), opened in Japan in the late 1920s. Due to restrictions on live music, kissa were some of the only places outside of large venues where people could hear Western music. These kissa housed large record collections, centred on specific genres, and modern sound equipment. The interior and exterior of kissa were decorated in elegant and sometimes eccentric Western styles. Classical music cafés, named meikyoku kissa, were popular as well as those playing jazz and Latin music. These were also staffed by female waitresses and catered to young patrons, often men who could not afford to purchase the music themselves. Kissa were usually operated by music enthusiasts rather than businesspeople seeking to make money. It is likely that the first kissa to specialise solely in jazz music opened in 1929. The jazz kissa of this period, and their extensive record collections, served as an important resource for record collectors, musicians and even jazz journalists. There were eventually around eighty jazz kissa in Japan with the majority in Tokyo. During World War II, however, these establishments were shuttered. Many of the jazz kissa had their record collections destroyed in Allied air raids, and most jazz kissa that emerged following the war had little relationship with these pre-war jazz kissa. ### Post-war re-emergence In 1950s Japan, live jazz performances were rare as were locally produced jazz records. Instead, records had to be imported from America at prohibitively expensive prices that, while too costly for most individuals, jazz kissa would pay. This resulted in jazz kissa, alongside radio, becoming some of the only places to hear the latest jazz music. Jazz kissa served an educational role for jazz fans and musicians, including Toshiko Akiyoshi and Sadao Watanabe. The kissa's proprietor would give in-depth introductions to records before playing them, and some patrons would take notes. Japanese publication Swing Journal published introductions for records to be used in jazz kissa. In contrast to pre-war jazz kissa, these establishments were simply furnished and usually only sold drinks. Most Japanese cities hosted jazz kissa by the end of the 1950s. Jazz kissa would often cater to specific niches, just playing music from a specific sub-genre. The difficulty for individuals to purchase jazz music continued in the 1960s. This particularly affected university students who, drawn to the cafes' bohemian atmosphere, made up a significant proportion of jazz kissa patrons. However, there was an increase in live music venues where jazz could be heard. Some jazz kissa in the 1950s had hosted live music, but this petered out in the 1960s. A new type of jazz kissa emerged in the middle of the decade. These jazz kissa were notable for their dim lighting, extremely loud music and rules for patrons such as the prohibition of talking. This style of jazz appreciation was tied to free jazz and the New Left student movement. Jazz kissa would even host political meetings and talks arranged by students. However, this trend declined at the end of the 1960s alongside the deaths of free jazz musicians John Coltrane and Albert Ayler and the disintegration of the New Left. At their height in the mid-1970s, there were around 600 jazz kissa operating in Japan. Societal changes over subsequent decades led to a steady reduction in jazz kissa numbers. Records and stereos became affordable for teenagers and students in the 1970s which, together with a considerable expansion in live jazz, made the music readily more accessible. The popularisation of jazz fusion forced jazz kissa to adapt to the new music, which some jazz fans found objectionable, or see their customer-base diminish. Aside from the change of music, cafés reduced the volume of the music, allowed patrons to talk, sold alcohol and lightened their décor. There was again a leap in access to personal audio equipment in the 1980s with the CD quickly replacing vinyl. Live jazz became widespread across Japan, and jazz was frequently the background music in hospitality venues. These developments negatively affected jazz kissa. One benefit to these changes was that jazz kissa became some of the few remaining places to hear jazz from original vinyl records. Customers continued visiting them as a reminder of the past or to feel they were "authentically" experiencing jazz music. ### Contemporary jazz kissa Jazz kissa are now greatly reduced in number from their 20th century peak. The remaining kissa are largely the same as they were in the immediate post-war period. Music is mainly played from vinyl records and features most jazz sub-genres. However, new jazz kissa continued to be opened. These jazz kissa have targeted younger customers by creating a more relaxed environment and featuring live performances from both DJs and musicians. ## Characteristics and etiquette Music in jazz kissa is generally selected from the establishment's large music collection and played loudly on a sophisticated sound system. High-quality stereo equipment is a central feature of jazz kissa and speakers are sometimes custom built for the space. The music is intended for patrons' dedicated musical appreciation rather than as background music or to facilitate dancing. Often one side of a record is played through in full before changing the music. Typically jazz kissa have low lighting and antique furniture, and are located on quiet side streets. The walls of many jazz kissa are decorated with LP covers and have shelves filled with vinyl records and CDs. Japanese musician Otomo Yoshihide wrote that the classic jazz kissa of the 1970s was a 15 m<sup>2</sup> room with a counter, several hundred vinyl LPs, a large collection of magazines and "a pair of huge JBL or Altec speakers". Jazz kissa are overseen by a master (マスター, masutā), who is usually an owner-operator and the only staff member. The master will serve customers drinks and food as well as curate the kissa's music. The choice of music is entirely managed by the master and suggestions from patrons are uncommon with the exception of recommendations from regular customers. Masters are reputed for their expert knowledge of jazz music and are often relied on as fact-checkers for jazz critics and writers. Jazz kissa are known for enforcing rules on their patrons. Establishments may request patrons listen to music in silence and are not places for socialising. Coffee and alcohol are served to customers. Drink costs are often higher than other venues to ensure financial viability from a small number of customers, and customers may stay for as much time as they please. Customers visit alone or in pairs and never in larger groups. ## Impact Jazz kissa led Japan to an appreciation of jazz music as a high art form similar to classical music. Musicologist David Novak has argued that the imported technology and music in jazz kissa "helped Japanese learn how to be modern". According to Novak, in the 1970s and 80s venues emerged which were focussed on experimental music. These kissa and venue were both a product of and a reaction against the culture of jazz kissa and played an important role in Japanoise music. Similarly, the concentrated yet communal way Japanese audiences listen to experimental Onkyokei music may have emerged from the listening practices of jazz kissa. The jazz kissa is a uniquely Japanese phenomenon that has no equivalent globally. However, in the 21st century, listening bars, influenced by Japanese jazz kissa, have begun to be opened outside of Japan. The Japan News reported that at least 50 establishments inspired by jazz kissa have opened in Western and Asian countries. ## See also - Japanese jazz - Meikyoku kissa, Japanese classical music café - Jazz club, venue for the performance of live jazz music - Coffee in Japan ## Further information [1920s establishments in Japan](Category:1920s_establishments_in_Japan "wikilink") [Food and drink in Japan](Category:Food_and_drink_in_Japan "wikilink") [Japanese music history](Category:Japanese_music_history "wikilink") [Japanese jazz](Category:Japanese_jazz "wikilink") [History of jazz](Category:History_of_jazz "wikilink") [Coffee in Japan](Category:Coffee_in_Japan "wikilink") [Coffee culture](Category:Coffee_culture "wikilink") [Japanese culture](Category:Japanese_culture "wikilink")
8,134,813	HMS Mashona	1,144,742,564	British Tribal-class destroyer	[ "1937 ships", "Destroyers sunk by aircraft", "Maritime incidents in May 1941", "Ships built on the River Tyne", "Ships sunk by German aircraft", "Shipwrecks of Ireland", "Tribal-class destroyers (1936) of the Royal Navy", "World War II destroyers of the United Kingdom", "World War II shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean" ]	HMS Mashona was one of 16 Tribal-class destroyers built for the Royal Navy shortly before the beginning of Second World War in 1939. Completed in that year, she was assigned to the Home Fleet. During the first year of the war, the ship was on convoy escort duties. Mashona played an active role in the Norwegian Campaign of April–May 1940, escorting convoys to and from Norway. The ship helped to briefly seize four Swedish warships en route from Italy to Sweden in June 1940 and resumed her role of convoy escort after their release in July. She accidentally collided with one of her sister ships in early 1941 and spent several months under repair. Mashona was escorting the battleship HMS Rodney in May when they were diverted to search for the German battleship Bismarck. The destroyer was forced to abandon the search for a lack of fuel shortly before the German ship was sunk on 27 May 1941. As Mashona was headed home, she was attacked and sunk by Luftwaffe bombers the following day, although nearby ships were able to rescue 184 of her crew. ## Description The Tribal-class destroyers were intended to counter the large destroyers being built abroad and to improve the firepower of the existing destroyer flotillas and were thus significantly larger and more heavily armed than the preceding I class. The ships displaced 1,891 long tons (1,921 t) at standard load and 2,519 long tons (2,559 t) at deep load. They had an overall length of 377 feet (114.9 m), a beam of 36 feet 6 inches (11.13 m) and a draught of 11 feet 3 inches (3.43 m). The destroyers were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft using steam provided by three Admiralty three-drum boilers. The turbines developed a total of 44,000 shaft horsepower (33,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph). During her sea trials Mashona made 35.3 knots (65.4 km/h; 40.6 mph) from 45,437 shp (33,882 kW) at a displacement of 1,990 long tons (2,020 t). The ships carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 5,700 nautical miles (10,600 km; 6,600 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The ships' complement consisted of 190 officers and ratings, although the flotilla leaders carried an extra 20 officers and men consisting of the Captain (D) and his staff. The primary armament of the Tribal-class was eight quick-firing (QF) 4.7-inch (120 mm) Mark XII guns in four twin-gun mounts, one pair each fore and aft of the superstructure, designated 'A', 'B', 'X', and 'Y' from front to rear. The mounts had a maximum elevation of 40°. For anti-aircraft (AA) defence, they carried a single quadruple mount for the 40-millimetre (1.6 in) QF two-pounder Mk II "pom-pom" gun and two quadruple mounts for the 0.5-inch (12.7 mm) Mark III machine gun. Low-angle fire for the main guns was controlled by the director-control tower (DCT) on the bridge roof that fed data acquired by it and the 12-foot (3.7 m) rangefinder on the Mk II Rangefinder/Director directly aft of the DCT to an analogue mechanical computer, the Mk I Admiralty Fire Control Clock. Anti-aircraft fire for the main guns was controlled by the Rangefinder/Director which sent data to the mechanical Fuze Keeping Clock. The ships were fitted with a single above-water quadruple mount for 21-inch (533 mm) torpedoes. The Tribals were not intended as anti-submarine ships, but they were provided with ASDIC, one depth charge rack and two throwers for self-defence, although the throwers were not mounted in all ships; Twenty depth charges was the peacetime allotment, but this increased to 30 during wartime. ### Wartime modifications Heavy losses to German air attack during the Norwegian Campaign demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the Tribals' anti-aircraft suite and the RN decided in May 1940 to replace 'X' mount with a twin-gun mount for QF 4-inch (102 mm) Mark XVI dual-purpose guns; Mashona had hers fitted during her August–October 1940 refit. The ship may have been fitted with a Type 285 gunnery radar on the roof of the rangefinder/director. To increase the firing arcs of the AA guns, the rear funnel was shortened and the mainmast was reduced to a short pole mast. The number of depth charges was increased to 46 early in the war. ## Construction and career Authorized as one of nine Tribal-class destroyers under the 1936 Naval Estimates, Mashona has been the only ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy. The ship was ordered on 19 June 1936 from Parsons, but her hull was subcontracted to Vickers-Armstrong and was laid down on 5 August at the company's High Walker, Newcastle upon Tyne, shipyard. Launched on 3 September 1937, Mashona was completed on 30 March 1939 and commissioned on 1 April at a cost of £341,108 which excluded weapons and communications outfits furnished by the Admiralty. Her construction had been delayed by the late delivery of her gun mountings. Initially assigned to the Sixth Destroyer Flotilla (DF) of the Home Fleet, under the command of Commander Patrick McLaughlin, the ship escorted the ocean liner through the English Channel in May with King George VI and Queen Elizabeth aboard as they departed for the their tour of Canada. The following month she helped to search for the sunken submarine Thetis after a diving accident. When Great Britain declared war on Nazi Germany on 3 September 1939, Mashona and the bulk of the Home Fleet were unsuccessfully patrolling the waters between Iceland, Norway and Scotland for German blockade runners. The 2nd Cruiser Squadron, including Mashona, was already at sea when the submarine Spearfish, on patrol in the Heligoland Bight, was badly damaged by German depth charges on 24 September. Unable to submerge, she requested assistance and the squadron responded with two destroyers escorting her home. The rest of the squadron, backed by the bulk of the Home Fleet, provided cover. The Germans spotted the squadron and unsuccessfully attacked the ships with nine bombers from the first group of Bomber Wing 26 (I/Kampfgeschwader 26). Mashona was present in Scapa Flow when the sank the battleship Royal Oak on the night of 13/14 October. By the time the British realised that the battleship had been torpedoed and Mashona became the first ship to search for the submarine, some two hours had passed and U-47 had reached the open sea. The destroyer was refitted from 25 October to 10 November 1939 in South Shields. Following the sinking of the armed merchant cruiser Rawalpindi on 23 November by the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau off Iceland, Mashona and the rest of the Home Fleet hunted the enemy ships, but heavy weather allowed them to evade their pursuers and return to Germany. The ship spent the next several months on convoy escort and patrol duties and Commander William Selby relieved McLaughlin on 23 January 1940. Around that time, she underwent a refit at Chatham Naval Dockyard that ended in March. ### Norwegian Campaign Receiving word that the Royal Air Force had attacked north-bound German warships in the North Sea on 7 April 1940, the Home Fleet put to sea that evening. The 2nd Cruiser Squadron departed Rosyth, Scotland, with its two light cruisers with orders to sweep through the North Sea before rendezvousing with the main body of the Home Fleet. The 6th DF with Mashona, her sisters Somali, Matabele, and Tartar, rendezvoused with the squadron the following morning. On the morning of 9 April the 4th Destroyer Flotilla, now including Mashona, was tasked on attacking Bergen, Norway, covered by the 18th Cruiser Squadron, but the Admiralty cancelled the attack that afternoon when it received reports that two German light cruisers were in port. As the British ships were withdrawing, they were attacked by 88 bombers of Bomber Wing 26 and Bomber Wing 30 (Kampfgeschwader 30), sinking Mashona's sister Gurkha and lightly damaged the battleship Rodney. After refuelling at Scapa Flow the following day, Mashona, five of her sisters and two light cruisers departed on the evening of 11 April, arriving off Stadlandet the following morning. The destroyers were split up to search the area for German ships before rendezvousing with the cruisers at dusk, but an inaccurate spot report of a German battlecruiser and cruiser that afternoon, forestalled the searches as the destroyers were recalled. On the morning of 13 April the destroyers were sent to search the Romsdalsfjord and only found four merchant ships. As they were leaving Ålesund they were unsuccessfully attacked by a dozen bombers from III Group, Demonstration Wing 1 (Lehrgeschwader 1). The following morning they were ordered north to the Namsos area to examine its suitability for an Allied landing and to coordinate with local Norwegian forces. Harbour facilities were assessed as inadequate and that troops should be landed elsewhere and transferred to destroyers for off-loading at Namsos. The Admiralty ordered that the 148th Infantry Brigade, already at sea, to be diverted to the anchorage at Lillesjona; its troopships arrived there at dawn on 16 April and began transferring their troops to the destroyers after they had completed refuelling. Half-a-dozen Luftwaffe bombers disrupted the transfer that afternoon with little effect. The destroyers unloaded their troops that night and the rest of the troops arrived the following evening. The destroyers and their covering cruisers were ordered home on 19 April, Mashona and Sikh escorting the troopship . The Allied defeat during the Namsos Campaign forced them to evacuate the survivors. Mashona picked up the troops at Veblungsnes on the evening of 30 April and then helped to ferry troops from the small wharf at Åndalsnes out to the cruisers anchored in the harbour the following night. On 6 May, the destroyer was one of the escorts for the aircraft carrier Ark Royal in the Narvik area. The following month Mashona helped to escort the battleship Valiant as she covered the evacuation from Narvik on in early June. The destroyer searched without success for any survivors from the aircraft carrier Glorious after she had been sunk by Gneisenau and Scharnhorst on 8 June. ### Subsequent operations Mashona, Tartar and their sister Maori were ordered on 19 June 1940 to seize four Swedish destroyers that had been purchased from Fascist Italy and were on their delivery voyage, citing the right of angary, which allows for the taking of neutral property to prevent its use by the enemy. The Swedish government had informed the British and the Germans of this purchase and of the ships' route, so the British destroyers were able to blockade the Swedish ships in Skálafjørður in the Faeroe Islands the following morning, despite their earlier guarantee of freedom of passage. The Swedish crews were transferred under protest to their accompanying ocean liner, SS Patricia, and oil tanker, SS Castor, and the British ships put crews aboard two of the destroyers, and . The two Swedish destroyers sailed for Scapa Flow, escorted by Tartar, on 21 June, while the two Swedish civilian ships headed for Sweden. The commander of the Swedish force informed his government about the seizure and was ordered to return his two ships to Tórshavn and wait there until the ships were returned; Mashona also sailed to Tórshavn to prevent the Swedes from retaking possession of their ships. During the voyage to Scapa, Puke broke down on 22 June and had to be towed; she did not reach her destination for another week. In the meantime, Mashona escorted the other two other destroyers to Scapa where they arrived on the 26th. The ocean liner arrived on 30 June and the British returned the ships to the Swedes on 2 July in response to the strong Swedish protests. While escorting the Home Fleet on 27 June in the North Sea, Mashona was damaged by a freak wave that dropped her into a deep trough; the impact damaged her bottom plating and sprung 240 rivets. The ship had to return to Rosyth for repairs that included strengthening the bottom of her hull and resumed her escort duties afterwards. She began a refit at Liverpool in August and was inspected by King George VI and Queen Elizabeth there before work began. Upon its completion on 5 October, Mashona was assigned escort duties in the Western Approaches and rescued survivors from the torpedoed cargo liner SS Rotorua on 11 December. While departing Scapa at night on 6 January 1941, Mashona accidentally rammed Sikh and was under repair in West Hartlepool from 16 January to 3 March. Mashona spent the next several months escorting units of the Home Fleet. On 22 May 1941 the ship formed part of the escort for Rodney and the ocean liner as they set sail for Halifax, Canada. After the German battleship Bismarck sank the battlecruiser Hood during the Battle of Denmark Strait two days later, Rodney was ordered by the Admiralty to join in the pursuit of the German ship, taking Mashona, Tartar and Somali with her in the search. By 26 May, the Bismarck had been located by a maritime patrol aircraft and Mashona was sent to find Admiral Sir John Tovey in his flagship, the battleship King George V. The destroyer was tasked to relay Rodney's location, using a signal lamp to avoid alerting the Germans of the presence of any nearby British ships via wireless intercepts. The battleships rendezvoused later that afternoon and Tovey was informed of Rodney's fuel shortage as well as that of her escorts. That evening Mashona, Tartar and Somali were forced to turn back for lack of fuel. On the morning of 28 May 1941, Mashona and Tartar were attacked by numerous Luftwaffe bombers while returning to port at a speed of 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). A Heinkel He 111 of the first group of Bomber Wing 28 (I/Kampfgeschwader 28) hit Mashona with a single bomb in the forward boiler room that caused severe flooding and killed 46 men. Dead in the water with a growing list, the flooding could not be contained and the crew was forced to abandon ship before she capsized. During a lull in the bombing, Tartar was able to rescue 184 survivors, although 10 subsequently died of hypothermia, but missed with a torpedo when she tried to scuttle her sister. The floating hulk was finally sunk off the coast of Galway, Ireland, at by shells from a pair of Canadian destroyers that arrived that afternoon.
28,643,638	Hobitit	1,163,923,585	Finnish live action fantasy television miniseries	[ "1993 Finnish television series debuts", "Finnish television miniseries", "Television series set in Middle-earth", "Works based on The Lord of the Rings", "Yle original programming" ]	Hobitit (The Hobbits) is a nine-part Finnish live action fantasy television miniseries directed by Timo Torikka, originally broadcast in 1993 on Yle TV1. It is based on a six-hour play, The Lord of the Rings, put on by the Suomenlinna Group Theatre, with many of the same actors; the play was in turn an adaptation of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. The series quite faithfully adapts the events until The Council of Elrond, and then focuses on the journey of the Hobbits Frodo Baggins and Sam Gamgee. The series was praised in the Finnish press. The Finnish Tolkien society wrote that Hobitit had captured the book's spirit and atmosphere, despite its small budget. ## Plot The series is based on J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, in nine episodes. It omits the parts where the Hobbits Frodo Baggins and Sam Gamgee are not present. The narrator is an older Sam, who tells his story to an audience of young Hobbits several years after the events of the War of the Ring. In the first episode, titled Bilbo, Sam provides a brief account of the origin of the One Ring and how it came into Gollum's possession. Bilbo Baggins finds the Ring and defeats Gollum in a game of riddles on his way to the Lonely Mountain. In episode 2, Tie ("The Road"), Bilbo celebrates his birthday and leaves the Ring to Frodo. On Gandalf's advice, Frodo and Sam leave the Shire; their friends Merry Brandybuck and Pippin Took join them. In episode 3, Vanha metsä ("The Old Forest"), the Hobbits travel through the Old Forest, getting into troubles with Old Man Willow and then with a Barrow-wight. They are saved in both cases by Tom Bombadil. Meanwhile, Gandalf heads for Isengard, where he discovers Saruman's betrayal. In episode 4, Pomppiva poni ("The Prancing Pony"), the Hobbits arrive at Bree's Prancing Pony Inn, where the host Barliman Butterbur gives them a message from Gandalf. They meet Strider (Aragorn), who guides them towards Rivendell, but the Black Riders start to pursue them. In episode 5, Konkari ("Strider"), the Black Riders wound Frodo but the party manages to reach Rivendell, where Frodo is healed. At The Council of Elrond it is decided that the Ring must be destroyed and the Fellowship of the Ring is formed. In episode 6, Lorien, the Fellowship travels south via Moria, where the Orcs attack them and Gandalf apparently dies in a fight with a Balrog. The others flee under the leadership of Strider to Lothlórien, where they meet Galadriel. After travelling further south along the Anduin, the Fellowship breaks up: Frodo and Sam continue the journey to Mordor on their own, while Merry and Pippin are captured by the Orcs and Boromir is killed. In episode 7, Mordor, Frodo and Sam travel through the Emyn Muil to Mordor and face Gollum, who they force to be their guide. It is mentioned (but not shown) that Pippin and Merry freed themselves and helped the Ents destroying Isengard and exiling Saruman; they rejoined with Aragorn, Legolas and Gimli, as well as with Gandalf, who managed to survive the fight with the Balrog. In episode 8, Tuomiovuori ("Mount Doom"), Gollum guides Frodo and Sam to the Black Gate, which proves to be impassable, and then brings them to Cirith Ungol, where Frodo is paralysed by Shelob. Finally, in episode 9, Vapautus ("Liberation"), Sam saves Frodo and helps him to reach Mount Doom. At the last moment Frodo declares the Ring as his own, but Gollum bites it from his finger and falls into the mountain's fire, destroying the Ring. Sam and Frodo wake up in Gondor, where they are reunited with Gandalf, Pippin and Merry, and hear that Aragorn has become King of Gondor. The Hobbits head home with Gandalf, who leaves them after reaching Bree; they have to free the Shire from Saruman's rule. Frodo travels to the Grey Havens to leave the Middle-Earth, and Sam concludes his story, hinting that he will soon do the same. ## Production The production was based on a six-hour play, The Lord of the Rings, put on by the Suomenlinna Group Theatre in 1988 and 1989, directed by Raila Leppäkoski [fi] and Arto af Hällström [fi]. The broadcaster Yle had the option of adapting the play directly to television, but this approach was rejected as making no sense on screen. This would have meant producing a children's series based on Toni Edelmann [fi]'s musical settings of Tolkien's poems, as in the play, but it proved difficult to relate this to the story, and the approach was abandoned. Instead, Torikka chose to tell the story from the Hobbits' perspective, cutting other parts of Tolkien's narrative. The new series was written and directed by Timo Torikka, who had played Pippin in the play. Edelman was responsible for the soundtrack. Hobitit featured nine episodes of 30 minutes each; these aired from 29 March to 24 May 1993, repeated in 1997–1998. Most of the actors were inherited from the play, with new blood in the shape of Jari Pehkonen [fi] as Pippin and Leif Wager as Elrond. Filming locations included the Ryhmäteatteri theatre in Helsinki and Yle's studio production facilities. Some sequences were shot outdoors with natural backgrounds, while a large number of scale models were used for scenes such as of the Shire and the village of Bree. Studio sequences were filmed using bluescreen, allowing landscapes to be added by chroma key compositing. ## Coverage of the book The series concentrates on the quest undertaken by the Hobbits Frodo and Sam to destroy the Ring. Accordingly it omits the parts of Tolkien's novel, including the epic battles, that are not seen by these characters. ## Reception In a review in Helsingin Sanomat, Jukka Kajava praised the new family-produced series, which tells a strong story. He praised the acting, including Kari Väänänen's Gollum and Pertti Sveholm [fi]'s Sam Gamgee. Four years later, when the series was repeated, Kajava was more critical, stating that the concreteness of the television adaptation might limit the viewer's imagination too much compared to the original work. Juho Gröndahl, writing in the Finnish Tolkien Society's magazine Legolas in 2004, recalled that Hobitit had succeeded in "capturing the atmosphere and spirit of the book" despite the fact that it was created "on a small budget in quite shocking sets". In addition to the successful acting and "pensive appearance", he attributed the success of the series to a clear choice of perspective, not trying to tell the whole story of Tolkien's novel but focussing on Frodo and Sam's journey. Similarly, Gröndahl was doubtful of Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, as he felt that the "epic and flamboyant side of the book that is emphasized in [Jackson's] film adaptation is not the most enduring and interesting aspect" of Tolkien's work. ## Cast The show's cast included the following actors and roles: - Taneli Mäkelä – Frodo Baggins [Frodo Reppuli] - Pertti Sveholm [fi] – Samwise Gamgee [Samvais Gamgi] - Jari Pehkonen [fi] – Peregrin Took [Peregrin Tuk] - Jarmo Hyttinen – Meriadoc Brandybuck [Meriadoc Rankkibuk] - Vesa Vierikko – Gandalf [Gandalf Harmaa] - Kari Väänänen – Gollum [Klonkku], Aragorn/Strider [Konkari] - Ville Virtanen – Legolas - Tomi Salmela [fi] – Gimli - Carl-Kristian Rundman [fi] – Boromir - Martti Suosalo – Bilbo Baggins [Bilbo Reppuli] - Esko Hukkanen [fi] – Tom Bombadil - Leif Wager – Elrond - Matti Pellonpää – Saruman - Mikko Kivinen [fi] – Barliman Butterbur [Viljami Voivalvatti]
168,682	Panavia Tornado	1,173,105,911	Family of multi-role combat aircraft	[ "1970s British attack aircraft", "1970s German attack aircraft", "1970s Italian attack aircraft", "1970s international attack aircraft", "Aircraft first flown in 1974", "Panavia Tornado", "Twinjets", "Variable-sweep-wing aircraft" ]	The Panavia Tornado is a family of twin-engine, variable-sweep wing multi-role combat aircraft, jointly developed and manufactured by Italy, the United Kingdom and Germany. There are three primary Tornado variants: the Tornado IDS (interdictor/strike) fighter-bomber, the Tornado ECR (electronic combat/reconnaissance) SEAD aircraft and the Tornado ADV (air defence variant) interceptor aircraft. The Tornado was developed and built by Panavia Aircraft GmbH, a tri-national consortium consisting of British Aerospace (previously British Aircraft Corporation), MBB of West Germany, and Aeritalia of Italy. It first flew on 14 August 1974 and was introduced into service in 1979–1980. Due to its multirole design, it was able to replace several different fleets of aircraft in the adopting air forces. The Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) became the only export operator of the Tornado in addition to the three original partner nations. A tri-nation training and evaluation unit operating from RAF Cottesmore, the Tri-National Tornado Training Establishment, maintained a level of international co-operation beyond the production stage. The Tornado was operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF), Italian Air Force, and RSAF during the Gulf War of 1991, in which the Tornado conducted many low-altitude penetrating strike missions. The Tornados of various services were also used in the Bosnian War, Kosovo War, Iraq War, in Libya during the 2011 Libyan civil war, as well as smaller roles in Afghanistan, Yemen, and Syria. Including all variants, 990 aircraft were built. ## Development ### Origins During the 1960s, aeronautical designers looked to variable-geometry wing designs to gain the manoeuvrability and efficient cruise of straight wings with the speed of swept wing designs. The United Kingdom had cancelled the procurement of the TSR-2 and subsequent F-111K aircraft, and was still looking for a replacement for its Avro Vulcan and Blackburn Buccaneer strike aircraft. Britain and France had initiated the BAC/Dassault AFVG (Anglo French Variable Geometry) project in 1965, but this had ended with French withdrawal in 1967. Britain continued to develop a variable-geometry aircraft similar to the proposed AFVG, and sought new partners to achieve this. West German EWR with Boeing then with Fairchild-Hiller and Republic Aviation had been developing design studies of the swing-wing EWR-Fairchild-Hiller A400 AVS Advanced Vertical Strike (which has a similar configuration to the Tornado) from 1964 to 1968. In 1968, West Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy and Canada formed a working group to examine replacements for the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, initially called the Multi Role Aircraft (MRA), later renamed as the Multi Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA). As the partner nations' requirements were so diverse, it was decided to develop a single aircraft that could perform a variety of missions that were previously undertaken by a fleet of different aircraft. Britain joined the MRCA group in 1968, represented by Air Vice-Marshal Michael Giddings, and a memorandum of agreement was drafted between Britain, West Germany, and Italy in May 1969. By the end of 1968, the prospective purchases from the six countries amounted to 1,500 aircraft. Canada and Belgium had departed before any long-term commitments had been made to the programme; Canada had found the project politically unpalatable; there was a perception in political circles that much of the manufacturing and specifications were focused on Western Europe. France had made a favourable offer to Belgium on the Dassault Mirage 5. ### Panavia Aircraft GmbH On 26 March 1969, four partner nations – United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands, agreed to form a multinational company, Panavia Aircraft GmbH, to develop and manufacture the MRCA. The project's aim was to produce an aircraft capable of undertaking missions in the tactical strike, reconnaissance, air defence, and maritime roles. Various concepts, including alternative fixed-wing and single-engine designs, were studied while defining the aircraft. The Netherlands pulled out of the project in 1970, citing that the aircraft was too complicated and technical for the RNLAF's preferences, which had sought a simpler aircraft with outstanding manoeuvrability. An additional blow was struck when the German requirement reduced from an initial 600 aircraft to 324 in 1972. It has been suggested that Germany deliberately placed an unrealistically high initial order to secure the company headquarters and initial test flight in Germany rather than the UK, so as to have a bigger design influence. When the agreement was finalised, the United Kingdom and West Germany each had a 42.5% stake of the workload, with the remaining 15% going to Italy; this division of the production work was heavily influenced by international political bargaining. The front fuselage and tail assembly was assigned to BAC (now BAE Systems) in the United Kingdom; the centre fuselage to MBB (now part of Airbus) in West Germany; and the wings to Aeritalia (now Leonardo) in Italy. Similarly, tri-national worksharing was used for engines and equipment. A separate multinational company, Turbo-Union, was formed in June 1970 to develop and build the RB199 engines for the aircraft, with ownership split 40% Rolls-Royce, 40% MTU, and 20% FIAT. At the conclusion of the project definition phase in May 1970, the concepts were reduced to two designs; a single seat Panavia 100 which West Germany initially preferred, and the twin-seat Panavia 200 which the RAF preferred. The aircraft was briefly called the Panavia Panther, and the project soon coalesced towards the two-seat option. In September 1971, the three governments signed an Intention to Proceed (ITP) document, at which point the aircraft was intended solely for the low-level strike mission, where it was viewed as a viable threat to Soviet defences in that role. It was at this point that Britain's Chief of the Defence Staff announced "two-thirds of the fighting front line will be composed of this single, basic aircraft type". ### Prototypes and testing The first of fifteen development aircraft (nine prototypes, P01 to P09, and six pre-series, PS11 to PS 16) flew on 14 August 1974 at Manching, Germany; the pilot, Paul Millett described his experience: "Aircraft handling was delightful... the actual flight went so smoothly that I did begin to wonder whether this was not yet another simulation". Flight testing led to the need for minor modifications. Airflow disturbances were responded to by re-profiling the engine intakes and the fuselage to minimise surging and buffeting at supersonic speeds. According to Jim Quinn, programmer of the Tornado development simulation software and engineer on the Tornado engine and engine controls, the prototype was safely capable of reaching supercruise, but the engines had severe safety issues at high altitude while trying to decelerate. At high altitude and low turbine speed the compressor did not provide enough pressure to hold back the combustion pressure and would result in a violent vibration as the combustion pressure backfired into the intake. To avoid this effect the engine controls would automatically increase the minimum idle setting as altitude increased, until at very high altitudes the idle setting was so high, however, that it was close to maximum dry thrust. This resulted in one of the test aircraft being stuck in a mach 1.2 supercruise at high altitude and having to reduce speed by turning the aircraft, because the idle setting at that altitude was so high that the aircraft could not decelerate. The British Ministry of Supply assigned Chief Engineer Ted Talbot from the Concorde development team to provide intake design assistance to the Tornado development team in order to overcome these issues, which they hesitantly agreed to after noting that the Concorde intake data had apparently already been leaked to the Soviet Union. The German engineers working on the Tornado intake were unable to produce a functional Concorde style intake despite having data from the Concorde team. To make the problem worse, their management team incorrectly filed a patent on the Concorde design, and then tried to sue the British engineers who had provided the design to them. The German lawyers realised that the British had provided the designs to the German team, and requested further information to help their engineers overcome the problems with the Tornado intake, but Chief Engineer Talbot refused. According to Talbot, the Concorde engineers had determined the issue with the Tornado intake was that the engine did not respond to unexpected changes in the intake position, and therefore the engine was running at the wrong setting for a given position of the intake ramps. This was because the Concorde had similar issues due to control pressure not being high enough to maintain proper angles of the intake ramps. Aerodynamic forces could force the intakes into the improper position, and so they should have the ability to control the engines if this occurs. The Tornado intake system did not allow for this. Due to the behaviour of the German management team, the British engineers declined to share this information, and so the Tornado was not equipped with the more advanced intake design of the Concorde. Testing revealed that a nose-wheel steering augmentation system, connecting with the yaw damper, was necessary to counteract the destabilising effect produced by deploying the thrust reverser during the landing roll. From 1967 until 1984 Soviet KGB agents were provided details on the Tornado by the head of the West German Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm Planning department, Manfred Rotsch. Two prototypes were lost in accidents, both of which had been primarily caused by poor piloting decisions and errors leading to two ground collision incidents; a third Tornado prototype was seriously damaged by an incident involving pilot-induced pitch oscillation. During the type's development, aircraft designers of the era were beginning to incorporate features such as more sophisticated stability augmentation systems and autopilots. Aircraft such as the Tornado and the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon made use of these new technologies. Failure testing of the Tornado's triplex analogue command and stability augmentation system (CSAS) was conducted on a series of realistic flight control rigs; the variable-sweep wings in combination with varying, and frequently very heavy, payloads complicated the clearance process. ### Production The contract for the Batch 1 aircraft was signed on 29 July 1976. The first flight of a production aircraft was on 10 July 1979 by ZA319 at BAe Warton. The first aircraft were delivered to the RAF and German Air Force on 5 and 6 June 1979 respectively. The first Italian Tornado was delivered on 25 September 1981. On 29 January 1981, the Tri-National Tornado Training Establishment (TTTE) officially opened at RAF Cottesmore, remaining active in training pilots from all operating nations until 31 March 1999. The 500th Tornado to be produced was delivered to West Germany on 19 December 1987. Export customers were sought after West Germany withdrew its objections to exporting the aircraft; Saudi Arabia was the only export customer of the Tornado. The agreement to purchase the Tornado was part of the Al-Yamamah arms deal between British Aerospace and the Saudi government. Oman had committed to purchasing Tornados and the equipment to operate them for a total value of £250 million in the late 1980s, but cancelled the order in 1990 due to financial difficulties. During the 1970s, Australia considered joining the MRCA programme to find a replacement for their ageing Dassault Mirage IIIs; ultimately the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet was selected to meet the requirement. Canada similarly opted for the F/A-18 after considering the Tornado. Japan considered the Tornado in the 1980s, along with the F-16 and F/A-18, before selecting the Mitsubishi F-2. In the 1990s, both Taiwan and South Korea expressed interest in acquiring a small number of Tornado ECR aircraft. In 2001, EADS proposed a Tornado ECR variant with a greater electronic warfare capability for Australia. Production came to an end in 1998; the last batch of aircraft produced going to the Royal Saudi Air Force, who had ordered a total of 96 IDS Tornados. In June 2011, it was announced that the Tornado fleet had flown collectively over one million flying hours. Aviation author Jon Lake noted that "The Trinational Panavia Consortium produced just short of 1,000 Tornados, making it one of the most successful postwar bomber programs". In 2008, AirForces Monthly said of the Tornado: "For more than a quarter of a century ... the most important military aircraft in Western Europe." ## Design ### Overview The Panavia Tornado is a multirole, twin-engined aircraft designed to excel at low-level penetration of enemy defences. The mission envisaged during the Cold War was the delivery of conventional and nuclear ordnance on the invading forces of the Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern Europe; this dictated several significant features of the design. Variable wing geometry allowed for minimal drag during the low-level dash towards a well-prepared enemy. Advanced navigation and flight computers, including the then-innovative fly-by-wire system, greatly reduced the workload of the pilot during low-level flight and eased control of the aircraft. For long range missions, the Tornado has a retractable refuelling probe. As a multirole aircraft, the Tornado is capable of undertaking more mission profiles than the anticipated strike mission; various operators replaced multiple aircraft types with the Tornado as a common type – the use of dedicated single role aircraft for specialist purposes such as battlefield reconnaissance, maritime patrol duties, or dedicated electronic countermeasures (ECM) were phased out – either by standard Tornados or modified variants, such as the Tornado ECR. The most extensive modification from the base Tornado design was the Tornado ADV, which was stretched and armed with long range anti-aircraft missiles to serve in the interceptor role. Tornado operators have undertaken various life extension and upgrade programmes to keep their Tornado fleets as viable frontline aircraft. With these upgrades it is projected that the Tornado shall be in service until 2025, more than 50 years after the first prototype took flight. ### Variable-sweep wing In order for the Tornado to perform well as a low-level supersonic strike aircraft, it was considered necessary for it to possess good high-speed and low-speed flight characteristics. To achieve high-speed performance, a swept or delta wing is typically adopted, but these wing designs are inefficient at low speeds. To operate at both high and low speeds with great effectiveness, the Tornado uses a variable-sweep wing. This approach had been adopted by earlier aircraft, such as the American Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which is the most similar in mission flexibility. The swing-wing was also shared by the older American General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark strike fighter, and the Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 fighter. The smaller Tornado has many similarities with the F-111, however the Tornado differs in being a multi-role aircraft with more advanced onboard systems and avionics. The level of wing sweep (i.e. the angle of the wings in relation to the fuselage) can be altered in flight at the pilot's control. The variable wing can adopt any sweep angle between 25 degrees and 67 degrees, with a corresponding speed range for each angle. Some Tornado ADVs were outfitted with an automatic wing-sweep system to reduce pilot workload. When the wings are swept back, the exposed wing area is lowered and drag is significantly decreased, which is conducive to performing high-speed low-level flight. The weapons pylons pivot with the angle of the variable-sweep wings so that the stores point in the direction of flight and do not hinder any wing positions. In development, significant attention was given to the Tornado's short-field take-off and landing (STOL) performance. Germany, in particular, encouraged this design aspect. For shorter take-off and landing distances, the Tornado can sweep its wings forwards to the 25-degree position, and deploy its full-span flaps and leading edge slats to allow the aircraft to fly at lower speeds. These features, in combination with the thrust reverser-equipped engines, give the Tornado excellent low-speed handling and landing characteristics. ### Avionics The Tornado features a tandem-seat cockpit, crewed by a pilot and a navigator/weapons officer; both electromechanical and electro-optical controls are used to fly the aircraft and manage its systems. An array of dials and switches are mounted on either side of a centrally placed CRT monitor, controlling the navigational, communications, and weapons-control computers. BAE Systems developed the Tornado Advanced Radar Display Information System (TARDIS), a 32.5-centimetre (12.8 in) multi-function display, to replace the rear cockpit's Combined Radar and Projected Map Display; the RAF began installing TARDIS on the GR4 fleet in 2004. The primary flight controls of the Tornado are a fly-by-wire hybrid, consisting of an analogue quadruplex Command and Stability Augmentation System (CSAS) connected to a digital Autopilot & Flight Director System (AFDS). In addition a level of mechanical reversion capacity was retained to safeguard against potential failure. To enhance pilot awareness, artificial feel was built into the flight controls, such as the centrally located stick. Because the Tornado's variable wings enable the aircraft to drastically alter its flight envelope, the artificial responses adjust automatically to wing profile changes and other changes to flight attitude. As a large variety of munitions and stores can be outfitted, the resulting changes to the aircraft's flight dynamics are routinely compensated for by the flight stability system. The Tornado incorporates a combined navigation/attack Doppler radar that simultaneously scans for targets and conducts fully automated terrain-following for low-level flight operations. Being able to conduct all-weather hands-off low-level flight was considered one of the core advantages of the Tornado. The Tornado ADV had a different radar system to other variants, designated AI.24 Foxhunter, as it is designed for air defence operations. It was capable of tracking up to 20 targets at ranges of up to 160 kilometres (100 mi). The Tornado was one of the earliest aircraft to be fitted with a digital data bus for data transmission. A Link 16 JTIDS integration on the F3 variant enabled the exchange of radar and other sensory information with nearby friendly aircraft. Some Tornado variants carry different avionics and equipment, depending on their mission. The Tornado ECR operated by Germany and Italy is devoted to Suppression of Enemy Air Defences (SEAD) missions. The Tornado ECR is equipped with an emitter-locator system (ELS) to detect radar use. German ECRs have a Honeywell infrared imaging system for reconnaissance flights. RAF and RSAF Tornados have the Laser Range Finder and Marked Target Seekers (LRMTS) for targeting laser-guided munitions. In 1991, the RAF introduced TIALD, allowing Tornado GR1s to laser-designate their own targets. The GR1A and GR4A reconnaissance variants were equipped with TIRRS (Tornado Infrared Reconnaissance System), consisting of one SLIR (Sideways Looking Infra Red) sensor on each side of the fuselage forward of the engine intakes to capture oblique images, and a single IRLS (InfrarRed LineScan) sensor mounted on the fuselage's underside to provide vertical images. TIRRS recorded images on six S-VHS video tapes. The newer RAPTOR reconnaissance pod replaced the built-in TIRRS system. ### Armament and equipment The Tornado is cleared to carry the majority of air-launched weapons in the NATO inventory, including various unguided and laser-guided bombs, anti-ship and anti-radiation missiles, as well as specialised weapons such as anti-personnel mines and anti-runway munitions. To improve survivability in combat, the Tornado is equipped with onboard countermeasures, ranging from flare and chaff dispensers to electronic countermeasure pods that can be mounted under the wings. Underwing fuel tanks and a buddy store aerial refuelling system that allows one Tornado to refuel another are available to extend the aircraft's range. In the decades since the Tornado's introduction, all of the Tornado operators have undertaken various upgrade and modification programmes to allow new weapons to be used by their squadrons. Amongst the armaments that the Tornado has been adapted to deploy are the Enhanced Paveway and Joint Direct Attack Munition bombs, and modern cruise missiles such as the Taurus and Storm Shadow missiles. These upgrades have increased the Tornado's capabilities and combat accuracy. Precision weapons such as cruise missiles have replaced older munitions such as cluster bombs. Strike variants have a limited air-to-air capability with AIM-9 Sidewinder or AIM-132 ASRAAM air-to-air missiles (AAMs). The Tornado ADV was outfitted with beyond visual range AAMs such as the Skyflash and AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles. The Tornado is armed with two 27 mm (1.063 in) Mauser BK-27 revolver cannon internally mounted underneath the fuselage; the Tornado ADV was only armed with one cannon. When the RAF GR1 aircraft were converted to GR4, the FLIR sensor replaced the left hand cannon, leaving only one; the GR1A reconnaissance variant gave up both its guns to make space for the sideways looking infra-red sensors. The Mauser BK-27 was developed specifically for the Tornado, but has since been used on several other European fighters, such as the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet, Saab JAS 39 Gripen, and Eurofighter Typhoon. The Tornado is capable of delivering air-launched nuclear weapons. In 1979, Britain considered replacing its Polaris submarines with either the Trident submarines or the Tornado as the main bearer of its nuclear deterrent. Although the UK proceeded with Trident, several Tornado squadrons based in Germany were assigned to SACEUR to deter a major Soviet offensive with both conventional and nuclear weapons, namely the WE.177 nuclear bomb, which was retired in 1998. German and Italian Tornados are capable of delivering US B61 nuclear bombs, which are made available through NATO. ### Engine Britain considered the selection of Rolls-Royce to develop the advanced engine for the MRCA to be essential, and was strongly opposed to adopting an engine from an American manufacturer, to the point where the UK might have withdrawn over the issue. In September 1969, Rolls-Royce's RB199 engine was selected to power the MRCA. One advantage over the US competition was that a technology transfer between the partner nations had been agreed; the engine was to be developed and manufactured by a joint company, Turbo-Union. The programme was delayed by Rolls-Royce's entry into receivership in 1971. however the nature of the multinational collaboration process helped avoid major disruption of the Tornado programme. Research from the supersonic airliner Concorde contributed to the development and final design of the RB199 and of the engine control units. To operate efficiently across a wide range of conditions and speeds up to Mach 2, the RB199 and several other engines make use of variable intake ramps to control the air flow. The hydraulic system is pressurised by syphoning power from both or either operational engine; the hydraulics are completely contained within the airframe rather than integrating with the engine to improve safety and maintainability. In case of double-engine, or double-generator, failure, the Tornado has a single-use battery capable of operating the fuel pump and hydraulics for up to 13 minutes. Relatively rarely among fighter aircraft, the RB199 is fitted with thrust reversers to decrease the distance required to land safely. To fully deploy the thrust reverser during landings, the yaw damper is connected to the steering of the nosewheel to provide greater stability. In August 1974, the first RB199 powered flight of a prototype Tornado occurred and the engine completed its qualification tests in late 1978. The final production standard engine met both reliability and performance standards, though the development cost had been higher than predicted, in part due to the ambitious performance requirements. At the time of the Tornado's introduction to service, the turbine blades of the engine suffered from a shorter life span than desired, which was rectified by the implementation of design revisions upon early-production engines. Several uprated engines were developed and used on both the majority of Tornado ADVs and Germany's Tornado ECRs. The DECU (Digital Engine Control Unit) is the current engine control unit for RB199 engines superseding the analogue MECU (Main Engine Control Unit) also known as CUE. ### Upgrades Being designed for low-level operations, the Tornado required modification to perform in medium level operations that the RAF adopted in the 1990s. The RAF's GR1 fleet was extensively re-manufactured as Tornado GR4s. Upgrades on Tornado GR4s included a forward looking infrared, a wide-angle HUD (head-up display), improved cockpit displays, NVG (night vision devices) capabilities, new avionics, and a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver. The upgrade eased the integration of new weapons and sensors which were purchased in parallel, including the Storm Shadow cruise missile, the Brimstone anti-tank missile, Paveway III laser-guided bombs and the RAPTOR reconnaissance pod. The first flight of a Tornado GR4 was on 4 April 1997. The RAF accepted its first delivery on 31 October 1997 and deliveries were completed in 2003. In 2005, the RSAF opted to have their Tornado IDSs undergo a series of upgrades to become equivalent to the RAF's GR4 configuration. On 21 December 2007 BAE signed a £210m contract for CUSP, the Capability Upgrade Strategy (Pilot). This project would see RAF GR4/4A improved in two phases, starting with the integration of the Paveway IV bomb and a communications upgrade, followed by a new tactical datalink in Phase B. Beginning in 2000, German IDS and ECR Tornados received the ASSTA 1 (Avionics System Software Tornado in Ada) upgrade. ASSTA 1 involved a replacement weapons computer, new GPS and Laser Inertial navigation systems. The new computer allowed the integration of the HARM III, HARM 0 Block IV/V and Taurus KEPD 350 missiles, the Rafael Litening II laser designator pod and GBU-24 Paveway III laser-guided bombs. The ASSTA 2 upgrade began in 2005, primarily consisting of several new digital avionics systems and a new ECM suite; these upgrades are to be only applied to 85 Tornados (20 ECRs and 65 IDSs), as the Tornado is being replaced in part by the Eurofighter Typhoon. The ASSTA 3 upgrade programme, started in 2008, will introduce support for the laser-targeted Joint Direct Attack Munition along with further software changes. In January 2016, Bild newspaper stated that the newest upgrade of the ASSTA suite to version 3.1, which includes colour multifunctional LCD screens in place of monochrome CRT displays, is interfering with helmet-mounted night-vision optical displays worn by pilots, rendering German Tornado bombers deployed to Syria useless for night missions. The defence ministry admitted that bright cockpit lights could be a distraction for pilots, and said that the solution will be implemented in a few weeks, but denied the need to fly night missions in Syria. The (iconic) TV TAB displays are used for route planning, the forward-looking infra-red (FLIR) sensors, targeting pods such as TIALD (Thermal Imaging and Laser Designator) and CLDP (Convertible Laser Designator Pod). The original MRCA TV TAB DU navigation display (part number V22.498.90) has a green CRT as the picture source. The original price for one CRT display version was €33,852.64. Due to the light environment, the picture tube was pushed to the limit due to the high brightness levels causing wear of the picture tube. An Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays (AMLCD) drop fit replacement with a digital screen TV TAB (NSN 5895-99-597-1323) was developed to replace the 'old' wear-sensitive CRT versions. The CRT versions are mainly recognisable by the two white domes at the top of the display containing the light sensors for automatic brightness regulation and the white buttons. The newer digital version is mainly recognisable by the black buttons with big white dots on them. The replacement AMLCD version has a color display instead of the original green monochrome display. A new feature is that the AMLCD has a bezel that reduces the angle of view. The main goal of the AMLCD upgrade was the intended significant reduction in life cycle costs. But it's said that the newer AMLCD version fail rather quickly due to the more sensitive and complex digital electronics compared to the much simpler design of the original CRT display. The old and newer version are a masterpiece of state of the art engineering and both are very well built. For example there's a diagnostic connector at the back panel for quick troubleshooting. The display unit is eventually a rather 'dumb' device. The original display unit is 'just' a display and a keypad. To show a picture, the separate video signal, vertical and horizontal synchronisation signals have to be fed into the display unit since there's no internal electronics for synchronisation separation of the video signal. The additional waveform generator (WFG) is needed to 'create' the desired images for use in the airplane. To power the display unit, a three phase 115 VAC 400 Hz including neutral and a 28 VDC signal have to be supplied to the display unit. The CRT version has a Low Voltage Power Supply (LVPS) for creating the needed low voltage signals. There's also a High Voltage Power Supply (HVPS) for creating the desired high voltage for the CRT picture tube. Since the newer AMLCD has no CRT picture tube, the high voltages are not needed and the mechanical and electrical design is completely different except for the connections, mounting points and functionality. The newer AMLCD version 'only' needs 28 VDC for functionality. But since a drop fit replacement is mandatory, the AMLCD version has a built in three phase 115VAC 400 Hz conversion to 28 VDC. By removing the rear three phase conversion power supply plug-in board and applying 28 VDC (\<4.1 A) to the power supply board, the device can be powered for avionics enthusiast use. The AMLCD has a built in menu for selecting the airplane type: GR1, GR4 or F3, a self test and a display test like a grid pattern and color bars shown in the picture. BAE Systems announced that, in December 2013, it had test-flown a Tornado equipped with parts made with 3D printing equipment. The parts included a protective cover for the radio, a landing-gear guard and air-intake door support struts. The test demonstrated the feasibility of making replacement parts quickly and cheaply at the air base hosting the Tornado. The company claimed that, with some of the parts costing less than £100 to manufacture, 3D printing already resulted in savings of more than £300,000 and would offer further potential cost savings of more than £1.2 million through 2017. ## Operational history ### German Air Force (Luftwaffe) The first Tornado prototype made its first flight on 14 August 1974 from Ingolstadt Manching Airport, in West Germany. Deliveries of production Tornados began on 27 July 1979. The total number of Tornados delivered to the German Air Force was 247, including 35 ECR variants. Originally Tornados equipped five fighter-bomber wings (Geschwader), with one tactical conversion unit and four front-line wings, replacing the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter. When one of the two Tornado wings of the German Navy was disbanded in 1994, its aircraft were used to re-equip a Luftwaffe's reconnaissance wing formerly equipped with McDonnell Douglas RF-4E Phantoms. 14 German Tornados undertook combat operations as a part of NATO's campaign during the Bosnian War. The Tornados, operating from Piacenza, Italy, flew reconnaissance missions to survey damage inflicted by previous strikes and to scout new targets. These reconnaissance missions were reportedly responsible for a significant improvement in target selection throughout the campaign. In 1999, German Tornados participated in Operation Allied Force, NATO airstrikes against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. This was Germany's first offensive air mission since World War II. The ECR aircraft escorted various allies' aircraft while carrying several AGM-88 HARM missiles to counter attempted use of radar against the allied aircraft. During the Kosovo hostilities, Germany's IDS Tornados routinely conducted reconnaissance flights to identify both enemy ground forces and civilian refugees within Yugoslavia. The German Tornados flew 2108 hours and 446 sorties, firing 236 HARM missiles at hostile targets. In June 2007, a pair of Luftwaffe Tornados flew reconnaissance missions over an anti-globalisation demonstration during the 33rd G8 summit in Heiligendamm. Following the mission, the German Defence Ministry admitted one aircraft had broken the minimum flying altitude and that mistakes were made in the handling of security of the summit. In 2007, a detachment of six Tornados of the Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 "Immelmann" (51st reconnaissance wing) were deployed to Mazar-i-Sharif, Northern Afghanistan, to support NATO forces. The decision to send Tornados to Afghanistan was controversial: one political party launched an unsuccessful legal bid to block the deployment as unconstitutional. In support of the Afghanistan mission, improvements in the Tornado's reconnaissance equipment were accelerated; enhancing the Tornado's ability to detect hidden improvised explosive devices (IEDs). The German Tornados were withdrawn from Afghanistan in November 2010. Defence cuts announced in March 2003 resulted in the decision to retire 90 Tornados from service with the Luftwaffe. This led to a reduction in its Tornado strength to four wings by September 2005. On 13 January 2004, the then German Defence Minister Peter Struck announced further major changes to the German armed forces. A major part of this announcement was the plan to cut the German fighter fleet from 426 in early 2004 to 265 by 2015. The German Tornado force was to be reduced to 85, with the type expected to remain in service with the Luftwaffe until 2025. The aircraft being retained have been undergoing a service life extension programme. Currently, the Luftwaffe operates Tornados with Tactical Wings Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 33 in Cochem/Büchel Air Base, Rhineland-Palatinate and with Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 51 "Immelmann" in Jagel, Schleswig-Holstein. German Tornado aircrew training took place at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico, US from January 1996 at the Taktische Ausbildungskommando der Luftwaffe USA (TaktAusbKdoLw USA Tactical Training Command of the Luftwaffe USA) which was responsible for training both German F-4 Phantom and Tornado crews. In 1999 the training command was renamed as Fliegerisches Ausbildungszentrum der Luftwaffe (FlgAusbZLw Luftwaffe Training Center). In March 2015, Defence Minister Ursula von der Leyen decided to continue this training in Germany. In September 2017, flight training in Holloman for the Tornado was discontinued and transferred to Taktischen Luftwaffengeschwader 51 in Jagel with the US location command dissolved in 2019. In April 2020, it was reported that the German defence ministry planned to replace its Tornado aircraft with a purchase of 30 Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornets, 15 EA-18G Growlers, and 55 Eurofighter Typhoons. The Super Hornet was selected due to its compatibility with nuclear weapons and availability of an electronic attack version. In March 2020, the Super Hornet was not certified for the B61 nuclear bombs, but Dan Gillian, head of Boeing's Super Hornet program, previously stated "We certainly think that we, working with the U.S. government, can meet the German requirements there on the [required] timeline." In 2021, Airbus offered to replace Luftwaffe's 90 ageing Tornado Interdiction and Strike (IDS) and Electronic Combat Reconnaissance (ECR) aircraft with 85 new Eurofighter Tranche 5 standard from 2030. In 2022, the German defence ministry announced that 35 Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning IIs will replace the Tornado fleet for nuclear sharing instead of the discussed 30 Boeing Super Hornets. ### German Navy (Marineflieger) In addition to the order made by the Luftwaffe, the German Navy's Marineflieger also received 112 of the IDS variant in the anti-shipping and marine reconnaissance roles, again replacing the Starfighter. These Tornados equipped two wings, each with a nominal strength of 48 aircraft. The principal anti-ship weapon was the AS.34 Kormoran anti-ship missile, which were initially supplemented by unguided bombs and BL755 cluster munitions, and later by AGM-88 HARM anti-radar missiles. Pods fitted with panoramic optical cameras and an infrared line scan were carried for the reconnaissance mission. The end of the Cold War and the signing of the CFE Treaty led Germany to reduce the size of its armed forces, including the number of combat aircraft. To meet this need, one of the Marinefliegers Tornado wings was disbanded on 1 January 1994; its aircraft replaced the Phantoms of a Luftwaffe reconnaissance wing. The second wing was enlarged and continued in the anti-shipping, reconnaissance and anti-radar roles until it was disbanded in 2005 with its aircraft and duties passed on to the Luftwaffe. ### Italian Air Force (Aeronautica Militare) The first Italian prototype made its maiden flight on 5 December 1975 from Turin. The Aeronautica Militare received 100 Tornado IDSs (known as the A-200 in Italian service). 16 A-200s were subsequently converted to the ECR configuration; the first Italian Tornado ECR (known as the EA-200) was delivered on 27 February 1998. As a stop-gap measure for 10 years the Aeronautica Militare additionally operated 24 Tornado ADVs in the air defence role, which were leased from the RAF to cover the service gap between the retirement of the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and the introduction of the Eurofighter Typhoon. Italian Tornados, along with RAF Tornados, took part in the first Gulf War in 1991. Operation Locusta saw eight Tornado IDS interdictors deployed from Gioia del Colle, Italy, to Al Dhafra, Abu Dhabi, as part of Italy's contribution to the coalition. During the conflict, one aircraft was lost to Iraqi anti-aircraft fire; the pilots ejected safely and were captured by Iraqi forces. A total of 22 Italian Tornados were deployed in the NATO-organised Operation Allied Force over Kosovo in 1999; the A-200s served in the bombing role while the EA-200s patrolled the combat region, acting to suppress enemy anti-aircraft radars, firing 115 AGM-88 HARM missiles. In 2000, with delays to the Eurofighter, the Aeronautica Militare began a search for another interim fighter. While the Tornado was considered, any long term extension to the lease would have involved upgrade to RAF CSP standard and thus was not considered cost effective. In February 2001, Italy announced its arrangement to lease 35 F-16s from the United States under the PEACE CAESAR programme. The Aeronautica Militare returned its Tornado ADVs to the RAF, with the final aircraft arriving at RAF St Athan on 7 December 2004. One aircraft was retained for static display purposes at the Italian Air Force Museum. In July 2002, Italy signed a contract with the Tornado Management Agency (NETMA) and Panavia for the upgrading of 18 A-200s, the first of which was received in 2003. The upgrade introduced improved navigation systems (integrated GPS and laser INS) and the ability to carry new weapons, including the Storm Shadow cruise missile, Joint Direct Attack Munition and Paveway III laser-guided bombs. In response to anticipated violence during the 2010 Afghanistan elections, Italy, along with several other nations, increased its military commitment in Afghanistan, dispatching four A-200 Tornados to the region. Italy has opted to extend the Tornado's service life at the expense of alternative ground-attack aircraft such as the AMX International AMX; in 2010 a major upgrade and life extension programme was initiated, to provide new digital displays, Link 16 communications capability, night-vision goggles compatibility, and several other upgrades. In the long term, it is planned to replace the Tornado IDS/ECR fleet in Italian service with the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, with the final Italian Tornado scheduled to be phased out in 2025. The Aeronautica Militare received its first of an eventual 15 upgraded Tornado EA-200s on 15 June 2013. Italian Tornado A-200 and EA-200 aircraft participated in the enforcement of a UN no-fly zone during the 2011 military intervention in Libya. Various coalition aircraft operated from bases in Italy, including RAF Tornados. Italian military aircraft delivered a combined 710 guided bombs and missiles during the strikes against Libyan targets. Of these Aeronautica Militare Tornados and AMX fighter-bombers released 550 guided bombs and missiles, and Italian Navy AV-8Bs delivered 160 guided bombs. Italian Tornados launched 20 to 30 Storm Shadow cruise missiles with the rest consisting of Paveway and JDAM guided bombs. On 19 August 2014, two Aeronautica Militare Tornados collided in mid-air during a training mission near Ascoli. On 14 November 2014, Italy announced it was sending four Tornado aircraft with 135 support staff to Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base and to two other bases in Kuwait in participation of coalition operations against the Islamic State. The four aircraft will be used for reconnaissance missions only. In October 2018, it was announced that the EA-200 Tornado had successfully completed operational testing of the AGM-88E AARGM, providing capabilities of an "expanded target set, counter-shutdown capability, advanced signals processing for improved detection and locating, geographic specificity, and a weapon impact-assessment broadcast capability." ### Royal Air Force Nicknamed the "Tonka" by the British, their first prototype (XX946) made its maiden flight on 30 October 1974 from BAC Warton. The first full production Tornado GR1 (ZA319) flew on 10 July 1979 from Warton. The first RAF Tornados (ZA320 and ZA322) were delivered to the TTTE at RAF Cottesmore on 1 July 1980. Crew that qualified from the TTTE went onto the Tornado Weapons Conversion Unit (TWCU), which formed on 1 August 1981 at RAF Honington, before being posted to a front-line squadron. No. IX (B) Squadron became the first front-line squadron in the world to operate the Tornado when it reformed on 1 June 1982, having received its first Tornado GR1 ZA586 on 6 January 1982. No. IX (B) Squadron was declared strike combat ready to the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) in January 1983. Two more squadrons were formed at RAF Marham in 1983 – No. 617 Squadron on 1 January and No. 27 Squadron on 12 August. The first RAF Tornado GR1 loss was on 27 September 1983 when ZA586 suffered complete electrical failure and crashed. Navigator Flt. Lt. Nigel Nickles ejected but the pilot Sqn. Ldr. Michael Stephens died in the crash after ordering ejection. In January 1984, the TWCU became No. 45 (Reserve) Squadron. RAF Germany (RAFG) began receiving Tornados after the formation of No. XV (Designate) Squadron on 1 September 1983 at RAF Laarbruch followed by No. 16 (Designate) Squadron in January 1984 (who were both Blackburn Buccaneer squadrons). They were then joined by No. 20 (Designate) Squadron in May 1984 (who were operating the SEPECAT Jaguar GR1 from RAF Brüggen). Unlike the Tornado squadrons based in the UK which were under control of the British military, those stationed in RAFG were under the control of SACEUR, with the aircraft on Quick Reaction Alert (Nuclear), "QRA (N)", being equipped with the WE.177 nuclear bomb. In the event of the Cold War going 'hot', the majority of RAFG Tornado squadrons were tasked with destroying Warsaw Pact airfields and surface-to-air missile (SAM) sites in East Germany. While No. 20 Squadron was given a separate responsibility of destroying bridges over the rivers Elbe and Weser to prevent Warsaw Pact forces from advancing. By early 1985, Nos. XV, 16 and 20 Squadrons at RAF Laarbruch had been declared strike combat ready to SACEUR. Tornados began to arrive at RAF Brüggen in September 1984 with the formation of No. 31 (Designate) Squadron. No. 17 (Designate) Squadron was formed in December 1984, with the two Brüggen squadrons joined by No. 14 (Designate) Squadron in mid-1985. No. IX (B) Squadron relocated from RAF Honington to RAF Brüggen on 1 October 1986, arriving in a diamond nine formation. The outcome of the Reykjavík Summit in October 1986 between Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev led the end of QRA (Nuclear) for the Tornado force. By the end of 1986, the Tornado GR1 fleet had been equipped with a Laser Ranger and Marked Target Seeker (LRMTS) under the nose, and had begun to be equipped with the BOZ-107 chaff and flare dispenser. The Tornado made its combat debut as part of Operation Granby, the British contribution to the Gulf War in 1991. This saw 49 RAF Tornado GR1s deploy to Muharraq Airfield in Bahrain and to Tabuk Air Base and Dhahran Airfield in Saudi Arabia. 18 Tornado F3s were deployed to provide air cover, the threat of their long range missiles being a deterrent to Iraqi pilots, who would avoid combat when approached. Early on in the conflict, the GR1s targeted military airfields across Iraq, deploying a mixture of 450 kg (1,000 lb) unguided bombs in loft-bombing attacks and specialised JP233 runway denial weapons. On 17 January 1991, the first Tornado to be lost was shot down by an Iraqi SA-16 missile following a failed low-level bombing run. On 19 January, another RAF Tornado was shot down during an intensive raid on Tallil Air Base. The impact of the Tornado strikes upon Iraqi airfields is difficult to determine. A total of six RAF Tornados were lost in the conflict, four while delivering unguided bombs, one after delivering JP233, and one trying to deliver laser-guided bombs. The UK sent a detachment of Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft equipped with Westinghouse Electric Corporation Pave Spike laser designators, allowing Tornado GR1s to drop precision guided weapons guided by the Buccaneers. A planned programme to fit GR1s with the GEC-Marconi TIALD laser designation system was rapidly accelerated to give the Tornado force the ability to self-designate targets. Author Claus-Christian Szejnmann declared that the TIALD pod enabled the GR1 to "achieve probably the most accurate bombing in the RAF's history". Although laser designation proved effective in the Gulf War, only 23 TIALD pods had been purchased by 2000; shortages hindered combat operations over Kosovo. After the war's opening phase, the GR1s switched to medium-level strike missions; typical targets included munition depots and oil refineries. Only the reconnaissance Tornado GR1As continued flying the low-altitude high-speed profile, emerging unscathed despite the inherent danger in conducting pre-attack reconnaissance. After the conflict, Britain maintained a military presence in the Gulf. Around six GR1s were based at Ali Al Salem airbase in Kuwait, contributing the southern no-fly zone as part of Operation Southern Watch. Six additional GR1s participated in Operation Provide Comfort over Northern Iraq. The upgraded Tornado GR4 made its operational debut in Operation Southern Watch; patrolling Iraq's southern airspace from bases in Kuwait. Both Tornado GR1s and GR4s based at Ali Al Salem, Kuwait, took part in coalition strikes at Iraq's military infrastructure during Operation Desert Fox in 1998. In December 1998, an Iraqi anti-aircraft battery fired six to eight missiles at a patrolling Tornado. The battery was later attacked in retaliation, and no aircraft were lost during the incident. It was reported that during Desert Fox RAF Tornados had successfully destroyed 75% of their targets, and out of the 36 missions planned, 28 had been successfully completed. The GR1 participated in the Kosovo War in 1999. Tornados initially operated from RAF Brüggen, Germany and later from Solenzara Air Base, Corsica. Experiences from Kosovo led to the RAF procuring AGM-65 Maverick missiles and Enhanced Paveway smart bombs for the Tornado. Following the Kosovo War, the GR1 was phased out as aircraft were upgraded to GR4 standard; the final upgrade was returned to the RAF on 10 June 2003. The GR4 was used in Operation Telic, Britain's contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. RAF Tornados flew alongside American aircraft in the opening phase of the war, striking Iraqi targets. Aiming to minimise civilian casualties, Tornados deployed the Storm Shadow cruise missile for the first time. Whilst 25% of the UK's air-launched weapons in Kosovo were precision-guided, four years later in Iraq this ratio increased to 85%. On 23 March 2003, a Tornado GR4 was shot down over Iraq by friendly fire from a US Patriot missile battery, killing both crew members. In July 2003, a US board of inquiry exonerated the battery's operators, observing the Tornado's "lack of functioning IFF (Identification Friend or Foe)" as a factor in the incident. Problems with Patriot were also suggested as a factor, multiple incidents of mis-identification of friendly aircraft have occurred, including the fatal shootdown of a US Navy F/A-18 a few weeks after the Tornado's loss. Britain withdrew the last of its Tornados from Iraq in June 2009. In early 2009, several GR4s arrived at Kandahar Airfield, Afghanistan to replace the British Aerospace Harrier GR7/9 aircraft which had been deployed there since November 2004. In 2009, Paveway IV guided bombs were brought into service on the RAF's Tornados, having been previously used in Afghanistan by the Harrier II. In Summer 2010, extra Tornados were dispatched to Kandahar for the duration of the 2010 Afghan election. British Tornados ended operations in Afghanistan in November 2014, having flown over 5,000 pairs sorties over 33,500 hours, including 600 "shows of force" to deter Taliban attacks. During more than 70 engagements, 140 Brimstone missiles and Paveway IV bombs were deployed, and over 3,000 27 mm cannon shells fired. Prior to the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR)'s publication, the Tornado's retirement was under consideration with savings of £7.5 billion anticipated. The SDSR announced the Tornado would be retained at the expense of the Harrier II, although numbers would decline in the transition to the Eurofighter Typhoon and the F-35 Lightning II. By July 2013, 59 RAF GR4s were receiving the CUSP avionics upgrade, which achieved Initial Service Date (ISD) in March 2013. On 18 March 2011, British Prime Minister David Cameron announced that Tornados and Typhoons would enforce a no-fly zone in Libya. In March 2011, several Tornados flew 3,000-mile (4,800 km) strike missions against targets inside Libya in what were, according to Defence Secretary Liam Fox, "the longest range bombing mission conducted by the RAF since the Falklands conflict". A variety of munitions were used during Tornado operations over Libya, including laser-guided bombs and Brimstone missiles. In August 2014, Tornado GR4s were deployed to RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus to support refugees sheltering from Islamic State militants in the Mount Sinjar region of Iraq. The decision came three days after the United States began conducting air attacks against the Islamic State. Tornados were pre-positioned to gather situational awareness in the region. On 27 September 2014, after Parliament approved airstrikes against Islamic State forces inside Iraq, two Tornados conducted their first armed reconnaissance mission in conjunction with coalition aircraft. The next day, two Tornados made the first airstrike on a heavy weapons post and an armoured vehicle, supporting Kurdish forces in northwest Iraq. By 1 March 2015, eight RAF Tornados had been deployed to Akrotiri and conducted 159 airstrikes against IS targets in Iraq. On 2 December 2015, Parliament approved air strikes in Syria as well as Iraq to combat the growing threat of ISIL; Tornados began bombing that evening. On 14 April 2018, four Tornado GR4s from RAF Akrotiri struck a Syrian military facility with Storm Shadow cruise missiles in response to a suspected chemical attack on Douma by the Syrian regime the previous week. On 10 July 2018, nine Tornado GR4s from RAF Marham flew over London to celebrate 100 years of the RAF. During late 2018, the RAF commemorated the Tornado's service with three special schemes: ZG752 paid homage to its early years with a green/grey wraparound camouflage; ZG775 and ZD716 both wore schemes commemorating the final units to operate the type – No. IX (B) Squadron and No. 31 Squadron respectively. On 31 January 2019, the Tornado GR4 flew its last operational sorties in Operation Shader. The eight Tornados formerly stationed at RAF Akrotiri returned to RAF Marham in early February 2019, their duties assumed by six Typhoons. Between September 2014 and January 2019, RAF Tornados accounted for 31% of the estimated 4,315 casualties inflicted upon ISIL by the RAF during the operation. To celebrate 40 years of service and to mark the type's retirement, several flypasts were carried out on 19, 20 and 21 February 2019 over locations such as BAE Warton, RAF Honington and RAF Lossiemouth. On 28 February, nine Tornados flew out of RAF Marham for a diamond nine formation flypast over a graduation parade at RAF Cranwell before returning and carrying out a series of passes over RAF Marham. On 14 March 2019 the final flight of an RAF Tornado was carried out by Tornado GR4 ZA463, the oldest remaining Tornado, over RAF Marham during the disbandment parade of No. IX (B) Squadron and No. 31 Squadron. The Tornado GR4 was officially retired from RAF service on 1 April 2019, the 101st anniversary of the force. Post-retirement, five Tornados returned to RAF Honington via road for the Complex Air Ground Environment (CAGE), which simulates a Tornado flight line for training purposes. On 2 July 2023, it was reported that Ukrainian Su-24s were fitted with modified pylons taken from decommissioned RAF Panavia Tornado GR4s in order to carry and fire the Storm Shadow missile. The aircraft can carry at least two Storm Shadow missiles at a time. It appears that the coordinates have to be entered while the aircraft is on the ground. ### Royal Saudi Air Force On 25 September 1985, the UK and Saudi Arabia signed the Al Yamamah I contract including the sale of 48 IDS and 24 ADV model Tornados. The first flight of a Royal Saudi Air Force Tornado IDS was on 26 March 1986, and the first Saudi ADV was delivered on 9 February 1989. Saudi Tornados took part in the Gulf War. In June 1993 the Al Yamamah II contract was signed, the main element of which was 48 additional IDSs. Following experience with both the Tornado and the McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle, the RSAF discontinued low-level mission training in the F-15E in light of the Tornado's superior low-altitude flight performance. Ten of the Saudi Tornados were fitted with equipment for performing reconnaissance missions. The 22 Tornado ADVs were replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon; the retired aircraft were purchased back by the UK. By 2007, both the Sea Eagle anti-ship missile and the ALARM anti-radiation missile that previously equipped the RSAF's Tornados had been withdrawn from service. As of 2010, Saudi Arabia has signed several contracts for new weapon systems to be fitted to their Tornado and Typhoon fleets, such as the short range air-to-air IRIS-T missile, and the Brimstone and Storm Shadow missiles. In September 2006, the Saudi government signed a contract worth £2.5 billion (US\$4.7 billion) with BAE Systems to upgrade up to 80 RSAF Tornado IDS aircraft to keep them in service until 2020. The first RSAF Tornado was returned to BAE Systems Warton in December 2006 for upgrade under the "Tornado Sustainment Programme" (TSP) to "equip the IDS fleet with a range of new precision-guided weapons and enhanced targeting equipment, in many cases common with those systems already fielded by the UK's Tornado GR4s." In December 2007, the first RSAF aircraft to complete modernisation was returned to Saudi Arabia. Starting from the first week of November 2009, RSAF Tornados, along with Saudi F-15s performed air raids during the Shia insurgency in north Yemen. It was the first time since Operation Desert Storm in 1991 that the RSAF had participated in a military operation over hostile territory. RSAF Tornados are playing a central role in Saudi-led bombing campaign in Yemen. On 7 January 2018, Houthi fighters claimed to have shot down a Saudi warplane which was conducting air-raids over northern Yemen. According to Saudi reports, the downed aircraft was an RSAF Tornado which was on a combat mission over Saada province in northern Yemen, it was lost for 'technical reasons' and both crew were rescued. On 12 July 2018, another RSAF Tornado crashed in Asir region after returning from Saada, Yemen due to a technical malfunction. On 14 February 2020, a Saudi Tornado was shot down during close air support mission in support of Saudi allied Yemeni forces in the Yemeni Al Jouf governorate by Houthis. On the day after, the Saudi command confirmed the loss of a Tornado, while a video was released showing the downing using a two-stage surface to air missile. Both pilots ejected and were captured by Houthis. ## Variants ### Tornado IDS Tornado GR1 RAF IDS (interdictor/strike) variants were initially designated the Tornado GR1 with later modified aircraft designated Tornado GR1A, Tornado GR1B, Tornado GR4 and Tornado GR4A. The first of 228 GR1s was delivered on 5 June 1979, and the type entered service in the early 1980s. Tornado GR1B The Tornado GR1B was a specialised anti-shipping variant of the GR1, replacing the Blackburn Buccaneer. 26 aircraft were converted and were based at RAF Lossiemouth, Scotland. Each aircraft was equipped to carry up to four Sea Eagle anti-ship missiles. At first the GR1B lacked the radar capability to track shipping, instead relying on the missile's seeker for target acquisition; later updates allowed target data to be passed from aircraft to missile. Tornado GR1P A single Tornado GR1 (ZA326, the eighth production aircraft) was re-designated GR1P after being partially rebuilt using parts from different production batches following a fire during engine testing. This aircraft served with the Royal Aircraft Establishment and the Empire Test Pilot's School until 2005, when it was retired, being the last GR1 in service anywhere in the world. Tornado GR4 The UK Ministry of Defence began studies for a GR1 Mid-Life Update (MLU) in 1984. The update to GR4 standard, approved in 1994, would improve capability in the medium-altitude role based on lessons learned from the GR1's performance in the 1991 Gulf War. British Aerospace (later BAE Systems) upgraded 142 Tornado GR1s to GR4 standard, beginning in 1996 and finished in 2003. 59 RAF aircraft later received the CUSP avionics package which integrated the Paveway IV bomb and installed a new secure communications module from Cassidian in Phase A, followed by the Tactical Information Exchange (TIE) datalink from General Dynamics in Phase B. Tornado GR1A/GR4A The GR1A is the reconnaissance variant operated by the RAF and RSAF, fitted with the TIRRS (Tornado Infra-Red Reconnaissance System), replacing the cannon. The RAF ordered 30 GR1As, 14 as GR1 rebuilds and 16 new aircraft. When the Tornado GR1s were upgraded to become GR4s, GR1A aircraft were upgraded to GR4A standard. The switch from low-level operations to medium/high-level operations means that the internal TIRRS was no longer used. As the GR4A's internal sensors are no longer essential, the RAF's Tactical Reconnaissance Wing operated both GR4A and GR4 aircraft. ### Tornado ECR Operated by Germany and Italy, the ECR (Electronic Combat / Reconnaissance) is a Tornado variant devoted to Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) missions. It was first delivered on 21 May 1990. The ECR has sensors to detect radar usage and is equipped with anti-radiation AGM-88 HARM missiles. The Luftwaffe's 35 ECRs were delivered new, while Italy received 16 converted IDSs. Italian Tornado ECRs differ from the Luftwaffe aircraft as they lack built-in reconnaissance capability and use RecceLite reconnaissance pods. Only Luftwaffe ECRs are equipped with the RB199 Mk.105 engine, which has a higher thrust rating. The German ECRs do not carry a cannon. The RAF used the IDS version in the SEAD role instead of the ECR and also modified several of its Tornado F.3s to undertake the mission. ### Tornado ADV The Tornado ADV (air defence variant) was an interceptor variant of the Tornado, developed for the RAF (designated Tornado F2 or F3) and also operated by Saudi Arabia and Italy. The ADV had inferior agility to fighters like the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, but was not intended as a dogfighter, rather as a long-endurance interceptor to counter the threat from Cold War bombers. Although the ADV had 80% parts commonality with the Tornado IDS, the ADV had greater acceleration, improved RB199 Mk.104 engines, a stretched body, greater fuel capacity, the AI.24 Foxhunter radar, and software changes. It had only one cannon to accommodate a retractable inflight refuelling probe. ## Operators Germany - Luftwaffe: 210 IDS and 35 ECR Tornados delivered. By December 2018, 94 IDS and 28 ECR aircraft remained in service. - Marineflieger: 112 IDS Tornados delivered, retired in June 2005 with some aircraft being reallocated to the Luftwaffe. Italy - Aeronautica Militare: 100 IDS A-200 Tornados delivered (18 converted to ECR EA-200s), 24 ADV F3 aircraft later leased from the RAF between 1995 and 2004. By December 2018, 70 A-200 and 5 EA-200 aircraft remained in service. Saudi Arabia - Royal Saudi Air Force: 96 IDS and 24 ADV Tornados delivered, ADVs retired in 2006. By December 2018, 81 IDS aircraft remained in service. ### Former operators United Kingdom - Royal Air Force''': 385 IDS GR1 and ADV F2/F3 Tornados delivered, including 230 GR1s (142 later upgraded to GR4s), 18 F2s and 147 F3s (retired in 2011). GR4 was retired on 1 April 2019. ## Aircraft on display Australia - ZG791 Tornado GR4 on display at Aviation Heritage Museum, Bull Creek, Western Australia. Austria - 44+66 Tornado IDS on display at Groß-Siegharts, Lower Austria. Bulgaria - 44+13 Tornado IDS on display at the National Museum of Military History, Sofia. Estonia - ZE256 Tornado F3 on display at the Estonian Aviation Museum, Lange. Germany - D-9591 Tornado Prototype P.01 on display at Militärhistorisches Museum Flugplatz Berlin-Gatow. - XX948 Tornado Prototype P.06 on display at Hermeskeil. - 43+55 Tornado IDS on display at Aeronauticum, Nordholz. - 43+70 Tornado IDS on display at Büchel Air Base, Cochem. - 43+86 Tornado IDS (MTU corporate design paint scheme) at MTU Aero Engines, Munich. - 43+96 Tornado IDS on display at Wengerohr, Wittlich. - 44+31 Tornado IDS (Blue Lightning paint scheme) of the 31st Fighter Bomber Wing "Boelcke" at Nörvenich AB. - 44+35 Tornado IDS on display at the Cologne Bonn Airport, Cologne. - 44+56 Tornado IDS on display at Fliegergeschichtliche Museum TG JaboG 34, Memmingen. - 44+68 Tornado IDS on display at the Militärhistorisches Museum Flugplatz Berlin-Gatow. - 44+84 Tornado IDS on display at Fürstenfeldbruck Air Base, Fürstenfeldbruck. - 44+96 Tornado IDS gate guard at Schleswig Air Base in Jagel, near Schleswig. - 44+97 Tornado IDS of the Einsatzgeschwader (Expeditionary Air Wing) Mazar-i-Sharif at the Deutsches Museum Flugwerft Schleissheim, Oberschleißheim. - 45+30 Tornado IDS on display at Aeronauticum, Nordholz. - 45+44 Tornado IDS gate guard at Büchel Air Base, Cochem. Italy - MM7001 Pre-production Tornado P.14 on display at Cameri Air Base, Cameri. - MM7046 Tornado A-200 gate guard at Ghedi Air Base, Brescia. - MM7080 Tornado A-200 gate guard at Aviano Air Base, Pordenone. - MM7210 (ex-ZE836) Tornado F3 on display at the Italian Air Force Museum, Vigna di Valle. Netherlands - XX947 Tornado Prototype P.03 on display at PS Aero, Baarlo, painted as 98+08 of the German Air Force. Saudi Arabia - 765 Tornado IDS on display at King Abdul-Aziz Air Base, Dhahran. - 2915 Tornado ADV on display at the Royal Saudi Air Force Museum in Riyadh. United Kingdom - XX946 Tornado Prototype P.02 on display at the RAF Museum Cosford, England. - XZ630 Pre-production Tornado P.12 on display as a GR4 on the parade ground at RAF Halton, Buckinghamshire, England. - XZ631 Tornado GR4 Prototype P.15 on display at Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington, England. - ZA267 Tornado F2T on display at RAF Syerston, Nottinghamshire, England. - ZA319 Tornado GR1T on display at the Boscombe Down Aviation Collection, Wiltshire, England. - ZA326 Tornado GR1P on display at South Wales Aviation Museum, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales. This aircraft was used for weapons tests and flight performance tests. - ZA354 Tornado GR1 on display at Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington, England. - ZA357 Tornado GR1 on display at RAF Syerston, Nottinghamshire, England. - ZA362 Tornado GR1 previously on display at Highland Aviation Museum, Inverness, Scotland until December 2020. Restoration work is currently underway, including replacement of damaged parts. - ZA398 Tornado GR4A on display at Cornwall Aviation Heritage Centre, Cornwall, England, the sole surviving RAF RECCE A variant. - ZA399 Tornado GR1 on display in Knutsford, Cheshire, England. It was fixed to a pedestal and became a monument. - ZA452 Tornado GR4 on display at Midland Air Museum, Coventry, England. - ZA457 Tornado GR1B on display at Royal Air Force Museum London, Hendon, England. - ZA465 Tornado GR1 on display at Imperial War Museum, Duxford, England. - ZA469 Tornado GR4 on display at Imperial War Museum, Duxford, England. - ZA475 Tornado GR1 on the gate at RAF Lossiemouth, Scotland. - ZA556 Tornado GR4 on display at the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, England. - ZA607 Tornado GR4 on the gate at MoD Sealand, Wales. - ZA614 Tornado GR4 on the gate at RAF Marham, Norfolk, England. - ZD744 Tornado GR4 on display at Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre, Angus, Scotland. - ZE204 Tornado F3 on display at the North East Land, Sea and Air Museums, Tyne and Wear, England. - ZE760 Tornado F3 on the gate at RAF Coningsby, Lincolnshire, England. - ZE887 Tornado F3 on display at Royal Air Force Museum London, Hendon, England. - ZE934 Tornado F3 on display at National Museum of Flight, East Fortune, Scotland. - ZE966 Tornado F3 on display at Tornado Heritage Centre, Hawarden Airport, Wales. - ZE967 Tornado F3 on the gate at Leuchars Station, Fife, Scotland. - ZG771 Tornado GR4 on display at Ulster Aviation Society, Lisburn, Northern Ireland. - ZH552 Tornado F3 on display at RAF Leeming, North Yorkshire, England. United States - ZA374 Tornado GR1 on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio. - 43+74 Tornado IDS of the German Navy, Marinefliegergeschwader 1 at the Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona. - 43+75 Tornado IDS on display at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico. - 45+11'' Tornado IDS on display at the New Mexico Museum of Space History, New Mexico. ## Specifications (Tornado GR4) ## Popular culture ## See also
65,200,860	Japanese transport ship Unyo Maru No. 2	1,146,800,460	Japanese cargo ship	[ "1937 ships", "Cargo ships of Japan", "Cargo ships sunk by aircraft", "Maritime incidents in December 1941", "Ships built by Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding", "World War II auxiliary ships of Japan", "World War II shipwrecks in the South China Sea" ]	Unyo Maru No. 2 was a Japanese cargo ship. Launched in 1937, the ship was requisitioned by the Imperial Japanese Navy in November 1941, a month before the outbreak of the Pacific War. The ship was assigned as a transport and took part in the landings at Sarawak and Kuching, delivering supplies and equipment. On 26 December 1941, while off Kuching, Unyo Maru No. 2 was attacked by Dutch Air Force bombers; the cargo ship was sunk with the loss of eight crew aboard. ## Construction and design Unyo Maru No. 2 was constructed in Tamano by Mitsui Bussan K.K for her owners, Nakamura Kisen K.K. The cargo ship measured 2,827 gross register tons (GRT) and featured a length of 94 m (308 ft) between perpendiculars, a beam of 13.7 m (45 ft), and a draft of 23.6 ft (7.2 m). Unyo Maru No. 2 could sail at a cruising speed of 11 knots (20 km/h; 13 mph) and a maximum speed of 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph), and was powered by a 1,900 brake horsepower (1,400 kW) triple-expansion steam engine. The cargo ship was laid down on 22 March 1937, launched on 25 July, and was completed and registered in Kobe on 6 August. ## History ### Second World War Unyo Maru No. 2 was requisitioned by the Imperial Japanese Navy on 2 November 1941, just over a month before the outbreak of the Pacific War. She began a 20-day military conversion at Yokosuka Naval Yard on 6 November and was ultimately registered with the navy on 10 November. Unyo Maru No. 2 was assigned to the Yokosuka Naval District as an auxiliary transport ship on 26 November 1941, but it almost immediately sailed for Indochina to take part in the invasion of Borneo. On 13 December 1941, the invasion force departed from Cam Ranh Bay, Indochina to attack Sarawak. The naval forces, commanded by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō, escorted the army group under General Hisaichi Terauchi. Unyo Maru No. 2, carrying equipment and supplies for the naval force, arrived at Lutong on 15 December and stayed there for the remainder of the invasion, which succeeded without much resistance from the British defenders. On 22 December, the main body of the Japanese naval force, including Unyo Maru No. 2, disembarked Japanese troops at Miri and sailed for Kuching to commence the second phase of the invasion of Borneo. The convoy arrived off Kuching two days later and supported the attack on the town, all the while being harassed by Dutch bombers and submarines. During one such attack, a bombing raid by three Dutch Air Force Martin B-10 bombers on 26 December, Unyo Maru No. 2 was set on fire by bombs and sunk, killing eight crewmen. The cargo ship was struck from the navy list on 15 January 1942.
67,284,744	Jujutsu Kaisen 0	1,171,550,550	Japanese manga series by Gege Akutami	[ "Adventure anime and manga", "Dark fantasy anime and manga", "Exorcism in anime and manga", "Shueisha manga", "Shōnen manga", "Supernatural anime and manga", "Viz Media manga", "Yōkai in anime and manga" ]	Jujutsu Kaisen 0 is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Gege Akutami. The manga, which was originally titled Tokyo Metropolitan Curse Technical School, was serialized in Shueisha's magazine Jump Giga from April to July 2017. After Akutami launched Jujutsu Kaisen in 2018, the series was retitled Jujutsu Kaisen 0—making it a prologue—and released in a single tankōbon volume in December 2018. It was licensed for English release in North America by Viz Media. The series follows Yuta Okkotsu, a young student who becomes a sorcerer and seeks to control the Cursed Spirit of his childhood friend Rika Orimoto. Akutami wrote the series with no themes to follow but wanted to write and draw cool-looking characters. They were often supported by their two editors while writing the manga. The manga was a commercial success in both Japan and North America. Critical response to the manga was generally positive; several reviewers praised Yuta's role and his relationship with Rika. Critics found Yuta more compelling than Jujutsu Kaisen's Yuji Itadori who, while having several similarities with Yuta, has different characterizations. The relationships of the main cast were also well-received and the manga's artwork was praised. Jujutsu Kaisen 0 received an anime film adaptation by MAPPA, which was directed by Sunghoo Park and premiered in Japan in December 2021. It was followed by a novelization and a new gag chapter written by Akutami. ## Plot Yuta Okkotsu is a timid, 16-year-old, high-school student who is haunted by Rika Orimoto, the Cursed Spirit of his childhood friend who died six years prior; they had promised to get married when they grew up. Whenever Yuta is bullied, Rika comes to his defense and violently kills his attackers. In November 2016, Yuta meets Satoru Gojo, a Jujutsu Sorcerer under whose guidance he joins the Tokyo Prefectural Jujutsu High School to learn how to control Rika. There, Yuta meets the sorcerers Panda, Maki Zen'in, and Toge Inumaki, who try exorcising Rika but are easily stopped by her. Yuta starts training with Maki, who mentors him in swordsmanship. During a mission, Maki motivates Yuta to fight if he wants to be accepted, which causes him to briefly control Rika to destroy a Cursed Spirit. As three months pass, Yuta becomes more skilled, and is able to control Rika and develop a closer relationship with his fellow students. In a mission with Toge, Yuta is spotted by Suguru Geto, a powerful enemy sorcerer who was previously friends with Gojo, and wishes to eliminate all non-sorcerers. Launching an attack on Jujutsu society, Geto invades the school to take Rika by force. Fearing for Yuta's safety, Gojo sends Panda and Toge to the school, where they and Maki clash with Geto, who severely wounds them. Angered, Yuta releases Rika and promises to give her his soul if she helps him defeat their enemy. In the aftermath, Geto has escaped, but is grievously injured and missing an arm. He is found by Gojo, who thanks him for intentionally sparing the students. Both reflect on their old friendship before Gojo executes Geto. After the battle, Yuta is surprised to find himself still alive. Gojo explains Rika did not curse Yuta; rather, when Rika died, Yuta accidentally cursed her using hidden energy he inherited from the figure Sugawara no Michizane, forcing her to remain by his side. Rika peacefully passes to the afterlife, asking an apologetic Yuta to live a full life. Yuta continues his work as a sorcerer with his friends, still wearing Rika's engagement's ring. ## Production In 2017, Gege Akutami suffered writer's block in regards to what he do in his manga, having lost the motivation he had when reading My Hero Academia and Hinomaru Sumo. He presented to a horror-like manga in its prototype storyboard to his editor Yamanaka. Yuta and Rika remained in the same form as in the final product. The concept of the story was creating sorcerers who would be able to stop Yuta and Rika from killing others. Rather than Satoru Gojo, the character meant to recruit Yuta was Maki Zen'in. Yuta's relatives were meant to be included into the story, most notably his sister who would be taken by Rika over jealousy. Although several changes were made until the official version, Akutami believes it should have kept the original concept. Yamanaka was interested by the storyboard and talked to other members from Shueisha about it. However, Akutami was stressed about expectations. Akutami's first editor claimed the story was interesting but too dark and persuaded him give it a school setting much to his anger. When learning that the manga would be written in Jump Giga instead of Weekly Shōnen Jump, Akutami was saddened by this decision and kept silent rather than argue over it. Akutami was still motivated when remembering that Mikki Yuki became famous in Jump Giga for writing Ginata Shiki. When Jujutsu Kaisen 0 was being written, the editor criticized the handling of Rika, believing a darker figure would be more suitable for the story, such as Oda Nobunaga. Yamanaka was transferred after the first chapter was published. The concept of Rika was that of an ordinary girl who would come across as evil when being remembered. Akutami placed hidden references to other works like Tite Kubo's Zombiepowder. while the first scene of Yuta being interrogated was influenced by the anime series Neon Genesis Evangelion. Akutami wanted to avoid a protagonist like himself due to his lack of credits but was still active. The plot was given training scenes and jokes to balance the story. Several parts of the manga were based on real life. The side character Ichiji and Yaga were based on people the author made. On the other hand, the ranking of sorcerers were made to contrast Akutami's high school which did not have such style. The third and fourth chapters were given a feeling of "climax" to reference it if there ever was a need to give it a series. While Akutami wished to incorporate many ideas, he realized by the third chapter that he made a mistake in relying on too many characters. As a result, the story was revised so that sorcerer-characters would play a smaller role. The original idea behind Rika was that she would become stronger the more time she spends with Yuta. However, this was revised under the advice of Akutami's superiors in order to give the manga a more proper ending. While Yuta's unique white uniform was designed as a reference to problematic students, in the end he dons a black outfit to better fit in with his classmates. Nevertheless, Akutami planned that once Yuta would return in Jujutsu Kaisen, he would once again wear a white uniform in hopes older readers would remember him. During publication of the monthly series, Akutami had no intention of having his series published in Weekly Shōnen Jump. The positive response to Tokyo Metropolitan Curse Technical School, however, led him to turn the series into the main manga, Jujutsu Kaisen. When starting this series, Akutami had not planned any themes for the narrative but had the idea of giving the characters a cool appeal. The narrative of Jujutsu Kaisen 0 became connected with the other manga, with the final chapter being conceived as soon as he started writing it. He said, however, he was not sure about the possibility of properly connecting the beginning with the ending. Yuta and Rika, the first characters created, were intended as a combination for the manga. Akutami found that the early design of Yuta was so similar to that of fellow Jujutsu Sorcerer Megumi Fushiguro they might confuse readers. He noted the same similarities between Inumaki and Yuji Itadori. As a result, Akutami changed Yuta's look for the main series. Akutami included a line about Michizane Sugawara, a famous figure in Japanese history who is mentioned as Yuta and Gojo's predecessor, as a tribute to a late editor Yamanaka. When Yuta comforts Maki in the third chapter to the point she cries, the new editor Katayama said he liked it too much because he felt Yuta really understood Maki's feelings. Akutami decided to revise this scene in the storyboard following his editor's praise. He also said Suguru Geto is a strong villain, believing he could have won his fight against Yuta if he had destroyed the supernatural barrier between Shinjuku and Kyoto. Sugawara was added under the advice that the series should feature a real person. ## Release The four-chapter series Tokyo Metropolitan Curse Technical School, was published in Shueisha's magazine Jump Giga from April 28 to July 28, 2017. The chapters were later published in a single tankōbon volume that was retroactively titled Jujutsu Kaisen 0 and released along with the third volume of Jujutsu Kaisen on December 4, 2018. A nine-page one-shot chapter, following the daily lives of Yuta and the other first-year students, was included in a "Jujutsu Kaisen \#0.5 Tokyo Prefectural Jujutsu High School" booklet, released in December 2021, to promote the film adaptation of the story. During the month, Shueisha also released an alternative cover featuring Yuta and Yuji to connect it with the first volume of Jujutsu Kaisen. In North America, Viz Media announced the English language release of the volume in July 2020. The volume was published on January 5, 2021. ## Adaptations Sunghoo Park, who directed the first season of the series' anime adaptation, originally wanted to cover Yuta's story in the first few episodes of the Jujutsu Kaisen anime but decided to begin the show with Yuji's introduction to the world of sorcerers and curses. After the finale of the first season of Jujutsu Kaisen anime television series, an anime film adaptation of Jujutsu Kaisen 0 was announced. As with the Jujutsu Kaisen television series, the film is produced by MAPPA and directed by Park. The film is distributed by Toho and premiered on December 24, 2021. Park said the movie includes new content that is not in the original Jujutsu Kaisen 0 manga. Film's scriptwriter Hiroshi Seko commented they wanted to alter the focus on Yuta's growth in the movie due to the difference in length. A novel adaptation of Jujutsu Kaisen 0, which was written by Baraddo Kitaguni and based on a script by Hiroshi Seko, was published on the same day as the film's premiere, December 24, 2021. ## Reception ### Sales Jujutsu Kaisen 0 sold 70,774 print copies in its first week. According to Oricon, the manga had sold over 1.6 million copies between November 23, 2020, and May 23, 2021. It had sold over 1.9 million copies by November 2021. The volume was also popular with ICv2, noticing the manga's sudden popularity in Western regions might be connected to its release in January 2021. The book was ranked thirteenth in The New York Times''' monthly Graphic Books list in January 2022. It once again took the fourteenth place in May 2022. In the NPD Group, the manga was ranked as the fifth-best-selling manga between late November 2021 and early January 2022. ### Critical response Critics have commented about the manga's narrative. Since it was released after the earlier volumes outside of Japan, Anime News Network and The Mary Sue evaluated the story as a prequel, calling the introduction of Yuta, often mentioned in Jujutsu Kaisen, intriguing. Manga News enjoyed the focus on Yuta's tragic romance and their deep bond in the story, and hoped he might return in Jujutsu Kaisen. The site said the story reached a proper conclusion. Boston Bartand Brigade and Otaquest said Yuta is a more appealing character than Yuji Itadori due to their different curses, which Otaquest said makes Yuji simple, like Ichigo Kurosaki from Bleach, in contrast to the more compelling Yuta. Bleeding Cool regarded it as a story worth recommending for Valentine's Day. Comic Book Resources enjoyed the handling of Yuta's curse and his relationship with the antagonistic Geto. The Mary Sue saw parallels between Yuji and Yuta, both of whom deal with a curse they are trying to get rid of, although Yuta's growth makes him appealing because he stops wanting to die and appreciates his life. According to the reviewer, Yuta's cursing of Rika rather than the reverse felt like a strong twist. The supporting characters Maki, Panda and Inumaki were praised for developing alongside Yuta; Real Sound particularly praised the bond the Jujutsu Sorcerers have in general; in one volume, it is shown Maki trains Yuta and befriends in the process, which gives further depth to the main manga. Otaquest lamented the demoted roles of the supporting characters in the finale when they are defeated by Geto but noted the manga helps readers to further understand them. Despite Gojo being identical to his regular persona, critics found the pilot helps to further explore his past as a result of his tragic relationship with Geto, which reveals a major twist in the main series. Geto's link with Yuta through the late Sugawara no Michizane made Real Sound wonder if Akutami had planned to develop such character in the main series because it helps explain why the protagonist and his mentor are so powerful. Comic Book Resources stated the manga's artwork was well executed to portray the character's emotions and the story's dark elements. Manga News also found the art interesting, especially the character designs, but often noted its strange proportions. The art was favorably compared with the sequel as Akutami's sharp line goes very well. The fight scenes were generally well-regarded by critics, which include the handling of limbs and explosions. In Jungian Dimensions of the Mourning Process, Burial Rituals and Access to the Land of the Dead: Intimations of Immortality, the writer Hiroko Sakata addressed similarities between Yuta's story with the stories of the Japanese forgotten gods Hiruko, Katako and the suicidal child K, addressing Rika as an oni similar to Hiruko that often tries to stop Yuta in his backstory to avoid suicide similar to K. Both Yuta and Katako also share connections with oni and are often associated by mortals with them and, just like Yuta's curse, Katako cannot escape from life. As a result, Sakata said that Jujutsu Kaisen 0, and by extension the sequel, feel like modernized version of Japanese myths, comparing Yuta and Rika to the Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba protagonists Tanjiro Kamado and Nezuko Kamado, respectively, as the duo aims to control the oni'' element present in the story.
3,720,860	Operation Zeppelin (deception plan)	1,155,790,856	1944 Allied military deception during World War II	[ "Operation Bodyguard", "World War II deception operations" ]	Operation Zeppelin (along with its follow up subsidiaries, Vendetta and Turpitude) was a major military deception operation run by the British during the Second World War. It formed part of Operation Bodyguard, the cover plan for the invasion of Normandy in 1944, and was intended to mislead German intelligence as to the Allied invasion plans in the Mediterranean theatre that year. The operation was planned by 'A' Force and implemented by means of visual deception and misinformation. Zeppelin was executed in five phases between February and July 1944. The story behind each stage developed various invasion threats against Greece, Albania, Croatia, Turkey, Bulgaria and France. The latter portions of the operation received their own codenames. Vendetta referred to a threat toward Southern France close to D-Day while Turpitude was the codename for the final stage of Zeppelin, an overland threat to Greece and Bulgaria. It is unclear how much impact Zeppelin had on German response in the region, but the aims of the deception were achieved by tying up German defensive forces in the Mediterranean beyond D-Day. Post-war analysis of German intelligence documents indicated that they had overstated Allied forces, as had been intended. However, the German high command did not come to expect a major invasion in the Balkans. ## Background In preparation for the 1944 invasion of Normandy, the Allied nations conducted a complex series of deceptions under the codename Bodyguard. This was a large strategic plan with the aim of misleading the German high command as to Allied intentions in 1944. While the main focus of Bodyguard was on the invasion of Western France, additional plans supported operations in the Mediterranean and Scandinavia. In 1941, 'A' Force (the Cairo-based department responsible for deception operations in North Africa) had begun an operation, codenamed Cascade, to inflate the number of troops in the region by creating fictional divisions. By 1943 the use of notional formations had proved a useful part of deception operations, such as Operation Rayon, and the practice formed the basis for key parts of Bodyguard. The Allies invaded Italy in September 1943 and by the end of the year had occupied most of the south of the country. Thirty-eight divisions were deployed across the Mediterranean theatre, mostly in Italy with some in North Africa. The various deceptions to fulfil the Mediterranean portion of Bodyguard were given the codename Zeppelin, with follow up subsidiaries called Vendetta and Turpitude. Its initial overall aims were to tie down German defensive forces in the region, but without suggesting too great a threat to Southern France (until the Allies had decided whether or not to conduct landings there). Planning for the operation was begun by 'A' Force in January 1944. The deception required an increase in the fictional troops that Operation Cascade had created. Operation Wantage succeeded from Cascade on 6 February with the aim over inflating Allied troops by thirty percent. ## Operation Zeppelin, and its constituent plans Vendetta and Turpitude, focused on tying down German resources in Southern France and The Balkans. Its aim was, during early 1944, to distract attention from a potential Allied invasion of Southern France (Operation Dragoon) by creating a fictional threat against Crete and Croatia. It also intended to tie up troops in the Eastern Mediterranean so they would not be re-deployed to France during the Allied campaign. Zeppelin's "story" would be that the notional British Twelfth Army were preparing for an amphibious landing, from North Africa into The Balkans, supported by a Soviet overland invasion into Albania and Polish forces staged out of Italy. Zeppelin was put across through various means. Double agents relayed messages about troop movements, dummy formations and radio traffic were created and searches were conducted for local guides and maps, as would be made in preparation for a real invasion. Nearly 600 messages were sent through agents, who were used extensively and at considerable risk of exposure. Dummy formations were created in Italy and Libya, Colonel Victor Jones began depicting both an Armoured and Airborne divisions near Tobruk for the first stage of the operation. The first stage of Zeppelin commenced on 8 February, with threats to Greece and Crete. A provisional date for the supposed invasion was set at 29 March (to take advantage of the full moon). On 10 March the operation moved to a second stage, where the fictional operation was delayed until April and May to join up with a supposed Soviet invasion of Bulgaria. Stage two was communicated through a sub-plan called Dungloe, involving double agents back in England. The story passed to the Germans was that radio messages would inform friendly leaders in Yugoslavia of the intended invasion dates and any delays. The third stage of Zeppelin involved a delay until 21 May, on the basis that the Soviets had asked for them to be synchronised with their own invasion plans. This ran from 21 April until 9 May, when a major revision to the plans (stage four) was introduced. The Twelfth Army and Polish forces would land in Albania and Croatia, bypassing Greece due to mutiny within Allied Greek forces in Africa, with an invasion set in June. A major invasion of Southern France was also added, codenamed Vendetta. ### Vendetta The Allies had already decided to mount an invasion of southern France (Dragoon), which occurred in August 1944. Vendetta's story was agreed in the first week of May and deception work started on 9 May. Its aim was to detain German forces in Southern France for up to twenty five days following the Normandy landings. The plan threatened a landing near Sete (chosen for its distance from the Dragoon landing site) by the US Seventh Army, consisting of fictional divisions, and some French units. Vendetta was supported by a diplomatic deception, Operation Royal Flush, which requested support from the Spanish government to allow injured soldiers to be evacuated following an invasion. For Vendetta, stores were stockpiled in Algerian ports and Allied troops were given maps for the supposed landing zones. A naval exercise, involving sixty ships, was run between 9 and 11 June which included embarking thousands of men and vehicles from the US 91st Infantry Division. On 11 June, the Algerian borders were closed, a natural precursor to invasion. The deception could not be maintained for long. The British carriers Indomitable and Victorious, that had formed a key part of the naval deception, left for the Indian Ocean. Meanwhile, the 91st left to deploy in Italy. From 24 June the Allies began to wind down Vendetta with the story that due to German forces remaining in the south of France (rather than moving to Normandy) that the invasion had been delayed. ### Turpitude The final phase of Zeppelin was codenamed Turpitude, the story for which was an overland invasion of Greece by British troops via Turkey and the Soviet Union via Bulgaria. It was planned in the most part by 'A' Force's Michael Crichton in Cairo. Deception efforts for Turpitude were focused in Syria, and around the ports of Tripoli and Lattakia. The Allies hoped to indicate a spoiling attack against the island of Rhodes before the main attack against Salonika. Turpitude finished on 26 June and Zeppelin officially came to a close on 6 July 1944. Turpitude was communicated through visual deceptions in Syria by all three armed forces. The RAF flew reconnaissance flights across the supposed targets, while the Navy set up major facilities in the Syrian coastal ports (anti-aircraft guns, search lights and other efforts that might hide major activity). Along the Turkish border the British Ninth Army (the small force protecting Syria), the 31st Indian Armoured Division and 20th Armoured Division (a fictional division, really the dummy tanks of Jones' 24th Armoured Brigade) put on a show of readiness. Political deception, via Royal Flush, was also used to hint heavily at Allied actions in the region. ## Impact The Allies considered Zeppelin to have achieved its main objective of tying down German forces in the region until after the invasion of Normandy although they did not appear to convince German high command that major Allied landings would occur in the Mediterranean. Instead, Zeppelin helped the Allies achieve their objective by convincing the Germans of the threat of small invasions, stopping them from removing the defensive forces. According to Jacob Field, the operation successfully detained 25 divisions in defensive positions in the region. The operation did affect German analysis of Allied troop strength. In early 1944 the Allies had 38 divisions in the region, but the German battle plan identified up to 71. Whether directly related to Zeppelin or not, German forces remained in the Mediterranean throughout May 1944, and so were not available to reinforce Normandy in June. With Vendetta the Allies may have oversold the deception. Vendetta's various deceptions, coupled with political overtures in Spain (Operation Royal Flush), created what German intelligence called "wealth of alarming reports". However, these were assessed as deceptive in nature probably due to their volume. In mid-June the German command decided that although the Allies had enough troops in North Africa to effect an invasion they lacked the landing craft to actually undertake the operation. Despite this, the reports had held enough credibility in late May and early June that, on the eve of the Normandy Landings, German divisions were deploying in defensive positions along the southern coast. Troops did not begin moving north until June and July. Turpitude had an impact in Turkey, with reports in early June of discussion within the country's political and military spheres. On 10 June, the German ambassador to Turkey reported that the government were concerned about the possibility of the Allies using the country as a staging ground. The ambassador's report, which included details of Allied military buildup in the area, was treated with scepticism by German high command who were unable to verify some of the information. However, the German intelligence apparatus issued warnings of probable Allied operations in the region, and requested "exceptional vigilance" from forces stationed there.
3,571,068	Suleiman I of Persia	1,172,567,431	Shah of Persia from 1666 to 1694	[ "1648 births", "1694 deaths", "17th-century Iranian people", "17th-century monarchs of Persia", "Alcohol-related deaths in Iran", "Burials at Fatima Masumeh Shrine", "Deaths from syphilis", "Deaths from throat cancer", "Iranian people of Circassian descent", "Safavid monarchs", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Suleiman I (Persian: شاه سلیمان, romanized: Shah Solayman; born Sam Mirza, February or March 1648 – 29 July 1694) was the eighth and the penultimate Shah of Safavid Iran from 1666 to 1694. He was the eldest son of Abbas II and his concubine, Nakihat Khanum. Born as Sam Mirza, Suleiman spent his childhood in the harem among women and eunuchs and his existence was hidden from the public. In 1666, after the death of his father, the nineteen-year-old Sam Mirza was crowned king under the regnal name, Safi II, after his grandfather, Safi I. He had a troublesome reign as Safi II, which convinced his court astrologers that he should undergo a coronation once again. Thus, in 20 March 1668, simultaneously with Nowruz, he was crowned king with a new name, Suleiman I. After his second coronation, Suleiman retreated into his harem to enjoy sexual activities and excessive drinking. He was indifferent to the state affairs, and often would not appear in the public for months. Suleiman's reign was devoid of spectacular events in the form of major wars and rebellions. For this reason, Western contemporary historians regard Suleiman's reign as "remarkable for nothing" while the Safavid court chronicles refrained from recording his tenure. Suleiman's reign saw the decline of the Safavid army, to the point when the soldiers became undisciplined and made no effort to serve as it was required of them. At the same time, the eastern borders of the realm was under the constant raids from the Uzbeks, and the Kalmyks. On 29 July 1694, Suleiman died from a combination of gout and his chronic alcoholism. Often seen as a failure in kingship, Suleiman's reign was the starting point of the Safavid ultimate decline: weakened military power, falling agricultural output and the corrupt bureaucracy, all were a forewarning of the troubling rule of his successor, Soltan Hoseyn, whose reign saw the end of the Safavid dynasty. Suleiman was the first Safavid Shah that did not patrol his kingdom and never led an army, thus giving away the government affairs to the influential court eunuchs, harem women and the Shi‘i high clergy. Perhaps the only admiring aspect of his reign was the appreciation of art, for the Farangi-Sazi, or the Western painting style, saw its zenith under Suleiman's sponsorship. ## Background Suleiman's father, Abbas II, was the seventh Shah of Safavid Iran. In 1649, Abbas led an army to retake Kandahar, a bone of contention between the Safavid and the Mughal Empire originating back to Tahmasp I's reign. The war, though successful, was one of the reasons for an economic decline later in his reign which plagued the Safavid Empire until its dissolution. After the war for Kandahar, the Safavid army during Abbas' reign undertook two further military campaigns in the Caucasus: one in 1651 to destroy the Russian fortress on the Iranian side of the Terek River (which the Safavids considered as part of their realm), and one in 1659 to suppress the Georgian rebellion. The rest of Abbas' reign lacked any further rebellions and was relatively peaceful. A consequence of this peace was the decline of the army, which started during his reign and saw its peak in the reign of his successors. Abbas' relations with the Uzbeks were peaceful. He made arrangements with Uzbeks of Bukhara under which they agreed to stop raiding into Iranian territory. Relations with the Ottoman Empire were likewise peaceful, despite tensions during Abbas' reign in Transcaucasia, where the risk of war was so acute that the governor of the Turkish border provinces had evacuated the civilian population in expectation of an Iranian attack, and in Basra, where the shah's aid had been sought to settle a struggle for the succession. The Farangi-sazi style blossomed under Abbas' patronage who supported two prominent painters of this style, Mohammad Zaman and Aliquli Jabbadar. He was a tolerant monarch. He e frequently attended Armenian church services and ceremonies, and gave permission for the Jesuits to establish a mission in Isfahan in 1653. Although at various times between 1645 and 1654, the Safavid authorities forced the Iranian Jews to convert to Islam, there is no evidence to support that Abbas himself set them in motion. ## Early life Sam Mirza was born in February or March 1648 as the eldest son of Abbas II and his concubine, Nakihat Khanum. He grew up in the royal Safavid harem under the guardianship of a black eunuch named Agha Nazer. According to Jean Chardin, the French traveler, Sam Mirza was known for his arrogance. His first language was Azeri Turkish, and it is unclear to what degree he was able to understand Persian. Reportedly, Abbas II was not on good terms with Sam Mirza — it was rumoured that the shah had blinded the young prince — and favoured Sam Mirza's younger brother, Hamza Mirza, the son of a Circassian concubine. At the end of 1662, Abbas II showed the first symptoms of syphilis. On 26 October 1666, while in his winter residence at Behshahr, he died of a combination of syphilis and throat cancer as a result of his excessive drinking at the age of thirty-four. It was said that on his deathbed, Abbas II foretold the fate of his successor to be one of perpetual turmoil and disaster. ## Reign as Safi II ### First Coronation In the hours after the death of Abbas II, the yuzbashi Sulaman Aqa called for a meeting between the notables presented in the shah's camp. Behind the close doors, he told them that the shah was dead and that they should choose his heir before leaving for the capital, Isfahan. The shah's grand vizier, Mirza Mohammad Karaki, responded with "What do I know?" and "I have no knowledge of what goes on in the interior of the palace." when asked about the shah's offspring. It was the eunuchs of the inner palace that informed the notables of the existence of two sons, the nineteen-year-old Sam Mirza, and Hamza Mirza, who was only seven-years-old. The eunuchs, who were eager to have a pliable child on the throne and believed the rumour about Sam Mirza's blindness, announced their support for Hamza Mirza. The grand vizier also declared his support for Hamza Mirza's claim. At this point, Agha Mubarak, Hamza's lala (guardian), made an argument in favour of Sam Mirza, against his own interests and those of his eunuch colleagues. He accused the eunuchs of opting for Hamza Mirza for selfish reasons. He pointed out that Sam Mirza was not blinded by the orders of his father and argued that he was more worthier than a mere child. And at last, Agha Mubarak's argument prevailed. The Tofangchi-aghasi, Khosrow Soltan Armani, by reputation the least trustworthy among the eunuchs, was chosen to go to Isfahan to announce the new heir before word of the death of Abbas II could spread. Sam Mirza, who had been surrounded by women and eunuchs all his life and had not seen the world outside of the harem, was then brought out of the inner palace, dazzled and unsure what to do with the responsibility thrust upon him. He was seized with panic when asked to appear before the throne room for the coronation, and reluctantly accepted the invitation because he assumed that he was being lured there simply to be murdered or blinded. On 1 November 1666, six days after Abbas II's death, Sam Mirza was crowned king under the name Safi II, after his grandfather, Safi I, at one o’clock in the afternoon in a ceremony persisted by Mohammad Bagher Sabzevari, the shaykh al-Islam of Isfahan. The new king received the heads of killed Uzbeks and rewarded the slayers with money. He also allotted money to 300 Turkish refugees from the Ottoman Empire, who had sought shelter in Isfahan. As a sign of smooth transition of power, Isfahan remained peaceful: the shops remained open and started doing their business with the new coins of Safi II, and everyday life remained unchanged. Foreign residents, who had locked their houses in fear of uprisings and looting, again emerged into the city. ### Turmoil and disasters Soon after his coronation, Safi faced problems. Two barren harvests left the central parts of the realm under famine and an earthquake in November 1667 in Shirvan led to the death of more than 30,000 in the villages and around 20,000 in its capital city, Shamakhi. In the following year, the Northern provinces of the realm endured raids by Stenka Razin's Cossacks, whom the Safavid army was unable to subdue. The Cossacks had raided these provinces before, in 1664, when they were defeated by local forces. Now, under the leadership of Razin, they ransacked Mazandaran and attacked Daghestan. Razin went to Isfahan to ask Safi for land in his realm in exchange for loyalty to the shah, but departed to the Caspian Sea for more pillaging before they could reach an agreement. The tsar of Russia, Alexis, sent a delegation to Isfahan in order to apologise for the damages done and later in 1671, hanged Razin as a rebel. Meanwhile, there were internal problems. Safi caught an unspecified illness, which by August 1667, had convinced everyone that he might die, causing the grandees of the court to arrange a public prayer for his well-being while giving out 1,000 tomans to the poor. The shah squandered his government’s resources as part of endowments to the poor. As a result of his naive belief that the royal coffers could never end, the treasury became empty and the money, already scarce in Isfahan, became even scarcer. ### Second Coronation During Safi's time of illness, a physician who was trying to cure the shah suggested that his misfortune must have come from a miscalculation in determining the date of the coronation. Soon, a court astrologer confirmed this assumption, and the court, the queen mother, Nakihat Khanum, and the leading eunuchs, with the consent of the shah, concluded that the coronation should be repeated and Safi should be crowned king under a new name. Thus, in March 1668, at nine o'clock in the morning, simultaneously with Nowruz, a second coronation for the shah was held in the Chehel Sotoun Palace. The ceremony was preceded by an unorthodox ritual. As told by Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who witnessed it, a Zoroastrian, "descended from the old kings", was put on the Shah's throne with his back tied to a wooden statue. The attendants paid their respects to him until an hour before sunset, the time for the real coronation. At that point an official came up from behind and cut off the head of the statue, whereupon the Zoroastrian fled and Safi II appeared. The Safavid bonnet was next put on his head, and he was girded with a sword, and Safi II took on the name Abu'l-Muzzafar Abu'l-Mansur Shah Suleiman Safavi Mousavi Bahador Khan, with the name Suleiman referring to King Solomon. After the coronation, new royal seals and coins were made under the name Suleiman I and within twenty-four hours a large quantity of new money was struck. At the same time, a comet appeared in the sky, which was taken as a sign of the event's auspiciousness. ## Reign as Suleiman I ### Royal isolation It was soon proven that a repeated coronation and a new name was not a step closer to the improvement of the state. Suleiman, after his coronation, retreated into the depths of the harem and began a policy of royal isolation. He would not appear in public and often preferred to stay in Isfahan rather than travel throughout the country. He only went out of the palace in form of a quruq, meaning he would order the people of a neighbourhood to vacate their district and move away to a different one so that Suleiman and the women of the harem as his entourage, could ride freely in that district. No male older than six was allowed to be in that district when the shah and his companions came riding, if a man was caught, he would be executed. Suleiman, unlike his father, no longer allowed his subjects to enter his palace and petition him. In fact, he would not emerge from the inner palace for periods of up to twelve days, during which he would not accept anyone outside the harem to disturb him. For the first fifteen years of his reign, women were still allowed to accost him during his quruqs: in 1683, this access was formally abolished altogether. Contemporary observers often considered Suleiman's reign after his second coronation to be devoid of any notable events, and who refrained from recording the period in chronicle form. Mohammad Shafi Tehrani, the Qajar historian, claims that the Uzbek and Kalmyk raids of Astarabad were the only significant events of his reign. Modern historians, however, argue otherwise. It has been suggested that Suleiman may have had greater control over the state than its generally assumed: out of eleven firmans collected in a compendium by Heribert Busse, seven were directly issued by Suleiman, and three of them are of his own wording while four were clearly worded by his grand vizier. Suleiman was self-aware enough to choose a competent grand vizier who would rule in his stead while Suleiman enjoyed his lavish lifestyle. His choice was Shaykh Ali Khan Zanganeh, a statesman who served as his grand vizier for twenty years. ### Grand Vizierate of Shaykh Ali Khan Shaykh Ali Khan was the Amir of the Zanganeh tribe and succeeded Mirza Mohammad Karaki (who had maintained his position after Suleiman's ascension) as the grand vizier in 1669. Faced with an empty treasury after a series of misfortunes, Shaykh Ali immediately commenced a financial policy that combined cutting expenses with increasing revenue. He sought a stricter observation on the annual silk supply to the VOC, who, using the chaos in the capital, took a greater supply of silk than had initially been agreed upon. Moreover, he attempted to take control of the monopoly of sugar and instituted a five-percent tax on the merchants who shipped sugar to India. Shaykh Ali imposed new taxes on the New Julfa churches and the Armenians who lived in the villages around Isfahan. Through all of his projects, Shaykh Ali showed diligence, and, in contrast to many of his colleagues, refused to accept bribery, and soon became known for his incorruptibility. It is true that few of his projects were completely successful, nevertheless, Shaykh Ali was highly effective in collecting revenue for the royal treasury. Shaykh Ali Khan's policies made him enemies amongst the courtiers, who disliked his attempts to curb the lavish lifestyle of the court. He also urged Suleiman to follow a path of frugality, which further infuriated his adversaries who were dependent on the shah's generosity. Shaykh Ali's fall from the shah's grace took place in early 1672, when the shah ordered his grand vizier to drink wine: when he refused, Suleiman forced him to drink and spent hours humiliating him. Shaykh Ali Khan was soon arrested, and the realm fell into turmoil. In the same year, one of his sons took refuge with the Ottomans, raising fears of a potential war. Fourteen months after his removal, Suleiman reappointed Shaykh Ali as his grand vizier to quiet the rumours of the war. Having resumed his position, Shaykh Ali started to curb the military outlay and sent tax-collectors to the provinces, demanding taxes and imposing fines for unpaid obligations. Shaykh Ali decided to no longer inform the shah about state affairs, and he started shunning his own responsibilities, handing requests to Suleiman and urging him to ratify them without first reading them. Shaykh Ali still provoked Suleiman's wrath from time to time by refusing drinks from him: the shah's outbursts would always result in humiliation of the grand vizier, but normally, Suleiman would feel remorse for his mockery and would send the grand vizier a robe of honour as a token of appreciation for his efforts. As the years went by, Suleiman showed less and less desire to partake in the frequent meetings with his grand vizier regarding state affairs. Hence, the grand vizier was left on his own when important decisions were to be made, while Suleiman would discuss the state affairs with his wives and the eunuchs, who were his confidants. His wives and eunuchs thus exercised a dominant influence upon the shah, and guarded their influence and were keen to prevent the shah from communicating with anyone but themselves. Suleiman even set up a privy council in the harem, to which the most important eunuchs belonged. Even when the shah would discuss the state affairs with his grand vizier, it was impossible to discuss them in detail because Suleiman was impatient and resentful of the problems that had risen throughout the realm. ### The vacant court positions After Shaykh Ali's reappointment, the shah's court grew intimated and afraid of him. Suleiman showed extreme cruelty towards his courtiers: in 1679, he forced Shaykh Ali to shave his beard (so that he would look like Georgians, whom he despised for their Christianity), and because the beard was not cleanly shaven, he had the barber executed as well; in 1680, he blinded the divan-begi, Zaynal Khan; and, he had Shaykh Ali and one of his royal secretariats bastinadoed; in 1681, he killed one of his sons, who was fourteen years old at the time. The boy had spent his whole life in the harem wearing women’s clothes at the prompting of astrologers, who had seen a prophesy that he would depose Suleiman. Many of the courtiers were so afraid of the shah that they would leave the court with the excuse of undertaking hajj. In early 1681, Shaykh Ali made a request to make a hajj that was rejected for an unknown reason. The shah’s erratic and unpredictable behavior encouraged sycophantic behavior by the courtiers, flattering the shah and hiding unpleasant news from him, while also forsaking their duties and embracing corruption. The army, in general, became undisciplined and its military standards fell, as soldiers came to regard their pay as little more than a gratuity. Some military formations existed only on paper. Despite his continued insecurity and his limited contact with the shah, Shaykh Ali Khan maintained his position even during 1680s, when most of the court positions were vacant and unfilled. In 1680, the shah took the position of sadr-i mamalik (minister of religion) for himself; the royal secretariat were all dismissed in 1682. In the same year, the position of sepahsalar became vacant after the death of its holder, and remained as much until the end of Suleiman's reign. In addition, the positions of divan-begi, qurchi-bashi, shaykh al-Islam, and mirshekar-bashi (master of the hunt), all became vacant in the same year. Shaykh Ali Khan died in 1689 while still occupying the grand vizier position. Saddened by his death, Suleiman, who had mistreated his grand vizier for twenty years, did not leave the inner palace for a full year and did not choose a successor for two years. In 1691, Mohammad Taher Vahid Qazvini, a poet and court historian, was chosen as the grand vizier. ### Later years and death The new grand vizier was given full and unprecedented executive powers to overcome the realm's most urgent needs and problems. However, Vahid Qazvini proved to be a venal and ineffective grand vizier: He was extremely old, being seventy years old at the time, and lacked the energy to administrate. Moreover, he freely took bribes. Vahid also made many enemies in the court: his main rival was Saru Khan Sahandlu, the new qurchi-bashi. Saru Khan was from the Zanganeh tribe and was Suleiman's absolute favourite. In 1691, he killed forty members of his tribe, but the shah's favor meant that his crime was overlooked. However, he incurred Suleiman's wrath when it was discovered that he had started an affair with Maryam Begum, the shah's aunt. Suleiman ordered his death during an assembly in late 1691, during which he had offered wine to all the members presented except Saru Khan, and had him executed shortly after. During his later years, Suleiman became more and more reclusive and his drinking finally made him infirm. In 1691, per the suggestions of the astrologers, he did not leave the palace for nine months. Simultaneously, the realm saw much unrest: in 1689, the Uzbeks raided along the Khorasan borderline and rebellions broke out in Balochistan. In 1692, Suleiman Baba took up arms against the Safavids in Kurdistan and rebellions are recorded in Kerman, Kandahar, Lar, and Georgia. Meanwhile, Suleiman was suffering from foot pain and in August 1692 it was rumoured that he had not left the palace for more than eighteen months. He did not appear in the hall of the Ali Qapu palace for the Nowruz festivities on 20 March 1694, and even declined to accept the customary gifts from governors and other grandees. The last time he was seen was on 24 March, when he presided over a very brief meeting, after which he returned to his harem. He did not leave the inner palace again before his death on 29 July. Many reasons have been suggested for his death, among them being having a stroke during a carousing session, dying from gout or from the decades of debauchery. According to the French cleric, Martin Gaudereau, his last words were: "Bring me wine." He was buried in Qom, like many of his ancestors, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Soltan Hoseyn, the last Safavid Monarch. ## Policies ### Religion Unlike his father, Suleiman was more religiously minded: he did not share his father's interest in Christianity, issued several decrees to ban the drinking of alcohol. His erratic behaviour makes it difficult to speculate how zealous he was towards the Shi'ia tradition: he only once gave up drinking, in 1667: not for any religious reasons, but for his health and in particular an inflammation of the throat. During Suleiman's reign, Shia Islam was institutionalised as a functional arm of the state, however, dissent towards the shah was still heard. On numerous times, Shia scholars tried to dissuade Suleiman from drinking. One of these scholars, Mohammad Tahir Qomi, the shaykh al-Islam of Qom, was almost executed for criticising Suleiman. Suleiman also continued to practice and expand upon local and popular religious beliefs. He ensured that the Muharram ceremonies were more of a festival than purely ‘devotional’. Cursing Yazd (the Zoroastrianism main centre) and the Ottomans on these ceremonies was encouraged. The shah took upon himself to embellish several imamzadehs and other ‘popular’ religious sites. Furthermore, he continued to insist on the leadership of the Safavid ancestral Sufi order, the Safaviyya. In the struggle between the three main spiritual communities in this era (advocates of popular Sufism, philosophically-minded scholars, and sharia-minded ulama) the last group gained the upper hand in Suleiman's court. The ulama became ever more assertive and took advantage of Suleiman's indifference towards matters of state. Their new-found power manifested itself in the continued pressure on non-Shia Iranians; anti-Sufism essays increased greatly during this era. In 1678, the ulama of the capital accused Armenians and Jews of responsibility for the drought that afflicted much of the country in that year. Several rabbis were murdered and the Jews of Isfahan only escaped death by paying 600 tumans. ### Diplomacy Connections with foreign nations reduced greatly during Suleiman's reign. Like his father, he avoided doing anything that might lead him into diplomatic difficulties. Even when it was possible to wage war against the Ottomans (who were themselves fighting against nations during this era), he steadfastly refused to violate the peace treaty which his grandfather, Shah Safi, had made with the Sublime Porte in 1639, despite repeated offers from Mesopotamia (in 1684 and 1685) and from Basra (in 1690) that invited him to re-establish Iranian suzerainty there. On the same premise of keeping the peace with the Ottomans, Suleiman avoided relations with Europe except for a letter in 1668 or 1669 sent via the British East India Company to Charles II of England, asking him for skilled craftsmen. Suleiman even dismissed the Russian emissaries who arrived in Isfahan in 1670s to seek anti-Ottoman cooperation. The various European envoys who visited in 1684–1685 received the same response. No reciprocal missions to Europe have been recorded in this period. During Suleiman's reign, envoys from the Mughals, Ottomans and Uzbeks arrived in Isfahan. However, only the Ottomans received a response. In 1669 and 1680, King Narai of the Siamese Kingdom of Ayutthaya sent envoys to the court of Suleiman. Their intentions were to request Safavid naval assistance against the Kingdom of Pegu. An Iranian delegation under the command of Mohammad Rabi' ibn Mohammad Ebrahim was sent to the court of Narai in 1685. The details of this mission were recorded by Ibn Mohammad Ebrahim in his account, Safine-ye Solaymani. The book consists of four parts and narrates the Iranians' journey to Siam and the Iranian community which existed in that country from the times of Abbas II. During Suleiman's reign, Iran continued to be a shelter for exiled notables of its eastern neighbours: for instance, in 1686, Suleiman offered shelter to Muhammad Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb. ### Arts Paradoxically given his intermittent relations with the west, the Farangi-Sazi or the Western painting style saw its zenith during Suleiman's reign. He was an outstanding connoisseur and, as the patron of arts, influenced directly or indirectly some of the most impressive works of the three greatest painters of the late 17th century Iran: Aliquli Jabbadar, Mohammad Zaman and Mo'en Mosavver. Suleiman inherited these painters from the patronage of his father, and promoted their works further by patronising both traditional Persian miniature, at which Mosavver was a master, and the new tendencies inspired by Western painting which characterise the work of Aliquli and Mohammad Zaman. Suleiman's sense of aesthetics, if it had blossomed during more favourable circumstances, could have led to the development of a new artistic era in Iranian history. Suleiman's patronage also extended to architecture. He built the Hasht Behesht palace in Isfahan and ordered the repair of a number of buildings in Mashhad, including the shrine of Imam Reza, damaged during an earlier earthquake, and several schools. Moreover, many of courtiers during his reign began sponsoring buildings: Shaykh Ali Khan personally funded a caravanserai in the northwest of Isfahan (built in 1678) and in 1679 patronised a mosque in Khaju quarter of the city. He also built a school in Hamadan which he dedicated as a vaqf from his new-founded revenue. ## Personality and appearances Suleiman lacked the best qualities his father was known for: energy, courage, decisiveness, discipline, initiative and an eye for the national interest, and after his second enthronement, it became clear that he neither desired nor was able to acquire them. Most of the contemporary observers speak of Suleiman's character as idle, gluttonous and lascivious, and also mention his tendency to extort his subjects for money. Throughout his life, Suleiman increasingly cherished wine and women, to such a degree that foreign observers asserted that no Persian ruler had ever indulged so greatly in both. He spent many an evening drinking with high court officials and during the royal Nowruz festivities, by his order, wine-drinking was excessively encouraged. Suleiman's drunken states often led into unpleasant consequences, such when he ordered the blinding of one of his brothers. As for lasciviousness, Suleiman's harem included at least 500 women. Suleiman was generally described as mild-mannered, yet, there were times when he showed great rage, and even cruelty, especially when drunk. He enjoyed humiliating his courtiers by forcing them to drink alcohol. For the enforced drinking, a huge gold goblet was used, the capacity of which is variously given as about a pint and almost a gallon. Regarding appearances, Jean Chardin described him as “tall and graceful, with blue eyes and blond hair dyed black and white skin.” This description seems to concur with that of Nicolas Sanson, who called Suleiman “tall, strong and active; a fine prince, a little too effeminate for a monarch who should be a warrior, with an aquiline nose, large blue eyes, a beard dyed black”. ## Coinage Suleiman's reign saw the final stages of Iran's monetary unification system. The larin currency was discontinued during his reign, and only the mohammadis currency from Hoveyzeh, which gained special fame in Iran and abroad, was officially minted until the end of the shah’s rule. There are no surviving Safi II coins left. Apparently, they were replaced by heavy silver coins issued for the first time in Safavid history. After his second coronation, Suleiman issued coins with the distichs, "Soleymān banda-ye shāh-e velāyat" (Suleiman, the servant of the realm's majesty). Gold coins (weighing about 57 grams) were rarely minted whereas silver coins were struck throughout his reign, usually in Isfahan and, less often, in Qazvin. ## Legacy The reign of Suleiman I is often seen as the start of the final decline of the Safavid realm. According to the modern historian Rudi Matthee, Suleiman was what the British historian Hugh Kennedy calls an "internal absentee" (in reference to the tenth-century Abbasid caliph Al-Muqtadir), a ruler who "had no real appreciation of the constraints and limitations of the financial resources". He was a king who never reached “political adulthood” and was considered a weak and cruel ruler whose indifference and debauchery influenced the decline of the state of his realm. Jonas Hanway, who visited Iran decades after the Siege of Isfahan, calls Suleiman's reign "remarkable for nothing but a slavish indolence, a savage and inhuman cruelty." Modern historians who unanimously see him as a failed king. According to Hans Robert Roemer, the only redeeming aspect of Suleiman's personality and regnant was his patronage of arts. Suleiman gave up on the concept of siyast or the ruler’s punitive capacity, an indispensable ingredient of statecraft, and instead led his grand vizier rule for him. As long as he had a competent grand vizier by his side, and as long as he himself intervened decisively at crucial moments, an idle shah was not necessarily fatal to good governance. With Shaykh Ali Khan, Suleiman chose a competent grand vizier. Yet, instead of supporting him wholeheartedly, he abused Sheykh Ali and forced him into inactivity. Suleiman was the first Safavid king who did not patrol his kingdom and never led an army; in these circumstances, power became concentrated in the hands of court eunuchs, harem women and the Shia high clergy, precluding a forward-looking policy based on a realistic assessment of challenges and opportunities.
33,201,796	Saman (novel)	1,168,510,898	Book by Ayu Utami	[ "1998 debut novels", "1998 novels", "Feminist novels", "Indonesian speculative fiction novels", "Novels set in Indonesia", "Novels set in New York City", "Sexuality in novels" ]	Saman is an Indonesian novel by Ayu Utami published in 1998. It is Utami's first novel, and depicts the lives of four sexually-liberated female friends, and a former Catholic priest, Saman, for whom the book is named. Written in seven to eight months while Utami was unemployed, Saman sold over 100,000 copies and ignited a new literary movement known as sastra wangi (originally used pejoratively) that opened the doors to an influx of sexually-themed literary works by young Indonesian women. Saman deals explicitly with themes of sexuality, taboo for women writers in Indonesia at that time. She also writes about the supernatural and mysticism. Utami has said the stories reflect some of her personal experiences, such as her loss of religion which mirrors that of the priest, Saman. Utami also includes passages reflecting the destructiveness of Suharto's political authoritarianism; in later interviews she said the political realities reflected in Saman are still applicable to post-Suharto Indonesia. Saman won the 1997 Jakarta Arts Council Novel Competition, which led to its publication. Critical reception was mixed. Some critics praised the richness of its language, while others derided the novel for its sexual explicitness and questioned whether it was Utami's own work. The novel eventually was hailed for its groundbreaking portrayal of a woman's views of sexuality. As of 2008, it has been translated into six languages and won several awards, including the 2000 Prince Claus Award. A film adaptation is in the making. ## Plot Saman follows four sexually liberated female friends: Yasmin, a married Catholic lawyer from Manado; Cok, a Balinese businesswoman with a high libido; Shakuntala, a bisexual Javanese dancer; and Laila, a Muslim Minangkabau-Sundanese journalist. The other protagonist is the titular Saman, a former Catholic priest turned human rights activist who becomes the target of sexual advances by Yasmin and Cok. The first chapter, beginning in Central Park, New York, describes Laila waiting for the married Sihar and planning to lose her virginity to him. Eventually Laila realises that Sihar is with his wife, and feels depressed. The second chapter covers Saman's childhood—including his relationship with his mother, a woman drawn to the spiritual world—his entry into priesthood, and his attempt to protect a rubber tapping community from the attempt by a local plantation to acquire their land. After the attempt fails and the plantation's hired thugs raze the community to the ground and kills those who resist, Saman is captured and tortured. He eventually is broken out of his confinement by the surviving resistance members, becoming a fugitive and relinquishing his duty as a priest. He becomes a human rights advocate, assisted by Yasmin. The third chapter, written from the point of view of Shakuntala, tells how Yasmin, Cok, Shakuntala, and Laila met at high school and their escapades there, both sexual and academic. Shakuntala recounts a fantasy she had as a teenager about meeting a "foreign demon", embracing him and then having a debate on the different cultural aspects of sexuality. Towards the end of the chapter, Shakuntala notes that she is attracted to Laila and dislikes Sihar, but supports her friend's efforts as she cares for her. During the fourth chapter, Saman is spirited away to New York by Yasmin and Cok. Although both Cok and the married Yasmin make advances toward him, he initially declines. However, during the middle of the night he and Yasmin have sex, but Saman is distressed because he ejaculated quickly. The entirety of the last chapter consists of emails sent between Saman and Yasmin, discussing their insecurities, that become increasingly sexualised. ## Writer When written, Saman was intended to be included in a work in progress entitled Laila Tak Mampir di New York (Laila Does Not Stop Over in New York). However, after the character Larung became too developed Utami split the storylines. Saman was published first, with Larung following in 2001. Saman was written during a period of seven to eight months while Utami was unemployed. A. Junaidi of The Jakarta Post suggests that the political insights in Saman are partially inspired by Utami's earlier career as a journalist, both with Forum Keadilan and as a founding member of the Alliance of Independent Journalists. ## Themes Junaidi notes that although Saman is about a female's perspective of sexuality, it also deals with the authoritarianism of Suharto's regime of the New Order, including the repression of human rights activists. In a 2005 interview with The Jakarta Post, Utami said that her critique of the New Order is still relevant; at the time of the interview, she saw the Suharto government as having left Indonesia with a legacy of what she calls "nuclear waste", including a loss of Indonesia's agricultural ability. In the interview, Utami also noted that Indonesians had become corrupt and lazy, increasingly bureaucratic, and without a feeling of sportsmanship. Utami has also noted that the novel is a reflection of her own restlessness and anxiety. Although little of it directly reflects events in her life, she notes that Saman's loss of religion reflects her own, and the book reflects her belief that a double standard exists regarding virginity in Indonesian culture. Although the novel touches on racial harmony, Utami said that she considers the theme to be undeveloped. Barbara Hatley notes that Saman contrasts the perceived differences between Eastern and Western cultures. She cites the scene where Shakuntala fantasizes encountering a "foreign demon" (European explorer) while bathing, later "embracing" him and discussing the "bizarre" requirement that Asian men are required to wear penis decorations and the "crassness" of Europeans who do not care about virginity, wear bikinis in public, and show sex on television. According to Hatley, this is rendered more ironic by both characters being naked during the discussion. She also notes that Saman touches on the traditional archetype of feminine power drawn from nature and the supernatural, and it reinterprets the hero archetype through Saman, who is small, thin, and inexperienced with women but able to withstand torture and defend a community of rubber tappers. Junaidi writes that Saman also includes bits of the supernatural, including ghosts and mysticism. In her master's thesis, Micaela Campbell writes that Saman's mother, known only as "Ibu" (Indonesian for 'Mother'), was "highly susceptible to supernatural forces that seem to govern over her". Through Ibu, Javanese mysticism and other supernatural content is introduced that contrasts Saman's father, a realist; this leads to Ibu "failing" in her role as a mother, and, according to Campbell, may be a factor driving Saman to priesthood. Campbell notes that Shakuntala also lives in a world of jinns and peri; however, unlike Ibu, Shakuntala draws further strength from this spiritual world. ## Release and reception Saman was released in 1998 after winning the 1997 Jakarta Art Institute novel writing contest. In 1998, Saman won the Jakarta Arts Council Novel Competition. In 2000, it received the Prince Claus Award. By 2005, it had been translated into Dutch and English; the English translation took a long time to write because Utami was concerned that an overexplanation of the novel caused it to lose all of its sensuality. It has also been translated into French, Czech, and Japanese (by two separate translators). As of 2008, a translation into Korean is underway. By 2004, the book had sold 100,000 copies, a large figure for an Indonesian novel. Critical reception was mixed. Some critics praised the "rich language" used in the novel. However, others disapproved of the open sexuality of the novel, and its explicit use of the words "penis", "vagina", "orgasm" and "condoms" was considered "too much"; other controversial terms include "rape me", "I am still a virgin", and "masturbation". Utami's own mother refused to read the novel aloud to her nearly blind husband, stating that it is "not meant for those of their generation". Campbell notes that the use of language in Saman reflects the positioning of the female characters as self-empowered and independent, capable of making their own decisions. In Saman Utami became one of the first female Indonesian authors to explicitly discuss sexuality, generally a taboo subject for women, in her work. However, when it was first released Utami faced charges that she was not the actual writer; among those suggested as the author was poet Goenawan Mohamad, known as Utami's mentor. Mohamad denied the rumours and said that he wished he "could write the kind of prose which Ayu uses". Utami suggests that the rumours were based on a belief that only men could write good novels; the literature scene before Saman had indeed been dominated by male writers. The novel started a new era of literature after the downfall of President Suharto and ignited the sastra wangi (literally 'fragrant literature') literary movement as well as an influx of sexually themed literary works by women. Utami disagrees with the label sastra wangi, stating that it reflects the obsession of the press with the women writers and not their work. As of 2011 a film adaptation is in the works, with Dutch screenwriter Orlow Seunke expressing interest to be involved with the project. However, Seunke and Utami have had creative differences regarding which characters should be kept.
16,491,537	Alpha Protocol	1,163,009,127	2010 action role-playing game	[ "2010 video games", "Action role-playing video games", "Games for Windows", "Obsidian Entertainment games", "PlayStation 3 games", "Role-playing video games", "Sega video games", "Single-player video games", "Spy video games", "Stealth video games", "Triad (organized crime)", "Unreal Engine games", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games scored by Alexander Brandon", "Video games scored by Jason Graves", "Video games set in China", "Video games set in Egypt", "Video games set in Italy", "Video games set in Rome", "Video games set in Russia", "Video games set in Saudi Arabia", "Video games set in Taiwan", "Video games set in the United States", "Windows games", "Xbox 360 games" ]	Alpha Protocol is a 2010 action role-playing game developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by Sega. The player assumes control of agent Michael Thorton, a new recruit at a clandestine United States agency called Alpha Protocol, which is given unlimited resources to conduct covert operations on behalf of the government. Thorton becomes a rogue agent and must unravel an international conspiracy to stop a war. Throughout the game, players must make many choices that affect the narrative. Played from a third-person perspective, players can confront enemies using firearms, gadgets, martial arts and stealth. The game features extensive customization and a dialogue stance system that allows players to select dialogues based on three different tones. The game's development began in March 2006 after publisher Sega approached Obsidian for a new intellectual property role-playing game. While Obsidian co-founders Feargus Urquhart and Chris Jones came up with the concept of an "espionage RPG", no one was assigned to lead the project until early 2008. The project was mostly inspired by iconic spy characters such as Jason Bourne, James Bond and Jack Bauer, and by films including Syriana, Ronin and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Sega also participated in the game's development, supporting the plot rewrite by Chris Avellone, and sending quality assurance and cohesion strike teams to ensure there were no plot holes. Alpha Protocol was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in May 2010. The game received polarized reviews upon release. Critics praised the game's setting, customization and reactivity, but criticized its gameplay, story, graphics and presentation; it was generally considered to be ambitious but executed many concepts poorly. Retrospectively, the game's reputation improved and it gained a cult following. Despite Obsidian's desire to develop a sequel, intellectual property owner Sega was not satisfied with the game's financial performance and no sequel is planned. All sales of Alpha Protocol were halted in June 2019 due to expired music licenses. ## Gameplay Alpha Protocol is an action role-playing game played from a third-person perspective. Players assume control of Michael Thorton, a secret agent who must travel around the world as he unravels a conspiracy that threatens his safety. At the start of the game, players can choose Thorton's agent history; options include Soldiers—which focuses on using heavy firearms, Tech Specialists—which have an arsenal of gadgets to use, and Field Agents—which encourages the use of stealth. There are also Freelancer, Recruit, and Veteran options, in which players custom-build their own class. Players can customize elements of Thorton's appearance, including his hair, eye color, costumes, and accessories including hats and glasses. Missions typically start at a safe house, which serves as a hub for players. In the hub, players can select missions, access the black market to buy weapons and intelligence, and use the weapon locker. Weapons can be extensively customized; options include the addition of a scope to improve shooting accuracy and the use of phosphorus ammunition to burn enemies. In missions, players can approach their objectives in a variety of ways; they can directly confront enemies using the four weapon classes—submachine guns, pistols, assault rifles, and shotguns—and use gadgets such as grenades, flashbangs, and detonated mines. Players can buy armor that boosts Thorton's endurance during missions. Non-lethal means can also be used; Thorton can use martial arts or tranquilizing guns to knock out enemies, and stealth to evade enemies and security measures such as cameras. Levels are intricate, with multiple paths for players to use and explore. Players can collect money bags and open safes in mission areas, and use the money to buy weapons, gadgetry, and intelligence after returning to the hub. Players can hide behind a cover to evade enemy fire and prevent themselves being noticed. To open locked doors and encrypted computers, and disable alarms, players must hack them by completing mini-games. A mission summary screen, which lists the number of completed objectives and individual players killed or knocked out, appears after the completion of missions. By choosing the correct dialogue options and completing certain gameplay challenges, players can earn small combat enhancements called Perks. Thorton's skills can be extensively customized. Players earn experience points while completing certain actions. Skills points are earned when players level-up after earning sufficient experience points, which can be used to upgrade nine aspects of Thorton's skills; namely Stealth, Pistols, Submachine Guns, Shotguns, Assault Rifles, Sabotage, Technical Aptitude, Toughness and Martial Arts. Spending points on these aspects unlock new skills that can be activated to enhance Thorton's combat efficiency. For instance, a skill known as Chain Shot slows the passage of time and allows players to kill enemies in rapid succession. Players can specialize in three skills, which further raises the level cap. Alpha Protocol features numerous non-playable characters (NPC) with whom to interact. Conversations occur in real-time, giving the player a limited amount of time to respond to key decision points. The dialogue system in the game, known as the Dialogue Stance System (DSS), allows the player to choose one of three attitudes, or "stances", when speaking to an NPC. In dialogue sequences, the player can choose from three main options; "professional", "suave", and "aggressive". Sometimes, a fourth, "special" dialogue choice is also available. Dossiers enable players to gain early understanding of NPCs before approaching them; new dialogue options may appear if the dossiers are nearly completed after players collect sufficient intelligence. Each NPC will react differently to these choices; they change their perception of Thorton, affecting his reputation. It will also change NPCs' actions during the game, benefiting or undermining Thorton's operation. While dialogue choices will have some immediately noticeable consequences, many may not become apparent until much later in the game. Players can also make numerous important decisions that affects the game's story, including the fate of some in-game characters. These decisions change the state of the game's world and lead to 32 possible endings. ## Synopsis ### Characters The main and playable character of Alpha Protocol is Michael Thorton (Josh Gilman), a highly skilled secret agent newly recruited into a clandestine United States agency called Alpha Protocol, which has unlimited resources to conduct covert operations on behalf of the government. Thorton's colleagues are his handler Mina Tang (Adrienne Wilkinson), superior Yancy Westridge (Gary Anthony Williams), and veteran Alpha Protocol advisors Alan Parker (Michael Bell) and Sean Darcy (Andre Sogliuzzo). ### Plot Alpha Protocol is a highly classified black ops agency whose existence remains unknown to many—even those in the highest echelons of the United States government—as a means to operate outside of the confines of government oversight. Recent inductee Agent Michael Thorton is given his first assignment; the assassination of Sheikh Ali Shaheed, the leader of the Saudi Arabia-based terrorist group Al-Samad, which used American-made missiles to shoot down a civilian airliner. When confronted, Shaheed claims Halbech, an American defense contractor, provided him with the weapons and target. Thorton neutralizes Shaheed and recovers his intel, but his position is struck by missiles and Thorton is presumed dead. Thorton survives with the aid of his handler Mina Tang, who warns him of the attack and that the agency has been infiltrated by Halbech operatives. Shaheed's intel reveals three key locations tied to the conspiracy; Rome, where an Al-Samad cell has been activated; Moscow, through which the missiles were routed; and Taipei, where Taiwanese President Ronald Sung is under threat of assassination. The locations can be visited in any order and events that take place may influence interactions that occur in other locations. Thorton deduces that Halbech's plan is to raise global tensions and cause a new cold war, turning the world into its private marketplace. In Rome, Thorton meets Madison Saint James, with whose help he discovers the private security firm Veteran Combat Initiative (VCI), which is run by Halbech's former security chief Conrad Marburg, who is planning a false flag operation to blow up a museum to influence harsher anti-terrorism legislation in Europe using Al-Samad as a scapegoat. Marburg kidnaps Madison; Thorton must choose between saving her or preventing the museum's destruction and innocent deaths. Afterward, Marburg escapes unless Thorton can persuade him to finish their fight to the death. If Thorton chooses to save Madison over the civilians, she leaves out of guilt. In Moscow, Thorton tracks weapon shipments to Konstantin Brayko, a Russian Mafia underboss with apparent ties to Halbech. During his investigation, Thorton can encounter German VCI-affiliate mercenary SIE, and Sis, a mute in-service to Albatross, the leader of the G22 paramilitary group. Thorton, aided by either G22 or the VCI, infiltrates the American embassy to contact Russian Mafia boss Sergei Surkov. After discussing the arms deal with Surkov, Thorton confronts Brayko in his mansion. After defeating Brayko, Thorton can learn that Surkov worked with Halbech and framed Brayko. If he learns the truth, Thorton confronts Surkov, whom he can either work with, arrest or kill. In Taipei, Thorton uncovers a plot by Omen Deng of the Chinese Secret Police to assassinate Ronald Sung and incite riots at a political rally to provoke a conflict between China and the U.S. With aid from Triad leader Hong Shi, and/or G22, and Steven Heck—a psychotic man claiming to work for the CIA—Thorton counters an assassination attempt by Deng and obtains a disk containing the plot. When the disk is analyzed, a security protocol starts to erase data, forcing the player to choose to save files detailing either the assassination or the riot instigation. Eventually, Deng and Thorton duel on a building overlooking the podium, after which Thorton can either kill or spare Deng. If Deng is spared, it is revealed that both he and Thorton were tricked into thinking the other was the assassin, allowing the real assassin to shoot Sung. If the assassination data is saved, Thorton persuades Sung to wear body armor and survive, but hundreds are killed in the riots. Along the way, Thorton encounters Scarlet Lake, a photojournalist with many contacts. After completing the three operations and optionally contacting some affiliates, Thorton — needing to expose Halbech's activities before World War III starts — surrenders to Alpha Protocol and is brought to Henry Leland, CEO of Halbech and acting commander of Alpha Protocol. Leland and Thorton discuss his activities; if the player has a high reputation, Leland subsequently attempts to recruit Thorton. If Thorton refuses, he escapes the Alpha Protocol holding facility and with the aid of his prior contacts — if any — fights or sneaks through the Alpha Protocol facility. After confronting Leland himself, Thorton may either execute or capture him, but Leland is killed if caught. If Thorton agrees to work with Leland, or if he spared Shaheed and obtained the information against Alpha Protocol from him in the endgame, he also escapes the Alpha Protocol facility and eventually confronts his former superior Yancy Westridge. Shortly after executing or sparing Westridge, Thorton can choose to partner with Leland or betray him. If the player confronted Westridge using Shaheed's information instead, Thorton will have the option of executing or sparing Leland as well. Additionally, Thorton can learn that the real assassin in Taipei was Scarlet Lake, who is in Leland's employ, and he may choose to either execute her for justice, let her go, or invite her to team up with him. Escaping into a bay on a motor yacht (potentially with a number of allies), Thorton considers his next move and wonders whether his life will continue to be exciting. ## Development The development of Alpha Protocol began around March 2006. In late 2005, developer Obsidian Entertainment was finishing work on their video game Neverwinter Nights 2, during which the studio received a call from publisher Sega about making a new role-playing game for them. Around this time, Obsidian was busy with other projects and had no employees to spare for another game. Obsidian agreed with Sega's request for them to originate a new concept and to begin work on it when possible. Obsidian co-founders Feargus Urquhart and Chris Jones originated the concept of a "spy RPG"; Sega was pleased with the idea and its originality. After the cancellation of Dwarfs, Obsidian's role-playing game prequel to Snow White and the Seven Dwarves it was developing for Disney, the staff from that game began work on Alpha Protocol. While layoffs at Obsidian were avoided, the cancellation of Dwarfs forced the studio to give Sega the intellectual property rights to Alpha Protocol. As the game's development progressed, the team's size grew from two people to over sixty. During the early stages of its development, no personnel were assigned to lead roles on Alpha Protocol. The development team did not have much direction for the game, and they did not know its target audience. Neither did they prepare any documents laying out guidelines for the game's design and development. The team also struggled with designing stealth for the game due to their lack of experience and technical difficulties caused by the Unreal Engine 3. At that time, Obsidian was working on another project for Sega named Aliens: Crucible, which Sega later canceled. The Alpha Protocol team realized the game's slow progress and development could not continue. Around two years into development, Obsidian's co-owner Chris Parker became the game's project director, and the studio's creative director Chris Avellone volunteered to become its lead designer. Avellone and Parker organized a meeting to set a firm direction for the game and settled on its features. They decided not to include parkour, chase scenes with a motorcycle and yacht, and environmental interaction. A female character known as Uli Booi was scrapped after the meeting. The game structure was modified and safe houses were introduced to make the game less linear. The mini-games were also changed significantly; the team initially wanted to remove them completely but Sega objected and the team modified them and made them faster. With all these changes, both Sega's confidence in the game and the team's morale were restored. While the team had settled on the game's design, more features were cut or downgraded due to time constraints. The artificial intelligence originally designed for the game drained the game's technical performance and they made it less complex so the game could run better. A planned female version of Micheal Thorton was canceled in order to save money; the team would have needed to change dialogue and create new animations for the character. The mission debrief showing up after the player completed a mission was initially a bug discovered by one of the game's testers; the team redeveloped this to become an official feature. Obsidian also added and refined most of the role-playing elements in early-to-mid-2009 at Sega's request. The development team were inspired by pop culture spy icons such as Jack Bauer and James Bond; the game was a "Jason Bourne adventure" with some over-the top-characters similar to those in Kill Bill. They also took inspiration from other games, including Deus Ex, System Shock 2 and Fallout, TV series like Burn Notice, as well as films such as Syriana, Ronin, and The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly. The game is a spy-adventure; player's in-game choices affect the world's state. The morality in the game was designed to be ambiguous, reflecting its real-world setting. Players can choose to spare or kill all the enemies without knowing who their allies and enemies truly are. Thorton's responses to other non-playable characters also have consequences and affect their perception of Thorton. The team ensured that no matter which moral paths players take, they will be rewarded; the team did not want to punish players for playing the game in a certain way. Michael Thorton was designed to be an everyman, allowing players to choose their playstyle freely without having to conform to a particular style of play. To complement the spy theme of the game, the team added a timer to the dialogue system to further immerse players into the game and make intrinsic decisions. The dialogue stance system meant voice actors had to record the same lines using several different tones. The game's location was set across the globe; the team wanted players to feel Thorton is an "international superspy". Brian Mitsoda drafted the initial story for Alpha Protocol; he decided which locations would appear in the game and with Annie Carlson created all of the characters, while artist Brian Menze handled the characters' visual designs. The narrative in the released game was primarily written by Avellone, who took over the main creative role two years after development began. This resulted in a substantial rewriting and repurposing of the plot; player choice was given more importance, intertwining of gameplay and reactivity became a forefront design philosophy, and the core and motivations of several narrative threads were changed. The new narrative team, which consisted of Avellone, Travis Stout, and Matt MacLean, wrote new dialogue for the characters created by Mitsoda and Carlson, and they also wrote a new story and script using the locations decided upon by Mitsoda. Each writer was given a set amount of work; MacLean wrote most of the in-game emails and Stout was the lead writer for the Taipei hub, writing for characters including Steven Heck, Omen Deng, and Hong Shi. Stout also wrote several secondary characters in the Rome hub, while Avellone designed most of the other characters. Sega was supportive of the team's rewriting of the plot, sending quality assurance and cohesion strike teams to avoid problems with the in-game reactivity or plot holes; Sega, however, had little involvement with the narrative aspects and mainly focused on the game and combat design. Urquhart said the game's development problems were partly due to Sega's indecision, particularly in budgeting; one long segment of the game cost around US\$500,000 to produce, which was eventually cut because Sega thought it was not a good fit for the game. The game was officially announced by Sega and Obsidian Entertainment in March 2008. Alpha Protocol was originally due to be released in October 2009, but Sega later announced its release would be delayed until early 2010 after the game missed its projected release date. Producer Matt Hickman said the publisher delayed the game so the team could further polish it, introducing improvements to the lighting system. He later stated the delay was intended to reposition the game in a less crowded release window to avoid competition with other blockbuster titles. The game was officially released in Australia on May 27, 2010; in Europe on May 28; and in North America on June 1. Players who preordered the game via GameStop and Best Buy received the "Exclusive Assault Pack" and the "Stealth Weapons Pack", respectively. Both packs give players additional weapons to use in the game. In June 2019, Sega halted the sale of Alpha Protocol across all digital outlets, including Steam and the Humble Store, due to the licenses of several music tracks used in the game having expired. ## Reception ### Critical reception Alpha Protocol received divided reviews from critics; while Obsidian expected the game to score around 80 marks out of 100, review aggregator Metacritic recorded lower average scores. The gameplay received negative reviews. The gunplay was criticized for lacking polish and being unrefined, and the artificial intelligence was found to be subpar by most critics. Rich McCormick from PC Gamer called the combat "simplistic" and the gunplay "floaty", but he was impressed by the weapon customization system's complexity and extensiveness. Charles Onyett from IGN had a less-enthusiastic view of the customization system and considered it only serviceable. He also criticized other gameplay faults, such as the unreliable cover system, repetitive combat encounters, and sub-par boss fights. Christian Donlan enjoyed the boss fights for their changing of the game's pace. Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot criticized the game's camera for being unreliable and the cover for being inconsistent. He also noted that poor AI hindered the stealth sections and that combat scenarios may not match the players' customization, leading to players' frustration. Nicholas Tan of Game Revolution noted issues with the clumsiness of using special abilities, and poor gunplay, especially in the earlier levels of the game. He enjoyed the mini-games, which he described as "challenging". However, Onyett and VanOrd noted these mini-games were not designed for PC players. Justin McElroy from Joystiq criticized the gunplay, in which weapon accuracy is based on its statistics instead of aiming. Jim Sterling from Destructoid and Joe Juba from Game Informer were very critical of the gameplay systems, which Sterling called "abominable" and "ruined"; and Juba said many of the game's systems are "archaic and unaccommodating". The game's role-playing nature received critical acclaim. Both McCarmick and Tan liked the Dialogue Stance System's timer; they said it provides a tense experience for the players because it forces them to choose quickly. McCormick said the description for the dialogue choices is not sufficient. He liked the game's respect of players' choices and their effect on certain dialogue outcomes, concluding that these choices make the story more personal for the player. Tan praised the game's script and voice-acting, which he said was well-written and excellent. Onyett said the game was unsure of its direction, calling the game boring when it tries to be serious and childish when it tries to be humorous. He praised the game's sense of progression, noting players' freedom when interacting with in-game characters, though he was disappointed some characters were not fleshed out enough and most are "flat stereotypes". VanOrd also appreciated the game for respecting players' choices and their consequences on the game's world, and the plot's flexible nature. However, he was disappointed by the narrative, criticizing it for lacking "soul and character". Similarly, McElroy said the choice system was dragged down by the game's boring and flat story. Juba was disappointed by the lead character Michael Thorton, who he felt lacks a personality, and that the dialogue stance system is only capable of providing clichéd choices. The game's presentation received generally negative reviews. Its visuals were considered disappointing, with critics calling its graphics "bland", "artistically uninspired", and "dated". Tan noted the game's technical shortcomings, criticizing its textures and animation. Onyett shared similar concerns, calling the game's scenery and models unremarkable and dull. He also noted the number of glitches and frame rate issues in the game. VanOrd criticized the texture pop-ins and the long loading times for the textures to load. McElroy and Juba also said the game's loading time was very long. Sterling greatly disliked the game's graphics, saying it matches "the atrocious quality of the gameplay" and that it feels like a "bad budget game that isn't even worth \$20". Critics have mixed opinions on the game overall. McCormick said while the gameplay is subpar, Alpha Protocol is a captivating "spy simulation" that has a compelling and personal story. Tan called it a strange hybrid with disappointing and average gameplay, and provocative RPG systems, and described the game as a divisive title. Many critics said the game needs a sequel to improve its shortcomings. Onyett said it had the foundation to be entertaining but the numerous gameplay faults undermined its potential. VanOrd described the game as a "5,000-piece jigsaw puzzle with 500 pieces missing", and said that while it was ambitious, it was incomplete and the gameplay faults were too significant to be ignored. Sterling noted the game's ambition but said its execution problems and severe fundamental faults tarnish the experience. Donlan said the game can steadily win players over, despite the fact it will constantly frustrate them. Since 2013, the game's reputation improved. Tony Deans from Hardcore Gamer said the choices featured in the game made the narrative engrossing and engaging, and that any small choice may have big consequences. He concluded by saying every RPG player should play the game. Richard Cobbett from Eurogamer called it the best spy game ever made, appreciating that the story and characters react to players' choices, and said that other games should learn from it. He concluded by expressing his desire for a sequel. Phil Savage called the game "a wonderful mess, full of great ideas, but hampered by the sort of behind-the-scenes development troubles". He criticized the opening Saudi Arabia level for being "monotonous", but stated later levels are more varied and interesting. He thought the game should be applauded for its modern setting that was rarely explored by other role-playing games, and added that there are many great game design and systems that can be expanded upon by Obsidian or other game development companies. Anthony Burch from Destructoid praised the game's sense of humor, ending variety, and the combat system, in which he stated its "brokenness" becomes fun. He concluded by calling it one of the best role-playing games ever, and compared it with Mass Effect. Rowan Kaiser of Engadget positively compared the game to Deus Ex, saying, "the strengths of both games point toward the future of video games". ### Legacy In the United Kingdom, the game was the thirteenth-best-selling entertainment-related retail software in its week of release. A month after release, the game had sold 700,000 copies in the US and Europe. The game's slow sales contributed to Sega's lower-than-expected financial results in the three months ending on June 30, 2011. Sega was not satisfied with the game's commercial performance and announced there would not be a sequel to it. The game gained a cult following upon release, mainly due to its handling of players' choices. Obsidian Entertainment had publicly stated its desire to develop a sequel for Alpha Protocol, for which the development team had new ideas. Intellectual property owner Sega must approve any sequel, for which it has not announced any plans. The trademark was cancelled in 2021.
28,355	Square (video game company)	1,173,775,912	Japanese video game company	[ "2003 mergers and acquisitions", "Defunct video game companies of Japan", "Japanese companies disestablished in 2003", "Japanese companies established in 1986", "Software companies based in Tokyo", "Square (video game company)", "Square Enix", "Video game companies disestablished in 2003", "Video game companies established in 1986", "Video game development companies", "Video game publishers" ]	(also known under its international brand name SquareSoft) was a Japanese video game development studio and publisher. It was founded in 1986 by Masafumi Miyamoto, who spun off part of his father's electronics company Den-Yu-Sha. Among its early employees were designers Hironobu Sakaguchi, Hiromichi Tanaka, Akitoshi Kawazu and Koichi Ishii, artist Kazuko Shibuya, programmer Nasir Gebelli, and composer Nobuo Uematsu. Initially focusing on action games, the team saw popular success with Final Fantasy in 1987. A role-playing video game, it became the first in a franchise of the same name. Later notable staff included directors Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita, designer and writer Yasumi Matsuno, artists Tetsuya Nomura and Yusuke Naora, and composers Yoko Shimomura and Masashi Hamauzu. Initially developing for PCs, then exclusively for Nintendo systems, Square broke with Nintendo in the 1990s to develop for Sony's in-development PlayStation. Their first PlayStation project, Final Fantasy VII, was a worldwide critical and commercial success, attributed with boosting the popularity of its genre and platform. Alongside the Final Fantasy series, the company developed and published several other notable series, including SaGa, Mana, Front Mission, Chrono, and Kingdom Hearts. Over the years, many staff left to found studios such as Monolith Soft (Xeno), Sacnoth (Shadow Hearts), Mistwalker (Terra Battle), and AlphaDream (Mario & Luigi). In 2001, the company saw financial troubles due to the commercial failure of the feature film Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, which ultimately led Sakaguchi, the creator of Final Fantasy, to withdraw from active game production and leave the company in 2003. The film's failure disrupted merger discussions with Enix, publisher of the Dragon Quest series. Following the success of Final Fantasy X and Kingdom Hearts, negotiations resumed and the merger went ahead on April 1, 2003. ## History ### Origins Square was initially established in September 1983 as a software subsidiary of Den-Yu-Sha, an electric power conglomerate led by Kuniichi Miyamoto. His son Masafumi Miyamoto, then a part-time employee of the Science and Technology Department at Keio University, had little interest in following his father into the electricity business. Miyamoto instead became a software developer at the Yokohama branch of Den-Yu-Sha in Hiyoshi, with a focus on the emerging video game market. Their original offices were based in a former hairdresser's salon. The company's name referred to a golfing term, and represented its aim to face challenges head-on. It also referenced a town square, emphasizing a production environment based on cooperation. At the time, video games in Japan were usually created by a single programmer. Miyamoto, on the other hand, believed that graphic designers, programmers, and professional story writers would be needed to keep up with advances in computing and video game development. During these early years, the group was compared to a family business; one of the early hires, Shinichiro Kajitani, joined because he was a friend of Miyamoto, and later compared the company at that time to a "college club". To recruit for this new organizational structure, Miyamoto organized a salon in Yokohama and offered jobs to those who demonstrated exceptional programming skills. This led to the part-time hiring of university students Hironobu Sakaguchi and Hiromichi Tanaka, as well as Hisashi Suzuki, who would go on to become Square's CEO. Miyamoto's initial plan was to recruit from Keio University, but this never materialized. ### 1985–1987: First games, Final Fantasy Square's first attempt at a game was an adaptation of the television game show Torin-ingen. As Miyamoto had not secured the license to adapt it, the show's producers forced Square to cancel the game, prompting its team to be reshuffled. Square's first completed game was The Death Trap (1984) for NEC PC-8801, a text adventure set in a war-torn African nation. The Death Trap was the first game published under the Square brand. Its sequel, Will: The Death Trap II, was released the following year to commercial success. Many of Square's early titles were produced for PC devices, and focused on the action genre. In 1985, the company negotiated a licensing agreement with Nintendo to develop titles for the Famicom (Nintendo Entertainment System). The company shifted to developing for the Famicom to benefit from its stable hardware, compared to the constantly changing components of PCs. Square's first Famicom release was a port of the run and gun game Thexder (1985), and its first original game was the scrolling shooter King's Knight (1986). During this period, the team also hired new developers Akitoshi Kawazu and Koichi Ishii, artist Kazuko Shibuya, Iranian-American programmer Nasir Gebelli, and composer Nobuo Uematsu. Yusuke Hirata joined that year as sales manager, and later became the company's publicity manager. In April 1986, Square moved into new offices based in Ginza, noted as one of the most expensive areas for companies to operate; Sakaguchi later speculated Miyamoto was hoping to attract business by appearing affluent. Square was re-established as an independent developer in September of that year with capital of ¥10 million, buying the original Square gaming division from Den-Yu-Sha in December. Sakaguchi was appointed as a Director of Planning and Development, and Hisashi Suzuki became one of the company's directors. Due to the high cost of Ginza rents, the company was forced to move into smaller offices in Okachimachi, Taitō. Square began struggling financially following multiple commercial failures for Nintendo's Famicom Disk System peripheral. Miyamoto asked the company's four directors for game proposals, with plans to have their staff vote on the best idea. Sakaguchi proposed making a role-playing video game (RPG), believing it to be a viable project after the success of Enix's Dragon Quest (1986). While skeptical, Miyamoto allowed production of the RPG on the condition it only had a five-person team. Sakaguchi led development, bringing in Gebelli, Kawazu, Ishii, and Uematsu. Production of the game, eventually called Final Fantasy, proceeded in "fits and starts". Sakaguchi eventually received help from the other team at Square led by Tanaka, which included Shibuya and newcomer debugger Hiroyuki Ito. Production on the game lasted roughly ten months. While shipments of 200,000 units were planned, Sakaguchi persuaded Square to double that number. Final Fantasy was released in 1987 to commercial success, selling over 400,000 copies in Japan. It saw greater sales success in North American when it was released in 1989, selling 700,000 copies. Two other Japanese successes from 1987 were Rad Racer and The 3-D Battles of WorldRunner. ### 1987–1995: Expansion and notable staff The success of Final Fantasy prompted development of Final Fantasy II (1988), which established many of the series recurring elements. This and four more Final Fantasy titles would appear on the Famicom and Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super Famicom), culminating in Final Fantasy VI (1994). These were among a string of projects that Square produced exclusively for Nintendo consoles, including the portable Game Boy. In 1990, Square moved its offices to the Akasaka district, and then to Ebisu, Shibuya in 1992. In April 1991, Square merged with an identically-named dormant company in order to change its share prices. As a result of the merger, Square's foundation was backdated to the other company's July 1966 founding date. At that time, Square drew some of its development funding from loans from Shikoku Bank. Due to increasing development costs, the bank sent Tomoyuki Takechi on secondment to be their office manager in 1990. Takechi's secondment lasted until 1994, by which time Square had annual sales worth ¥16 million per year. In August of that year, Square registered with the Japan Securities Dealers Association to offer shares for public purchase. Sakaguchi was by now a prominent figure within the company, and was promoted to Executive President in 1991. His increasing corporate involvement lessened his creative input, prompting him to give greater influence to other staff. Gebelli left Square in 1993, retiring on royalties from the Final Fantasy series. Miyamoto stepped down as Square's President in 1991 while remaining a major shareholder, and was replaced by Tetsuo Mizuno. In 1991, Suzuki became Vice President. As Final Fantasy became a featured property for the company, Square produced additional projects that became successful series of their own. The Japan-exclusive real-time strategy series Hanjuku Hero, which began in 1988, parodied conventions of the RPG genre. Kawazu helmed an RPG project for the Game Boy. Released in 1989, Makai Toushi SaGa (The Final Fantasy Legend) spawned the SaGa series, which Kawazu would continue to be involved over the years. After the release of Final Fantasy III (1990), Ishii was offered the chance to create his own game, leading to the production of Seiken Densetsu: Final Fantasy Gaiden (Final Fantasy Adventure) for the Game Boy in 1991. Ishii went on to develop additional Seiken Densetsu titles, released outside of Japan as the Mana series. A famous game from the period was Chrono Trigger, born from a collaboration between Sakaguchi, Dragon Quest creator Yuji Horii, and Dragon Ball artist Akira Toriyama. Among other standalone titles were the Western-exclusive Secret of Evermore, and the Mario-themed Super Mario RPG co-produced with Nintendo. Reflecting on this period, Sakaguchi noted that Final Fantasy was the company's most recognized property, while celebrating the fact that the company would still be profitable on the merits of their other successful game series. Additional staff joined Square by the early 1990s, inspired by the successful Final Fantasy series, with several first working on Final Fantasy IV (1991), Yoshinori Kitase acted as a writer and later director, artist Tetsuya Nomura began as a graphic designer, and Tetsuya Takahashi and Kaori Tanaka were both artists and writers. Takashi Tokita became a full-time employee at the company, and Hiroyuki Ito began his work as a game designer. Chihiro Fujioka worked on several projects including co-directing Super Mario RPG. Kenichi Nishi worked in minor roles on Chrono Trigger and Super Mario RPG. Masato Kato, who joined in 1993, became scenario writer for Chrono Trigger. Artist Yusuke Naora first worked on Final Fantasy VI. Kazushige Nojima, known for his work on the Glory of Heracles series, joined as a scenario writer. Future director Motomu Toriyama, who had no experience with game development, began as a scenario writer. Square also hired additional music staff. Kenji Ito contributed to both the SaGa and Mana series. Hiroki Kikuta worked on the Mana series and standalone projects. Yasunori Mitsuda started as a sound designer and was lauded for his work on the Chrono series. Yoko Shimomura, formerly a Capcom composer, did her first work on Live A Live (1994). In 1995, Square moved its headquarters to the Shimomeguro district in Meguro. ### 1995–1999: Move to PlayStation Following the release of Final Fantasy VI and Chrono Trigger, Square staff began planning the next entry in the Final Fantasy series, and entered the emerging 3D gaming market. With the production of Final Fantasy VII, Square decided to shift their projects to Sony's new PlayStation console, prompted by the affordability of CD-ROM distribution, compared to Nintendo's continued use of expensive cartridges. This shift caused a long-standing rift between Square and Nintendo; one Square employee recalled Nintendo telling the company to "never come back". In 1996, Square's final project with Nintendo was Sting Entertainment's Treasure Hunter G for the Super Famicom, while the company debuted DreamFactory's Tobal No. 1 for the Playstation that same year. Soon after, the company signed a licensing agreement with Sony, who gained the exclusive right to publish Square's next six games in the West. Square continued work on Final Fantasy VII, with Kitase as director, Naora as art director, Nomura as a lead artist, and Nojima as scenario writer. Released worldwide in 1997, Final Fantasy VII was a worldwide commercial and critical success, bringing Square international fame. Also in 1997, at Square's invitation, Takechi returned and took Mizuno's place as President. Three new hires during the period were Shinji Hashimoto, Yasumi Matsuno, and Masashi Hamauzu. Hashimoto joined in 1995 as promotions producer for Final Fantasy VII. Matsuno, along with a number of other developers, had left Quest Corporation following the release of Tactics Ogre (1995), and worked with Sakaguchi on Final Fantasy Tactics (1997). Hamauzu joined in 1996, and worked on Final Fantasy spin-off titles and the SaGa series. Sakaguchi, working on other projects, took on the role of executive producer for the series beginning with Final Fantasy VIII, and Hashimoto stepped in as producer. Hirata went from an administrative position to lead producer, focusing on diversifying Square's library into new game genres. Several properties were introduced during this period. These included Parasite Eve, based on a novel of the same name by Hideaki Sena; Front Mission, which began on the Super Famicom but was transferred to the PlayStation beginning with its second entry; and the Final Fantasy spin-off series Chocobo, starring an incarnation of the titular mascot character. As Square was estranged from Nintendo, the company supported other platforms including the WonderSwan and Windows. Late in the PlayStation's lifecycle, Square continued to support the console with multiple releases, such as Threads of Fate (1999) and Vagrant Story (2000). The company also began work on PlayOnline, a digital storefront and a platform for online game services and web content. During the late 1990s, Square launched an initiative to give teams of younger staff members a chance to create experimental titles on smaller budgets. Among such titles were Xenogears, Soukaigi, and Another Mind. Around this time, several staff members departed Square due to creative differences or a desire to work on their own projects. These included Takahashi and Tanaka, Fujioka, Nishi, Kikuta, Mitsuda, and Mana artist Shinichi Kameoka. In April 2000, Suzuki was appointed Square's new President, while Takechi became a company chairman. Also at this time, two outside directors were appointed, Kenichi Ohmae of Ohmae & Associates and Makoto Naruke of Microsoft. The corporate reshuffle was intended to strengthen Square's overseas connections and bring in technical and administrative support for future digital and online content. Alongside this, Yoichi Wada joined the company as a company director and eventually COO. In August 2000, Square was listed on Tokyo Stock Exchange's first section, which includes the largest companies on the exchange. ### 2000–2003: The Spirits Within, final years In addition to leading production on Final Fantasy IX (2000), Sakaguchi also worked at the 1997-established Square Pictures studio on a Final Fantasy feature film. Called Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, it was planned as Sakaguchi's first push towards cross-media storytelling; however, the project ran over budget and ended up costing Square and co-producer Columbia Pictures US\$137 million. Upon its release in 2001, The Spirits Within was met with mixed critical reception, and grossed only \$85 million. Labeled as a box-office bomb, the film damaged Square's finances, and led to the closure of Square Pictures. Following both the failure of The Spirits Within and a delay to Final Fantasy X (2001) for the PlayStation 2, Square suffered a financial loss for the first time, prompting Sakaguchi, Takechi, and director Masatsugu Hiramatsu to resign from their positions. Sakaguchi was kept on as executive producer for Final Fantasy, while Takechi and Hiramatsu were retained as external consultants. This period left Sakaguchi in a state of low morale. In late 2001, Suzuki stepped down as President, and was replaced by Wada. Yosuke Matsuda became Senior Vice President. Kenji Ito also left during this period to work as a freelance composer. Prior to the film's release, rival company Enix was proposing merging with another game company to alleviate development costs, opening serious discussions with Square in 2000. Square's financial losses with The Spirits Within prompted Enix to halt discussions. Under Wada, the company underwent restructuring with the intent of streamlining production and resources, and cutting development costs to increase profits. After evaluation of its financial position, and with changes to the console war due to Microsoft's Xbox, Square opened talks with Nintendo for the first time since their breakup in the 1990s. The talks were successful, with Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles beginning development for the GameCube in late 2001. Square also began production on Final Fantasy X-2, the first direct sequel to a Final Fantasy game. Final Fantasy X-2 was Sakaguchi's last credited project at Square, and he left the company in 2003. Around this time, Square also began development on Kingdom Hearts (2002), with Nomura making his directorial debut. The game was a collaboration between Square and The Walt Disney Company, blending Disney characters with Final Fantasy elements in an original story. Kingdom Hearts was Shimomura's last project as an in-house composer before going freelance in 2002. Also released in 2002 was the Japanese version of Final Fantasy XI, the company's first MMORPG. Conceived by Sakaguchi, it was developed by the Chrono team and led by Ishii. Final Fantasy XI and its first expansion was Kato's last work for Square before leaving in 2002 to go freelance. Following the commercial success of Final Fantasy X and Kingdom Hearts, Square and Enix resumed talks and agreed to merge their two companies. Wada described it as a merger of two companies "at their height". Despite this, the merger had its skeptics, particularly Miyamoto who did not want to see his controlling stake diluted in a merged company. Miyamoto's issue was resolved by altering the exchange ratio to one Square share for 0.81 Enix shares, and the merger was greenlit. Square Enix was formed on April 1, 2003, with Enix as the surviving corporate entity and Square dissolving its departments and subsidiaries into the new company. Around 80% of Square's staff transitioned into Square Enix. Square's last release was the Japanese version of X-2. ## Structure ### Development structure During reports on the merger with Enix, Takashi Oya of Deutsche Securities contrasted Enix's tradition of outsourcing development versus Square's approach to developing "everything by itself". When Square was founded in the early 1980s, there was no set development structure, with the ten-person staff freely shifting between roles and projects. This eventually evolved into two loosely-defined production groups, led by Sakaguchi and Tanaka, respectively. Following the release of Final Fantasy IV, Sakaguchi divided the production team, assigning different staff members to the Final Fantasy, SaGa and Mana series. A secondary studio was founded in Osaka in 1990, with Final Fantasy Legend III (1991) as their first project. By 1997, the company was divided into eight development divisions, with two based in Osaka. In 1998, the old development divisions were restructured into Production Departments, and the Osaka branch was closed down. The system was reshuffled again in 2002 to promote "greater understanding", and allow for reassignment between divisions. Among the heads of divisions at this time were Kitase, Kawazu, Tanaka, Matsuno and Hirata. Following the merger with Enix, the eight divisions were incorporated into the new company, with two additional divisions brought in from Enix. Square initially did not have an internal localization department, instead outsourcing to a number of translators. Following the release of Final Fantasy VII, which saw criticism for its localization, Square created an internal department to encourage higher quality. Initially having only two employees, it grew steadily over the years. Individual games still ran into difficulties due to their large text sizes, difficulties translating some culture-specific elements, potential censorship, and the introduction of voice acting with games including Final Fantasy X. Notable localization staff included Kaoru Moriyama, Ted Woolsey, Michael Basket, Richard Honeywood, and Alexander O. Smith. ### Publishing and subsidiaries While Square self-published the majority of its games in Japan, by contrast their Western presence during the 80s and early 90s was small. RPGs were not popular in the North American market at that time, and Square's presence in Europe was limited. The original Final Fantasy was published in North America in 1990 by Nintendo of America near the end of the life cycle of the Nintendo Entertainment System, resulting in its two sequels being passed over for localization at that time. After opening their North American offices, Square began publishing selected titles under the "SquareSoft" brand. One of their third-party North American releases was the original Breath of Fire by Capcom, who were busy enough to outsource publishing and localization to Square. Many Square titles remained exclusive to Japan, for reasons including design complexities, low graphical quality, and technical difficulties. In the 1990s, Square's first six PlayStation releases were published by Sony as part of a contract between the two companies. Eidos Interactive notably handled the Windows ports of Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VIII. In Europe, Square's local branch self-published a number of games including mainline Final Fantasy titles. It also partnered with third-party companies including Eidos, Crave Entertainment, and Infogrames for either publishing or distribution of different titles. In 1989, Square established SquareSoft in Redmond, Washington, to provide development and publishing support in the West. As Square moved its projects to PlayStation in 1994, SquareSoft moved to Marina del Rey, California, while changing its name twice in one year, to Square LA followed by Square USA. Square USA would notably develop Secret of Evermore. In 1997, a second Square USA branch was opened in Honolulu, Hawaii to focus on new interactive entertainment research, going on to help with CGI development on Parasite Eve and Final Fantasy IX. Square Europe was founded in 1998 in London, England, focusing on publishing in Europe. A publishing brand called Aques was established by Square in 1996. The name was an anagram of Square's name, as well as an acronym for "Advanced QUality Entertainment and Sports", representing the company's diversification outside of role-playing games. That same year, Square established a distribution company called DigiCube, with convenience stores as their main strategy. The subdidiary expanded into book publishing, stocked games from other companies, and at one point published games under its own brand. DigiCube survived the Square Enix merger, though it declared bankruptcy in 2004 after years of declining sales. In 1999, Square created a number of subsidiaries with dedicated roles: Square Visual Works to focus on producing CGI animation, Square Sounds for music and sound effects, Squartz for quality control and user support, and Square Next to support smaller game projects. Following the success of Final Fantasy VII in 1997, Sakaguchi founded a dedicated CGI film studio called Square Pictures in Hawaii; his aim was to both develop The Spirits Within and help with further development of Square's CGI technology. By the end of 2001, Square Pictures was dissolved and merged into Visual Works. Square USA's Hawaiian branch developed the CGI short "Final Flight of the Osiris" that later formed part of the 2003 anthology film The Animatrix. The branch was shut down in 2002 following a failed attempt to find a film studio partner. In 2002, Square Next was rebranded as The Game Designer Studio, with ownership between Square's Product Development Division 2 and Kawazu. The aim was to allow for development of games for Nintendo consoles without impacting production on Sony platform games. The Game Designers Studio was absorbed back into Square Enix after the completion of Crystal Chronicles, first renamed to SQEX Corporation and eventually dissolved entirely in 2010. Square Sounds was dissolved into the main company in March 2002 as an internal division, a move attributed to cost cutting. All the other subsidiaries were folded into Square Enix during the merger, with Visual Works becoming its own dedicated department. On May 1, 1998, Square formed a joint-venture partnership with Electronic Arts; Square Electronic Arts published Square titles in North America, while Electronic Arts Square published Electronic Arts titles in Japan. The partnership emerged the year following Electronic Arts winding down a similar partnership with Victor in December 1997. Shares were distributed between the two on a 70/30 basis relating to their role; Square Electronic Arts had Square owning 70%, while Electronic Arts owned 30%. Electronic Arts Square would also develop the PlayStation 2 launch title X-Squad. In March 2003, coinciding with the Square Enix merger, both ventures were dissolved, with each partner buying the other's shares. In its February press release, Square described the joint-venture as a success. The Square side of the venture was rebranded under the Square Enix name. ### Affiliates and acquisitions Between 1986 and 1988, Square led a collective of game developers dedicated to the production of games for the Famicom Disk System. The Square-owned label, called Disk Original Group (DOG), included Square, HummingBirdSoft, System Sacom, Microcabin, Carry Lab, Thinking Rabbit, and Xtalsoft. This coalition was able to pool financial resources, allowing them to overcome the prohibitive costs of acting individually. The Famicom Disk System was rendered defunct by 1988 due to increased storage capacity in standard Famicom ROM cartridges. In January 1994, Square acquired developer Cobra Team, turning it into a subsidiary called Solid and focusing their work on cooperating with external developers. In 1995, Square established DreamFactory as an affiliate studio, which developed fighting-based titles for the PlayStation and PS2. DreamFactory became an independent company in 2001 after Square transferred their shares. Square later founded subsidiary Escape in March 1998 with staff from DreamFactory. It only produced Driving Emotion Type-S (2000) before being liquidated in 2003. The company held a stake in Bushido Blade developer Lightweight, founded in 1995. It sold that stake to software company Forside in 1999. Front Mission developers G-Craft had a close relationship with Square, who provided funds and production resources. Square bought out G-Craft and incorporated it in 1997 during production of Front Mission 2. Other affiliates associated with Square between the early 1990s to 2000 were font company Kusanagi, and developers Positron and Luciola. In 2002, Ogre Battle developer Quest Corporation withdrew from game development and was bought by Square. Absorbed and repurposed into a production division, their first project was Final Fantasy Tactics Advance (2003). ## Related studios Many Square employees went on to found notable development studios and other ventures. Nishi founded Love-de-Lic in 1995, producing three games including Moon: Remix RPG Adventure. Love-de-Lic staff went on to found other small studios including Skip Ltd. (Chibi-Robo!), and Punchline (Rule of Rose). Frustrated with Square's rigid hierarchy, Kikuta founded Sacnoth in 1997, which would become known for the Shadow Hearts series; he left Sacnoth in 1999 following the release of his project Koudelka and founded the music label Nostrilia. Several Xenogears developers, including Takahashi and Tanaka, founded Monolith Soft in 1999 in order to pursue projects outside the Final Fantasy series, developing more games using the Xeno prefix. Kameoka and other developers who worked on Legend of Mana (1999) founded Brownie Brown in 2000. Brownie Brown later worked with Square Enix on Sword of Mana (2003), a remake of Final Fantasy Adventure. Also in 2000, Mizuno founded AlphaDream, engaging Fujioka and going on to develop the Mario & Luigi series. Staff members from Square Pictures, including The Spirits Within co-director Motonori Sakakibara, established Sprite Animation Studios in 2002. After his resignation from Square, Takechi founded music label Dreamusic in 2001 with Kazunaga Nitta. Mitsuda founded the music studio Procyon in 2001 so he could work while maintaining his health. After stepping down as president in 2001, Sakaguchi experienced a period of low morale before returning to game development, founding Mistwalker in 2004. The studio became known for the Blue Dragon and Terra Wars series, as well as stand-alone projects such as Lost Odyssey and The Last Story.
5,909,748	Baralt Theatre	1,059,453,686	Theatre in Maracaibo, Venezuela	[ "Buildings and structures in Maracaibo", "Neoclassical architecture in Venezuela", "Theatres completed in 1883", "Theatres in Venezuela" ]	El Teatro Baralt (English: The Baralt Theatre) is a theatre in downtown Maracaibo, Venezuela, at the northwestern corner of the historic Plaza Bolívar. The first theatre at the site was built in the mid 19th century as a small performance hall, with subsequent theatre buildings there having seen many different reconstructions. A major Venezuelan cultural institution, the theatre received a National Monument designation in 1981, recognizing its location as the site of the first film screenings in the country and as a longstanding part of the historic center of Maracaibo. ## Construction history ### Early theatre The first request to build a theatre was submitted to the Court of Spain by José Domingo Rus in 1811, but this was not approved. The first theatre began construction in 1839. The land it was built on was donated for this purpose by Don Miguel Antonio Baralt, who had inherited it from his father, the patriarch of the influential Baralt family in Venezuela (Miguel's son was Rafael María Baralt). Don Miguel often leased his land at the intersection of Urdaneta and Venezuela streets, where the theatre still stands, for performances; a temporary stage was constructed at the site before he donated it to the city. The land had become colloquially known as "el Teatro de Baralt" (Baralt's theatre) from the early 1800s. The construction project soon received help from the workers' union and, on 5 December 1845, from the state when 3,000 pesos were allotted to "build a more permanent structure within the property of Don Miguel". This building was also known as Teatro de Baralt and was in use between the 1840s and 1877, at which point it was demolished to be replaced by a full theatre building. ### Reconstructions The President of the State of Zulia, Rafael Parra, signed off on the demolition and rebuild of the theatre on 28 July 1877; he laid the first stone of the new building in a ceremony on 7 October 1877. The new theatre was neoclassical, designed by Manuel de Obando, and inaugurated on 24 July 1883; the inauguration was combined with traditional festivities for the birthday of Simón Bolívar. This theatre was named Teatro Baralt, to honor the whole family. Notably, the debut of the theatre featured a national play, a rarity in Latin America; a competition was held to choose a play, and seven writers submitted entries in two categories. In the prose category, three writers entered, but the judges did not like any of the plays and simply drew a winner at random (Sufrir por culpas ajenas by Eduardo Gallegos Celis); the four verse entries were better received, with a first and second prize awarded. The winner here was Qué mujer by Octavio Hernández, and the runner-up was En el borde del abismo by Manuel Antonio Marín. In 1928, the Governor of the State of Zulia, Vicente Pérez Soto, again announced a demolition and rebuild. The increased prosperity of the city, brought about by the development of the oil industry, and the resultant modernization of society, led Pérez Soto to want a building more in keeping with the city's enhanced status. The new theatre on this occasion was designed by Leon Jerome Hoet [nl] and opened on 19 December 1932, the anniversary of Juan Vicente Gómez' coup. ## Specifications The theatre is in two halves: the first is the main theatre, featuring the stage, seating, and restrooms; the second is the public area, with a smoking area and restaurant. The seating consists of stalls at floor level and a raised circle, for a capacity of 3,000. Externally, the facade has design features which have been described as art nouveau by the Venezuelan heritage board, including the balustrades and large arches in relief with detailing in iron above the entrance. It has a gable roof made of zinc with trusses. The structure also makes use of windows and large concrete latticework grilles to allow ventilation through the building to keep it cool; before this design, the theatre had made use of air ducts supplying cool air from an ice box with a fan in the basement. Attached to the theatre is a patio and a small pavilion in the same design. Internally, there are extensive paintings and frescoes across the walls, ceilings and columns in an art deco style by Antonio Angulo, an artist from Zulia, who also designed light fixtures. The curtain was donated by the Spanish government for the 1932 opening, and was designed by César Bulbena. ## Monument and legacy The theatre was named a National Monument in November 1981. In terms of Venezuelan heritage listings, this is seen as the first step to becoming a World Heritage Site. From 1986 it underwent a long restoration, only re-opening in 1998. The restoration was led by Paolo D'onghia. During the restoration, D'onghia discovered the foundations of the original building, deciding to preserve these as well as Hoet's designs by creating a basement entrance. The floors for the lower entrance hall were designed by Francisco Hung, styled after a mosaic in the main entrance hall. There are guided tours available at the theatre, which last half an hour and are run in the mornings. The theatre is remembered nationally as the location of the first film screening in the country, on 11 July 1896, by Luis Manuel Méndez and Manuel Trujillo Durán. It also screened the first Venezuelan-made films on 28 January 1897, two Maracaibo shorts, Un célebre especialista sacando muelas en el gran Hotel Europa and Muchachos bañándose en la laguna de Maracaibo. Later, in 1912, a film was recorded in the theatre by Alciro Ferrebús Rincón and José García Rebot, titled Maracaibo en el teatro Baralt. It was at one point home to the University of Zulia's cinema club. The Venezuelan National Short Film Festival, named after Trujillo Durán, is held annually in the theatre in the last week of January, and is co-hosted by the theatre foundation and the University of Zulia.
612,826	Ryan FR Fireball	1,149,248,589	American World War II-era jet and piston-engined fighter aircraft	[ "1940s United States fighter aircraft", "Aircraft first flown in 1944", "Carrier-based aircraft", "Low-wing aircraft", "Mixed-power aircraft", "Ryan aircraft" ]	The Ryan FR Fireball was an American mixed-power (piston and jet-powered) fighter aircraft designed by Ryan Aeronautical for the United States Navy during World War II. It was the Navy's first aircraft with a jet engine. Only 66 aircraft were built before Japan surrendered in August 1945. The FR-1 Fireball equipped a single squadron before the war's end, but did not see combat. The aircraft ultimately proved to lack the structural strength required for operations aboard aircraft carriers and was withdrawn in mid-1947. ## Design and development Design of the FR-1 began in 1943 to a proposal instigated by Admiral John S. McCain Sr. for a mixed-powered fighter because early jet engines had sluggish acceleration that was considered unsafe and unsuitable for carrier operations. Ryan received a contract for three XFR-1 prototypes and one static test airframe on 11 February 1943 with the first two prototypes delivered in 14 months. Another contract was placed for 100 aircraft on 2 December 1943 and a later contract on 31 January 1945 increased the total of FR-1s on order to 700. The XFR-1 was a single-seat, low-wing monoplane with tricycle landing gear. A 1,350-horsepower (1,010 kW) Wright R-1820-72W Cyclone radial engine was mounted in the fighter's nose while a 1,600 lbf (7,100 N) General Electric I-16 (later redesignated as the J-31) turbojet was mounted in the rear fuselage. It was fed by ducts in each wing root which meant that the wing had to be relatively thick to house the ducts and the outward-retracting main landing gear. To simplify the fuel system, both engines used the same grade of avgas. Two self-sealing fuel tanks were housed in the fuselage, one of 130 US gallons (490 L; 110 imp gal) and the other of 50 US gallons (190 L; 42 imp gal). The cockpit was positioned just forward of the leading edge of the wing and the pilot was provided with a bubble canopy which gave him excellent visibility. The XFR-1 had the first laminar flow airfoil in a navy carrier aircraft. The Fireball was armed with four .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns with 300 rounds per gun. They were mounted in the center section of the wing, immediately outboard of the air intakes for the jet engine. Four 5-inch (127 mm) rockets could be carried under each outer wing panel and two hardpoints were provided under the center section for 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs or 100 US gal (380 L; 83 imp gal) drop tanks. Armor plates were provided in front and behind the pilot's seat and for the oil cooler. The first XFR-1 made its first flight on 25 June 1944 without its jet engine, but this was installed shortly afterward. The second prototype first flew on 20 September 1944. Test flights confirmed wind tunnel tests that revealed a lack of longitudinal stability because the center of gravity had been miscalculated. In addition, the circular rear fuselage of the FR-1 gave less stability than the slab-style fuselage of the Grumman F4F Wildcat that was used as a model for the stability calculations. A new tail with enlarged vertical and horizontal stabilizers was designed and retrofitted to the prototypes. The original Douglas double-slotted flaps proved to be unsatisfactory during flight testing, but all three prototypes and the first 14 production aircraft were built with them before they were replaced with a single-slotted flap. The first prototype was lost in a crash at NAS China Lake on 13 October 1944. Investigation showed that the wing structure was not strong enough to resist compressibility effects. This was cured by doubling the number of rivets in the outer wing panels. The second prototype crashed on 25 March 1945 when the pilot failed to recover from a dive from 35,000 feet (10,670 m), probably also due to compressibility effects. The third prototype crashed on 5 April when the canopy blew off during a high-speed pass over Lindbergh Field. Operational testing by the Naval Air Test Center at Naval Air Station Patuxent River that included carrier acceptability tests revealed additional problems: The piston engine tended to overheat until electrically operated cowl flaps were installed, the catapult hooks had to be moved, and the nosewheel oleo shock strut had to be lengthened by 3 inches (76 mm). Carrier suitability tests began aboard the escort carrier Charger in early January 1945. The aircraft successfully made five catapult takeoffs using the piston engine as well as three takeoffs using both engines. No problems were reported when landing aboard the carrier. The FR-1 Fireball was further developed into the XFR-2 which utilized a 1,425 hp (1,063 kW) Wright R-1820-74W in place of the -72W. One single airframe was converted to this configuration. No prototypes were built for the next proposed variant, the FR-3, which would have used a General Electric I-20 turbojet. Both of these projects were canceled with the end of the war. The fastest Fireball was the XFR-4, which had a Westinghouse J34 turbojet and was approximately 100 mph (160 km/h) faster than the FR-1. The turbojet's air intakes were moved from the wing roots to the fuselage in front of the wing; they were covered by electrically powered doors to lessen drag when the aircraft was flying only on its piston engine. The Fireball's fuselage was lengthened by 8 inches (203 mm) to accommodate the larger engine and the leading edge extension of the wing root that housed the air intakes was also removed. The XFR-4 was intended to serve as a testbed for the turbojet installation on the XF2R-1 Dark Shark. This was the final variant; the piston engine was replaced with a General Electric XT31-GE-2 turboprop, but only one prototype was built. On 2 December 1943, orders for 100 production FR-1s were placed, with a follow-up order of 1,000 additional fighters in January 1945. All of the contracts were contingent on the aircraft successfully completing carrier trials. Only 66 Fireballs were completed by November 1945 as orders for 1,044 FR-1s were canceled on VJ Day. ## Operational history One squadron, VF-66, received its first Fireballs in March 1945, but they never saw combat. On 1 May, three of the squadron's aircraft were craned aboard the carrier Ranger to attempt to qualify seven pilots, but two of the fighters were damaged while landing. One missed the arresting gear and hit the crash barrier while the other aircraft's nose gear collapsed. The following month the pilots qualified and were on pre-embarkation leave when the Japanese surrendered. The squadron was decommissioned on 18 October with all pilots and aircraft transferred to VF-41. It has been claimed that a Fireball of VF-41 became the first aircraft to land under jet power on an aircraft carrier, albeit without prior planning, on 6 November 1945. After the radial engine of an FR-1 failed on final approach to the escort carrier Wake Island, the pilot managed to start the jet engine and land, barely catching the last arrestor wire before hitting the ship's crash barrier. However, there is evidence that the aircraft may have still benefited from some residual power from its Wright R-1820 and therefore the landing was not purely under jet power. The squadron was attempting to qualify its pilots for carrier operations during this time, but only 14 of its 22 pilots made the six required takeoffs and landings. A number of accidents occurred when the nose gear failed on landing, but the pilots were at least partly responsible as they were slamming the nose gear onto the deck after landing on the main gear. The squadron qualified on the escort carrier Bairoko in March 1946, but nose gear problems persisted and cut the cruise short. Ryan installed a steel fork for the nosewheel, but inspections also revealed evidence of partial wing failures so the aircraft was limited to maneuvers not to exceed 5 Gs. VF-41 suffered three fatal accidents in 1946 before being redesignated as VF-1E on 15 November 1946. One ensign collided with the target banner during gunnery practice and spun into the water. A few months later, the squadron commander was performing a barrel roll when his wing broke off and he struck another Fireball, killing both pilots. VF-1E conducted carrier qualification in March 1947 aboard the escort carrier Badoeng Strait and only eight pilots successfully qualified, not least because the FR-1s were proving to be too fragile to endure repeated carrier landings. During one brief deployment in June aboard Rendova, one aircraft broke in two during a hard landing. Subsequent inspections of the squadron's aircraft showed signs of structural failure and all the Fireballs were withdrawn by 1 August 1947. After the withdrawal of the type from service, except for a few examples retained for modifications and testing, the FR-1s were scrapped. ## Variants XFR-1 Military designation of the prototype Model 28 aircraft, three built. FR-1 Fireball Single-seat fighter aircraft, 66 built. FR-2 Conversion with a Wright R-1820-74W replacing earlier piston engine, one aircraft modified. FR-3 Proposed variant with a General Electric I-20 replacing earlier jet engine; never built. XFR-4 Variant with Westinghouse J34; one built.J34-WE-12. ## Operators United States - United States Navy The "Firebirds" squadron was known under three names: - VF-66 (March 1945 – 15 October 1945) - VF-41 (15 October 1945 – 1 August 1947), redesignated VF-1E on 15 November 1946. ## Surviving aircraft Only a single example, FR-1 BuNo 39657, still survives. Deployed first to the NASA Ames Research Center, the aircraft served as an instructional airframe at a technical school before being acquired by the Planes of Fame Air Museum at Chino, California from a technical school located in San Luis Obispo, California in the 1960s. After restoration to static display condition, 39657 was rolled out at Chino on 13 June 2009. ## Specifications (FR-1) ## See also
28,599,384	Speechless (Ciara song)	1,127,657,361	null	[ "2010 singles", "2010 songs", "Ciara songs", "LaFace Records singles", "Music videos directed by Colin Tilley", "Songs written by Ciara", "Songs written by The-Dream", "Songs written by Tricky Stewart" ]	"Speechless" is a song by American singer-songwriter Ciara. The song was written by Ciara, The-Dream, and Tricky Stewart, with the latter two producing the song as well. Taken from her fourth studio album Basic Instinct, the song serves as the second single from the album. It was released in the United States as a digital download on September 7, 2010. "Speechless" is a mid-tempo R&B love song, which utilizes synthesized trumpets and horns as a backdrop. The lyrical content of the song centers around the protagonist saying they need more time to confess how perfect their significant other is. The song's accompanying music video, directed by Colin Tilley, features Ciara in a menagerie of scenes. The single had no direct promotion and was never officially promoted to radio, leading it to only reach 74 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. ## Background and composition In September 2009, Tricky Stewart, confirmed via Rap-Up that he and The-Dream had spent the entire summer with Ciara working on her upcoming fourth studio album. He also named "Speechless" as one of two songs he hoped would appear on the album. The album version of the song leaked in March 2010, featuring vocals from The-Dream. However, following the release of its single cover on August 18, 2010, it was confirmed that the song would feature only Ciara. It was also revealed that The-Dream will not be featured on the album version of the song when the official track listing of Basic Instinct was revealed. On the final cut, American songwriter, gospel singer, and session vocalist Lauren Evans performs background vocals. The song was planned to be released as the second official single, how was never sent to radio or released as a CD single. "Speechless" is a midtempo, R&B love song, featuring trumpet-sounding synths. Andy Kellman of Allmusic said that the song works a "slow motion glide" and that Ciara's voice "hovers in a love-struck daze." The lyrical content of the song consists of the protagonist confesses how perfect her significant other is, and that they need extra time to confess this, such as lines like "I'd need an extra month on the year, one extra holiday just to kiss you all over your face." ## Critical reception Praising the production of The-Dream and Tricky Stewart on the album, Matthew Horton of BBC Music called the song "crisp" and said that it was a "trim, anthemic synth ballad." Noting it as one of their choice picks from the album, Andy Kellman of Allmusic called the song "euphoric" and was the best of The-Dream and Tricky's seven songs on the album. A Rap-Up writer noted the song as a standout track from the album. Ed Easton Jr. of WXRK said the song "reminds all her fans that she can actually sing and be taken seriously as an actual artist rather than an over-hyped dancer." As one of the album's "emotionally demanding cuts," Ken Capobianco of Boston Globe said that the song "lacked conviction." Becky Bain of Idolator was less than enthusiastic of the song, commenting, "basically, we’re speechless, too, but only because we can’t find much to rave about." Bain also called the synth-beat generic and "run-of-the-mill," comparing it to her "Love Sex Magic." "Speechless" debuted on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart at number ninety-one on the week of September 18, 2010. It went on to peak at number seventy-four. The song was featured as the one of the A-sides for "Gimmie Dat", in the UK, where the latter peaked at number 111 on the UK Singles chart. ## Music video The video was directed in Los Angeles, California on September 10, 2010 by Colin Tilley. It chronicles Ciara in a menagerie of settings, in the mountains, a mansion, a reflection pool, and a warehouse. The minimalistic clip sees numerous wardrobe changes, and unlike typical Ciara videos, it does not highlight dance aspects. Several outfits she dons include low-riding jeans and a shirt which reveals her abs. Becky Bain of Idolator compared Ciara to Janet Jackson in the clip, noting Ciara's "oversized top and comfy jeans" to Jackson in "Again" and "Love Will Never Do." Bain positively reviewed the clip, stating, "It's a safe video, for sure, but oh-so nice to look at." A Rap-Up writer stated "after watching the grown 'n' [sic] sexy new Colin Tilley-directed video from Ciara, you're guaranteed to be left 'Speechless.'" Although he appreciated Ciara for lowering down the sex appeal and relying on her vocals, Ed Easton Jr. of WXRK gave the video seven of ten stars, and said that it was not enough to put Ciara "ahead of all the talented musical divas in the industry." Easton went on to say that "the video is not meant to be over-sexual but still gives us an intimate feel to the singer that, in the long run, may even garner better responses among all age demographics." He also complimented the video as a whole saying, "The shots of Ciara are stunning and she is shown to be serious about her quest for love from a special someone." ## Track listing \; US Digital download 1. "Speechless" – 4:10 \; European Digital single – Gimmie Dat / Speechless 1. "Gimmie Dat" – 4:12 2. "Speechless" – 4:10 \*; EP – Gimmie Dat / Speechless (Europe, Canada, Australia, UK) 1. "Gimmie Dat" – 4:12 2. "Speechless" – 4:10 3. "Gimmie Dat" (music video) – 4:18 4. "Speechless" (music video) – 4:11 ## Credits and personnel - Songwriting – Ciara Princess Harris, Terius "The-Dream" Nash, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart - Production – The-Dream, Tricky Stewart - Vocal recording and production – Kuk Harrell - Background vocals – Lauren Evans - Mixing – Jaycen Joshua - Engineering – Brian "B-LUV" Thomas, Pat Thrall, Andrew Wuepper, assisted by Luis Navarro, Randy Urbanski, Zachariah Redding, Jason Sherwood, Steven Dennis. Source ## Charts ## Release history
7,289,058	Luke Foster	1,166,106,800	English association football player (born 1985)	[ "1985 births", "Alfreton Town F.C. players", "Barwell F.C. players", "Brighouse Town F.C. players", "Coalville Town F.C. players", "England men's semi-pro international footballers", "English Football League players", "English men's footballers", "Footballers from Mexborough", "Goole A.F.C. players", "Harrogate Town A.F.C. players", "Ilkeston F.C. players", "Lincoln City F.C. players", "Living people", "Loughborough Dynamo F.C. players", "Mansfield Town F.C. players", "Matlock Town F.C. players", "Men's association football defenders", "National League (English football) players", "North Ferriby United A.F.C. players", "Northern Premier League players", "Oxford United F.C. players", "Preston North End F.C. players", "Rotherham United F.C. players", "Scarborough F.C. players", "Sheffield Wednesday F.C. players", "Southport F.C. players", "Stalybridge Celtic F.C. players", "Stevenage F.C. players", "York City F.C. players" ]	Luke James Foster (born 8 September 1985) is an English professional footballer who last played as a defender for Northern Premier League Division One East club Loughborough Dynamo. Foster started his career as a trainee with Sheffield Wednesday, signing a professional contract with the club at the age of 18. He joined Scarborough on work experience in September 2004, and was also loaned out to Conference North club Alfreton Town in February 2005 until the end of the 2004–05 season. On returning to his parent club, Foster was released, and joined Lincoln City in June 2005. He was loaned out to York City the following season on a two-month loan. In January 2007, Foster was released by Lincoln, and he joined Stalybridge Celtic on a short-term contract. He left Stalybridge a month later, in order to join Oxford United on an initial six-month deal. Foster went on to play over 100 times for Oxford in just under three years at the club, winning two end of season awards in the process. In January 2010 Foster signed for Mansfield Town, where he spent just five months. He then joined Stevenage on a two-year contract in May 2010, helping the club earn promotion to League One in their first ever season in the Football League. After just one season at Stevenage, Foster joined Rotherham United in June 2011, spending an injury-hit season with the club before being released. He briefly spent time at Matlock Town, before joining Preston North End in December 2012 for a six-month period. Foster returned to Lincoln City during the 2013–14 season, before spending two years as club captain at Conference Premier side Southport. He left Southport in February 2016 and signed for Harrogate Town for the remainder of the campaign. A brief stint as player-coach at Ilkeston followed as Foster moved into part-time football, also playing for Northern Premier League clubs Coalville Town, Brighouse Town, Goole, Barwell and Loughborough Dynamo respectively. ## Early life Foster grew up in South Yorkshire and attended Wombwell High School. ## Club career ### Early career Foster began his career as a trainee in the Sheffield Wednesday youth academy. He joined Conference National club Scarborough on work experience in September 2004. Foster made his debut for Scarborough in a 1–0 defeat to Hereford United, coming on as a 76th minute substitute. He started the following match in the club's 2–1 loss at Carlisle United, and went on to make 10 appearances during the loan agreement. Foster returned to his parent club, but failed to make any first-team appearances, and was subsequently loaned out to Conference North club Alfreton Town in February 2005 until the end of the season. He made his Alfreton debut in the club's 3–0 victory against Woking in the FA Trophy. He scored his first goal for the club in a 3–1 defeat against Southport. Foster played his last game for the club in the final game of the 2004–05 season, a 3–1 loss at Stafford Rangers. He played in 19 games for the club during the loan spell, scoring three goals. On his return to Sheffield Wednesday in May 2005, Foster was released and later joined League Two club Lincoln City on a one-year contract ahead of the 2005–06 season. Foster made his debut for Lincoln in the club's first game of the season, a 2–1 defeat to Notts County. He played sporadically throughout the campaign, and made 17 appearances, scoring once in a 5–0 win against Grimsby Town on 25 March 2006. Despite playing a peripheral role during the campaign, Foster signed a one-year contract extension at the end of the season. However, Foster did not play again for Lincoln during the 2006–07 campaign and, after training with York City, he joined the Conference National club on a one-month emergency loan on 5 October 2006 due to injuries to defenders. He made his debut for the club in a 1–0 win against Aldershot Town. This loan deal was extended for a second month on 3 November 2006, but after Foster suffered an ankle injury during the last week of the loan, he returned to his parent club on 4 December 2006. He made his last appearance for York in the club's 1–0 defeat to League One team Bristol City in the FA Cup first round. He made seven appearances for York during a two-month loan spell with the club. Foster returned to Lincoln in December, and a month later was told by the club that he was free to find another club after being told he was not part of the club's first-team plans. He subsequently mutually agreed to cancel his contract with Lincoln in January 2007, enabling him to join Conference North club Stalybridge Celtic on a free transfer. He made his debut for Stalybridge in the FA Trophy, starting in a 1–1 draw against Kettering Town, scoring an own goal just before half-time. He scored his first goal for the club against one of his former employers, Alfreton, scoring the winning goal in a 2–1 victory. He made six appearances for the club in all competitions, scoring once. ### Oxford United After just a month at Stalybridge, Foster returned to the highest tier in non-League football, joining Conference National club Oxford United on 16 February 2007. He made his Oxford debut two weeks after signing for the club, starting in a 1–0 home defeat to Kidderminster Harriers. He played nine times during the club's 2006–07 campaign, scoring once in a 2–0 win over St Albans City at Clarence Park. At the end of the season, he signed a new one-year contract with Oxford, keeping him contracted to the club throughout the 2007–08 season. After playing just three times in the opening two months of the season, Oxford manager Jim Smith stated that Foster needed to "improve the way he leads his life" in order to "stand a chance" of getting back into the Oxford first-team. After this, Foster played regularly until the end of the season, although he was given a one match suspension following his sending off against Northwich Victoria in March 2008. At the end of the 2007–08 season, in which he made 39 appearances, he won Oxford's Supporters Player of the Year and Players' Player of the Year awards. As a result of his form, he signed a new two-year contract with the club on 29 July 2008. During the 2008–09 season, Foster continued to play regularly at centre-back for Oxford,. In Oxford's match against Wrexham on 21 August 2008, Foster was sent off after just 11 minutes for "denying Wrexham's Shaun Whalley a clear goalscoring opportunity". As a result, he missed the next two games, returning to the first-team against Ebbsfleet United on 30 August 2008, but was once again sent off, this time for a foul on Craig Stone. Consequently, Foster did not play again in the first-team for a month. He regained his place in Oxford's defence, and played regularly until the end of the season. He scored his only goal of the season in a 2–1 victory over Lewes in February 2009. Foster made 44 appearances for the club during the season, scoring one goal, as Oxford narrowly missed out on a place in the Conference Premier play-offs. The following campaign, Foster was again a regular under manager Chris Wilder, appearing in all of Oxford's games up until December 2009. He scored his first goal of the season in Oxford's 1–1 draw against Barrow on 3 October 2009. Foster was sent off in a 1–1 draw against Barrow in the FA Cup on 28 November 2009, resulting in Barrow being awarded a penalty kick and subsequently scoring. In January 2010, Wilder stated that Oxford would not be extending Foster's contract in the summer, with Foster "wanting that option to pursue offers from other clubs". ### Mansfield Town He subsequently entered talks with Cambridge United in January 2010, although no transfer materialised. Mansfield Town also enquired about signing Foster, although they initially decided against making a transfer bid, citing Foster's "high wages as the main stumbling block". However, a week later, Mansfield signed Foster on a one-and-a-half-year contract for an undisclosed fee and he was instantly appointed the club captain. He made his debut in Mansfield's 4–1 victory over Forest Green Rovers on 30 January 2010. Foster was sent off in a 1–0 defeat to York on 16 March 2010, which resulted in him receiving a two-match suspension. He made 16 appearances for Mansfield during the second half of the 2009–10 season. At the end of the season, Foster made a comment on his Facebook page, calling the club a "shambles", but later apologised to both the club and its fans. He was released in May 2010, with Mansfield boss David Holdsworth saying "it's a practical decision for both the club and Luke". ### Stevenage Foster joined newly promoted League Two club Stevenage on a two-year contract on 31 May 2010. Foster made his Stevenage debut in the club's first Football League fixture, a 2–2 draw against Macclesfield Town, playing the whole game in the centre of defence. After the Macclesfield game, Foster did not play in the first-team until late September 2010, coming on as a late substitute in Stevenage's 1–0 away win at Lincoln City. He then appeared as a 52nd-minute substitute in the club's victory over Burton Albion, but was sent-off for a foul on Shaun Harrad. Foster scored his first goal for Stevenage on 3 January 2011, scoring the first goal of the game in Stevenage's 4–2 home win over Barnet. Foster received his second red card of the 2010–11 season in a game against Northampton Town, for a foul on Seth Nana Twumasi, a game that Stevenage went on to lose 2–0. Stevenage appealed against the sending off, but the appeal was subsequently rejected. This ultimately meant that Foster had played his last game of the 2010–11 season, serving a four-match suspension that ruled him out of Stevenage's end of season 3–3 draw with Bury, as well as the club's subsequent play-off campaign. Foster played 23 times for Stevenage in his only season with the club, scoring once, and the team went on to win promotion into League One via the play-offs. ### Rotherham United Foster signed for League Two club Rotherham United on 20 June 2011. He signed a one-year contract with the club, with an option of a second year. Foster made his debut for the club in a 3–0 home victory against Gillingham on 27 August 2011, coming on as an 84th-minute substitute with Rotherham already holding a three-goal advantage. After making no further first-team appearances the following month, Foster was made available for loan by manager Andy Scott. Scott stated Foster lacked both desire and fitness since signing for the club. However, no loan transfer materialised, and Foster made his second appearance for Rotherham in a 3–3 away draw at Morecambe on 25 October 2011. He subsequently made his first start in a 2–0 home victory over Aldershot Town on 5 November 2011, Rotherham's first win in 10 matches. In December 2011, Rotherham manager Andy Scott revealed that Foster would miss the rest of the 2011–12 season as a result of a cruciate ligament damage sustained in a match against Hereford United on 10 December 2011. He was released by Rotherham in May 2012, having made six appearances for the club. ### Matlock Town Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Foster went on trial with League One club Sheffield United. He played in the club's opening pre-season fixture, coming on as a 62nd-minute substitute in a 1–1 draw with Ilkeston. No move materialised, and Foster signed non-contract terms with Northern Premier League Premier Division team Matlock Town to build match fitness ahead of a return to the professional game. He made his Matlock debut just a day after signing, on 18 August 2012, playing the whole match as Matlock opened the season with a 5–0 home defeat to Nantwich Town. Foster made ten appearances in all competitions for the club, leaving in October 2012. ### Preston North End After a month without a club, Foster went on trial at League One club Preston North End in November 2012, managed by former Stevenage manager Graham Westley. The trial proved successful, and he signed on non-contract terms with the club on 18 December 2012. He made his debut on the same day in a 3–3 draw against Bury in the Football League Trophy, with Preston progressing following a penalty shoot-out. After impressing Westley in his first four matches for the club, Foster signed a permanent contract, keeping him at Preston for the remainder of the 2012–13 season. In the club's next match, on 10 January 2013, a televised 3–2 defeat to Coventry City at the Ricoh Arena in the Football League Trophy, Foster scored his only goal for Preston, briefly restoring parity in the match as Coventry scored two injury-time goals to win the match. Foster made eight appearances in all competitions during his time with the club, and at the end of the season, new Preston manager Simon Grayson told him that his contract would not be renewed when it expired in June 2013. ### Return to Non-League Foster rejoined Conference Premier club Lincoln City on 1 August 2013, signing a one-year deal with the club he had previously played for from 2005 to 2007. He made his second debut for the club ten days after signing, on the opening day of the 2013–14 season, playing the whole match in central defence as Lincoln drew 0–0 away at Woking. Both of Foster's goals for the season came in away fixtures at Braintree Town. The first was scored in an FA Trophy match on 14 December 2013, netting in the 91st minute to give Lincoln the lead in an eventual 3–1 win. His second came in the same fixture, but in the league, three months later; courtesy of a header from a Sean Newton corner in a 2–0 away victory on 18 March 2014. He played regularly throughout the campaign, making 37 appearances in a season where Lincoln struggled for consistency and finished 14th in Conference Premier. Foster left Lincoln when his contract expired at the end of the season. Shortly after becoming a free agent, Foster signed for another Conference Premier team in the form of Southport on 18 June 2014. He was made club captain ahead of the 2014–15 season. Foster made his debut for Southport in a 1–0 home defeat to Forest Green Rovers on the first day of the season. He scored his first goal for the club in his fourth appearance; his stoppage-time header gave Southport their first win of the season in a 2–1 victory over Altrincham at Haig Avenue on 23 August 2014. Foster made 41 appearances during the campaign in all competitions and scored four times. He was named the club's Player of the Year for the season. He remained at Southport for the 2015–16 campaign and was ever-present during the first half of the campaign. However, Foster started to struggle with the commute to Southport from his home in Barnsley each day and subsequently joined local National League North club Harrogate Town on 24 February 2016, on a contract until the remainder of the season. He made just four appearances during his time at Harrogate, spending the majority of his time there as an unused substitute, and left when his contract expired in April 2016. Foster subsequently signed for Ilkeston in May 2016, joining the club as a player-coach; the first coaching role of his career. He featured frequently during the opening months of the season, but suffered an injury in an FA Trophy defeat to Barwell in October 2016. It proved to be Foster's last appearance for the club as he left Ilkeston by mutual consent and signed for Northern Premier League club Coalville Town on 30 November 2016. He spent five months at Coalville, leaving the club in April 2017 after being appointed as Oldham Athletic's new commercial manager on 28 March 2017. Foster returned to playing when he joined National League North club North Ferriby United in August 2017. After making no appearances for North Ferriby during the opening month of the season, he signed for Brighouse Town of the Northern Premier League Division One North in September 2017, making one appearance. He then joined divisional rivals Goole later that month. He made his debut for Goole in a 2–1 loss at Trafford on 16 September 2017, and went on to make five appearances in all competitions during a one-month spell for the club. He moved up a division, signing for Northern Premier League club Barwell in November 2017. He played twice for Barwell, before briefly re-joining North Ferriby United in December 2017. Having initially been linked with a move to Loughborough Dynamo in February 2018, Foster eventually signed for the Northern Premier League Division One East club on 14 July 2018. ## International career Foster was named on standby for the England C team in November 2007 for a match against Finland C, but did not receive a call-up. He was called up again to represent England C against Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo in September 2008. Foster played the whole match as England C lost 6–2 to Bosnia, assisting Luke Moore's goal. This was his only appearance for England C. ## Personal life Foster has described himself as a "family man", but admits to making bad lifestyle choices in his "younger years". He was in a relationship for six years with Rebekah Nicholson, who later married Jamie Vardy. They have one son, born in January 2010. ## Career statistics ## Honours Stevenage - League Two play-offs: 2010–11 Individual - Oxford United Player of the Year: 2007–08 - Southport Player of the Year: 2014–15
42,991,741	Daria Kasatkina	1,173,885,454	Russian tennis player (born 1997)	[ "1997 births", "21st-century Russian LGBT people", "French Open junior champions", "Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' singles", "LGBT tennis players", "Lesbian sportswomen", "Living people", "Olympic tennis players for Russia", "Russian LGBT sportspeople", "Russian activists against the Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Russian female tennis players", "Sportspeople from Tolyatti", "Tennis players at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics", "Tennis players at the 2016 Summer Olympics" ]	Daria Sergeyevna Kasatkina (born 7 May 1997) is a Russian professional tennis player. She is currently the Russian No. 1 player in singles. She made her top-ten debut in the WTA rankings towards the end of the 2018 season and has been ranked as high as world No. 8 achieved on 24 October 2022. Kasatkina has won six WTA Tour titles in singles as well as one title in doubles. Born to athletic parents who were nationally ranked in athletics and ice hockey, Kasatkina began playing tennis at age six at the insistence of her older brother. She excelled as a junior, winning the European 16s championship and one junior Grand Slam singles title at the 2014 French Open. Kasatkina quickly ascended up the professional rankings, reaching No. 32 in the world while still 18 years old and winning her first WTA title in 2017 as a teenager at the Charleston Open. She rose to prominence in 2018 by finishing runner-up to fellow up-and-coming player Naomi Osaka at the Premier Mandatory Indian Wells Open in a match regarded as representing a new wave of women's tennis. Kasatkina also has won the biggest titles of her career at the Kremlin Cup and at the St. Petersburg Trophy at home in Russia. Following three successful seasons on the WTA Tour, Kasatkina struggled in 2019, falling into the bottom half of the top 100. However, she had a resurgent 2021, claiming two titles to return to the top 30, and two titles in 2022, allowing her to return to the top 10. ## Early life and background Daria was born in Tolyatti, Samara Oblast to Tatyana Borisovna (née Timkovskaya) and Sergey Igorevich Kasatkin. Tolyatti is an industrial city located about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) southeast of Moscow. Her father works as an engineer at the Volga Automotive Plant and her mother was a lawyer. Both of her parents were nationally ranked athletes in Russia (officially known as Candidates for Master of Sports); her mother in athletics, and her father in ice hockey. Kasatkina also has an older brother named Alexandr. Her brother had played tennis casually, and convinced her parents to have her also begin playing the sport when she was six years old. She initially played two to three times a week for two years. In time she began competing in higher level tournaments. ## Junior career As a junior, Kasatkina was ranked as high as No. 3 in the world. She began competing on the ITF Junior Circuit shortly after turning 14 years old and won her first title at just her second career event, the low-level Grade 4 Samara Cup. In early 2012 while still 14, Kasatkina won two higher-level Grade 2 tournaments in Moldova and France, the former of which was the first Grade 2 event she entered. Towards the end of the year, she helped Russia reach the final of the Junior Fed Cup alongside Elizaveta Kulichkova and Alina Silich, where they finished runners-up to the United States. Kasatkina began excelling at the highest level junior tournaments in 2013. She reached her first Grade-1 final in doubles in January, which she followed up with her first Grade-1 final in singles in April. After failing to win a match at her only two Grade A events the previous year, Kasatkina finished runner-up to Belinda Bencic at the Trofeo Bonfiglio in May. She then won her first junior Grand Slam matches the following month, reaching the quarterfinals at the French Open. Following this event, she did not play another tournament until late August, when she won her first Grade-1 title at the International Hard Court Championship in the United States. Kasatkina's last event of the year was the Junior Fed Cup, where she played the No. 1 singles matches. With Veronika Kudermetova and Aleksandra Pospelova, the top-seeded Russian team won the tournament, defeating Australia in the final. Kasatkina had her best year on the junior tour in 2014, despite competing in just five tournaments. She reached both the singles and doubles finals at the Grade 1 Trofeo Mauro Sabatini, and won the title in singles. At the last ITF tournament of her career, Kasatkina won her first and only junior Grand Slam title in the girls' singles event at the French Open. As the No. 8 seed, she defeated top seed Ivana Jorović in the final, coming back from a set down. She was the first Russian girl to win the event since Nadia Petrova in 1998 and helped Russia sweep both junior singles events, with fellow European 16s champion Andrey Rublev winning the boys' singles title. In August, Kasatkina also participated in the Youth Olympic Games in Nanjing. She earned a silver medal in doubles alongside compatriot Anastasiya Komardina. They finished runners-up to Ukrainian Anhelina Kalinina and Belarusian Iryna Shymanovich. ## Professional career ### 2013–15: WTA Tour doubles title Kasatkina began her professional career as a wildcard qualifying entrant at the 2013 Kremlin Cup, where she lost her only match. She made her professional main-draw debut on the ITF Circuit in November, and then won her first career title at a low-level \$10k event in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt a few months later. She also won a \$25k title in Telavi, Georgia the following September. Kasatkina again received a wildcard into the 2014 Kremlin Cup, this time for the main draw. She lost her WTA Tour debut to Alison Riske. Kasatkina began 2015 ranked No. 354, but steadily climbed to No. 161 at the end of June on the strength of four \$25k titles. She then recorded her first WTA Tour match-win in July, against Aleksandra Krunić at the Gastein Ladies, en route to the quarterfinals. With her rankings improvement, Kasatkina was able to enter qualifying at a major event for the first time at the US Open. Although she lost in the last round, she reached the main draw as a lucky loser and made it to the third round, upsetting compatriot and world No. 38, Daria Gavrilova, as well as No. 79, Ana Konjuh. Before the end of the year, Kasatkina won her biggest titles to date in both singles and doubles. In September, she won the Open de Saint-Malo \$50k singles event. In October, she won the doubles event at the Kremlin Cup with Elena Vesnina for her first WTA title. She also reached semifinals in singles as a qualifier, her best singles result on the WTA Tour at the time. In the event, she defeated world No. 14, Carla Suárez Navarro, in the quarterfinals for the biggest win of her career. She finished the year ranked No. 72. ### 2016: First top ten victory, top 25 During the 2016 season, Kasatkina continued to rise in the WTA rankings, reaching No. 32 in the world while still 18 years old and as high as No. 24 later in the year. She began the year at the Auckland Open, where she recorded her first career top ten victory against world No. 7, Venus Williams. Kasatkina then made her Australian Open debut and reached the third round. She defeated No. 27, Anna Karolína Schmiedlová, in the first round before losing to world No. 1, Serena Williams. For her next tournament, she returned to Russia for the St. Petersburg Trophy and reached the semifinals, losing to Belinda Bencic. At the Indian Wells Open, Kasatkina then made it to the quarterfinals at her first Premier Mandatory event. She also produced one good result in doubles, a semifinals appearance at the Qatar Ladies Open with Elena Vesnina. The Russian duo notably defeated Martina Hingis and Sania Mirza to end their 41-match-win streak, the longest streak on the WTA Tour since 1990. In the middle of the season, Kasatkina again reached the third round at two more Grand Slam events, the French Open and Wimbledon. At both tournaments, she lost tight matches that each ended 10–8 in the third set, the former against Kiki Bertens and the latter against No. 8, Venus Williams. She had two chances to serve out the match against Bertens. Kasatkina continued her success at big tournaments at the Premier 5 Canadian Open, where she reached the quarterfinals. She defeated world No. 8, Roberta Vinci, in the third round for her second career top ten victory. Her next tournament was at the Rio Olympics. She qualified for the singles draw through her ranking, and also entered the doubles tournament with Svetlana Kuznetsova, after Margarita Gasparyan withdrew due to injury. Kasatkina reached the quarterfinals at both events, falling just short of the medal rounds. She lost to American Madison Keys in singles and the Czech team of Andrea Hlaváčková and Lucie Hradecká in doubles. At the US Open, her streak of four consecutive third-round appearances at majors was ended in the opening round by Wang Qiang. Kasatkina's last big singles result of the season came at the Premier 5 Wuhan Open, where she made it to the third round. She had needed to qualify for the main draw after forgetting to sign up for the tournament. For the second consecutive year, Kasatkina reached the doubles final at the Kremlin Cup, this time with Daria Gavrilova. The pair finished runners-up to Hlaváčková and Hradecká. Kasatkina ended the season at a world ranking of No. 27. ### 2017: First WTA singles title Kasatkina maintained a steady ranking throughout 2017, falling no lower than No. 42 in the world and again reaching the same season-best of No. 24 as 2016. Nonetheless, she had a slow start to the season, not winning a single match at the Australian Open or the two Premier Mandatory events in the United States, the three biggest tournaments through March. Her best results were two quarterfinals at mid-level two Premier tournaments, the Sydney International and the Qatar Ladies Open. In Sydney, she also defeated Angelique Kerber for her first career victory over a current world No. 1 player. After struggling on hard courts, Kasatkina had a better clay-court season on the strength of her first and last tournaments on the surface. At the Charleston Open, she won her first career WTA singles title shortly before turning 20 years old. She defeated fellow teenager Jeļena Ostapenko in the final in straight sets. Kasatkina closed out the clay-court season with another third-round appearance at the French Open, where she lost to eventual finalist and world No. 4, Simona Halep. Her only grass-court tournament was Wimbledon, where she made it to the second round. Towards the end of the year, Kasatkina began having more success on hardcourts. At the US Open, she made it to the fourth round of a Grand Slam event for the first time. Although she was able to defeat Ostapenko, who had won the French Open, she was upset by veteran qualifier Kaia Kanepi. Nonetheless, she built on this result in Asia, first by reaching another WTA doubles final with Gavrilova at the Pan Pacific Open. In singles at the Wuhan Open, she upset world No. 2, Halep. She also made her second career Premier Mandatory quarterfinal at the China Open, this time losing to Halep. Kasatkina closed out the year with her second best singles result of the season, a runner-up finish at her hometown Premier tournament, the Kremlin Cup. She upset fifth seed and world No. 18, Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova, in the first round, but was defeated by seventh seed Julia Görges in the final. ### 2018: Kremlin Cup title, Russian No. 1, top 10 Kasatkina continued her late season success from the previous year into 2018. After only winning one match between three tournaments in Australia, she reached the semifinals at the St. Petersburg Trophy and then the final at the Dubai Championships, two Premier tournaments. In St. Petersburg, she notably defeated world No. 1, Caroline Wozniacki. In Dubai, she saved three match points en route to defeating another top-5 player in world No. 3, Garbiñe Muguruza, before losing to the defending champion and world No. 4, Elina Svitolina. Kasatkina's breakthrough came at Indian Wells, where she reached her second final of the season. She defeated four top-15 players at that event including Wozniacki again and also No. 8, Venus Williams, in a tight three-set match. She finished runner-up to fellow 20-year-old Naomi Osaka. With this result, she climbed to No. 11 in the WTA rankings and also became the Russian No. 1, ending Kuznetsova's long run as Russia's top women's singles player. Kasatkina had strong clay- and grass-court seasons as well. She made the quarterfinals at the Charleston Open and the third round at the Premier 5 Italian Open. She also had another big result at a Premier Mandatory tournament, reaching the quarterfinals at the Madrid Open. During the event, she upset hometown favourite and world No. 3, Garbiñe Muguruza. Her best tournament on clay was the French Open, where she reached her first Grand Slam quarterfinal. She defeated No. 2, Wozniacki, for the third time in 2018 in a match that was suspended midway through due to darkness, before losing to the eventual runner-up Sloane Stephens. Another Grand Slam quarterfinal followed at Wimbledon, losing to the eventual champion and world No. 11, Angelique Kerber. Kasatkina failed to continue her Grand Slam success at the US Open, losing in the second round. In October, she returned to Russia and won the Kremlin Cup for her only title of the season. She defeated Tunisian qualifier Ons Jabeur in the final. With the title, she also made her top 10 debut. Kasatkina was initially named the second alternate for the WTA Finals. With only one withdrawal, she instead participated in the WTA Elite Trophy, where she was grouped with Madison Keys and Wang Qiang. She began the round robin with a win over Wang, but lost to Keys in a match where she had to play on a short amount of rest while Keys was playing her first match. As a result, she finished in last place in the group through the tiebreak criteria. Kasatkina finished the year ranked No. 10 in the world. ### 2019: Rankings drop to No. 70 Kasatkina could not repeat the success from any of her full seasons on the WTA Tour during 2019. After beginning the year in the top ten, her ranking dropped throughout the season down to as low as No. 70 near the end of the year. Whereas she won at least 60% of her matches in each of her three previous years, she finished 2019 with a losing record of 12–21. She parted with her longtime coach Philippe Dehaes in February, replacing him with Carlos Martinez in April. Kasatkina's results did not improve with Martinez as her coach. She did not make the semifinals at any event. Kasatkina won multiple matches at two tournaments during the year, the Premier 5 Italian Open in May and the Premier Mandatory China Open in October where she won three matches and made the quarterfinals. At the China Open, she defeated No. 14, Aryna Sabalenka and No. 38, Ekaterina Alexandrova before losing to No. 19, Caroline Wozniacki. Kasatkina's losses were generally against good competition, with only seven of her 21 losses coming against players ranked outside of the top 50. The highest-ranked opponent she defeated during the year was No. 13, Angelique Kerber, in the first round of the Canadian Open. Kasatkina remained in the top 50 until the very end of the season, when she lost the points she was defending from the previous year's WTA Elite Trophy. ### 2020: Mixed results In 2020, Kasatkina first participated in Auckland, where she defeated Carla Suárez Navarro before falling to Amanda Anisimova in the second round. At Adelaide, she progressed through qualifying, before being defeated by Belinda Bencic in the first main-draw round. At the Australian Open, she lost to Madison Keys in the first round. At St. Petersburg, she lost in the first round to Ekaterina Alexandrova, and, at Dubai, was forced to enter qualifying. She defeated Natalia Vikhlyantseva in the first round, but lost to Kristina Mladenovic in the second qualifying round. At Doha, she entered the main draw through qualification, defeating Vikhlyantseva and Aliaksandra Sasnovich, but she lost in the first round of the main draw to Garbiñe Muguruza. She reached her first semifinal since 2018 at Lyon where, as the seventh seed, she defeated Pauline Parmentier, Irina Bara, and Camila Giorgi, before being defeated in three sets by Anna-Lena Friedsam. By virtue of her result in this tournament, Kasatkina's ranking rose to No. 66, before the suspension of the WTA Tour due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Kasatkina's first tournament after the suspension was at Palermo, where she lost in the first round to Jasmine Paolini, in a match that lasted 3 hours and 9 minutes; this match was the fourth longest on the WTA Tour in the entirety of 2020. She then qualified for the Cincinnati Open, defeating Kateryna Bondarenko and Christina McHale, before losing in the first round to Anett Kontaveit. At the US Open, she lost in the first round to Marta Kostyuk, winning just three games. She next qualified for the Italian Open, defeating Arina Rodionova and Gabriela Dabrowski, and reached the third round after defeating Vera Zvonareva and Kateřina Siniaková. She withdrew from the competition, however, as she injured herself during a first-set tiebreak against Victoria Azarenka. She recuperated in time for the French Open, where she defeated Harmony Tan in the first round, before falling to Aryna Sabalenka. Her final event of the year was at the inaugural tournament in Ostrava, where she defeated Bethanie Mattek-Sands and Marie Bouzková to qualify. She defeated Elena Rybakina in the first round, before losing to Jennifer Brady, despite leading by 5–2 in the first set, eventually losing that set 7–5. She ended the year ranked No. 72, her lowest year-end ranking since 2015. ### 2021: Two singles titles Kasatkina started her 2021 season at the Abu Dhabi Open, where she defeated Wang Qiang in the first round in three sets. She was due to face 12th seed Karolína Muchová but the Czech withdrew, sending Kasatkina into the third round. There she lost to sixth seed Elena Rybakina, in straight sets. She then played in the Gippsland Trophy and made the third round with straight sets wins over Mihaela Buzărnescu, with the loss of just two games, and Polona Hercog. However, she lost to Estonian veteran and eventual finalist Kaia Kanepi in straight sets. At the Australian Open, she defeated Briton Katie Boulter in straight sets before losing in two tight sets to Aryna Sabalenka despite winning more points in the first set. Kasatkina bounced back from that loss emphatically at the Phillip Island Trophy, held during the second week of the Australian Open. She defeated Katie Boulter for the second time in five days and Varvara Gracheva, in straight sets, to record back to back wins for the third time in four events that season. The Russian then came from a set down to edge Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova before dominating Petra Martić to make her first WTA semifinal since Lyon in 2020. She then defeated Danielle Collins and Marie Bouzková in three sets to claim her third title and first since Moscow 2018. The win pushed Kasatkina up to No. 57 in the world. However, she crashed out in her opening round match in Dubai to Alizé Cornet. She bounced back at the St. Petersburg Ladies' Trophy, halting the winning streak of rising star Clara Tauson in the first round. Kasatkina then fought hard for a three-set win over Aliaksandra Sasnovich, who served for the match. Back-to-back comeback wins came over compatriots Veronika Kudermetova and Svetlana Kuznetsova. She then defeated wildcard Margarita Gasparyan in the final after Gasparyan was forced to retire early in the second set. This was Kasatkina's second title at home and this also made her the first two-time champion of the 2021 season, moving herself back into the top 50 for the first time since October 2019. Despite clay being her favoured surface, Kasatkina failed to reach a quarterfinal throughout the clay-court season. She was upset by Marta Kostyuk in the second round of the İstanbul Cup before falling to Sabalenka in the second round of the Madrid Open. At the French Open, Kasatkina defeated tenth seed Belinda Bencic, in straight sets, to make the third round for the first time since 2018. She was defeated by Sorana Cîrstea in straight sets. Seeded fourth, Kasatkina reached the final at the Birmingham Classic. This was her eighth career final, first on grass and third of 2021. Her run started with a comeback from 4–6, 0–3 against Polona Hercog in the first round, before avenging her loss against Kostyuk, ousting Tereza Martincová and CoCo Vandeweghe to reach the final. However, she lost to Ons Jabeur in straight sets. She lost in the quarterfinals of the Eastbourne International to Jeļena Ostapenko after securing her first top ten win in two years over Iga Świątek, losing just one game after dropping the opening set. Kasatkina's grass-court season ended with a second-round appearance at the Wimbledon Championships, losing to Ostapenko 6–8 in the final set. Kasatkina reached her fourth final of the year at the Silicon Valley Classic, beating former top ten player Caroline Garcia, in three sets before coming back to avoid the upset against Magda Linette in the quarterfinals. She then dominated top seed Elise Mertens without getting broken, but lost to home favourite Danielle Collins in the final. After early defeats at the National Bank Open and Western & Southern Open to Jabeur and world No. 10, Barbora Krejčíková, respectively, Kasatkina reached the third round of the US Open with wins over defending quarterfinalist Tsvetana Pironkova and Olympics silver medalist Markéta Vondroušová, but lost to fifth seed Elina Svitolina, in straight sets. Her season ended with a third-round defeat at the Indian Wells Open to Angelique Kerber, in three sets and a surprising first-round exit to Anhelina Kalinina in the first round of the Kremlin Cup. ### 2022: First major semifinal, Russian No. 1, world No. 8 Kasatkina began the year ranked No. 26. She first played the Melbourne Summer Set 2, a WTA 250 event, as the third seed; here, she reached the semifinals by defeating Anna Kalinskaya, Madison Keys, and Nuria Párrizas Díaz before losing to eventual champion Amanda Anisimova. The next week, she reached a second consecutive semifinal, this time at the Sydney International, a WTA 500 event. She defeated eighth seed Sofia Kenin, Elise Mertens, and second seed Garbiñe Muguruza, before losing to fifth seed and eventual champion Paula Badosa. Kasatkina next reached the third round of the 2022 Australian Open as the 25th seed, defeating qualifier Stefanie Vögele and Magda Linette before falling to seventh seed Iga Świątek. In the next hard court events, Kasatkina was defeated by Iga Świątek in both Dubai and Doha in the first and third rounds respectively. She lost to Angelique Kerber in Indian Wells 3rd round and to Aliaksandra Sasnovich in Miami second round in receipt of first-round byes. At the Italian Open, she reached her first WTA 1000 semifinal of the season and second of her career, where she was defeated by Ons Jabeur after having a match point. As a result, she returned to the top 20 in the rankings, becoming once again the No. 1 Russian player on 16 May 2022. Kasatkina entered the French Open as the 20th seed. She defeated lucky loser Rebecca Šramková, qualifier Fernanda Contreras, Shelby Rogers, and 28th seed Camila Giorgi to reach the quarterfinals, matching her best result at the tournament from 2018. She then went one step further, defeating compatriot and 29th seed Veronika Kudermetova to reach her maiden Grand Slam semifinal. She then lost in straight sets to world No. 1, Iga Świątek, for the fourth time this year. This run secured her a top 15 ranking for the first time since early 2019. Kasatkina played two tournaments on grass, Berlin and Bad Homburg; she was defeated in the quarterfinals by Maria Sakkari and Bianca Andreescu, respectively. She did not compete in the 2022 Wimbledon Championships due to the All England Club's decision to ban Russian and Belarusian players, in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. At the Silicon Valley Classic, she reached the semifinals again defeating Wimbledon champion Elena Rybakina, qualifier Taylor Townsend and world No. 6 and fourth seed Aryna Sabalenka, in three sets. She bagelled each opponent in the last set in the match. She reached back-to-back finals after defeating world No. 4 and second seed, Paula Badosa. She defeated Shelby Rogers in the final, securing a WTA 500 title and returning to the top 10 in the rankings at a new career-high of world No. 9 on 8 August 2022. She became tied for third in wins in the season with 32, behind only No. 1 Iga Świątek and Wimbledon finalist Ons Jabeur. After getting eliminated by Bianca Andreescu and Amanda Anisimova in the opening rounds of Toronto and Cincinnati respectively, Daria Kasatkina won her sixth career WTA Title in Granby. She defeated Greet Minnen, Magdalena Fręch, Nuria Párrizas Díaz, Diane Parry and Daria Saville losing just one set in route to win the title. However, she fell to Harriet Dart in the first round of US Open. Seeded 5th at the Ostrava Open, Kasatkina defeated Emma Raducanu in the first round before falling to Ekaterina Alexandrova in straight sets. Seeded 8th at the San Diego Open, she breezed past Leylah Fernandez before losing to Madison Keys in second round. In receipt of a first-round bye in Guadalajara, she was defeated in the third round by Anna Kalinskaya in three sets. This result made her eligible to make her debut at the 2022 WTA Finals. She also reached a new career-high ranking of World No. 8 on 24 October 2022. At the WTA Finals, Kasatkina lost to Świątek again in her first match. She earned her first victory of the Finals against Coco Gauff in straight sets, but she couldn't advance beyond the round robin stage as she was defeated by Caroline Garcia in a close three set match. ### 2023: Two WTA 500 finals Kasatkina started the season at the Adelaide International 1. Seeded third, she lost in the first round to qualifier Linda Nosková, in three sets. In receipt of a first-round bye in Adelaide 2, she defeated Barbora Krejčíková and Petra Kvitová in straight sets, before receiving a walkover from Paula Badosa to the final. In the final, she was ultimately defeated by Belinda Bencic, in straight sets. Seeded eighth at the Australian Open, Kasatkina suffered a shocking loss in the first round by Varvara Gracheva, in straight sets. At the French Open, she reached the fourth round before she lost to Elina Svitolina. At the Eastbourne International, she advanced to the final defeating second seed Caroline Garcia by walkover and Camila Giorgi. ## National representation Having won the Junior Fed Cup in 2013, Kasatkina made her senior Fed Cup debut for Russia in 2016 in a World Group quarterfinal against the Netherlands. She won the dead rubber doubles match with Ekaterina Makarova against Cindy Burger and Arantxa Rus as Russia lost the tie. She also participated in the World Group play-offs against Belarus two months later and played three rubbers, as Makarova and Svetlana Kuznetsova both opted to skip the tie. Kasatkina won her first live rubber against Aliaksandra Sasnovich, but Russia lost all three other singles rubbers to lose the tie. Partnering with Elena Vesnina, she also won the doubles dead rubber. Nonetheless, Russia were relegated out of the World Group. In 2017, Russia played in World Group II and won their tie to advance to World Group play-offs. After Kasatkina skipped that tie, she returned for the Play-off round. However, for the second consecutive year, Russia lost in this round to Belgium to keep them in World Group II. Kasatkina won her only singles match to set up a decisive doubles rubber. Alongside Vesnina, Kasatkina lost that match to Elise Mertens and An-Sophie Mestach. Kasatkina did not participate in Fed Cup in 2018 as Russia were further relegated to the Europe/Africa zonal group. Kasatkina competed for Russia in 2019 during the zonal competitions, recording a win over Karen Barritza in straight sets in the only match she played throughout the week. Russia ultimately secured a place in the World Group II play-offs. She made her return to the team for the 2020–21 Billie Jean King Cup Finals, where she was nominated for the team as the second-ranked Russian. In the matches she was nominated for, Kasatkina beat Carol Zhao in straight sets for an overall 3–0 win in the group stage. She then beat Jil Teichmann in the final, helping Russia to secure their first title since 2008. ## Playing style Kasatkina is a baseline player with a crafty style of play. She employs a variety of shots including heavy topspin forehands, one-handed slice backhands, kick serves, drop shots, and tweeners. Tennis journalist Steve Tignor compared her ability to naturally hit one-handed backhands despite typically utilizing a two-handed shot similar to that of former world No. 1 men's tennis player Andy Murray. Her former coach Phillip Dehaes described her style as "change of rhythm, change of speed, change of trajectory." She relies on outsmarting her opponents through tactics rather than hitting overpowering shots. However, she is capable of hitting powerful groundstrokes as well. Dehaes said that her key is to avoid hitting the ball into her opponent's strike zone. Kasatkina's style has been praised by others including women's tennis coach Wim Fissette, who called her "the Roger Federer of women's tennis". Kasatkina's favourite surface is clay. Fellow top women's player Caroline Wozniacki has commended her clay court ability, saying, "The slower the surface is, the better for her. She has very good hands and good angles and everything." As such, she also excels at tournaments with slower hard courts, such as the Indian Wells Open. Kasatkina has had a good record on all three main surfaces on the WTA Tour, winning a clay court title at the Charleston Open, winning a hard court title at the Kremlin Cup, and reaching the quarterfinals on grass at Wimbledon. ## Coaches When Kasatkina was eleven years old, Maxim Prasolov began coaching her. At the age of 14, she switched coaches to Damir Rishatovich Nurgaliev. Beginning in 2015, she moved to Trnava in Slovakia to train at the Empire Tennis Academy, citing her preference to train away from a large city, something that was less feasible in Russia. At the academy, she worked with former Slovak professional tennis player Vladimír Pláteník. After three years, she hired Belgian Philippe Dehaes to be her new coach in late 2017. Kasatkina had previously sought out Dehaes as a coach in late 2013 when she visited Belgium in search of funding from a foundation that was providing financial support for one of Dehaes's junior players. Dehaes has stated he has a different coaching style than Pláteník, saying, "She was working before with a coach who was really focused on the opponent and on adapting the game to the opponent. I don't watch the opponent." He added that, "I insist on leaving her a lot of freedom when she plays, but she has to create, has to make things happen, really like an artist. I compared it to an empty canvas a few days ago, and I said she can make whatever art on that canvas that she wants as long as it's beautiful." Kasatkina split with Dehaes in February 2019. She had only wanted to take a break from having a coach, but Dehaes could not accommodate being without a job. After two months without a coach, she replaced him with Carlos Martinez, former coach of fellow Russian Svetlana Kuznetsova. Kasatkina's brother Alexandr is her fitness trainer. Kasatkina and Martinez's relationship ended in February 2023, and former player Flavio Cipolla began coaching her. ## Personal life Kasatkina's favourite tennis player is Rafael Nadal. In the women's game, she is a fan of Petra Kvitová and Maria Sharapova. She prefers to watch men's tennis over women's tennis, saying that the players are better at serving and moving around the court. Kasatkina likes to play sports in general, including football. She is a fan of FC Barcelona. Kasatkina has been sponsored by Nike, Tecnifibre and Instaforex throughout her career. Her sponsorship with Nike ended in 2021, due to a series of poor results. In August 2021, Kasatkina signed an endorsement deal with Adidas for clothing, footwear, and apparel. She switched to Artengo racquets in 2022 after trying different racquets in a blind test. In an interview with Sofya Tartakova in 2021, Kasatkina made comments that were presumed to be discussing her bisexuality. In 2022, she clarified these comments, coming out as lesbian, and stating in an interview that she is in a relationship with figure skater Natalia Zabiiako. It became public after Kasatkina and Zabiiako posted photos of each other together on Instagram. Zabiiako and Kasatkina also started a YouTube vlog about life on the tennis tour. Kasatkina said that she "found living in the closet impossible" and also speaking out against the attitudes towards the LGBTQ+ community and restrictions of rights within Russia. In that same interview, Kasatkina condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine, calling for an end to Russian aggression and showing solidarity with the Ukrainian people. As a result of her sexuality, Kasatkina is unsure of what will happen to her if she ever chooses to return to Russia to see her friends and family, but the professional tennis player added that she doesn't regret her decision. In June 2023, she expressed her understanding for Ukrainian players who refused to shake her hand after matches, saying "It’s a very sad situation and I understand." ## Career statistics ### Grand Slam tournament performance timelines #### Singles #### Doubles Note: <sup>1</sup>Kasatkina and Anett Kontaveit withdrew from the 2019 US Open before their second-round match, which does not officially count as a loss. ## Awards - The Russian Cup in the nominations: - Team of the Year – Girls Under-14: 2011; - Team of the Year – Girls Under-16: 2012, 2013; - Junior of the Year: 2014; - Team of the Year: 2021.
21,737,655	British Rail Class 700	1,166,004,645	Electric multiple unit in use on Thameslink	[ "25 kV AC multiple units", "750 V DC multiple units", "British Rail electric multiple units", "Siemens multiple units", "Thameslink", "Train-related introductions in 2016" ]	The British Rail Class 700 is an electric multiple unit passenger train from the Desiro City family built by Siemens Mobility. It is capable of operating on from overhead wires or 750 V DC from third rail. 115 trainsets were built between 2014 and 2018, for use on the Thameslink network, as part of the Thameslink Programme in the United Kingdom. As of 2021, they are operated by Govia Thameslink Railway. In 2011, the consortium Cross London Trains (XLT) consisting of Siemens Project Ventures, 3i Infrastructure, and Innisfree was announced as preferred bidder with Siemens Mobility to manufacture the trains. The decision was politically controversial as the trains were to be built in Germany, while the competing consortium led by Bombardier Transportation had a UK train factory. Both the procurement process and final close of contract were significantly delayed, resulting in the expected first delivery date moving from 2012 to 2016. The £1.6 billion contract to manufacture and provide service depots for the trains was finalised in June 2013. The first train was delivered in late July 2015. A fleet of 60 eight-car and 55 twelve-car trains entered service between Spring 2016 and 2019. Having replaced s, , and , Class 700s are the only trains operated on the Thameslink network. Each train is able to reach 100 mph (160 km/h) and carry 1,146 passengers in an 8-car train, and 1,754 passengers in a 12-car train. Maintenance depots have been built at Hornsey and Three Bridges. ## Procurement ### Announcement The Department for Transport began its procurement process (Thameslink Rolling Stock Project, or Thameslink Rolling stock Programme) on 9 April 2008, with the aim of introducing more passenger capacity on Thameslink lines to match expected demand. In addition, the bidders were to provide depots for vehicle maintenance and storage and finance for the rolling-stock project whereby revenues would be generated from the long-term leasing of rolling stock to the train operating company and associated maintenance payments. The general specifications included: high reliability, short station dwell times, integrated information technology including passenger information and information for vehicle maintenance, a top speed of 100 mph (160 km/h), and high acceleration and deceleration performance in line with a high-frequency timetable. The trains were to be designed for low weight, low track forces, and high energy efficiency. A standard 12-car train was to be about 240 metres (790 ft) long and shorter 8-car trains were limited to 162 metres (531 ft). The passenger accommodation was to include versions for both "metro" and "commuter" trains, based around a 2+2 seating arrangement, with fold-up seats and designed for high levels of standing passengers. Ride quality and noise levels were expected to equal or be better than those of current vehicles and climate control (air-conditioning) was to be fitted. The vehicles were to be fitted for driver-only operation, and to include GSM-R communications radio, as well as AWS, TPWS, and ERTMS level 2 safety systems. The ability to be used in 'Automatic train operation' (ATO) mode, where an on-board computer controls the motors and brakes, was also specified. Vehicles were to operate on 750 V DC and 25 kV AC electrification systems, with regenerative brakes. Maintenance time was to be reduced by the use of modular components, remote diagnostics, and the avoidance of over-complicated systems. The Department for Transport gave a target of 384 tonnes (378 long tons; 423 short tons) when empty for a 243 m (797 ft) train. ### Bids In July 2008, the Department for Transport shortlisted consortia including Alstom, Bombardier, Hitachi, and Siemens as train builders. The invitations to tender were issued to the four bidders in November 2008. Hitachi exited the bidding process in April 2009. In July 2009, Siemens unveiled the Desiro City, a development of design and technology used in its Desiro UK range and the Desiro Mainline range. Development of the design had begun in 2007, with an investment of about £45 million. In September 2009, Alstom unveiled the X'trapolis UK, unusually an articulated vehicle, using 15.6 metre (51 ft) cars, with individual carriages proposed to be supported at one end by a bogie and at the opposite end by a linkage to the next carriage. The shorter vehicle allowed a slightly wider design; the smaller number of bogies was to have resulted in a train approximately 40 tonnes lighter than a conventional design. However, the design would have resulted in a higher axle load. The bid was rejected in October 2009. Bombardier Transportation offered the Aventra, a design incorporating a development of the FLEXX Eco inside frame bogie with bogie-mounted traction motors. Both Bombardier's and Siemens' rolling-stock designs were conventional EMUs incorporating inside frame bogies and modern passenger and rolling stock information systems. ### Contract decision and financial close The contract for the order was originally planned to be signed in Summer 2009, with the first vehicles in service by February 2012, and squadron service by 2015. The award of the contract was delayed by the 2010 general election and the subsequent spending review, following which the procurement was announced to be proceeding in late 2010. On 16 June 2011, Cross London Trains Ltd, a consortium formed by Siemens Project Ventures GmbH, Innisfree Ltd., and 3i Infrastructure Ltd., was named preferred bidder for the PFI contract, and the targeted entry of trains into service was rescheduled to 2015–2018. The vehicles would be manufactured at Siemens' plant in Krefeld, Germany, and maintenance depots were to be built at Hornsey (London) and Three Bridges (Sussex). The contract was significantly delayed: initially Siemens had hoped to reach agreement in early 2012; by late 2012 commercial close was hoped for by the end of the year, and financial close in early 2013. Key aspects of the commercial contract were reported to have been finalised by December 2012. As a result of the delays to the procurement, in late 2012, train operating company Southern began procurement of 116 dual-voltage EMUs from Bombardier that would be used temporarily on the Thameslink route until 2015; the order contract was finalised in July 2013. In mid-2013 the National Audit Office (NAO) reported that the contract delay could negatively impact the delivery of the entire Thameslink Programme. The £1.6 billion contract to finance, supply, and maintain a 1,140-carriage fleet of passenger rolling stock was eventually finalised between the DfT, the supplier Siemens, and the Cross London Trains consortium on 14 June 2013. To finance the work, loans were arranged with nineteen banks, with Lloyds, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation, KfW and BTMU acting as mandated lead arrangers; the European Investment Bank also provided a debt facility. Loans for the construction of the rolling-stock depots were through Siemens Financial Services. ## Design and manufacturing Development of the new SF7000 bogie began in 2007, with the intent that it would be the UK-market replacement for the preceding Siemens SGP SF5000 model. To reduce energy consumption and track access charges, a key feature of the design was reduced weight: weight-saving design elements included short wheelbase, inboard frames, a bolsterless bogie design, and hollow axles. Total bogie weight is 6.3 tonnes (powered) and 4.4 tonnes (trailer), a reduction of around one third from the SF5000 design. The primary suspension system uses layered rubber, with pneumatic secondary suspension. Motor bogies have a wheelbase of 2,200 mm (87 in), while trailer bogies are 100 mm (3.9 in) shorter. Both variants use wheels of 820 mm (32 in) nominal diameter. Braking is by tread brakes and regenerative braking on motor bogies, and two axle-mounted disc brakes per axle on trailer bogies. Prototypes of the new bogie were completed at Siemens' bogie plant in Graz, Austria in late 2011. Manufacture of pre-series production trainsets began before formal financial close of the project in mid-2013. A mock-up of the train was unveiled at the ExCel centre in January 2014, and then displayed at various stations in London and the surrounding area. In March 2014, testing of a twelve-car unit began at the Wegberg-Wildenrath Test and Validation Centre; a completed unit was presented by Siemens in Krefeld, Germany in April 2015. ## Introduction into service The first train arrived in the UK by the end of July 2015, and was delivered to the Three Bridges depot. The first test run on the Brighton Main Line took place in December 2015. The first train in service was unit 700108 forming the 1002 Brighton to London Bridge service on 20 June 2016. By 18 September 2017, Class 700s replaced all , , and units previously in use on the network. All units were accepted by Thameslink by summer 2018, and by the end of 2019 all were in passenger service. The Class 700 fleet, at 60 eight-car and 55 twelve-car units, is over double the size of the old Thameslink fleet. This increase has been used not only to enhance capacity, but also to expand the Thameslink network. On 6 November 2017, Class 700s started on the Great Northern route with the first, 700128, operating the 0656 Peterborough to London Kings Cross service. The Great Northern route has since been partially incorporated in the Thameslink network after through services through the Canal Tunnels began on 26 February 2018. On this route, Class 700s replaced parts of the fleet. On 11 December 2017, Class 700s took over peak-time services from London Bridge to Littlehampton and weekday-only services from London Bridge to Horsham from Southern with the former starting from Bedford instead of London Bridge. From 21 May 2018, Class 700s also entered service on the new Rainham to Luton service, having replaced the Southeastern s from Gillingham to London Charing Cross. The Class 465s are now being used to enhance capacity on other routes. Class 700s are still due to enter service on a planned new service between Cambridge and Maidstone East but a date for this has not yet been confirmed. ## Criticism ### Procurement Because the trains were to be built outside the UK, the decision to award the contract to Siemens proved controversial: there was widespread criticism of the UK government's bidding process and perceived lack of support for British manufacturing, which in turn led to a review of governmental procurement mechanisms. Additionally, the decision to procure a train with a new bogie design untested in the UK was challenged by several observers at a parliamentary investigation into the train procurement; rival bidder Bombardier already had a proven low-weight bogie. In 2014, the NAO reported on the Department for Transport's handling of Intercity Express and Thameslink rolling-stock procurement projects. The report questioned the DfT's attempt to take leadership in the project, contrary to general policy, without any prior experience of large-scale rolling stock procurement; the NAO also said the DfT had handled communications with bidders poorly, increasing the likelihood of a legal challenge to its decisions. ### Interior design The Class 700 units have been criticised for having fewer seats than those they replaced. There are 666 seats on the twelve-car versions of the Class 700, compared to 714 on a twelve-car formation of a Thameslink Class 377/5 and 807 on a twelve car formation of a Great Northern . The reduction in the number of seats is intended to provide more standing room on busy trains into Central London, but has been criticised by those who use the trains for longer journeys. There will, however, be more seats overall, as the services will run more frequently. Additionally, the seats themselves have been criticised for being an uncomfortable shape and having insufficient padding. They are also narrow and positioned close together – another design intended to increase standing space. These poor levels of comfort, along with their tall, thin, tapered appearance, have led them to sometimes be nicknamed "ironing boards"; they have also been likened to sitting on concrete. Thameslink have claimed that the lack of padding was required to meet fire regulations; however, the Rail Safety and Standards Board have claimed that this is untrue, and that it was simply a measure by the DfT to reduce costs. Upon delivery, the trains were also missing various amenities which were considered standard, including seatback tables and Wi-Fi, which are now being retrofitted to some units. ## Fleet and formation details The new fleet were allocated TOPS classification '700' in 2013. This was divided into subclasses 700/0 for eight-car units and 700/1 for twelve-car units. The first class compartment at the rear of each unit is declassified at all times. In July 2013 Eversholt Rail entered into an agreement with Cross London Trains to provide long-term (22-year) asset management for the fleet of trains. There are 60 eight-car units and 55 twelve-car units. Each is a fixed length continuously gangwayed vehicle. The initial livery is "light grey with pastel blue doors and a white diagonal flash at the carriage ends". ### Illustrations ### Special liveries As of April 2020, unit 700111, alongside Southern unit 377111 and Great Northern unit 717011, has been wrapped with a special NHS appreciation livery to show support for the NHS and the 200,000 essential commuters travelling on Govia Thameslink Railway's network each week during the nationwide lockdown caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. ## Depots In 2008, the Department for Transport commissioned a study into the location of depots for the future Thameslink rolling stock: Network Rail preferred two depots based on an expectation that at times the central area of the Thameslink route would be closed for maintenance outside commercial operational hours, with no workable alternative electrified routes available; as a result, depots on either side of the central Thameslink area were required, enabling trains to reach a depot on a nightly basis without passing through central London. A single-depot solution was also investigated, but no suitably large sites were identified for such a facility. Sites were considered at: Wellingborough; Hornsey; Cricklewood; Selhurst; Three Bridges; and Tonbridge. By late 2008, the sites had been narrowed to Hornsey, Three Bridges and Tonbridge; finally Hornsey and Three Bridges were selected as a two-depot solution. In August 2009, planning applications for both sites were submitted by Arup acting on behalf of Network Rail. However, in December, the Hornsey application was blocked by Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government John Denham on grounds of its scale. Potential sites for the northern depot were reassessed and possible options reduced to three: a main depot at Coronation Sidings Hornsey; a main depot adjacent to the existing depot at Hornsey; and a site at Chesterton, Cambridge – a depot reduced in size on the site of the original plan was chosen as the best option for Network Rail. In 2011 revised plans were submitted for both the Hornsey and Three Bridges schemes, with the Hornsey scheme reduced in size and the Three Bridges scheme expanded. In mid-2013, VolkerFitzpatrick was awarded the approximately £150 million contract to build the two depots. The Three Bridges and the Hornsey depots were officially opened in October 2015 and December 2016 respectively. The Three Bridges depot is located 1.5 km south of Three Bridges railway station on either side of the Brighton Main Line. The Hornsey depot is located on the east side of the East Coast main line near Hornsey railway station, split between the north-east and the south-east of the station and the A504 road (High Street/Turnpike Lane), the latter being adjacent to the pre-existing depot. ## Accidents and incidents - Sixty Thameslink Class 700 and 717 trains failed during disturbances to the National Grid on 9 August 2019 during which the grid frequency fell to 48.914 Hz. Govia Thameslink Railway reported that their Class 700 and Class 717 trains that were operating on AC power were affected by the frequency deviation below 49 Hz. Half were restarted by the drivers but the others required a technician to come out to the train to restart it. Thousands of passengers had their journeys delayed with 371 trains cancelled, 220 part cancelled, and 873 trains delayed. London St Pancras and King's Cross stations had to close for several hours due to overcrowding. The DNOs confirmed that no track supplies were lost due to the DNO's Low Frequency Demand Disconnection (LFDD) protection operation. The problem was identified as the recent "Desiro City" software update from Siemens Mobility. Desiro City is the software that enables the train to operate. Siemens Technical Specification for the train states that the train will continue to operate with supply frequency drops down to 48.5 Hz for short periods of time, but that the train drives are permitted to disconnected at or below 49 Hz. However Siemens also state that all trains should have been recoverable via Battery Reset. Instead a Permanent Lockout on the trains followed the protective shutdown caused by a supply voltage frequency drop. Siemens confirmed this lock out should not have occurred and "This was not the intended behaviour of the train." This permanent lock out was due to the recent software update. The trains where the driver recovered them with a battery restart and thus were not affected by the permanent lock out did not yet have the latest version of the software.Two large power stations, Hornsea One Ltd (co-owned by Orsted) and Little Barford (operated by RWE) which did not remain connected after the lightning strike have agreed to make a voluntary payment of £4.5 million each into Ofgem's redress fund. - On 18 February 2022, during Storm Eunice, unit 700153 collided with a tree obstructing the line at Ifield, West Sussex and was derailed. - On 9 June 2023, unit 700042 was derailed at Plumstead. ## See also - British Rail Class 707 – a version of the Desiro City platform in service with Southeastern. - British Rail Class 717 – a version of the Desiro City platform in service for Great Northern. - Syntegra – potential Siemens replacement bogie.
23,140,633	Moria, Middle-earth	1,171,680,783	Underground complex in Middle-earth	[ "Fictional subterranea", "Middle-earth populated places", "Middle-earth realms", "Tolkien articles with unsourced statements" ]	In the fictional world of J. R. R. Tolkien, Moria, also named Khazad-dûm, is an ancient subterranean complex in Middle-earth, comprising a vast labyrinthine network of tunnels, chambers, mines and halls under the Misty Mountains, with doors on both the western and the eastern sides of the mountain range. Moria is introduced in Tolkien's novel The Hobbit, and is a major scene of action in The Lord of the Rings. In much of Middle-earth's fictional history, Moria was the greatest city of the Dwarves. The city's wealth was founded on its mines, which produced mithril, a fictional metal of great beauty and strength, suitable for armour. The Dwarves dug too greedily and too deep for mithril, and disturbed a demon of great power: a Balrog, which destroyed their kingdom. By the end of the Third Age, Moria had long been abandoned by the Dwarves, and was a place of evil repute. It was dark, in dangerous disrepair, and in its labyrinths lurked Orcs and the Balrog. Scholars have identified likely sources for Tolkien's Moria: he had studied a Latin inscription about a lost ring at the temple of Nodens in Gloucestershire, at a place called Dwarf's Hill full of old mine-workings. The name Moria, Tolkien wrote, echoed the name of a castle in a Norwegian folktale, while Gandalf's death and reappearance reminded critics of the resurrection and transfiguration of Jesus. The West Gate that the Watcher in the Water crashes closed behind the Fellowship recalled to commentators the Wandering Rocks of Greek mythology, and Odysseus's passage between the devouring Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis. Finally, the Fellowship's entry into the darkness via the deadly lake by the West Gate, and its exit into the light via the beautiful Mirrormere, alongside Gandalf's death and reappearance, has been compared to a baptism, a ceremony that combines a symbolic death and the gift of new life. Moria provided dramatic scenes in Peter Jackson's film The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, inspired by Alan Lee's illustrations. Its multiple levels of tunnels and halls have served, too, as the basis for a variety of computer and board games. ## Names The name "Moria" means "the Black Chasm" or "the Black Pit", from Sindarin mor, "dark, black" and iâ, "void, abyss". The element mor had the sense "sinister, evil", especially by association with infamous names such as Morgoth and Mordor; indeed Moria itself had an evil reputation by the times in which The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings are set. The name Moria had (within the fiction) originally applied only to the Black Chasm itself. However, after the Dwarves were forced to abandon Khazad-dûm, its many lamps went out, and the whole subterranean complex became dark. Tolkien borrowed the name Moria itself, but not its meaning, from a book he had read. Khazad-dûm is the name of the fabulous city-kingdom of the Dwarves, especially in a historical or nostalgic context. In the fictional history, Khazad-dûm was Moria's original name, given by the Dwarves in their own language, Khuzdul. It is rendered (in "translated Westron") as the Dwarrowdelf, an archaic form of what would be the Dwarves' delving in more modern English. Tolkien rhymes dûm with "tomb". ## Tolkien's account ### Geography Moria was originally a system of natural caves located in Dimrill Dale, a valley on the eastern side of the Misty Mountains. The appearance of the Misty Mountains, and some of the experiences of Tolkien's protagonists, were inspired by his travels in the Swiss Alps in 1911. The caves led to the Black Chasm, a subterranean abyss, some fifty feet wide and of indeterminate depth, which was crossed only by Durin's Bridge, "a slender bridge of stone, without kerb or rail". It forced any group wishing to cross to go in single file, limiting the power of any attack. Moria lay on the western edge of the Middle-earth region of Wilderland. The Mountains of Moria, three of the Misty Mountains' most massive peaks, surrounded Dimrill Dale: Silvertine on the west, Redhorn on the north, and Cloudyhead on the east – in Sindarin respectively Celebdil, Caradhras and Fanuidhol. Their Khuzdûl names, respectively Zirakzigil, Barazinbar and Bundushathûr, are mentioned by Gimli, as the Fellowship nears Moria. The caves of Moria, where the Dwarf city-kingdom of Khazad-dûm was founded, were situated under Silvertine; their mouth overlooked Dimrill Dale, which contained many waterfalls and a long, oval lake that reflected stars even in daylight. Perceiving these stars as a crown glittering above his head, Durin took this as an auspicious sign, named the lake Kheled-zâram, the Mirrormere, and chose the eastward-facing caves above it for his new stronghold. ### Geology The Dwarves excavated most of Khazad-dûm out of solid rock, leaving polished walls. Minerals included gold, gems and iron ore. However the principal mineral was mithril, a fabulously precious and versatile metal found nowhere else in Middle-earth. It was the source of Khazad-dûm's huge wealth, but ultimately its mining was the cause of its downfall. Beginning under the Silvertine, the Dwarves mined ever deeper, and down towards the roots of Mount Caradhras. There they unearthed the Balrog, which drove the Dwarves into exile. Far below even the deepest mines of the Dwarves lay a primordial underworld of tunnels, streams and lakes in perpetual darkness, inhabited by primitive creatures. The tunnels were "gnawed by nameless things" from the beginnings of Arda, and, as Gandalf suggested, from this underworld the Watcher in the Water may have emerged. ### History Moria was founded by Durin at the end of the Ages of the Stars. During his reign, the precious metal mithril was discovered in the mines, and some of the major structures of Moria were built: Durin's Bridge, the Second Hall, the Endless Stair and Durin's Tower. Durin died before the end of the First Age. He was buried in the royal tombs of Khazad-dûm. Orcs constantly attacked the dwarf kingdom; men and dwarves fought together against the orcs. The dwarves became friendly with the Elves of Eregion to the west; the Elves assisted in developing Khazad-dûm's mansions, making it "far more beautiful" as it grew westwards through tunnels to the West Gate, which opened on to Eregion. Celebrimbor, the Lord of Eregion, used ithildin lettering on this gate on behalf of its builder, his friend the dwarf smith Narvi. In the Second Age, Rings of Power were made by elves in Eregion. Durin III, the King of Khazad-dûm at the time, obtained one of the rings; another was Nenya, made from Moria's mithril; it became Galadriel's ring. When the elves discovered that Sauron, the Dark Lord had made the One Ring, giving him control of all the other rings, the War of the Elves and Sauron broke out. Sauron conquered Eregion, but Khazad-dûm's intervention enabled Elves including Elrond and Celeborn to escape Eregion's destruction and found Rivendell. Khazad-dûm was closed, and its population dwindled. At the end of the Second Age, Khazad-dûm fought Sauron in the War of the Last Alliance, helping to defeat him. In the Third Age, the more easily accessible seams of mithril were exhausted, and the Dwarves dug deeper until they disturbed a Balrog, a powerful fire-demon. It killed King Durin VI, acquiring the name Durin's Bane, and then Náin I, his son. The Dwarves abandoned Khazad-dûm and fled into Wilderland. Orcs occupied Moria, while the Balrog haunted its depths. The Orc-chieftain Azog became the master of Moria. Thrór, the heir of the Dwarf-kings of Khazad-dûm, attempted to enter his people's ancestral home, and was killed by Azog. This started the War of the Dwarves and Orcs; Azog was beheaded by Dáin Ironfoot, but the victory was Pyrrhic, and the Dwarves did not dare face the Balrog. Much later, Balin left Erebor to recolonize Moria, but after five years his colony was destroyed by Orcs. As the War of the Ring loomed, a messenger from Sauron offered Dáin the return of Moria and three Dwarf-Rings if he helped Sauron to find the One Ring. Dáin refused, sending Glóin and his son Gimli to the Council of Elrond, starting the quest of the Fellowship of the Ring. The Fellowship reluctantly passed through Moria in winter, gambling that most of its Orcs had been killed in the Battle of Five Armies. They were attacked by the monstrous Watcher in the Water as they entered the West-gate, and faced further perils in the subterranean passages. They reached the Chamber of Mazarbul, the ancient repository of documents holding Balin's tomb and his colony's chronicle, the Book of Mazarbul. They were attacked there by a Troll and many Orcs, before being approached by the Balrog. Gandalf confronted the Balrog on Durin's Bridge. The two duelled briefly before plunging together into the chasm, allowing the rest of the Fellowship to escape to the Eastern Gates. Unknown to the Fellowship, Gandalf climbed to the top of Mount Celebdil and continued to fight the Balrog for two days in the Battle of the Peak; both died, but Gandalf returned to Middle-earth as Gandalf the White. Khazad-dûm lay empty. Some centuries into the Fourth Age, the auspiciously-named Durin VII, a descendant of Dáin Ironfoot, succeeded as the King of the Longbeards and heir of the Kings of Khazad-dûm. He led his people back to Khazad-dûm, where they remained "until the world grew old and the Dwarves failed and the days of Durin's race were ended". ### Architecture The city of Khazad-dûm had many levels, linked by flights of stone steps. There were at least six levels above the Great Gates, and many more levels —or Deeps— below it. Every level consisted of a network of arched passages, chambers and many-pillared halls, often with "black walls, polished and smooth as glass". Below the level of the Gates lay treasuries, armouries, dungeons, and mines. The Endless Stair of many thousands of steps rose in an unbroken spiral from the lowest dungeon of Moria to Durin's Tower at the summit of Celebdil; it was destroyed in the battle between Gandalf and the balrog, Durin's Bane. During the kingdom of Khazad-dûm, the subterranean realm was "full of light and splendour", illuminated by many "shining lamps of crystal". The higher levels had skylights carved through the mountain-side which provided daylight. The East-gate or the Dimrill Gate was the main entrance, looking over Dimrill Dale. It opened into the First Hall of Moria. The West-gate enabled travellers to pass right through the Misty Mountains, thus providing a weather-free alternative to the notorious and arduous Redhorn Pass, 15–20 miles to the north. The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia notes that Middle-earth gates are important both symbolically and practically: "They mark exclusion or admission. They test character and wisdom. They suggest mystery, secrecy, and privilege." #### Doors of Durin The Doors of Durin, also called the West-gate or the West-door, formed the western entrance to Moria. When shut, the gates were invisible and impossible to open by physical means. They were however decorated with designs engraved in ithildin made by the elf-Lord Celebrimbor of Eregion and the dwarf Narvi from mithril mined in Moria. The designs included the emblems of Durin, the two trees of the High Elves, and the Star of the House of Fëanor. Tolkien's drawing of the designs on the Doors of Durin was the only illustration in The Lord of the Rings during his lifetime (other than cover-art and calligraphy). In moonlight, a password made the designs visible. The designs contained a second password to open the doors. When the Fellowship entered, the Watcher in the Water, the aquatic guardian of the gates, slammed the doors shut with its tentacles, plunging the Fellowship into darkness. The inscription was in the Elvish language of Sindarin, using the Tengwar script; Gandalf translates it as "The Doors of Durin, Lord of Moria. Speak, friend, and enter. I, Narvi, made them. Celebrimbor of Hollin drew these signs". Scholars have commented that "Moria", an unfriendly Elvish description meaning "The Black Pit", was hardly how a ruler of Khazad-Dûm would choose to describe his realm; and that since the name was not used until the Balrog was awakened in the Third Age, it was also anachronistic. Possible resolutions have been proposed: that Celebrimbor had foresight of the name; that the magic lettering reshaped itself; or that Gandalf indeed saw the Sindarin name "Hadhodrond" on the door, and read it out as "Moria" for the benefit of those listening (and in the same way, he must have seen "Eregion" and read out "Hollin"). ## Origins ### Nodens In 1928, a 4th-century pagan mystery cult temple was excavated at Lydney Park, Gloucestershire. Tolkien was asked to investigate a Latin inscription there: "For the god Nodens. Silvianus has lost a ring and has donated one-half [its worth] to Nodens. Among those who are called Senicianus do not allow health until he brings it to the temple of Nodens." An old name for the place was Dwarf's Hill, and in 1932 Tolkien traced Nodens to the Irish hero Nuada Airgetlám, "Nuada of the Silver-Hand". The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey thought this "a pivotal influence" on Tolkien's Middle-earth, combining as it did a god-hero, a ring, dwarves, and a silver hand. The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia notes also the "Hobbit-like appearance of [Dwarf's Hill]'s mine-shaft holes", and that Tolkien was extremely interested in the hill's folklore on his stay there, citing Helen Armstrong's comment that the place may have inspired Tolkien's "Celebrimbor and the fallen realms of Moria and Eregion". The scholar of English literature John M. Bowers notes that the name of the Elven-smith Celebrimbor is the Sindarin for "Silver Hand" and that "because the place was known locally as Dwarf's Hill and honeycombed with abandoned mines, it naturally suggested itself as background for the Lonely Mountain and the Mines of Moria." ### Norwegian Folktales Moria first appeared in Tolkien's 1937 novel The Hobbit. Tolkien later recalled that the name was "a casual 'echo' of Soria Moria Castle in one of the Scandinavian tales translated by Dasent. ... I liked the sound-sequence; it alliterated with 'mines', and it connected itself with the MOR element in my linguistic construction." The tales translated by Dasent were from the 1852 collection Norwegian Folktales. A historic source is the Poetic Edda, with which Tolkien was familiar; the protagonist in the Skírnismál notes that his quest will involve misty mountains, orcs, and giants. ## Analysis The critic Jane Chance observes that the fall of the dwarves, first those of Durin, then those of Balin, is brought about through avarice, their greed for Moria's deeply-buried mithril. She identifies this as "their internal vice", which the Balrog "monstrously projects". Chance notes further that Balin meets his death at the lake Mirrormere, "a very dark mirror in which he is blind to himself." The critic Clive Tolley notes that the contest between the wizard Gandalf and the evil Balrog on Durin's Bridge somewhat recalls a shamanistic contest but that a far closer parallel is medieval vision literature, giving the example of St Patrick's Purgatory and even Dante's Divine Comedy. Critics such as Chance and Jerram Barrs have recognised the death of Gandalf the Grey (at the hands of the Balrog), and his reappearance as Gandalf the White, as a transfiguration, the change in colour hinting at "a parallel with Christ's own death and resurrection". The professor of English literature Sue Zlosnik notes that the fantasy world in Tolkien's invented mythology for England is constructed with elaborate detail. She cites Humphrey Carpenter's biographical account of Tolkien's "painstaking crafting" of The Book of Mazarbul that appears in Moria, complete with "burnt and tattered" pages, and Tolkien's disappointed wish for a facsimile of this artefact to appear in the first edition of Fellowship of the Ring. In Zlosnik's view, this sort of detail recalls Horace Walpole's love of the "Gothic". Erin Derwin, writing on The Artifice, compares the fellowship's time in Moria with Siegfried Sassoon's First World War poem "The Rear-Guard", in which he describes "groping along the tunnel" in a labyrinth of dark trenches, with "muttering creatures underground", recalling, Derwin suggests, the awakening of the Orcs and the Balrog by the hobbit Pippin. The scholar of English literature Charles A. Huttar compares this "clashing gate" that crashed shut behind the travellers to the Wandering Rocks that in Greek mythology lie near the opening of the underworld, Hades, and to Odysseus's passage between the devouring Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis. Matthew Dickerson, writing in The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, suggests that of all the caves, barrows, tunnels and underground kingdoms in Tolkien's writings, Moria is "the most significant". He writes that these dark places, home to many of the major events in the stories, from the Paths of the Dead to Gollum's various tunnels and the Glittering Caves of Aglarond serve as symbols of darkness and death, the Tomb, or of fertility and new life, the Womb. Moria, he argues, citing Hugh Keenan's description of the two contrasting lakes at the Fellowship's entrance and exit from Moria, and giving the example of Gandalf's death and rebirth, functions as both Womb and Tomb. In Christianity, he notes, Baptism is at once a symbolic death and the gift of new life. Tolkien was asked whether the name Moria meant the biblical mountains of Moriah, where Abraham was to sacrifice his son, Isaac. Tolkien wrote that his mind did not work that way, explaining that Moria meant "Black Chasm" in Sindarin, the root Mor occurring in Mordor, Morgoth, Morgul. He went on "As for the 'land of Morīah' (note stress): that has no connection (even 'externally') whatsoever." ## Adaptations ### Film Peter Jackson's portrayal of Moria in his The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring movie was mostly inspired by Alan Lee's illustrations. Lee worked as the project's conceptual artist in New Zealand throughout the making of the film trilogy. Moria was modelled for the film at 1/12 scale. ### Games The roguelike computer game Moria was modelled on The Lord of the Rings events. The goal in the game is to reach the bottom of a maze-like simulation of the Mines of Moria and kill a Balrog. Moria is featured in board games such as Reiner Knizia's Lord of the Rings. The first expansion pack of the MMORPG The Lord of the Rings Online named Mines of Moria takes place almost entirely in Moria, which has several levels. The uppermost is the path of Durin's Way, which pierces the mountain to reach the cliffs of Zirak-Zigil. The main levels of Moria span from the Doors of Durin to Dolven-View, Zelem-Melek, Nud-Melek and the East doors, known as the First Hall. Further down in the subterranean realm are the Silvertine Lodes and the Redhorn Lodes, and the furthest depths contain the submerged Water-Works, the fiery Flaming Deeps, and the Foundations of Stone, where Gandalf and the Balrog fought before ascending the Endless Stair. ### Music The Dutch composer Johan de Meij wrote a movement in his Symphony No. 1 "The Lord of the Rings" called "Journey in the Dark", that was directly inspired by Moria. The movement is split into two sections, "The Mines of Moria" and "The Bridge of Khazad-dûm", and it depicts the events that take place there in The Fellowship of the Ring (novel).
19,874,508	Battle of Tamatave	1,169,627,081	1811 battle fought during the Napoleonic Wars	[ "19th century in Madagascar", "Conflicts in 1811", "May 1811 events", "Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars" ]	The Battle of Tamatave (sometimes called the Battle of Madagascar or the Action of 20 May 1811) was fought off Tamatave in Madagascar between British and French frigate squadrons during the Napoleonic Wars. The action was the final engagement of the Mauritius campaign of 1809–1811, and it saw the destruction of the last French attempt to reinforce their garrison on Mauritius. Although the news had not reached Europe by February 1811 when the reinforcement squadron left Brest, Mauritius had been captured in December 1810 by a British invasion fleet, the French defences hampered by the lack of the supplies and troops carried aboard the frigate squadron under the command of Commodore François Roquebert in Renommée. Roquebert's heavily laden ships reached Mauritius on 6 May and discovered that the island was in British hands the following day, narrowly escaping a trap laid by a squadron of British frigates ordered to hunt and destroy them. On 20 May the British squadron, under the command of Captain Charles Marsh Schomberg, discovered the French off Tamatave and attacked, both sides hampered by light winds which impeded movement for much of the day. During a period of calm weather early in the battle, the French were better positioned than the disorganised British squadron and Roquebert's ships inflicted severe damage on several British vessels before an increasing breeze allowed Schomberg to press home his attack. As the evening approached, the French attempted to escape, Roquebert sacrificing his flagship and ultimately his life to allow the frigates Clorinde and the badly damaged Néréide to escape. Five days later, Schomberg's squadron rediscovered Néréide at Tamatave and persuaded the town's commander to surrender without a fight. The battle was the last action of the Mauritius campaign and confirmed British dominance of the seas east of the Cape of Good Hope for the rest of the Napoleonic Wars. ## Background In August 1810, the French squadron on Isle de France (now Mauritius) achieved the most significant French naval victory of the Napoleonic Wars, when they captured or destroyed four Royal Navy frigates at the Battle of Grand Port. The battle was fought inside Grand Port, one of the harbours of Isle de France into which the French squadrons, dominant in the Indian Ocean during 1809, had been steadily pushed and blockaded by pressure from a British squadron under Commodore Josias Rowley. The British defeat had a noticeable galvanising effect on both the British and French naval commands: both recognised that the campaign would be won by the first to reinforce and resupply their forces. Although the French had achieved a significant victory, the naval bases on Isle de France lacked the military stores and food supplies to repair the battle damage to their ships or supply lengthy raiding voyages against British trade routes. The British reaction was immediate: ships were dispatched from regional bases at Madras, the Cape of Good Hope and Rodriguez to replace Rowley's losses while a larger force was collected at Rodriguez in preparation for a major invasion of Isle de France intended to permanently eliminate the island as a raiding base. The French response from their squadron on Isle de France, based at Port Napoleon under Commodore Jacques Hamelin, was to exercise their regional superiority by attacking British reinforcements at the actions of 13 September 1810 and 18 September 1810. Despite inflicting severe damage on two British frigates, the French lost one of their own, captured with Hamelin aboard, and suffered two more damaged. Without supplies or reinforcements to replace these losses, the French were unable to resist the British invasion in November 1810 and the island fell within four days. The French had also been preparing reinforcements for the region, but their nearest naval bases were in France itself, several thousand miles away across oceans almost totally controlled by the Royal Navy. These distances also delayed the arrival of news from the Indian Ocean, and therefore word had still not reached France of the fall of Isle de France by 17:00 on 2 February 1811, when a reinforcement squadron set sail from Brest. This squadron consisted of three powerful frigates, Renommée under Commodore François Roquebert, Clorinde under Captain Jacques Saint-Cricq and Néréide under Captain Jean-François Lemaresquier. Each ship carried over 200 soldiers for the Isle de France garrison and significant food and military supplies with which to refit Hamelin's squadron and resupply the island. The French authorities were aware of the possibility that Isle de France had been captured, and had ordered that if the island was in British hands, the squadron should continue on to the Dutch city of Batavia on Java, to operate against the British from there. ## February to May 1811 By 1811, the Royal Navy enjoyed a worldwide naval supremacy over the French, including the seas immediately off the French coast. To avoid being attacked as they left Brest, French ships had to attempt to slip out either under cover of darkness or during storms that drove the British away from the dangerous coastline. This also however forced the French ships to fight against the wind to leave their harbours and as a result, Roquebert's ships only covered 600 nautical miles (1,100 km) in the first 18 days. On 24 February, the squadron captured a Portuguese merchant ship and discovered Lisbon newspapers aboard that announced the British invasion, although not its outcome. On 13 March, Roquebert's ships crossed the Equator and on 18 April they passed the Cape of Good Hope at distance, benefitting from good weather and a strong breeze during the latter stages of the journey. At 23:00 on 6 May, 93 days after leaving Brest, the French convoy arrived off Île de la Passe at the entrance to Grand Port. The British had not been idle during the six months they had occupied Isle de France, now renamed Mauritius. The invasion fleet had broken up soon after the island fell and command of the remaining naval forces on the island had been given to Captain Philip Beaver. On 5 January, a small French dispatch ship had been captured off Port Louis (formerly Port Napoleon) and from the messages aboard the nature and destination of Roquebert's squadron was discovered. Information was also received describing a second French force being prepared for operations in the region, consisting of the frigates Nymphe and Méduse. Aware of the impending arrival of French reinforcements, Admiral Robert Stopford at the Cape of Good Hope sent Captain James Hillyar in HMS Phoebe to reinforce Beaver on Mauritius. Beaver ordered Hillyar, with HMS Galatea under Captain Woodley Losack and HMS Racehorse under Captain James de Rippe, to prepare for the arrival of Roquebert's convoy. Beaver then began eliminating French harbours in the western Indian Ocean, sending the brig HMS Eclipse to attack Tamatave on Madagascar, which was captured on 12 February. After the end of the hurricane season in March, Beaver personally sailed in HMS Nisus to invade the Seychelles, before collecting specie from Madras to refloat the Mauritian economy. In his absence, Mauritius came under the command of Captain Charles Marsh Schomberg in HMS Astraea. When Roquebert's ships appeared off Grand Port, Hillyar had his three ships in the harbour ready to sail at short notice and ensured that French tricolours were flying from Île de la Passe and other landmarks in the hope that the French could be lured into the shallow waters of the bay and defeated in a similar manner to the British defeat at the battle at Grand Port the previous year. Signals were exchanged between the French squadron and the shore but Roquebert was wary: the signals from Île de la Passe were out of date and he knew of the British invasion from the Lisbon newspapers captured two months before. Waiting offshore, the French commodore sent three boats ashore during the night with instructions to discover the situation on the island. Seizing two black inhabitants, one of the boats returned on the morning of 7 May and from his captives Roquebert learned that the British had captured the island six months earlier. The other landing parties were captured by British troops and did not return. With Hillyar's trap uncovered, Roquebert raised French colours and turned eastwards away from Grand Port, Hillyar emerging from the harbour to give chase. ## Roquebert's escape At 04:00 on 8 May, Roquebert realised that his overladen ships were too slow to outrun Hillyar's squadron, which was 6 nautical miles (11 km) behind and gaining rapidly. At 08:00, he decided to turn and meet the British ships head-on rather than be overtaken. Hillyar, aware that his squadron was weaker than Roquebert's, held back in anticipation of the arrival of Schomberg in Astraea from Port Louis, to whom he had sent an urgent message the night before. As the British fell back towards the Île Ronde off the northeastern shore of Mauritius, Roquebert declined to follow them through the dangerous gap between Île Ronde and Île du Serpent and instead sailed southwards, escaping before Hillyar and Schomberg could join up. Although Losack, supported by many crew members on board both Phoebe and Galatea, remonstrated with Hillyar for not pursuing the French, the British commander could not be persuaded and Roquebert slipped away. The British retired to Port Louis, arriving on 12 May. Roquebert's squadron sailed westwards towards Bourbon, initially planning to raid the eastern coast of island for food supplies, as his own were running low. Although the British garrison in the eastern part of the island was weak, the plan was thwarted by heavy surf on the landing beaches and Roquebert continued eastwards on half rations, reaching Tamatave in Madagascar on 19 May. The British garrison at Tamatave, 100 men of the 22nd Regiment of Foot, were afflicted with malaria and surrendered without contesting the town, where the French squadron gathered water and food supplies. When Hillyar's squadron arrived at Port Louis, Captain Schomberg immediately assumed command and led the squadron out again on 14 May, following the French eastwards. Heading straight for Tamatave, the only resupply point between Bourbon and the Cape of Good Hope, Schomberg rapidly gained on the French and when dawn broke on 20 May the French were within sight of the harbour. During the day, both commanders were frustrated by light winds and periods of calm in which none of the ships were able to move. Roquebert completed resupplying his ships at 12:00 and pulled away from the harbour in battle line, Clorinde followed by Renommée and Néréide while the British, although initially intending to form a line with Astraea at its head, gradually broke into a loose formation created by the vagaries of the wind. ## Battle Firing began at 16:00, when Renommée attempted to engage Astraea at extreme range. The British returned fire, Phoebe and Galatea joining the attack as they advanced, but the long distances and slow speeds involved meant that little damage was caused by either side. The British squadron gradually drifted beyond the range of the French, Schomberg desperately but unsuccessfully attempting to turn back towards them. With the British becalmed, Roquebert's ships began to close the distance, using the breeze to position their broadsides close to the sterns of the British ships. From this position the French were able to unleash a destructive raking fire, Clorinde concentrating on Phoebe and Renommée on Galatea. The rearmost ship, Néréide, was unable to manoeuvre successfully in the light winds and remained beyond the effective range of Astraea and Racehorse, despite an ineffectual cannonade in her direction. Over the next two hours, Néréide advanced on Phoebe, sandwiching the British frigate between two opponents and exposing her to a destructive fire. Both squadrons had been rendered immobile by the lack of wind, and although Schomberg ordered de Rippe to use boats to tow Racehorse within range of the main engagement, the brig was still over a mile away at 18:30, when the breeze picked up and Hillyar was able to advance on Néréide, engaging her at close quarters. Stranded by light winds, Renommée and Clorinde were unable to come to Lemaresquier's assistance and in half an hour Phoebe had killed Captain Lemaresquier and inflicted such severe damage on her opponent that Néréide could no longer return fire. As Phoebe and Néréide fought, the becalmed Renommée and Clorinde concentrated their fire on Galatea, causing severe damage to Losack's vessel. As the breeze strengthened at 19:00, Renommée and Clorinde advanced on Phoebe, Losack firing on the French as they pulled away before steering his battered ship westwards and informing Schomberg that the damage was such that he could not continue in action. Continuing to the west with his rigging and masts in disarray and a distress signal flying, Losack's ship disappeared into the growing darkness at 20:30. Phoebe fell back before the French attack and joined Schomberg. With the wind strengthening, Schomberg marshalled his forces and advanced on Roquebert's squadron. The French were clustered together in support of Néréide, whose crew were attempting to make hasty repairs while the squadron limped in a northwesterly direction towards Madagascar. Following the French lights, Schomberg pursued the French in the darkness and when Clorinde lost a man overboard and stopped to rescue him at 21:50, Roquebert was forced to fall back and protect his consort from being overwhelmed. Steering Renommée directly at Astraea, Roquebert opened fire at close range but was soon surrounded, with Astraea on one side, Racehorse on the other and Phoebe raking her stern. In a ferocious 25 minute engagement, Roquebert was killed and the French flagship suffered severe damage, surrendering after a shot from Racehorse ignited her mainsail. The British ships were also badly damaged: Racehorse was unable to launch a boat to take possession of Renommée due to a fallen topmast on her deck, and Astraea's boats were all badly damaged by shot and leaked severely during the short row to the stricken French vessel. ## Surrender at Tamatave During the final battle of the Renommée, Saint-Cricq in Clorinde had remained out of range of the British, refusing to support his commodore. When Renommée surrendered, he made all sail to the north, abandoning both Roquebert and Néréide in his attempt to escape. Although Clorinde was closely pursued by Astraea and Phoebe until 02:00 on 21 May, the damage they had suffered prevented them from gaining on the French ship and Clorinde eventually disappeared into the darkness. During the night Schomberg gathered Phoebe, Racehorse and Astraea, and rejoined Renommée at dawn on 21 May. A prize crew of seven men was sufficient to exercise control over the French frigate until Schomberg could remove most of the French crew and replace them with British sailors the following morning. Although Galatea was still within sight at dawn, Losack was unsure of the identity of the approaching squadron and decided to sail directly to Port Louis rather than risk combat with a superior enemy force. While making repairs to his ships, particularly the battered Phoebe, and transferring prisoners from Renommée, Schomberg despatched Racehorse to Tamatave to investigate the situation at the port. De Rippe returned on 24 May and informed Schomberg that Néréide was in the harbour and the town was in the hands of a French garrison. Despite sailing directly to Tamatave, Schomberg's ships were delayed by a gale and did not arrive until the afternoon of 25 May. Aware that no one in the British squadron had intimate knowledge of the coral reefs that surrounded the entrance to the bay and thus that he was poorly positioned to attack the French if they chose to resist him, Schomberg sent Racehorse into the harbour under a flag of truce. De Rippe presented the French commander, Lieutenant François Ponée, with a demand for surrender, the demand falsely stating that "Renommée and Clorinde have struck after a brave defence". Ponée refused, instead proposing that the ship's crew and the garrison of Tamatave be repatriated to France without conditions if the frigate, town and a 12-gun battery were surrendered to Schomberg's squadron. Schomberg accepted Ponée's proposal and Tamatave and Néréide were surrendered without further conflict. ## Aftermath Clorinde had been almost undamaged in the battle and comfortably outran all British pursuit. Without a safe harbour in the entire Indian Ocean, Saint-Criq initially sailed for the Seychelles, hiding among the islands until 7 June. On 26 June, Clorinde landed at Diego Garcia and collected fresh water and coconuts before beginning the return journey to France in defiance of the orders to continue on to Batavia issued before the convoy left Brest. On 1 August, Clorinde passed the Cape of Good Hope, Saint-Criq supplementing his provisions by raiding British and American merchant ships in the Atlantic. On 24 September, Clorinde encountered the British blockade squadron off Brest and was chased by the 80-gun ship of the line HMS Tonnant under Captain Sir John Gore. Although Tonnant came close enough to Clorinde to discharge her broadside at the frigate, Gore was unable to catch the elusive French ship and was eventually forced to retire to open waters after coming under fire from batteries at Pointe Trépassée. By 17:00, Clorinde was anchored in Brest harbour. Saint-Criq was heavily criticised for his failure to support Roquebert and for ignoring his orders to sail to Batavia if Mauritius had been captured. In March 1812, he was brought to a court martial to examine his behaviour and found to have been negligent in his duty, for which he was dismissed from the service, expelled from the legion of Honour and sentenced to three years' imprisonment. Napoleon is reported to have suggested that Saint-Criq be shot for deserting his commanding officer. There were also recriminations among the British squadron, Schomberg praising Astraea and Phoebe but omitting Racehorse and Galatea from the recommendations in his post-battle report. Captain Losack was particularly offended as Schomberg had implied that Galatea's distress signal was an overreaction in the face of the enemy, despite her casualties being greater than the rest of the squadron combined. He subsequently requested a court martial to clear any suggestion of cowardice from his name but the Admiralty refused, commenting that they were fully satisfied with his conduct. Historian William James claims that opinion within the Navy was also with Losack and that Schomberg had been excessively harsh in his criticism. Due to the variable winds of 20 May, some ships were more heavily engaged than others and as a result the casualties in the action were unevenly spread. According to the French account of the battle, Renommée suffered 93 killed and wounded, including Commodore Roquebert dead and the first lieutenant and commander of the troops on board both badly wounded, although British accounts give a figure of 145 casualties. The French accounts also demonstrate that Néréide had suffered severely, losing 25 dead including Captain Lemaresquier and 32 wounded (again the British accounts differ, stating that she suffered 130 casualties). Clorinde, which had caused severe damage to Galatea while the British ship was immobile but had failed to support Renommée against Schomberg, lost just one man killed and six wounded. British losses were less severe, although still significant, Galatea losing 16 and 46 wounded, Phoebe seven dead and 24 wounded and Astraea two dead and 16 wounded. Racehorse, despite being badly damaged in her masts and rigging, reportedly suffered no casualties. The captured ships were both purchased into the Royal Navy and recommissioned, Renommée becoming HMS Java and Néréide becoming HMS Madagascar. Nearly four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal, awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847. The action marked the end of the final French attempt to operate in the Indian Ocean during the Napoleonic Wars: with their bases now in British hands, any deployment to the region would require a significant quantity of ships and supplies at a time when France was unable to even protect the entrances to her principal harbours, as Clorinde's brush with Tonnant had demonstrated. The action also ended the threat to British merchant ships, especially the large East Indiamen, from attack in the Indian Ocean and the requirement for a significant Royal Navy presence in the region. With the exception of a few small Dutch ports in the East Indies, the world east of the Cape of Good Hope was now either under British control or in the hands of neutral powers and Britain's allies. ## Order of battle Key - A † symbol indicates that the officer was killed during the action or subsequently died of wounds received. - The ships are ordered in the sequence in which they formed up for battle. - = British Royal Navy, = French Navy.
12,805,665	Jeriome Robertson	1,170,501,943	American baseball player	[ "1977 births", "2010 deaths", "Accidental deaths in California", "American expatriate baseball players in Canada", "American expatriate baseball players in Mexico", "American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela", "Baseball players from San Jose, California", "Baseball players from Tulare County, California", "Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players", "Cleveland Indians players", "Edmonton Trappers players", "Gulf Coast Astros players", "Houston Astros players", "Jackson Generals (Texas League) players", "Kissimmee Cobras players", "Leones del Caracas players", "Lobos de Arecibo players", "Louisville Bats players", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "Mexican League baseball pitchers", "Motorcycle road incident deaths", "New Orleans Zephyrs players", "Newark Bears players", "Norfolk Tides players", "People from Exeter, California", "Quad Cities River Bandits players", "Rieleros de Aguascalientes players", "Road incident deaths in California", "Round Rock Express players", "Uni-President Lions players" ]	Jeriome Paul Robertson (March 30, 1977 – May 29, 2010) was an American left-handed baseball pitcher who played three seasons in Major League Baseball for the Houston Astros and Cleveland Indians. In 51 pitching appearances (32 starts), Robertson posted a win–loss record of 16–12 with a 5.71 earned run average and 111 strikeouts in 184+1⁄3 innings of work. Robertson attended Exeter Union High School before being drafted by the Astros in 1995. He spent the next seven years moving up the minor league system before making his debut in September 2002. His most productive year was 2003, where he won 15 games and finished seventh in Rookie of the Year voting. He was traded to the Indians the following year, where he played in eight games before being demoted to the minor leagues. Robertson spent the next few years playing in various Minor League and independent baseball organizations, including the Mexican League, Chinese Professional Baseball League, Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. ## Early life Robertson attended Exeter Union High School in his hometown of Exeter, California, where he was a standout on the high school baseball team for three seasons. ## Career ### High school During Robertson's senior high-school season, he played in the outfield and first base when he wasn't pitching. He finished the season with a .427 batting average and 24 runs batted in (RBI), as well as a win–loss record of 9–1 and an ERA of 0.95. For his efforts, he was named player of the year by The Fresno Bee and named to the All-State baseball team. The Houston Astros selected Robertson in the 24th round of the 1995 Major League Baseball draft, and he signed a contract with them on August 22, 1995. ### Minor league Robertson started his professional baseball career the following season, in 1996. He spent most of the season with the Gulf Coast League Astros, the rookie-class Astros franchise, where he played alongside future teammate Wade Miller. He also played one game with the Kissimmee Cobras. In 13 pitching appearances with the Astros, all of them starts, Robertson had a record of 5–3, a 1.72 ERA, and 98 strikeouts. For the 1997 season, Robertson was promoted to the Quad Cities River Bandits of the Midwest League. In 26 games for the River Bandits, Robertson had a record of 10–7, 135 strikeouts, and an ERA of 4.07. The Astros promoted Robertson in 1998 to the class-A advanced affiliate Kissimmee Cobras of the Florida State League. In 28 games with the Cobras, Robertson pitched 175 total innings. He also had a 10–10 record, a 3.71 ERA, and 131 strikeouts. He was again promoted the following year to the Jackson Generals of the Texas League. At one point during the season, he went six weeks without earning a victory. He rebounded from the drought and finished the season with a 15–7 record and a 3.06 ERA; his 15 wins led all pitchers in the league. After the season ended, the Houston Astros purchased his contract, effectively placing him on the 40-man roster. Robertson did not play a game for the Astros during the 2000 season, and instead split his season between Kissimmee, the AAA-class New Orleans Zephyrs, and Jackson; the team was renamed to the Round Rock Express that season. He spent most of his time with the Express, where he was dubbed a "superprospect" during his time there. He won 5 games and lost 10 in 25 combined pitching appearances between the three clubs that year. Robertson spent the entire 2001 season with the Express; it was the only season of his professional career where he was used solely as a relief pitcher. In 57 appearances totaling just under 75 innings, he had a 5–1 record and a 3.91 ERA. He was promoted to the Zephyrs for most of the 2002 season, and while he was told he would continue his relief work, he impressed management enough to move back into the starting rotation before the season began. In 27 starts for the Zephyrs, Robertson had a 12–8 record, a league-leading 2.55 ERA, and 114 strikeouts en route to being named the Pacific Coast League Pitcher of the Year. After the minor league season wrapped up at the end of August, the Astros purchased his contract and placed him on the major league roster. ### Major League Baseball Robertson made his MLB debut on September 2, 2002, against the Texas Rangers. He was starting in place of Roy Oswalt, who was serving a suspension for hitting a batter with a pitch. He allowed two runs in 2+2⁄3 innings and got the loss in his only start that year. He got his second decision in a 5–2 loss to the San Francisco Giants on September 28. In the game, the Giants clinched a playoff spot, and Barry Bonds hit a home run off Robertson into McCovey Cove to seal the game for them. He finished the season with a 6.52 ERA in 9+2⁄3 innings pitched. As the 2003 season began, Robertson was competing alongside Brad Lidge, Kirk Saarloos, and Pete Munro for the final spot in the Astros' starting rotation. He pitched the entire month of spring training, and when the season began he was granted the final spot in the rotation. Robertson made his season debut on April 3, and allowed eight earned runs in 4+1⁄3 innings, losing the match against the Colorado Rockies 10–5. He got his first career victory on April 10, allowing two hits in seven innings in a 4–2 victory against the Cincinnati Reds. He struggled in his next three starts, and by the end of April Robertson had a 1–3 record and an ERA of 7.99, which caused manager Jimy Williams to consider moving him back to the bullpen. After a May 2 matchup against the Atlanta Braves further increased his ERA, Robertson was demoted to the minor leagues, but only played with the Zephyrs for one game before being placed back on the major league roster ten days later. In a May 22 matchup against the St. Louis Cardinals, Robertson allowed one run and four hits in a 5–2 victory; after the game, catcher Gregg Zaun said that it was "absolutely the best he's thrown." After the win against the Cardinals, Robertson won his next two starts, then he had three more matchups with a no-decision. Robertson continued to win games over the following months, and on July 22, he won a match against the Pittsburgh Pirates, 2–0. In the game, Robertson allowed three hits in what was his ninth victory in a row without a loss, as well as his sixth victory in his past six starts for Houston. His streak ended on July 27, as he only lasted 1+2⁄3 innings in a 5–3 loss to the Chicago Cubs in what was at the time the shortest start of his major league career. A month later, Robertson broke the team record for most victories by a left-handed rookie pitcher when he notched his 13th win against the Los Angeles Dodgers on September 2. His last start of the season on September 26, however, was his worst; he only pitched a third of an inning, allowed three earned runs, and threw 7 of 18 pitches for strikes as the Milwaukee Brewers won, 12–5. Robertson finished the 2003 season with 15 victories, 9 losses, a 5.10 ERA, and 99 strikeouts. He also finished in seventh place for the Rookie of the Year Award. Before the 2004 season began, the Houston Astros signed Andy Pettitte to boost their starting rotation. As a result, Robertson found himself battling with Tim Redding, Jared Fernandez, Carlos Hernández and Brandon Duckworth for the final spot in the rotation. After Roger Clemens was signed as well, the Astros decided before spring training began that Robertson would pitch out of the bullpen for the season. By the end of spring training, Robertson failed to crack the bullpen, and was to be demoted to the Zephyrs. On March 31, just before the season started, the Astros traded Robertson to the Cleveland Indians for Luke Scott and Willy Taveras. Robertson originally pitched for the Buffalo Bisons, the Indians' AAA-class affiliate in the minor leagues. He played with them for the first three months of the season, with the exception of one game on April 20 against the Kansas City Royals. In 14 appearances with Buffalo, 12 of them starts, Robertson had a 4–5 record with a 7.27 ERA. The Indians called Robertson up to the major league roster on June 25 after placing Rafael Betancourt on the disabled list. In eight games for the Indians, Robertson had a record of 1–1 and a 12.21 ERA. In his final appearance in the major leagues, a July 21 game against the Chicago White Sox, Robertson was ejected after hitting Magglio Ordóñez with a pitch in the fifth inning. After being demoted back to Buffalo, the Indians traded Robertson on August 3 to the Montreal Expos for Pierre-Luc Marceau. He pitched in seven games for the Edmonton Trappers to end the season, finishing with a 1–3 record and a 5.73 ERA. He was on the Expos' 40-man roster for September, but did not play a game for them, and in October he was removed from the roster. In November, the Cincinnati Reds signed him to a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training. During spring training in 2005, Robertson competed with Aaron Harang, Brandon Claussen, Luke Hudson, and Josh Hancock for two spots in the Reds' rotation. At the end of spring training, he was assigned to the Reds' minor league squad, the Louisville Bats. Robertson spent the season there, pitching in 28 games, 18 of them starts, and ended the year with a 5–11 record and a 5.46 ERA. After the season ended, Robertson was released, becoming a free agent. In March 2006, Robertson signed with the Newark Bears of the independent Atlantic League. He pitched in two games for them, then on May 10 his contract was sold to the New York Mets. He spent the next couple months pitching for the Mets' minor league team, the Norfolk Tides, where he pitched in 11 games, finishing with a 1–6 record and a 7.68 ERA. After being released from the Mets, Robertson spent the rest of the season pitching for the Uni-President Lions of the Chinese Professional Baseball League. Robertson re-signed with the Newark Bears in 2007. For the season, he pitched in 14 games and went 5–5 with a 4.89 ERA. At the end of June, the Bears sold Robertson's contract to the Rieleros de Aguascalientes of the Mexican League. After a month there, in which he pitched four games, going 1–3 with a 5.54 ERA, he returned to Newark to finish the season with the Bears, in what was his last professional baseball appearance. ## Personal life Robertson had two sons and lived in Exeter, California. On May 29, 2010, Robertson died in Exeter in a motorcycle accident. He was taking a turn at an estimated 70 miles per hour (110 km/h) when he lost control. He is buried at the Exeter District Cemetery.
38,675,718	Prionomyrmecini	1,133,480,279	Tribe of ants	[ "Ant tribes", "Hymenoptera of Australia", "Hymenoptera of Europe", "Myrmeciinae", "Prehistoric insects of Europe" ]	Prionomyrmecini is an ant tribe belonging to the subfamily Myrmeciinae established by William Morton Wheeler in 1915. Two members are a part of this tribe, the extant Nothomyrmecia and the extinct Prionomyrmex. The tribe was once considered a subfamily due to the similarities between Nothomyrmecia and Prionomyrmex, but such reclassification was not widely accepted by the scientific community. These ants can be identified by their long slender bodies, powerful stingers and elongated mandibles. Fossil Prionomyrmecini ants were once found throughout Europe, possibly nesting in trees and preferring jungle habitats. Today, Prionomyrmecini is only found in Australia, preferring old-growth mallee woodland surrounded by Eucalyptus trees. Nothomyrmecia workers feed on nectar and arthropods, using their compound eyes for prey and navigational purposes. Owing to their primitive nature, they do not recruit others to food sources or create pheromone trails. Nothomyrmecia colonies are small, consisting of 50 to 100 individuals. ## Taxonomy Prionomyrmecini was originally described in 1915 by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler in his journal article "The ants of the Baltic amber", who originally placed it in the subfamily Ponerinae. In the same journal, Wheeler assigned Prionomyrmex as the sole member of the tribe. In 1954, William Brown Jr. moved the tribe to Myrmeciinae, noting similar morphological characteristics of Prionomyrmex and other genera such as Myrmecia and Nothomyrmecia. In 2000, Cesare Baroni Urbani described a new fossil species from Baltic amber, which he named Prionomyrmex janzeni. After examining specimens of his newly described species and Nothomyrmecia, Baroni Urbani noted that Prionomyrmex is a paraphyletic relative to Nothomyrmecia, and the two genera were so morphologically similar that Nothomyrmecia must be synonymised. Due to this, Baroni Urbani separated Prionomyrmex from Myrmeciinae and synonymised Nothomyrmecia, renaming Nothomyrmecia macrops as Prionomyrmex macrops. The tribe itself was later treated as a subfamily, known as Prionomyrmeciinae. In 2003, Dlussky & Perfilieva separated Nothomyrmecia from Prionomyrmex and both genera were moved to the subfamily Myrmeciinae, and Prionomyrmecini was treated as a tribe. In 2005 and 2008, Baroni Urbani provided additional evidence in favour of his proposed classification, but such proposal has been rejected by the entomological community. Nothomyrmecia macrops and the extinct Prionomyrmex are the only accepted members of the tribe. ## Description and distribution Members of Prionomyrmecini can be distinguished from other members by the reduced or lacking ocelli, and a lateral clypeal carina is present. Prionomyrmex ants are characterised by their large size, slender bodies, elongated mandibles and powerful stingers. Lengths vary from 12 to 14 millimetres (0.47 to 0.55 in). Overall, the body structure of Prionomyrmex shows that it is more primitive than Myrmecia. Nothomyrmecia is smaller than Prionomyrmex species, measuring 9.7–11 mm (0.38–0.43 in). The ant has a long stinger, the body is slender and, like Prionomyrmex, has elongated mandibles. The mandibles, however, are less specialised than Myrmecia and Prionomyrmex, elongated and triangular. While Nothomyrmecia and Prionomyrmex are strikingly similar to each other, they can be distinguished from the shape of the node. Fossil Prionomyrmecini ants existed in Europe during the Eocene and Late Oligocene. Cesare Baroni Urbani collected Prionomyrmex janzeni in Baltic amber from Kaliningrad, Russia and Prionomyrmex wappleri in Germany. Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr collected Prionomyrmex longiceps in Baltic amber from the Eocene, but the exact location of its discovery is unclear, due to the lost type material. P. longiceps were an arboreal nesting species, living in trees instead of the ground. William Morton Wheeler assumed this due to its long legs, sharp claws and elongated mandibles. Prionomyrmex may have preferred a jungle habitat at low elevations. Nothomyrmecia is only found in Australia. Until its rediscovery, the genus was only known from the original specimens collected in Western Australia by Amy Crocker in December 1931. Entomologist Robert W. Taylor expressed doubt about the type locality of the ant, but said that the specimens were probably collected from the western end of the Great Australian Bight, south from Balladonia. Entomologists feared that Nothomyrmecia was extinct, as notable biologists such as E.O. Wilson made attempts to find the ant but failed to do so. In 1977, Taylor rediscovered Nothomyrmecia in Poochera, 1300 km (800 mi) away from the original collection site. Colonies are found in old growth mallee woodland with many Eucalyptus species such as Eucalyptus brachycalyx, Eucalyptus oleosa and Eucalyptus gracilis abundant. Only a few small colonies are known in its restricted distribution, listing it as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. ## Behaviour and ecology Nothomyrmecia and Prionomyrmex share similar behaviours with other Myrmeciinae relatives. Prionomyrmex may have foraged on the ground or onto trees and low vegetation, feeding on nectar and arthropods. Nothomyrmecia workers, however, drink hemolymph from the insects they capture, and the larvae are carnivorous. It is not known if the ants were active during the day or night, but Nothomyrmecia is a nocturnal ground forager that prefers very cold nights. Both ants have large compound eyes, relying on their vision for prey and navigational purposes. Due to their primitive and simplified social life, workers of both genera do not recruit others to food sources or leave down trail pheromones, suggesting that both these ants are solitary foragers. Prionomyrmex ants were hosts to female stylopid parasites. Predators are unknown for both ants. Nothomyrmecia queens are brachypterous, meaning that they have stubby rudimentary wings that render them flightless. This may correlate with population structure, possibly as an adaptation in small populated colonies or by unusual ecological requirements. The alates may begin to emerge in late summer and early autumn (March or April), and colony-founding queens excavate to considerable depths underground; queens start to lay eggs by spring. Queens are univoltine and only produce a single generation of ants annually, and eggs may take 12 months to fully develop. When a colony is mature, only 50 to 100 individuals are present in each nest. In some colonies, colony founding can occur within a colony itself when a queen dies, taken over by one of her daughters. This method of colony founding may render a nest immortal.
37,745,503	Acércate	1,168,196,754	2010 song performed by Wisin & Yandel, Ivy Queen	[ "2010 songs", "Ivy Queen songs", "Male–female vocal duets", "Song recordings produced by Luny Tunes", "Song recordings produced by Tainy", "Songs written by Ivy Queen", "Songs written by Tainy", "Songs written by Wisin", "Songs written by Yandel", "Spanish-language songs", "Wisin & Yandel songs" ]	"Acércate" (English: "Come Closer") is a song recorded by Puerto Rican reggaetón recording artist Ivy Queen and duo Wisin & Yandel for Queen's seventh studio album Drama Queen (2010). It was composed by Queen and Marcos Masis alongside the duo, while being produced by Luny Tunes and Tainy. Originally entitled "No Te Equivoques", the song was leaked onto the Internet prior to the album's release, which prompted Ivy Queen and Wisin & Yandel to re-record the song. While failing to chart on main Latin songs charts in Billboard magazine, it did manage to debut and peak at number sixteen on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Digital Songs chart, charting simultaneously with the lead single off the album "La Vida Es Así" which obtained the number two position. The song brings together the first studio album released by Ivy Queen in three years and first for Machete Music, after being with Univision Records since 2005. ## Background After the success of her 2007 effort Sentimiento, which was certified Platinum by the United States Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), a substantial live album was distributed by Machete in 2008. Subsequently, Queen signed a new record deal with the label in April 2010, as they celebrated their fifth anniversary. The signing, described as a 360 deal, includes profit sharing in tours, sponsorships and merchandising. Ivy Queen was previously signed to a distribution deal with Univision Records, which in turn was acquired by Machete's parent company Universal Music Latin Entertainment in 2008. President of Universal Music Latino and Machete, Walter Kolm, commented in a press release that: "It's a privilege to have Ivy Queen a part of oour artistic roster. Ivy is an extraordinary woman with incomparable talent, and she's number one in her genre. We're happy to be able to work with her on her new album as well as future projects". "I'm very proud to be a part of Machete Music. They are a young, vibrant company that has created a name for itself in Latin music in the United States and the world. They are a strong and important company that has been recognized for nurturing their artists’ creative talents," said Ivy Queen, regarding the partnership. Ivy Queen told Efe that the composition process started while she was heartbroken at home. Her emotions then burst out in the recording studio. She added the song is one of 26 songs she wrote during this period. ## Music and lyrics The song was composed by Queen, Marcos Masis, Juan Luis Morera Luna and Llandel Veguilla Malavé; the duo known as Wisin & Yandel. Musically, it features minor key tonality and synthesizers. Production was handled by the Dominican-born duo of Luny Tunes and Tainy. Frances Tirado from Primera Hora described the song as being pure reggaeton and as a song that brings out the figure in Ivy Queen. "Acércate", along with the rest of the album, was recorded at Mas Flow Studios in Carolina, Puerto Rico. A version with lead male vocals by Wisin & Yandel without lead vocals from Ivy Queen remains unreleased, with a running time of two minutes and fifty-three seconds. It too was produced by Luny Tunes and Tainy. "Acércate" was leaked onto the Internet prior to the album's release; a first in Queen's 15-year career. Originally entitled "No Te Equivoques", it was re-recorded in response to the infringement and included on the album retitled "Acércate". Reflecting on the situation Queen stated: "Sometimes they try to hurt you are when you do well. I'm proud and grateful that Wisin & Yandel have gone with me to the studio to record the song. We have good chemistry and friendship. We tried to change the song and lyrics, but with their agenda, which is tight, and mine too, we could not do it again. We have no idea who hacked, all the music was in a studio and to mobilize it to another was what someone did." The collaboration stemmed from Queen's previous collaboration with Wisin & Yandel on their seventh studio album La Revolución (2009) on "Perfecto" which also featured Yaviah. ## Credits and personnel - Credits adapted from Allmusic Recording - Recorded at Mas Flow Studios in Carolina, Puerto Rico Personnel - José Cotto — Mixing - Ivy Queen — Primary Artist, Composer - Marcos "Tainy" Masis — Composer, Producer - Francisco Saldaña — Composer - Luny Tunes — Producer - Wisin & Yandel — Composers, Featured Artist ## Chart performance While failing to chart on main Latin songs charts in Billboard magazine, it did manage to debut and peak at number sixteen on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Digital Songs chart, for the week of July 31, 2010. It charted simultaneously with the lead single "La Vida Es Así", which was at number two on the chart.
63,554,537	Khalili Imperial Garniture	1,147,205,424	Trio of enamel artworks	[ "1893 works", "Japanese art", "Khalili Collections", "Works in vitreous enamel", "World's Columbian Exposition" ]	The Khalili Imperial Garniture is a trio of cloisonné vases created for a Japanese Imperial commission during the Meiji era. The items were exhibited at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, United States, in 1893, where they were described as "the largest examples of cloisonné enamel ever made". The decoration of the vases represents virtues and the seasons, and also has an allegorical meaning about Japan's role in a changing world and its alliance with the United States. After being exhibited, the vases were separated from each other for more than 120 years, eventually reunited in 2019 in the Khalili Collection of Japanese Art, a private collection assembled by the British-Iranian collector and scholar Nasser D. Khalili. ## Creation and exhibition During Japan's Meiji era (1868 to 1912), the government actively promoted Japanese arts and crafts abroad by exhibiting the best examples in the world's fairs that were held in America and Europe. The first world's fair to exhibit Japanese art works in its Fine Arts section was the World's Columbian Exposition and among them was this garniture with a central incense burner. It had been inspected by the Emperor who approved it for the exhibition. The three vases are decorated with enamel and silver wire on a copper surface. At the exposition they were described as "the largest examples of cloisonné enamel ever made". The eight feet, eight inches (264 cm) height quoted in the 1893 catalogue includes their pedestals made of keyaki wood. The height of the tall vases is 172 cm (five feet, eight inches). The incense burner is topped by an eagle in bronze. A team of craftsmen, led by Shirozayemon Suzuki of Yokohama and Seizayemon Tsunekawa of Nagoya, took more than four years to construct the three items. The painting was done by nihonga artist Araki Kanpo (1831–1915) who was a member of the Japanese Imperial Household's art committee and of the Royal Society of Arts, London. Kanpo was later recognised in 1900 as an Imperial Household Artist. Viewing the garniture in Tokyo before its shipping to Chicago, the Anglo-Irish scholar Francis Brinkley predicted that the exposition would not display it in the Palace of Fine Arts because of its political symbolism. Despite this prediction, it was displayed prominently in the East Court of the Palace as the ethnologist Hubert Howe Bancroft describes in his Book of the Fair. ## Decoration and symbolism The idea for the design is credited to "Mr. Shin Shiwoda, Special Counsellor for the Arts of the Japanese Commission for the World's Columbian Exposition". The three vases depict a dragon, chickens, and eagles, respectively representing the virtues of wisdom, honesty and strength. The imagery also has a geographical meaning, with the dragon representing China, the eagles Russia, a rising sun for Japan, chickens for the Korean Islands and the bronze eagle on the central censer representing the United States. The handles of the censer are shaped like chrysanthemums, the symbol of the Japanese Imperial family. The general design also includes the four seasons of the year, with opposite sides of one vase showing autumn and winter scenes. The eagle's appearance on a winter background, driving other birds before it, represents Russia's advance into East Asia. The dragon representing China is depicted among summer clouds, heading towards autumn. The reverse of this vase depicts plover over waves. Japan's rising sun appears in a spring scene, suggesting "gladness and general revival". The neck of each vase features a striped red and white pattern with inlaid silver stars. The stars and stripes decorated with chrysanthemums and vines symbolise partnership between Japan and the United States. The Japan Weekly Mail of 15 April 1893 gave this interpretation of the design: > "Russia swooping down upon Korea finds her aggressive designs thwarted by China and Japan, while the Stars and Stripes wave their protecting folds over all; the American eagle spreads its wings above a scene where Korea, rescued and reviving on the threshold of spring, passes into the sunshine and bloom of Japan's early summer; the national flags of the United States and her Oriental friend intertwine everywhere overhead." The garniture was thus a political statement about how Japan saw its new status in the world, as a land of new beginnings that was emerging as the major regional power, allied with the United States against an encroaching Russia. Events in the two decades after the World's Columbian Exposition unfolded similarly to what was depicted allegorically by the garniture. The First Sino-Japanese war ended with Japan defeating China and gaining control of the Korean peninsula, preventing Russia's advance into that territory. Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese war made it the first Asian nation to defeat a Western power. ## Collection Among the eight collections assembled, published, and exhibited by London-based collector, scholar and philanthropist Nasser Khalili is a collection of Japanese decorative art of the Meiji era, considered to be only equalled by the collection of the Japanese imperial family. The complete garniture is now part of that collection. Khalili acquired the first vase, depicting eagles, in Los Angeles in the early 1990s. He displayed it at a 1999 exhibition of Meiji art in Wilmington, Delaware in 1999. The incense burner depicting chickens was owned by Hirose Atsushi and displayed at the Tokyo National Museum before being bought by Khalili in 2000. The other vase, depicting a dragon, was considered "lost". In January 2019 it was found to have been the centerpiece of the main dining room of Spenger's Fresh Fish Grotto in Berkeley, California, one of the oldest restaurants in the San Francisco Bay area. Frank Spenger, son of the restaurant's founder, had acquired the vase at the 1894 California Midwinter Fair. On 17 February 2019, Khalili bought it for \$110,000 at an auction of Spenger family items, thus reuniting the garniture after more than 120 years. ## Gallery
100,511	Ardhanarishvara	1,172,909,007	Composite form of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati	[ "Androgynous and hermaphroditic deities", "Forms of Parvati", "Forms of Shiva", "Hindu deities", "Intersex in religion and mythology" ]	Ardhanarishvara (Sanskrit: अर्धनारीश्वर, romanized: Ardhanārīśvara, lit. 'the half-female Lord'), is a form of the Hindu deity Shiva combined with his consort Parvati. Ardhanarishvara is depicted as half-male and half-female, equally split down the middle. The right half is usually the male Shiva, illustrating his traditional attributes. The earliest Ardhanarishvara images are dated to the Kushan period, starting from the first century CE. Its iconography evolved and was perfected in the Gupta era. The Puranas and various iconographic treatises write about the mythology and iconography of Ardhanarishvara. Ardhanarishvara remains a popular iconographic form found in most Shiva temples throughout India, though very few temples are dedicated to this deity. Ardhanarishvara represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe (Purusha and Prakriti) and illustrates how Shakti, the female principle of God, is inseparable from (or the same as, according to some interpretations) Shiva, the male principle of God, and vice versa. The union of these principles is exalted as the root and womb of all creation. Another view is that Ardhanarishvara is a symbol of Shiva's all-pervasive nature. ## Names The name Ardhanarishvara means "the Lord Who is half woman." Ardhanarishvara is also known by other names like Ardhanaranari ("the half man-woman"), Ardhanarisha ("the Lord who is half woman"), Ardhanarinateshvara ("the Lord of Dance (Who is half-woman), Parangada, Naranari ("man-woman"), Ammaiyappan (a Tamil Name meaning "Mother-Father"), and Ardhayuvatishvara (in Assam, "the Lord whose half is a young woman or girl"). The Gupta-era writer Pushpadanta in his Mahimnastava refers to this form as dehardhaghatana ("Thou and She art each the half of one body"). Utpala, commenting on the Brihat Samhita, calls this form Ardha-Gaurishvara ("the Lord whose half is the fair one"; the fair one – Gauri – is an attribute of Parvati). The Vishnudharmottara Purana simply calls this form Gaurishvara ("The Lord/husband of Gauri). ## Origins and early images The conception of Ardhanarishvara may have been inspired by Vedic literature's composite figure of Yama-Yami, the Vedic descriptions of the primordial Creator Vishvarupa or Prajapati and the fire-god Agni as "bull who is also a cow," the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad's Atman ("Self") in the form of the androgynous cosmic man Purusha and the androgynous myths of the Greek Hermaphroditus and Phrygian Agdistis. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad says that Purusha splits himself into two parts, male and female, and the two halves copulate, producing all life – a theme concurrent in Ardhanarishvara's tales. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad sows the seed of the Puranic Ardhanarishvara. It declares Rudra – the antecedent of the Puranic Shiva – the maker of all and the root of Purusha (the male principle) and Prakriti (the female principle), adhering to Samkhya philosophy. It hints at his androgynous nature, describing him both as male and female. The concept of Ardhanarishvara originated in Kushan and Greek cultures simultaneously; the iconography evolved in the Kushan era (30–375 CE), but was perfected in the Gupta era (320-600 CE). A mid-first century Kushan era stela in the Mathura Museum has a half-male, half-female image, along with three other figures identified with Vishnu, Gaja Lakshmi and Kubera. The male half is ithyphallic or with an urdhvalinga and makes an abhaya mudra gesture; the female left half holds a mirror and has a rounded breast. This is the earliest representation of Ardhanarishvara, universally recognized. An early Kushan Ardhanarishvara head discovered at Rajghat is displayed at the Mathura Museum. The right male half has matted hair with a skull and crescent moon; the left female half has well-combed hair decorated with flowers and wears a patra-kundala (earring). The face has a common third eye. A terracotta seal discovered in Vaishali has half-man, half-woman features. Early Kushan images show Ardhanarishvara in a simple two-armed form, but later texts and sculptures depict a more complex iconography. Ardhanarishvara is referred to by the Greek author Stobaeus (c. 500 AD) while quoting Bardasanes (c. 154–222 AD), who learnt from an Indian embassy's visit to Syria during the reign of Elagabalus (Antoninus of Emesa) (218–22 AD). A terracotta androgynous bust, excavated at Taxila and dated to the Saka-Parthian era, pictures a bearded man with female breasts. Ardhanarishvara is interpreted as an attempt to syncretise the two principal Hindu sects, Shaivism and Shaktism, dedicated to Shiva and the Great Goddess. A similar syncretic image is Harihara, a composite form of Shiva and Vishnu, the Supreme deity of the Vaishnava sect. ## Iconography The iconographic 16th century work Shilparatna, the Matsya Purana and Agamic texts like Amshumadbhedagama, Kamikagama, Supredagama and Karanagama – most of them of South Indian origin – describe the iconography of Ardhanarishvara. The right superior side of the body usually is the male Shiva and the left is the female Parvati; in rare depictions belonging to the Shaktism school, the feminine holds the dominant right side. The icon usually is prescribed to have four, three or two arms, but rarely is depicted with eight arms. In the case of three arms, the Parvati side has only one arm, suggesting a lesser role in the icon. ### Male half The male half wears a jata-mukuta (a headdress formed of piled, matted hair) on his head, adorned with a crescent moon. Sometimes the jata-mukuta is adorned with serpents and the river goddess Ganga flowing through the hair. The right ear wears a nakra-kundala, sarpa-kundala ("serpent-earring") or ordinary kundala ("earring"). Sometimes, the male eye is depicted smaller than the female one and a half-moustache is also seen. A half third eye (trinetra) is prescribed on the male side of the forehead in the canons; a full eye may also be depicted in middle of forehead separated by both the sides or a half eye may be shown above or below Parvati's round dot. A common elliptical halo (prabhamandala/prabhavali) may be depicted behind the head; sometimes the shape of the halo may differ on either side. In the four-armed form, a right hand holds a parashu (axe) and another makes an abhaya mudra (gesture of reassurance), or one of the right arms is slightly bent and rests on the head of Shiva's bull mount, Nandi, while the other is held in the abhaya mudra gesture. Another configuration suggests that a right hand holds a trishula (trident) and another makes a varada mudra (gesture of blessing). Another scripture prescribes that a trishula and akshamala (rosary) are held in the two right hands. In the two-armed form, the right hand holds a kapala (skull cup) or gestures in a varada mudra. He may also hold a skull. In the Badami relief, the four-armed Ardhanarishvara plays a veena (lute), using a left and a right arm, while other male arm holds a parashu and the female one a lotus. The Shiva half has a flat masculine chest, a straight vertical chest, broader shoulder, wider waist and muscular thigh. He wears a yagnopavita (sacred thread) across the chest, which is sometimes represented as a naga-yagnopavita (a snake worn as a yagnopavita) or a string of pearls or gems. The yajnopavita may also divide the torso into its male and female halves. He wears ornaments characteristic of Shiva's iconography, including serpent ornaments. In some North Indian images, the male half may be nude and also be ithyphallic (urdhavlinga or urdhavreta: with an erect phallus), however, connotes the very opposite in this context. It contextualize "seminal retention" or practice of celibacy (illustration of Urdhva Retas), and represents the deity as "the one who stands for complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation", other images found in North India include full or half phallus and one testicle. However, such imagery is never found in South Indian images; the loins are usually covered in a garment (sometimes a dhoti) of silk or cotton, or the skin of a tiger or deer), typically down to the knee, and held in place by a sarpa-mekhala, serpent girdle or jewellery. The right leg may be somewhat bent or straight and often rests on a lotus pedestal (padma-pitha). The whole right half is described as smeared with ashes and as terrible and red-coloured or gold or coral in appearance; however, these features are rarely depicted. ### Female half The female half has karanda-mukuta (a basket-shaped crown) on her head or well-combed knotted hair or both. The left ear wears a valika-kundala (a type of earring). A tilaka or bindu (a round red dot) adorns her forehead, matching Shiva's third eye. The left eye is painted with black eyeliner. While the male neck is sometimes adorned with a jewelled hooded serpent, the female neck has a blue lotus matching it. In the four-armed form, one of the left arms rests on Nandi's head, while the other is bent in kataka mudra pose and holds a nilotpala (blue lotus) or hangs loosely at her side. In the three-armed representation, the left hand holds a flower, a mirror or a parrot. In the case of two-armed icons, the left hand rests on Nandi's head, hangs loose or holds either a flower, a mirror or a parrot. The parrot may be also perched on Parvati's wrist. Her hand(s) is/are adorned with ornaments like a keyura (anklet) or kankana (bangles). Parvati has a well-developed, round bosom and a narrow feminine waist embellished with various haras (religious bracelets) and other ornaments, made of diamonds and other gems. She has a fuller thigh and a curvier body and hip than the male part of the icon. The torso, hip and pelvis of the female is exaggerated to emphasize the anatomical differences between the halves. Though the male private parts may be depicted, the female genitalia are never depicted and the loins are always draped. She wears a multi-coloured or white silken garment down to her ankle and one or three girdles around her waist. The left half wears an anklet and her foot is painted red with henna. The left leg may be somewhat bent or straight, resting on a lotus pedestal. In contrast to the Shiva half, the Parvati half – smeared with saffron – is described as calm and gentle, fair and parrot-green or dark in colour. She may be draped in a sari covering her torso and legs. ### Postures and vahana The posture of Ardhanarishvara may be tribhanga – bent in three parts: head (leaning to the left), torso (to the right) and right leg or in the sthanamudra position (straight), sometimes standing on a lotus pedestal, whereupon it is called samapada. Seated images of Ardhanarishvara are missing in iconographic treatises, but are still found in sculpture and painting. Though the canons often depict the Nandi bull as the common vahana (mount) of Ardhanarishvara, some depictions have Shiva's bull vahana seated or standing near or behind his foot, while the goddess's lion vahana is near her foot. ### Eight-armed form The Parashurameshvara Temple at Bhubaneswar has a dancing eight-armed Ardhanarishvara. The upper male arms hold a lute and akshamala (rosary), while the upper female ones hold a mirror and a book; the others are broken. Another non-conventional Ardhanarishvara is found at Darasuram. The sculpture is three-headed and eight-armed, holding akshamala, khadga (sword), pasha, musala, kapala (skull cup), lotus and other objects. ### Other textual descriptions The Naradiya Purana mentions that Ardhanarishvara is half-black and half-yellow, nude on one side and clothed on other, wearing skulls and a garland of lotuses on the male half and female half respectively. The Linga Purana gives a brief description of Ardhanarishvara as making varada and abhaya mudras and holding a trishula and a lotus. The Vishnudharmottara Purana prescribes a four-armed form, with right hands holding a rosary and trishula, while the left ones bear a mirror and a lotus. The form is called Gaurishvara in this text. ## Legends The mythology of Ardhanarishvara – which mainly originates in the Puranic canons – was developed later to explain existent images of the deity that had emerged in the Kushan era. The unnamed half-female form of Shiva is also alluded to in the epic Mahabharata. In Book XIII, Upamanyu praises Shiva rhetorically asking if there is anyone else whose half-body is shared by his spouse, and adds that the universe had risen from the union of sexes, as represented by Shiva's half-female form. In some narratives, Shiva is described as dark and fair-complexioned, half yellow and half white, half woman and half man, and both woman and man. In Book XIII, Shiva preaches to Parvati that half of his body is made up of her body. In the Skanda Purana, Parvati requests Shiva to allow her to reside with him, embracing "limb-to-limb", and so Ardhanarishvara is formed. It also tells that when the demon Andhaka wanted to seize Parvati and make her his wife, Vishnu rescued her and brought her to his abode. When the demon followed her there, Parvati revealed her Ardhanarishvara form to him. Seeing the half-male, half-female form, the demon lost interest in her and left. Vishnu was amazed to see this form and saw himself in the female part of the form. The Shiva Purana describes that the creator god Brahma created all male beings, the Prajapatis, and told them to regenerate, which they were unable to do. Confronted with the resulting decline in the pace of creation, Brahma was perplexed and contemplated on Shiva for help. To enlighten Brahma of his folly, Shiva appeared before him as Ardhanarishvara. Brahma prayed to the female half of Shiva to give him a female to continue creation. The goddess agreed and created various female powers from her body, thereby allowing creation to progress. In other Puranas like the Linga Purana, Vayu Purana, Vishnu Purana, Skanda Purana, Kurma Purana, and Markandeya Purana, Rudra (identified with Shiva) appears as Ardhanarishvara, emerging from Brahma's head, forehead, mouth or soul as the embodiment of Brahma's fury and frustration due to the slow pace of creation. Brahma asks Rudra to divide himself, and the latter complies by dividing into male and female. Numerous beings, including the 11 Rudras and various female shaktis, are created from both the halves. In some versions, the goddess unites with Shiva again and promises to be born as Sati on earth to be Shiva's wife. In the Linga Purana, the Ardhanarishvara Rudra is so hot that in the process of appearing from Brahma's forehead, he burns Brahma himself. Ardhanarishvara Shiva then enjoys his own half – the Great Goddess – by "the path of yoga" and creates Brahma and Vishnu from her body. In the repetitive cycle of aeons, Ardhanarishvara is ordained to reappear at the beginning of every creation as in the past. The Matsya Purana describes how Brahma, pleased with a penance performed by Parvati, rewards her by blessing her with a golden complexion. This renders her more attractive to Shiva, to whom she later merges as one half of his body. Tamil temple lore narrates that once the gods and sages (rishi) had gathered at Shiva's abode, they prayed their respects to Shiva and Parvati. However, the sage Bhringi had vowed to worship only one deity, Shiva, and ignored Parvati while worshipping and circumambulating him. Agitated, Parvati cursed Bhringi to lose all his flesh and blood, reducing him to a skeleton. In this form Bhringi could not stand erect, so the compassionate ones who witnessed the scene blessed the sage with a third leg for support. As her attempt to humiliate the sage had failed, Parvati punished herself with austerities that pleased Shiva and led him to grant her the boon of uniting with him, thereby compelling Bhringi to worship her as well as himself in the form of Ardhanarishvara. However, the sage assumed the form of a beetle and circumambulating only the male half, drilling a hole in the deity. Amazed by his devotion, Parvati reconciled with the sage and blessed him. The seventh-century Shaiva Nayanar saint Appar mentions that after marrying Parvati, Shiva incorporated her into half of his body. In the Kalika Purana, Parvati (called Gauri here) is described as having suspected Shiva of infidelity when she saw her own reflection in the crystal-like breast of Shiva. A conjugal dispute erupted but was quickly resolved, after which Parvati wished to stay eternally with Shiva in his body. The divine couple was thereafter fused as Ardhanarishvara. Another tale from North India also talks about Parvati's jealousy. Another woman, the river Ganga – often depicted flowing out of Shiva's locks – sat on his head, while Parvati (as Gauri) sat on his lap. To pacify Gauri, Shiva united with her as Ardhanarishvara. Only in tales associated with the cult of Shakta (in which the Goddess is considered the Supreme Being) is the Goddess venerated as the Maker of All. In these tales, it is her body (not Shiva's) which splits into male and female halves. ## Symbolism Ardhanarishvara symbolizes that the male and female principles are inseparable. The composite form conveys the unity of opposites (coniunctio oppositorum) in the universe. The male half of Ardhanarishvara stands for Purusha and female half is Prakriti. Purusha is the male principle and passive force of the universe, while Prakriti is the female active force; both are "constantly drawn to embrace and fuse with each other, though... separated by the intervening axis". The union of Purusha (Shiva) and Prikriti (Shiva's energy, Shakti) generates the universe, an idea also manifested in the union of the Linga of Shiva and Yoni of Devi creating the cosmos. The Mahabharata lauds this form as the source of creation. Ardhanarishvara also suggests the element of Kama or Lust, which leads to creation. Ardhanarishvara signifies "totality that lies beyond duality", "bi-unity of male and female in God" and "the bisexuality and therefore the non-duality" of the Supreme Being. It conveys that God is both Shiva and Parvati, "both male and female, both father and mother, both aloof and active, both fearsome and gentle, both destructive and constructive" and unifies all other dichotomies of the universe. While Shiva's rosary in the Ardhanarishvara iconography associates him with asceticism and spirituality, Parvati's mirror associates her to the material illusory world. Ardhanarishvara reconciles and harmonizes the two conflicting ways of life: the spiritual way of the ascetic as represented by Shiva, and the materialistic way of the householder as symbolized by Parvati, who invites the ascetic Shiva into marriage and the wider circle of worldly affairs. The interdependence of Shiva on his power (Shakti) as embodied in Parvati is also manifested in this form. Ardhanarishvara conveys that Shiva and Shakti are one and the same, an interpretation also declared in inscriptions found along with Ardhanarishvara images in Java and the eastern Malay Archipelago. The Vishnudharmottara Purana also emphasizes the identity and sameness of the male Purusha and female Prakriti, manifested in the image of Ardhanarishvara. According to Shaiva guru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami (1927–2001), Ardhanarishvara signifies that the great Shiva is "All, inseparable from His energy" (i.e. his Shakti) and is beyond gender. Across cultures, hermaphrodite figures like Ardhanarishvara have traditionally been associated with fertility and abundant growth. In this form, Shiva in his eternal embrace with Prakriti represents the eternal reproductive power of Nature, whom he regenerates after she loses her fertility. "It is a duality in unity, the underlying principle being a sexual dualism". Art historian Sivaramamurti calls it "a unique connection of the closely knit ideal of man and woman rising above the craving of the flesh and serving as a symbol of hospitality and parenthood". The dual unity of Ardhanarishvara is considered "a model of conjugal inseparability". Padma Upadhyaya comments, "The idea of ... Ardhanārīśvara is to locate the man in the woman as also the woman in the man and to create perfect homogeneity in domestic affairs". Often, the right half of Ardhanarishvara is male and the left is female. The left side is the location of the heart and is associated with 'feminine' characteristics like intuition and creativity, while the right is associated with the brain and 'masculine' traits – logic, valour and systematic thought. The female is often not equal in the Ardhanarishvara, the male god who is half female; she remains a dependent entity. Ardhanarishvara "is in essence Shiva, not Parvati". This is also reflected in mythology, where Parvati becomes a part of Shiva. It is likewise reflected in iconography: Shiva often has two supernatural arms and Parvati has just one earthly arm, and his bull vahana – not her lion vahana – typically accompanies them. ## Worship Ardhanarishvara is one of the most popular iconographic forms of Shiva. It is found in more or less all temples and shrines dedicated to Shiva all over India and South-east Asia. There is ample evidence from texts and the multiple depictions of the Ardhanarishvara in stone to suggest that a cult centred around the deity may have existed. The cult may have had occasional followers, but was never aligned to any sect. This cult focusing on the joint worship of Shiva and the Goddess may even have had a high position in Hinduism, but when and how it faded away remains a mystery. Though a popular iconographic form, temples dedicated to the deity are few. A popular one is located in Thiruchengode, while five others are located in Kallakkurichi taluk, all of them in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The Linga Purana advocates the worship of Ardhanarishvara by devotees to attain union with Shiva upon dissolution of the world and thus attain salvation. The Ardhanarinateshvara Stotra composed by Adi Shankaracharya is a popular hymn dedicated to the deity. The Nayanar saints of Tamil Nadu exault the deity in hymns. While the 8th-century Nayanar saint Sundarar says that Shiva is always inseparable from the Mother Goddess, another 7th-century Nayanar saint Sambandar describes how the "eternal feminine" is not only his consort, but she is also part of him. The renowned Sanskrit writer Kalidasa (c. 4th–5th century) alludes Ardhanarishvara in invocations of his Raghuvamsa and Malavikagnimitram, and says that Shiva and Shakti are as inseparable as word and meaning. The 9th-century Nayanar saint Manikkavacakar casts Parvati in the role of the supreme devotee of Shiva in his hymns. He alludes to Ardhanarishvara several times and regards it the ultimate goal of a devotee to be united with Shiva as Parvati is in the Ardhanarishvara form. ## See also - Shatkona, a six-pointed star, with a meaning similar (if not the same) as Ardhanarishvara. - Harihara: composite form of the gods Shiva and Vishnu - Jumadi: a regional composite form of Shiva and Parvati - Vaikuntha Kamalaja: composite form of Vishnu and Lakshmi - Intersex people are individuals born with any of several sex characteristics do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies.
406,877	Henry Winkler	1,173,392,910	American actor, comedian, director and producer (born 1945)	[ "1945 births", "20th-century American Jews", "20th-century American comedians", "20th-century American male actors", "21st-century American Jews", "21st-century American comedians", "21st-century American male actors", "21st-century American male writers", "Actors with dyslexia", "American actors with disabilities", "American children's writers", "American male comedians", "American male film actors", "American male television actors", "American male voice actors", "American people of German-Jewish descent", "American television directors", "American writers with disabilities", "Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (television) winners", "Comedians from New York City", "David Geffen School of Drama at Yale University alumni", "Daytime Emmy Award winners", "Disney people", "Emerson College alumni", "Film directors from New York City", "Honorary Officers of the Order of the British Empire", "Jewish American male actors", "Jewish American male comedians", "Jewish American writers", "Jewish male comedians", "Living people", "Male actors from Manhattan", "McBurney School alumni", "Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners", "People from the Upper West Side", "Primetime Emmy Award winners", "Television producers from New York City", "Writers from Manhattan", "Writers with dyslexia" ]	Henry Franklin Winkler OBE (born October 30, 1945) is an American actor, comedian, author, producer, and director. After rising to fame as Arthur "Fonzie" Fonzarelli on the American television series Happy Days, Winkler has distinguished himself as a character actor for roles on stage and screen. Winkler's accolades include three Emmy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, and two Critics Choice Awards. Winkler studied theater at both Emerson College and the Yale School of Drama, and spent a year and half with the Yale Repertory Theater. After getting cast in a small role in The Mary Tyler Moore Show, he burst into stardom playing the role of Arthur "Fonzie" Fonzarelli on the ABC sitcom Happy Days (1974-1984). He then helped develop the original ABC series MacGyver and directed Memories of Me (1988) and Cop and a Half (1993). Winkler acted in films such as Heroes (1977), Night Shift (1982), Scream (1996), The Waterboy (1998), Holes (2003), The French Dispatch (2021), and Black Adam (2022). He also found a career resurgence in television portraying humorous characters such as Barry Zuckerkorn in Arrested Development (2003–2019), Eddie R. Lawson in Royal Pains (2010–2016), Dr. Saperstein in Parks and Recreation (2013–2015), and Gene Cousineau in Barry (2018–2023). The latter earned him the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. He acted in the reality television star on the NBC series Better Late Than Never (2016–2018). In 2003, he drew upon his childhood struggles with dyslexia to co-write the Hank Zipzer series of children's books, which he then adapted into the BBC adaptation (in which Winkler appears as Mr. Rock) Hank Zipzer (2014–2016). He wrote The Other Side of Henry Winkler: My Story (1976), and I've Never Met an Idiot on the River (2011). ## Early life ### 1939–1945: Family history Winkler's parents, Ilse Anna Marie (née Hadra) and businessman Harry Irving Winkler were German Jews living in Berlin during the rise of Nazi Germany. By 1939, rising hostilities against Jews led his father to conclude that it was time to leave Germany. He arranged to take his wife on a six-week business trip to the United States. Although Winkler's Uncle Helmut was supposed to join them, at the last minute he decided to leave later, and was eventually murdered in the Holocaust. Winkler later said, "At the time, my father, Harry, told my mother, Ilse, that they were traveling to the U.S. on a brief business trip. He knew they were never going back. Had he told my mother that they were leaving Germany for good, she might have insisted on remaining behind with her family. Many in their families who stayed perished during the Holocaust." Soon after arriving, his parents settled in New York City, where his father established a new version of his German company, which bought and sold wood. ### 1945–1970: Early life and education Henry Franklin Winkler was born on October 30, 1945, on the West Side of New York City's Manhattan borough. The "H" in his first name is a reference to his Uncle Helmut, while his middle name refers to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. He has an older sister named Beatrice, and is a cousin of the late actor Richard Belzer. Although his family did not keep kosher, Winkler was raised in the traditions of Conservative Judaism. During his childhood, Winkler and his family spent their summers at Lake Mahopac, New York, and as a teenager, he was a water skiing instructor at Blue Mountain camps. While growing up, Winkler had a difficult relationship with his father who "wanted me to go into the family business, buying and selling wood. But the only wood I was interested in was Hollywood." When his father grew frustrated with Winkler's focus on acting, he would ask his son why he had brought the business over from Germany to the United States. Winkler would respond: "Besides being chased by the Nazis, Dad, was there a bigger reason than that?" #### Difficulties in school Winkler first attended P.S. 87 on West 78th Street, Manhattan, and then the McBurney School on Manhattan's Upper West Side. Although he was "outgoing" and "the class comedian" in school, he also lived in a state of "constant anxiety" over his struggles with schoolwork. His parents, who "would not tolerate poor marks," were perpetually frustrated by his poor grades, referred to him as "dummer Hund" (dumb dog), and repeatedly punished him for his inability to excel in school. Winkler has said that this time period was "excruciating" as his "self-image was almost nonexistent." He has also stated: > "You want so badly to be able to do it and you can't. And no matter how hard you try, it's not working...I would study my words. I would know them cold. I would know them backwards and forwards. I would go to class. I would pray that I had retained them. Then I would get the test and spend a lot of time thinking about where the hell those words went. I knew them. [They] must have fallen out of my head. Did I lose them on the street? Did I lose them in the stairwell? Did I lose them walking through the classroom doorway? I didn't have the slightest idea of how to spell the words that I knew a block and a half away in my apartment the night before." In addition, his consistently poor academic performance made it difficult to be involved in the theater, as he was "grounded most of my high school career," and was almost never academically eligible. However, he did manage to appear in two theatrical productions: Billy Budd when he was in the eighth grade, and Of Thee I Sing in the eleventh grade. Although Winkler graduated from the McBurney School in 1963, he was not allowed to attend graduation, as he had to repeat geometry for the fourth time during summer school. After finally passing the course, he received his diploma in the mail. ### 1963–1967: Emerson College Winkler applied to 28 colleges, but was admitted to only two of them, one of which was Emerson College in Boston, where he enrolled in 1963. He majored in theater and minored in child psychology, as he considered becoming a child psychologist if he did not succeed as an actor. He was also a member of the Alpha Pi Theta fraternity, and appeared in Emerson's production of Peer Gynt as the title character. Winkler later recalled that, "I nearly flunked out my first year [of Emerson], I almost flunked out my second year, but I was able to go for four years." He graduated in 1967, and in 1978, Emerson awarded him an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL). ### 1967–1970: Yale School of Drama During his senior year at Emerson, Winkler decided to audition for the Yale School of Drama. Although his then-undiagnosed dyslexia led to his forgetting the Shakespearean monologue he was supposed to perform, forcing him to improvise, Winkler was still admitted to the M.F.A. program in 1967. He appeared in They Told Me That You Came This Way, Any Day Now, Any Day Now, and The Bacchae (as a member of the chorus). During the summers, he and his Yale classmates stayed in New Haven, and opened a summer stock theater called the New Haven Free Theater. They performed various plays including Woyzeck, where he portrayed the title role, and Just Add Water for improv night. He also performed in the political piece, The American Pig at the Joseph Papp Public Theater for the New York Shakespeare Festival in New York City, with classmates James Keach, James Naughton, and Jill Eikenberry. In addition, he also appeared in a number of Yale Repertory Theatre productions while still a student, including, The Government Inspector, The Rhesus Umbrella, Don Juan, Endgame, and The Physicists. He also appeared in Sweeney Agonistes and Hughie. Winkler would later credit his time at Yale as critical to his future success, stating that he "used every morsel of what was given to me in drama, speech, dance, movement...when I did Happy Days, I used everything—the commedia dell'arte, the movement, the acting. We had teachers from the "poor theater" movement in Poland, which is about doing theater from nothing and speaking through your entire body as opposed to just your voice. I used that and all my movement training in the episode when Mork put a spell on the Fonz." Out of his original cohort of 25 actors at Yale, Winkler was one of 11 who graduated when he received his MFA in 1970. Over two decades later in May 1996 he served as the Senior Class Day Speaker for Yale University's graduating seniors. ## Career ### 1970–1973: Early career After receiving his MFA in 1970, Winkler was one of three students from his graduating class of 11 who were invited to become a part of the Yale Repertory Theatre company. He joined on June 30, 1970, was paid \$173 a week, and appeared throughout the 1970–71 season. He performed in Story Theater Reportory, Gimpel the Fool and Saint Julian the Hospitaler and Olympian Games. He also appeared in The Revenger's Tragedy, Where Has Tommy Flowers Gone?, Macbeth, and Woyzeck and Play. He also appeared in a double feature of two works by Bertolt Brecht, The Seven Deadly Sins (ballet chanté), and The Little Mahagonny during May–June 1971 and during January 20–29, 1972. In the fall of 1971, Winkler was invited to be a part of the play Moonchildren which would open at the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C. Three weeks into rehearsals, the director Alan Schneider fired him as Winkler had been hired to fill the space until the actor that Schneider really wanted was available. At the time, Winkler was certain that because he had been fired, he would never be hired as an actor again. Winkler moved back to New York, and began to audition for plays, movies, and commercials. However, he never had to work as a waiter because he was able to earn a living through performing in commercials. He was thus able to also perform with the Manhattan Theater Club for free. Winkler's first appearance on Broadway was as "John" in 42 Seconds from Broadway, a play that opened and closed on March 11, 1973. He swore to himself that one day he would "make that right." By 1973, he had roles in two independent films,The Lords of Flatbush and Crazy Joe. He also performed with the improv group, Off the Wall New York. He continued to feel anxiety, however, with the process of cold reading during auditions and depended upon compensation strategies: "I improvised. I never read anything the way that it was written in my entire life. I would read it. I could instantly memorize a lot of it and then what I didn't know, I made up and threw caution to the wind and did it with conviction and sometimes I made them laugh and sometimes I got hired." By 1973, his agent told him that it was time to leave New York and explore possibilities in California. Although Winkler was initially resistant, thinking he was not a good fit for Hollywood, his agent was persistent. Winkler ultimately decided that he had earned enough money through his work in commercials to try Hollywood for one month. He and his Lords of Flatbush co-star, Perry King, thus traveled to Los Angeles on September 18, 1973. After meeting with his agency's west coast branch, and spending five days going to auditions, Winkler was hired for a small part on The Mary Tyler Moore Show, appearing in Season 4, Episode 10, "The Dinner Party". ### 1973–1984: Happy Days and stardom During his second week in Los Angeles, Winkler auditioned for the part of Arthur Herbert Fonzarelli, better known as "Fonzie" or "The Fonz", on a new show called Happy Days. Although he was an unknown, and not the first choice for the role (as actors such as Micky Dolenz of The Monkees were also being considered), he was asked to return after his first audition for a second one in costume. He recalls that they plucked his "unibrow, combed my hair into a DA and put me in a white T-shirt and jeans." In addition, he also remembers that he decided to change his voice which "just unlocked me, and I realized I am NOT a leading man. I am a character actor." In costume, and with this new voice, Winkler said his six lines, threw his script in the air, and left the room. He was offered the role on his birthday, and accepted it based on his condition that the producers would show who the character was when he took his jacket off. Winkler appeared on the first episode of Happy Days in January 1974, and was continuously with the series until it ended in July 1984. "The Fonz" was initially written as a minor role (based on a "tough guy" Garry Marshall knew in The Bronx), and developed as the foil to the central protagonist of the series, Richie Cunningham (Ron Howard). Winkler added his own interpretation of the character during the first episode, based on "a deal" he had made with himself that he would never comb his hair, chew gum, or keep a box of cigarettes rolled in his sleeve (as this is what actors typically did with this type of character). Although he tried to explain this philosophy to the producers, he was told he had to follow the script and comb his hair. He thus stood at the mirror, motioned in a way that suggested "Hey I don't have to because it's perfect," and in doing so, created the seminal moment which defined the character. In addition, ABC executives did not want to see Fonzie wearing leather, thinking it would imply that the character was a criminal. Thus, during the first season, Winkler wore two different windbreaker jackets, one of which was green. Marshall argued with the executives about the jacket, and eventually they made a compromise: Fonzie could wear the leather jacket, but only in scenes with his motorcycle. Marshall thus made certain that his motorcycle was written into every scene. In reality, Winkler did not know how to ride a motorcycle. As he almost crashed it the first time he tried, he subsequently never rode the motorcycle during the series. By the middle of the second season in December 1974, "The Fonz" began his transition as a breakout character when he was featured as the central protagonist in the episode, "Guess Who's Coming to Christmas". By the third season, he became the lead of the series, as the storylines shifted away from the original protagonist, Richie Cunningham, to "The Fonz". Winkler recalled in a 2018 interview that he directly addressed the issue with Ron Howard who portrayed Richie, asking him "how has what's happened affected you? You are the star of the show, and the Fonz has taken off." According to Winkler, Howard told him that although he "was signed on as the star, you did nothing except be as good as you could be. It's good for the show, we're friends." In 2021, Howard reiterated these points by stating that Winkler had been "sort of a big brother" to him, and was "very supportive of the idea of me being a filmmaker." In a 2018 interview with Winkler, journalist Michael Schneider suggests that it was at this point that "the Fonz, became the biggest icon on television" at that time. Winkler responded by stating that he "went from somebody who had no sense of self" to a situation that was "scary. People wanted, you know, parts of my clothing, it was overwhelming." He has also admitted that while he shares some characteristics with "The Fonz" such as loyalty to friends and an undercurrent of anger that he drew from his struggles with school as a child, they were fundamentally different from one another. According to Winkler, "The Fonz" was "my alter ego. He was everybody I wasn't...He was in charge. He was confident. He was everybody that I ever wanted to have some part of in my body." #### Dyslexia During his time on Happy Days, Winkler realized that he was dyslexic, after his stepson Jed was diagnosed with this learning disability. Previously, Winkler only knew that aspects of reading and memorizing were difficult, but did not understand why. He thus developed coping mechanisms that allowed him to mask the difficulties he had with cold-reading scripts. If he was allowed to see the script prior to the reading, he would memorize it "as quickly as I could because I couldn't read the page and act at the same time to make an impression on the casting person or on the director and the producers...and I improvised the rest. And when they said, 'Well you're not doing what's written on the page,' I said, 'I'm giving you the essence of the character.'" This technique, however, could not protect him from the Monday morning table reads for Happy Days. He later recalled that prior to learning about dyslexia, he frequently embarrassed himself in front of his fellow cast members as he would "stumble at least once or twice a paragraph. And then I was diagnosed, and I made fun of it—I covered it in humor. But I was humiliated...[as] when I didn't know what was going on for the first year or two, they laughed. I'm sure it was frustrating because I kept breaking up the rhythm of the joke or the scene. One line depends on another line—it depends on that flow coming in like a tributary from a river, and my tributaries kept getting like there was a beaver in the middle of them making a dam." During his decade on Happy Days, Winkler also appeared in a variety of roles in film and on television. In film, he appeared in Heroes (1977) with Harrison Ford and Sally Field and was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama. He later appeared in Carl Reiner's The One and Only (1978) and in Ron Howard's 1982 directorial debut, Night Shift with Shelley Long before she appeared in Cheers and a then-unknown Michael Keaton. He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his work in Night Shift. In television, he served as executive producer and host for the 50-minute television version of the documentary, Who Are the DeBolts? And Where Did They Get Nineteen Kids?, (1978), which was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Informational Series or Special. He was also an executive producer for the ABC Afterschool Special: Run, Don't Walk (1981), based on the novel of the same name by Harriet May Savitz, and featuring his Happy Days co-star, Scott Baio. He further directed Baio in the 13th episode of the Happy Days spin-off, Joanie Loves Chachi, also starring Erin Moran. In addition, Winkler starred in An American Christmas Carol (1979), and served as a co-host for the Music for UNICEF Concert (1979). He also appeared as "Fonzie" on Sesame Street to promote the letter "A" (ayyyy), later recalling that it was "the only time I ever appeared as the Fonz on something else. I had a strict rule about that, but they asked me and it was my pleasure. They came to the Happy Days set." ### 1984–1989: Post Happy Days After Happy Days ended in 1984, Winkler was typecast, and could not get acting roles until 1991. He later stated that his "agent would put me out there and people would say, 'You know, he's great, he's a wonderful guy, really good actor. Funny, So funny. But he was the Fonz.'" He has also said that it was a difficult time for him, as he wanted to be a "working actor", had "no idea what to do," and "found it to be psychically painful. I was rudderless." However, he states that he lives his life by "tenacity and gratitude", seeing himself as "that toy with sand at the bottom you punch it and it goes right back to center. That is it: You have to get up, dust yourself off and you have to just keep yourself moving forward." Thus, he started the production company, Fair Dinkum Productions, and various off-shoots. He chose the name in a nod to Australia, where "fair dinkum" is a common Australian term suggesting a person or thing is "direct", "honest", "fair", or "authentic". He set the company up with Paramount Pictures in the late 1970s. In 1987, he inked a new feature film and development pact with the studio. In 1984, Winkler directed, and was executive producer for, the CBS Schoolbreak Special: "All the Kids Do It" starring Scott Baio, which won the 1985 Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Children's Special (executive producer) and was nominated for the 1985 Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Directing in Children's Programming. In addition to a few episodes of television sitcoms that he directed in the late 1990s and early 2000s, Winkler directed his first theatrical release in 1988, Memories of Me with Billy Crystal. In 1993, he directed his second theatrical release, Cop and a Half, a film produced by Ron Howard's company, Imagine Entertainment, and starring Burt Reynolds. Winkler was an executive producer for Rob Reiner's second film as a director, The Sure Thing (1985). He was also the executive producer for the original MacGyver television series, which won the Genesis Award for Best TV Drama in 1991, and for Dead Man's Gun, which won the Bronze Wrangler in 1998. In 1988, he was the executive producer for the ABC Afterschool Special: A Family Again starring Jill Eikenberry and Michael Tucker. In addition, he was the executive producer for a number of series including Sightings and So Weird. In 2002, he partnered with Michael Levitt to revamp and update The Hollywood Squares for the fifth season of the 1998 reboot. It was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show in 2003. ### 1991–2003: New roles Winkler returned to acting in the early 1990s. He starred in the 1991 television film, Absolute Strangers, and in the short-lived 1994 television series Monty with David Schwimmer (before his debut on Friends). He also starred in the 1994 television film One Christmas, with Katharine Hepburn in her last role, and Swoosie Kurtz. In 1996, he appeared in his friend Wes Craven's 1996 film Scream as foul-mouthed high school principal Arthur Himbry. His role was uncredited, however, as the producers were concerned that he would only be seen as The Fonz, and thus distract from the film. After it was screened, though, and audiences responded well to his role in it, he was asked to do publicity for Scream. In 2000, Winkler was nominated for a Primetime Emmy, Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series, for his portrayal of Dr. Henry Olson in three episodes of The Practice. He also portrayed Stanley Yelnats III in Holes (2003). `Work with Adam Sandler ` Winkler began to collaborate with Adam Sandler in the 1990s, after Sandler included Fonzie in the Saturday Night Live skit, The Chanukah Song (1994). Winkler called Sandler to thank him, which led first to a friendship, and later to the role of Coach Klein in the 1998 film The Waterboy, and as Sandler's father in Click (2006). He also made cameo appearances in Little Nicky (2000), You Don't Mess with the Zohan (2008), and Sandy Wexler (2017). `Work with John Ritter ` Winkler worked on a few projects with his longtime friend, actor John Ritter, whom he first met in 1978 at ABC's 25th anniversary party, when Winkler was still on Happy Days, and Ritter was Jack Tripper on the television series Three's Company. He directed Ritter in the 1986 television movie A Smoky Mountain Christmas starring Dolly Parton, and in 1993, they co-starred in the made-for-television movie, The Only Way Out. Later in 1999, Neil Simon gave Winkler the chance to be involved with his first theatrical production since 1973, when he asked him to do a read-through of The Dinner Party. Given the problems he had with cold-readings, Winkler initially panicked. However, he asked for the script in advance in order to memorize it, and managed to get through the reading. Simon eventually contacted Winkler again, and asked him to be in the theatrical version he was staging, to which Winkler agreed. He was also excited to be working with Ritter again. While their initial debut was not well-received, they were asked to perform the play in Washington D.C, which they did with a few casting changes, and to good reviews. The play then moved to Broadway, and again received positive reviews (which, Winkler states, made his initial experience in the 1973 show 42 Seconds from Broadway "right"). In September 2003, he was slated for a guest appearance on Ritter's show, 8 Simple Rules (for Dating my Teenage Daughter). However, during the filming of the episode, Ritter became ill and had to be taken to the hospital, dying hours later. The episode was never completed, and Winkler's role was dropped. ### 2003–2009: Arrested Development In 2003, Mitch Hurwitz wanted Winkler to portray the incompetent lawyer Barry Zuckerkorn on one episode of Arrested Development. However, as Winkler notes, he "went for one episode and...stayed for five years." He also returned for the later seasons in 2013 and 2018. For his portrayal of Barry Zuckerkorn, Winkler won a Gold Derby Award: Comedy Guest Actor in 2004. In 2014, Winkler was nominated as part of the cast for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series. Arrested Development is known for its "inside jokes". In three episodes of the 2013 reboot, Winkler's son Max portrayed "young Barry Zuckerkorn" in flashbacks. In addition, there were a number of references to Happy Days. In Season One, Episode 17, Winkler's character Barry "looks into the mirror and does the 'no comb necessary' Fonzie pose." Later in Season Three, Episode Three, Scott Baio joined the cast as the potentially new lawyer Bob Loblaw, stating, "look, this is not the first time I've been brought in to replace Barry Zuckerkorn. I think I can do for you everything he did. Plus, I skew younger. With juries and so forth." Vulture argues that this statement is "a nod to Happy Days, where [Baio] was brought on as Chachi, to be a new teen idol as Henry Winkler got older." In addition, Barry's "hopping" over the shark on the pier in Episode 13 of the second season is a reference to Jon Hein's phrase jumping the shark. Hein coined the phrase in 1985, in response to a 1977 Happy Days episode in which Fonzie jumps over a shark while on water-skis, a stunt that drew upon Winkler's experiences as a teen-age water skiing instructor. ### 2003–2019: Hank Zipzer and other roles `Books ` Winkler's career as an author began with the Hank Zipzer series of children's books, about the adventures of a dyslexic child, which he co-wrote with his writing partner, Lin Oliver. Associated Press journalist Brooke Lefferts notes that the "message of the [Zipzer] books is that no matter how hard school is, it has nothing to do with intelligence." During the early 2000s, when Winkler experienced "a lull in [his] acting career", his manager Alan Berger suggested that he write children's books about the difficulties he experienced as a child before he knew that he was dyslexic. Winkler was resistant to the idea, which he initially thought "was insane", saying that he "couldn't do it". He finally agreed however, after Berger suggested that Winkler co-write the books with an experienced author. Berger then introduced Winkler to Lin Oliver, and the two met for lunch. After Winkler described his childhood experiences Oliver recalls thinking that, "here is this very articulate accomplished man, who suffered all through childhood because he wasn't good in school. It's a very moving story. So we created a character together who is smart, funny, resourceful, popular, who's got all the gifts – except that he is bad in school." The result of this meeting was a partnership that produced the 17-volume Hank Zipzer series of children's books. As the character is based on himself, Winkler chose "Hank," which is a nickname for Henry, and "Zipzer", the name of a neighbor in the apartment building that he grew up in, and that Hank Zipzer lives in. They created these novels through a form of collaboration that was based on their mutual background in television, that involved "discussing ideas and working them out in a room together." In addition Winkler notes, this system specifically draws upon Winkler's strengths as an actor, as he would work through ideas out loud, and Oliver's strengths as a writer. When she would read back what she had typed, they would, "argue over every word, and then [she would] say 'I have to get up, you drive me to drink.' And she gets a Snapple from the kitchen." After they finished the first series, Winkler and Oliver created the prequel series, Here's Hank, that explores Hank's life as a second-grader, before he was diagnosed as dyslexic. The Here's Hank series also uses a special font called "dyslexie", marking the first time that this font was used in a book published in the United States. `Television series ` Winkler and Oliver next created the television adaptation (also called Hank Zipzer) which ran for three seasons, from 2014 to 2016. According to Winkler however, they "could not sell the show in America. We couldn't sell the books. They said, 'Oh Hank Zipzer is so funny...but we won't do the television show. So we sold it to the BBC." The series appeared on the children's BBC Channel (CBBC (TV channel)). At a later date, after the series was successful on the BBC, it was broadcast on the Universal Kids Channel in the United States. Nick James was cast as Hank, while Winkler played the role of the music teacher Mr. Rock, who was based on one of Winkler's teachers at McBurney. Winkler has said that the real Mr. Rock was the only teacher in his high school who believed in him saying: "Winkler if you ever do get out of here you are going to be great." In addition, they produced the 2016 stand-alone television film, Hank Zipzer's Christmas Catastrophe. Nick James won the British Academy Children's Awards for Performer for his portrayal of Hank Zipzer in 2016. HBO Max began streaming all three seasons of Hank Zipzer in May 2022, and Hank Zipzer's Christmas Catastrophe in December 2022. `Theater ` Winkler returned to the stage in 2006 as Captain Hook in Peter Pan at the New Wimbledon Theatre, London. He reprised the role in Woking for Christmas 2007. For the 2008/2009 season, he played Captain Hook at the Milton Keynes Theatre, and once again for the 2009/2010 panto season at the Liverpool Empire. A few years later in 2012, Winkler made his third Broadway appearance as "Chuck Wood" in The Performers (November 14–18). `Television and film ` Winkler has continued his work as a character actor in television and film. In television, he was nominated in 2004 for a Daytime Emmy, Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program, and in 2005, he won the Daytime Emmy, Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program, for his voice-work as Norville in Clifford's Puppy Days. Additional television roles include Dr. Stewart Barnes in Out of Practice (2005–2006), Eddie R. Lawson in Royal Pains (2010–2016), Sy Mittleman in Childrens Hospital (2010–2016), Dr. Saperstein in Parks and Recreation (2013–2015), and Fritz in the 2021–present computer-animated streaming television series Monsters at Work. His film roles include Uncle Ralph in the Christmas film The Most Wonderful Time of the Year (2008), Marty Streb in Here Comes the Boom (2012), Ed Koch in Donald Trump's The Art of the Deal: The Movie (a 2016 film that also starred Ron Howard), Grandpa Bill in All I Want for Christmas Is You (2017), Uncle Joe in Wes Anderson's 2021 release The French Dispatch, and a cameo appearance as Al Pratt (Uncle Al) in the 2022 release Black Adam. ### 2016–2018: Better Late Than Never Winkler was both an executive producer for, and star of, the American reality-travel show, Better Late Than Never. He starred along with William Shatner, Terry Bradshaw, George Foreman, and Jeff Dye, in this adaptation of the South Korean reality series, Grandpas Over Flowers. Winkler was the focus of the Season 2 episode "Berlin: How Do You Say Roots in German?" as the group explored the city from which his parents escaped in 1939. The journey culminated at the site of a brass memorial plaque, known as a stolperstein, embedded in the pavement in front of the workplace and home of his uncle, Helmut Winkler. Helmut was originally scheduled to join Winkler's parents in 1939 on their business trip to the United States, but decided to stay behind and leave at a later date. The stolperstein reveals his fate, stating in German: "Here lived Helmut Theodor Winkler/Born 1909/Escaped 1940 Holland/Interned Westerbork/Deported 1942 Auschwitz/Murdered December 31, 1942." The discovery came as a complete surprise to Winkler, as Jeff Dye had secretly enlisted the help of Winkler's children, who planned the surprise. A letter from them was waiting near the Stolperstein, and told Winkler that all of his experiences in Berlin reflected his parents' life there: "Even though the Winkler history in Berlin is heartbreaking, we thought it was important for you to connect with the past through this hopefully fun adventure, and connect you did...." ### 2018–2023: Barry When Bill Hader developed the HBO comedy Barry with Alec Berg, he asked HBO if they could "get" Winkler for the part of acting teacher Gene Cousineau. According to Hader, he was "out of [his] mind" when HBO told him that Winkler was coming to audition for the role. In addition, Winkler's son Max, who is a director, helped him to prepare for this audition. Work for the first season of Barry began in 2016. Winkler has noted parallels between Barry and his time on Happy Days. He "was 27 when I did the Fonz, and now, I'm 72. I just flipped the numbers." In his role as Cousineau, he wears Garry Marshall's tie as "a tribute to my mentor". Finally, after finishing a scene on Stage 19 of the Paramount lot for Barry, he realized that it was "the very sound stage where for nine years we shot Happy Days." In addition, portraying Cousineau has allowed Winkler to draw upon decades of experience with acting teachers, as "no matter where you go to acting class, there is somebody like Gene Cousineau in there...everybody that I have talked to that has watched the show, or even over the years, talking about their drama teachers, they relate to the man or woman who just tries to annihilate you." In addition, he added his own insight into the character. Winkler states that when "they wrote it, my character was much darker, much colder—really cynical. Then, they kept writing Gene to me. They said, 'Oh my god, you're bringing such warmth to the character. We did not see that existed.' " Finally, Winkler has continued his lifelong habit of improvising when he forgot his lines, something he has "done my whole career—except I drove Bill mad. He would say to me, 'Could you just do it once the way it's written, so I could hear what we've got?' I would say, 'Yes, Bill. I'm going to.' Then, my mind would go to the left. If it worked, they kept it; if it wasn't, both Alec and Bill would guide you to where they imagined it to be." Winkler received his first Primetime Emmy in 2018 for his portrayal of Gene Cousineau. He also won two Critics' Choice Television Awards for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 2019 and 2023. In addition, he received three Primetime Emmy nominations, three Golden Globe nominations, and four Screen Actors Guild Awards nominations for the role. In discussing his success with the role, Winkler told Variety: > "Be authentic. Get very close to who you are, because every character ever written is who you are. [Like me, Cousineau is] a teacher, a father, an actor. [I am] maybe not as much of an asshole. But that's my job to create." ## Filmography and accolades Winkler states that during his lifetime, he has worked with "five directing geniuses": Garry Marshall (Happy Days), Adam Sandler, Mitch Hurwitz (Arrested Development), Bill Hader and Alec Berg (Barry). After portraying Fonzie on Happy Days, Winkler evolved into a character actor, with roles that include the high school principal Arthur Himbry in Scream, Coach Klein in The Waterboy, Barry Zuckerkorn in Arrested Development, Sy Mittleman in Childrens Hospital, Dr. Saperstein in Parks and Recreation, Mr. Rock in the Hank Zipzer BBC series, Eddie R. Lawson in Royal Pains, Fritz in Monsters at Work, Uncle Joe in The French Dispatch, Al Pratt in Black Adam, and Gene Cousineau in Barry. He is also the recipient of a Primetime Emmy, two Golden Globe Awards, two Critics Choice Awards, and two Daytime Emmys. ## Personal life Winkler met Stacey (formerly Weitzman; née Furstman) in a Los Angeles clothing store in 1976, and they married in 1978, in the synagogue where he had his bar mitzvah. They have two children, Max and Zoe, and Jed Weitzman, Stacey's son from her previous marriage to Howard Weitzman, is Winkler's stepson. Almost 80 years after his parents had left Germany in 2018, Winkler returned to Berlin for the television show Better Late Than Never and shared their story on the Season 2 episode "Berlin: How Do You Say Roots in German?". Winkler continues to remain close with members of the Happy Days cast, telling the Hollywood Reporter in November 2021, that "I loved the people. They are still my friends. Tomorrow, I am taking Marion Ross to lunch for her 93rd birthday. Ron [Howard] is like my brother, my younger brother; and [fellow castmembers] Anson [Williams] and Donny [Most], we talk all the time." Winkler contributed via Zoom to social justice issues during the COVID-19 pandemic. On May 7, 2020, the Office of the Governor of California posted a video of Winkler on Facebook and Twitter reminding Californians to practice physical distancing and to follow stay-at-home orders. During this time, Winkler also offered aid "to SAG-AFTRA artists and their families" through a virtual table read of Season 3, Episode 2 ("The Motorcycle", 1975) of Happy Days. Winkler reprised the role of "Fonzie", while SAG members Glenn Close, John Carroll Lynch, Eli Goree, Aldis Hodge, Jamie Chung, Luke Newton, and Nicola Coughlan read the roles of Marion Cunningham, Howard Cunningham, Richie Cunningham, Ralph Malph, Joanie Cunningham, Potsie, and a waitress at Al's diner. ## Additional books and legacy Winkler's 2011 memoir I've Never Met an Idiot on the River explores his interest in fly fishing. The next year, he and his writing partner Lin Oliver created the Ghost Buddy book series (2012–2013), about the friendship between the protagonist Billy and a "ghost buddy". A few years later they wrote the science fiction trilogy Alien Superstar (2019–2021). The adventures of Alien Superstar's protagonist are loosely based on Winker's own experiences after arriving in Los Angeles as he, "left New York on September 18th, 1973. I had just made The Lords of Flatbush. I had a thousand dollars in my pocket. I could stay in Hollywood for one month....in the very first week, I got a part on The Mary Tyler Moore Show. It was four lines. They let me ad-lib it to eight. In the second week, I auditioned for 'The Fonz.'" Winkler will release his new memoir, Being Henry: The Fonz...and Beyond in October 2023. ### The Fonz and Hank Zipzer TV Guide ranked "The Fonz" as No. 4 on its "50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time" list in 1999, and a 2001 poll conducted by Channel 4 in the UK, ranked him as 13th on their list of the 100 Greatest TV Characters. When asked which books influenced him in childhood, American journalist Anderson Cooper, who is likewise dyslexic, responded that, "I also loved the Fonz and read a book when I was around 8 called The Fonz: The Henry Winkler Story. I actually keep it in my office at CNN. Henry Winkler was very important to me when I was a child. Meeting him as an adult — and discovering what a kind and gracious person he is — was amazing." This sentiment reflects National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution curator Eric Jentsch's statement on the description of Fonzie's leather jacket that Winkler donated to the Smithsonian in 1980: "Fonzie was a representation of cool at a time when you were learning about what cool was." Winkler has received many honors for his role as "The Fonz", and for his work with dyslexia through the Hank Zipzer series. In 1980, he donated one of Fonzie's leather jackets to the National Museum of American History. In 1981, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and in 2008, The Bronze Fonz statue was unveiled along the Milwaukee Riverwalk. In 2011, he was appointed an Honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire by Elizabeth II, and was named one of the United Kingdom's Top 10 Literacy Heroes in 2013. Winkler won two Golden Globe Awards, and earned three Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for the role. In 1981, he received a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (for Television), largely due to his portrayal of Fonzie. A few decades later, American artist Gerald P. Sawyer, unveiled the Bronze Fonz on the Milwaukee Riverwalk in downtown Milwaukee, Wisconsin on August 18, 2008. Winkler would eventually be recognized for contributing to a greater understanding of dyslexia through the Hank Zipzer series. He was given the Key to the City of Winnipeg for "contributions to education and literacy" in 2010, was appointed an Honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) "for services to children with special educational needs and dyslexia in the UK" by Queen Elizabeth in 2011, was named one of the United Kingdom's Top 10 Literacy Heroes in 2013, and was awarded the Bill Rosendahl Public Service Award for Contributions to the Public Good for his children's books in 2019. ## See also - List of breakout characters - List of children's literature writers - List of people with dyslexia - List of public art in Milwaukee - List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
394,220	Alice of Champagne	1,173,318,605	null	[ "1193 births", "1246 deaths", "13th century in Cyprus", "13th-century people of the Kingdom of Jerusalem", "13th-century regents", "13th-century women rulers", "Daughters of kings", "House of Blois", "Queen mothers", "Queens consort of Cyprus", "Regents of Cyprus", "Regents of Jerusalem", "Remarried royal consorts", "Women of the Crusader states", "Year of birth uncertain" ]	Alice of Champagne (French: Alix; c. 1193 – 1246) was the queen consort of Cyprus from 1210 to 1218, regent of Cyprus from 1218 to 1223, and of Jerusalem from 1243 to 1246. She was the eldest daughter of Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem and Count Henry II of Champagne. In 1210, Alice married her step-brother King Hugh I of Cyprus, receiving the County of Jaffa as dowry. After her husband's death in 1218, she assumed the regency for their infant son, King Henry I. In time, she began seeking contacts within her father's counties in France to bolster her claim to Champagne and Brie against her cousin, Theobald IV. However, the kings of France never acknowledged her claim. After a dispute with Philip of Ibelin, bailli of Cyprus in 1223, she left the island. She married Bohemond, heir apparent to the Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli, but their marriage was annulled because of kinship. She laid claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem against the infant Conrad (the son of her niece Queen Isabella II of Jerusalem and the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick II) who was absent from the kingdom in 1229, but the High Court of Jerusalem rejected her claim. When her son reached the age of majority in 1232, Alice abdicated her regency and departed for France to claim Champagne and Brie. She subsequently renounced her claim and returned to the Holy Land. In 1240, she married Raoul of Nesle who was about half of her age at the time. The High Court of Jerusalem proclaimed Alice and her husband regents for Conrad in 1243, but their power was only nominal. Raoul of Nesle left the kingdom, and Alice, before the end of the year. Alice retained the regency until her death in 1246. ## Childhood Alice, born around 1193, was the eldest daughter of Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem and her third husband, Count Henry II of Champagne. Her father and the lord of Cyprus, Aimery of Lusignan, had agreed that Aimery's eldest surviving son was to marry Henry's eldest surviving daughter, stipulating that she would receive the County of Jaffa as dowry. Henry died in Acre on 10 September 1197 when he fell from a tower in his palace. A month after his death, his widow (Alice's mother) married Aimery, who had recently been crowned king of Cyprus. Before his departure for the Holy Land, Henry had bequeathed the counties of Champagne and Brie to his brother, Theobald, should he die without issue. Although Alice and her younger sister Philippa survived their father, King Philip II of France invested their uncle, Theobald III, with Champagne and Brie in January 1198. Theobald III died on 24 May 1201, leaving Champagne and Brie to his posthumous son, Theobald IV, under the regency of Blanche of Navarre, who was Theobald III's widow and Theobald IV's mother. Theobald IV's position was not secure because Alice and Philippa, both born while their father was count, could challenge a posthumous son's right to rule the counties. King Aimery died on 1 April 1205 and was soon followed by Alice's mother, Queen Isabella. Maria, Isabella's fourteen-year-old daughter with her second husband, Conrad of Montferrat, ascended the throne while Isabella's half-brother, John of Ibelin, became regent of the kingdom. As the new queen's eldest half-sister, Alice became heir presumptive. She was placed under the guardianship of her maternal grandmother, the dowager queen Maria Komnene. ## Cyprus ### Queen consort Maria Komnene conducted the negotiations for the marriage of Alice to King Hugh I of Cyprus, Aimery of Lusignan's eldest surviving son and successor, in accordance with the agreement their fathers had reached. Since the marriage of Alice's mother and Hugh I's father made them stepsiblings, a special dispensation was needed. This was granted by Pope Innocent III. Blanche supplied her niece's dowry to ensure that she would stay in Cyprus rather than attempt to lay claim to Champagne and Brie. To strengthen her son's position, Blanche also persuaded Philip II of France in 1209 to promise that he would not allow anyone to challenge Theobald IV's right to the two counties before Theobald reached the age of majority. Alice and Hugh I married in the first half of 1210, with Alice receiving the County of Jaffa as the agreed upon dowry. They had two daughters, Maria and Isabella, and a son, Henry. Alice's sister, Philippa, married Erard of Ramerupt, who laid claim to Champagne and Brie on Philippa's behalf in 1213. Blanche soon approached the Holy See to demand an investigation into the validity of the second and third marriage of Alice's and Philippa's mother, stating that her first marriage to Humphrey IV of Toron had not been canonically annulled. The inquiry conducted by Cardinal Robert of Courçon at the pope's order concluded that both Humphrey IV and Isabella I had protested against the annulment of their marriage, which suggested that Isabella I's two subsequent marriages were unlawful. However, the Holy See did not complete the investigation and thus the legitimacy of Alice and Philippa was not questioned. ### Regent After Hugh I died in Tripoli on 10 January 1218, Alice assumed the regency for their infant son, Henry I, and installed her uncle Philip of Ibelin as bailli. The administration of the kingdom was, according to the contemporaneous lawyer Philip of Novara, arranged by Hugh I on his deathbed, although Ernoul's chronicle suggests that Alice acted independently. Pope Honorius III instructed his legate, Cardinal Pelagius Galvani, to protect Alice and her children against "certain men inspired with wicked fervour", suggesting that Alice faced some opposition at the beginning of her regency. In 1218, Alice's brother-in-law Erard of Ramerupt renounced his wife's claim to Champagne in return for compensation, even promising to support Theobald IV against Alice. This led Alice to send envoys to Champagne, against which her aunt Blanche protested at the Holy See on 23 June 1219. Negotiations with Pelagius about the status of the Church in the Kingdom of Cyprus concluded with an agreement in October 1220. One of Alice's demands was for Greek Orthodox priests to be exempt from taxation. She also persuaded the pope, who had ordered the abolition of the Orthodox hierarchy on the island, to permit the appointment of Orthodox suffragan bishops in the four Roman Catholic dioceses. In time, the agreement was revised, as the Cypriot noblemen opposed the payment of a tithe (as prescribed by the agreement). The Holy See had also demanded that the estates the nobles had seized from the Orthodox Church be restored to the Catholic clerics. However, this new agreement, reached in 1222, neither freed the noblemen from the tithe nor prescribed the restoration of Church property. Rumours that Alice would marry William II of Dampierre, constable of Champagne, spread in France in 1223. In August that year, Pope Honorius forbade the marriage, at Theobald IV's behest, emphasizing that Alice and William were closely related. According to the Chronicle of the Holy Land, Alice "spent the revenues of the kingdom liberally", resulting in conflict with Philip of Ibelin. After some debate with the bailli about the tithes payable to the Orthodox clergy, Alice left Cyprus and settled in either Tripoli or Jaffa in 1224. Her children remained on the island. ## In exile ### Conflicts Around late 1224 or early 1225, Alice married Bohemond, heir apparent to the Principality of Antioch and County of Tripoli. Pope Honorius ordered Archbishop Eustorgius of Nicosia to inquire into the legality of the marriage. Alice, who continued to regard herself as regent, wanted to appoint her new husband as bailli, but this appointment was opposed by all Cypriot barons. Alice then offered the office to Aimery Barlais, who was amenable, but the High Court ruled that Alice could not replace Philip of Ibelin who had been made bailli for the duration of her son's minority. Barlais left the island to join Alice, while his supporter Gavin of Chenichy visited with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, who had decided to launch a crusade for the Holy Land. Emperor Frederick II regarded himself as overlord of Cyprus as his father, Emperor Henry VI, had sent the royal crown to Aimery of Lusignan. On Philip of Ibelin's initiative, the High Court arranged the coronation of the eight-year-old Henry without the emperor's consent in 1225, drawing the ire of the emperor. The marriage of Frederick and Queen Isabella II of Jerusalem, daughter and successor of Alice's half-sister Maria, had been decided in 1223. Alice attended the coronation of her niece in Tyre before the queen departed for Italy to meet Frederick in 1225. Frederick persuaded the dying Pope Honorius to delegate two new judges (the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem and the bishop of Acre) to investigate the marriage of Alice and Bohemond, accusing Eustorgius of partiality. Honorius III's decision was confirmed by his successor, Gregory IX. Alice and her husband came to Limassol in summer 1227 to meet Frederick, but a disease prevented Frederick from departing Italy. Pope Gregory declared that Frederick did not fulfill his crusader oath and excommunicated him. Alice and Bohemond's marriage was subsequently annulled. When Philip of Ibelin died, the High Court appointed his brother, John of Ibelin, as bailli without consulting the emperor or Alice. Frederick departed for Cyprus, landing at Limassol on 21 July 1228. Upon arriving, he ordered John of Ibelin to account for the administration of the revenue of Cyprus during his and his brother's time, but John refused, stating that the revenue had been paid to Alice. Frederick dismissed Ibelin and forced Henry I of Cyprus to swear fealty to him. He also demanded an oath of fealty from the Cypriot noblemen, but they were only willing to submit to him as their king's overlord, declaring that they only owed fealty to Alice who served as regent to their king. Frederick made Aimery Barlais, Gavin of Chenichy, Aimaury of Beisan, Hugh of Gibelet and William of Rivet baillis of Cyprus without Alice's consent before departing for Italy in May 1229. Duke Peter I of Brittany declared that he wanted to marry Alice, but this was refused on 29 May by Pope Gregory because of consanguinity. ### Claims In autumn 1229, Alice arrived in Acre, whereupon she laid claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem against the infant Conrad, son and successor of her niece Isabella II and Frederick. She appeared before the High Court of Jerusalem declaring that Conrad had forfeited his right to the kingdom as he had failed to personally take possession of it within a year and a day of the death of his mother, as required by a local law regarding fiefs inherited by a non resident heir. The members of the High Court, who had recently pledged fealty to Conrad's father, rejected Alice's claim, emphasizing that Conrad was a minor. However, they sent their envoys to Frederick in Foggia, Italy, requesting that he send Conrad to the Holy Land within a year and a day. Frederick informed the envoys that he would do what he thought best in May 1230. When Henry I of Cyprus reached the age of majority on 3 May 1232, Alice abdicated from her regency of Cyprus, which she had retained despite having left Cyprus. She went to France to personally advance her claim for Champagne and Brie in 1233, but only one local nobleman, Renier II of Nogent, supported her. Theobald IV of Champagne later captured the fortress of Nogent and confiscated Renier's estates. At Theobald's request, Pope Gregory urged Alice to come to Rome, because the legitimacy of her parents' marriage was to be investigated. Alice refused to appear before the papal tribunal, but renounced her claim to Champagne and Brie for 40,000 livres tournois and estates yielding a yearly income of 2,000 livres in September 1234. In the agreement with Theobald, she also stated that she would not erect fortresses in her estates in Champagne. Alice returned to the Holy Land in 1233. She allegedly renounced the County of Jaffa in favor of her son-in-law, Walter IV of Brienne, who married her daughter, Mary, in the same year, because Walter was styled Count of Jaffa from there on. Alice (who was about 46) married Ralph of Nesle, a man in his twenties who had come to the Holy Land during her cousin Theobald's crusade. ## Jerusalem In 1242, the citizens of Tyre offered the barons opposed to Frederick's rule (Balian of Ibelin, Lord of Beirut, and Philip of Montfort, Lord of Toron) their assistance against Richard Filangieri, who ruled Tyre on Frederick's behalf. Marsilio Zorzi, the bailli of the Venetian community in the Holy Land offered naval support to the coalition. At the request of the members of the High Court, Philip of Novara, a noted jurist, stated that Frederick had forfeited his right to administer the Kingdom of Jerusalem when his son, Conrad, had reached the age of majority on 25 April 1243. Novara also argued that Alice and her husband were entitled to rule the kingdom as regent for the absent Conrad because she was his closest relative who lived in the Holy Land. The members of the High Court, the representatives of the clergy, the Military Orders and the Italian communities held a joint assembly where Alice and Ralph of Nesle were proclaimed regents on 5 June. She agreed that Balian of Ibelin and Philip of Montfort would keep all royal castles in the kingdom. Frederick's troops were eventually expelled from Tyre in mid-July. Ralph of Nesle sought to retain control of the town, but was rejected by Ibelin and Montfort. Ibelin and Montfort also refused to transfer Acre to him and Alice, leading to Nesle departing the Holy Land in anger, stating that he was only a "shadow” ruler in the kingdom. Frederick refused to acknowledge Alice as regent and sent Thomas of Acera to administer the kingdom on Conrad's behalf, but Acera could not land in the kingdom. Jerusalem became a "sort of feudal republic" administered by the most powerful barons. Alice nonetheless exercised royal prerogatives. She annulled grants and appointments that Frederick had made after the death of Queen Isabella II. She granted a money-fief of 1,000 bezants to Philipp of Novara. Despite these exercises of royal power, she also stated before Marsilio Zorzi, who demanded the confirmation of the rights of the Venetian commune in Tyre, that she could not restore rights that had been withdrawn by a monarch because "she was not the lawful ruler of the kingdom". When Alice died in 1246, her son, Henry of Cyprus, succeeded her as regent of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
48,010,457	1961–62 Ipswich Town F.C. season	1,138,112,635	null	[ "English football championship-winning seasons", "English football clubs 1961–62 season", "Ipswich Town F.C. seasons" ]	The 1961–62 season was the 73rd season of competitive football played by Ipswich Town. The club had been promoted the previous season as champions of the Second Division. They made a steady start to the league season, and were in twelfth place by the end of August, but slowly rose to compete with Burnley for the title. Going undefeated in February and March, the club were top of the league at the start of April. Burnley's poor form that month allowed Ipswich to take advantage and win the title with Burnley still left to play their final league fixture. It was the first time a club had won the championship at the first time of asking with the exception of Preston North End who had won the inaugural title in the 1888–89 season. Ray Crawford was the club's top scorer and equalled Derek Kevan of West Bromwich Albion as the league's top scorer with 33. The club exited the FA Cup in the fourth round in a replay against lower league opposition in Norwich City, having played two replays against Luton Town the previous round. Similarly, Ipswich were sent out of the Football League Cup in the fourth round after losing heavily to Blackburn Rovers. As league champions, Ipswich qualified for European football for the first time in the club's history and participated in the 1962–63 European Cup where they lost to A.C. Milan in the first round. The Ipswich manager Alf Ramsey left after the following season to become England national football team manager. ## Background Ipswich went into the 1961–62 Football League, their 73rd competitive season, having been promoted from the Football League Second Division as champions, one point ahead of Sheffield United. It was Ipswich's first season in the top tier of English football in the club's history. Ray Crawford was the league's top scorer with 39 goals as Ipswich ended the season with 100 goals scored. ## Summary ### League #### August to October Ipswich's first ever match in the top flight was against Bolton Wanderers at Burnden Park on 19 August 1961. The match ended goalless and Eric Todd wrote in The Guardian that although Ipswich looked like Second Division champions "only on occasions", they were denied a late chance to win of which "Bolton could not have complained." Three days later, Ipswich made their first visit to Turf Moor where they lost 4–3 to Burnley after equalising three times, including two goals from Ted Phillips. Despite the defeat, Ramsey said it was the best performance he had seen from Ipswich since he had been connected with the club. In their first game of the season at Portman Road, two late goals by Peter Dobing secured a 4–2 victory for Manchester City on 26 August 1961. Journalist Clement Freud, writing in The Observer, noted that for half an hour of the match "Ipswich found their First Division feet." Ipswich then faced Burnley at home, winning 6–2 including a brace from Crawford, to record their first victory of the season, and ended the month in twelfth place in the league table. September started with a trip to the Hawthorns where Ipswich faced West Bromwich Albion. Two goals from Doug Moran, one either side of a Crawford strike, saw the visitors secure a 3–1 victory. Three days later, and in front of 24,928 spectators, the highest attendance at Portman Road that season, Ipswich won 2–1 against Blackburn Rovers. A fourth consecutive victory followed as Ipswich beat Birmingham City 4–1 which included another brace from Phillips, one of which was a 25 yards (23 m) strike. After a mid-week League Cup victory over Manchester City, Ipswich faced Everton at Goodison Park: goalkeeper Wilf Hall stood in for injured Roy Bailey to make his debut in a First Division match. In blustery conditions, Derek Temple scored a hat-trick as Ipswich were beaten convincingly 5–2 with consolation goals from Phillips and Moran. Two days later, Ipswich travelled to Ewood Park and secured a late point with a 2–2 draw thanks to a 75th-minute goal from Phillips, his second of the match. The ball rebounded off his face after being punched clear by Blackburn's goalkeeper Brian Reeves. A 4–2 defeat by Fulham meant Ipswich had gone without a win in three games, but the final fixture of September saw them defeat Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough 4–1, with goals from Phillips (2), Crawford and Jimmy Leadbetter. Ipswich ended the month in sixth place in the league table, seven points behind leaders Burnley. Ipswich's next league opposition was West Ham United who they faced on 7 October 1961 in front of 28,059 spectators, their largest ever league attendance at Portman Road. The home team won 4–2 with a second-half brace each from Phillips and Crawford. Tony Pawson, writing in the Daily Herald, praised Ipswich who "dominated [the] match by clever football". A 2–1 defeat at Sheffield United the week later was followed by a 3–2 victory at home over Tottenham Hotspur, a result described by John Arlott in The Observer as "the highest of the peaks of Ipswich Town's achievement". Cliff Jones scored twice for the League and FA Cup champions, but a second-half brace from Crawford ensured a win for Ipswich in front of yet another record Portman Road crowd. A week later, a trip to Bloomfield Road saw Ipswich end the month in fourth place in the league after a 1–1 draw, with a performance deemed "half-hearted" by the East Anglian Daily Times. #### November to January Nottingham Forest were the next visitors to Portman Road on 4 November, and despite them having considerably more chances to score, a solitary effort from Phillips midway through the first half was sufficient for Ipswich to take both points. The following week saw Ipswich travel to Molineux where they faced Wolverhampton Wanderers. The visitors were down to ten men after just six minutes as Roy Stephenson was forced to withdraw following a thigh injury. Two late goals from Wolves, from Terry Wharton and Alan Hinton, resulted in a 2–0 defeat for Ipswich. Matt Busby's Manchester United were Ipswich's opponents at Portman Road on 18 November, with the home side winning 4–1 with goals from Phillips (2), Crawford and Elsworthy, and United's late consolation goal coming from Sammy McMillan. Both Busby and Ramsey acclaimed Phillips, the former suggesting that he had the "hardest and most accurate shot in the game at present" while the latter agreed: "Ted is the best shot of my time." The final game of November saw Ipswich visit Ninian Park where they faced Cardiff City. With a performance described in the East Anglian Daily Times as "deadly", "efficient" and "polished and planned", Ipswich won 3–0 with goals from Moran and Phillips (2). They finished the month in second place in the league, three points behind Burnley who had a game in hand, and a point ahead of West Ham United and Everton. December started with the visit of Chelsea to Portman Road. Pawson in The Observer noted that Ipswich "held off Chelsea's determined challenge, and then casually crushed them" 5–2 with a hat-trick from Crawford supplemented by goals from Moran and Stephenson. A week later, Dennis Shaw of the Daily Herald described Ipswich as "the biggest disappointment of the season" as they lost 3–0 at Aston Villa, offering just two scoring attempts in the game. After losing to Blackburn in the League Cup midweek, Ipswich went into their next home league game against Bolton Wanderers after two consecutive defeats, a situation they had not been in since late August. Bolton took the lead through Doug Holden but two goals from Crawford in the last seven minutes secured a 2–1 victory for Ipswich who The Observer's Arlott described as making a "mockery of footballing justice — if it exists." Two days before Christmas, Ipswich travelled to Maine Road to face Manchester City on a frozen pitch. Although they had not won in eight games, City were 2–0 ahead by half time. Neil Young scored City's third and with Ipswich being denied a goal with numerous saves from Bert Trautmann, the match ended 3–0, inflicting Ipswich's third defeat in their last four games. The Boxing Day fixture saw Leicester City visit Portman Road for the first competitive fixture in the clubs' histories. Leadbetter missed his first match in 156 games with a knee injury. Crawford scored past Gordon Banks midway through the second half to secure the points for Ipswich. The return fixture, scheduled for 30 December at Filbert Street, was called off on the morning of the match due to a frozen pitch. Ipswich finished the year in fourth place, three points behind leaders Burnley who had two games in hand. Due to fixture congestion in the FA Cup, Ipswich played just two league matches during January 1962. The first took place on 13 January and saw West Bromwich Albion, whose team included England international and future Ipswich Town manager Bobby Robson, visit Portman Road. Goals from Stephenson, Moran and the fit-again Leadbetter secured a 3–0 win for the home side. The following week, Ipswich travelled to Birmingham where they faced Birmingham City at St Andrew's. The visitors were 2–0 down by half-time after a brace from Ken Leek. An own goal from Baxter put Birmingham three ahead; Crawford scored a consolation goal to end the match 3–1. The month ended with Ipswich once again in fourth position in the First Division, four points adrift of Burnley who still had two games in hand. #### February to April Knocked out of both the League and FA Cup by the end of January, Ipswich were left to fulfil their league fixtures which started with them hosting Everton on 3 February 1962. Stephenson dominated the inexperienced Colin Green and won corners from which Ipswich scored through a Phillips shot and a Moran header. Although Roy Vernon had scored for Everton, Ipswich's third goal came after Green fouled Stephenson, whose resulting free kick was converted by Elsworthy. Crawford made it 4–1 from a fine angle before Brian Harris scored a consolation, ending the match 4–2. The following week, Ipswich were at Craven Cottage where they faced Fulham. Alan Mullery put the home side ahead after 13 minutes as they dominated the early stages, but injuries to Graham Leggat and Johnny Haynes weakened the team allowing Ipswich to take advantage. Stephenson equalised and Crawford scored the winner with twelve minutes to go, with Ipswich taking the points with a 2–1 victory. After a two-week break, Ipswich faced West Ham United at the Boleyn Ground on 24 February. Described by Pawson in The Observer as a "curiously relaxed and gentle game", John Dick put the home side ahead before Leadbetter equalised with a rebound from a Crawford header which struck the West Ham crossbar. Bailey spilled Joe Kirkup's strike into his own net to give West Ham the lead once again before a penalty from Phillips secured a 2–2 draw. The month ended with Ipswich in third place in the First Division, four points behind Burnley who had a single game in hand. March started with back-to-back games at Portman Road against opposition from Sheffield, the first of which was against Sheffield United who came into the match unbeaten in their last sixteen. Two goals in each half for Ipswich, including a brace for Crawford ensured a 4–0 win with the East Anglian Daily Times suggesting that United had lost their undefeated run "without a fight". Six days later, Ipswich faced Sheffield Wednesday, and were behind in seven minutes to a Colin Dobson goal. Crawford equalised and with two minutes remaining passed to Stephenson who scored to secure Ipswich's eleventh consecutive home league victory. On 14 March, Ipswich took on Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane in front of a crowd of more than 50,000, and won 3–1 to become the first side to beat Tottenham home and away for three seasons. Crawford put Ipswich ahead but Jimmy Greaves soon equalised for Tottenham. Phillips made it 2–1 just before half-time and Crawford made it 3–1 for the win which Frank Taylor writing in the Daily Herald described as "the finest match [he had] seen all season." Three days later Ipswich hosted Blackpool at Portman Road. Crawford beat five defenders before passing to Moran who scored to make it 1–0 to the home side. Although it took until the 89th minute for Blackpool to equalise, and take a point from the match, Ipswich chairman John Cobbold admitted that the visitors were "unlucky not to take two points." The following weekend saw Ipswich travel to the City Ground where they faced a Nottingham Forest side who had not lost a point to any of the top six sides during the season. In a game of many missed chances, Ipswich's lead through Moran was equalised just before half-time by Len Julians and the match ended 1–1. Four days later, Leicester City hosted Ipswich at a "slippery" Filbert Street. Crawford put the visitors ahead after just eight minutes and Stephenson doubled the lead early in the second half. The 2–0 victory saw Ipswich equal on points with Burnley at the top of the league albeit having played three more games. Ipswich's final game of March was at home against Wolverhampton Wanderers. Crawford opened the scoring from the penalty spot midway through the first half but Ron Flowers equalised five minutes later. Ipswich were 2–1 ahead when Crawford scored his second of the game, lobbing Malcolm Finlayson in the Wolverhampton goal. The visitors missed a number of chances before half time but were level soon after the break when Peter Broadbent scored. Wolves squandered further chances to score and with two minutes remaining, Moran scored Ipswich's third to claim a 3–2 victory. Ipswich had gone through February and March undefeated in the league and were top of the division, two points ahead of Burnley who had four games in hand. Ipswich began April with a trip to Old Trafford where they faced Manchester United. A hat-trick from Albert Quixall and goals from Nobby Stiles and Maurice Setters saw United win 5–0. Bob Ferrier, writing in The Observer, suggested that United had overwhelmed Ipswich "so completely and so unexpectedly that it was well-nigh incredible." The following week, Ipswich hosted Cardiff City and secured a 1–0 win with an early goal from Moran. Two games in two days followed, over the Easter bank holiday, with Ipswich drawing the first 2–2 with Arsenal on Good Friday. In front of a record Portman Road crowd of 30,649, the visitors took a 2–0 lead through Johnny MacLeod and George Eastham. Phillips pulled one back from the penalty spot and Leadbetter equalised with five minutes remaining to secure the draw. The following day saw Ipswich travel to Stamford Bridge to take on Chelsea. First-half goals from Peter Brabrook and Barry Bridges were cancelled out in the second half by Crawford and a Phillips penalty, for Ipswich's second 2–2 draw in two days which consigned Chelsea to relegation. Championship rivals Burnley were still involved in the FA Cup and had won just one of their seven league fixtures in April by the end of Easter Saturday to lay second in the league, a point behind Ipswich but with a game in hand. Ipswich's penultimate league fixture was against Arsenal at Highbury for which both Elsworthy and Moran required pain-killing injections to play. Despite early chances for the home side, Ipswich took the lead through Phillips in the 13th minute which Crawford doubled four minutes later. Eastham saw a goal disallowed before half time and Crawford scored his second and made it 3–0 to Ipswich. Burnley drew with Blackpool to leave Ipswich top of the league, two points clear but having played one more game than Burnley. The final game of Ipswich's season was at home against Aston Villa. After a goalless first half, Elsworthy's header struck the bar before Crawford scored from the rebound. He doubled the lead to secure a 2–0 win for Ipswich, and after news of Burnley's home draw with Chelsea, it was confirmed that Ipswich were league champions. The team were the first to win the First Division at their first attempt since the inaugural champions and The Invincibles of Preston North End in the 1888–89 season. ### League Cup Ipswich entered the 1961–62 League Cup in the first round where they faced Manchester City at Portman Road on 11 September 1961. Regular goalkeeper Bailey was sidelined with a thigh injury picked up in the previous match, so Hall came in to replace him. Six goals were scored in the twenty minutes either side of half-time and braces from both Moran and Phillips ensured a 4–2 victory for Ipswich. The second round saw them drawn against Welsh club Swansea City away at the Vetch Field on 2 October. Swansea were 2–0 ahead in ten minutes after two own goals from Ipswich, but Phillips equalised with two minutes to go and forced the match to a replay. The match took place three weeks later, and despite having travelled 5,000 miles (8,000 km) over the preceding ten days, Swansea took a 2–0 lead midway through the first half. A penalty from Phillips made it 2–1 to the visitors at half-time and late goals from Stephenson and Moran secured a 3–2 win for Ipswich. They had recovered from a three-goal deficit twice to earn their passage to the third round. There they faced cup-holders Aston Villa at Villa Park. Cyril Chapman, writing in the Birmingham Daily Post, noted that Villa dominated "a most one-sided game" but in which Ipswich scored three times from their four shots, to win 3–2. Ipswich faced Blackburn Rovers in the fourth round, which was played at Ewood Park on 11 December 1961. Although the game was 1–1 at half time, with Ipswich's equaliser coming from a Phillips penalty, Blackburn scored three time in the second half to win the tie 4–1 and knock Ipswich out of the cup. ### FA Cup Ipswich entered the season's FA Cup in the third round where they were drawn at home on 6 January 1962 against Luton Town, a Second Division club who were eleventh in the league. Phillips opened the scoring in the second minute but Robin Chandler equalised for the visitors in the second half. According to Freud, Ipswich "deserved to lose" but the match ended 1–1 to send the tie to a replay, which took place the following Wednesday at Kenilworth Road. After a goalless 90 minutes, the replay went into extra time during which both teams scored, Elsworthy for Ipswich and Luton through Dave Pacey, and the game ended 1–1 again to force a second replay. The third clash between the clubs took place at Arsenal's home ground, Highbury, as a neutral venue. Within fifteen minutes of kick off, Ipswich were 3–0 ahead through Moran and Phillips (2), playing with the wind in their favour. Although Luton fought back and scored through Alec Ashworth, two late goals from Stephenson meant a 5–1 final score and finally saw Ipswich qualify for the fourth round. Twelve days later, on 27 January, Ipswich faced Second Division team Norwich City, their East Anglian rivals at Carrow Road. After a goalless first half, Norwich took the lead through Terry Allcock but Leadbetter equalised five minutes later and the tie ended in a 1–1 draw, resulting in a replay at Portman Road on 30 January. Allcock once again put Norwich ahead in the first half but Crawford equalised soon after the break. With two minutes of the match remaining, Allcock scored his and Norwich's second, to win the match 2–1 and eliminate Ipswich from the competition. ## Players During the season, 17 players represented Ipswich in the league, League Cup and FA Cup. Only defender Andy Nelson was ever-present, appearing in all 42 league games, and all five League Cup and FA Cup ties. Crawford was the top scorer with 37 goals, and shared the league top scorer title with Derek Kevan of West Bromwich Albion, both with 33. For Ipswich, Crawford was followed by Phillips on 36 and Moran on 18. ## Statistics ### League #### League table #### Results summary #### August #### September #### October #### November #### December #### January #### February #### March #### April ### League Cup ### FA Cup ## Post-season Ipswich's title-winning season qualified them for the 1962–63 European Cup, the club's first foray into European football. They defeated Maltese champions Floriana 14–1 in the preliminary round, with Ray Crawford scoring seven across the two ties. Ipswich then faced Italians and eventual champions A.C. Milan. Ipswich were unable to overturn a 3–0 first leg defeat in the San Siro, despite winning 2–1 at Portman Road. On 25 October 1962, Ramsey agreed to take charge of the England national team, commencing 1 May 1963. Domestically, Ipswich struggled to repeat their form the following season, finishing 17th and four points above the relegation zone.
41,668,588	Doctor Strange (2016 film)	1,170,874,437	Marvel Studios film	[ "2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2010s superhero films", "2016 3D films", "2016 fantasy films", "2016 films", "American action adventure films", "American fantasy action films", "American fantasy adventure films", "American science fantasy films", "Annie Award-winning films", "Astral projection in popular culture", "Casting controversies in film", "Demons in film", "Disney controversies", "Doctor Strange (film series)", "Films about magic", "Films about parallel universes", "Films about road accidents and incidents", "Films about surgeons", "Films directed by Scott Derrickson", "Films scored by Michael Giacchino", "Films set in 2015", "Films set in 2016", "Films set in 2017", "Films set in Hong Kong", "Films set in London", "Films set in Nepal", "Films set in New York City", "Films shot at Longcross Studios", "Films shot at Pinewood Studios", "Films shot at Shepperton Studios", "Films shot in Hong Kong", "Films shot in Lalitpur, Nepal", "Films shot in London", "Films shot in Los Angeles", "Films shot in Nepal", "Films shot in New York City", "Films shot in Oxfordshire", "Films using motion capture", "Films with screenplays by Jon Spaihts", "IMAX films", "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Three films", "Medical-themed films", "Race-related controversies in film", "Time loop films" ]	Doctor Strange is a 2016 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the 14th film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Scott Derrickson from a screenplay he wrote with Jon Spaihts and C. Robert Cargill, and stars Benedict Cumberbatch as neurosurgeon Stephen Strange along with Chiwetel Ejiofor, Rachel McAdams, Benedict Wong, Michael Stuhlbarg, Benjamin Bratt, Scott Adkins, Mads Mikkelsen, and Tilda Swinton. In the film, Strange learns the mystic arts after a career-ending car crash. Various incarnations of a Doctor Strange film adaptation had been in development since the mid-1980s, until Paramount Pictures acquired the film rights in April 2005 on behalf of Marvel Studios. Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer were brought on board in June 2010 to write a screenplay. In June 2014, Derrickson was hired to direct, with Spaihts re-writing the script. Cumberbatch was chosen for the eponymous role in December 2014, necessitating a schedule change to work around his other commitments. This gave Derrickson time to work on the script himself, for which he brought Cargill on to help. Principal photography on the film began in November 2015 in Nepal, before moving to England and Hong Kong, and wrapping up in New York City in April 2016. Doctor Strange had its world premiere in Hong Kong on October 13, 2016, and was released in the United States on November 4, as part of Phase Three of the MCU. The film grossed over \$677 million worldwide and was met with praise for its cast, visual effects, and musical score. The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects. A sequel, Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness, was released in May 2022. ## Plot In Kathmandu, the sorcerer Kaecilius and his zealots enter the secret compound Kamar-Taj and behead its librarian. They steal several pages from a book belonging to the Ancient One, a long-lived sorcerer who has taught every student at Kamar-Taj, including Kaecilius, in the mystic arts. The Ancient One pursues the traitors, but Kaecilius and his followers escape. In New York City, Dr. Stephen Strange, a wealthy and acclaimed, yet arrogant neurosurgeon, severely injures his hands in a car crash while en route to a speaking conference, leaving him permanently unable to operate. Fellow surgeon Christine Palmer tries to help him move on, but Strange vainly pursues experimental surgeries to heal his hands. Strange learns about Jonathan Pangborn, a paraplegic who mysteriously regained use of his legs. Pangborn directs Strange to Kamar-Taj, where he is taken in by Mordo, a sorcerer under the Ancient One. The Ancient One demonstrates her power to Strange, revealing the astral plane and other dimensions such as the Mirror Dimension. She reluctantly agrees to train Strange, whose arrogance and ambition remind her of Kaecilius. Strange studies under the Ancient One and Mordo, and from ancient texts in the library that are now guarded by Master Wong. Strange learns that Earth is protected from threats from other dimensions by a shield generated from three Sanctums in New York City, London, and Hong Kong, which are all directly accessible from Kamar-Taj. The sorcerers' task is to protect the Sanctums, though Pangborn instead chose to channel mystical energy only to heal his paralysis. Strange progresses quickly, and secretly reads the book from which Kaecilius stole pages, learning to bend time with the Eye of Agamotto. Mordo and Wong warn Strange against breaking the laws of nature, drawing a comparison to Kaecilius' desire for eternal life. Kaecilius uses the stolen pages to contact Dormammu of the Dark Dimension, where time is non-existent and destroys the London Sanctum to weaken Earth's protection. The zealots then attack the New York Sanctum, killing its guardian, but Strange holds them off with the help of the Cloak of Levitation, only to be critically injured during a skirmish. He teleports himself back to the hospital where Palmer saves him. Upon returning to the Sanctum, Strange reveals to Mordo that the Ancient One has been drawing power from the Dark Dimension to sustain long life, and Mordo becomes disillusioned with her. After a fight in the Mirror Dimension of New York, Kaecilius mortally wounds the Ancient One and escapes to Hong Kong. Before dying, she tells Strange that he and Mordo will have to work together to defeat Kaecilius, balancing Mordo's steadfast nature against Strange's willingness to bend the rules. Strange and Mordo arrive in Hong Kong to find Wong dead, the Sanctum destroyed, and the Dark Dimension engulfing Earth. Strange uses the Eye to reverse time and save Wong, then enters the Dark Dimension and creates an endless time loop around himself and Dormammu. After repeatedly killing Strange to no avail, Dormammu finally accepts his bargain, leaving Earth permanently and taking Kaecilius and the zealots with him in exchange for Strange breaking the loop. Disgusted by Strange and the Ancient One defying nature's laws, Mordo renounces his sorcerer career and departs. Strange returns the Eye, which is revealed to hold an Infinity Stone, back to Kamar-Taj and takes up residence in the New York Sanctum to continue his studies with Wong. In a mid-credits scene, Strange decides to help Thor, who has brought his brother Loki to Earth to search for their father, Odin. In a post-credits scene, Mordo confronts Pangborn and steals the mystical energy he uses, telling him that Earth has "too many sorcerers". ## Cast - Benedict Cumberbatch as Dr. Stephen Strange: A neurosurgeon who, after a car crash that led to a journey of healing, discovers the hidden world of magic and alternate dimensions. Cumberbatch described Strange as arrogant, with the film "about him going from a place where he thinks he knows it all to realizing he knows nothing." He compared the character to the version of Sherlock Holmes that he portrays in Sherlock, calling both characters "intelligent" and having "smatterings of the same colors". The film's mysticism resonated with Cumberbatch, for whom spirituality has been important since he spent his gap year teaching English at a Tibetan Buddhist monastery in Darjeeling, India. Strange's abilities in the film include casting spells with "tongue-twisty fun names", creating mandalas of light for shields and weapons, and creating portals for quick travel around the world. Strange is also aided by a Cloak of Levitation for flight, and the Eye of Agamotto, a relic containing an Infinity Stone that can manipulate time. Cumberbatch took great care in defining the physical movements and gestures for the spells, knowing that they would be noted and studied by fans. He described these gestures as "balletic" and "very dynamic", and received help with finger-tutting movements from dancer JayFunk. - Chiwetel Ejiofor as Karl Mordo: A Master of the Mystic Arts, close to the Ancient One and a mentor to Strange. This version of Mordo is a combination of different characters from the Doctor Strange mythos, and unlike in the comics is not introduced as villainous. Ejiofor noted this, calling Mordo "a very complex character that, really, I don't think can be nailed down either way". Director Scott Derrickson added that the change in character stemmed from casting Ejiofor and conversations the director had with him. Ejiofor described Mordo's relationship with the Ancient One as "long and intense", while noting a "growing respect" between the character and Strange, until "things get complicated". Derrickson felt Mordo was a fundamentalist, saying "When someone gives themselves over to an extraordinarily strict moral code, the process of breaking out of that is a violent one. He becomes disillusioned with the Ancient One's [moral contradictions]. The difference is Strange can accept that contradiction. Mordo cannot cope with it," which leads to the "antagonism between Mordo and Strange" to explore in future films. Discussing the diversity of the film's cast when addressing the controversial casting of the characters the Ancient One and Wong, Derrickson was confident that the decision to cast Ejiofor as Mordo, and thus changing the character "from white to black", was the right one to make. - Rachel McAdams as Christine Palmer: An emergency surgeon initially written as a love interest for Strange, but shortly before filming, Derrickson suggested that this trope be subverted by making the two characters lovers as part of their backstory and coming "out the other side of it as friends". McAdams described this dynamic by saying, "The love is between them no matter what stage they're at in the actual relationship." With this change in characterization, producer Kevin Feige described Palmer as a "lynchpin to [Strange's] old life, once he steps into the role of a sorcerer. She is someone he connects with at the beginning, and reconnects with, and helps anchor his humanity." He explained that having this character be a "connection to Strange's life in New York City, in the normal world" after his journey was important to the studio, which is why Palmer was chosen for the character over the more prominent, but more fantastical character Clea. Palmer is also known as the hero Night Nurse in the comics, a storyline that does not play into the film, but that Feige hinted could be explored in future films. Rosario Dawson portrays another Night Nurse character, Claire Temple, in Marvel's Netflix television series. - Benedict Wong as Wong: A Master of the Mystic Arts, tasked with protecting some of Kamar-Taj's most valuable relics and books. The character is depicted in the comics as Strange's Asian, "tea-making manservant", a racial stereotype that Derrickson did not want in the film, and so the character was not included in the film's script. After the non-Asian actress Tilda Swinton was cast as the other significant Asian character from the Doctor Strange comics, the Ancient One—which was also done to avoid the comics' racial stereotypes—Derrickson felt obligated to find a way to include Wong in the film. The character as he ultimately appears is "completely subverted as a character and reworked into something that didn't fall into any of the stereotypes of the comics", which Derrickson was pleased gave an Asian character "a strong presence in the movie". Actor Wong was also pleased with the changes made to the character, and described him as "a drill sergeant to Kamar-Taj" rather than a manservant. He does not practice martial arts in the film, avoiding another racial stereotype. Derrickson added that Wong will have "a strong presence in the Marvel Cinematic Universe" moving forward. - Michael Stuhlbarg as Nicodemus West: A rival surgeon to Strange. - Benjamin Bratt as Jonathan Pangborn: A paraplegic who learned from the Ancient One how to heal himself through the mystic arts. - Scott Adkins as Lucian: One of Kaecilius' followers. - Mads Mikkelsen as Kaecilius: A Master of the Mystic Arts who broke away from the Ancient One. A combination of several antagonists from the comics, Kaecilius was used in the film to drive the introduction and development of bigger villains for the future, including "certain individuals who live in other dimensions". Derrickson compared this dynamic to that of Saruman and Sauron in The Lord of the Rings, giving the film a "huge and fantastical" villain like Sauron, but also having "human relateability" with Kaecilius, like Saruman, for Strange to face throughout the film. Derrickson admitted that Marvel's villains are often criticized, and noted that MCU films dedicate little time to developing antagonists. For Doctor Strange, he just hoped to show "Kaecilius's point of view and what makes him tick" in the time that he could, feeling that the character is a "man of ideas" with "watertight logic" like John Doe from Seven and the Joker from The Dark Knight. On these motivations, Feige explained that Kaecilius believes the Ancient One is a hypocrite, protecting her own power base, and that the world may be better off "if we were to allow some of these other things through." Mikkelsen's makeup took between 2–3 hours to apply. - Tilda Swinton as the Ancient One: A Celtic mystic who becomes Strange's mentor. The character is a Tibetan man in the comics, and co-writer C. Robert Cargill said adapting the character as the comics portrayed him would be realizing the major Asian Fu Manchu stereotype while involving the film with the Tibetan sovereignty debate. However, not giving one of few significant Asian roles to an Asian actor would also be received negatively; Cargill compared this situation to the Kobayashi Maru, an unwinnable training exercise from Star Trek. Derrickson wanted to change the character to an Asian woman, but felt an older Asian woman would invoke the Dragon Lady stereotype, while a younger Asian woman would be perceived as exploiting Asian fetish and be a "fanboy's dream girl". He also wanted to avoid the stereotype of a "Western character coming to Asia to learn about being Asian", and decided to cast a non-Asian actor in the role. Derrickson still wanted to take the opportunity to cast an actress in the previously male role, and wrote the character with Swinton in mind as he felt she was the obvious choice to play "domineering, secretive, ethereal, enigmatic, [and] mystical". Additionally, though the film uses the terms "her" and "she", Swinton chose to portray the character as androgynous, while Feige explained that the Ancient One and Sorcerer Supreme are mantles in the film held by multiple characters through time, so a more comic-accurate Ancient One could still exist within the MCU. Despite this, Swinton's casting was widely criticized as whitewashing. Derrickson said he was pleased with the diversity of the film's cast, in terms of both gender and ethnicity, but acknowledged that "Asians have been whitewashed and stereotyped in American cinema for over a century and people should be mad or nothing will change. What I did was the lesser of two evils, but it is still an evil." Looking back at the casting in May 2021, Feige said the studio thought they were being "so smart and so cutting-edge" when they avoided the wise old Asian man stereotype, but the criticism of the casting was a wake-up call that made them realize they could have cast an Asian actor in the role without falling into stereotypes. Cumberbatch also portrays, uncredited, the villainous entity Dormammu. The actor suggested he take on the role to Derrickson, feeling that having the character be a "horrific" reflection of Strange would work better than just "being a big ghoulish monster". The director agreed, elaborating that the casting implies that Dormammu does not have a normal physical form in his own dimension, and so is simply imitating Strange for their confrontation. To create the character, Cumberbatch provided motion-capture reference for the visual effects team, and his voice was blended with that of another uncredited British actor, whom Derrickson described as having "a very deep voice". The producers also had Tony Todd record voice over for Dormammu as an alternative to Cumberbatch, but ultimately decided on using Cumberbatch for the voice. Chris Hemsworth reprises his role of Thor from previous MCU films in the film's mid-credits scene. Additionally, Linda Louise Duan appears, unnamed, as Tina Minoru, Mark Anthony Brighton portrays Daniel Drumm, and Topo Wresniwiro portrays Hamir, all Masters of the Mystic Arts under the Ancient One. The latter is based on Hamir the Hermit, Wong's father in the comics, who was the Ancient One's personal manservant. The character is neither a manservant nor Wong's father in the film. Zara Phythian, Alaa Safi, and Katrina Durden portray zealots under Kaecilius, and Pat Kiernan appears as himself. Doctor Strange co-creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance as a bus rider reading Aldous Huxley's The Doors of Perception. Amy Landecker was cast as anesthesiologist Bruner, but the majority of her role was cut from the finished film. ## Production ### Development A film based on the Marvel Comics character Doctor Strange was initially listed as being in development at New World Pictures, with a script dated January 21, 1986, by Bob Gale, which never went further into production. By 1989, Alex Cox had co-written a script with Doctor Strange co-creator Stan Lee. The script had the character traveling to the Fourth Dimension before facing the villain Dormammu on Easter Island, Chile. A film using this script was almost made by Regency, but the company's films were distributed by Warner Bros. at the time, which was in a dispute with Marvel over merchandising. Around this time, producer Charles Band optioned the property from Marvel and began developing a film at his studio Full Moon Entertainment. However, the option expired before production could begin and the project was reworked into the 1992 film Doctor Mordrid, whose titular character bore similarities to Doctor Strange. By December 1992, Wes Craven had signed to write and direct Doctor Strange for release in either 1994 or 1995, with Savoy Pictures distributing. In 1995, David S. Goyer had completed a script for the film. By April 1997, Columbia Pictures had purchased the film rights and Jeff Welch was working on a new screenplay, with Bernie Brillstein and Brad Grey producing. By April 2000, Columbia dropped Doctor Strange, which then had Michael France attached to write a script and interest from Chuck Russell and Stephen Norrington to direct. By June 2001, Dimension Films acquired the film rights, with Goyer back on board as writer and director. Goyer hinted scheduling conflicts might ensue with a film adaptation of Murder Mysteries, and promised not to be highly dependent on computer-generated imagery. However, by August 2001, Miramax acquired the film rights from Dimension, and by March 2002, Goyer had dropped out of the project. A 2005 release date was announced the next March, while in June 2004, a script still had yet to be written. Marvel Studios CEO Avi Arad stated, "We are nowhere with that. That's a tough one to write, but we are working on it. We are trying to find the real Jerry Garcia of the writing community." In April 2005, Paramount Pictures acquired Doctor Strange from Miramax, as part of Marvel Studios' attempt to independently produce their own films. At the time, the film was projected to have a budget of no more than \$165 million. In 2007, Guillermo del Toro and Neil Gaiman pitched a version of the film to Marvel, with Gaiman writing and del Toro directing. Their version would have seen the character be alcoholic and a disbarred physician in the late 1920s or early 1930s, and he would have been living in Greenwich Village for 90 years without aging. It would have also been heavily inspired by the art of Steve Ditko. Gaiman was especially interested in including the character Clea, but the studio was not interested. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser-known properties, including Doctor Strange. In June 2010, Marvel Studios hired Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer to write Doctor Strange. While promoting Transformers: Dark of the Moon in April 2011, actor Patrick Dempsey indicated he was lobbying to play the title character. In January 2013, Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige confirmed that Doctor Strange would appear in some capacity as part of Phase Three of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Feige then reiterated that a Doctor Strange feature film was in development at Marvel Studios that May, and again in November. In February 2014, The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Marvel was considering Mark Andrews, Jonathan Levine, Nikolaj Arcel and Dean Israelite to direct the film, and was considering Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger to rewrite the film's script. Feige denied this report, but confirmed that Marvel was considering prospective candidates. By March, Marvel was considering Andrews, Levine, and Scott Derrickson to direct the film. ### Pre-production In June 2014, Derrickson was chosen to direct the film. He had written a 12-page scene for the film featuring Strange and an assailant fighting in the astral plane while a doctor attempts to save Strange's physical body in a hospital, based on a sequence from the comic Doctor Strange: The Oath. Derrickson illustrated the sequence with his own concept art, alongside storyboards from professional artists and an animatic, which he presented in a 90-minute pitch to the studio. This cost Derrickson an "obnoxious amount" of his own money, but he felt it necessary to prove "that I wanted [the job] more than anyone", especially after Marvel told him that more people had lobbied to direct Doctor Strange than any of their other films. Derrickson ultimately had eight meetings with Marvel for the film. After he was hired, Marvel bought the 12-page scene from Derrickson, and it became one of the film's main set pieces. On transitioning from horror films to a superhero film, Derrickson said, "It was nice to work on something more positive. And not have my headspace in something so dark for so long. But it was also weirdly similar because of the fantastical nature of the movie". In his horror films, Derrickson tried to use "real characters and real character drama played by good actors ... [to] encounter the fantastical", and so he wanted actors of the same high caliber for Doctor Strange through which he could introduce the more fantastical elements to the MCU. Derrickson and Marvel had originally discussed him writing the film alongside his Sinister co-writer C. Robert Cargill, with Derrickson also directing, but Marvel felt that they would not be able to reach their intended release date of July 2016 if Derrickson filled both roles. When Derrickson was chosen as director, Marvel passed on Cargill as an individual writer, with Jon Spaihts hired to rewrite the script instead. Spaihts, a big fan of Doctor Strange as a child, had started "pestering" Marvel as soon as he read reports of the company searching for a director for the film. This eventually led to him meeting with the studio, before they actually began looking for writers for the film. Spaihts said that they talked "all afternoon, and the fit was right", but he received a call from Marvel several days later saying that they were not completely sure they wanted to take the film in the same direction as Spaihts, and were going to look at other writers. Spaihts told his agent to not "take that answer. Call them back, tell them there's a lot of right answers, and get me back in the room", and after talking with Marvel for "another three or four hours" he was given the job. Marvel never seriously looked at any other writer for the film. Derrickson was already hired when Spaihts joined, and the pair spent several months working on the film's story with Feige and executive producer Stephen Broussard. They started writing the film from the beginning, and initially were unsure whether it would be an origin story, or if it would begin with Strange already as a "fully-formed" sorcerer. Spaihts ultimately felt that "the origin story of this character, as depicted in the comics, is so operatic and beautiful, and so tragic and epic in its sweep, that it was unavoidable. We had to tell that story, and tell our best version of it." Elements from Spaihts' early drafts that he later stated were still in the final film include many of the film's set pieces, such as the climactic battle, which came straight from Derrickson, as well as "little things" from Spaihts, "like a bandaged hand running down a row of prayer bells in a Nepalese temple." Derrickson wanted Nightmare to be the film's antagonist, along with the concept of "nightmares themselves as being a dimension", but Feige felt "getting across the idea of the Dream Dimension as another dimension" would have been challenging alongside everything else that the film introduces. Dormammu, "the most present villain in the comics", became the film's main villain. During the early development process, Marvel, Derrickson, and Spaihts all envisioned Benedict Cumberbatch playing the title role. By the end of June, Marvel had reportedly been looking at Tom Hardy and Jared Leto for the film's lead as well, while Édgar Ramírez, who worked with Derrickson on 2014's Deliver Us from Evil, had discussed a possible role with the director. In July, after fans and the media had also championed Cumberbatch for the role of Doctor Strange, the actor explained at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International that he would be unable to accept the role due to commitments to other projects. Feige stated that a lead actor would be announced "relatively quickly", and by the end of that month Joaquin Phoenix entered talks to play the character. Marvel Studios was in negotiations by September 2014 to shoot Doctor Strange at Pinewood-Shepperton in England, with crews being assembled for a move into Shepperton Studios in late 2014/early 2015, for filming in May 2015. Negotiations with Phoenix ended in October 2014, as the actor felt that blockbuster films would never be "fulfilling", with "too many requirements that went against [his] instincts for character." Marvel then placed Leto, Ethan Hawke, Oscar Isaac, Ewan McGregor, Matthew McConaughey, Jake Gyllenhaal, Colin Farrell, and Keanu Reeves on their shortlist for the character. Ryan Gosling also had discussions to play the character, while Reeves was not approached about the role, and Cumberbatch was still considered to be in contention. In October, Cumberbatch entered negotiations to play the character, and was officially cast in December. Feige explained that Marvel had kept returning to him for the role while considering other actors, with Derrickson noting that even during discussions with Phoenix, he and Marvel still wanted to cast Cumberbatch in the role. The company eventually decided to change the film's production schedule to fit around Cumberbatch's commitments, allowing him to join the project. With the film's new production schedule, its intended release date was pushed back to November 2016, and Derrickson was able to do some work on the script himself. He brought Cargill in to work with him on this as was originally planned. Describing the film, Cargill called it both a superhero film and a fantasy film, saying "it's a very magical fantasy universe, but at the same time it plays by some of the superhero tropes that people enjoy." Spaihts returned later in the process to "do some more writing and help bring the movie home", and said he was "delighted" by the work that Derrickson and Cargill had done in the interim. Feige and Derrickson have noted that, in addition to The Oath and Steve Ditko's original work on Doctor Strange, an influence on all the film's writers was the Doctor Strange comic book Into Shamballa. In January 2015, Chiwetel Ejiofor entered preliminary talks with Marvel for a role in the film, later revealed to be Karl Mordo. Ejiofor's role was confirmed during the 2015 D23 Expo. In April, Derrickson and members of the production team visited New York City to scout potential filming locations, while Feige revealed that filming would begin that November. A month later, Tilda Swinton was in talks to play the Ancient One. In June 2015, Derrickson announced that he was going to London to begin work on the film, and Feige confirmed that Strange's Sanctum Sanctorum would appear, located on Bleecker Street in New York City's Greenwich Village, as in the comics. Swinton confirmed her role in the film in July, when Rachel McAdams was being considered for the female lead. McAdams cautioned that "it's still super-early, and I don't know where that's gonna go, if it's gonna go anywhere at all", but she ultimately confirmed her role during the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival. Jessica Chastain had been approached for the role before McAdams, but turned down the opportunity because she felt she was "only going to get one shot at being in a Marvel film" and wanted to be a lead character. Mads Mikkelsen entered into early negotiations to play a villain in August, "one of a number of actors being considered for the unspecified villainous role." In September 2015, Guardians of the Galaxy director James Gunn stated that many of the crew that worked on that film were unable to return for its sequel, because they had committed to Doctor Strange. Derrickson also revealed that Gunn had provided notes on the script, beyond the general conversing the MCU directors have between themselves for their films. At the end of the month, Feige stated that additional casting announcements would be made "before the end of the year", and by early November, Michael Stuhlbarg entered negotiations to appear in the film as Nicodemus West, a rival of Strange. Derrickson had offered the role to Stuhlbarg because he was interested in working with the actor, and he agreed to join the cast after reading some Doctor Strange comics and being drawn to the character's "guilt-ridden arc" where West "blames himself for ruining the surgery on Strange's hands and robbing him of his ability to operate". Feige felt that the visuals of the film needed "to be a Ditko/Kubrick/Miyazaki/The Matrix mind-trip", and said that "You don't get into it in Harry Potter, but if a scientist went to Hogwarts he'd find out how some of that stuff is happening! We're not going to spend a lot of time on that, but there will be some of that. And particularly for a character like Strange, who goes from a man of science to a man of faith and who traverses both worlds." In developing the film's magic, Derrickson felt a responsibility to not repeat the representation of magic from previous films, like Fantasia and Harry Potter, wanting "to find a new way to make it feel more tactical and real and surreal. And to root it in gestures as opposed to spoken incantations and things like that." Feige called Doctor Strange the "doorway" into the supernatural side of the MCU, a role that Derrickson noted was also served by the character in the early comics, when the Doctor Strange comics "broke open the Marvel comic book universe into the Marvel multiverse". Discussing the portrayal of other dimensions in the film, Feige stated that it would not explore parallel realities like the comics' "Earth-616 and Earth 617", but would instead feature "dimensions that are so mind-bending that you can barely perceive them", like the Astral plane, Dark Dimension, and Mirror Dimension. Astrophysicist Adam Frank served as a scientific consultant on the film, having already known Derrickson and been a Marvel fan since childhood. Frank advised on "the human experience of space and time", helping Marvel conceive ideas for their cinematic multiverse, and suggesting dialogue for characters based on their beliefs, whether they were materialist, rationalist, reductionist, or "had this enlarged perspective." He noted that modern movie goers may not necessarily understand these complex scientific ideas, but do appear to appreciate that "amazing things happen from science. So by grounding your stories enough in science to not so much make them plausible, but to allow that science to open up new possibilities—people are used to that in their lives. So I think it makes sense to them, and it's exciting to them". This was an aspect of previous MCU films that Frank called a "great thing ... speaking as a scientist", saying that "they build a coherent and consistent universe that respects the scientific process and that uses enough of real science to make things plausible or build off them." ### Filming Principal photography began in Nepal on November 4, 2015, under the working title Checkmate. Ben Davis, serving as cinematographer for the film after doing the same on Guardians of the Galaxy and Avengers: Age of Ultron, described Doctor Strange as Marvel's Fantasia, and noted that a lot of previsualization was required to figure out how to shoot the "psychedelic", M. C. Escher-inspired imagery. Davis used the Arri Alexa 65 camera for the film, along with the Arri Alexa XT Plus. Vision Research Phantom Flex 4Ks, which shoot up to 1000 fps, were used for high-speed sequences like Strange's car crash. Derrickson chose Nepal as a location to feature an "Eastern city" that would not be familiar to most audiences. After scouting and deciding on locations in the country, many of those areas were destroyed by the April 2015 Nepal earthquake. Rather than choosing another country, Derrickson and Cumberbatch felt that bringing attention and tourism to Nepal following the event "was all the more reason to shoot there". Cargill said that the location of Kamar-Taj was shifted from Tibet to Nepal to prevent censorship by the Chinese government. Cumberbatch said that shooting in Nepal was "absolutely vital to this film, I think not least because it's so based in something that is exotic. It was a magical way to start the shoot. It's important to a film like this—which has a profound gearshift into a spiritual and otherworldly dimension—that the portal for that be in a place that actually happens in itself to be incredibly spiritual and marvelous." The eventual filming locations around the Kathmandu Valley included the Pashupatinath and Swayambhunath Temples; Thamel and New Road in Kathmandu; and the Patan Durbar Square in Patan. Production moved to Longcross Studios in Surrey, England on November 11, and was scheduled to stay there until March 2016. The real Kathmandu street that led into the fictional Kamar-Taj courtyard was replicated at Longcross, which production designer Charles Wood described as "very hard because Kathmandu is a most beautiful city and it's steeped in history. To transition from that level of detail and history, with the shape of the streets, the warping of the buildings, these ancient bricks and these ancient tiles, was a real challenge." For authenticity, the set was dressed with real food, and populated with dogs, pigeons, and Nepalese extras, many of whom were relatives of people who live on the real Kathmandu street. The inside of Kamar-Taj was also constructed at Longcross, with "sculptors creating beautiful columns and wall decorations and craftsmen building screens and doors to evoke the exotic feel of the ancient sanctuary." Wood's goal was to make the set feel like the Ancient One and her disciples actually lived there, and give it a "truly spiritual, truly magical" feel, while integrating it into a real building that the production filmed in Kathmandu. This and the Kathmandu street were two of twenty-one sets that the crew built at Longcross. Others included Doctor Strange's Sanctum Sanctorum, and a Hong Kong street "complete with over 80 neon signs and a giant roof to keep the rain out." Citypoint on Ropemaker Street, London, doubled as the New York City building where the Ancient One falls to her death. Filming also took place in Hong Kong, and in New York City's Hell's Kitchen neighborhood. Additional New York City-set scenes were shot at Shepperton Studios, and later in London. By the end of November, the casting of Mikkelsen and Stuhlbarg was confirmed, alongside Amy Landecker and Scott Adkins in unspecified roles. Additionally, Benedict Wong heard about the film from his friend Ejiofor, and sought a role in it himself. He was cast as Wong in January, and immediately joined the production for filming. Lamborghini provided six Huracán LP 610-4s for use in the film, one of which the production wrecked during filming. Lamborghini said that they felt "there are a lot of characteristics of Doctor Strange that are connected with the Lamborghini philosophy." The Lamborghini crash scene was filmed at Northfleet, Kent by the River Thames. Also in January 2016, filming took place at Exeter College, Oxford. The next month, Feige revealed that the film originally had a prologue that took place in CERN, due to the real world research being done at the facility on alternate dimensions and parallel universes. Production moved to New York City's Flatiron District in April, where set photos revealed that Zara Phythian had joined the cast. Principal photography wrapped in New York City on April 3, 2016. ### Post-production In June 2016, a Diamond Select Toys press release for Doctor Strange toys, in their Marvel Minimates line, named Mikkelsen's character Kaecilius and McAdams' character Christine Palmer. Mikkelsen's role was confirmed in an official tie-in comic for the film, while McAdams' was confirmed at San Diego Comic-Con 2016. Additionally, Benjamin Bratt was revealed to have been cast as Jonathan Pangborn; Adkins' role was revealed to be Lucian, a follower of Kaecilius; and Landecker's role was later revealed to be anesthesiologist Dr. Bruner. The latter was mostly cut from the film, with Landecker explaining that she had been cast in the small role, for two scenes at the beginning of the film, because Derrickson was a fan of her performance in A Serious Man, which also starred Stuhlbarg. After filming her first scene, in which she assists Strange with a surgery, Landecker asked not to be involved in the other scene because she had no lines for it and was only seen from behind, and instead wished to attend a special premiere at the White House for her series Transparent. The actress believed she was later cut from the first scene, but she is still credited for a brief appearance. Also, Derrickson revealed that Lulu Wilson had been cast as Strange's sister, for a scene depicting her drowning at a young age. The scene had been shot, and Derrickson thought it was "great [as a] self-contained scene", but it "didn't work" with the rest of the film, and was cut. Also at San Diego Comic-Con, Derrickson noted that there were still "a couple pickup shoots" to do for the film to "clarify the logic". Further content for the film's training sequence was also shot during these reshoots, as early test audiences "loved [the training portion of the film] and wanted more". Wong indicated that the reshoots had been completed in August. Dan Harmon wrote material for these additional scenes, which Derrickson described as "script analysis and dialogue work", not enough to receive credit in the film. Feige said that in addition to any humor that Harmon could add to the film, he was brought on to "give us his opinions on the sci-fi concepts." Before the film's sets were demolished, Thor: Ragnarok director Taika Waititi took advantage by writing and filming a scene featuring Strange meeting Chris Hemsworth's Thor. The scene was for Ragnarok and shot before that film began production. Derrickson and Marvel felt the scene was "kind of perfect" to show Strange joining the wider MCU after his stand alone introduction, and so added it to Doctor Strange as a mid-credits scene. A post-credits scene, directed by Derrickson, teases Mordo's role as an antagonist to Strange in a potential Doctor Strange sequel. Stan Lee's cameo in the film was directed by Gunn on the set of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. This was alongside several other Lee cameos, to limit the amount of travel he had to do for the next four MCU films. Gunn contacted Derrickson during the shoot to ensure that the shot matched up with the respective Doctor Strange scene, and "kept throwing lines at" Lee on the day to give Derrickson and Marvel plenty of options to choose from for the film. Additional options Gunn filmed included Lee reading a book and asking a gentleman next to him if he knew what the word excelsior meant; Lee laughing really hard and stating he was laughing for no reason, being "totally crazy"; and Lee laughing hysterically at a Garfield book, noting how the character "HATES Mondays but he LOVES lasagna!". Gunn felt the Garfield option was originally meant to appear in the final version of the film, but ended up being too long for the scene. By October 10, 2016, Derrickson had completed the film. Feige described the film's use of 3D as serving the storytelling, saying, "hopefully it helps bend people's minds even more than with just the flat screen." He said that "there are sequences of the film that 3D is actually necessary to tell the dimensional story that is happening through visuals". However, he noted that during visual effects reviews for the film it became apparent that these sequences were adversely affecting the story when viewed in 2D, which necessitated adjustments so the sequences would work in all formats. Over one hour of footage in the film was "specially formatted" for IMAX. #### Visual effects Visual effects for Doctor Strange were provided by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Method Studios, Framestore, Lola VFX, Luma Pictures, Rise FX, Crafty Apes, and SPOV, contributing to 1450 effects shots. Previsualization was handled by The Third Floor. All vendors worked on the common magical elements (mandalas, magical runes shields, whips, stalks and aerial 'lily pads', and portals). Visual effects supervisor Stephane Ceretti, who also worked on Guardians of the Galaxy, explained the similarities and differences between the two films, saying, "there's some resemblance in some of the things that we've done. In the same way, it's a totally different world. In [Guardians], it's more sci-fi oriented and crazy colors. More of a comedy kind of take on things as well. This one is a little bit more serious. It's also a little bit more trippy. We use very different techniques, actually. Guardians was also for us a huge animation film. This one was less of it. This one was more about the environments and effects". Further discussing the film's visuals, Derrickson described influences as "the Steve Ditko, Stan Lee comics [which] were all about these weird visuals", as well as "a fair amount of surrealist art and photography and M. C. Escher". Additional inspiration for the film's visuals came from "a bunch of experimental, fractal videos from YouTube" that Derrickson found, and the mobile video game Monument Valley. Derrickson's "ambition was to use cutting-edge visual effects to do things that are fresh and new—to not just blow things up." Feige explained that one of the more difficult areas to be inventive was the action sequences, as Derrickson did not want them "to simply be: someone shoots a bolt of lightning, and someone blocks a ball of lightning, so someone throws another bolt of lightning..." Instead, they tried to incorporate the use of different dimensions into the action "in the interest of creating a visual tapestry that is totally different in terms of an action scene we've seen in any other movies." On the film's set pieces, Derrickson reiterated that the film's astral fight scene was based on The Oath comic, while adding that the end fight was "an attempt to capture the quality of that artwork" from the original comics, and the mirror dimension chase was an attempt to take Inception "to the Nth degree and take it way more surreal and way farther. But I certainly owe something to that movie." Specifically for the climax of the film, Derrickson wanted to play on the superhero trope of "a big fight scene where they're tearing up a city, and there's a portal opening up and they have to close it", subverting it by having the villain defeated with an intelligent use of power rather than showing "which CGI thing can hit the other CGI thing harder". ILM worked on the folding Manhattan mirror sequence (chosen because of their work creating a digital New York in The Avengers) and the time fight sequence in Hong Kong, which consisted of 200 and 150 shots, respectively. They began work on the film 10 months before filming began to plan out the Manhattan sequence; it was mainly CGI, though some New York location shots were used. The sequence was mainly handled by ILM's San Francisco and Vancouver offices. The Hong Kong time sequence was done mainly by ILM's London office. ILM also created digital doubles for many of the actors, which were shared with the other vendors. Method Studios, who worked on the Quantum Realm in Ant-Man, worked on the "magical mystery tour" sequence, with Strange hurtling through various dimensions. The sequence was handled by Method's Los Angeles studio, with their Vancouver studio contributing the opening shot of the sequence. The only shot Method did not work on in the sequence was the one that linked to Dormammu, as Luma Pictures assisted in his creation (they handled his other appearances in the film). Method created 7 dimensions for the sequence: the initial wormhole to the "Speaker Cone"; the Bioluminesce world; the fractals of "soft solid" world; a version of the Quantum Realm; Strange falling through his own eye and Cosmic Scream; the Dark Dimension; and the Shape Shifting realm. The Shape Shifting realm originally had Strange morphing and changing shape, but that was ultimately removed as Derrickson felt the audience needed to see Cumberbatch. Method's Vancouver studio created Strange's car crash, the rooftop training, and the sequence in which Strange experiments with time on an apple in the Kamar-Taj library. The car crash blended the high-speed photography and some green screen sequences, with digital assets for both Cumberbatch and the car. In total, Method worked on 270 effects shots. Framestore was chosen to work on the Cloak of Levitation, due to their work creating Rocket in Guardians of the Galaxy. Ceretti called Cloak's actions "kind of scripted but not as deeply" as the result, and said that during the pre-visualization process "we had a big discussion about the arc of the story of the Cloak in the film". Framestore also worked on environment shots, the Mandelbrot set sequences, high resolution digital doubles, the astral form, and the Crimson Bands of Cyttorak restraint for Kaecilius, totaling over 365 shots. Alexis Wajsbrot, Framestore's CG Supervisor, called the astral form "one of the hardest effects we've had to deal with at Framestore; finding the right balance of a look that was subtle but also beautiful." Lola VFX worked on the Zealots' eyes, supplementing the make-up work with effects based on a geode. They also created digital tears for Kaecilius when he is in the Crimson Bands of Cyttorak. In addition to Dormammu and the Dark Dimension, Luma Pictures also created the first mirror sequence at the beginning of the film. In creating Dormammu, Ceretti stated that they wanted to avoid the fiery head look from the comics as "it had been done before. The whole idea is he's a character that lives in-between dimensions. He can also take whatever shapes he wants to take. [When he is talking to Strange] you can feel all these ripples in his face and all that stuff... these kind of opening windows to other dimensions, and all the reflective qualities of it. We really wanted to add the evocation of that fire, but we didn't want to do fire so we went for [a] multicolored approach to try and keep the psychedelic [look] of the entire space." On the Dark Dimension, Ceretti said, "We tried to make it alive all the time—the whole idea of the Dark Dimension is that it's a dynamic environment," with the Luma team referencing the Ditko art and a poster that when lit "with a blacklight it becomes very saturated [with] colors, crazy blacklight colors." He continued, "It was all about finding the right balance between all these elements to pay homage to and to tribute the work of Steve Ditko, but to make it more current to the 21st century. If you look at the detail of the shapes that we have in the Dark Dimension, you can almost point to things in the comic books [that] we really tried to be faithful to." ## Music In May 2016, Michael Giacchino revealed that he would score the film. Derrickson called the score "magic in the literal sense of the word," adding Giacchino "is doing what good scorers do, which is he is not just creating music that supports the images, he's adding a third thing to the movie. It becomes something new with his music in there that it didn't have with temp music." The score was recorded at Abbey Road Studios. During a recording session, Paul McCartney heard one of Giacchino's cues being recorded and likened it to the Beatles song "I Am the Walrus". Derrickson, a Bob Dylan fan, looked for a place in the film to include one of his songs, but could not find one. However, he was able to include the song "Interstellar Overdrive" by Pink Floyd. Derrickson had hoped to use either "Interstellar Overdrive" or The Jimi Hendrix Experience's "Are You Experienced?" for the film's credits, but the royalties to use either in the credits were too expensive, resulting in Giacchino creating the track "The Master of the Mystic End Credits". A soundtrack album from Hollywood Records was released digitally on October 21, 2016, with a physical release on November 18, 2016. ## Marketing In August 2015, a concept art trailer narrated by Derrickson was shown at the D23 Expo. The images showed artwork of Cumberbatch in a traditional Doctor Strange outfit from the comics, as well as a rough sequence of the plot, highlighting points such as Strange's car crash, his journey for healing, and fighting Ejiofor as Mordo (before the character was moved away from a villainous role in the film per discussions between Derrickson and the actor). The trailer was met with "a very big reaction from the gathered crowd." On April 12, 2016, the first teaser trailer for the film debuted on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. Clark Collis of Entertainment Weekly compared the "series of kaleidoscopic, world-bending scenes" featured in the trailer to the film Inception, as did Scott Mendelson of Forbes. Forbes added that the structure of the trailer resembled early marketing for the film Batman Begins. The Hollywood Reporter's Graeme McMillian criticized these similarities, as well as similarities to The Matrix and between Cumberbatch's American accent and that of Hugh Laurie's Gregory House from House, calling them not "necessarily a real problem, of course ... [but] there's nothing there outside the derivative aspects: due to the nature of the trailer, there's no story beyond the 'white man finds enlightenment in Asia' trope and barely any dialogue to let audiences decide that maybe the performances will elevate the material." McMillian did enjoy the visual effects and the visual of "Tilda Swinton literally knock[ing] Benedict Cumberbatch's soul out of his body," but concluded, "as an introduction to not only a brand new franchise for Marvel, but a potential new genre, this feels far less bold and assured" than the first trailer for Guardians of the Galaxy. In July 2016, Marvel Comics released a prelude tie-in comic written by Will Corona Pilgrim, with art by Jorge Fornés. The issue sees four Masters of the Mystic Arts–Kaecilius, Wong, Tina Minoru and Daniel Drumm–pursue a woman who has stolen a mystical relic. A second issue, centered on the Ancient One training apprentices in the magical arts at Kamar-Taj, was released a month later. Derrickson, Cumberbatch, Swinton, Ejiofor, McAdams, Mikkelsen, and Wong attended San Diego Comic-Con 2016, where they debuted an exclusive clip and the second trailer for the film. The next month, the same Comic-Con clip was screened at the Asia Pop Comic Convention Manila. In September 2016, an additional prelude comic was released, centered on Kaecilius, while behind the scenes footage was released as a special feature on the Captain America: Civil War Blu-ray. Also in September, Marvel, in partnership with Dolby Laboratories, Broadcom, Synchrony Bank, and Society for Science & the Public, announced "The Magic of STEM Challenge", aimed at females aged 15 through 18 in STEM fields. The challenge was for contestants to submit videos of them finding mentors to explore ideas once thought to only be possible with magic. Five winners would attend the world premiere of the film, and receive a tour of Walt Disney Studios, as well as a \$1,000 saving account from Synchrony Bank, with one grand prize winner receiving a mentorship with Walt Disney Studio's Digital Team. On October 10, 2016, approximately 15 minutes of footage was screened at 115 IMAX 3D locations in North America, and select 3D and IMAX 3D locations worldwide. Fans attending the event received an exclusive IMAX poster for the film. Umberto Gonzales of TheWrap called the footage "stunning to behold". He added that a sequence shown in which the Ancient One sends Strange "on his first trippy tour through the multiverse" was "where the IMAX 3D really shines. The audience is given an incredible visual tour of the multiverse which features other dimensions and other realities. It really is something to behold in IMAX 3D," concluding that "after being shown only 15 minutes of incredible preview footage, IMAX 3D is the definitive format to see the film." Britt Hayes for ScreenCrush felt the footage was "dizzying" and "far weirder and wilder than [the] trailers are letting on," though felt it was a bit difficult "to judge some of what was shown out of context (especially earlier scenes)". Regarding the same sequence where the Ancient One sends Strange through the multiverse, Hayes said, "Seth Rogen's comedic drug trip sequences have nothing on the psychedelic visuals employed here. It's astounding, elaborate stuff, and easily provides the most entertaining moments in the footage." IGN's Terri Schwartz said the sequences shown were where "Derrickson's horror aesthetics shine through". Marvel provided Twitter stickers, Giphy content, Facebook Live, Snapchat lenses and filter, Tumblr stunts, and Instagram special content related to the film. Additionally, Microsoft Surface had a promotional sponsorship of the film, due to the use of the device in the filmmaking process. A partnership with Google's Tilt Brush app featured a "Mixed Reality" "stunt with artists across Los Angeles, London, and Hong Kong, inspired by different dimensions in Doctor Strange and recreating the worlds in VR for an immersive visual experience. ## Release ### Theatrical Doctor Strange held its world premiere in Hong Kong on October 13, 2016, and had its premiere in Hollywood at the TCL Chinese Theatre and El Capitan Theatre on October 20, 2016. The film was released in the United Kingdom on October 25, 2016, alongside a total of 33 markets in its first weekend, with 213 IMAX screens in 32 of those markets. It was screened at the EW PopFest on October 28, 2016, in Los Angeles. Doctor Strange's North America release on November 4 took place in 3,882 venues, of which 3,530 were in 3D, along with 379 IMAX theaters, 516 premium large-format (Disney's biggest release in that format to date), and 189 D-Box locations. Overall, Doctor Strange had the widest IMAX release ever globally, along with being the first film to release on more than 1,000 IMAX screens. It was previously reported to have been scheduled for a July 8, 2016, release, before the production schedule shifted to accommodate Cumberbatch's other commitments. Doctor Strange is part of Phase Three of the MCU. ### Home media Doctor Strange was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on February 14, 2017, and on Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D and DVD on February 28, 2017. The digital and Blu-ray releases include behind-the-scenes featurettes; audio commentary; deleted scenes; a blooper reel; an exclusive preview of the Phase Three films Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, Thor: Ragnarok, Black Panther, and Avengers: Infinity War; and Team Thor: Part 2, a continuation of the "mockumentary" short film Team Thor, that was directed by Waititi. Best Buy released an exclusive collector's edition SteelBook case for the regular and 3D Blu-ray release, featuring art based on the Book of Cagliostro and the Eye of Agamotto. Target's Blu-ray versions have an additional exclusive featurette, while the digital version also features an exclusive featurette. The IMAX Enhanced version of the film was made available on Disney+ beginning on November 12, 2021. ## Reception ### Box office Doctor Strange grossed \$232.6 million in the United States and Canada and \$445.2 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of \$677.8 million. The film became the biggest IMAX opening in November domestically (\$12.2 million), internationally (\$24 million), and globally (\$24.2 million), overtaking Interstellar's records. By November 27, 2016, the film had become the biggest single-character introduction film in the MCU. Deadline Hollywood calculated the film's net profit as \$122.65 million, accounting for production budgets, marketing, talent participations, and other costs; box office grosses and home media revenues placed it 11th on their list of 2016's "Most Valuable Blockbusters". Doctor Strange earned \$32.6 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada, including Thursday previews, with a total weekend gross of \$85.1 million; IMAX contributed \$12.2 million to the opening weekend gross, with 3D contributing \$24 million. The film was the number one film for the weekend, and became the second largest opening in November for Disney. Initial projections for the film in late August 2016 had it earning as low as \$50 million to as high as \$88 million in its opening weekend, with projections revised to \$65–75 million closer to the film's release. Doctor Strange remained the top film in its second weekend, and fell to second in its third, behind Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. In its fourth weekend, Doctor Strange was the third highest-grossing film, behind Fantastic Beasts and Moana. It fell to fifth in its fifth and sixth weekends, and by its seventh weekend had fallen to the ninth-highest-grossing place. It was projected to earn \$255 million for its total domestic gross. Outside the United States and Canada, Doctor Strange earned \$87.7 million in its first weekend from 33 markets, becoming the top film in all markets except Lithuania and Finland. South Korea was the top market overall with \$18.1 million, locally the biggest opening weekend ever for an original Marvel release, along with an all-time best opening for an IMAX film. IMAX garnered a record \$7.8 million, the best international IMAX debut for a film in the month of October, with Russia seeing its biggest Saturday IMAX gross for a Marvel film. Additionally, Hong Kong (\$3.2 million), Thailand (\$2.5 million), Malaysia (\$2.4 million), and Singapore (\$2.2 million) also had the biggest opening weekend ever for an original Marvel film. In its second weekend, the film opened in 22 additional markets, becoming the top film in China with \$44.4 million, the highest 3-day opening weekend for a first installment superhero film there. China's opening was also the third highest for an MCU film, behind Avengers: Age of Ultron and Captain America: Civil War, as well as the best 3-day opening for an IMAX film in November with \$6.3 million. IMAX also set November opening records in India, Chile, Colombia and Ecuador. Brazil was also a top market, earning \$7.9 million. Doctor Strange remained the number one film in its third weekend for the third consecutive week in Denmark, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Australia, Hong Kong, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Singapore, and number one for the second week in China and Russia. It also became the highest-grossing original MCU release in India, Hong Kong, South Korea, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Its fourth weekend saw China's total gross surpass \$100 million, "an increasingly rare feat in 2016." The next weekend, Doctor Strange opened in Argentina, where it was the number one film and earned \$1 million. The film's fourteenth weekend saw it open in Japan, where it was number one with \$4.5 million. As of December 4, 2016, the film's largest markets were China (\$110.3 million), South Korea (\$41.3 million), and the United Kingdom and Ireland (\$27.9 million). ### Critical response The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of , with an average score of , based on reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Doctor Strange artfully balances its outré source material against the blockbuster constraints of the MCU, delivering a thoroughly entertaining superhero origin story in the bargain." On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 72 out of 100, based on reviews from 49 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 91% overall positive score and a 73% "definite recommend". The Hollywood Reporter's Todd McCarthy called Doctor Strange "an engaging, smartly cast and sporadically eye-popping addition" to the franchise, adding "this action movie ostensibly rooted in the mind-expanding tenets of Eastern mysticism is different enough to establish a solid niche alongside the blockbuster combine's established money machines." McCarthy, in addition to praising the acting, felt that there were certain sequences that "go far beyond [Inception] in visual spectacle" and that the time manipulation sequences, "seen to outstanding advantage in 3D, [were what] mind-trip-seeking audiences back in Doctor Strange's origin days would have called 'far-out' but today's fans will simply deem 'amazing'." Peter Debruge of Variety called the film "Marvel's most satisfying entry since Spider-Man 2," and wrote that despite having "the same look, feel, and fancy corporate sheen" as the other MCU films, it "boasts an underlying originality and freshness missing from the increasingly cookie-cutter comic-book realm of late." Debruge also praised the casting along with the multitude of visual effects the film was able to achieve. Alonso Duralde, reviewing for TheWrap said, "True, Doctor Strange is an origin story, and occasionally hemmed in by the genre's narrative requirements, but it's smart enough to bring in great British actors to make the predictable paces and life lessons feel fresh and fascinating." Regarding the film's visuals, Duralde praised them, exclaiming, "In a year where bloated, empty spectacles have induced a crushing level of CG fatigue, this funny, freaky adventure reminds us of how effective VFX can be when they've got some imagination behind them." Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said, "The giddily enjoyable Doctor Strange ... is part of Marvel's strategy for world domination, yet it's also so visually transfixing, so beautiful and nimble that you may even briefly forget the brand." Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times said, "Within the familiar narrative contours of the origin story, writer-director Scott Derrickson crams in enough out-of-body experiences, spatial-temporal shenanigans and dazzlingly kaleidoscopic visuals to make you wonder if he and his co-writers ... were dropping acid behind the scenes." Conversely, Angelica Jade Bastién, writing for RogerEbert.com, said, "For all of its wondrous world-building and trippy effects, Doctor Strange isn't the evolutionary step forward for Marvel that it needs to be storytelling-wise. Underneath all of its improvements, the core narrative is something we've seen countless times." Mara Reinstein of US Weekly called the film "joyless" and wrote, "Despite [Benedict Cumberbatch's] alluring powers, he can't save an overly convoluted film that relies on a galaxy of derivative 3-D special-effect tricks... Nobody is having much fun here – save for the doctor's Cloak of Levitation that has its own devilish personality and can whisk him out of scary situations." Rex Reed of The New York Observer called Doctor Strange "an awkwardly cliché-riddled mix of hamstrung imagination and bizarro reality" and said, "None of it makes any sense... For characterization, dialogue, narrative arc, acceptable acting and coherence, go elsewhere." Adam Graham of The Detroit News said, "Cumberbatch is wildly charismatic in the lead role... But that's the thing: He's a better party guest than he is a host. Doctor Strange is a fine introduction, but by the end, you're not sad to be headed for the door." ### Accolades ## Sequel Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness was released on May 6, 2022. Sam Raimi replaced Derrickson as director, with a script written by Michael Waldron. Cumberbatch, Wong, Ejiofor, and McAdams reprised their roles, with Elizabeth Olsen also reprising her role of Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch from other MCU media. ## See also - List of films featuring time loops - Whitewashing in film - "What If... Doctor Strange Lost His Heart Instead of His Hands?", an episode of the MCU television series What If...? that reimagines the events of this film
21,592	Netball	1,171,073,522	Seven-a-side ball sport	[ "Articles containing video clips", "Ball games", "Forms of basketball", "History of women's sports", "Mixed-sex sports", "Netball", "Sports originating in England", "Team sports", "Women's sports" ]	Netball is a ball sport played on a rectangular court by two teams of seven players. The primary objective is to shoot a ball (680 to 710 millimetres (27 to 28 in) in circumference) through the defender's goal ring (380 millimetres (15 in) in diameter mounted 3.05 metres (10.0 ft) high to a goal post at each end of the court) while preventing the opposing team from shooting through their own goal ring. It is one of a few sports created exclusively for women and girls and remains primarily played by them, on indoor and outdoor courts, especially in schools and most popularly in the Commonwealth of Nations. According to World Netball, the sport is played by more than 20 million people in more than 80 countries. World Netball comprises more than 70 national teams organized into five global regions. Major domestic leagues in the sport include the Netball Superleague in Great Britain, Suncorp Super Netball in Australia and the ANZ Premiership in New Zealand. Four major competitions take place internationally: the quadrennial World Netball Championships, the Commonwealth Games, and the yearly Quad Series and Fast5 Series. In 1995, netball became an International Olympic Committee recognised sport federation, but it has not been played at the Olympics. ## Comparison with basketball A common misunderstanding of netball's origins has resulted in the mistaken belief that netball was created to prevent women from playing basketball. Its development traces back to American sports teacher Clara Gregory Baer's misinterpretation of the basketball rule book in 1895. The book had lines of patrol drawn on it and Clara interpreted this to mean that players had to stay in those zones. Baer's modifications proliferated and were later officially ratified into the rules for women's basketball by 1899. Martina Bergman-Österberg had also introduced basketball to her female students at her Physical Training College in England in 1893. In the beginning it was also described as "women's basketball" but by 1897 it started to evolve into a distinctly separate sport based on modifications developed at Bergman-Österberg's college combined with Baer's rules. The first codified rules of Bergman-Österberg's new sport, netball, were then published in 1901. By 1960, international playing rules had been standardised for the game, and the International Federation of Netball and Women's Basketball, later renamed World Netball, was formed to be the sport's international governing body. Netball differs in many ways from basketball, principally in the absence of the backboards from the hoop or goal ring and the prohibition of dribbling, bouncing, and running while in possession of the ball. Physical player contact is more controlled than in basketball. In addition, netball not only identifies the different positions of its players, but also defines where and in which areas of the court specific players are allowed to be when they compete. Consequently, netball more heavily emphasizes accurate passing and positioning than basketball. ## Overview Games are played on a rectangular court with raised goal rings at each end. Each team attempts to score goals by passing a ball down the court and shooting it through its goal ring. Players are assigned specific positions, which define their roles within the team and restrict their movement to certain areas of the court. During general play, a player with the ball can hold on to it for only three seconds before shooting for a goal or passing to another player. The winning team is the one that scores the most goals. Netball games are 60 minutes long. Variations have been developed to increase the game's pace and appeal to a wider audience. ## Description and rules The objective of a game is to score more goals than the opposition. Goals are scored when a team member positioned in the attacking shooting circle shoots the ball through the goal ring. The goal rings are 380 millimetres (15 in) in diameter and sit atop 3.05-metre (10.0 ft)-high goal posts that have no backboards. A 4.9-metre (16 ft)-radius semi-circular "shooting circle" is an area at each end of the court. The goal posts are located within the shooting circle. Each team defends one shooting circle and attacks the other. The netball court is 30.5 metres (100 ft) long, 15.25 metres (50.0 ft) wide, and divided lengthwise into thirds. The ball is usually made of leather or rubber, measures 680 to 710 millimetres (27 to 28 in) in circumference (\~22 centimetres (8.7 in) in diameter), and weighs 397 to 454 grams (14.0 to 16.0 oz). A normal game consists of four 15-minute quarters and can be played outdoors or in a covered stadium. Each team is allowed seven players on the court. Each player is assigned a specific position, which limits their movement to a certain area of the court. A "bib" worn by each player contains a one- or two-letter abbreviation indicating this position. Only two positions are permitted in the attacking shooting circle, and can therefore shoot for a goal. Similarly, only two positions are permitted in the defensive shooting circle; they try to prevent the opposition from shooting goals. Other players are restricted to two-thirds of the court, with the exception of the centre, who may move anywhere on the court except for a shooting circle. At the beginning of every quarter and after a goal has been scored, play starts with a player in the centre position passing the ball from the centre of the court. These "centre passes" alternate between the teams, regardless of which team scored the last goal. When the umpire blows the whistle to restart play, four players from each team can move into the centre third to receive the pass. The centre pass must be caught or touched in the centre third. The ball is then moved up and down the court through passing and must be touched by a player in each adjacent third of the court. Players can hold the ball for only three seconds at any time. It must be released before the foot they were standing on when they caught it touches the ground again. Contact between players is only permitted if it does not impede an opponent or the general play. When defending a pass or shot players must be at least 90 centimetres (35 in) away from the player with the ball. If illegal contact is made, the player who contacted cannot participate in play until the player taking the penalty has passed or shot the ball. If the ball is held in two hands and either dropped or a shot at goal is missed, the same player cannot be the first to touch it unless it first rebounds off the goal. ## Equipment Aside from the court and nets, netball uses a ball that around 70cm in circumference and weighing 400 grams to 450 grams. Balls are made from leather, rubber, or similar material. A player typically wears a jersey or tank top with a skort or shorts. Players may alternatively wear specialist one-piece netball dresses, particularly at higher levels. These are accompanied by socks and trainers. Specialist netball dresses and jerseys usually have Velcro to attach a fabric patch bearing their position letter(s), which can instead be worn on bibs when wearing clothes without Velcro. ## History Netball's early development emerged from Clara Baer's misinterpretation of the early rules of James Naismith's new sport of basketball (which he developed while studying in Massachusetts) and eventually evolved into its own sport. Basketball was invented in 1891 by Naismith in the United States. The game was initially played indoors between two teams of nine players, using an association football that was thrown into closed-end peach baskets. Naismith's game spread quickly across the United States and variations of the rules soon emerged. At the same time, physical education instructor Senda Berenson developed modified rules for women in 1892. Berenson's rules eventually gave rise to women's basketball, and separate intercollegiate rules for basketball for men and women developed around the same time. Clara Baer was a sports teacher living in New Orleans when she wrote to Naismith asking for a copy of the rules for his game of basketball. Once she received them, they included a diagram of the court with lines across it which were meant to show the areas various players could best patrol. She misinterpreted the lines and believed they marked out restricted areas of play which players could not leave. Her mistake marks the beginning of netball. Baer's version for the rules of women’s basketball defined these areas as restricted zones, an error which then became ratified into the rules for women’s basketball in 1899 and proliferated. Martina Bergman-Österberg introduced a version of basketball in 1893 to her female students at the Physical Training College in Hampstead, London. The rules of the game were modified at the college over several years: the game moved outdoors and was played on grass; the baskets were replaced by rings that had nets; and in 1897 and 1899, rules from women's basketball in the United States were incorporated. Österberg's new sport acquired the name "net ball". The first codified rules of netball were published in 1901 by the Ling Association, later the Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom. From England, netball spread to other countries in the British Empire. Variations of the rules and even names for the sport arose in different areas: "women's (outdoor) basketball" arrived in Australia around 1900 and in New Zealand from 1906, while "netball" was being played in Jamaican schools by 1909. From the start, it was considered socially appropriate for women to play netball; netball's restricted movement appealed to contemporary notions of women's participation in sports, and the sport was distinct from potential rival male sports. Netball became a popular women's sport in countries where it was introduced and spread rapidly through school systems. School leagues and domestic competitions emerged during the first half of the 20th century, and in 1924 the first national governing body was established in New Zealand. International competition was initially hampered by a lack of funds and varying rules in different countries. Australia hosted New Zealand in the first international game of netball in Melbourne on 20 August 1938; Australia won 40–11. Efforts began in 1957 to standardise netball rules globally: by 1960 international playing rules had been standardised, and the International Federation of Netball and Women's Basketball, later the International Netball Federation (INF), was formed to administer the sport worldwide. Representatives from England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the West Indies were part of a 1960 meeting in Sri Lanka that standardised the rules for the game. The game spread to other African countries in the 1970s. South Africa was prohibited from competing internationally from 1969 to 1994 due to apartheid. In the United States, Netball's popularity also increased during the 1970s, particularly in the New York area, and the United States of America Netball Association was created in 1992. The game also became popular in the Pacific Island nations of the Cook Islands, Fiji and Samoa during the 1970s. Netball Singapore was created in 1962, and the Malaysian Netball Association was created in 1978. In Australia, the term women's basketball was used to refer to both netball and basketball. During the 1950s and 1960s, a movement arose to change the Australian name of the game from women's basketball to netball in order to avoid confusion between the two sports. The Australian Basketball Union offered to pay the costs involved to alter the name, but the netball organisation rejected the change. In 1970, the Council of the All Australia Netball Association officially changed the name to "netball" in Australia. In 1963, the first international tournament was held in Eastbourne, England. Originally called the World Tournament, it later became known as the World Netball Championships. Following the first tournament, one of the organisers, Miss R. Harris, declared, > England could learn from the mistakes in the past from the empty stands at Eastbourne. To get the right publicity and the right status desired, the game must emerge from the school playground. Netball should be part of a sports centre where social events could also be held. The World Netball Championships have been held every four years since then. The World Youth Netball Championships started in Canberra in 1988, and have been held roughly every four years since. In 1995, the International Olympic Committee recognized the International Federation of Netball Associations. Three years later netball debuted at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur. Other international competitions also emerged in the late 20th century, including the Nations Cup and the Asian Netball Championship. ### Sex category The sport was created for girls and women and remains most popular among this demographic, with women's netball at elite and national levels receiving outside funding. Though male netball teams exist in some areas, men's and mixed-sex teams are largely self-funded. Men's netball started to grow in Australia during the 1980s, with the first men's championship being held in 1985. Other countries with men's national teams include Canada, Fiji, Jamaica, Kenya, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates. #### Other In 2004, New Zealand and Fiji sent teams to compete in the Australian Mixed and Men's National Championships. By 2006, mixed netball teams in Australia had as many male participants as rugby union. An all-transgender netball team from Indonesia competed at the 1994 Gay Games in New York City. The team had been the Indonesian national champions. At the Gay Games VI in Sydney in 2000, netball and volleyball were the two sports with the highest rates of transgender athletes participating. There were eight teams of indigenous players, with seven identifying as transgender. They came from places like Palm Island in northern Queensland, Samoa, Tonga and Papua New Guinea. Teams with transgender players were allowed to participate in several divisions including men's, mixed and transgender; they were not allowed to compete against women's teams. ## Variants ### Indoor netball Indoor netball is a variation of netball, played exclusively indoors, in which the playing court is often surrounded on each side and overhead by a net. The net prevents the ball from leaving the court, permitting faster play by reducing playing stoppages. Different forms of indoor netball exist. In a seven-per-side version called "action netball", seven players per team play most standard rules, except a game is split into fifteen-minute halves around a three-minute break. This version is played in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and England. A six-per-side version of the sport is also played in New Zealand. Two Centres per team can play in the whole court except the shooting circles; the remaining attacking and defending players are each restricted to one half of the court, including the shooting circles. The attacking and Centre players may shoot from outside the shooting circle for a two-point goal. A five-per-side game is also common in indoor netball. Players can move throughout the court, with the exception of the shooting circles, which are restricted to certain attacking or defending players. ### Fast5 Fast5 (originally called Fastnet) is a variation on the rules of netball designed to make games faster and more television-friendly. The World Netball Series promotes it to raise the sport's profile and attract more spectators and greater sponsorship. The game is much shorter, with each quarter lasting only six minutes and only a two-minute break between quarters. The coaches can give instructions from the sideline during play, and unlimited substitutions are allowed. Like six-per-side indoor netball, attacking players may shoot two-point goals from outside the shooting circle. Each team can separately nominate one "power play" quarter, in which each goal scored by that team is worth double points and the centre pass is taken by the team that conceded the goal. ### For children Netball has been adapted in several ways to meet children's needs. The rules for children are similar to those for adults, but various aspects of the game (such as the length of each quarter, goal height, and ball size) are modified. Fun Net is a version of netball developed by Netball Australia for five- to seven-year-olds. It aims to improve basic netball skills using games and activities. The Fun Net program runs for 8–16 weeks. There are no winners or losers. The goal posts are 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in) high, and a smaller ball is used. Netball Australia also runs a modified game called Netta aimed at 8- to 11-year-olds. The goal height and ball size are the same as for adults, but players rotate positions during the game, permitting each player to play each position. Netta was created to develop passing and catching skills. Its rules permit six seconds between catching and passing the ball, instead of the three seconds permitted in the adult game. Most players under 11 play this version at netball clubs. A version called High Five Netball is promoted by the All England Netball Association. It is aimed at 9- to 11-year-old girls and includes only five positions. The players swap positions during the game. When a player is not on the court, she is expected to help the game in some other way, such as being the timekeeper or scorekeeper. High Five Netball has four six-minute quarters. ### Walking netball Walking netball is a slower-paced version of netball designed to encourage participation by older or less fit players. The rules forbid running or jumping, and allow an extra step with the ball and 4 seconds, rather than 3, to hold the ball. ## Governance The recognised international governing body of netball is World Netball, based in Manchester, England. Founded in 1960, the organisation was initially called the International Federation of Netball and Women's Basketball. The INF is responsible for compiling world rankings for national teams, maintaining the rules for netball and organising several major international competitions. As of July 2019, the INF has 53 full and 19 associate national members in five regions. Each region has an INF regional federation. The INF is affiliated with the General Association of International Sports Federations, the International World Games Association and the Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations. It is also a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Code. ## International competition Netball is a popular participant sport in countries of the Commonwealth of Nations. Non-Commonwealth entities with full IFNA membership include Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Argentina, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands and the United States, along with former Commonwealth members Zimbabwe, Ireland and Hong Kong. According to the IFNA, over 20 million people play netball in more than 80 countries. International tournaments are held among countries in each of the five IFNA regions, either annually or every four years. School leagues and national club competitions have been organised in England, Australia, New Zealand and Jamaica since the early twentieth century. Franchise-based netball leagues did not emerge until the late 1990s. These competitions sought to increase the profile of the sport in their respective countries. Despite widespread local interest, participation was largely amateur. Netball was first included in the 1998 Commonwealth Games and has been included ever since; it is currently one of the "core" sports that must be contested at each edition of the Games. The Confederation of African Netball Associations organises a major African tournament, which invites teams from Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, South Africa, Kenya, Lesotho, Eswatini, Zimbabwe and the Seychelles to take part. The tournament is hosted by a country within the region; senior and under 21 teams compete. The tournament has served as a qualifier for the World Championships. South Africa launched a new domestic competition in 2011 called Netball Grand Series. It features eight regional teams from South Africa and is aimed at increasing the amount of playing time for players. It runs for 17 weeks and replaces the National Netball League, which was played over only two weeks. According to Proteas captain Elsje Jordaan, it was hoped that the competition would create an opportunity for players to become professional. The Americas Federation of Netball Associations (AFNA) hosts two tournaments each year: the Caribbean Netball Association (CNA) Under 16 Championship and the AFNA Senior Championship. The CNA championship involves two divisions of teams from the Caribbean islands. In 2010 five teams competed in two rounds of round robin matches in the Championship Division, while four teams competed in the Developmental Division. Jamaica, which has lost only once in the tournament, decided not to play the 2011 tournament. The AFNA Senior Championship includes Canada and the US along with the Caribbean nations. The tournament serves as a qualifier for the World Championship. Jamaica, with its high ranking, does not have to qualify; this leaves two spots to the other teams in the tournament. The Asian Netball Championship is held every four years. The seventh Asian games were held in 2009 and featured Singapore, Thailand, Maldives, Taiwan, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Hong Kong, India and Pakistan. There is also an Asian Youth Netball Championship for girls under 21 years of age, the seventh of which was held in 2010. The major netball competition in Europe is the Netball Superleague, which features teams from England, Wales and Scotland. The league was created in 2005. Matches are broadcast on Sky Sports. Netball has been featured at the Pacific Games, a multi-sport event with participation from 22 countries from around the South Pacific. The event is held every four years and has 12 required sports; the host country chooses the other four. Netball is not a required sport and has missed selection, particularly when former French or American territories host the games. The ANZ Championship was a Trans-Tasman competition held between 2008 and 2016 that was broadcast on television in both New Zealand and Australia. It was contested among ten teams from Australia and New Zealand. It began in April 2008, succeeding Australia's Commonwealth Bank Trophy and New Zealand's National Bank Cup as the pre-eminent netball league in those countries. The competition was held annually between April and July, consisting of 69 matches played over 17 weeks. The ANZ Championship saw netball become a semi-professional sport in both countries, with increased media coverage and player salaries. The competition was replaced by new leagues in 2017, the Suncorp Super Netball (Australia) and ANZ Premiership (New Zealand). ## Major championships There are four major international netball competitions; the Netball World Cup, Netball at the Commonwealth Games, Netball Quad Series and Fast5 Netball World Series. Netball is also played at large regional multi-sport events such as the Southeast Asian Games. Netball's important competition is the Netball World Cup (previously known as the World Netball Championships), held every four years. It was first held in 1963 at the Chelsea College of Physical Education at Eastbourne, England, with eleven nations competing. Since its inception the competition has been dominated primarily by the Australian and New Zealand teams, which hold ten and four titles, respectively. Trinidad and Tobago is the only other team to win a championship title. That title, won in 1979, was shared with New Zealand and Australia; all three teams finished with equal points at the end of the round robin, and there were no finals. The Fast5 Series is a competition among the top six national netball teams, as ranked by the INF World Rankings. It is organised by the INF in conjunction with the national governing bodies of the six competing nations, UK Sport, and the host city's local council. The All England Netball Association covers air travel, accommodation, food and local travel expenses for all teams, while the respective netball governing bodies cover player allowances. It is held over three days, with each team playing each other once during the first two days in a round-robin format. The four highest-scoring teams advance to the semi-finals; the winners face each other in the Grand Final. The competition features modified fastnet rules and has been likened to Twenty20 cricket and rugby sevens. A new format featuring shorter matches with modified rules was designed to make the game more appealing to spectators and television audiences. The World Netball Series was held annually in England from 2009 to 2011. Netball's governing federation gained Olympic recognition in 1995 after 20 years of lobbying. Although it has never been played at the Summer Olympics, politicians and administrators have been campaigning unsuccessfully to have it included. Its absence from the Olympics has been seen by the netball community as a hindrance in the global growth of the game by limiting access to media attention and funding sources. Some funding sources became available with recognition in 1995, including the International Olympic Committee, national Olympic committees, national sport organisations, and state and federal governments. ## See also - List of national netball teams - List of netball players - Wheelchair netball ## Explanatory notes ## General bibliography
42,020,036	French cruiser Guichen (1897)	1,164,319,627	Protected cruiser of the French Navy	[ "1897 ships", "Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War", "Cruisers of the French Navy", "Ships built in France" ]	Guichen was a large protected cruiser built in the 1890s for the French Navy, the only member of her class. She was intended to serve as a long-range commerce raider, designed according to the theories of the Jeune École, which favored a strategy of attacking Britain's extensive merchant shipping network instead of engaging in an expensive naval arms race with the Royal Navy. As such, Guichen was built with a relatively light armament of just eight medium-caliber guns, but was given a long cruising range and the appearance of a large passenger liner, which would help her to evade detection while raiding merchant shipping. The predicted Anglo-French war that spurred Guichen's design never came, and so her early career passed uneventfully. She initially served with the Mediterranean Squadron during her lengthy sea trials, followed by a stint in the Northern Squadron. She was sent to the Far East in response to the Boxer Uprising in Qing China by early 1901, returning to France the following year. Another deployment to East Asian waters came in 1905 and ended in 1907 with her return to France. She had been reduced to reserve by 1911 and saw little further activity in the following three years. At the start of World War I in July 1914, the ship was mobilized into the 2nd Light Squadron and tasked with patrolling the western end of the English Channel. Guichen was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea in May 1915, serving initially with the main French fleet that blockaded the Austro-Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic Sea. Later in the year, she was reassigned to the Syrian Division that patrolled the coast of Ottoman Syria, where she helped to evacuate some 4,000 Armenian civilians fleeing the Armenian genocide. By 1917, she had been reduced to a fast transport operating between Italy and Greece. After the war, she continued transport duties, but after her crew mutinied in 1919, she was recalled to France, where she was eventually struck from the naval register in 1921 and broken up. ## Background and design In the mid-1880s, elements in the French naval command argued over future warship construction; the Jeune École advocated building long-range and fast protected cruisers for use as commerce raiders on foreign stations while a traditionalist faction preferred larger armored cruisers and small fleet scouts, both of which were to operate as part of the main fleet in home waters. The latter course required a direct challenge to the larger British Royal Navy, and the proponents of the Jeune École hoped to avoid the significant expense of an arms race by attacking Britain indirectly, by way of attacks on her merchant shipping. By the end of the decade and into the early 1890s, the traditionalists were ascendant, leading to the construction of several armored cruisers of the Amiral Charner class, though the supporters of the Jeune École secured approval for one large cruiser built according to their ideas, which became D'Entrecasteaux. These debates took place in the context of shifting geopolitical alliances and rivalries. The early 1890s was marked by serious strategic confusion in France; despite the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1891, which should have produced friction between the two countries and their imperial rival Britain, the French Navy was still oriented against the German-led Triple Alliance. This outlook was cemented in the naval program of 1894, but even the Navy's strategic planning remained muddled. The program authorized the large protected cruisers Guichen and Châteaurenault, both of which were intended as long-distance commerce raiders. These vessels were ideally suited to attack the extensive merchant shipping network of Britain, not the continental powers of Germany or Austria-Hungary. In the early 1890s, the United States Navy built two very large and fast cruisers intended to raid merchant shipping in the Atlantic, the Columbia class. These ships greatly impressed many senior officers in the French Navy, including the French Naval Minister, Félix Faure, who issued requests for design proposals in late 1894. the chief characteristics were very high speed and great cruising range on a displacement of around 8,500 t (8,400 long tons; 9,400 short tons). Because the vessel was not intended to engage enemy cruisers, armament and armor could be kept light for a ship of this size. The Conseil des Travaux (Council of Works) issued its more detailed list of specifications to shipyards on 18 December 1894 to solicit design proposals. Three shipyards submitted designs by early 1895, and on 15 January, the Conseil evaluated the submissions; they selected two, one from Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire (which became Guichen) and one from Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée (which became Châteaurenault). The design for Guichen had been prepared by Marie de Bussy, who based the hull form on his earlier designs, Davout and Dupuy de Lôme, both of which had met their design speeds. He had originally intended for Guichen to have an inverted bow like Dupuy de Lôme, but the Conseil requested a straight bow instead. Both ships were intended to resemble passenger liners, which would help them evade discovery while conducting commerce raiding operations. The French cruisers suffered from several defects, however, including insufficient speed to catch the fast transports that would be used to carry critical materiel in wartime and their vast expense militated against their use to attack low-value shipping. Additionally, their weak armament precluded their use against enemy cruisers. ### Characteristics Guichen was 133 m (436 ft 4 in) long both at the waterline and overall, with a beam of 16.71 m (54 ft 10 in) and an average draft of 7.5 m (24 ft 7 in). She displaced 8,281.9 t (8,151.1 long tons; 9,129.2 short tons). Her hull featured a straight stem and a pronounced tumblehome shape, as was typical for French warships of the period. She had a spar deck that extended for most of the length of the vessel. Guichen's superstructure consisted of a main conning tower forward with a small bridge structure atop it and a smaller secondary conning tower aft. She was fitted with three light pole masts for signaling purposes, though the center mast, serving as a support to Temperley coaling booms, was damaged in an accident in 1906 and was cut down an converted into a ventilation shaft. She was equipped with six searchlights. Her crew ranged from 594 to 604 officers and enlisted men. The ship's propulsion system consisted of three vertical triple-expansion steam engines driving three screw propellers; she was the first French protected cruiser to adopt a three-shaft arrangement. Steam was provided by thirty-six mixed oil- and coal-burning, Lagrafel d'Allest water-tube boilers. These were divided into two widely-spaced groups and both groups were ducted into a pair of funnels. It was further development of an arrangement first used in D'Entrecasteaux, and symmetrical silhouette became a trademark of most following French large cruisers. Her machinery was rated to produce 24,000 indicated horsepower (18,000 kW) for a top speed of 23.5 knots (43.5 km/h; 27.0 mph), and she reached 25,163 ihp (18,764 kW) for 23.54 knots (43.60 km/h; 27.09 mph) during her initial speed tests. Coal storage amounted to 1,680 t (1,650 long tons; 1,850 short tons), which provided her a cruising radius of 8,430 nautical miles (15,610 km; 9,700 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Despite her large size, Guichen carried a relatively light armament, since she was intended to engage unarmed merchant vessels, not other cruisers. Her main battery consisted of two 164 mm (6.5 in) M1893 45-caliber (cal.) quick-firing (QF) gun in single pivot mounts, fore and aft on the centerline, which fired a variety of shells, including solid cast iron projectiles, and explosive armor-piercing (AP) and semi-armor-piercing (SAP) shells. The muzzle velocity ranged from 770 to 880 m/s (2,500 to 2,900 ft/s). These guns were supported by a secondary battery of six 138 mm (5.4 in) M1893 45-cal. QF guns carried in sponsons, three guns per broadside. They were also supplied with cast iron, AP, and SAP projectiles, firing with a muzzle velocity of 730 to 770 m/s (2,400 to 2,500 ft/s). For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she was armed with a battery of ten 47 mm (1.9 in) 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns and five 37 mm (1.5 in) 1-pounder guns. The ship was also armed with a pair of 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes in her hull above the waterline. The torpedoes were the M1892 variant, which carried a 75 kg (165 lb) warhead and had a range of 800 m (2,600 ft) at a speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). Armor protection consisted of Harvey steel. Guichen had a curved armor deck that was 55 mm (2.2 in) thick on the flat portion, which was about 0.79 m (2 ft 7 in) above the waterline. Toward the sides of the hull, it sloped downward to provide a measure of vertical protection, terminating at the side of the hull about 1.37 m (4 ft 6 in) below the waterline. The sloped portion increased in thickness to 100 mm (3.9 in), though toward the bow and stern, it was reduced to 40 mm (1.6 in). An anti-splinter deck was above the flat portion of the main deck with a cofferdam connecting it to the main deck. The forward conning tower was protected by 160 mm (6.3 in) on the sides; an armored supporting tube protected by 150 mm (5.9 in) of armor connected it to the interior of the ship. The ship's main guns were each fitted with gun shields that were 55 mm thick. ## Service history Guichen was built at the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire shipyard in Saint-Nazaire; the order was placed on 9 October 1895 and her keel was laid down there in late May 1896. The ship was launched on 26 October 1897, and she was commissioned for sea trials on 10 October 1898. On 4 December, she left Saint-Nazaire for Toulon, where she was to conduct her trials; she arrived there five days later, and began her evaluations in January 1899. Troubles during her sea trials necessitated alterations to the ship, which delayed her joining the fleet. After tests in June 1899 where she failed to meet her design speed, the decision was made to replace her screws, along with other corrections. She completed full-power trials in November, where she made a top speed of 23.54 knots (43.60 km/h; 27.09 mph). Though she was still not in full commission in 1899, Guichen was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron, France's primary battle fleet. At that time, the unit consisted of six pre-dreadnought battleships, three armored cruisers, seven other protected cruisers, and several smaller vessels. Further evaluations were carried out through early 1900, including a test on 10 February to determine the speed developed using only the outboard propellers. Finally, on 9 March, she was placed in full commission. On 17 April, Guichen was transferred to the Northern Squadron, based in the English Channel, though she remained there only briefly. On 23 June, she was ordered to East Asia in response to the Boxer Uprising in Qing China. By early 1901, eight other cruisers were assigned to the station. Fighting continued in Zhili province into February. With the fighting in China having been suppressed by late in the year, Guichen returned to France, arriving on 17 October, having traveled in company with the armored cruiser Amiral Charner. In 1902, Guichen took part in a visit of President Émile Loubet in Petersburg in Russia (along with Montcalm and smaller ships), and in 1903 she carried President Loubet to Dover. She returned to service with the Northern Squadron in 1903, which was kept in commission for six months of the year. She remained in the unit in 1904, but later that year, she was decommissioned so her crew could be used to commission the new armored cruiser Amiral Aube. The ship returned to service for another tour in East Asia in 1905; during this period, her crew observed the Russian Second Pacific Squadron pass through Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina in May on its way to the Battle of Tsushima of the Russo-Japanese War. By 1906, Guichen had become the flagship of the Naval Division of the Far East and Western Pacific. She lost her center mast, broken on 25 June, during coaling in Chefoo. She served as the flagship until 15 August, when D'Entrecasteaux arrived to relieve her. Guichen returned to France later that year. By 1911, Guichen had been assigned to the Reserve Division of the Northern Squadron, along with the armored cruisers Dupetit-Thouars, Gueydon, Montcalm, Jeanne d'Arc, and Kléber. The unit was based in Brest. Guichen served as a training ship for sail makers and carpenters at Brest in 1912 and 1913. ### World War I After the start of World War I in August 1914, Guichen was assigned to the 2nd Light Squadron, which at that time consisted of the armored cruisers Marseillaise, Amiral Aube, Jeanne d'Arc, Gloire,Gueydon, and Dupetit-Thouars. The unit was based in Brest, and was strengthened by the addition of several other cruisers over the following days, including the armored cruisers Kléber and Desaix, the protected cruisers Châteaurenault, D'Estrées, Friant, and Lavoisier, and several auxiliary cruisers. The ships then conducted a series of patrols in the English Channel in conjunction with a force of four British cruisers. The French began withdrawing cruisers from the Channel over the following year, particularly after the British erected the Dover Barrage, a barrier of naval mines and nets patrolled by destroyers. Guichen was among the vessels transferred to the Mediterranean in May 1915. She initially joined the main fleet, based at Malta; toward the end of the month, Italy entered the war on the side of France and the Triple Entente. The Italian fleet took over responsibility for blockading the Austro-Hungarian Navy in the Aegean Sea and the French fleet was then charged with patrolling the area between Malta and Bizerte in French Tunisia. Guichen and the armored cruiser Amiral Charner were sent to join the 1st Light Division to patrol the area between Sardinia and Capo Colonna; the unit at that time consisted of the armored cruisers Waldeck-Rousseau, Ernest Renan, and Edgar Quinet. In late July, the ships were transferred to Algiers in French Algeria. She was then transferred to the 3rd Squadron in the eastern Mediterranean and took part in a blockade of the Syrian coast, then part of the Ottoman Empire. During these patrols, she cruised with Desaix and the seaplane carrier Foudre on the northernmost section of the blockade in the vicinity of Latakia. The ships had little success, as most Ottoman shipping in the region consisted of small sailing vessels. The squadron's base at Port Said on the Suez Canal was deemed to be too far for Guichen, Desaix, and Foudre, so the French occupied the small island of Arwad to secure a closer anchorage. On 12 and 13 September, Guichen participated in the evacuation of some 4,000 Armenians from the city of Antioch, along with Amiral Charner, Desaix, D'Estrées, Foudre, and the British seaplane carrier HMS Anne. Guichen under Commander Jean-Joseph Brisson was the first vessel to observe distress signals that had been sent by the Armenians, who had been pursued by Ottoman forces during the Armenian genocide and besieged on Musa Dagh mountain. The French and British ships transported the evacuees to Port Said. Guichen herself transported almost half the overall number: 1,941 or 1,952 refugees. In late 1915, the 3rd Squadron was reorganized and new ships replaced Guichen. In April 1916, Guichen and Desaix were sent to Dakar in French Senegal to replace the 3rd Light Division. Guichen remained on the station only briefly, as a reorganization of the fleet's cruisers saw her replaced by the armored cruisers Dupleix and Kléber by July. In August, Guichen was outfitted at Brest for use as a troop transport, the primary alterations being the installation of additional cooking spaces and the fitting of more lifeboats. The following month, she began carrying troops around the Mediterranean, including Russian and Serbian soldiers to Salonika, Greece. She also brought troops to Itea and Corfu in Greece, among other locations. These duties continued through the end of the war. ### Postwar Following the war, she continued her troop transport duties, but by 1919, the conditions aboard the ship had become serious. In June, Guichen had withdrawn to the Gulf of Patras in western Greece, where her crew mutinied over the seemingly endless monotony and the poor conditions aboard the ship; Charles Tillon, who later led the Communist Party of France, played a significant role in the mutiny. Unrest also broke out among numerous French vessels, including in home ports, the North Sea, and elsewhere, owing to war weariness, a desire to return home, dissatisfaction with inequality aboard the ships, and anger with the fleet's anti-communist operations. The French authorities resorted to sending a battalion of Senegalese Tirailleurs to board Guichen and restore order. The ship thereafter returned to Brest, where she was laid up for boiler repairs, but by November 1920, she had been allocated to the reserve fleet in Landévennec. Guichen was decommissioned in March 1921 and condemned for disposal on 12 November. She was struck from the naval register on the 29th before being sold on 11 March 1922 at Brest.
728,857	28th Street station (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)	1,172,887,000	New York City Subway station in Manhattan	[ "1904 establishments in New York City", "IRT Lexington Avenue Line stations", "New York City Subway stations in Manhattan", "Park Avenue", "Railway and subway stations on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1904", "Rose Hill, Manhattan" ]	The 28th Street station is a local station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located under Park Avenue South at 28th Street in the Rose Hill neighborhood of Manhattan, it is served by trains at all times, \<6\> trains during weekdays in the peak direction, and trains during late night hours. The 28th Street station was constructed for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) as part of the city's first subway line, which was approved in 1900. Construction of the line segment that includes the 28th Street station started on September 12 of the same year. The station opened on October 27, 1904, as one of the original 28 stations of the New York City Subway. The station's platforms were lengthened in the late 1940s. The 28th Street station contains two side platforms and four tracks; express trains use the inner two tracks to bypass the station. The station was built with tile and mosaic decorations, which are continued along the platform extensions. The platforms contain exits to 28th Street and Park Avenue, as well as to the New York Life Building. The platforms are not connected to each other within fare control. The station is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. ## History ### Construction and opening Planning for a subway line in New York City dates to 1864. However, development of what would become the city's first subway line did not start until 1894, when the New York State Legislature passed the Rapid Transit Act. The subway plans were drawn up by a team of engineers led by William Barclay Parsons, the Rapid Transit Commission's chief engineer. It called for a subway line from New York City Hall in lower Manhattan to the Upper West Side, where two branches would lead north into the Bronx. A plan was formally adopted in 1897, and all legal conflicts concerning the route alignment were resolved near the end of 1899. The Rapid Transit Construction Company, organized by John B. McDonald and funded by August Belmont Jr., signed the initial Contract 1 with the Rapid Transit Commission in February 1900, in which it would construct the subway and maintain a 50-year operating lease from the opening of the line. In 1901, the firm of Heins & LaFarge was hired to design the underground stations. Belmont incorporated the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) in April 1902 to operate the subway. The 28th Street station was constructed as part of the route segment from Great Jones Street to 41st Street. Construction on this section of the line began on September 12, 1900. The section from Great Jones Street to a point 100 feet (30 m) north of 33rd Street was awarded to Holbrook, Cabot & Daly Contracting Company, while the remaining section to 41st Street was done by Ira A. Shaker. By late 1903, the subway was nearly complete, but the IRT Powerhouse and the system's electrical substations were still under construction, delaying the system's opening. That December, workers installed the station's eight entrance and exit kiosks. The 28th Street station opened on October 27, 1904, as one of the original 28 stations of the New York City Subway from City Hall to 145th Street on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. ### Service changes and station renovations #### 20th century After the first subway line was completed in 1908, the station was served by local trains along both the West Side (now the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line to Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street) and East Side (now the Lenox Avenue Line). West Side local trains had their southern terminus at City Hall during rush hours and South Ferry at other times, and had their northern terminus at 242nd Street. East Side local trains ran from City Hall to Lenox Avenue (145th Street). To address overcrowding, in 1909, the New York Public Service Commission proposed lengthening the platforms at stations along the original IRT subway. As part of a modification to the IRT's construction contracts made on January 18, 1910, the company was to lengthen station platforms to accommodate ten-car express and six-car local trains. In addition to \$1.5 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) spent on platform lengthening, \$500,000 (equivalent to \$ million in ) was spent on building additional entrances and exits. It was anticipated that these improvements would increase capacity by 25 percent. Platforms at local stations, such as the 28th Street station, were lengthened by between 20 and 30 feet (6.1 and 9.1 m). Both platforms were extended to the north and south. Six-car local trains began operating in October 1910. The Lexington Avenue Line opened north of Grand Central–42nd Street in 1918, and the original line was divided into an "H"-shaped system. All local trains were sent via the Lexington Avenue Line, running along the Pelham Line in the Bronx. In December 1922, the Transit Commission approved a \$3 million project to lengthen platforms at 14 local stations along the original IRT line, including 28th Street and seven other stations on the Lexington Avenue Line. Platform lengths at these stations would be increased from 225 to 436 feet (69 to 133 m). The commission postponed the platform-lengthening project in September 1923, at which point the cost had risen to \$5.6 million. On August 6, 1927, bombs exploded at the 28th Street station and at the 28th Street station on the Broadway Line. Numerous passengers were injured, but there were no casualties, although investigators initially believed one person may have been killed. The perpetrator of the bombings is unknown; they were initially blamed on Galleanists (as Sacco and Vanzetti had been denied appeal three days prior), though police later believed they were unrelated. With the completion of the New York Life Building between 26th and 27th Streets in 1928, a new entrance opened from the building's basement to the southbound platform. The city government took over the IRT's operations on June 12, 1940. In January 1947, the New York City Board of Transportation awarded a \$4.003 million contract for the lengthening of platforms at the 23rd Street, 28th Street, and 33rd Street stations. The preexisting passageway to the New York Life Building was converted to an extension of the southbound platform. The New York Life Company and the city shared the cost of converting the passageway into a platform. The platform extensions at all three stations opened on April 13, 1948, after which they could accommodate ten-car trains. In 1987, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) allocated \$31 million to renovate 44 stations across the subway system, including the 28th Street station. The station's original tiles, which were peeling off, were entirely replaced. At the fare control area, glass block walls were installed above the turnstiles. New tiles were also installed on the floors and walls of the fare control areas. To deter fare evaders from sneaking through the emergency exit "slam gates" at each fare-control area, electronically activated gates were installed beside the existing turnstiles. The staircases to street level were rebuilt as well. The work was completed by early 1989, having been delayed by nine months because of setbacks in the delivery of new light fixtures. #### 21st century The 28th Street station has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 2005. During the mid-2010s, a staircase and elevator from street level to the southbound platform was added with the construction of 400 Park Avenue South, a residential tower at the southwestern corner of Park Avenue South and 28th Street. The tower was completed in 2015. Under the 2015–2019 MTA Capital Plan, the station underwent a complete overhaul as part of the Enhanced Station Initiative, and was entirely closed for several months. Updates included cellular service, Wi-Fi, USB charging stations, interactive service advisories and maps. In January 2018, the NYCT and Bus Committee recommended that Judlau Contracting should receive the \$125 million contract for the renovations of 57th and 23rd Streets on the IND Sixth Avenue Line, 28th Street on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, and 34th Street–Penn Station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line and IND Eighth Avenue Line. However, the MTA Board temporarily deferred the vote for these packages after city representatives refused to vote to award the contracts. The contract was put back for a vote in February, where it was ultimately approved. The station was closed for renovations on July 16, 2018, and reopened to the public January 14, 2019, delayed from December 2018. ## Station layout Like other local stations, 28th Street has four tracks and two side platforms. The 6 stops here at all times, rush-hour and midday \<6\> trains stop here in the peak direction, and the 4 stops here during late nights. The two express tracks are used by the 4 and 5 trains during daytime hours. The station is between 33rd Street to the north and 23rd Street to the south. The platforms were originally 200 feet (61 m) long, like at other local stations on the original IRT, but were later extended to 520 feet (160 m). The platform extensions are at both ends of the original platforms. The 28th Street station is partially wheelchair-accessible, with one elevator connecting the street and the southbound platform only. The express tracks stay level, while the local tracks slowly incline into the station to allow for the easier deceleration of local trains. As such, the express tracks are at a slightly lower elevation than the local tracks. ### Design As with other stations built as part of the original IRT, the station was constructed using a cut-and-cover method. The tunnel is covered by a "U"-shaped trough that contains utility pipes and wires. The bottom of this trough contains a foundation of concrete no less than 4 inches (100 mm) thick. Each platform consists of 3-inch-thick (7.6 cm) concrete slabs, beneath which are drainage basins. The original platforms contain I-beam columns spaced every 15 feet (4.6 m), while the platform extensions contain columns with white glazed tiles. Additional columns between the tracks, spaced every 5 feet (1.5 m), support the jack-arched concrete station roofs. There is a 1-inch (25 mm) gap between the trough wall and the platform walls, which are made of 4-inch (100 mm)-thick brick covered over by a tiled finish. The fare control is at platform level and there are no open crossunders or crossovers. There is a closed crossunder about halfway between each platform, which was constructed during the 1940s and is sealed. The walls along the platforms near the fare control areas consist of a brick wainscoting on the lowest part of the wall, with bronze air vents along the wainscoting, and white glass tiles above. The platform walls are divided at 15-foot (4.6 m) intervals by buff mosaic tile pilasters, or vertical bands. Atop the pilasters are pairs of cruciform faience plaques with the words 28 twenty-eighth street, surrounded by foliate designs and rosettes. The plaque pairings are set within a frame that contains a ventilation opening between each plaque of the pair. A cornice with blue egg-and-dart patterns runs atop these walls. The platform extensions are decorated with blue and buff tile bands, and contain blue mosaic tile plaques with the number "28" atop the pilasters. The far southern end of the southbound platform has square ceramic tiles topped by marble belt courses. The mosaic tiles at all original IRT stations were manufactured by the American Encaustic Tile Company, which subcontracted the installations at each station. The decorative work was performed by faience contractor Grueby Faience Company. The ceilings of the fare control areas once contained plaster molding, although this has been removed. The fare control areas at 28th Street contain various maintenance rooms and were retiled with large rectangular ceramic blocks in 1989. As of the 2019 renovation, the fare control areas have modern black finishes. Two works of art have been installed in this station. The first was a glass block wall artwork at the main fare control by Gerald Marks, entitled Seven Waves 4 Twenty-Eight. It was installed during station renovations in 1996. Seven Waves 4 Twenty-Eight was replaced by Roaming Underfoot, a glass mosaic mural on the platform walls by Nancy Blum. Roaming Underfoot showcases flora in the Madison Square Park Conservancy's Perennial Collection and was installed during the 2018 renovation. ### Exits Each platform has exits to 28th Street; the northbound platform's exits are on the eastern side of Park Avenue South while the southbound platform's exits are on the western side. The only control area for the northbound platform is at the northern end of the station, at 28th Street and Park Avenue South, where four stairs lead to street level, two each to the northeastern and southeastern corners. These stairs contain simple, modern steel railings like those seen at most New York City Subway stations. These stairs also contain next-train countdown clocks and neighborhood wayfinding maps at the exterior of each entrance, which were installed in the 2019 renovation. The main fare control area for the southbound platform is also at the northern end of the station. A stair leads up to 45 East 28th Street on the north side of that street, and a stair and elevator lead up to 50 East 28th Street directly across to the south. The latter entrance replaced two staircases right outside the building, at the southwestern corner of 28th Street and Park Avenue South. A second fare control area at the southern end of the southbound platform leads to a privately operated passageway in the basement of the New York Life Building, between 26th and 27th Streets. It is only open from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. on weekdays. The New York Life Building entrance has an Art Deco inspired interborough subway sign hanging from the facade of that building.
4,529,062	Time Gal	1,169,495,352	1992 interactive movie video game	[ "1985 video games", "Android (operating system) games", "Arcade video games", "Full motion video based games", "IOS games", "Interactive movie video games", "LaserDisc video games", "MSX games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "PlayStation (console) games", "Science fantasy video games", "Sega CD games", "Sega Saturn games", "Sharp X1 games", "Taito arcade games", "Taito games", "Telenet Japan games", "Toei Animation video game projects", "Video games about dinosaurs", "Video games about time travel", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games featuring female protagonists" ]	is an interactive movie video game developed and published by Taito and Toei Company, and originally released as a laserdisc game in Japan for the arcades in 1985. It is an action game which uses full motion video (FMV) to display the on-screen action. The player must correctly choose the on-screen character's actions to progress the story. The pre-recorded animation for the game was produced by Toei Animation. The game is set in a fictional future where time travel is possible. The protagonist, Reika, travels to different time periods in search of a criminal, Luda, from her time. After successfully tracking down Luda, Reika prevents his plans to alter the past. Time Gal was inspired by the success of earlier laserdisc video games that used pre-recorded animation, including Dragon's Lair (1983) and the previous Taito/Toei collaboration Ninja Hayate (1984), while Reika's character design bears similarities to the anime characters Lum (from Urusei Yatsura) and Yuri (from Dirty Pair). The game was later ported to the Sega CD for a worldwide release, and also to the LaserActive in Japan. The Sega CD version received a generally favorable reception from critics. ## Gameplay Time Gal is an interactive movie game that uses pre-recorded animation rather than sprites to display the on-screen action. Gameplay is divided into levels, referred to as time periods. The game begins in 3001 AD with the theft of a time travel device. The thief, Luda, steals the device to take over the world by changing history. Reika, the protagonist also known as Time Gal, uses her own time travel device to pursue him; she travels to different time periods, such as 70,000,000 BC, 44 BC, 1588 AD, and 2010 AD, in search of Luda. Each time period is a scenario that presents a series of threats that must be avoided or confronted. Successfully navigating the sequences allows the player to progress to another period. The player uses a joystick and button to input commands, though home versions use a game controller with a directional pad. As the game progresses, visual cues—highlighted portions of the background or foreground—will appear on the screen to help survive the dangers that occur throughout the stage; more difficult settings omit the visual cues. Depending on the location of the cue, the player will input one of four directions (up, down, left and right) or an attack (shoot the target with a laser gun). Inputting the correct command will either avoid or neutralize the threats and progress the game, while incorrect choices result in the character's death. Reika dying too many times results in a game over. Specific moments in the game involve Reika stopping time. During these moments, players are presented with a list of three options and have seven seconds to choose the one which will save the character. ## Development The game uses LaserDisc technology to stream pre-recorded animation, which was produced by Japanese studio Toei Animation. The game features raster graphics on a CRT monitor and amplified monaural sound. Mike Toole and Jeff Kapalka noted similarities between Reika's visual character design and Lum from Urusei Yatsura as well as Yuri from Dirty Pair; they speculated that the anime characters provided inspiration for Reika. Several factors prevented an overseas release: a decline in the popularity of laserdisc arcade games in the mid-80s, the expensive price of laserdisc technology, and difficulty to translate. In the original Japanese release, Reika is voiced by Yuriko Yamamoto. ## Release Since its original release to the arcades in Japan in 1985, Time Gal has been ported to different home formats. It was first released exclusively in Japan by Nippon Victor on the Video High Density format. The release of Sega CD console in 1991 spawned numerous games that took advantage of the CD technology to introduce interactive FMVs. Among the new titles, Time Gal was one of several older laserdisc-based games that were ported to the system. Renovation Products acquired the rights to publish Time Gal on the Sega CD, with Wolf Team handling development. They released it, along with similar games, as part of their "Action-Reaction" series. It was first released in Japan in November 1992, and in North America and Europe the next year. A Macintosh version was also released in Japan in 1994. American press coverage of the Japanese release prompted video game enthusiasts to contact Renovations about a Western release. The number of requests persuaded Renovation's president, Hide Irie, to announce a release in the USA. In addition to being dubbed in English, a few death scenes in the US version were censored. The Sega CD version uses a smaller color palette than the original, includes a video gallery that requires passwords to view each level's animation sequences, and features new opening and ending themes by Shinji Tamura and Motoi Sakuraba, respectively. Time Gal was ported to the PlayStation in 1996 as a compilation with Ninja Hayate, another laserdisc arcade game developed by Taito. This release lacks the Sega CD version's additional content but features a more accurate reproduction of the animation. The compilation was also released on the Sega Saturn the following year. The game can also be played on the Pioneer LaserActive via the Sega Mega-LD module. The LaserActive version is the rarest home release of Time Gal, as well as one of the most expensive on the system among collectors. On April 1, 2017, Taito Classics announced that they would release several of their older games onto mobile devices, with Time Gal being its first release. The game was later released in Japan on April 5, 2017. A navigational function and a gallery of the game's original concept art are available for purchase as microtransactions. ## Reception GamePro magazine noted that "Japanese players ate it up" when it first released in Japanese arcades. However, GameSetWatch's Todd Ciolek believed it was released too late in the life of LaserDisc games, and that players "were getting tired" of the genre's gameplay. He further commented that, despite its gameplay, it was unique and charming. GamePro's reviewer referred to the arcade game as a "lost, laserdisc treasure", and was enthusiastic about its Sega CD release. He called the death sequences "hilarious" and felt they reduced the tediousness of dying. MEGA magazine rated the Sega CD version the number five CD game, commenting that though it lacked difficulty, it was a good showcase of the system. Prior to its Sega CD release, Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the use of CD technology and felt it would be followed by titles with similar gameplay. Critics praised Time Gal's visuals. GameFan magazine, in praising Wolf Team's port of the game, complimented the Sega CD version's graphics and short load times. GamePro said the animation is "great, with bright, vivid colors, and fast-paced, exciting movement" and praised the "funny gameplay" and "nonstop action". Chris Bieniek of VideoGames & Computer Entertainment criticized the story as "nonsensical" and said that while the unlockable video gallery is a nice feature, it effectively eliminates any replay value, which compounds the easiness of the game to give it very low longevity. He nonetheless recommended Time Gal, based chiefly on the gameplay: "Though you never really feel like you're in control of Time Gal's movements, the zany action has an undeniable appeal that takes up a lot of the slack." Shawn Sackenheim of AllGame complimented the animation, calling it "high quality", but criticized the Sega CD graphics, calling them "downgraded". He commented that, though Time Gal offered a good thrill, it lacked replay value. Ciolek echoed similar statements, saying it is more enjoyable to watch than to play. He further commented that the game is frustrating and rigid when compared to more contemporary standards. Electronic Gaming Monthly's group of reviewers praised the Sega CD version's graphics quality. Three of the four reviewers lauded the gameplay, specifically the challenge and format. The other reviewer stated he didn't care for this type of game, referring to the gameplay as "nothing more than memorizing". ## Legacy IGN's Levi Buchanan listed interactive movie games like Time Gal as one of the reasons behind the Sega CD's commercial failure, citing them as a waste of the system's capabilities. In describing the cinematic gameplay in the 2009 action game Ninja Blade, producer Masanori Takeuchi attributed the quick time event game mechanic featured in his title to laserdisc games like Dragon's Lair and Time Gal. Todd Ciolek referred to the protagonist as one of the first human heroines in the industry. He further added that Reika was an appealing lead character that Taito could have easily turned into a mascot and featured in other games and media. The character was later included in Alfa System's shooting game Castle of Shikigami III—Taito published the arcade version in Japan. In the game, Reika features attacks and personality similar to her original debut as well as an updated visual design. Reika's also appeared in the 2011 Elevator Action remake Elevator Action Deluxe as one part of downloadable content. In July 2023, a sequel titled Time Gal Re:Birth was revealed to be included as a bonus downloadable content pack for the Taito LD Game Collection. It will follow a new character named Luna, who is sent on a mission to stop the villain Luda as well as Reika. The collection will also include an HD remaster of the original game as part of the base game.
25,486,761	1896 Michigan Wolverines football team	1,170,598,038	American college football season	[ "1896 Western Conference football season", "1896 in Detroit", "1896 in sports in Michigan", "Michigan Wolverines football seasons" ]	The 1896 Michigan Wolverines football team was an American football team that represented the University of Michigan in the 1896 Western Conference football season. In its first and only season under head coach William Ward, the team compiled a 9–1 record (2–1 against conference opponents), tied for second place in the Western Conference, and outscored opponents by a total of 262 to 11. The team started the season with nine consecutive wins in which the Wolverines shut out eight opponents and outscored their opponents by a total of 256 to 4. In the final game of the season, played on Thanksgiving Day at the Chicago Coliseum, the team lost a close game to Amos Alonzo Stagg's Chicago Maroons by a score of 7–6. The 1896 Chicago–Michigan rivalry game was the first college football game played indoors, and the last portion of the game was also played under electric lights. End Henry M. Senter was the team captain. Halfback Gustave Ferbert was the team's leading scorer with 56 points on six touchdowns (four points each) and 16 kicks for goal from touchdown (two points each). Tackle Frederick "Pa" Henninger led the team in touchdowns with nine. Tackle Frank Villa and halfback Hazen Pingree Jr. (whose father Hazen S. Pingree was elected Governor of Michigan during the football season) scored seven touchdowns each. ## Schedule ## Season summary ### Pre-season Before the 1896 football season took the field, two developments occurred. First, Michigan joined the Western Inter-collegiate Athletic Conference (later renamed the Big Ten Conference). The 1896 season was the first for Michigan in conference play. Michigan's three conference games in 1896 were against Purdue, Minnesota and Chicago. Second, William McCauley, who had led Michigan to a 17–2–1 record in two seasons as coach, resigned as Michigan's football coach. Princeton graduate, William Ward, was hired to replace McCauley. Before leaving Ann Arbor in November 1896, McCauley assisted Ward in coaching the 1896 team. Michigan conducted tryouts for the 1896 football team at Sand Beach. The Michiganensian for 1897 reported on the group appearing for try-outs as follows: "Never before had the Athletic field been so teeming with aspirants for foot-ball honors." ### Game 1: Michigan State Normal On October 3, 1896, Michigan defeated Michigan State Normal (later renamed Eastern Michigan University) by an 18–0 score at Regents Field in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Fletcher scored Michigan's first touchdown after 10 minutes. Hazen Pingree Jr. scored the second touchdown on an end run. William Caley kicked both goals from touchdown. Michigan led, 12–0, at halftime. In the second half, Michigan scored on a safety. Several minutes later, Henninger scored a touchdown on a three-yard run, but missed the kick for goal. ### Game 2: Grand Rapids On October 10, 1896, Michigan defeated a Grand Rapids team by a 44–0 at Regents Field in Ann Arbor. The Grand Rapids team was made up of high school men with the exception of McPhearson, who was the coach and played left end. The game was played in halves of 20 and 10 minutes. Frederick W. Henninger scored a touchdown after two minutes of play, but the kick for goal was missed. Three minutes later, Frank Villa scored Michigan's second touchdown, and the goal was again missed. At the 11-and-a-half minute mark, Villa scored Michigan's third touchdown, and William Caley kicked the goal. Hazen Pingree Jr. scored the fourth touchdown on a run around left end for more than 60 yards. Caley again kicked the goal, and Michigan led, 20-0, at halftime. In the second half, Michigan scored four touchdowns in 10 minutes. Michigan's second half touchdowns were scored by Henninger, Pingree, Palmer, and Thad Farnham. Charles Steele kicked all four goals from touchdown in the second half. ### Game 3: Physicians & Surgeons On Thursday, October 15, 1896, Michigan defeated the Chicago College of Physicians and Surgeons by a 28–0 score at Regents Field in Ann Arbor. The game was played in 15-minute halves. Villa scored Michigan's first touchdown on a 10-yard run, and Steele kicked the goal. Ferbert scored the second touchdown on a 20-yard run, Steele again kicked the goal, and Michigan led, 12-0, at halftime. Pingree scored Michigan's third touchdown six minutes into the second half. Pingree scored the fourth touchdown, and Hogg's kick for goal failed. Villa scored Michigan's fifth and final touchdown, and Hogg kicked the goal. ### Game 4: Lake Forest On October 17, 1896, Michigan defeated the team from Lake Forest College by a 66–0 at Regents Field in Ann Arbor. Michigan scored 13 touchdowns in the game: three by Gustave Ferbert, three by Edwin H. Gordon, three by Frederick W. Henninger, two by Frank Villa, and one each by Charles Juttner and Norwood Ayres. Ferbert kicked seven goals from touchdown. The game was played in halves of 25 and 15 minutes. Michigan scored 40 points in the 15-minute second half. ### Game 5: at Purdue On October 24, 1896, Michigan defeated Purdue by a 16–0 score before a crowd of 2,000 at Stuart Field in West Lafayette, Indiana. Villa scored Michigan's first touchdown, and Ferbert kicked the goal to give Michigan a 6-0 lead at halftime. In the second half, Hogg scored a touchdown, but the kick for goal missed, and Michigan led, 10-0. Late in the game, Caley scored a third touchdown for Michigan, and Ferbert kicked the goal to extend Michigan's lead to 16-0. When the Michigan football team arrived at the Ann Arbor railway station on Sunday afternoon following the Purdue game, the players were cheered by a large crowd. The team was also greeted with red fire by Sid Millard. ### Game 6: vs. Lehigh On October 31, 1896, Michigan defeated Lehigh by a 40–0 score. The game, played in 30-minute halves, was watched by a crowd of between 2,000 and 3,000 spectators at the Detroit Athletic Club's field in Detroit. Michigan scored seven touchdowns: four by James Hogg, two by Gustave Ferbert, and one by Frederick W. Henninger. Ferbert also kicked five goals from touchdown. Michigan also scored on a safety. During the 60 minutes of play, the ball was in Lehigh's possession "not more than ten minutes," and most of that was in the first half. One newspaper account stated that "the Eastern boys were outclassed from start to finish." The same report noted: "The team play of the University of Michigan was excellent and the interference as good as has ever been seen in this city. No other team defeated Lehigh so soundly. National champion Princeton scored only 16 points against Lehigh; Penn was held to 34 points; and Navy scored only 24. Because Lehigh played the top teams in the east, Michigan's large margin of victory was seen as important in measuring Michigan's standing. The 1897 Michiganensian noted: "This was the only contest with an eastern team and furnished some basis for comparison. . . . Comparison with the eastern leaders was necessarily indirect, but it can conservatively be said that at this time Michigan was playing in much the same form as the great eastern quartette." ### Game 7: at Minnesota On November 7, 1896, Michigan won by a 6–4 score over previously undefeated Minnesota. The game was played in 35-minute halves before 5,000 spectators at old Athletic Park in Minneapolis. Right end Loomis Hutchinson of Michigan scored in the first half, but he was ruled offside and the touchdown was disallowed. After a scoreless first half, Michigan fullback Ignatius M. Duffy was pushed over for a touchdown in the second half, and Gustave Ferbert kicked the goal from touchdown. Michigan fans in the bleachers celebrated Duffy's touchdown with cowbells. Shortly thereafter, Minnesota scored a touchdown, but the score came at the far corner of the field where a straight kick for the goal after touchdown was impossible. Accordingly, Minnesota attempted a double kick, kicking the ball first to the fullback Loomis. Loomis caught the ball so close to the goal posts that his kick for goal "was easily stopped by Michigan players." ### Game 8: Oberlin On November 14, 1896, Michigan defeated by a 10–0 score at Regents Field in Ann Arbor. Oberlin was offside on the kickoff, giving Michigan the ball at midfield. Fullback Ignatius M. Duffy scored Michigan's first touchdown, and right halfback William Caley kicked the goal to give Michigan a 6-0 lead. Later in the first half, right tackle Frederick W. Henninger was pushed over the goal line for Michigan's second touchdown, and Caley missed the kick for goal. Neither team scored in the second half. The World of New York reported that the game was seen by 1,000 persons and added: "Michigan put a substitute team against Oberlin to-day and won by making two touchdowns in the first half. Oberlin forced the fighting towards the end of the game." ### Game 9: Wittenberg On November 21, 1896, Michigan played the team from , prevailing by a 28–0 score. The game was played on a mud-covered Regents Field in Ann Arbor. Michigan scored six touchdowns: three by right halfback William Caley, two by left halfback Hazen Pingree Jr., and one by right end George Greenleaf. Caley and left tackle Frank Villa each kicked one goal from touchdown. The game was played in halves of 20 and 15 minutes. Through the first nine games, Michigan was undefeated and had scored 256 points, shut out eight opponents, and given up a total of four points. ### Game 10: at Chicago On Thanksgiving Day, November 26, 1896, Michigan lost, 7–6, to Chicago before a crowd of between 15,000 and 20,000 persons at the Chicago Coliseum in Chicago. If Michigan had won, it would have been the Western Conference champion. The game featured "few trick plays," as both teams relied on "straight, hard football." Hazen Pingree, Jr. was the star of the game for Michigan, as one newspaper reported that Pingree's effort "in the first half was the 'whole thing,' the plucky little fellow seldom failing to make the required distance." Pingree was unable to play in the second half, and Gustave Ferbert took over in the second half and "was equally effective." Chicago's scoring came on a blocked punt resulting in a safety and a drop kicked field goal (worth five points under the rules at the time) by Clarence Herschberger from the 45–yard line. Michigan's sole touchdown came in the second half when Henninger was pushed across the goal line from the two-yard line, and Ferbert kicked the goal Michigan later drove the ball to Chicago's 15–yard line, but Michigan fumbled and Chicago recovered the ball. The Michiganensian described the defeat as follows: > "There had been every reason to expect a victory from Chicago. Michigan had played strong and consistent foot ball throughout her schedule – Chicago had been erratic and unsteady. But there is certainly no sport more full of surprises than foot-ball, and the Thanksgiving Day contest of '96 furnished as sensational a surprise in as exciting a contest as had ever come off on a western gridiron. There was one great difference in the character of the play of the two teams. Michigan was playing her stock game of football, hard and steady, the game she could have been depended on to play at any time. Chicago seemed to have been trained and nerved to this one game. There could have been little doubt what the result of a series of contests would have been. But this one game, Chicago won by good generalship, by the most advantageous use of her greatest resource – a magnificent player in a telling place. #### Indoor football The most unusual feature of the Michigan-Chicago game on Thanksgiving Day was that it was played indoors at the Chicago Coliseum and was "the first collegiate game of football played under a roof." Adding to the novelty, as daylight turned to darkness, the field inside the Coliseum was lit with electric lighting. According to a newspaper account, the field grew dark in the second half, and play was halted for ten minutes to discuss whether play should continue. Play was resumed, and the lights were finally turned on after Michigan scored a touchdown. The crowd was stated in varying press accounts to be either 15,000, or 20,000. Noting that the game was played in the same building "in which five months ago W. J. Bryan was nominated for the presidency," the press proclaimed the experiment in indoor football to be a success: > "One thing at least was settled by the game, and that is, that indoor football is literally and figuratively speaking a howling success. The men had no trouble in catching punts, and football was played on its merits, without the handicaps of a wet field or a strong wind. Toward the end of the second half it got very dark, and the spectators were treated to a novelty in the shape of football by electric light." Another newspaper described the novelty of indoor football as follows: > "Indoor football is an innovation, but it promises to become a permanency for late games. While the other fields about Chicago were sloppy and the players were floundering about in the seas of mud, the athletes in the Coliseum played on dry surface and secure from the elements. A two-inch layer of tan bark was placed over the hard earth, and there was no inconvenience from dust. None of the punts touched the beams overhead and spectators and players were captivated with the comfortable conditions under which the game was played. Darkness came on at 4:00 and the players were scarcely distinguishable for a time, but electric lights soon rendered each play distinct." ### Post-season William Ward did not return as Michigan's football coach in 1897. Ward was a Princeton alumnus who studied medicine at Michigan. He wrote: "There are many interesting things in coaching, but there are also some drawbacks and disagreeable features, so that I was glad to be through with it, and able to give myself wholly to the study of medicine." Ward became a surgeon and was a pioneer in the development of artificial vaginas. ## Personnel ### Varsity The following players were members of Michigan's 1896 varsity football team. - Norwood Ayers, substitute, Colorado Springs, Colorado - Fred L. Baker, guard, Hillsdale, Michigan - John W. F. Bennett, guard, Jackson, Michigan - William Caley, halfback, Boulder, Colorado (University of Colorado) - Bert Carr, guard, Cedar Springs, Michigan - William Cunningham, substitute, Grove City, Pennsylvania - Thomas Jesse Drumheller, quarterback, Walla Walla, Washington - Ignatius M. Duffy, fullback, Ann Arbor, Michigan - Thaddeus Loomis Farnham, end, Rosford, Ohio - Howard C. Felver, quarterback, Batavia, Illinois - Gustave Ferbert, halfback, Cleveland, Ohio - George Greenleaf, end, Brazil, Indiana - Frederick W. Henninger, tackle, Barberton, Ohio - James R. Hogg, fullback, Knoxville, Tennessee (St. Albans Military Academy) - Loomis Hutchinson, end, Ceresco, Michigan - Hazen Stuart Pingree, Jr., halfback, Detroit - J. De Forest Richards, quarterback - Henry M. Senter, end and captain, Houghton, Michigan - Frank Villa, tackle, Walla Walla, Washington - John Wombacher, center, Joliet, Illinois ### Scoring leaders ### Coaching staff - Coach: William Ward - Assistant coach: William McCauley - Trainer: James Robinson, hired in 1896 from his position with the Manhattan Athletic Club - Manager: Ward W. Hughes, Charles O. Cook
47,190,141	Murder of Bella Bond	1,171,963,214	Homicide of American child	[ "2010s missing person cases", "2015 in Boston", "2015 murders in the United States", "Child abuse resulting in death", "Deaths by person in Massachusetts", "Dorchester, Boston", "Female murder victims", "Forensic palynology", "Incidents of violence against girls", "Missing person cases in Massachusetts" ]	Bella Neveah Amoroso Bond (August 6, 2012 – May or June 2015), previously known as the Deer Island Jane Doe and "Baby Doe", was an American child whose body was found in a plastic bag on the shore of Deer Island in Boston, Massachusetts, on June 25, 2015. Authorities pursued numerous leads of investigation into discovering the child's identity until their efforts proved successful in September 2015. This publicity generated many tips with possible leads, one of which led to the girl's identity. Bella Bond was identified on September 18, 2015. The National Center for Missing & Exploited Children facially reconstructed the child's face to provide the public with an estimation of the victim's appearance during life. They aimed to generate tips to a potential identity and to locate the individual or individuals responsible for the disposal of her body. After the reconstruction was released and news coverage began nationwide, a large amount of public attention emerged; an estimated 56 million people viewed reports on the case. Half of these occurred within the first week after the body was found. Bond's mother, Rachelle Bond, and her boyfriend, Michael McCarthy, were arrested, and authorities confirmed that Bella had been murdered, despite the fact that an initial autopsy performed on the body did not uncover the exact cause of death. Rachelle Bond was charged with being an "accessory after the fact" in regards to her daughter's murder; she later pleaded guilty as the result of a plea deal. McCarthy was charged with murder in the case and was later convicted of murder in the second degree. On June 28, 2017, he was sentenced to life imprisonment with future parole. ## Discovery The body of Bella Bond was found inside a plastic garbage bag on the shoreline of Deer Island near Boston, Massachusetts. A woman walking her dog discovered Bond's remains on the afternoon of June 25, 2015, when the dog stopped at the plastic bag. After the body was found, the public placed flowers near the scene. She wore only a pair of white leggings designed with a black polka-dot pattern. A zebra-print blanket was also inside the bag. Initially, police were unsure if additional bodies would be at the scene, so they attempted unsuccessfully to use cadaver dogs to locate any other possible remains. Authorities originally estimated that the girl had died within days of her discovery. Later developments in the case have suggested that Bella's body had been "hidden in a fridge" for as long as one month before it was deposited on Deer Island. Despite the fact that she appeared to have been deceased only a short time, she had already begun to decompose and become bloated, which made it impossible to identify her visually. Decomposition had also made it impossible to collect fingerprints, due to exposure to the water. Investigators were able to conclude that she was a young child, but were initially unsure of her race and ethnicity. Just how the remains had settled at the location was unknown; the body might either have been placed at the beach or may have drifted in the water from another location, some presuming from as far away as Canada. The United States Coast Guard entered the investigation and analyzed the currents of the water in the area to estimate where the bag containing the remains could have originated. Dive teams were also used around the time the body was discovered. As of mid-July and August, authorities believed the victim had been placed at the scene, rather than washing onto Deer Island from another location, because the body was not in an advanced enough stage of decomposition. The beach is near a wastewater treatment plant. One of the investigators thought a possibility existed that the disposal had been performed by an employee of the nearby water-treatment plant. Since the area has been regarded as a "busy" area for both workers and the public, the person who placed the bag at the scene possibly did so at night, to avoid being seen. ## Examination An autopsy was conducted on July 3, but did not conclude what had caused the girl's death. While authorities suspected foul play as a factor in the case, no signs of obvious injury had been found on the remains. Tests were later conducted to find any toxins, drugs, or alcohol present in the body as a possible explanation for the death. Examiners were unable to find any trace of cleaners such as bleach in the remains, but continued with more testing in hopes of finding another toxin as a possible cause of death. After the identification of the victim, a conclusive cause of death had yet to be announced, despite all forms of "natural death [having] been excluded". Suffocation had not been ruled out as the cause. The clothing found on the toddler, believed to be "size 4T" was determined to have been manufactured by the Circo company and was likely sold at a Target store. The blanket was possibly made by the Cannon Mills company and sold at K-Mart. A hair band made from elastic material was also found. The child was eventually determined to be between the ages of three and five and appeared to be white, with possible Hispanic ancestry. Her hair was described as being "brown, wavy and fourteen inches in length". Presumably, the child's hair was left untrimmed for about two years, judging by its length. She was also estimated to be between three feet, one and three feet, six inches tall and weighed around 30 pounds. No distinct birthmarks or scars were on the body. The girl was later discovered to have had pierced ears, so the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children released an updated image of the child wearing earrings. The girl appeared to have been "well-cared for" during her life; no signs of malnutrition or abuse were noted, and investigators stated the clothing also reinforced the theory. ## Investigation The National Center for Missing and Exploited Children digitally reconstructed the face of the child after preceding attempts to identify the body failed. The reconstruction was created in four hours using Adobe Photoshop with the influence of mortuary and "stock" photographs to give an estimation of the child's appearance while alive. The reconstruction, created by forensic artist Christi Andrews, was released on July 2, 2015. Because of the end result of the composite created with Adobe Photoshop, many viewers mistook it for an actual photograph. The organization also digitally enhanced images of the leggings and the blanket found with the remains and created a poster featuring them on their website. Flyers containing images of the Jane Doe and her belongings were eventually dispersed in hopes of obtaining more information. After the child's identification, some individuals who were familiar with the Bonds claimed they did not see a resemblance between the composite and Bella. The child was entered into the National Missing and Unidentified Persons System on July 4, 2015, including details of the discovery of the subject and physical estimations. Many missing persons were excluded as possible identities; authorities checked Shoshana Black, Paula Ramerez-Figuroa, Ofir Ben–Haim, Cassidy Gibbs, and Ayla Reynolds. Other leads were pursued involving children who were reported missing, some of whom were foreign to the United States. Some of the potential matches were later located alive. The disappearance case of Sarah Hoggle had been analyzed to have a possible link to the case, yet investigators stated it was "unlikely" to have been related to this case. In all, over 200 missing people were ruled out from the case. A press conference displaying the reconstruction and the enhanced images of the clothing and blanket was later held at the location where the body was found. It was televised to ask the public for assistance identifying the victim and to request of those who may have known her, especially her parents, to identify the girl. During the press conference, officials urged viewers to be aware of children who may have disappeared or gone unaccounted for in the days leading up to the celebration of Independence Day. Despite their hopes, no one came forward to claim responsibility for the crime or to confirm who the victim was. Hundreds of tips were submitted over the phone and online and were investigated. When searching missing-persons databases produced few cases matching her profile, authorities began to believe that the child may never have been reported missing. They explored the guess that the family of the child could be unaware of her death. Another explanation for why no matches were achieved was that she could have belonged to an undocumented family. Police were focused on investigating in the local community, yet they believed the girl possibly was not from the area and continued to search through various cases of missing children. Among other theories about the case, early speculation was that the girl could have been murdered by a member of her family. A criminologist stated that her having been "murdered by a stranger" did not seem likely, according to statistics of similar cases. The fact that no tips from relatives with information about the child had been reported supported the idea that family members were involved with the disposal of the body, and possibly with her death. Investigators feared for other children who may have been in the care of those who disposed of the body, as they could be in danger. A different theory held that the child's family members might also be deceased, having faced a similar demise. ### Forensic testing Forensics teams analyzed the DNA of Deer Island Jane to exclude some missing persons and in hopes of matching it to possible relatives of the girl whose DNA was on record. It was obtained through samples of hair and a tooth. The DNA did not match the profiles stored in databases of known missing persons. Officials stated that they also sent samples to the University of North Texas to create a more specific profile, a time-consuming process. Mitochondrial DNA from the bones of the child was later developed to compare to possible relatives. Besides DNA testing, authorities conducted efforts into forensic palynology as well as isotope examination of water found at the scene. Results of the testing indicated that the child had spent time in the local, urban area, most likely in Boston, as traces of both pine and soot were found throughout the tests. Eventually, she was also determined to have possibly spent time in any of the six New England states and possibly others. The hair and enamel tests also indicated she could have "moved across the country." ## Public interaction Because the reconstruction and the story had been so widely publicized, an unexpectedly large amount of public interest in the case developed internationally. Many people have since shared and viewed reports detailing the case on social networks, such as Twitter and Facebook. Several individuals offered to pay for the child's funeral and burial if she could not be identified. One funeral home stated that it would donate the means to bury the child under a headstone, so she would not be buried in a pauper's grave. Local businesses in the area began placing posters of the child in their buildings, hoping to create awareness for the case and to generate potential leads. The Massachusetts Water Resources Authority reported plans to donate a bench in memory of the girl. The digital reconstruction had been viewed an estimated 50 million times by the public, which officials have stated was significantly efficient in assisting with the case. On July 10, CNN News host Anderson Cooper interviewed the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children's co-founder and former host of America's Most Wanted, John Walsh about the case. Walsh stated, "absolutely someone knows" the identity of the Jane Doe and that in similar cases, often, the "live-in boyfriend" or the mother of the child had abused or neglected one of several children in a family, citing that the victim could have been "accidentally killed or starved to death." When explaining a probable reason why the girl had remained unidentified, Walsh stated, "people do not want to talk to cops," possibly due to the fear of authorities investigating their own lives - for instance, the family of Anjelica Castillo, who were undocumented immigrants and never reported the victim as missing due to fear of deportation. Walsh encouraged viewers to contact him, instead, giving the number for the show he hosts, The Hunt With John Walsh and the URL for his profile on the CNN website. He confirmed that those submitting tips could remain anonymous. ### Tips Many leads were followed that appeared to match the circumstances of the case. A woman who had been seen throwing a garbage bag over a bridge was later questioned by police, but the contents of the bag were found to be simply spoiled fruit. Other individuals stated they had seen toddlers resembling the Jane Doe, one at a store and another at a playground, with a woman clothed in a burqa. Investigators were unable to find any trace of the girl at the store through information gathered by security cameras, and the subject at the playground has yet to be located. A man stated he believed he had seen the toddler in November 2014 at a laundromat with a "heavyset" and "dirty blond" woman pushing the child in a stroller. The local police department reported that they had received many tips suggesting possible identities for the child, those of missing girls throughout the country. Many readers online told police that the girl could be Aliayah Lunsford of West Virginia, who had disappeared on September 24, 2011. Lunsford would have been six at the time of the discovery and did bear a resemblance to the reconstruction of the Jane Doe, but she was later excluded from the case. The Massachusetts State Police later released statements on their Facebook pages regarding the exclusions of Lunsford, as well as Ayla Reynolds. Police were made aware of a possible link between the Jane Doe and Katherine Phillips, nicknamed "Baby Kate", who went missing in 2011. Phillips' body has never been recovered, despite the fact that her father has since been charged with her murder and convicted of kidnapping. Authorities expressed their doubts that the body was Katherine Phillips, but said they would investigate the lead. DNA between the pair was eventually compared. Phillips was later ruled out as "Baby Doe" and an announcement to the public was released on July 10. Investigators set up a 24-hour hotline for those with information on the case to call. A text hotline was also created. Many submitted information about potential matches, later revealed to be missing children in over half of the United States, as well as in European and South and Central American countries. A total of 84 billboards, including digital signs donated by Clear Channel, were also placed across the state of Massachusetts, encouraging individuals to report tips to the anonymous hotlines created for the child. ## Identification The child was identified as Bella Neveah Amoroso Bond on September 18, 2015. The identification was made after the sister of one of Rachelle Bond's neighbors reported to police a link between Bond and the Jane Doe. Apparently, the neighbor had noticed Bella was absent from the household and had confronted Rachelle Dee Bond and her boyfriend Michael P. McCarthy. They stated that the girl had been "taken away by the Department of Children and Families" (this was later disproved). Subsequently, the neighbor told his sister that he believed that "Baby Doe" was Bella Bond, and she contacted authorities. One witness told authorities she grew concerned when she stopped seeing the child at her mother's apartment and when the girl's toys were disposed of. On September 17, 2015, a search warrant was executed at the home of Rachelle Bond, 40, the child's mother, in Dorchester, Massachusetts. Bella's biological father, Joe Amoroso, had allegedly never met his daughter but had spoken with her by telephone. Amoroso had stated he had learned of Bella's death when Rachelle told him during a visit, within a week before the identification was made. He states that he believed that Bond would not ever have hurt her daughter. Amoroso elaborated in another interview that he believed Rachelle had been "sedated" with an injection of heroin by her boyfriend quickly after Bella's death, as a "track mark" visible on her neck could not be the result of her own action. Unlike her son, Bella's paternal grandmother stated that she believed Rachelle Bond was heavily involved in Bella's death and openly questioned the truthfulness of her allegations toward Michael McCarthy. Amoroso announced plans to bury Bella in Winthrop, Massachusetts, among family members, stating he had decided to allow the "funeral and wake services to be public." Bella Bond was buried on November 28, 2015, at the Winthrop Cemetery during a private funeral, after her parents later came to a consensus not to have the service open to the public. She was buried under a headstone reading "Bella N. Bond Amoroso" with the date of death listed as the day she was discovered. Images of the toddler from her mother's Facebook page were later released to the public. ## Suspects Rachelle Bond, known as a habitual drug user, had two other children who had been removed from her custody. She had also been arrested multiple times in the past, for other crimes, including sex work. Police commented that they had dealt with complaints that she was neglecting her daughter and had had four separate encounters with Bond. Bella's family was interviewed after the identification was announced. Her aunt stated that she had never suspected that "Baby Doe" was Bella, and the maternal grandmother of the victim was unaware that the child was ever born. The Department of Children and Families had responded to two neglect complaints regarding Bella; both cases were closed. Police released the information that the child was a murder victim and charged Michael McCarthy, the mother's boyfriend, with Bond's death. They also charged her mother with being an accessory to the crime, believing her to have assisted McCarthy with "covering up" Bella's death. Larceny was added to Rachelle Bond's charges after she was found to have accepted nearly \$1,400 of welfare income after she knew about the death of her daughter. Bond also continued to receive housing benefits. The pair were arraigned on September 21, 2015. Rachelle's bail was set for \$1 million; McCarthy was not eligible for bail. McCarthy was scheduled to appear in court again on February 16, 2016, after Rachelle Bond's appearance on January 6. A judge later set Rachelle Bond's trial date to December 1, 2016. Selection of jury members for McCarthy's trial started on May 22. ### Trials Authorities have acknowledged that since the exact cause of Bella's death remains unknown, asserting to a jury that it was homicide could be "difficult to prove." Rachelle Bond alleged that McCarthy had punched the toddler in the stomach multiple times after claiming Bella was a "demon", and that he was the sole perpetrator of the murder. Prosecutors of McCarthy allege that Bella was murdered in one of many abusive occasions after she had been uncooperative about going to bed. Citing that McCarthy had decided to "calm the child down," they say Rachelle had not entered the room alongside her boyfriend. When she did enter, they say she witnessed him near the girl's body, which was "swollen and gray," indicating she was deceased. Rachelle Bond's attorney claims McCarthy threatened to murder her client if she contacted authorities. She also maintained that Rachelle was not involved with hiding the victim's body, which had initially been placed in garbage bags and concealed in a refrigerator. Bond later admitted to this accusation as part of a future plea deal. A cadaver dog brought to the house later indicated that it smelled something on the refrigerator. Bond contradicted the belief that the body was placed on Deer Island; she stated that McCarthy had placed the body in a weighted duffel bag and disposed of it in the water, suggesting it drifted to the location where it was found. McCarthy claimed Rachelle was responsible for the death. McCarthy's lawyer objected to claims made by Rachelle Bond's defense and stated that his client had no knowledge of Bella's death, saying no sufficient evidence exists to indicate otherwise. They have also claimed that he had moved out of Rachelle Bond's residence before Bella's death. McCarthy claimed he had left after witnessing Rachelle's negative treatment of Bella, which included emotional and physical abuse. His defense also cited that Rachelle's statements could not be confirmed and that she was more likely to have killed her daughter because of her drug history. The claim of Bella being beaten to death was also challenged, as the autopsy did not indicate any signs of injuries consistent with what Rachelle described. Other claims exist that accuse Rachelle Bond of fabricating the story as a way to avoid being charged with murder. It was announced that McCarthy had sent Rachelle a text message that said "don't tell them you have a daughter. We don't want [the Department of Children and Families] getting involved". In February 2017, McCarthy's trial was set to take place later in the year. The prosecutor in the case suggested that Rachelle Bond be awarded with "time served" in exchange for a testimony against McCarthy. His decision was made after considering the allegations that Bond had been threatened to be killed if she came forward about Bella's death. Bond pleaded guilty on February 10, 2017, under the suggested plea bargain, and was credited with time served plus two years of probation. During McCarthy's trial in early June 2017, a "lifelong friend" of McCarthy's took the stand and expressed that he had warned Rachelle Bond of the potential danger she was in after entering a relationship with Bella's alleged killer. He explained that this was due to McCarthy's "dark side", including the fact that he heavily researched topics such as demons and satanic rituals. He also had apparently believed he had the ability to expunge demons from a residence. McCarthy's defense provided text messages and journal entries made by Bond that were written after Bella died. The entries still referred to him affectionately, which his attorneys believe suggest his innocence. Bond continued to claim her actions after the murder were "out of fear; she was also allegedly "tranquilized" with heroin injected by McCarthy after the murder. His defense also claimed that Bond was the individual in the relationship with the "dark" interests. Although McCarthy had been charged with first-degree murder, the judge allowed the jury to consider lesser charges of second-degree murder and involuntary manslaughter. On June 26, 2017, the jury returned a guilty verdict of second-degree murder, and two days later, he was sentenced to life imprisonment; he will be eligible for parole in 2037. ## See also - Murder of Anjelica Castillo, where the victim was nicknamed "Baby Hope" - Death of Caylee Anthony, the case of a toddler who received significant media attention - Murder of Erica Green, where the victim was nicknamed "Precious Doe" - Murder of Riley Ann Sawyers, where the victim was nicknamed "Baby Grace" - Alisha Heinrich, where the victim was nicknamed "Delta Dawn"
21,627,405	Love Sex Magic	1,155,209,642	2009 single by Ciara featuring Justin Timberlake	[ "2008 songs", "2009 singles", "Ciara songs", "Justin Timberlake songs", "LaFace Records singles", "Male–female vocal duets", "Music videos directed by Diane Martel", "Song recordings produced by the Y's", "Songs written by James Fauntleroy", "Songs written by Justin Timberlake", "Songs written by Mike Elizondo", "Songs written by Rob Knox (producer)" ]	"Love Sex Magic" is a song by American singer Ciara from her third studio album, Fantasy Ride (2009). Featuring fellow American recording artist Justin Timberlake, the song was written by Timberlake and his production team The Y's and Mike Elizondo. The Y's and Elizondo also produced the track. The song was released as the lead single from Fantasy Ride internationally and was the second single from the album released in the United States, on March 3, 2009. The song reveals a complete departure from Ciara's previous style, neither a sensual ballad nor incorporating Crunk&B influences. It embraces an electro sound also strongly incorporating funk music via a retro 1970s-style guitar presence and also elements of disco and soul music. Many critics noted the similarities between the song and music on Timberlake's album FutureSex/LoveSounds (2006). Critics gave the song mixed reviews, complimenting the song's funk and retro feel and the chemistry present between Ciara and Timberlake. The song would later go on to be nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 52nd Grammy Awards. "Love Sex Magic" peaked at number ten on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Ciara's fifth top ten hit as a lead artist, her eighth including features, and her first since "Get Up" in 2006. Outside of the United States, the song peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. The music video also exhibits a retro feel inspired by the Crazy Horse cabaret show and features Timberlake, Ciara, and several different kinds of foreplay, as well as Ciara dancing. For its routines it was nominated for Best Choreography at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards. Ciara has performed the song on television a number of times, including on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and with Timberlake on Saturday Night Live. ## Background A song entitled "Magic," performed by Justin Timberlake, leaked online in November 2008. In February 2009, Rap-Up reported that Ciara and Timberlake had recorded a new duet for her then-upcoming album, Fantasy Ride. The final version of the song, initially titled "Love and Sex and Magic," featured Timberlake dueting with Ciara. Eventually known as "Love Sex Magic," the song was written by Timberlake, Mike Elizondo, and Timberlake's production team The Y's—James Fauntleroy, Timberlake, and Rob Knox. Timberlake wanted to create a song that both genders could relate to. The Y's and Elizondo produced the song. Ciara said that her collaboration with Timberlake was one of the best of her career, because they actually collaborated in the studio, rather than him being added as a guest feature after the initial recording. She explained, "I actually went into the studio to make the record from scratch, or he had the record there for me, but us being together was a very rare case I've had over the years." Ciara enjoyed her time with Timberlake, and valued the opportunity to work with him as an "artist and producer." She also noted how passionate Timberlake was about his work, and mentioned his humbleness and positive attitude. ## Composition With "Love Sex Magic," Ciara moved in a more pop direction than her past music. Jordan Sargent of PopMatters noted that while a pop fan might see the singer "back in her mind creatively," a Ciara fan would see the song as "signal[ing] the end of the singer's career as it once was." Sargent stated that the song "sounds nothing like the chrome-plated crunk&b nor the moonlit balladry that Ciara has staked her name on." Musically, the song is a dance-pop-R&B number which makes use of electro and funk music, as well as displaying disco and soul influences. The song has a minimalistic dance beat, with a "funky, retro 70s style R&B guitar" as the backdrop. Lauren Carter of the Boston Herald said that the song is influenced by Timberlake's disco-funk work on FutureSex/LoveSounds (2006), stating that "it sounds like a reworked version of his bass-heavy dance number "Sexy Ladies." Carter commented that Timberlake was "ushering Ciara away from her typically crunk-laced stylings in favor of JT’s electro-slide." Ann Powers of The Los Angeles Times said that the song was "Madonna-esque." Both Ciara and Timberlake provide verses, accompanied by vocal whims and falsetto. ## Critical reception Dan Gennoe of Yahoo! Music said that with the track, Ciara "lucked into the sexiest thing to happen to pop since Timberlake's own FutureSex/LoveSounds," calling the song one of the "biggest anthems of the year." Gennoe went on to call the song the "highlight" and "saving grace" of Fantasy Ride. Nick Levine of Digital Spy said that "the track itself is nearly as sexy as the promo clip", commenting "Ciara purrs, and Timberlake, if you'll pardon the pun, more than rises to the occasion. All in all, 'Love Sex Magic' is pretty much spot on." Lauren Carter of the Boston Herald said "It’s not quite magic, but it grows on you." Jeremy Medina of Entertainment Weekly said, "Hooking up with Timberlake essentially guarantees a one-way ticket back to chart supremacy, so nice work there, Ciara." Medina went on to call the song an early candidate for "song of the summer." Jon Caramanica from The New York Times welcomed the "female aggression" presented by Ciara on the track. Caramanica called it an unexpected twist, calling Ciara "still curiously anonymous". He noted that Timberlake, not a "vocal powerhouse" himself, out-sings Ciara on the track. Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media said that the song was not bad and complimented the song's disco feel. He said that it gained Ciara a "radio foothold that had been hers to lose a couple of years ago", and commented that it seemed like "a bargain-basement Justin Timberlake track, the sort of thing he could've had lying around in a closet somewhere nearly three years after FutureSex/LoveSounds." Breihan pointed out that "Timberlake's nerdy swagger really highlights Ciara's total lack of presence." Jordan Sargent of PopMatters criticized the song for being generic, calling it "a formulaic FutureSex/LoveSounds disco retread", commenting "The song probably could’ve been given to any struggling female singer and become a hit, and the fact that Ciara had to use it as her parachute is as puzzling as it is unfortunate." Andy Kellman of AllMusic called the song a "hobbling flop" and said that it was "easily forgettable." At the 52nd Grammy Awards, "Love Sex Magic" was nominated for the award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. It lost to Jason Mraz and Colbie Caillat's "Lucky". ## Chart performance Love Sex Magic debuted at number 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. In its second week, the single jumped to number 27 on the chart. In its third week, the song rose to number ten, becoming Ciara's fifth top ten single. It was her first top ten entry since "Get Up" in 2006. "Love Sex Magic" appeared on multiple Billboard component charts, reaching number fourteen on the Pop Songs chart, number eighteen on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart, and eighty-three on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of a million digital copies in the United States. Although the single did not rank among Ciara's most successful singles in the United States, it performed well overall in international markets. In Canada, the song debuted at number nine on the Canadian Hot 100, and would later peak at number six. In Australia, the song debuted at number six on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart, peaking at number five the next week. It spent fourteen weeks on the chart, and was eventually certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), for shipments totaling 70,000 copies. In New Zealand, the song debuted at number fourteen on the New Zealand Singles Chart. It remained stagnant the next week until it peaked at six on the chart the following week. Having spent thirteen weeks on the chart, the song was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ), for shipments totaling 7,500 copies. Across Europe, the single charted in the top ten of seven charts, and the top twenty of four others. Due to its numerous chartings in Europe, the song peaked at number six on the European Hot 100 chart. In the United Kingdom, "Love Sex Magic" debuted at number six on the UK Singles Chart, peaking at number five the following week. The song spent seventeen non-consecutive weeks on the chart, as well as topping the UK R&B Chart for two weeks. In the Republic of Ireland, the song peaked at number four on the Irish Singles Chart, climbing from number seven the previous week. ## Music video ### Background The Diane Martel-directed music video for "Love Sex Magic" premiered on March 22, 2009. In an interview with MTV News, Ciara said: "It's all about showing another side of me with this video. I'm basically giving you a show you'd see in Vegas—and it's my love, sex and magic show. He's the voyeur and I play with him a little bit. I got my inspiration from the Crazy Horse show and just from the shows [in Vegas], period. It's giving you the elements of love and sex and magic." In a later interview about the video, Ciara stated that she had to lick Timberlake's ear, and at one point, he was licking her neck and they were "freestyling." Martel wanted them to do something "edgy," so they found a "cool way to do it." Ciara noted the different pauses in cuts in between the tapings, commenting "so it's licking on the neck, again, then his biting on my neck, again. It was really funny." The singer would later elaborate on the Crazy Horse show reference in an interview with Blues & Soul, explaining that she had so much respect for the show that it became her reference. On working with Timberlake, she said, "Justin is one of the most easy-going, down-to-earth, hard-working and passionate artists you could ever work with. And, with both me and him, our goal was just to make the best video we could possibly make together, and to give the fans something a little fun and a little unexpected." ### Synopsis The video opens with Ciara and Timberlake face to face, caressing seductively. The camera cuts to Ciara who appears almost impervious to gravity. Dressed in lingerie, she maneuvers around a horizontal dance pole; background dancers are veiled in vibrant color schemes and alternating strobe lights. The video then cuts to Ciara in a leotard, posing in abstract and flexible poses. Ciara is then seen dressed in a tiger-striped catsuit performing solo dance moves on a stage. Timberlake performs his verse seated onstage while Ciara performs intricate tricks, such as snaking under his legs. Then the two begin to lightly move to the track before Ciara forms her body as an armrest as he leans on her. Ciara and the dancers perform choreography and cabaret-style moves on the pole. The bridge of the song puts Timberlake on the ground and Ciara, standing over him, turns and performs her signature "Matrix" over him as he guides her body toward his with his right hand. The two perform and as Ciara gets up, Timberlake smacks her side as she pops to the beat. The video then cuts to a scene with Ciara in the catsuit portraying a tiger in a cage. In the final scene, Ciara and the dancers perform, dressed in 1970s-inspired tuxedos and colored afros. The video ends with clips of Ciara's multiple performance scenes from throughout the video. ### Reception Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the video a positive review: "The video that accompanies this track is one of the year's best so far—and certainly the sexiest: Ciara licks Justin's ear, Justin reciprocates by slapping her bum, and, well, Ciara's flexibility would put many a poledancer to shame. Quite frankly, the whole thing could make a nun have impure thoughts." At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, the video was nominated for "Best Choreography;" it lost to Beyoncé's "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)." The video ranked at number thirty-nine on BET's Notarized: Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown. ## Live performances On May 9, 2009, Ciara performed the song on Saturday Night Live with Timberlake, that night's host. Accompanied by live instruments, Ciara performed choreography with backup dancers, while Timberlake played the keyboard. Timberlake and Ciara danced provocatively after he came from behind the keyboard to perform his verse. During the set, Ciara also performed "Never Ever." A writer for BET's Sound Off Blog said: "Aside from the fact that her grunts were live and her stage humps were unreal, Ciara’s set was pretty decent. Not that I expected any less from the A-Town princess, but that was a pretty tasty performance." The writer pointed out that Timberlake was not even noted on the set until he began his verse. In an interview with MTV News, Ciara went into detail about the setup of the performance, stating: > "I just kind of felt cool, 'cause Justin can play [piano] real well and he really gets into the music and it was, like, 'Hey, let's make you part of the band.' Having Justin in the background for the live performance was very different from the music video for the song, where we two dance quite provocatively with one another. [We wanted to] do something different and make it fun. It was awesome to see him pick up the keys." On May 13, 2009, Ciara performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, accompanied by background dancers. Ciara and the dancers performed choreography similar to that of the video and wore the 1970s-inspired suits and afros. The same day, she performed the song with "Never Ever" on Jimmy Kimmel Live! Ciara performed the song at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards Japan on May 30, 2009. ## Track listing and versions - German Maxi CD 1. "Love Sex Magic" (Main Version) – 3:40 2. "Love Sex Magic" (Instrumental) – 3:40 3. "Love Sex Magic" (PokerFace Club Mix) – 4:19 4. "Love Sex Magic" (Jason Nevins Sex Club Radio Mix) – 3:28 5. "Love Sex Magic" (Video) – 3:40 - UK and European CD Single 1. "Love Sex Magic" (Main Version) – 3:40 2. "Go Girl" (featuring T-Pain) (Main Version) – 4:29 ## Credits and personnel - Ciara – vocals - Justin Timberlake – vocals, producer, writer, instruments, music programming - James Fauntleroy – producer, writer, music programming - Rob Knox – producer, writer, instruments, music programming - Mike Elizondo – producer, writer, instruments - Spike Stent – audio mixing - Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles, CA - recording studio ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Radio and release history
25,067,237	Animal (Miike Snow song)	1,171,438,351	null	[ "2009 debut singles", "2009 songs", "Columbia Records singles", "Miike Snow songs", "Songs written by Andrew Wyatt", "Songs written by Christian Karlsson (DJ)", "Songs written by Henrik Jonback", "Songs written by Pontus Winnberg" ]	"Animal" is a song performed by Swedish indie pop band Miike Snow. It was released as the first single from the band's 2009 self-titled debut album on 17 February 2009 through Columbia and Downtown Records. Written by the band alongside Henrik Jonback, "Animal" is a pop song with instrumentation provided by horns and staccato synthesizers. Lead singer Andrew Wyatt has explained that it has an ambiguous meaning; its lyrics can be interpreted as dealing with matters such as addiction, basic instincts or dissatisfaction when one's needs are not met by society. Applauding its catchiness and pop sound, critics were positive towards "Animal". Following its release, the single managed to peak at number 50 in Scotland and number 98 on the UK Singles Chart. It was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Two music videos were made to promote the release of "Animal"; the first was directed by Sebastian Mlynarski and depicts the band wearing different animal masks, and the second video, directed by Anthony Dickenson, features a mixture of projections, animation and performance footage. ## Background "Animal" was written by Miike Snow's three members, Christian Karlsson, Pontus Winnberg and Andrew Wyatt, in collaboration with Henrik Jonback. In an interview with Dustin Fitzharris of Out, Wyatt explained that the song has an ambiguous meaning, "It can deal with addiction. It can deal with just the basic instincts – some of them are wonderful and some of them are very dangerous." In a separate interview with Joe Zadeh for Clash, Wyatt deemed it a "very simple song" and elaborated on its subject matter, "Directing your attention to man's underlying nature and how sometimes things in society just don't work out to meet your needs. And a lot of people end up feeling very dissatisfied. And the way people feel the need to fit into certain circumstances without even thinking about what they want." "Animal" was recorded at Robotberget, the band's own studio in Stockholm, Sweden. The band produced the track and then mixed it with Anders Hvenare. Downtown Records first released "Animal" as the band's debut single on 17 February 2009 via digital download in the United States. The record label then sent it for alternative airplay in the country on 12 April 2009. In the United Kingdom, Columbia Records first released the single as a 12" remix vinyl on 27 July 2009. The label later digitally released it on 7 August 2009, and as a CD single on 10 August 2009. The CD and digital releases in the UK include the song "Billie Holiday", written by Karlsson, Winnberg and Wyatt, as a B-side. A digital extended play (EP) with remixes by Crookers, Fake Blood, Fred Falke, Punks Jump Up and Style of Eye was released in European countries on 7 August 2009. Two remixes by Peter Bjorn and John and Mark Ronson were digitally released in the US on 8 December 2009. Ronson's remix also appears on the UK iTunes Store release of the band's next single, "Black & Blue" (2009), and was featured on the soundtrack album of the film Crazy, Stupid, Love (2010). ## Composition "Animal" is a pop song with horn and staccato synthesizer instrumentation. According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing, the song is written in the time signature of common time with a moderate beat rate of 118 beats per minute. It is written in the key of E major and Wyatt's vocal range spans the notes of B<sub>3</sub> to C<sub>6</sub>. It has an E–Fm<sub>7</sub>–Cm chord progression and a verse-chorus structure. Sam Richards of NME and Ben Hogwood of musicOMH compared the sound and rhythm of the song to works by English band The Police, while Paul Lester of The Guardian likened lead singer Wyatt's vocals to those of The Police's lead singer Sting. Jason Lymangrover of AllMusic compared the hook to works by American band Vampire Weekend, and said that "dubby synths circulate around flighty vocals with heavy sentiments". Wyatt sings lyrics such as "But I'm still trying to make my mind up, am I free or am I tied up?" with "unassuming cheeriness", and the chorus contains the line "I change shapes just to hide in this place, but I'm still, I'm still an animal". ## Reception "Animal" received a positive response from music critics. Natalie Kaye of Contactmusic.com described it as a "solid pop song", before adding that the "infectious" chorus is "irrefutably something you'll end up whistling in the shower". Similarly, Ian Wade of BBC Music commented that it "takes approximately one play for its catchiness to cluster bomb your memory bank", and John Bergstrom of PopMatters called it "sharp, catchy pure pop" with a chorus that "charm[s] [its] way into your brain". Rudy Klapper of Sputnikmusic commended lead singer Wyatt's "chameleonic" vocals, calling them "a highlight from the beginning". Klapper concluded, "['Animal'] bounc[es] along a deceptively catchy progression to a jangly chorus that hits immediate pop pay dirt." Neil Ashman of Drowned in Sound commented that it "boasts a number of indelible hooks worked around its staccato synth blasts". Jordan Bimm of Now described "Animal" as "catchy and creative" and said that the horns and the "playful vocal hook" will appeal to listeners who enjoyed Britney Spears' "Toxic" (2003), a production of Miike Snow members Karlsson and Winnberg. Sam Richards of NME viewed "Animal" as an "impressive piece of sleight of hand" and compared its sound to that of The Police, "while remaining bearable". Ben Hogwood of musicOMH said that it sounds like a "lost Police song given a new, vividly coloured change of clothes". He felt that the lyrical vignettes and hooks seem "awkward" during the first listen, and "gloriously different the next". Hogwood furthermore said that this applied for the album as a whole. Marc Hogan of Pitchfork Media called it a "kiddie-pop lilt". Commercially, "Animal" was a minor chart success. It made its first chart appearance on 16 August 2009, on the Scottish Singles Chart at number 50. The single also peaked number 98 in the issue dated 22 August 2009 of the UK Singles Chart. "Animal" achieved some airplay in Russia, spending five weeks in the lower ends of the Tophit airplay chart and peaking at number 297. In December 2013, the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), the band's first certification, indicating 500,000 digital sales. ## Music videos Two music videos were released to promote "Animal". The first video, directed by Sebastian Mlynarski, was released in July 2009. It opens with the band performing on a street at night, holding umbrellas. The band then appears wearing different surgical masks with animal prints throughout the video. Near the end, they are seen performing in a grass field. Anthony Dickenson directed the single's second music video, released in August 2009. Dickenson created projections and sculptures, utilizing both animation and performance footage. The video features projections of a forest which turns into a city as the video progresses. It interspersed with shots of the band performing in a dark room. The video ends with the band's jackalope logo being projected onto the cityscape. The video was nominated in the category Best Visual Effects in a Video at the 2009 UK Music Video Awards. ## Formats and track listings - 12" vinyl 1. "Animal" (Fake Blood remix) 2. "Animal" (Crookers remix) 3. "Animal" (Style of Eye remix) 4. "Animal" (Punks Jump Up remix) - CD single / digital download 1. "Animal" – 4:24 2. "Billie Holiday" – 4:01 - Digital EP 1. "Animal" (Fake Blood remix) – 5:06 2. "Animal" (Crookers remix) – 3:20 3. "Animal" (Style of Eye remix) – 7:57 4. "Animal" (Punks Jump Up remix) – 5:20 5. "Animal" (Fred Falke remix) – 8:45 - Remixes 1. "Animal" (Peter Bjorn and John remix) – 3:58 2. "Animal" (Mark Ronson remix) – 4:31 ## In popular culture - The song is featured in the soundtrack of the video games Saints Row: The Third and Grand Theft Auto: The Ballad of Gay Tony. - The song was used in the Gossip Girl episode "The Lost Boy (Gossip Girl)", in the ending scene. - The song was also used in Season 2, Episode 13 of 90210. - The song was used in the final trailer for the 2019 film The Secret Life of Pets 2. - The Mark Ronson remix of the song is featured in the 2011 film Crazy, Stupid, Love. - The Punks Jump Up remix of the song is used as the theme tune to British TV sitcom, Friday Night Dinner. ## Credits and personnel - Songwriting – Christian Karlsson, Pontus Winnberg, Andrew Wyatt, Henrik Jonback - Production – Miike Snow - Mixing – Anders Hvenare, Miike Snow - Mastering – Ted Jensen Credits are adapted from the Miike Snow liner notes. ## Charts ## Certifications ## Release history
904,711	U.S. Route 199	1,171,616,706	Highway in California and Oregon	[ "Plank road", "Roads in Del Norte County, California", "Transportation in Josephine County, Oregon", "U.S. Highways in California", "U.S. Highways in Oregon", "U.S. Route 99", "United States Numbered Highway System" ]	U.S. Route 199 (US 199) is a U.S. Highway in the states of California and Oregon. The highway was established in 1926 as a spur of US 99, which has since been replaced by Interstate 5 (I-5). US 199 stretches 80 miles (130 km) from US 101 near Crescent City, California northeast to I-5 in Grants Pass, Oregon. The highway is the northern portion of the Redwood Highway. In Oregon, US 199 is officially known as Redwood Highway No. 25. The majority of the road in California is the Smith River Scenic Byway, a National Forest Scenic Byway. The first roadway, a plank road, from Crescent City was established in May 1858, and before the US 199 designation was applied to the highway, the roadway was designated Highway 25 (in Oregon) and Route 1 (in California). ## Route description US 199 begins at a partial interchange with US 101 northeast of Crescent City; Elk Valley Cross Road (County Route D2) connects the two routes just to the north for full access. The highway quickly enters the Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park, climbs over a ridge, crosses the Smith River, and meets State Route 197 (SR 197), which heads northwest to US 101 via the Smith River. US 199 follows the banks of the river and its Middle Fork as it takes a steady but curvy climb through the Smith River National Recreation Area in the Six Rivers National Forest, passing the settlements of Hiouchi, Gasquet and Patrick Creek Lodge. As it approaches the summit, the Middle Fork Smith River turns east, but US 199 continues northeast, following Griffin Creek to near its source (where there is a rest area), and passing under Hazel View Summit, the border between the Smith River NRA and the Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, in the 1963 Collier Tunnel (elevation about 2,100 ft or 640 m). (The old curving route over the summit still exists as Oregon Mountain Road.) Upon leaving the tunnel, US 199 descends alongside the small Broken Kettle Creek into the Elk Valley and crosses into Oregon. US 199 leaves the national forest as it enters Oregon and descends into the Illinois Valley, passing O'Brien and the west end of OR 46 in Cave Junction. North of Cave Junction, US 199 leaves the Illinois River, which curves west towards the ocean, and follows several small creeks past Selma to Hayes Hill Summit (elevation about 1,700 ft or 520 m). The highway descends from the summit alongside Slate Creek past Wonder and Wilderville and ends up in the Rogue River Valley, where it enters Grants Pass. South of downtown Grants Pass, US 199 meets Oregon Route 99 (OR 99) and OR 238 and splits at a partial interchange. The main Redwood Highway turns north with OR 99, passing through downtown and ending at exit 58 on I-5, while the Redwood Spur No. 482, locally known as Grants Pass Parkway, continues straight, bypassing downtown to end at I-5 exit 55. Both of these are signed in both directions as US 199, while signage on US 199 itself at the split only shows "OR 99 north" for the mainline through downtown and "to I-5" for the bypass. On I-5, exit 55 is marked as "US 199", but exit 58 is "OR 99 to US 199". The Oregon Transportation Commission's defined routing of US 199 takes it along the main Redwood Highway through downtown, and the OTC calls the spur to exit 55 "US 199 Spur", but, consistent with signs on I-5 (but not on the surface), the Oregon Department of Transportation calls the spur US 199 and the downtown route OR 99 only. The older route through downtown is a one-way pair on Sixth (southbound) and Seventh (northbound) streets, entirely overlapping OR 99 to I-5 exit 58, where OR 99 continues with I-5 to the north. The Caveman Bridge, a concrete through arch bridge built in 1927, carries Sixth Street over the Rogue River, while the parallel Seventh Street Bridge is a utilitarian bridge from 1960. The Grants Pass Parkway (Redwood Spur) also crosses the river on a four-lane bridge built in 1990; before that bypass was completed, the spur began downtown on E (southbound) and F (northbound) streets. Soon after the old and new routes join, the spur ends at a trumpet interchange with I-5 (exit 55). US 199 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, and is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. US 199 is eligible to be included in the State Scenic Highway System, but it is not officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation. ## History By 1854, when it was incorporated, Crescent City had a population of 800 but no road leading inland. The Crescent City and Yreka Plank and Turnpike Company was incorporated at a meeting on June 10, and a survey was completed in October, but work stopped with the Panic of 1855. The corporation was revived in December 1856 as the Crescent City Plank Road and Turnpike Company, began construction of a plank road in 1857, and opened the road in May 1858. This road, shown on USGS topographic maps as Wimer Road, led northeast from Crescent City to the Smith River, where there was a toll booth, and then took a generally northerly route to near the state line, where it turned east, crossing back and forth between the states, to Oregon Mountain. There it turned northeast, following the Illinois River and branches past O'Brien and Waldo to north of Kerby. The final stretch ran easterly to Jacksonville via Wilderville, along the present US 199, Fish Hatchery Road, and OR 238. A second road in California was built by Horace Gasquet, who acquired a stand of trees at the present site of Gasquet, California — where the North and Middle Forks of the Smith River converge — in 1857. In 1881, he began to build a corduroy road from what had become Gasquet Flats to the plank road at the state line near Oregon Mountain, shown as Old Gasquet Toll Road on USGS maps. Tolls were charged starting in 1882, and in 1887 the road was completed. Gasquet also built a free road from Gasquet Flats along the Smith River to the mouth of the South Fork, including a suspension bridge across that waterway, and Del Norte County extended it along the Smith River and Mill Creek and over Howland Summit to the Crescent City Plank Road just east of Crescent City. As part of Oregon's initial state highway system, the road from Grants Pass southwest to Wilderville and then along the Crescent City Plank Road to the state line was named the Grants Pass-Crescent City Highway No. 25 in November 1917. At the time, the Grants Pass-Crescent City route, via the Gasquet Toll Road, was a narrow, winding unpaved mountain road with long grades and some remaining plank road in California. California added its portion to the state highway system in 1919, for the state's third highway bond issue, as an extension of Legislative Route 1. By 1924, the road was part of the Redwood Highway, which continued south to Sausalito, but was still completely unimproved between Crescent City and Waldo, Oregon. (Oregon changed the Grants Pass-Crescent City Highway name to Redwood Highway in May 1924.) A new highway between Gasquet and Kerby was completed by the two states in September 1926, and in June 1929 the new Hiouchi Bridge over the Smith River was dedicated, bypassing the remainder of the old road over Howland Hill. In 1948, US 199 became part of the Winnemucca to the Sea Highway, organized to promote the route that has largely become Nevada State Route 140 and Oregon Route 140 from I-80 at Winnemucca, Nevada to Crescent City. One major improvement to the highway's alignment was made after 1929: the Collier Tunnel replaced the winding route over Hazel View Summit in California on July 20, 1963. Neither of the early designations — Highway 25 and Route 1 – was marked (signs posted by the California State Automobile Association used the Redwood Highway name), but in 1926 it became U.S. Route 199, a branch of US 99 from Grants Pass to US 101 in Crescent City. Oregon moved the Pacific Highway No. 1 from present OR 99 to I-5, which bypassed Grants Pass, in 1959, and the Redwood Highway No. 25 was extended north through downtown Grants Pass to I-5. A proposed branch on M Street to I-5 east of downtown was also included in Highway 25, but this was moved to the E and F Streets one-way pair in 1961. (I-5 here was built in the early 1960s, but US 99 remained on the old alignment.) On the California side of the state line, US 199 was added to the California Freeway and Expressway System in 1959 and the State Scenic Highway System in 1963; in the 1964 renumbering the Route 1 designation was dropped, making Route 199 the legislative number. Although US 299 and US 399 became state routes in 1964, the shorter US 199, which crossed a state line, remained. US 99 has since become Oregon Route 99 through Grants Pass, and US 199 now ends at I-5. The spur east from downtown Grants Pass to I-5 was built at the same time as I-5, and in 1991 it was moved from E and F Streets to bypass downtown on the new Grants Pass Parkway. ## Major intersections ## See also
190,453	Maurice Duplessis	1,173,869,927	Premier of Quebec from 1936 to 1939 and 1944 to 1959	[ "1890 births", "1959 deaths", "Antisemitism in Canada", "Canadian Roman Catholics", "Canadian anti-communists", "Canadian people of World War II", "Canadian political party founders", "Conservatism in Canada", "Conservative Party of Quebec MNAs", "Lawyers in Quebec", "Leaders of the Union Nationale (Quebec)", "Maurice Duplessis", "People from Trois-Rivières", "Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)", "Populism in Canada", "Premiers of Quebec", "Recipients of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin", "Right-wing politics in Canada", "Right-wing populism in Canada", "Union Nationale (Quebec) MNAs", "Université de Montréal alumni" ]	Maurice Le Noblet Duplessis QC (; April 20, 1890 – September 7, 1959), byname "Le Chef" ("The Boss"), was a Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the 16th premier of Quebec. A conservative, nationalist, populist, anti-communist, anti-unionist and fervent Catholic, Duplessis and his party, the Union Nationale, dominated provincial politics from the 1930s to the 1950s. He is the longest-serving premier of Quebec since Confederation by cumulative time of service, having led the province for 18 years. Son of Nérée Duplessis, a lawyer who served as a Conservative member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA), Maurice studied law in Montreal and became a member of the Bar of Quebec in 1913. He then returned to his home town of Trois-Rivières, where he founded a successful legal consultancy. Duplessis narrowly lost his first campaign for the Trois-Rivières seat in the 1923 election, but managed to get elected in 1927 as a Conservative MLA. His rhetorical skills helped him become the leader of the Official Opposition in the Legislative Assembly in 1933 in the place of Camillien Houde. As opposition leader, he agreed to a coalition with Paul Gouin's Action libérale nationale (ALN), which they called the Union Nationale. It lost in 1935 but gained a majority the following year as Gouin retired from politics and Duplessis took over the leadership, thus breaking almost 40 years of uninterrupted rule by the Quebec Liberal Party. In addition to his premiership duties, Duplessis assigned himself the role of Attorney General and briefly held other ministerial posts as well. The first three years in government were difficult for Duplessis as the government struggled to respond to the ongoing hardships of the Great Depression. That term saw the introduction of several key welfare policies (such as the universal minimum wage and old-age pensions), but the effort to strengthen his rule by calling a snap election in 1939 failed as his campaigning on the issue of World War II backfired and his government left the economy in a poor state. However, the Conscription Crisis of 1944 propelled him back to power in that year's election. Duplessis then served as premier until his death. As was the general trend of the time, he presided over a period of robust economic growth due to the rising demand in resources, which the province used to develop Côte-Nord and rural areas. Duplessis was a strong proponent of economic liberalism and implemented pro-business policies by keeping taxes low, refraining from regulation and adopting pro-employer labour policies, in particular by cracking down on trade unions. "Le Chef" usually met the federal government's initiatives with strong resistance due to his convictions on provincial autonomy. In the social domain, Duplessis maintained and protected the traditional role of the Catholic Church in Quebec's society, notably in healthcare and education. He was ruthless to the perceived enemies of the Church or of the Catholic nature of the province, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, whom he harassed using his government's apparatus. Communists were persecuted under the Padlock Law, which Duplessis authored in 1937. Duplessis's legacy remains controversial more than 60 years after his death. Compared to the Anglophones, the French Canadians remained worse off in the province where they constituted a majority just as his government was courting Anglophone and out-of-province businessmen to invest. This clientelist relationship with the business spheres often morphed into outright corruption. "Le Chef"'s authoritarian inclinations, his all-powerful electoral machine, staunch conservatism, a cozy relationship with the Catholic Church, the mistreatment of Duplessis Orphans and the apparent backwardness of his model of development were also subject of criticism. Thus his critics labelled the period the Grande Noirceur (Great Darkness), which stuck in Quebec's society in a large degree thanks to the efforts of those who led the Quiet Revolution in the 1960s. This was also the initial general opinion of historians and intellectuals, but since the 1990s, academics have revisited Duplessism and concluded that this assessment required nuancing and placement in the contemporary perspective and, in some cases, advocated outright rejection of that label. ## Biography ### Early life #### Family Maurice Le Noblet Duplessis was born on April 20, 1890, in Trois-Rivières to a religious family that was quite wealthy. He was the second child and only son of Nérée Le Noblet Duplessis, a Conservative member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec (MLA) for Saint-Maurice. Maurice's father, who came from a family of peasants residing in nearby Yamachiche, was a kind but busy man and spent little time with the family, which was typical at the time. Two of Nérée's sisters married politicians who would also sit in the Legislative Assembly. Maurice's mother was Berthe Genest, who had Scottish and Irish origins on her maternal side. The family of the future premier was well-disposed to Anglophones; Duplessis would even joke that he was "one of them". At the end of the 19th century, the Duplessis family of Trois-Rivières was active in the political and religious life of the region, and the members of the family could often be found among conservative and ultramontanist sympathizers, with whom they would often debate current political events. Some of the influential figures of the time, including Louis-Olivier Taillon, Edmund James Flynn, Joseph-Mathias Tellier, Louis-Philippe Pelletier and Thomas Chapais, could be found there. Moreover, Maurice's father, a deeply pious person, maintained close relations with Louis-François Richer Laflèche, the bishop of the Diocese of Trois-Rivières, where he worked as legal counsel. The bishop supported his electoral bid for the Saint-Maurice seat in 1886, which Nérée won. Maurice was born during his father's reelection campaign, who chose to name his son for the electoral district he was the MLA for. The newborn boy was then baptized by Laflèche himself. #### Studies In 1898, Duplessis left his home city to study at the Collège Notre-Dame in Montreal, which was run by the Congregation of Holy Cross. There he met André Bessette (better known as Brother André), then porter of the college. He came to like young Duplessis and handed him over the task of finding students whom the rector wished to see. The relationship was so close that it was then that Duplessis developed the cult of Saint Joseph, which he carried for the rest of his life and which sometimes would influence his political choices. The future premier was a bright student, excelling in French, history, Latin and philosophy; at the same time, he was known to be playful and sometimes mischievous (a "scamp", as Conrad Black suggests), which would often lead Duplessis into trouble. In 1902, Duplessis moved to the Séminaire de Trois-Rivières in order to pursue his study in a classical college. Maurice continued to excel in other subjects, including history, theology, Latin and Greek, which helped him become the best student in his year. In particular, he sharpened his rhetorical skills while attending the debate club at the college's Saint Thomas Aquinas Society. Maurice would, as Conrad Black wrote, "enjoy, almost wallow in, extravagant but thin treatises on the founders of French Canada", where he would show his attachment to and admiration of his roots, the rural lifestyle and the Catholic faith. He was especially fond of Louis Hébert, one of the first colonizers of the New France and a pioneer of farming in the area. Duplessis's interest for politics appeared at a very young age. As early as at the age of ten, Maurice expressed strong interest in the electoral statistics of Quebec, and later in his adolescence, he was already engaging in political meetings and was speaking with the voters. The future premier was preparing for public life by working for a political organization of Joseph-Arthur Barrette, a Conservative serving as member of Parliament for Berthier. Duplessis understood from that experience that he preferred the practical aspects of politics rather than the theory. When finishing school, Maurice Duplessis was thinking of either further engaging in public life or become a minister in the Catholic Church. Even though the clerical career was typical of the young people like Duplessis and it would give him influence, Maurice ultimately rejected the priesthood as he thought that this job bore too many constraints. He would later confide to his secretary that "sacerdocy [was] too much for me." He was not interested in becoming a businessman, either, because at that time English Canadians had much better conditions for pursuing that path. Thus, in autumn of 1910, he enrolled in the faculty of law at the Université Laval in Montreal, which is now a separate university called Université de Montréal. Finishing law school was then a standard way to get into politics. In parallel to his studies, he trained in the offices of Rodolphe Monty et Alfred Duranleau, two nationalist conservatives and friends of Duplessis's family, where Maurice was referred to by his father. While studying, he was noted for his liveliness, sharp responses and socializing. Duplessis, sitting in the opposition, was a local star within the model parliament organized by the university. Outside his field of studies and political engagement, he followed professional baseball standings and occasionally went to opera, but that was where his hobbies ended. ### Entry into politics #### Law practice After three years of studies, Duplessis was admitted to the Bar of Quebec in September 1913. Maurice returned to his home town to practice law at the Bar of Trois-Rivières [fr], whose member he would stay until his death. He first worked together with his father, but this was cut short as on June 15, 1914, Nérée was nominated as judge of the Superior Court of Quebec. The future Premier then opened his own consultancy, Duplessis, Langlois & Lamothe, Avocats et Procureurs, on Hart Street, behind his parents' house. Langlois was an old friend of his from the Séminaire who became husband of Duplessis's sister, Gabrielle. Together with another lawyer from Trois-Rivières, Léon Lamothe, they formed a partnership which lasted well into the 1930s. Duplessis did not serve in the Canadian Armed Forces during World War I as he was exempt from conscription. Practising civil law more than criminal law, Duplessis developed a large client base among the ordinary people, who were attracted due to his arguments in court that often proved persuasive. He was quickly recognized as a sociable and competent lawyer who approached his cases carefully, and thus became a popular figure in the town. The young lawyer engaged in various activities of his area, notably directing of a local baseball team, and became a fixture in high-end taverns of his town. His professional success, briefly interrupted by the death of his mother in 1921, let him buy a personal Winton on a loan (to great dismay of his father). Duplessis suspended his law career in early 1934 amid mounting duties in the Legislative Assembly, though he would still be mentioned as a member of the bar. #### First electoral successes Despite a promising start to his legal career, Duplessis did not lose sight from his political ambitions. He made his first attempt to get to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec in 1923 as a Conservative, seeking to oust the incumbent Liberal MLA, Louis-Philippe Mercier, from his Trois-Rivières seat. The campaign was a heated one. Mercier benefited from a well-organized political structure in the area directed by his mentor, Jacques Bureau, who at the time served as a member of Parliament for Three Rivers and St. Maurice and the federal minister of customs and excise. Maurice counted on the solidarity of his fellow lawyers, the good reputation among his clients as well as his father's acquaintances' support (notably Louis-Olivier Taillon). Some of them made speeches in Duplessis's favour. His campaign focused on the criticism of what Duplessis alleged was Premier Louis-Alexandre Taschereau's contempt towards provincial autonomy and municipal rights as well as of the mismanagement of the judiciary. Despite a rather close race, Maurice lost to the incumbent, 1,328 to 1,612 votes. Duplessis at the time did not expect to win the riding anyway, but hoped that his good initial showing would make him a viable candidate as the opposition leader in the region. Four years later, Duplessis attempted a second run to the Legislative Assembly, campaigning among working- and middle-class families by paying personal visits to them. His resolve to get to the provincial parliament increased even further after his father died in 1926. At election time, Duplessis flipped the seat for the first time in 27 years, winning 2,622 to Mercier's 2,496 votes. This happened even as the Conservatives only captured 9 out of 85 seats. In his victory speech, Duplessis reportedly declared that "[here] stands before you a future Premier of Quebec". At the time when Duplessis was elected, the Legislative Assembly was only in session for two months in a year, which allowed Duplessis to spend more time in his electoral district. Duplessis became immediately active on the parliament floor once the parliament convened on January 10, 1928. In his maiden speech on January 19, the Legislative Assembly freshman decried the overemphasis on industrial development, as opposed to rural and small-business interests and called to stop increasing taxes and to respect the religious nature of Sundays. He also proposed to make an inventory of the forest industry (it was suspected at the time that the resources were being overexploited) and to reorganize the provincial police. The first speech left Premier Taschereau impressed, who allegedly remarked that "this young man [...] [would] go far". Duplessis's rhetorical skills and the knowledge of the law on the books made him a rising star in the opposition. When Arthur Sauvé left the leadership of the Conservatives, it was suggested that Duplessis could take the steers of the battered party, but Duplessis refused as he was not ready yet. Camillien Houde, Mayor of Montreal, was nominated instead, but he often had to leave the parliament sessions because of his other demanding job. Therefore, Duplessis, whom the Conservative caucus already saw as a safe alternative to Houde should the leader's policies fail, was able to informally lead the caucus in Houde's absence. Arthur Sauvé, in his resignation speech, asked his successor "to reestablish order in our ravaged ranks". Even though the new leader liked Duplessis, the future premier did not trust Houde's organizational capabilities, finding him "a verbose, blustering [and] impetuous man". He also said to his party colleague, Antonio Barrette, who would briefly serve as Premier in 1960: "You’re going to see Houde get to the top of the mountain and then be over the hill". Conrad Black characterized his relationship with Houde, together with his political views, in the following way: > Maurice Duplessis was in many ways fundamentally conservative; he mistrusted the flamboyant and doubted the improbable. Family counted with him. So did a man’s sense of process. Camillien Houde he considered an unmethodical multiple-bankrupt without background of family or profession, untried at everything except tubthumping; an extraordinary personality and an original character, but impulsive, self-indulgent, and superficial. He did not think that this endomorphic gadfly would prove a match for the crafty, magisterial, and thorough M. Taschereau. Later events seemed to confirm Duplessis's intuition. In the 1931 election, the Conservatives were again resoundingly defeated, winning only 11 seats out of 90 despite the fact that the Conservatives got a markedly larger share of votes provincially. Houde lost his own riding; Duplessis got reelected with a razor-thin margin of 41 votes (3,812 votes versus 3,771 for Liberal Louis-Philippe Bigué). Upon learning the results, Taschereau declared that "this outcome [meant] the end of Houdism". ### Rise to power #### Leader of the Official Opposition The 1931 election saw the Conservatives' internal strife, already present in Sauvé years, intensify. The party members could not even agree to a common strategy of dealing with the results of the election. Houde wanted to challenge 63 electoral results in the province, but Duplessis was against this idea because of his thin margin. The plan was frustrated by the government because a change in electoral law made the recounts too expensive. The Conservatives increasingly grew fed up with Houde's performance, and since he was no longer an MLA, lost his Montreal mayorship election in April 1932 and had trouble maintaining his newspaper, he had little real power in the caucus. Therefore, when in an effort to appease the Anglophone community, Houde unexpectedly designated an ageing Charles Ernest Gault, his ally and long-time MLA from Montréal–Saint-Georges, as the new leader of the parliamentary caucus, the party overrode the decision. Thus, on November 7, Duplessis became leader of the opposition. This choice was formally confirmed during a party congress in Sherbrooke on October 4–5, 1933, when Duplessis got 332 votes of the delegates (including from 7 out of 10 MLAs and all but one federal minister from Quebec) to 214 cast for a more moderate Onésime Gagnon, an MLA from Dorchester. During the convention, Duplessis gained most support from young members advocating for provincial autonomy; federal and Anglophone Conservatives as well as supporters for Houde tended to vote for his opponent. The choice was well-received by the high clergy and Henry George Carroll, the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, but Houde was bitter at his ouster and would only reconcile with him after World War II. The governing Liberals also had problems of their own. Quebec was in the midst of the Great Depression, which left Canada's economy declining. The Liberal Party, which had been in power for more than 35 years, was suffering from internal tensions, too, but also from the laissez-faire economic policies that proved inadequate for the crisis. Conrad Black additionally attributed the party's woes to its inflexibility and population's weariness of the government that had been in power for too long (by the 1935 election, Taschereau had been ruling the province for 15 years). Duplessis repeatedly questioned the government on its failure to make a turnaround. He pointed to the overcapitalization of companies and to the general chaos in the province's industry and resource exploitation. Duplessis further alleged unjust treatment of municipalities, lack of respect for traditions and unnecessary confrontations with the federal government. The leader of the opposition also decried the government's policy of prioritizing big business interests instead of developing rural areas. Some of the Liberal MLAs eventually became disillusioned with Taschereau and created a new party, the Action libérale nationale (ALN). #### Coalition with the Action libérale nationale The new party, which in particular despised the big business's interests in the province, consisted of nationalist and progressive MLAs led by Paul Gouin and included some other figures, such as Philippe Hamel, Joseph-Ernest Grégoire and Oscar Drouin. The members of the new political force drew heavily from the Programme de restauration sociale, a social policy document drafted by the Catholic clergy in 1933. It advocated corporatism as an alternative for capitalism and communism and sought to improve the position of French Canadians in the province by expanding the social welfare net, breaking (and, if needed, nationalizing) business trusts and revitalizing rural areas. In particular, the party was critical of the energy trusts and advocated for bringing the hydroelectricity companies under state control. Initially, Maurice Duplessis was skeptical of the third political force, saying that "two [parties] are enough: one good and one bad". He was then preparing for the upcoming 1935 election, starting a tour across the province more than a year before the voters were to go to the ballots. To a large extent, Duplessis's arguments during the campaign mirrored those of the ALN even if Duplessis tried to assure that the Conservatives were less extreme and that "honest" capital would remain untouched in the province. Still, Duplessis remained distrustful of the ALN members, seeing them as unreliable men who would join the Liberals after the election and ruin his dream of heading the government himself. For that reason, he resisted all efforts to sign a coalition agreement with them, but was forced to yield on November 7, 1935. Several factors played a role. In October, the Liberals had an impressive showing in that year's federal election, and Taschereau called a snap provincial election in November to capitalize on this victory. Vote splitting issues in the first-past-the-post system also contributed to the overwhelming support for a coalition among party members and donors. Under the agreement, the Conservatives ran on the ALN's platform, joined a coalition called the Union Nationale and ceded two-thirds of ridings to the breakaway Liberals. The coalition narrowly failed to displace the Liberals from power, gaining 42 out of 90 seats (of which 16 were Conservative), but it managed to severely reduce the governing majority. Duplessis got safely reelected with a margin of 14 percentage points (1,202 votes). #### Ascendancy of the Union Nationale Maurice Duplessis continued his offensive in spring 1936, when he succeeded in having the parliamentary public accounts committee start an inquiry into the management of public funds by the Taschereau government. Numerous irregularities were uncovered as various Liberal government officials acknowledged having used the public money inappropriately. For example, Antoine Taschereau, premier's brother and accountant of the Quebec Legislature, was forced to resign when he admitted having pocketed interest from the government's bank deposits. The fact that the newspapers reported on all the smallest details of the inquiry made the committee job a political goldmine for Duplessis. Taschereau resigned amid the corruption scandals on June 11, 1936, and handed over the premiership to Adélard Godbout, who was forced to call an election on August 17. The political situation during that year changed dramatically. Even though Duplessis entered the election as a junior coalition partner, his charisma, rhetorical skills and grilling of the Liberal officials has earned him support from most of ALN deputies, which could not be said of Gouin. On the organizational level, the Conservatives succeeded in capturing the Union Nationale brand for them. Moreover, the corruption inquiry severely weakened the governing party, which gave Duplessis a chance to single-handedly win the premiership. Therefore, on June 17, Duplessis announced his refusal to renew the coalition agreement even though the election writs had already been issued. Despite Gouin trying to campaign independently of Duplessis, 35 out of 42 Union Nationale coalition MLAs at a caucus meeting in Sherbrooke backed Duplessis's takeover of the coalition, and most of ALN's members joined the newly created Union Nationale party. Eventually, Gouin announced his "temporary" retirement from politics, which confirmed Duplessis's leadership. When the voters came to the polls, they delivered a landslide victory for the Union Nationale, handing it 76 out of 90 seats and ending the Liberal rule over Quebec that lasted for 39 years. ### First term (1936–1939) Duplessis immediately embarked on fulfilling some of the electoral promises. Among the programs that are credited with the longevity of the Union Nationale is the creation of the Farm Credit Bureau, which sent low-interest loans to rural areas and which proved popular with what would be the electoral base of his party. However, Duplessis emphatically refused to nationalize the producers of electricity and largely continued the economical policies of his predecessor. This provoked an exodus of former ALN members but it did not threaten Duplessis's majority. Duplessis first rose to the highest office in the province in a difficult time, as the Great Depression ravaged through the province, leaving hundreds of thousands of people unemployed. Increased expenditures on social programs and lack of growth in the 1930s caused a severe budgetary crisis, as debt nearly doubled within his three years in office. The federal government started intervening in the province's finances to stabilize them, but Duplessis resisted these attempts as he thought they violated the principle of the provincial autonomy. The Quebec government started handing out old-age pensions and approved workplace accident protections in its first year in office. Public works projects, such as the completion of the Montreal Botanical Garden, were also initiated. It was during this term that the legislation first recognized the right to a minimum salary for everyone (the "fair wage" standard, as it was known back then, previously applied to women only), but this law saw several problems in its implementation due to lack of uniformity and reluctance of trade unions to embrace it. In line with the Church's teaching, Duplessis launched a program of assistance to needy mothers (but not unwed, divorced or separated women), as well as to the blind and the orphaned. This cabinet saw the first Ministry of Health in Quebec, and it also financed the new Institute of Microbiology and Hygiene of Montreal [fr], a research facility similar to Paris's Pasteur Institute. The themes that unite both the pre-war and the post-war administration were anti-unionism and anti-communism. Duplessis introduced and had the Legislative Assembly pass the so-called Padlock Law. It granted Duplessis, in his capacity as Attorney General, the right to prosecute those arranging for, distributing or promoting communist materials and propaganda and lock down their properties. Due to the law's vagueness, it often was arbitrarily used against anyone considered an enemy of the administration, such as trade unions. Another law granted Duplessis's government the right to unilaterally amend any contract between the trade union and the employer, and yet another regulation banned closed shops and union shops. On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland in what is commonly recognized as the beginning of World War II. Duplessis decided to seize that opportunity and announced a snap election to cement his grip on power by rallying the population around the fears of conscription (which French Canadians overwhelmingly opposed in World War I). However, his gamble failed as the Liberals, whom he accused of wanting to send French Canadians to the frontline, declared their opposition to the plan. As the Union Nationale was also seen as unable to implement a coherent set of policies, the party's representation shrank to 15 out of 86 seats. ### Return to the Official Opposition The defeat of the Union Nationale meant that Duplessis's leadership was in danger. Some of his fellow MLAs were mad at his starting the election in an unfortunate moment, and the party was at the brink of implosion. Joseph-Damase Bégin called to convene a caucus meeting to consider changing the leader, with Onésime Gagnon and Hormisdas Langlais as possible contenders, but Duplessis successfully quashed the effort. Another challenge to his leadership came in 1942, when Duplessis was criticised for his alcoholic tendencies, as he would sometimes participate in parliamentary debates while completely drunk. That challenge was rebuffed as well as after his surgery on strangulated hernia in 1942, the leader of opposition decided to quit drinking altogether on his doctor's advice. The Liberals introduced some progressive policies during their five years in power. In 1940, the Godbout administration granted women suffrage in provincial elections, which they already had on the federal level since 1917. Duplessis had previously considered the issue several times, but, unlike some of his colleagues, largely avoided discussing it and generally either abstained on the legislation or opposed it by voting "nay" or by trying to block the bill in committee. The 1940 vote was no different. Duplessis and most of his caucus voted "nay" as the leader of the Union Nationale aired concerns about an increase in government expenditures and electoral fraud that he connected to women's suffrage. He also accused Godbout of hypocrisy, as the Liberal leader previously opposed similar bills seven times. Another landmark policy of the Liberals, the introduction of compulsory schooling from age six to fourteen in 1943, was prompted by a report noting high dropout rates after four years of formal schooling. As with the women's suffrage, the Union Nationale opposed the bill (only Camille Pouliot voted with the Liberals) and later on would not enforce its provisions during Duplessis's fifteen years in power. Finally, in 1944, Godbout created Hydro-Québec from the nationalization of Montreal Light, Heat & Power and its subsidiary Beauharnois Power, but Duplessis again opposed the initiative, saying that its timing just before the 1944 election suggested that it was a political campaign trick. He further disagreed with the details of its implementation – in his opinion, the takeover should have been made by Montreal rather than the provincial government. He also did not want to allocate taxpayer money to the nationalization and believed that negotiating prices between the government and the electricity companies was a better way to decrease them than assuming state ownership. #### 1944 election Just as with the 1935 elections, a third political force wanted to enter Quebec politics: the anti-conscriptionist Bloc populaire. It was a brainchild of such figures as Lionel Groulx and Georges Pelletier [fr], the editor-in-chief of Le Devoir, and centered around André Laurendeau and Maxime Raymond, who were instrumental in what was effectively the defeat of the 1942 conscription plebiscite. A nationalist formation, it supported the nationalization of hydroelectricity and argued for more autonomy for Quebec; at the same time it drew inspirations from Catholic social teaching, corporatism and syndicalism. The party thus sought to compete for nationalist and anti-war votes with the Union Nationale, but at the same time largely keeping the economic policies of the Liberals.Duples Duplessis based his campaign on portraying the religious minorities, the federal government and the trade unions as threatening the province's interests, autonomy, traditions and identity. He also attacked Godbout's reforms as threatening the Church and the Catholic faith (Cardinal Villeneuve indeed disapproved of the legislation). During the campaign, Duplessis floated a false anti-Semitic conspiracy theory that asserted that the federal government, ruled by the Liberals, and the Quebec Liberals struck a secret deal with the so-called "International Zionist Brotherhood" to settle 100,000 Holocaust refugees in Quebec in exchange for campaign contributions. While Max Beer argues that this story did not influence the election result very much, the public and the press was enthusiastic about a leader who would not let any refugees arrive in la belle province. The business community, in its turn, was assured by his pledge to pursue development driven by private investments and opposition to state takeovers of companies. In the 1944 election, the Union Nationale received just over 38% of votes – the smallest share of votes in any election during his leadership – and finished behind the Liberals in the popular vote count. Still, Duplessis was able to form the government as vote splitting between the Bloc populaire and Godbout's party let the Union Nationale win 48 out of 91 seats. ### Second to fifth terms (1944-1959) `Even though the majority of the Union Nationale seemed tenuous to his Liberal opponents, it eventually led to 15 years of uninterrupted rule over the province. This was common in post-war Canada as the incumbent governments were able to take credit for the strong economic performance and were often reelected on this basis. Several other factors specific to Quebec also helped in the longevity of his rule. The first was his personal charisma, which was so strong that the figure of Duplessis mattered much more than the party he represented. Another reason was his media-savvy team of talented campaign managers led by Joseph-Damase Bégin, his minister of colonization. The fact that the party secured a steady source of income from kickbacks from business entities helped implement the lavish campaign styles that the managers proposed. Threats to withdraw funds if the riding did not support the Union Nationale's candidate, malapportionment in favour of rural areas, which were the party's stronghold, and support from the high clergy further cemented the long reign of Duplessis.` The reign itself had some authoritarian tendencies. Even though the Legislative Assembly deliberated with all the usual organs, Duplessis was the de facto rulemaker in parliament. "Le Chef" enforced party discipline very strictly and, with very few exceptions, decision autonomy in the cabinet or in the Legislative Assembly was nonexistent. Duplessis, in his capacity as Attorney General, enforced censorship of creations deemed immoral, whether by statutory authorization or simply at his will. Media outlets suspected of sympathizing with the communists would be closed down and the property confiscated by virtue of the Padlock Act. As for newspapers, they would be ordered not to report on the Union Nationale's wrongdoings for fear of retribution from Duplessis. In order to appeal to the Catholic majority, Duplessis also engaged in a fight against Jehovah's Witnesses, whom he equated to Communists and the Nazis, though he ultimately lost court cases connected to them in the Supreme Court of Canada, notably Roncarelli v Duplessis. Duplessis's rule was socially conservative. The regime generally enjoyed strong support from the high echelons of the Catholic Church, though lower-tier priests did not necessarily endorse him. The Church played an outsized influence in the lives of Quebeckers since it provided most healthcare and education services, something that would only change after 1960. A very able speaker who resorted to populism when necessary, he emphasized the importance of the preservation of what he believed were French Canadian values: the Catholic faith, the local traditions and the French language. In order to preserve them, he argued, Quebec had to defend its provincial autonomy from the encroachment of the federal government. It was usually done by means of refusing to participate in federal-provincial programs, which at that time mostly consisted of new welfare policies, but also through asserting its power to taxation, which Duplessis successfully did in 1955. The post-war economic expansion defined the economic development of Quebec under Duplessis. Full employment stayed in the province for over a decade and average wages rose slightly faster than in the rest of Canada. GDP growth was fairly strong and was in a large degree as a result of a large stream of investment and general improvements in efficiency. The way Duplessis solicited the investments was consistent with economic liberalism. Quebec refused state intervention in resource extraction itself and thus relied heavily on out-of-province (English Canadian or American) capital to develop its rich natural resources. Duplessis attracted the money by using a combination of low taxes, low regulation and pro-employer labour policies. Trade unions in particular were a target of Duplessis's interventions. Duplessis had a consistent position of disincentivizing collective bargaining by passing unfavourable regulations for organized labour, which at the time was unique in Canada. When strike action did occur, the police were immediately deployed to break it (as was the case in Asbestos in 1949). Quebec's management of the budget was fiscally conservative. The budget was balanced and provincial debt was decreasing. Even though the size of the budget increased substantially, "Le Chef" derided most attempts at welfare state in Quebec as "Anglo-Saxon and Protestant socialism"; instead, he called for charity to fill in the gaps. Ironically, by the end of Duplessis's rule, it was the federal government which footed most of the welfare bill in Quebec. The main investments of the era were the construction of hospitals and schools across the province, the increase of electricity supply via Hydro-Québec and development in rural areas (particularly through the Rural Electrification Office). Despite these investments, rural areas remained much poorer and less developed than urban areas, so Duplessis oversaw an exodus of rural population towards Montreal. Additionally, the situation of majority French Canadians still remained worse than that of the Anglophone minority. The reason was that the Anglophones dominated the business world of Montreal, the financial centre of Canada at the time, took most of the top jobs available and had substantial autonomy within the province. ### Death, funeral and the end of the dominance of the Union Nationale Duplessis suffered from numerous health problems throughout his life. He underwent two surgeries for a strangulated hernia in 1930 and 1942, which each ended in several-month-long stays in the hospital due to complications or other diseases slowing down his recovery. Duplessis was also hospitalized for a shorter period in 1929 for injuries he had sustained in a car accident. Duplessis had also been a heavy drinker, but on the advice of his doctor, pressure from his party and Adélard Godbout's suggestion that this "weakness was going to ruin [Duplessis]", became a teetotaller after his second surgery. Also in 1942, doctors diagnosed Duplessis with diabetes, which particularly caused trouble in the last years of his life. By the end of 1958, in the middle of his fourth term, Duplessis's health started to deteriorate significantly and he struggled to keep on with the prior habits of his premiership. Doctors warned him that he was overstretching himself and needed some rest, but "Le Chef" went on with his duties. Sometime before September 2, 1959, Duplessis accepted an invitation from Quebec Iron, a subsidiary of the Iron Ore Company of Canada, to travel to Schefferville to see its mines. The flight to Sept-Îles and then the mining town was uneventful, but at about lunch time on September 3, while staying in the company's guesthouse, Duplessis suffered a bleeding stroke, which paralyzed his right leg and arm and sent him into a barely conscious state; three more strokes occurred by September 4. After balancing on the verge of life for two more days, Duplessis died on September 7 at 12:01 AM EDT. The body was placed in a coffin covered by the flag of Quebec, which he had introduced by an Order in Council in 1948. The coffin arrived to Quebec City by plane at 6:10 am. Duplessis's body was then embalmed and laid in state in the building of the Legislative Assembly. About 100,000 people arrived to pay homage for the late premier until September 10, when the body was transported to his hometown of Trois-Rivières. The funeral service in the Assumption Cathedral of that city, officiated by Cardinal Paul-Émile Léger, Archbishop of Montreal, and Archbishop Maurice Roy of Quebec, was attended by eleven members of the federal cabinet, including Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, all of the provincial cabinet and the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, three fellow premiers, nine bishops and archbishops and other high officials. Another 50,000 people paid respects to Duplessis in his hometown, after which he was buried alongside his parents. On the evening of September 10, 1959, the caucus of the Union Nationale proposed to the Lieutenant Governor that Paul Sauvé be sworn in as premier, which he was on the morning of the following day. The time of his rule is widely known as that of "désormais" (from now on) and seen as a break from his predecessor. That said, despite the several reforms that have been implemented in the short "100 days", as the period is also known, Sauvé stressed his loyalty to the legacy of Duplessis and portrayed his rule as the continuation of what Duplessis was doing. Antonio Barrette, who succeeded Sauvé after the latter's death in January 1960, also continued the same policies. However, the frequent changes of power threw the Union Nationale into disarray just before the planned election in June, which Jean Lesage's Liberals won. This defeat of the Union Nationale started the Quiet Revolution. ### Private life Duplessis was a lifelong bachelor and had no children. In fact, "Le Chef" would tell people that he had no family and that his only responsibility was the welfare of his province, to which he said he belonged. For most of his political life, Duplessis lived alone in Château Frontenac. Conrad Black suggests that during World War I Duplessis courted Augustine Delisle, a daughter of a prosperous coal trader, but his family disapproved of a connection that would unite them with a family of merchants. This upset him and it was probably then that he decided never to marry anyone. Duplessis still remained close to his sisters as well as their husbands. He also became a godfather to a daughter of Antonio Talbot, the minister of roads in his post-war government. In his later life, his relationships with other women were quite idiosyncratic. He believed that he had to behave in a strictly aristocratic and gentelmanly manner towards them but his convictions did not prevent him from making risqué comments about women in their presence. In general, Duplessis would more and more feel as if he were part of aristocracy and behave and dress accordingly even though he had no blood relation with it. Conrad Black suggests that hypospadias could also have affected his relationships with women. Despite a populist image "Le Chef" created in public and rumours that persisted even after his death, his hobbies included opera and literature. He enjoyed historical or political books the most, but he also read classical French or English-language authors, such as Rudyard Kipling, Tennyson and Shakespeare. Later in his life, Duplessis developed a taste for paintings and started collecting them. At his death, his sister Jeanne-L. Balcer-Duplessis inherited the works of art, which she donated to the provincial government in exchange for the cancellation of the inheritance tax. Most of the paintings, including those by Clarence Gagnon, Cornelius Krieghoff, J. M. W. Turner, Auguste Renoir, Charles Jacque, Cornelis Springer and Johan Jongkind, are stored in the National Museum of Fine Arts of Quebec. On the other hand, his love of sport was not unequivocal. In fact, Duplessis has not practised any in his life, except for croquet. However, he was a fan of the Montreal Canadiens and was also an avid supporter of the New York Yankees. ## Historical debate Duplessis is recognized as one of the most colourful, if controversial, people in Canadian politics. His figure already polarized the political landscape of Quebec during his life, and it continued to do so well after his death. Even today, few politicians dare to emphasize the continuity of their policies with those of Duplessis for fear of being ridiculed as the rule of Duplessis generally has negative connotations in Quebec society. Opinions about him are so strong that being compared to Duplessis may be considered an insult. This was already the case shortly after the Union Nationale's downfall in 1960, when Léon Dion urged the province to reject its heritage and undergo a revolution. The new generation of adults which emerged in the 1980s, who did not have appreciable contact with either Duplessis or the events of the 1960s, associated Duplessis with negative phenomena much more than the positive ones. ### Duplessis as the incarnation of the Grande Noirceur Intellectual circles were not kind to Duplessis, even during his life. Pierre Trudeau would write in Cité Libre that Duplessis did not tax enough on the provincial level and this enabled the federal government's invasion of provincial autonomy and deprived Quebeckers of the needed social services. In Le Devoir, André Laurendeau penned an editorial, La théorie du roi nègre [fr] (The Theory of the Negro King). It posited that foreign capital allowed Duplessis to stay in power so that he could officially allow to ruthlessly exploit the province of Quebec. The role of Duplessis was along the lines of the "Negro Kings", the local chieftains whom the British allowed some control over their area but who had to recognize the supremacy of their overlords. Criticism of "Le Chef" intensified following his death. Shortly before the 1960 elections, Pierre Laporte published the first biography after Duplessis's death, which portrayed him as an intelligent but ruthless politician who would stay in power through corruption and repression of political opponents. Leslie Roberts' book outright called Duplessis a "Latin-American dictator" who would cater to the simplistic desires of French Canadians but failed to lift them from the state of inferiority with respect to the Anglophones. The Quiet Revolution was viewed as an enlightened response to the politics embodied by Duplessis, to the degree that the Duplessis era is associated with the label Grande Noirceur (Great Darkness). Interpretations behind the label and even the dates of the beginning of this "shameful" period vary, but generally revolve around the criticism of defending a regressive model of society, blocking progress and leaving patronage and corruption entrenched. In defending the label, Jacques Godbout described the period of Duplessis as that of "perverse control of sexuality, contempt for the industry, art, economy and rejection of the scientific thought" and said that in intellectual circles, the Grande Noirceur was also a period of grande silence (great silence) and of grande peur (great fear). Among other supporters of this interpretation were trade unionist Madeleine Parent, who was imprisoned for her advocacy in 1955 and ultimately acquitted of the charge of "seditious conspiracy"; Gérard Pelletier, also a union organizer, who described Duplessis's views as those of a "19th-century rural notary"; and Jacques Hébert. Yves Vaillancourt, who analyzed the period from the perspective of administration of welfare, stated that social justice was in disrepair and that the government of Duplessis was at fault for causing this problem. The Grande Noirceur view is also present in some English-language scholarly books that describe that era. ### Challenging the Grande Noirceur label In the 1970s, despite an overwhelmingly negative coverage of "Le Chef", two biographies cast him in a very positive light. Robert Rumilly [fr], who defended Duplessis's policies throughout his life, including by writing propaganda pieces on the Union Nationale's behalf, penned a biography of Duplessis published in 1973. Conrad Black's biography, published in 1977, just like Rumilly's, received substantial criticism from the historians of the time. However, with time, the 1977 biography became more and more accepted. Today, the books are either considered reliable even if they are biased and have some methodological issues, or, alternatively, flawed but usable, particularly given that no historian wrote a similar biography after them. In short, Rumilly praised his devotion to the Catholic Church and defended his fight against "subversive" organizations, such as trade unions. Black, on the other hand, believed that Duplessis was an able politician who managed to modernize the province even while defending traditional values; the latter then further clarified that in his view, the Québécois owe their prosperity to Duplessis as he used the money saved from underpaying teachers and nurses to make infrastructural investments. The next wave of change came with the researchers of the 1980s and the 1990s, who challenged the then dominant idea of Duplessism as something awful and to be avoided, which was how historians who personally witnessed the Quiet Revolution often viewed it. The movement did not want to revise history as in rewriting the facts about that period, but rather changing the perspectives on it, giving different interpretations and assigning different weights to the events. This started with the publication of the synthesis of the history of Quebec by Linteau et al. (named Quebec Since 1930 in the English edition). It emphasized that Quebec, in fact, was developing in line with the rest of North America and the West in general; issues specific to Quebec, like the dominant influence of Catholic Church, were not as important as previously assumed or reported. In 1994, Bourque et al. published another book that argued that, contrary to common belief, the Duplessis government was actually liberal in its outlook as it embraced economic progress and modern capitalism and did not oppose liberal democracy, all while pushing back against the welfare state and staying within traditional values of Quebec. This interpretation was challenged by numerous historians, who variously argued that the regime was conservative if not illiberal in its nature. Among those who changed their opinion of the regime in the course of the years was Léon Dion, who wrote in 1993 that the assessment of the period as the Grande Noirceur (as he and like-minded scholars proposed in the 1960s) was unreasonably harsh and his policies on the economy, such as the development of Northern Quebec, were reasonable or at least justifiable. He also argued that the blame for the regime's regressiveness should be also laid on the Catholic Church and on society, which wanted order and security and thus tolerated oppression. Dion also tends to agree on the validity of Duplessis's defence of provincial autonomy, in line with other historians, such as Yves Vaillancourt and Xavier Gélinas. In today's historiography of Quebec (at least since the 1990s), most scholars express the opinion that the notion of Grande Noirceur was a myth invented by those who embraced or spearheaded the Quiet Revolution in the 1960s. Alexandre Dumas writes that the notion of the Quiet Revolution can only live with the "anti-hero" Duplessis and the association with the Great Darkness. Michel Sarra-Bournet and Gérard Bouchard suggested that the portrayal of Duplessis's era as a Great Darkness unique to Quebec may be unjustified as contemporary governments of Ontario, Manitoba and New Zealand shared many characteristics shared with Duplessis's rule, such as resistance to the welfare state, anti-communism, corruption scandals and the focus on rural development. A similar opinion was expressed by Jocelyn Létourneau. Yet other historians emphasize in their opinions that the "rupture" between the Quiet Revolution and Duplessis is not present in every aspect of Quebec's life, is generally exaggerated or even artificially created, or else that it should be better thought of as a transitionary period. Some authors go as far as rejecting the label altogether as a "gross caricature", framing this period as that of the "Great Catch-Up", in comparison to the "Quiet Decline" that followed the death of "Le Chef", or even, as in the case with Éric Bedard, merging the periods of Duplessis and that of the Quiet Revolution into a single "Quiet Reconquest". ### Attempts at comparison The ideology of Duplessis and the Union Nationale between 1936 and 1959 was subject to numerous studies, and several comparisons have been proposed. A 1984 paper by George Steven Swan found many similarities between the policies of Duplessis and those of Huey Long, a left-populist American politician from Louisiana, and of Juan Perón of Argentina, in particular as they related to authoritarian practices. Léon Dion, in some similarity to Leslie Roberts, argued that his rule could be compared to that of Latin American dictators, though occasional comparisons to fascism, in his opinion, were wrong. Frédéric Boily dismissed that reasoning as simplistic, because it implied that Duplessis was a populist along the lines of Perón and Brazil's Getúlio Vargas. Instead, he argues that Duplessis was not truly populist but simply made good use of populist rhetoric. Jean-Philippe Warren wrote that his style of governance could be compared to a type of regime called "authoritarian democracy". However, Gilles Bourque opined that the comparison is inaccurate as the rule of Duplessis bears little similarity to the regime of Vladimir Putin in Russia, which would also be an "authoritarian democracy" under Warren's definition. Catherine Frost saw many similarities between Duplessis and Éamon de Valera in comparing the nationalism in Ireland and that of Quebec. Greame Orr and Ron Levy found that Duplessis's and Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen's regimes bore so much resemblance that they suggest that Bjelke-Petersen might have studied Duplessis's politics before implementing his policies in that Australian state. They noted the heavy-handed approach both used for trade unions and communists, their strong anti-federalist rhetoric (even if Duplessis stopped short of advocating separatism) and extensive malapportionment that they conclude was gratuitous. With respect to Duplessis's staunch anti-communism, his policies were also likened to those of US Senator Joseph McCarthy. In the context of Quebec, some historians compared Mario Dumont, with his Action démocratique du Québec (ADQ), to Duplessis. Among the suggested similarities were the party's program mirroring that of the Union Nationale, ADQ's emphasis on provincial autonomy and the (rather successful) usage of populist rhetoric at times when the electorate was tired of the prior state of politics. Dumont himself said he was flattered by the comparison, though he also suggested that he preferred Jean Lesage references. More recently, the current premier of Quebec, François Legault, has been compared to Duplessis, and his Coalition Avenir Québec party to the Union Nationale. In fact, in 2014, Legault underlined that his party bore resemblance to the Union Nationale, though he assured voters they would not be returning to the grande noirceur. When CAQ won a majority of seats, Legault participated in a heated parliamentary debate defending Duplessis's legacy. In this incident from 2021, the co-leader of the left-wing Québec solidaire party, Gabriel Nadeau-Dubois, compared the leader of the CAQ to Duplessis while accusing Legault of excluding those Quebec residents who opposed Bill 21 from the definition of who is Québécois and of assuming the role of "the father of the Quebec nation". The premier retorted that while, in his opinion, Duplessis had many faults, he defended Quebec, unlike the "woke" Nadeau-Dubois. ## Commemoration ### In culture and collective memory of the Québécois Immediately after the death of Duplessis, provincial politicians took pains to preserve the memory of "Le Chef". A provincial riding was created in 1960 from parts of Saguenay (now René-Lévesque) electoral district. The following year, Boulevard Champigny, a major thoroughfare in Quebec City, was renamed after Duplessis, and is now alternatively known as Autoroute 540. Boulevard Maurice-Duplessis [fr] in the northeastern part of the Island of Montreal was named that way in 1967. The government was also interested in building a monument, but it did not go according to plan. In November 1959, just after Duplessis's death, Paul Sauvé introduced and quickly passed a law in the Legislative Assembly that envisaged building a monument to Maurice Duplessis and placing it somewhere in the vicinity of the Parliament Building. This was unusual at the time as before 1980, it was the government (via the Ministry of Public Works) that decided on the decorations, and also since Honoré Mercier was the only provincial politician with a statue in front of the Legislative Assembly. By summer 1961, Joseph-Émile Brunet, who had already scuplted a bust of Duplessis, made the monument ready, but the government of Jean Lesage ordered to hide it. When journalists inquired about the statue, the government asserted that this was an effort to avoid political tensions. Therefore, the first statue of Le Chef was unveiled in 1964 in Trois-Rivières by the Société des amis de Maurice L. Duplessis, a private organization dedicated to the preservation of Duplessis's heritage. The Society was then commemorating the fifth anniversary of his death. The government commemoration of Duplessis seemed to have lost steam as the Quiet Revolution progressed and the general populace evolved a negative view of the Duplessis's reign. By the time Jean-Jacques Bertrand, also of the Union Nationale, became premier in 1968, even the party's supporters relegated Duplessis to the subconscious. "Le Chef" came again under the spotlight in the 1970s, with numerous books about his rule for academic and general public circulation alike (including the two biographies by Rumilly and Black). A very successful play called Charbonneau et le Chef [fr] by John Thomas McDonough, describing the Asbestos strike, appared in Quebec City's theatres in 1971. Denys Arcand treated him extensively in his early film career: in 1972, he directed Québec: Duplessis et après for the National Film Board of Canada, and, six years later, he was a screenwriter for the TV series Duplessis, which was released on the screens of Radio-Canada. Both proved quite sympathetic to "Le Chef" and minimized the supposed rupture between Duplessis and the events that happened after his death. In 1974, Parks Canada designated Duplessis as a Person of National Historic Significance. Three years later, and 18 years after the Legislative Assembly decreed so, René Lévesque retrieved Brunet's monument from storage and unveiled it next to the Parliament Building. This event by the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was held to attract Union Nationale supporters. The preparation copies of the monument are stored in the Museum of Fine Arts of Quebec. In the 1980s, the negative coverage of Duplessis in the arts still continued. Among these works was a collection of feminist articles by Andrée Yanacopoulo, Au nom du père, du fils et de Duplessis, and a TV series Asbestos. Michel Tremblay's Le gars de Québec (1985), set in 1952, draws inspiration from Gogol's The Government Inspector and has rather critical references to the era. In the words of Pierre Berthelot, a simple mention of his name was enough to create his invisible yet oppressive presence that made characters stuck in their hardships and which treated them to abuses by government agents. Quebec did not become interested in Duplessis's heritage in the 1980s despite the otherwise favourable climate for conservative politicians. The Union Nationale, then under the stewardship of Roch La Salle, distanced itself from the heritage of Maurice Duplessis and lost all seats in the 1981 election, after which the party maintained a nominal presence in provincial politics before being finally disbanded in 1989. The 1990s proved even worse for his memory as a documentary in 1997, Les Orphelins de Duplessis, made the abuses committed against the Duplessis Orphans known to a wide public and further entrenched the image of Duplessis's era as that of the Great Darkness. In the 21st century, with the exception of some non-scholarly works like that of Martin Lemay, a former Parti Québécois member of the National Assembly, the negative image of the era persisted. The student protests of 2012, often known as "Maple Spring", were a manifestation of that trend. Gabriel Nadeau-Dubois, then one of the leaders of the protests, suggested that the government's Bill 78, which aimed to suppress protests, was a return to the times of Duplessis. Participants in the demonstrations also painted a graffiti saying, in rough translation: "Come back Duplessis, you've left your pigs!", in protest against the use of riot police. A microbrewery called Dieu du Ciel! of Saint-Jérôme produces a variety of dark beer called Grande Noirceur with suggestive imagery – a caricature appearance of "Le Chef" manipulating the assembled population with strings (as if they were puppets), with church towers behind him. ### Honorary titles Duplessis held some top positions in relation to his law career. On December 30, 1931, he received the title of King's Counsel due to his achievements in the field of law. In addition to that, he was elected President (bâtonnier [fr]) of the Bar of Quebec and President of the Bar of Trois-Rivières for the 1937–1938 term, which, in addition to conferring prestige to the Premier, gave him some influence over the internal order of the bar. Several universities granted him honorary degrees, including Université Laval (three times: apart from a law degree in 1937 and forestry sciences in 1955, a general honorary doctorate was granted in 1952), McGill University (law, 1948), Université de Montréal (law, 1953), Université de Sherbrooke (law, 1956), as well as from Bishop's University and the University of Caen in France. Maurice Duplessis also received several decorations. In 1948, Argentine President Juan Perón gave Duplessis the highest decoration, the Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín, which provoked a minor diplomatic incident as the government of Canada had advised foreign emissaries not to give any such distinctions to its citizens. Other awards that "Le Chef" received include a golden star of the Ordre national du mérite agricole (1946), a provincial order for people who contributed to the development of agriculture, and the induction in the Commonwealth's Order of Saint John.
537,442	HDMI	1,173,559,777	Proprietary interface for transmitting digital audio and video data	[ "Audiovisual connectors", "Audiovisual introductions in 2002", "Computer connectors", "Computer display standards", "Digital display connectors", "High-definition television", "Japanese inventions", "Serial buses", "Television technology", "Television terminology", "Television transmission standards", "Video signal" ]	High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is a proprietary audio/video interface for transmitting uncompressed video data and compressed or uncompressed digital audio data from an HDMI-compliant source device, such as a display controller, to a compatible computer monitor, video projector, digital television, or digital audio device. HDMI is a digital replacement for analog video standards. HDMI implements the ANSI/CTA-861 standard, which defines video formats and waveforms, transport of compressed and uncompressed LPCM audio, auxiliary data, and implementations of the VESA EDID. CEA-861 signals carried by HDMI are electrically compatible with the CEA-861 signals used by the Digital Visual Interface (DVI). No signal conversion is necessary, nor is there a loss of video quality when a DVI-to-HDMI adapter is used. The Consumer Electronics Control (CEC) capability allows HDMI devices to control each other when necessary and allows the user to operate multiple devices with one handheld remote control device. Several versions of HDMI have been developed and deployed since the initial release of the technology, occasionally introducing new connectors with smaller form factors, but all versions still use the same basic pinout and are compatible with all connector types and cables. Other than improved audio and video capacity, performance, resolution and color spaces, newer versions have optional advanced features such as 3D, Ethernet data connection, and CEC extensions. Production of consumer HDMI products started in late 2003. In Europe, either DVI-HDCP or HDMI is included in the HD ready in-store labeling specification for TV sets for HDTV, formulated by EICTA with SES Astra in 2005. HDMI began to appear on consumer HDTVs in 2004 and camcorders and digital still cameras in 2006. As of January 2021, nearly 10 billion HDMI devices have been sold. ## History The HDMI founders were Hitachi, Panasonic, Philips, Silicon Image, Sony, Thomson, and Toshiba. Digital Content Protection, LLC provides HDCP (which was developed by Intel) for HDMI. HDMI has the support of motion picture producers Fox, Universal, Warner Bros. and Disney, along with system operators DirecTV, EchoStar (Dish Network) and CableLabs. The HDMI founders began development on HDMI 1.0 on April 16, 2002, with the goal of creating an AV connector that was backward-compatible with DVI. At the time, DVI-HDCP (DVI with HDCP) and DVI-HDTV (DVI-HDCP using the CEA-861-B video standard) were being used on HDTVs. HDMI 1.0 was designed to improve on DVI-HDTV by using a smaller connector and adding audio capability and enhanced capability and consumer electronics control functions. The first Authorized Testing Center (ATC), which tests HDMI products, was opened by Silicon Image on June 23, 2003, in California, United States. The first ATC in Japan was opened by Panasonic on May 1, 2004, in Osaka. The first ATC in Europe was opened by Philips on May 25, 2005, in Caen, France. The first ATC in China was opened by Silicon Image on November 21, 2005, in Shenzhen. The first ATC in India was opened by Philips on June 12, 2008, in Bangalore. The HDMI website contains a list of all the ATCs. According to In-Stat, the number of HDMI devices sold was 5 million in 2004, 17.4 million in 2005, 63 million in 2006, and 143 million in 2007. HDMI has become the de facto standard for HDTVs, and according to In-Stat, around 90% of digital televisions in 2007 included HDMI. In-Stat has estimated that 229 million HDMI devices were sold in 2008. On April 8, 2008, there were over 850 consumer electronics and PC companies that had adopted the HDMI specification (HDMI adopters). On January 7, 2009, HDMI Licensing, LLC announced that HDMI had reached an installed base of over 600 million HDMI devices. In-Stat has estimated that 394 million HDMI devices would sell in 2009 and that all digital televisions by the end of 2009 would have at least one HDMI input. On January 28, 2008, In-Stat reported that shipments of HDMI were expected to exceed those of DVI in 2008, driven primarily by the consumer electronics market. In 2008, PC Magazine awarded a Technical Excellence Award in the Home Theater category for an "innovation that has changed the world" to the CEC portion of the HDMI specification. Ten companies were given a Technology and Engineering Emmy Award for their development of HDMI by the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences on January 7, 2009. On October 25, 2011, the HDMI Forum was established by the HDMI founders to create an open organization so that interested companies can participate in the development of the HDMI specification. All members of the HDMI Forum have equal voting rights, may participate in the Technical Working Group, and if elected can be on the Board of Directors. There is no limit to the number of companies allowed in the HDMI Forum though companies must pay an annual fee of US\$15,000 with an additional annual fee of \$5,000 for those companies that serve on the Board of Directors. The Board of Directors is made up of 11 companies who are elected every two years by a general vote of HDMI Forum members. All future development of the HDMI specification take place in the HDMI Forum and are built upon the HDMI 1.4b specification. Also on the same day HDMI Licensing, LLC announced that there were over 1,100 HDMI adopters and that over 2 billion HDMI-enabled products had shipped since the launch of the HDMI standard. From October 25, 2011, all development of the HDMI specification became the responsibility of the newly created HDMI Forum. On January 8, 2013, HDMI Licensing, LLC announced that there were over 1,300 HDMI adopters and that over 3 billion HDMI devices had shipped since the launch of the HDMI standard. The day also marked the 10th anniversary of the release of the first HDMI specification. As of January 2021, nearly 10 billion HDMI devices had been sold. ## Specifications The HDMI specification defines the protocols, signals, electrical interfaces and mechanical requirements of the standard. The maximum pixel clock rate for HDMI 1.0 is 165 MHz, which is sufficient to allow 1080p and WUXGA (1920×1200) at 60 Hz. HDMI 1.3 increases that to 340 MHz, which allows for higher resolution (such as WQXGA, 2560×1600) across a single digital link. An HDMI connection can either be single-link (type A/C/D) or dual-link (type B) and can have a video pixel rate of 25 MHz to 340 MHz (for a single-link connection) or 25 MHz to 680 MHz (for a dual-link connection). Video formats with rates below 25 MHz (e.g., 13.5 MHz for 480i/NTSC) are transmitted using a pixel-repetition scheme. ### Audio/video HDMI uses the Consumer Technology Association/Electronic Industries Alliance 861 standards. HDMI 1.0 to HDMI 1.2a uses the EIA/CEA-861-B video standard, HDMI 1.3 uses the CEA-861-D video standard, and HDMI 1.4 uses the CEA-861-E video standard. The CEA-861-E document defines "video formats and waveforms; colorimetry and quantization; transport of compressed and uncompressed LPCM audio; carriage of auxiliary data; and implementations of the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) Enhanced Extended Display Identification Data Standard (E-EDID)". On July 15, 2013, the CEA announced the publication of CEA-861-F, a standard that can be used by video interfaces such as DVI, HDMI, and LVDS. CEA-861-F adds the ability to transmit several Ultra HD video formats and additional color spaces. To ensure baseline compatibility between different HDMI sources and displays (as well as backward compatibility with the electrically compatible DVI standard) all HDMI devices must implement the sRGB color space at 8 bits per component. Ability to use the color space and higher color depths ("deep color") is optional. HDMI permits sRGB 4:4:4 chroma subsampling (8–16 bits per component), xvYCC 4:4:4 chroma subsampling (8–16 bits per component), 4:4:4 chroma subsampling (8–16 bits per component), or 4:2:2 chroma subsampling (8–12 bits per component). The color spaces that can be used by HDMI are ITU-R BT.601, ITU-R BT.709-5 and IEC 61966-2-4. For digital audio, if an HDMI device has audio, it is required to implement the baseline format: stereo (uncompressed) PCM. Other formats are optional, with HDMI allowing up to 8 channels of uncompressed audio at sample sizes of 16 bits, 20 bits, or 24 bits, with sample rates of 32 kHz, 44.1 kHz, 48 kHz, 88.2 kHz, 96 kHz, 176.4 kHz, or 192 kHz. HDMI also carries any IEC 61937-compliant compressed audio stream, such as Dolby Digital and DTS, and up to 8 channels of one-bit DSD audio (used on Super Audio CDs) at rates up to four times that of Super Audio CD. With version 1.3, HDMI allows lossless compressed audio streams Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio. As with the video, audio capability is optional. Audio return channel (ARC) is a feature introduced in the HDMI 1.4 standard. "Return" refers to the case where the audio comes from the TV and can be sent "upstream" to the AV receiver using the HDMI cable connected to the AV receiver. An example given on the HDMI website is that a TV that directly receives a terrestrial/satellite broadcast, or has a video source built in, sends the audio "upstream" to the AV receiver. The HDMI standard was not designed to pass closed caption data (for example, subtitles) to the television for decoding. As such, any closed caption stream must be decoded and included as an image in the video stream(s) prior to transmission over an HDMI cable to appear on the DTV. This limits the caption style (even for digital captions) to only that decoded at the source prior to HDMI transmission. This also prevents closed captions when transmission over HDMI is required for upconversion. For example, a DVD player that sends an upscaled 720p/1080i format via HDMI to an HDTV has no way to pass Closed Captioning data so that the HDTV can decode it, as there is no line 21 VBI in that format. ### Communication channels HDMI has three physically separate communication channels, which are the DDC, TMDS and the optional CEC. HDMI 1.4 added ARC and HEC. #### Display Data Channel (DDC) The Display Data Channel (DDC) is a communication channel based on the I<sup>2</sup>C bus specification. HDMI specifically requires the device implement the Enhanced Display Data Channel (E-DDC), which is used by the HDMI source device to read the E-EDID data from the HDMI sink device to learn what audio/video formats it can take. HDMI requires that the E-DDC implement I<sup>2</sup>C standard mode speed (100 kbit/s) and allows it to optionally implement fast mode speed (400 kbit/s). The DDC channel is actively used for High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP). #### Transition-minimized differential signaling (TMDS) Transition-minimized differential signaling (TMDS) on HDMI interleaves video, audio and auxiliary data using three different packet types, called the video data period, the data island period and the control period. During the video data period, the pixels of an active video line are transmitted. During the data island period (which occurs during the horizontal and vertical blanking intervals), audio and auxiliary data are transmitted within a series of packets. The control period occurs between video and data island periods. Both HDMI and DVI use TMDS to send 10-bit characters that are encoded using 8b/10b encoding that differs from the original IBM form for the video data period and 2b/10b encoding for the control period. HDMI adds the ability to send audio and auxiliary data using 4b/10b encoding for the data island period. Each data island period is 32 pixels in size and contains a 32-bit packet header, which includes 8 bits of BCH ECC parity data for error correction and describes the contents of the packet. Each packet contains four subpackets, and each subpacket is 64 bits in size, including 8 bits of BCH ECC parity data, allowing for each packet to carry up to 224 bits of audio data. Each data island period can contain up to 18 packets. Seven of the 15 packet types described in the HDMI 1.3a specifications deal with audio data, while the other 8 types deal with auxiliary data. Among these are the general control packet and the gamut metadata packet. The general control packet carries information on AVMUTE (which mutes the audio during changes that may cause audio noise) and color depth (which sends the bit depth of the current video stream and is required for deep color). The gamut metadata packet carries information on the color space being used for the current video stream and is required for xvYCC. #### Consumer Electronics Control (CEC) Consumer Electronics Control (CEC) is an HDMI feature designed to allow the user to command and control up to 15 CEC-enabled devices, that are connected through HDMI, by using only one of their remote controls (for example by controlling a television set, set-top box, and DVD player using only the remote control of the TV). CEC also allows for individual CEC-enabled devices to command and control each other without user intervention. It is a one-wire bidirectional serial bus that is based on the CENELEC standard AV.link protocol to perform remote control functions. CEC wiring is mandatory, although implementation of CEC in a product is optional. It was defined in HDMI Specification 1.0 and updated in HDMI 1.2, HDMI 1.2a and HDMI 1.3a (which added timer and audio commands to the bus). USB to CEC adapters exist that allow a computer to control CEC-enabled devices. #### HDMI Ethernet and Audio Return Channel Introduced in HDMI 1.4, HDMI Ethernet and Audio Return Channel (HEAC) adds a high-speed bidirectional data communication link (HEC) and the ability to send audio data upstream to the source device (ARC). HEAC utilizes two lines from the connector: the previously unused Reserved pin (called HEAC+) and the Hot Plug Detect pin (called HEAC−). If only ARC transmission is required, a single mode signal using the HEAC+ line can be used, otherwise, HEC is transmitted as a differential signal over the pair of lines, and ARC as a common mode component of the pair. Audio Return Channel (ARC) ARC is an audio link meant to replace other cables between the TV and the A/V receiver or speaker system. This direction is used when the TV is the one that generates or receives the video stream instead of the other equipment. A typical case is the running of an app on a smart TV such as Netflix, but reproduction of audio is handled by the other equipment. Without ARC, the audio output from the TV must be routed by another cable, typically TOSLink or RCA, into the speaker system. HDMI Ethernet Channel (HEC) HDMI Ethernet Channel technology consolidates video, audio, and data streams into a single HDMI cable, and the HEC feature enables IP-based applications over HDMI and provides a bidirectional Ethernet communication at 100 Mbit/s. The physical layer of the Ethernet implementation uses a hybrid to simultaneously send and receive attenuated 100BASE-TX-type signals through a single twisted pair. ### Compatibility with DVI HDMI is backward compatible with single-link Digital Visual Interface digital video (DVI-D or DVI-I, but not DVI-A or dual-link DVI). No signal conversion is required when an adapter or asymmetric cable is used, so there is no loss of video quality. From a user's perspective, an HDMI display can be driven by a single-link DVI-D source, since HDMI and DVI-D define an overlapping minimum set of allowed resolutions and frame-buffer formats to ensure a basic level of interoperability. In the reverse case, a DVI-D monitor has the same level of basic interoperability unless content protection with High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP) interferes—or the HDMI color encoding is in component color space instead of RGB, which is not possible in DVI. An HDMI source, such as a Blu-ray player, may require an HDCP-compliant display, and refuse to output HDCP-protected content to a non-compliant display. A further complication is that there is a small amount of display equipment, such as some high-end home theater projectors, designed with HDMI inputs but not HDCP-compliant. Any DVI-to-HDMI adapter can function as an HDMI-to-DVI adapter (and vice versa). Typically, the only limitation is the gender of the adapter's connectors and the gender of the cables and sockets it is used with. Features specific to HDMI, such as remote-control and audio transport, are not available in devices that use legacy DVI-D signalling. However, many devices output HDMI over a DVI connector (e.g., ATI 3000-series and NVIDIA GTX 200-series video cards), and some multimedia displays may accept HDMI (including audio) over a DVI input. Exact capabilities beyond basic compatibility vary. Adapters are generally bi-directional. ### Content protection (HDCP) High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP) is a newer form of digital rights management. Intel created the original technology to make sure that digital content followed the guidelines set by the Digital Content Protection group. HDMI can use HDCP to encrypt the signal if required by the source device. CSS, CPRM and AACS require the use of HDCP on HDMI when playing back encrypted DVD Video, DVD Audio, HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc. The HDCP Repeater bit controls the authentication and switching/distribution of an HDMI signal. According to HDCP Specification 1.2 (beginning with HDMI CTS 1.3a), any system that implements HDCP must do so in a fully compliant manner. HDCP testing that was previously only a requirement for optional tests such as the "Simplay HD" testing program is now part of the requirements for HDMI compliance. HDCP accommodates up to 127 connected devices with up to 7 levels, using a combination of sources, sinks and repeaters. A simple example of this is several HDMI devices connected to an HDMI AV receiver that is connected to an HDMI display. Devices called HDCP strippers can remove the HDCP information from the video signal so the video can play on non-HDCP-compliant displays, though a fair use and non-disclosure form must usually be signed with a registering agency before use. ### Connectors There are five HDMI connector types. Type A/B are defined in the HDMI 1.0 specification, type C is defined in the HDMI 1.3 specification, and type D/E are defined in the HDMI 1.4 specification. Type A : The plug (male) connector outside dimensions are 13.9 mm × 4.45 mm, and the receptacle (female) connector inside dimensions are 14 mm × 4.55 mm. There are 19 pins, with bandwidth to carry all SDTV, EDTV, HDTV, UHD, and 4K modes. It is electrically compatible with single-link DVI-D. Type B : This connector is 21.2 mm × 4.45 mm and has 29 pins, carrying six differential pairs instead of three, for use with very high-resolution displays such as WQUXGA (3840×2400). It is electrically compatible with dual-link DVI-D, but as of August 2021 has not yet been used in any products. With the introduction of HDMI 1.3, the maximum bandwidth of single-link HDMI exceeded that of dual-link DVI-D. As of HDMI 1.4, the pixel clock rate crossover frequency from single to dual-link has not been defined. Type C : This Mini connector is smaller than the type A plug, measuring 10.42 mm × 2.42 mm but has the same 19-pin configuration. It is intended for portable devices. The differences are that all positive signals of the differential pairs are swapped with their corresponding shield, the DDC/CEC Ground is assigned to pin 13 instead of pin 17, the CEC is assigned to pin 14 instead of pin 13, and the reserved pin is 17 instead of pin 14. The type C Mini connector can be connected to a type A connector using a type A-to-type C cable. Type D : This Micro connector shrinks the connector size to something resembling a micro-USB connector, measuring only 5.83 mm × 2.20 mm For comparison, a micro-USB connector is 6.85 mm × 1.8 mm and a USB Type-A connector is 11.5 mm × 4.5 mm. It keeps the standard 19 pins of types A and C, but the pin assignment is different from both. Type E : The Automotive Connection System has a locking tab to keep the cable from vibrating loose and a shell to help prevent moisture and dirt from interfering with the signals. The HDMI alternate mode lets a user connect the reversible USB-C connector with the HDMI source devices (mobile, tablet, laptop). This cable connects to video display/sink devices using any of the native HDMI connectors. This is an HDMI cable, in this case a USB-C to HDMI cable. ### Cables An HDMI cable is composed of four shielded twisted pairs, with impedance of the order of 100 Ω (±15%), plus seven separate conductors. HDMI cables with Ethernet differ in that three of the separate conductors instead form an additional shielded twisted pair (with the CEC/DDC ground as a shield). Although no maximum length for an HDMI cable is specified, signal attenuation (dependent on the cable's construction quality and conducting materials) limits usable lengths in practice and certification is difficult to achieve for lengths beyond 13 m. HDMI 1.3 defines two cable categories: Category 1-certified cables, which have been tested at 74.25 MHz (which would include resolutions such as 720p60 and 1080i60), and Category 2-certified cables, which have been tested at 340 MHz (which would include resolutions such as 1080p60 and 4K30). Category 1 HDMI cables are marketed as "Standard" and Category 2 HDMI cables as "High Speed". This labeling guideline for HDMI cables went into effect on October 17, 2008. Category 1 and 2 cables can either meet the required parameter specifications for inter-pair skew, far-end crosstalk, attenuation and differential impedance, or they can meet the required non-equalized/equalized eye diagram requirements. A cable of about 5 meters (16 feet) can be manufactured to Category 1 specifications easily and inexpensively by using 28 AWG (0.081 mm<sup>2</sup>) conductors. With better quality construction and materials, including 24 AWG (0.205 mm<sup>2</sup>) conductors, an HDMI cable can reach lengths of up to 15 meters (49 feet). Many HDMI cables under 5 meters of length that were made before the HDMI 1.3 specification can work as Category 2 cables, but only Category 2-tested cables are guaranteed to work for Category 2 purposes. As of the HDMI 1.4 specification, the following cable types are defined for HDMI in general: - Standard HDMI Cable – up to 1080i and 720p - Standard HDMI Cable with Ethernet - Standard Automotive HDMI Cable - High Speed HDMI Cable – 1080p, 4K 30 Hz, 3D and deep color - High Speed HDMI Cable with Ethernet A new certification program was introduced in October 2015 to certify that cables work at the 18 Gbit/s maximum bandwidth of the HDMI 2.0 specification. In addition to expanding the set of cable testing requirements, the certification program introduces an EMI test to ensure cables minimize interference with wireless signals. These cables are marked with an anti-counterfeiting authentication label and are defined as: - Premium High Speed HDMI Cable - Premium High Speed HDMI Cable with Ethernet In conjunction with the HDMI 2.1 specification, a third category of cable was announced on January 4, 2017, called "48G". Also known as Category 3 HDMI or "Ultra High Speed" HDMI, the cable is designed to support the 48 Gbit/s bandwidth of HDMI 2.1, supporting 4K, 5K, 8K and 10K at 120 Hz. The cable is backwards compatible with the earlier HDMI devices, using existing HDMI type A, C and D connectors, and includes HDMI Ethernet. - Ultra High Speed HDMI Cable (48G Cable) – 4K, 5K, 8K and 10K at 120 Hz ### Extenders An HDMI extender is a single device (or pair of devices) powered with an external power source or with the 5V DC from the HDMI source. Long cables can cause instability of HDCP and blinking on the screen, due to the weakened DDC signal that HDCP requires. HDCP DDC signals must be multiplexed with TMDS video signals to comply with HDCP requirements for HDMI extenders based on a single Category 5/Category 6 cable. Several companies offer amplifiers, equalizers and repeaters that can string several standard HDMI cables together. Active HDMI cables use electronics within the cable to boost the signal and allow for HDMI cables of up to 30 meters (98 feet); those based on HDBaseT can extend to 100 meters; HDMI extenders that are based on dual Category 5/Category 6 cable can extend HDMI to 250 meters (820 feet); while HDMI extenders based on optical fiber can extend HDMI to 300 meters (980 feet). ### Licensing The HDMI specification is not an open standard; manufacturers need to be licensed by HDMI LA in order to implement HDMI in any product or component. Companies that are licensed by HDMI LA are known as HDMI Adopters. DVI is the only interface that does not require a license for interfacing HDMI. #### HDMI adopters While earlier versions of HDMI specs are available to the public for download, only adopters have access to the latest standards (HDMI 1.4b/2.1). Only adopters have access to the compliance test specification (CTS) that is used for compliance and certification. Compliance testing is required before any HDMI product can be legally sold. - Adopters have IP rights under Adopter Agreement. - Adopters receive the right to use HDMI logos and TMs on their products and marketing materials. - Adopters are listed on the HDMI website. - Products from adopters are listed and marketed in the official HDMI product finder database. - Adopters receive more exposure through combined marketing, such as the annual HDMI Developers Conference and technology seminars. #### HDMI fee structure There are two annual fee structures associated with being an HDMI adopter: - High-volume (more than 10,000 units) HDMI Adopter Agreement – per year. - Low-volume (10,000 units or fewer) HDMI Adopter Agreement – plus a flat per unit administration fee. The annual fee is due upon the execution of the Adopter Agreement, and must be paid on the anniversary of this date each year thereafter. The royalty fee structure is the same for all volumes. The following variable per-unit royalty is device-based and not dependent on number of ports, chips or connectors: - – for each end-user licensed product - – if the HDMI logo is used on the product and promotional material, the per-unit fee drops from to . - – if HDCP is implemented and HDMI logo is used, the per-unit fee drops from to . Use of HDMI logo requires compliance testing. Adopters need to license HDCP separately. The HDMI royalty is only payable on licensed products that will be sold on a stand-alone basis (i.e., that are not incorporated into another licensed product that is subject to an HDMI royalty). For example, if a cable or IC is sold to an adopter who then includes it in a television subject to a royalty, then the cable or IC maker would not pay a royalty, and the television manufacturer would pay the royalty on the final product. If the cable is sold directly to consumers, then the cable would be subject to a royalty. ## Versions HDMI devices are manufactured to adhere to various versions of the specification, in which each version is given a number or letter, such as 1.0, 1.2, or 1.4b. Each subsequent version of the specification uses the same kind of cable but increases the bandwidth or capabilities of what can be transmitted over the cable. A product listed as having an HDMI version does not necessarily mean that it has all features in that version, since some HDMI features are optional, such as deep color and xvYCC (which is branded by Sony as "x.v.Color"). Since the release of HDMI 1.4, the HDMI Licensing Administrator, Inc. (which oversees the HDMI standard) has banned the use of version numbers to identify cables. Non-cable HDMI products, starting on January 1, 2012, may no longer reference the HDMI number, and must state which features of the HDMI specification the product implements. ### Version 1.0 HDMI 1.0 was released on December 9, 2002, and is a single-cable digital audio/video connector interface. The link architecture is based on DVI, using exactly the same video transmission format but sending audio and other auxiliary data during the blanking intervals of the video stream. HDMI 1.0 allows a maximum TMDS clock of 165 MHz (4.95 Gbit/s bandwidth per link), the same as DVI. It defines two connectors called Type A and Type B, with pinouts based on the Single-Link DVI-D and Dual-Link DVI-D connectors respectively, though the Type B connector was never used in any commercial products. HDMI 1.0 uses TMDS encoding for video transmission, giving it 3.96 Gbit/s of video bandwidth ( or at 60 Hz) and 8-channel LPCM/192 kHz/24-bit audio. HDMI 1.0 requires support for RGB video, with optional support for 4:4:4 and 4:2:2 (mandatory if the device has support for on other interfaces). Color depth of 10 bpc (30 bit/px) or 12 bpc (36 bit/px) is allowed when using 4:2:2 subsampling, but only 8 bpc (24 bit/px) color depth is permitted when using RGB or 4:4:4. Only the Rec. 601 and Rec. 709 color spaces are supported. HDMI 1.0 allows only specific pre-defined video formats, including all the formats defined in EIA/CEA-861-B and some additional formats listed in the HDMI Specification itself. All HDMI sources/sinks must also be capable of sending/receiving native Single-Link DVI video and be fully compliant with the DVI Specification. ### Version 1.1 HDMI 1.1 was released on May 20, 2004, and added support for DVD-Audio. ### Version 1.2 HDMI 1.2 was released on August 8, 2005, and added the option of One Bit Audio, used on Super Audio CDs, at up to 8 channels. To make HDMI more suitable for use on PC devices, version 1.2 also removed the requirement that only explicitly supported formats be used. It added the ability for manufacturers to create vendor-specific formats, allowing any arbitrary resolution and refresh rate rather than being limited to a pre-defined list of supported formats. In addition, it added explicit support for several new formats including 720p at 100 and 120 Hz and relaxed the pixel format support requirements so that sources with only native RGB output (PC sources) would not be required to support output. HDMI 1.2a was released on December 14, 2005 and fully specifies Consumer Electronic Control (CEC) features, command sets and CEC compliance tests. ### Version 1.3 HDMI 1.3 was released on June 22, 2006, and increased the maximum TMDS clock to 340 MHz (10.2 Gbit/s). Like previous versions, it uses TMDS encoding, giving it a maximum video bandwidth of 8.16 Gbit/s (sufficient for at 144 Hz or at 75 Hz). It added support for 10 bpc, 12 bpc, and 16 bpc color depth (30, 36, and 48 bit/px), called deep color. It also added support for the xvYCC color space, in addition to the ITU-R BT.601 and BT.709 color spaces supported by previous versions, and added the ability to carry metadata defining color gamut boundaries. It also optionally allows output of Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio streams for external decoding by AV receivers. It incorporates automatic audio syncing (audio video sync) capability. It defined cable Categories 1 and 2, with Category 1 cable being tested up to 74.25 MHz and Category 2 being tested up to 340 MHz. It also added the new HDMI Type C "Mini" connector for portable devices. HDMI 1.3a was released on November 10, 2006, and had cable and sink modifications for HDMI Type C, source termination recommendations, and removed undershoot and maximum rise/fall time limits. It also changed CEC capacitance limits, and CEC commands for timer control were brought back in an altered form, with audio control commands added. It also added the optional ability to stream SACD in its bitstream DST format rather than uncompressed raw DSD. HDMI 1.3a is availabe to download free of charge, after registration. ### Version 1.4 HDMI 1.4 was released on June 5, 2009, and first came to market after Q2 of 2009. Retaining the bandwidth of the previous version, HDMI 1.4 defined standardized timings to use for 40962160 at 24 Hz, 38402160 at 24, 25, and 30 Hz, and added explicit support for 19201080 at 120 Hz with CTA-861 timings. It also added an HDMI Ethernet Channel (HEC) that accommodates a 100 Mbit/s Ethernet connection between the two HDMI connected devices so they can share an Internet connection, introduced an audio return channel (ARC), 3D Over HDMI, a new Micro HDMI Connector, an expanded set of color spaces with the addition of sYCC601, Adobe RGB and Adobe YCC601, and an Automotive Connection System. HDMI 1.4 defined several stereoscopic 3D formats including field alternative (interlaced), frame packing (a full resolution top-bottom format), line alternative full, side-by-side half, side-by-side full, 2D + depth, and 2D + depth + graphics + graphics depth (WOWvx). HDMI 1.4 requires that 3D displays implement the frame packing 3D format at either 720p50 and 1080p24 or 720p60 and 1080p24. High Speed HDMI cables as defined in HDMI 1.3 work with all HDMI 1.4 features except for the HDMI Ethernet Channel, which requires the new High Speed HDMI Cable with Ethernet defined in HDMI 1.4. HDMI 1.4a was released on March 4, 2010, and added two mandatory 3D formats for broadcast content, which was deferred with HDMI 1.4 pending the direction of the 3D broadcast market. HDMI 1.4a has defined mandatory 3D formats for broadcast, game, and movie content. HDMI 1.4a requires that 3D displays implement the frame packing 3D format at either 720p50 and 1080p24 or 720p60 and 1080p24, side-by-side horizontal at either 1080i50 or 1080i60, and top-and-bottom at either 720p50 and 1080p24 or 720p60 and 1080p24. HDMI 1.4b was released on October 11, 2011, containing only minor clarifications to the 1.4a document. HDMI 1.4b is the last version of the standard that HDMI LA is responsible for. All future versions of the HDMI Specification were produced by the HDMI Forum, created on October 25, 2011. ### Version 2.0 HDMI 2.0, referred to by some manufacturers as HDMI UHD, was released on September 4, 2013. HDMI 2.0 increases the maximum bandwidth to 18.0 Gbit/s. HDMI 2.0 uses TMDS encoding for video transmission like previous versions, giving it a maximum video bandwidth of 14.4 Gbit/s. This enables HDMI 2.0 to carry 4K video at 60 Hz with 24 bit/px color depth. Other features of HDMI 2.0 include support for the Rec. 2020 color space, up to 32 audio channels, up to 1536 kHz audio sample frequency, dual video streams to multiple users on the same screen, up to four audio streams, 4:2:0 chroma subsampling, 25 fps 3D formats, support for the 21:9 aspect ratio, dynamic synchronization of video and audio streams, the HE-AAC and DRA audio standards, improved 3D capability, and additional CEC functions. HDMI 2.0a was released on April 8, 2015, and added support for High Dynamic Range (HDR) video with static metadata. HDMI 2.0b was released March 2016. HDMI 2.0b initially supported the same HDR10 standard as HDMI 2.0a as specified in the CTA-861.3 specification. In December 2016 additional support for HDR Video transport was added to HDMI 2.0b in the CTA-861-G specification, which extends the static metadata signaling to include hybrid log–gamma (HLG). ### Version 2.1 HDMI 2.1 was officially announced by the HDMI Forum on January 4, 2017, and was released on November 28, 2017. It adds support for higher resolutions and higher refresh rates, including 4K 120 Hz and 8K 60 Hz. HDMI 2.1 also introduces a new HDMI cable category called Ultra High Speed (referred to as 48G during development), which certifies cables at the new higher speeds that these formats require. Ultra High Speed HDMI cables are backwards compatible with older HDMI devices, and older cables are compatible with new HDMI 2.1 devices, though the full 48 Gbit/s bandwidth is only supported with the new cables. The following features were added to the HDMI 2.1 Specification: - Maximum supported format is 10K at 120 Hz - Dynamic HDR for specifying HDR metadata on a scene-by-scene or even a frame-by-frame basis - Note: While HDMI 2.1 did standardize transport of dynamic HDR metadata over HDMI, in actuality it only formalized dynamic metadata interfaces already utilized by Dolby Vision and HDR10+ in HDMI 2.0, which is why neither Dolby Vision nor HDR10+ require HDMI 2.1 to function properly. - Display Stream Compression (DSC) 1.2 is used for video formats higher than 8K with 4:2:0 chroma subsampling - High Frame Rate (HFR) for 4K, 8K, and 10K, which adds support for refresh rates up to 120 Hz - Enhanced Audio Return Channel (eARC) for object-based audio formats such as Dolby Atmos and DTS:X - Enhanced refresh rate and latency reduction features: - Variable Refresh Rate (VRR) reduces or eliminates lag, stutter and frame tearing for more fluid motion in games - Quick Media Switching (QMS) for movies and video eliminates the delay that can result in blank screens before content begins to be displayed - Quick Frame Transport (QFT) reduces latency by bursting individual pictures across the HDMI link as fast as possible when the link's hardware supports more bandwidth than the minimum amount needed for the resolution and frame rate of the content. With QFT, individual pictures arrive earlier and some hardware blocks can be fully powered off for longer periods of time between pictures to reduce heat generation and extend battery life. - Auto Low Latency Mode (ALLM) – When a display device supports the option to either optimize its pixel processing for best latency or best pixel processing, ALLM allows the current HDMI source device to automatically select, based on its better understanding of the nature of its own content, which mode the user would most likely prefer. Video formats that require more bandwidth than 18.0 Gbit/s (4K 60 Hz 8 bpc RGB), such as 4K 60 Hz 10 bpc (HDR), 4K 120 Hz, and 8K 60 Hz, may require the new "Ultra High Speed" or "Ultra High Speed with Ethernet" cables. HDMI 2.1's other new features are supported with existing HDMI cables. The increase in maximum bandwidth is achieved by increasing both the bitrate of the data channels and the number of channels. Previous HDMI versions use three data channels (each operating at up to 6.0 Gbit/s in HDMI 2.0, or up to 3.4 Gbit/s in HDMI 1.4), with an additional channel for the TMDS clock signal, which runs at a fraction of the data channel speed (one tenth the speed, or up to 340 MHz, for signaling rates up to 3.4 Gbit/s; one fortieth the speed, or up to 150 MHz, for signaling rates between 3.4 and 6.0 Gbit/s). HDMI 2.1 doubles the signaling rate of the data channels to 12 Gbit/s. The structure of the data has been changed to use a new packet-based format with an embedded clock signal, which allows what was formerly the TMDS clock channel to be used as a fourth data channel instead, increasing the signaling rate across that channel to 12 Gbit/s as well. These changes increase the aggregate bandwidth from 18.0 Gbit/s (3 × 6.0 Gbit/s) to 48.0 Gbit/s (4 × 12.0 Gbit/s), a 2.66× improvement in bandwidth. In addition, the data is transmitted more efficiently by using a 16b/18b encoding scheme, which uses a larger percentage of the bandwidth for data rather than DC balancing compared to the TMDS scheme used by previous versions (88.% compared to 80%). This, in combination with the 2.66× bandwidth, raises the maximum data rate of HDMI 2.1 from 14.4 Gbit/s to 42. Gbit/s. Subtracting overhead for FEC, the usable data rate is approximately 42.0 Gbit/s, around 2.92× the data rate of HDMI 2.0. The 48 Gbit/s bandwidth provided by HDMI 2.1 is enough for 8K resolution at approximately 50 Hz, with 8 bpc RGB or 4:4:4 color. To achieve even higher formats, HDMI 2.1 can use Display Stream Compression with a compression ratio of up to 3∶1. Using DSC, formats up to 8K () 120 Hz or 10K () 100 Hz at 8 bpc RGB/4:4:4 are possible. Using with 4:2:2 or 4:2:0 chroma subsampling in combination with DSC can allow for even higher formats. HDMI 2.1a was released on February 15, 2022, and added support for Source-Based Tone Mapping (SBTM). HDMI 2.1b was released on August 10, 2023. ### Version comparison The "version" of a connection depends on the versions of the HDMI ports on the source and sink devices, not on the HDMI cable. The different categories of HDMI cable only affect the bandwidth (maximum resolution / refresh rate) of the connection. Other features such as audio, 3D, chroma subsampling, or variable refresh rate depend only on the versions of the ports, and are not affected by what type of HDMI cable is used. The only exception to this is Ethernet-over-HDMI, which requires an "HDMI with Ethernet" cable. Products are not required to implement all features of a version to be considered compliant with that version, as most features are optional. For example, displays with HDMI 1.4 ports do not necessarily support the full 340 MHz TMDS clock allowed by HDMI 1.4; they are commonly limited to lower speeds such as 300 MHz (1080p 120 Hz) or even as low as 165 MHz (1080p 60 Hz) at the manufacturer's discretion, but are still considered HDMI 1.4-compliant. Likewise, features like 10 bpc (30 bit/px) color depth may also not be supported, even if the HDMI version allows it and the display supports it over other interfaces such as DisplayPort. Feature support will therefore vary from device to device, even within the same HDMI version. #### Main specifications #### Refresh frequency limits for common resolutions The maximum limits for TMDS transmission are calculated using standard data rate calculations. For FRL transmission, the limits are calculated using the capacity computation algorithm provided by the HDMI Specification. All calculations assume uncompressed RGB video with CVT-RB v2 timing. Maximum limits may differ if compression (i.e. DSC) or 4:2:0 chroma subsampling are used. Display manufacturers may also use non-standard blanking intervals (a Vendor-Specific Timing Format as defined in the HDMI Specification) rather than CVT-RB v2 to achieve even higher frequencies when bandwidth is a constraint. The refresh frequencies in the below table do not represent the absolute maximum limit of each interface, but rather an estimate based on a modern standardized timing formula. The minimum blanking intervals (and therefore the exact maximum frequency that can be achieved) will depend on the display and how many secondary data packets it requires, and therefore will differ from model to model. #### Refresh frequency limits for standard video HDMI 1.0 and 1.1 are restricted to transmitting only certain video formats, defined in EIA/CEA-861-B and in the HDMI Specification itself. HDMI 1.2 and all later versions allow any arbitrary resolution and frame rate (within the bandwidth limit). Formats that are not supported by the HDMI Specification (i.e., no standardized timings defined) may be implemented as a vendor-specific format. Successive versions of the HDMI Specification continue to add support for additional formats (such as 4K resolutions), but the added support is to establish standardized timings to ensure interoperability between products, not to establish which formats are or are not permitted. Video formats do not require explicit support from the HDMI Specification in order to be transmitted and displayed. Individual products may have heavier limitations than those listed below, since HDMI devices are not required to support the maximum bandwidth of the HDMI version that they implement. Therefore, it is not guaranteed that a display will support the refresh rates listed in this table, even if the display has the required HDMI version. Uncompressed 8 bpc (24 bit/px) color depth and RGB or 4:4:4 color format are assumed on this table except where noted. #### Refresh frequency limits for HDR10 video HDR10 requires 10 bpc (30 bit/px) color depth, which uses 25% more bandwidth than standard 8 bpc video. Uncompressed 10 bpc color depth and RGB or 4:4:4 color format are assumed on this table except where noted. #### Feature support The features defined in the HDMI Specification that an HDMI device may implement are listed below. For historical interest, the version of the HDMI Specification in which the feature was first added is also listed. All features of the HDMI Specification are optional; HDMI devices may implement any combination of these features. Although the "HDMI version numbers" are commonly misused as a way of indicating that a device supports certain features, this notation has no official meaning and is considered improper by HDMI Licensing. There is no officially-defined correlation between features supported by a device and any claimed "version numbers", as version numbers refer to historical editions of the HDMI Specification document, not to particular classes of HDMI devices. Manufacturers are forbidden from describing their devices using HDMI version numbers, and are required to identify support for features by listing explicit support for them, but the HDMI forum has received criticism for lack of enforcement of these policies. - Full HD Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD video (version 1.0) - Consumer Electronic Control (CEC) (version 1.0) - DVD-Audio (version 1.1) - Super Audio CD (DSD) (version 1.2) - Auto Lip-Sync Correction (version 1.3) - Dolby TrueHD / DTS-HD Master Audio bitstream capable (version 1.3) - Updated list of CEC commands (version 1.3a) - 3D video (version 1.4) - Ethernet channel (100 Mbit/s) (version 1.4) - Audio return channel (ARC) (version 1.4) - 4 audio streams (version 2.0) - Dual View (version 2.0) - Perceptual quantizer HDR EOTF (SMPTE ST 2084) (version 2.0a) - Hybrid log–gamma (HLG) HDR EOTF (version 2.0a) - Static HDR metadata (SMPTE ST 2086) (version 2.0a) - Dynamic HDR metadata (SMPTE ST 2094) (version 2.0b) - Enhanced audio return channel (eARC) (version 2.1) - Variable Refresh Rate (VRR) (version 2.1) - Quick Media Switching (QMS) (version 2.1) - Quick Frame Transport (QFT) (version 2.1) - Auto Low Latency Mode (ALLM) (version 2.1) - Display Stream Compression (DSC) (version 2.1) - Source-Based Tone Mapping (SBTM) (version 2.1a) #### Display Stream Compression Display Stream Compression (DSC) is a VESA-developed video compression algorithm designed to enable increased display resolutions and frame rates over existing physical interfaces, and make devices smaller and lighter, with longer battery life. ## Applications ### Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD players Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD, introduced in 2006, offer high-fidelity audio features that require HDMI for best results. HDMI 1.3 can transport Dolby Digital Plus, Dolby TrueHD, and DTS-HD Master Audio bitstreams in compressed form. This capability allows for an AV receiver with the necessary decoder to decode the compressed audio stream. The Blu-ray specification does not include video encoded with either deep color or xvYCC; thus, HDMI 1.0 can transfer Blu-ray discs at full video quality. The HDMI 1.4 specification (released in 2009) added support for 3D video and is used by all Blu-ray 3D compatible players. The Blu-ray Disc Association (BDA) spokespersons have stated (Sept. 2014 at IFA show in Berlin, Germany) that the Blu-ray, Ultra HD players, and 4K discs are expected to be available starting in the second half to 2015. It is anticipated that such Blu-ray UHD players will be required to include a HDMI 2.0 output that supports HDCP 2.2. Blu-ray permits secondary audio decoding, whereby the disc content can tell the player to mix multiple audio sources together before final output. Some Blu-ray and HD DVD players can decode all of the audio codecs internally and can output LPCM audio over HDMI. Multichannel LPCM can be transported over an HDMI connection, and as long as the AV receiver implements multichannel LPCM audio over HDMI and implements HDCP, the audio reproduction is equal in resolution to HDMI 1.3 bitstream output. Some low-cost AV receivers, such as the Onkyo TX-SR506, do not allow audio processing over HDMI and are labelled as "HDMI pass through" devices. Virtually all modern AV Receivers now offer HDMI 1.4 inputs and outputs with processing for all of the audio formats offered by Blu-ray Discs and other HD video sources. During 2014 several manufacturers introduced premium AV Receivers that include one, or multiple, HDMI 2.0 inputs along with a HDMI 2.0 output(s). However, not until 2015 did most major manufacturers of AV receivers also support HDCP 2.2 as needed to support certain high quality UHD video sources, such as Blu-ray UHD players. ### Digital cameras and camcorders Most consumer camcorders, as well as many digital cameras, are equipped with a mini-HDMI connector (type C connector). Some cameras also have 4K capability, although cameras capable of HD video often include an HDMI interface for playback or even live preview, the image processor and the video processor of cameras usable for uncompressed video must be able to deliver the full image resolution at the specified frame rate in real time without any missing frames causing jitter. Therefore, usable uncompressed video out of HDMI is often called "clean HDMI". ### Personal computers Personal computer (PCs) with a DVI interface are capable of video output to an HDMI-enabled monitor. Some PCs include an HDMI interface and may also be capable of HDMI audio output, depending on specific hardware. For example, Intel's motherboard chipsets since the 945G and NVIDIA's GeForce 8200/8300 motherboard chipsets are capable of 8-channel LPCM output over HDMI. Eight-channel LPCM audio output over HDMI with a video card was first seen with the ATI Radeon HD 4850, which was released in June 2008 and is implemented by other video cards in the ATI Radeon HD 4000 series. Linux can drive 8-channel LPCM audio over HDMI if the video card has the necessary hardware and implements the Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA). The ATI Radeon HD 4000 series implements ALSA. Cyberlink announced in June 2008 that they would update their PowerDVD playback software to allow 192 kHz/24-bit Blu-ray Disc audio decoding in Q3-Q4 of 2008. Corel's WinDVD 9 Plus currently has 96 kHz/24-bit Blu-ray Disc audio decoding. Even with an HDMI output, a computer may not be able to produce signals that implement HDCP, Microsoft's Protected Video Path, or Microsoft's Protected Audio Path. Several early graphic cards were labelled as "HDCP-enabled" but did not have the hardware needed for HDCP; this included some graphic cards based on the ATI X1600 chipset and certain models of the NVIDIA Geforce 7900 series. The first computer monitors that could process HDCP were released in 2005; by February 2006 a dozen different models had been released. The Protected Video Path was enabled in graphic cards that had HDCP capability, since it was required for output of Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD video. In comparison, the Protected Audio Path was required only if a lossless audio bitstream (such as Dolby TrueHD or DTS-HD MA) was output. Uncompressed LPCM audio, however, does not require a Protected Audio Path, and software programs such as PowerDVD and WinDVD can decode Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD MA and output it as LPCM. A limitation is that if the computer does not implement a Protected Audio Path, the audio must be downsampled to 16-bit 48 kHz but can still output at up to 8 channels. No graphic cards were released in 2008 that implemented the Protected Audio Path. The Asus Xonar HDAV1.3 became the first HDMI sound card that implemented the Protected Audio Path and could both bitstream and decode lossless audio (Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD MA), although bitstreaming is only available if using the ArcSoft TotalMedia Theatre software. It has an HDMI 1.3 input/output, and Asus says that it can work with most video cards on the market. In September 2009, AMD announced the ATI Radeon HD 5000 series video cards, which have HDMI 1.3 output (deep color, xvYCC wide gamut capability and high bit rate audio), 8-channel LPCM over HDMI, and an integrated HD audio controller with a Protected Audio Path that allows bitstream output over HDMI for AAC, Dolby AC-3, Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio formats. The ATI Radeon HD 5870 released in September 2009 is the first video card that allows bitstream output over HDMI for Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio. The AMD Radeon HD 6000 Series implements HDMI 1.4a. The AMD Radeon HD 7000 Series implements HDMI 1.4b. In December 2010, it was announced that several computer vendors and display makers including Intel, AMD, Dell, Lenovo, Samsung, and LG would stop using LVDS (actually, FPD-Link) from 2013 and legacy DVI and VGA connectors from 2015, replacing them with DisplayPort and HDMI. On August 27, 2012, Asus announced a new 27 in (69 cm) monitor that produces its native resolution of 2560×1440 via HDMI 1.4. On September 18, 2014, Nvidia launched GeForce GTX 980 and GTX 970 (with GM204 chip) with HDMI 2.0 support. On January 22, 2015, GeForce GTX 960 (with GM206 chip) launched with HDMI 2.0 support. On March 17, 2015, GeForce GTX TITAN X (GM200) launched with HDMI 2.0 support. On June 1, 2015, GeForce GTX 980 Ti (with GM200 chip) launched with HDMI 2.0 support. On August 20, 2015, GeForce GTX 950 (with GM206 chip) launched with HDMI 2.0 support. On May 6, 2016, Nvidia launched the GeForce GTX 1080 (GP104 GPU) with HDMI 2.0b support. On September 1, 2020, Nvidia launched the GeForce RTX 30 series, the world's first discrete graphics cards with support for the full 48 Gbit/s bandwidth with Display Stream Compression 1.2 of HDMI 2.1. ### Gaming consoles Beginning with the seventh generation of video game consoles, most consoles support HDMI. Video game consoles that support HDMI include the Xbox 360 (1.2a), Xbox One (1.4b), Xbox One S (2.0a), Xbox One X (2.0b), PlayStation 3 (1.3a), PlayStation 4 (1.4b), PlayStation 4 Pro (2.0a), Wii U (1.4a), Nintendo Switch (1.4b), Nintendo Switch (OLED model) (2.0a), Xbox Series X and Series S (2.1), and PlayStation 5 (2.1). ### Tablet computers Some tablet computers implement HDMI using Micro-HDMI (Type D) port, while others like the Eee Pad Transformer implement the standard using mini-HDMI (type C) ports. All iPad models have a special A/V adapter that converts Apple's Lightning connector to a standard HDMI (Type A) port. Samsung has a similar proprietary thirty-pin port for their Galaxy Tab 10.1 that could adapt to HDMI as well as USB drives. The Dell Streak 5 smartphone/tablet hybrid is capable of outputting over HDMI. While the Streak uses a PDMI port, a separate cradle adds HDMI compatibility. Some tablets running Android OS provide HDMI output using a mini-HDMI (type C) port. Most new laptops and desktops now have built in HDMI as well. ### Mobile phones Many mobile phones can produce an output of HDMI video via a micro-HDMI connector, SlimPort, MHL or other adapter. ### Legacy compatibility HDMI can only be used with older analog-only devices (using connections such as SCART, VGA, RCA, etc.) by means of a digital-to-analog converter or AV receiver, as the interface does not carry any analog signals (unlike DVI, where devices with DVI-I ports accept or provide either digital or analog signals). Cables are available that contain the necessary electronics, but it is important to distinguish these active converter cables from passive HDMI to VGA cables (which are typically cheaper as they don't include any electronics). The passive cables are only useful if a user has a device that is generating or expecting HDMI signals on a VGA connector, or VGA signals on an HDMI connector; this is a non-standard feature, not implemented by most devices. ## HDMI Alternate Mode for USB Type-C The HDMI Alternate Mode for USB-C allows HDMI-enabled sources with a USB-C connector to directly connect to standard HDMI display devices, without requiring an adapter. The standard was released in September 2016, and supports all HDMI 1.4b features such as video resolutions up to Ultra HD 30 Hz and CEC. Previously, the similar DisplayPort Alternate Mode could be used to connect to HDMI displays from USB Type-C sources, but where in that case, active adapters were required to convert from DisplayPort to HDMI, HDMI Alternate Mode connects to the display natively. The Alternate Mode reconfigures the four SuperSpeed differential pairs present in USB-C to carry the three HDMI TMDS channels and the clock signal. The two Sideband Use pins (SBU1 and SBU2) are used to carry the HDMI Ethernet and Audio Return Channel and the Hot Plug Detect functionality (HEAC+/Utility pin and HEAC−/HPD pin). As there are not enough reconfigurable pins remaining in USB-C to accommodate the DDC clock (SCL), DDC data (SDA), and CEC – these three signals are bridged between the HDMI source and sink via the USB Power Delivery 2.0 (USB-PD) protocol, and are carried over the USB-C Configuration Channel (CC) wire. This is possible because the cable is electronically marked (i.e., it contains a USB-PD node) that serves to tunnel the DDC and CEC from the source over the Configuration Channel to the node in the cable, these USB-PD messages are received and relayed to the HDMI sink as regenerated DDC (SCL and SDA signals), or CEC signals. As stated at CES in January 2023, HDMI Alternate Mode for USB Type-C is no longer being updated as there are no known products using this protocol, reducing its relevance in the current market. This will reduce consumer confusion as DisplayPort Alternate Mode is the primary video protocol of choice over USB-C. ## Relationship with DisplayPort The DisplayPort audio/video interface was introduced in May 2006. Historically, HDMI Licensing LLC was publicly dismissive of DisplayPort's position in the industry, with its president stating in a 2009 interview that "there are certainly some PCs that have DisplayPort connectors on them, but these are niche applications that have not taken hold in the market." In recent years, DisplayPort connectors have become a common feature of premium products—displays, desktop computers, and video cards; most of the companies producing DisplayPort equipment are in the computer sector. The DisplayPort website states that DisplayPort is expected to complement HDMI, but as of 2016 100% of HD and UHD TVs had HDMI connectivity. DisplayPort supported some advanced features which are useful for multimedia content creators and gamers (e.g., 5K, Adaptive-Sync), which was the reason most GPUs have DisplayPort. These features were added to the official HDMI specification slightly later, but with the introduction of HDMI 2.1, these gaps are already leveled off (e.g., VRR / Variable Refresh Rate). DisplayPort uses a self-clocking, micro-packet-based protocol that allows for a variable number of differential pair lanes as well as flexible allocation of bandwidth between audio and video, and allows encapsulating multi-channel compressed audio formats in the audio stream. DisplayPort 1.2 supports multiple audio/video streams, variable refresh rate (FreeSync), and Dual-mode transmitters compatible with HDMI 1.2 or 1.4. Revision 1.3 increases overall transmission bandwidth to 32.4 Gbit/s with the new HBR3 mode featuring 8.1 Gbit/s per lane; it requires Dual-mode with mandatory HDMI 2.0 compatibility and HDCP 2.2. Revision 1.4 added Display Stream Compression (DSC), support for the BT.2020 color space, and HDR10 extensions from CTA-861.3, including static and dynamic metadata. Revision 1.4a was published in April 2018, updating DisplayPort's DSC implementation from 1.2 to 1.2a. Revision 2.0 increased overall bandwidth from 25.92 to 77.37 Gbit/s, enabling increased resolutions and refresh rates, increasing the resolutions and refresh rates with HDR support, and other related improvements. Revision 2.1 was published in October 2022, incorporating the new DP40 and DP80 cable certifications, which require proper operation at the UHBR10 (40 Gbit/s) and UHBR20 (80 Gbit/s) speeds introduced in version 2.0, and a bandwidth management feature to enable DisplayPort tunnelling to coexist with other I/O data traffic more efficiently over a USB4/USB Type-C connection. The DisplayPort features an adapter detection mechanism enabling dual-mode operation and the transmission of TMDS signals allowing the conversion to DVI and HDMI 1.2/1.4/2.0 signals using a passive adapter. The same external connector is used for both protocols – when a DVI/HDMI passive adapter is attached, the transmitter circuit switches to TMDS mode. DisplayPort Dual-mode ports and cables/adapters are typically marked with the DisplayPort++ logo. Thunderbolt ports with mDP connector also supports Dual-mode passive HDMI adapters/cables. Conversion to dual-link DVI and component video (VGA/YPbPr) requires active powered adapters. The USB 3.1 Type-C connector is increasingly the standard video connector, replacing legacy video connectors such as mDP, Thunderbolt, HDMI, and VGA in mobile devices. USB-C connectors can transmit DisplayPort video to docks and displays using standard USB Type-C cables or Type-C to DisplayPort cables and adapters; USB-C also supports HDMI adapters that actively convert from DisplayPort to HDMI 1.4 or 2.0. DisplayPort Alternate Mode for USB Type-C specification was published in 2015. USB Type-C chipsets are not required to include Dual-mode, so passive DP-HDMI adapters do not work with Type-C sources. A specification for "HDMI Alternate Mode for USB Type-C" was released in 2016, but was discontinued in 2023, with HDMI Licencing Administration stating they knew of no adapter having ever been produced. DisplayPort is royalty-free, though patent pool administrator Via LA attempts to collect a \$0.20 per-device charge for a bulk license to patents it regards as essential to the DisplayPort specification, while HDMI has an annual fee of US\$10,000 and a per unit royalty rate of between \$0.04 and \$0.15. HDMI has had a few advantages over DisplayPort, such as ability to carry Consumer Electronics Control (CEC) signals since its first generation (DisplayPort 1.3, introduced in 2014, is the earliest DisplayPort generation which can carry CEC signals). ## Relationship with MHL Mobile High-Definition Link (MHL) is an adaptation of HDMI intended to connect mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets to high-definition televisions (HDTVs) and displays. Unlike DVI, which is compatible with HDMI using only passive cables and adapters, MHL requires that the HDMI socket be MHL-enabled, otherwise an active adapter (or dongle) is required to convert the signal to HDMI. MHL is developed by a consortium of five consumer electronics manufacturers, several of which are also behind HDMI. MHL pares down the three TMDS channels in a standard HDMI connection to a single one running over any connector that provides at least five pins. This lets existing connectors in mobile devices – such as micro-USB – be used, avoiding the need for additional dedicated video output sockets. The USB port switches to MHL mode when it detects a compatible device is connected. In addition to the features in common with HDMI (such as HDCP encrypted uncompressed high-definition video and eight-channel surround sound), MHL also adds the provision of power charging for the mobile device while in use, and also enables the TV remote to control it. Although support for these additional features requires connection to an MHL-enabled HDMI port, power charging can also be provided when using active MHL to HDMI adapters (connected to standard HDMI ports), provided there is a separate power connection to the adapter. Like HDMI, MHL defines a USB-C Alternate Mode to support the MHL standard over USB-C connections. Version 1.0 supported 720p/1080i 60 Hz (RGB/4:4:4 pixel encoding) with a bandwidth of 2.25 Gbit/s. Versions 1.3 and 2.0 added support for 1080p 60 Hz ( 4:2:2) with a bandwidth of 3 Gbit/s in PackedPixel mode. Version 3.0 increased the bandwidth to 6 Gbit/s to support Ultra HD (3840 × 2160) 30 Hz video, and also changed from being frame-based, like HDMI, to packet-based. The fourth version, superMHL, increased bandwidth by operating over multiple TMDS differential pairs (up to a total of six) allowing a maximum of 36 Gbit/s. The six lanes are supported over a reversible 32-pin superMHL connector, while four lanes are supported over USB-C Alternate Mode (only a single lane is supported over micro-USB/HDMI). Display Stream Compression (DSC) is used to allow up to 8K Ultra HD (7680 × 4320) 120 Hz HDR video, and to support Ultra HD 60 Hz video over a single lane. ## See also - List of display interfaces - DisplayPort - Thunderbolt (interface) - USB-C - Wireless HDMI
1,323,516	Military history of Australia	1,167,701,187	A history of all of Australia's military involvements	[ "Military history of Australia" ]	The military history of Australia spans the nation's 230-year modern history, from the early Australian frontier wars between Aboriginals and Europeans to the ongoing conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan in the early 21st century. Although this history is short when compared to that of many other nations, Australia has been involved in numerous conflicts and wars, and war and military service have been significant influences on Australian society and national identity, including the Anzac spirit. The relationship between war and Australian society has also been shaped by the enduring themes of Australian strategic culture and its unique security dilemma. The six British colonies in Australia participated in some of Britain's wars of the 19th century. In the early 20th century, as a federated dominion and later as an independent nation, Australia fought in the First World War and Second World War, as well as in the wars in Korea, Malaya, Borneo and Vietnam during the Cold War. In the Post-Vietnam era Australian forces have been involved in numerous international peacekeeping missions, through the United Nations and other agencies, including in the Sinai, Persian Gulf, Rwanda, Somalia, East Timor and the Solomon Islands, as well as many overseas humanitarian relief operations, while more recently they have also fought as part of multi-lateral forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. In total, nearly 103,000 Australians died during these conflicts. ## War and Australian society For most of the last century military service has been one of the single greatest shared experiences of white Australian males, and although this is now changing due to the professionalisation of the military and the absence of major wars during the second half of the 20th century, it continues to influence Australian society to this day. War and military service have been defining influences in Australian history, while a major part of the national identity has been built on an idealised conception of the Australian experience of war and of soldiering, known as the Anzac spirit. These ideals include notions of endurance, courage, ingenuity, humour, larrikinism, egalitarianism and mateship; traits which, according to popular thought, defined the behaviour of Australian soldiers fighting at Gallipoli during the First World War. The Gallipoli campaign was one of the first international events that saw Australians taking part as Australians and has been seen as a key event in forging a sense of national identity. The relationship between war and Australian society has been shaped by two of the more enduring themes of Australian strategic culture: bandwagoning with a powerful ally and expeditionary warfare. Indeed, Australian defence policy was closely linked to Britain until the Japanese crisis of 1942, while since then an alliance with the United States has underwritten its security. Arguably, this pattern of bandwagoning—both for cultural reasons such as shared values and beliefs, as well as for more pragmatic security concerns—has ensured that Australian strategic policy has often been defined by relations with its allies. Regardless, a tendency towards strategic complacency has also been evident, with Australians often reluctant to think about defence issues or to allocate resources until a crisis arises; a trait which has historically resulted in unpreparedness for major military challenges. Reflecting both the realist and liberal paradigms of international relations and the conception of national interests, a number of other important themes in Australian strategic culture are also obvious. Such themes include: an acceptance of the state as the key actor in international politics, the centrality of notions of Westphalian sovereignty, a belief in the enduring relevance and legitimacy of armed force as a guarantor of security, and the proposition that the status quo in international affairs should only be changed peacefully. Likewise, multilateralism, collective security and defence self-reliance have also been important themes. Change has been more evolutionary than revolutionary and these strategic behaviours have persisted throughout its history, being the product of Australian society's democratic political tradition and Judaeo-Christian Anglo-European heritage, as well its associated values, beliefs and economic, political and religious ideology. These behaviours are also reflective of its unique security dilemma as a largely European island on the edge of the Asia-Pacific, and the geopolitical circumstances of a middle power physically removed from the centres of world power. To be sure, during threats to the core Australia has often found itself defending the periphery and perhaps as a result, it has frequently become involved in foreign wars. Throughout these conflicts Australian soldiers—known colloquially as Diggers—have often been noted, somewhat paradoxically, for both their fighting abilities and their humanitarian qualities. ## Colonial era ### British Forces in Australia, 1788–1870 From 1788 until 1870 the defence of the Australian colonies was mostly provided by British Army regular forces. Originally Marines protected the early settlements at Sydney Cove and Norfolk Island, however they were relieved of these duties in 1790 by a British Army unit specifically recruited for colonial service, known as the New South Wales Corps. The New South Wales Corps subsequently was involved in putting down a rebellion of Irish convicts at Castle Hill in 1804. Soon however shortcomings in the corps convinced the War Office of the need for a more reliable garrison in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Chief of these shortcomings was the Rum Rebellion, a coup mounted by its officers in 1808. As a result, in January 1810 the 73rd (Perthshire) Regiment of Foot arrived in Australia. By 1870, 25 British infantry regiments had served in Australia, as had a small number of artillery and engineer units. Although the primary role of the British Army was to protect the colonies against external attack, no actual threat ever materialised. The British Army was instead used in policing, guarding convicts at penal institutions, combating bushranging, putting down convict rebellions—as occurred at Bathurst in 1830—and to suppress Aboriginal resistance to the extension of European settlement. Notably British soldiers were involved in the battle at the Eureka Stockade in 1854 on the Victorian goldfields. Members of British regiments stationed in Australia also saw action in India, Afghanistan, New Zealand and the Sudan. During the early years of settlement the naval defence of Australia was provided by units detached by the Royal Navy's Commander-in-Chief, East Indies, based in Sydney. However, in 1859 Australia was established as a separate squadron under the command of a commodore, marking the first occasion that Royal Navy ships had been permanently stationed in Australia. The Royal Navy remained the primary naval force in Australian waters until 1913, when the Australia Station ceased and responsibility handed over to the Royal Australian Navy; the Royal Navy's depots, dockyards and structures were given to the Australian people. ### Frontier warfare, 1788–1934 The reactions of the native Aboriginal inhabitants to the sudden arrival of British settlers in Australia were varied, but were inevitably hostile when the settlers' presence led to competition over resources, and to the occupation of the indigenous inhabitants' lands. European diseases decimated Aboriginal populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources sometimes led to starvation. By and large neither the British nor the Aborigines approached the conflict in an organised sense and conflict occurred between groups of settlers and individual tribes rather than systematic warfare. At times, however, the frontier wars did see the involvement of British soldiers and later mounted police units. Not all Aboriginal groups resisted white encroachment on their lands, while many Aborigines served in mounted police units and were involved in attacks on other tribes. Fighting between Aborigines and Europeans was localised as the Aborigines did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance. As a result, there was not a single war, but rather a series of violent engagements and massacres across the continent. Organised or disorganised however, a pattern of frontier warfare emerged with Aboriginal resistance beginning in the 18th century and continuing into the early 20th century. This warfare contradicts the popular and at times academic "myth" of peaceful settlement in Australia. Faced with Aboriginal resistance settlers often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate massacres. Among the most famous is the Battle of Pinjarra in Western Australia in 1834. Such incidents were not officially sanctioned however, and after the Myall Creek massacre in New South Wales in 1838 seven Europeans were hanged for their part in the killings. However, in Tasmania the so-called Black War was fought between 1828 and 1832, and aimed at driving most of the island's native inhabitants onto a number of isolated peninsulas. Although it began in failure for the British, it ultimately resulted in considerable casualties amongst the native population. It may be inaccurate though to depict the conflict as one sided and mainly perpetrated by Europeans on Aborigines. Although many more Aborigines died than British, this may have had more to do with the technological and logistic advantages enjoyed by the Europeans. Aboriginal tactics varied, but were mainly based on pre-existing hunting and fighting practices—using spears, clubs and other primitive weapons. Unlike the indigenous peoples of New Zealand and North America, on the main Aborigines failed to adapt to meet the challenge of the Europeans. Although there were some instances of individuals and groups acquiring and using firearms, this was not widespread. The Aborigines were never a serious military threat to European settlers, regardless of how much the settlers may have feared them. On occasions large groups of Aborigines attacked the settlers in open terrain and a conventional battle ensued, during which the Aborigines would attempt to use superior numbers to their advantage. This could sometimes be effective, with reports of them advancing in crescent formation in an attempt to outflank and surround their opponents, waiting out the first volley of shots and then hurling their spears while the settlers reloaded. However, such open warfare usually proved more costly for the Aborigines than the Europeans. Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms. However, the advantages afforded by firearms have often been overstated. Prior to the late 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot muskets with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, while suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within 50 metres (160 ft). These deficiencies may have initially given the Aborigines an advantage, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. Yet by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle, as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Aborigines, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Tactics employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the natives off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks. The conflict lasted for over 150 years and followed the pattern of British settlement in Australia. Beginning in New South Wales with the arrival of the first Europeans in May 1788, it continued in Sydney and its surrounds until the 1820s. As the frontier moved west so did the conflict, pushing into outback New South Wales in the 1840s. In Tasmania, fighting can be traced from 1804 to the 1830s, while in Victoria and the southern parts of South Australia, the majority of the violence occurred during the 1830s and 1840s. The south-west of Western Australia experienced warfare from 1829 to 1850. The war in Queensland began in the area around Brisbane in the 1840s and continued until 1860, moving to central Queensland in the 1850s and 1860s, and then to northern Queensland from the 1860s to 1900. In Western Australia, the violence moved north with European settlement, reaching the Kimberley region by 1880, with violent clashes continuing until the 1920s. In the Northern Territory conflict lasted even later still, especially in central Australia, continuing from the 1880s to the 1930s. One estimate of casualties places European deaths at 2,500, while at least 20,000 Aborigines are believed to have perished. Far more devastating though was the effect of disease which significantly reduced the Aboriginal population by the beginning of the 20th century; a fact which may also have limited their ability to resist. ### New Zealand Wars, 1861–64 #### Taranaki War In 1861, the Victorian ship HMCSS Victoria was dispatched to help the New Zealand colonial government in its war against Māori in Taranaki. Victoria was subsequently used for patrol duties and logistic support, although a number of personnel were involved in actions against Māori fortifications. One sailor died from an accidental gunshot wound during the deployment. #### Invasion of the Waikato In late 1863, the New Zealand government requested troops to assist in the invasion of the Waikato province against the Māori. Promised settlement on confiscated land, more than 2,500 Australians (over half of whom were from Victoria) were recruited to form four Waikato Regiments. Other Australians became scouts in the Company of Forest Rangers. Despite experiencing arduous conditions the Australians were not heavily involved in battle, and were primarily used for patrolling and garrison duties. Australians were involved in actions at Matarikoriko, Pukekohe East, Titi Hill, Ōrākau and Te Ranga. Fewer than 20 were believed to have been killed in action. The conflict was over by 1864, and the Waikato Regiments disbanded in 1867. However, many of the soldiers who had chosen to claim farmland at the cessation of hostilities had drifted to the towns and cities by the end of the decade, while many others had returned to Australia. ### Colonial military forces, 1870–1901 From 1870 until 1901, each of the six colonial governments was responsible for their own defence. The colonies had gained responsible government between 1855 and 1890, and while the Colonial Office in London retained control of some affairs, the Governor of the each colony was required to raise their own colonial militia. To do this, they were granted the authority from the British crown to raise military and naval forces. Initially these were militias in support of British regulars, but when military support for the colonies ended in 1870, the colonies assumed their own defence responsibilities. The colonial military forces included unpaid volunteer militia, paid citizen soldiers, and a small permanent component. They were mainly infantry, cavalry and mounted infantry, and were neither housed in barracks nor subject to full military discipline. Even after significant reforms in the 1870s—including the expansion of the permanent forces to include engineer and artillery units—they remained too small and unbalanced to be considered armies in the modern sense. By 1885, the forces numbered 21,000 men. Although they could not be compelled to serve overseas many volunteers subsequently did see action in a number conflicts of the British Empire during the 19th century, with the colonies raising contingents to serve in Sudan, South Africa and China. Despite a reputation of colonial inferiority, many of the locally raised units were highly organised, disciplined, professional, and well trained. During this period, defences in Australia mainly revolved around static defence by combined infantry and artillery, based on garrisoned coastal forts. However, by the 1890s, improved railway communications between the mainland eastern colonies led Major General James Edwards—who had recently completed a survey of colonial military forces—to the belief that the colonies could be defended by the rapid mobilisation of brigades of infantry. As a consequence he called for a restructure of defences, and defensive agreements to be made between the colonies. Edwards argued for the colonial forces to be federated and for professional units—obliged to serve anywhere in the South Pacific—to replace the volunteer forces. These views found support in the influential New South Wales Commandant, Major General Edward Hutton, however suspicions held by the smaller colonies towards New South Wales and Victoria stifled the proposal. These reforms remaining unresolved however, and defence issues were generally given little attention in the debate on the political federation of the colonies. With the exception of Western Australia, the colonies also operated their own navies. In 1856, Victoria received its own naval vessel, HMCSS Victoria, and its deployment to New Zealand in 1860 during the First Taranaki War marked the first occasion that an Australian warship had been deployed overseas. The colonial navies were expanded greatly in the mid-1880s and consisted of a number of gunboats and torpedo-boats for the defence of harbours and rivers, as well as naval brigades to man vessels and forts. Victoria became the most powerful of all the colonial navies, with the ironclad HMVS Cerberus in service from 1870, as well as the steam-sail warship HMS Nelson on loan from the Royal Navy, three small gunboats and five torpedo-boats. New South Wales formed a Naval Brigade in 1863 and by the start of the 20th century had two small torpedo-boats and a corvette. The Queensland Maritime Defence Force was established in 1885, while South Australia operated a single ship, HMCS Protector. Tasmania had also a small Torpedo Corps, while Western Australia's only naval defences included the Fremantle Naval Artillery. Naval personnel from New South Wales and Victoria took part in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900, while HMCS Protector was sent by South Australia but saw no action. The separate colonies maintained control over their military and naval forces until Federation in 1901, when they were amalgamated and placed under the control of the new Commonwealth of Australia. ### Sudan, 1885 During the early years of the 1880s, an Egyptian regime in the Sudan, backed by the British, came under threat from rebellion under the leadership of native Muhammad Ahmad (or Ahmed), known as Mahdi to his followers. In 1883, as part of the Mahdist War, the Egyptians sent an army to deal with the revolt, but they were defeated and faced a difficult campaign of extracting their forces. The British instructed the Egyptians to abandon the Sudan, and sent General Charles Gordon to co-ordinate the evacuation, but he was killed in January 1885. When news of his death arrived in New South Wales in February 1885, the government offered to send forces and meet the contingent's expenses. The New South Wales Contingent consisted of an infantry battalion of 522 men and 24 officers, and an artillery battery of 212 men and sailed from Sydney on 3 March 1885. The contingent arrived in Suakin on 29 March and were attached to a brigade that consisted of Scots, Grenadier and Coldstream Guards. They subsequently marched for Tamai in a large "square" formation made up of 10,000 men. Reaching the village, they burned huts and returned to Suakin: three Australians were wounded in minor fighting. Most of the contingent was then sent to work on a railway line that was being laid across the desert towards Berber, on the Nile. The Australians were then assigned to guard duties, but soon a camel corps was raised and 50 men volunteered. They rode on a reconnaissance to Takdul on 6 May and were heavily involved in a skirmish during which more than 100 Arabs were killed or captured. On 15 May, they made one last sortie to bury the dead from the fighting of the previous March. Meanwhile, the artillery were posted at Handoub and drilled for a month, but they soon rejoined the camp at Suakin. Eventually the British government decided that the campaign in Sudan was not worth the effort required and left a garrison in Suakin. The New South Wales Contingent sailed for home on 17 May, arriving in Sydney on 19 June 1885. Approximately 770 Australians served in Sudan; nine subsequently died of disease during the return journey while three had been wounded during the campaign. ### Second Boer War, 1899–1902 British encroachment into areas of South Africa already settled by the Afrikaner Boers and the competition for resources and land that developed between them as a result, led to the Second Boer War in 1899. Pre-empting the deployment of British forces, the Afrikaner Republics of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic under President Paul Kruger declared war on 11 October 1899, striking deep into the British territories of Natal and the Cape Colony. After the outbreak of war, plans for the dispatch of a combined Australian force were subsequently set aside by the British War Office and each of the six colonial governments sent separate contingents to serve with British formations, with two squadrons each of 125 men from New South Wales and Victoria, and one each from the other colonies. The first troops arrived three weeks later, with the New South Wales Lancers—who had been training in England before the war, hurriedly diverted to South Africa. On 22 November, the Lancers came under fire for the first time near Belmont, and they subsequently forced their attackers to withdraw after inflicting significant casualties on them. Following a series of minor victories, the British suffered a major setback during Black Week between 10 and 17 December 1899, although no Australian units were involved. The first contingents of infantry from Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania arrived in Cape Town on 26 November and were designated the Australian Regiment under the command of Colonel John Charles Hoad. With a need for increased mobility, they were soon converted into mounted infantry. Further units from Queensland and New South Wales arrived in December and were soon committed to the front. The first casualties occurred soon after at Sunnyside on 1 January 1900, after 250 Queensland Mounted Infantry and a column of Canadians, British and artillery attacked a Boer laager at Belmont. Troopers David McLeod and Victor Jones were killed when their patrol clashed with the Boer forward sentries. Regardless, the Boers were surprised and during two hours of heavy fighting, more than 50 were killed and another 40 taken prisoner. Five hundred Queenslanders and the New South Wales Lancers subsequently took part in the Siege of Kimberley in February 1900. Despite serious set-backs at Colenso, Stormberg, Magersfontein, and Spion Kop in January—and with Ladysmith still under siege—the British mounted a five division counter-invasion of the Orange Free State in February. The attacking force included a division of cavalry commanded by Lieutenant General John French with the New South Wales Lancers, Queensland Mounted Infantry and New South Wales Army Medical Corps attached. First, Kimberley was relieved following the battles of Modder River and Magersfontein, and the retreating Boers defeated at Paardeberg, with the New South Wales Mounted Rifles locating the Boer general, Piet Cronjé. The British entered Bloemfontein on 13 March 1900, while Ladysmith was relieved. Disease began to take its toll and scores of men died. Still the advance continued, with the drive to Pretoria in May including more than 3,000 Australians. Johannesburg fell on 30 May, and the Boers withdrew from Pretoria on 3 June. The New South Wales Mounted Rifles and Western Australians saw action again at Diamond Hill on 12 June. Mafeking was relieved on 17 May. Following the defeat of the Afrikaner republics still the Boers held out, forming small commando units and conducting a campaign of guerrilla warfare to disrupt British troop movements and lines of supply. This new phase of resistance led to further recruiting in the Australian colonies and the raising of the Bushmen's Contingents, with these soldiers usually being volunteers with horse-riding and shooting skills, but little military experience. After Federation in 1901, eight Australian Commonwealth Horse battalions of the newly created Australian Army were also sent to South Africa, although they saw little fighting before the war ended. Some Australians later joined local South African irregular units, instead of returning home after discharge. These soldiers were part of the British Army, and were subject to British military discipline. Such units included the Bushveldt Carbineers which gained notoriety as the unit in which Harry "Breaker" Morant and Peter Handcock served in before their court martial and execution for war crimes. With the guerrillas requiring supplies, Koos de la Rey lead a force of 3,000 Boers against Brakfontein, on the Elands River in Western Transvaal. The post held a large quantity of stores and was defended by 300 Australians and 200 Rhodesians. The attack began on 4 August 1900 with heavy shelling causing 32 casualties. During the night the defenders dug in, enduring shelling and rifle fire. A relief force was stopped by the Boers, while a second column turned back believing that the post had already been relieved. The siege lasted 11 days, during which more than 1,800 shells were fired into the post. After calls to surrender were ignored by the defenders, and not prepared to risk a frontal attack, the Boers eventually retired. The Siege of Elands River was one of the major achievements of the Australians during the war, with the post finally relieved on 16 August. In response the British adopted counter-insurgency tactics, including a scorched earth policy involving the burning of houses and crops, the establishment of concentration camps for Boer women and children, and a system of blockhouses and field obstacles to limit Boer mobility and to protect railway communications. Such measures required considerable expenditure, and caused much bitterness towards the British, however they soon yielded results. By mid-1901, the bulk of the fighting was over, and British mounted units would ride at night to attack Boer farmhouses or encampments, overwhelming them with superior numbers. Indicative of warfare in last months of 1901, the New South Wales Mounted Rifles travelled 1,814 miles (2,919 km) and were involved in 13 skirmishes, killing 27 Boers, wounding 15, and capturing 196 for the loss of five dead and 19 wounded. Other notable Australian actions included Slingersfontein, Pink Hill, Rhenosterkop and Haartebeestefontein. Australians were not always successful however, suffering a number of heavy losses late in the war. On 12 June 1901, the 5th Victorian Mounted Rifles lost 19 killed and 42 wounded at Wilmansrust, near Middleburg after poor security allowed a force of 150 Boers to surprise them. On 30 October 1901, Victorians of the Scottish Horse Regiment also suffered heavy casualties at Gun Hill, although 60 Boers were also killed in the engagement. Meanwhile, at Onverwacht on 4 January 1902, the 5th Queensland Imperial Bushmen lost 13 killed and 17 wounded. Ultimately the Boers were defeated, and the war ended on 31 May 1902. In all 16,175 Australians served in South Africa, and perhaps another 10,000 enlisted as individuals in Imperial units; casualties included 251 killed in action, 267 died of disease and 43 missing in action, while a further 735 were wounded. Six Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross. ### Boxer Rebellion, 1900–01 The Boxer Rebellion in China began in 1900, and a number of western nations—including many European powers, the United States, and Japan—soon sent forces as part of the China Field Force to protect their interests. In June, the British government sought permission from the Australian colonies to dispatch ships from the Australian Squadron to China. The colonies also offered to assist further, but as most of their troops were still engaged in South Africa, they had to rely on naval forces for manpower. The force dispatched was a modest one, with Britain accepting 200 men from Victoria, 260 from New South Wales and the South Australian ship HMCS Protector, under the command of Captain William Creswell. Most of these forces were made up of naval brigade reservists, who had been trained in both ship handling and soldiering to fulfil their coastal defence role. Amongst the naval contingent from New South Wales were 200 naval officers and sailors and 50 permanent soldiers headquartered at Victoria Barracks, Sydney who originally enlisted for the Second Boer War. The soldiers were keen to go to China but refused to be enlisted as sailors, while the New South Wales Naval Brigade objected to having soldiers in their ranks. The Army and Navy compromised and titled the contingent the NSW Marine Light Infantry. The contingents from New South Wales and Victoria sailed for China on 8 August 1900. Arriving in Tientsin, the Australians provided 300 men to an 8,000-strong multinational force tasked with capturing the Chinese forts at Pei Tang, which dominated a key railway. They arrived too late to take part in the battle, but were involved in the attack on the fortress at Pao-ting Fu, where the Chinese government was believed to have found asylum after Peking was captured by western forces. The Victorians joined a force of 7,500 men on a ten-day march to the fort, once again only to find that it had already surrendered. The Victorians then garrisoned Tientsin and the New South Wales contingent undertook garrison duties in Peking. HMCS Protector was mostly used for survey, transport, and courier duties in the Bohai Sea, before departing in November. The naval brigades remained during the winter, unhappily performing policing and guard duties, as well as working as railwaymen and fire-fighters. They left China in March 1901, having played only a minor role in a few offensives and punitive expeditions and in the restoration of civil order. Six Australians died from sickness and injury, but none were killed as a result of enemy action. ## Australian military forces at Federation, 1901 The Commonwealth of Australia came into existence on 1 January 1901 as a result of the federation of the Australian colonies. Under the Constitution of Australia, defence responsibility was now vested in the new federal government. The co-ordination of Australia-wide defensive efforts in the face of Imperial German interest in the Pacific Ocean was one of driving forces behind federalism, and the Department of Defence immediately came into being as a result, while the Commonwealth Military Forces (early forerunner of the Australian Army) and Commonwealth Naval Force were also soon established. The Australian Commonwealth Military Forces came into being on 1 March 1901 and all the colonial forces—including those still in South Africa—became part of the new force. 28,923 colonial soldiers, including 1,457 professional soldiers, 18,603 paid militia and 8,863 unpaid volunteers, were subsequently transferred. The individual units continued to be administered under the various colonial Acts until the Defence Act 1903 brought all the units under one piece of legislation. This Act also prevented the raising of standing infantry units and specified that militia forces could not be used in industrial disputes or serve outside Australia. However, the majority of soldiers remained in militia units, known as the Citizen Military Forces (CMF). Major General Sir Edward Hutton—a former commander of the New South Wales Military Forces—subsequently became the first commander of the Commonwealth Military Forces on 26 December and set to work devising an integrated structure for the new army. In 1911, following a report by Lord Kitchener the Royal Military College, Duntroon was established, as was a system of universal National Service. Prior to federation each self-governing colony had operated its own naval force. These navies were small and lacked blue water capabilities, forcing the separate colonies to subsidise the cost of a British naval squadron in their waters for decades. The colonies maintained control over their respective navies until 1 March 1901, when the Commonwealth Naval Force was created. This new force also lacked blue water capable ships, and ultimately did not lead to a change in Australian naval policy. In 1907 Prime Minister Alfred Deakin and Creswell, while attending the Imperial Conference in London, sought the British Government's agreement to end the subsidy system and develop an Australian navy. The Admiralty rejected and resented the challenge, but suggested diplomatically that a small fleet of destroyers and submarines would be sufficient. Deakin was unimpressed, and in 1908 invited the American Great White Fleet to visit Australia. This visit fired public enthusiasm for a modern navy and in part led to the order of two 700-ton River-class destroyers. The surge in German naval construction prompted the Admiralty to change their position however and the Royal Australian Navy was subsequently formed in 1911, absorbing the Commonwealth Naval Force. On 4 October 1913, the new fleet steamed through Sydney Heads, consisting of the battlecruiser , three light cruisers, and three destroyers, while several other ships were still under construction. And as a consequence the navy entered the First World War as a formidable force. The Australian Flying Corps (AFC) was established as part of the Commonwealth Military Forces in 1912, prior to the formation of the Australian Military Forces in 1916 and was later separated in 1921 to form the Royal Australian Air Force, making it the second oldest air force in the world. Regardless, the service branches were not linked by a single chain of command however, and each reported to their own minister and had separate administrative arrangements and government departments. ## First World War, 1914–18 ### Outbreak of hostilities When Britain declared war on Germany at the start of the First World War, the Australian government rapidly followed suit, with Prime Minister Joseph Cook declaring on 5 August 1914 that "...when the Empire is at war, so also is Australia" and reflecting the sentiment of many Australians that any declaration of war by Britain automatically included Australia. This was itself in part due to the large number of British-born citizens and first generation Anglo-Australians that made up the Australian population at the time. Indeed, by the end of the war almost 20% of those who served in the Australian forces had been born in Britain. As the existing militia forces were unable to serve overseas under the provisions of the Defence Act 1903, an all-volunteer expeditionary force known as the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) was formed and recruitment began on 10 August 1914. The government pledged 20,000 men, organised as one infantry division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units. Enlistment and organisation was primarily regionally based and was undertaken under mobilisation plans drawn up in 1912. The first commander was Major General William Bridges, who also assumed command of the 1st Division. Throughout the course of the conflict Australian efforts were predominantly focused upon the ground war, although small air and naval forces were also committed. ### Occupation of German New Guinea Following the outbreak of war Australian forces moved quickly to reduce the threat to shipping posed by the proximity of Germany's Pacific colonies. The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (AN&MEF), a 2000-man volunteer force—separate from the AIF—and consisting of an infantry battalion plus 500 naval reservists and ex-sailors, was rapidly formed under the command of William Holmes. The objectives of the force were the wireless stations on Nauru, and those at Yap in the Caroline Islands, and at Rabaul in German New Guinea. The force reached Rabaul on 11 September 1914 and occupied it the next day, encountering only brief resistance from the German and native defenders during fighting at Bita Paka and Toma. German New Guinea surrendered on 17 September 1914. Australian losses were light, including six killed during the fighting, but were compounded by the mysterious loss offshore of the submarine AE1 with all 35 men aboard. ### Gallipoli The AIF departed by ship in a single convoy from Albany on 1 November 1914. During the journey one of the convoy's naval escorts——engaged and destroyed the German cruiser SMS Emden at the Battle of Cocos on 8 November, in the first ship-to-ship action involving the Royal Australian Navy. Although originally bound for England to undergo further training and then for employment on the Western Front, the Australians were instead sent to British-controlled Egypt to pre-empt any Turkish attack against the strategically important Suez Canal, and with a view to opening another front against the Central Powers. Aiming to knock Turkey out of the war the British then decided to stage an amphibious lodgement at Gallipoli and following a period of training and reorganisation the Australians were included amongst the British, Indian and French forces committed to the campaign. The combined Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC)—commanded by British general William Birdwood—subsequently landed at Anzac Cove on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915. Although promising to transform the war if successful, the Gallipoli Campaign was ill-conceived and ultimately lasted eight months of bloody stalemate, without achieving its objectives. Australian casualties totalled 26,111, including 8,141 killed. For Australians and New Zealanders the Gallipoli campaign came to symbolise an important milestone in the emergence of both nations as independent actors on the world stage and the development of a sense of national identity. Today, the date of the initial landings, 25 April, is known as Anzac Day in Australia and New Zealand and every year thousands of people gather at memorials in both nations, as well as Turkey, to honour the bravery and sacrifice of the original Anzacs, and of all those who have subsequently lost their lives in war. ### Egypt and Palestine After the withdrawal from Gallipoli the Australians returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion. In 1916 the infantry began to move to France while the cavalry units remained in the Middle East to fight the Turks. Australian troops of the Anzac Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division saw action in all the major battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, playing a pivotal role in fighting the Turkish troops that were threatening British control of Egypt. The Australian's first saw combat during the Senussi uprising in the Libyan Desert and the Nile Valley, during which the combined British forces successfully put down the primitive pro-Turkish Islamic sect with heavy casualties. The Anzac Mounted Division subsequently saw considerable action in the Battle of Romani against the Turkish between 3–5 August 1916, with the Turks eventually pushed back. Following this victory the British forces went on the offensive in the Sinai, although the pace of the advance was governed by the speed by which the railway and water pipeline could be constructed from the Suez Canal. Rafa was captured on 9 January 1917, while the last of the small Turkish garrisons in the Sinai were eliminated in February. The advance entered Palestine and an initial, unsuccessful attempt was made to capture Gaza on 26 March 1917, while a second and equally unsuccessful attempt was launched on 19 April. A third assault occurred between 31 October and 7 November and this time both the Anzac Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part. The battle was a complete success for the British, over-running the Gaza-Beersheba line and capturing 12,000 Turkish soldiers. The critical moment was the capture of Beersheba on the first day, after the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade charged more than 4 miles (6.4 km). The Turkish trenches were overrun, with the Australians capturing the wells at Beersheeba and securing the valuable water they contained along with over 700 prisoners for the loss of 31 killed and 36 wounded. Later, Australian troops assisted in pushing the Turkish forces out of Palestine and took part in actions at Mughar Ridge, Jerusalem and the Megiddo. The Turkish government surrendered on 30 October 1918. Units of the Light Horse were subsequently used to help put down a nationalist revolt in Egypt in 1919 and did so with efficiency and brutality, although they suffered a number of fatalities in the process. Meanwhile, the AFC had undergone remarkable development, and its independence as a separate national force was unique among the Dominions. Deploying just a single aircraft to German New Guinea in 1914, the first operational flight did not occur until 27 May 1915 however, when the Mesopotamian Half Flight was called upon to assist in protecting British oil interests in Iraq. The AFC was soon expanded and four squadrons later saw action in Egypt, Palestine and on the Western Front, where they performed well. ### Western Front Five infantry divisions of the AIF saw action in France and Belgium, leaving Egypt in March 1916. I Anzac Corps subsequently took up positions in a quiet sector south of Armentières on 7 April 1916 and for the next two and a half years the AIF participated in most of the major battles on the Western Front, earning a formidable reputation. Although spared from the disastrous first day of the Battle of the Somme, within weeks four Australian divisions had been committed. The 5th Division, positioned on the left flank, was the first in action during the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916, suffering 5,533 casualties in a single day. The 1st Division entered the line on 23 July, assaulting Pozieres, and by the time that they were relieved by the 2nd Division on 27 July, they had suffered 5,286 casualties. Mouquet Farm was attacked in August, with casualties totalling 6,300 men. By the time the AIF was withdrawn from the Somme to re-organise, they had suffered 23,000 casualties in just 45 days. In March 1917, the 2nd and 5th Divisions pursued the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line, capturing the town of Bapaume. On 11 April, the 4th Division assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the disastrous First Battle of Bullecourt, losing over 3,000 casualties and 1,170 captured. On 15 April, the 1st and 2nd Divisions were counter-attacked near Lagnicourt and were forced to abandon the town, before recapturing it again. The 2nd Division then took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt, beginning on 3 May, and succeeded in taking sections of the Hindenburg Line and holding them until relieved by the 1st Division. Finally, on 7 May the 5th Division relieved the 1st, remaining in the line until the battle ended in mid-May. Combined these efforts cost 7,482 Australian casualties. On 7 June 1917, the II Anzac Corps—along with two British corps—launched an operation in Flanders to eliminate a salient south of Ypres. The attack commenced with the detonation of a million pounds (454,545 kg) of explosives that had been placed underneath the Messines ridge, destroying the German trenches. The advance was virtually unopposed, and despite strong German counterattacks the next day, it succeeded. Australian casualties during the Battle of Messines included nearly 6,800 men. I Anzac Corps then took part in the Third Battle of Ypres in Belgium as part of the campaign to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau, between September and November 1917. Individual actions took place at Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle and Passchendaele and over the course of eight weeks fighting the Australians suffered 38,000 casualties. On 21 March 1918 the German Army launched its Spring Offensive in a last-ditched effort to win the war, unleashing sixty-three divisions over a 70 miles (110 km) front. As the Allies fell back the 3rd and 4th Divisions were rushed south to Amiens on the Somme. The offensive lasted for the next five months and all five AIF divisions in France were engaged in the attempt to stem the tide. By late May the Germans had pushed to within 50 miles (80 km) of Paris. During this time the Australians fought at Dernancourt, Morlancourt, Villers-Bretonneux, Hangard Wood, Hazebrouck, and Hamel. At Hamel the commander of the Australian Corps, Lieutenant General John Monash, successfully used combined arms—including aircraft, artillery and armour—in an attack for the first time. The German offensive ground to a halt in mid-July and a brief lull followed, during which the Australians undertook a series of raids, known as Peaceful Penetrations. The Allies soon launched their own offensive—the Hundred Days Offensive—ultimately ending the war. Beginning on 8 August 1918 the offensive included four Australian divisions striking at Amiens. Using the combined arms techniques developed earlier at Hamel, significant gains were made on what became known as the "Black Day" of the German Army. The offensive continued for four months, and during Second Battle of the Somme the Australian Corps fought actions at Lihons, Etinehem, Proyart, Chuignes, and Mont St Quentin, before their final engagement of the war on 5 October 1918 at Montbrehain. The AIF was subsequently out of the line when the armistice was declared on 11 November 1918. In all 416,806 Australians enlisted in the AIF during the war and 333,000 served overseas. 61,508 were killed and another 155,000 were wounded (a total casualty rate of 65%). The financial cost to the Australian government was calculated at £376,993,052. Two referendums on conscription for overseas service had been defeated during the war, preserving the volunteer status of the Australian force, but stretching the reserves of manpower available, particularly towards the end of the fighting. Consequently, Australia remained one of only two armies on either side not to resort to conscription during the war. The war had a profound effect on Australian society in other ways also. Indeed, for many Australians the nation's involvement is seen as a symbol of its emergence as an international actor, while many of the notions of Australian character and nationhood that exist today have their origins in the war. 64 Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross during the First World War. ## Inter-war years ### Russian Civil War, 1918–19 The Russian Civil War began after the Russian provisional government collapsed and the Bolshevik party assumed power in October 1917. Following the end of the First World War, the western powers—including Britain—intervened, giving half-hearted support to the pro-tsarist, anti-Bolshevik White Russian forces. Although the Australian government refused to commit forces, many Australians serving with the British Army became involved in the fighting. A small number served as advisors to White Russian units with the North Russian Expeditionary Force (NREF). Awaiting repatriation in England, about 150 Australians subsequently enlisted in the British North Russia Relief Force (NRRF), where they were involved in a number of sharp battles and several were killed. The Royal Australian Navy destroyer was also briefly engaged, carrying out an intelligence gathering mission in the Black Sea in late 1918. Other Australians served as advisers with the British Military Mission to the White Russian General, Anton Denikin in South Russia, while several more advised Admiral Alexander Kolchak in Siberia. Later, they also served in Mesopotamia as part of Dunsterforce and the Malleson Mission, although these missions were aimed at preventing Turkish access to the Middle East and India, and did little fighting. Although the motivations of those Australian's that volunteered to fight in Russia can only be guessed at, it seems unlikely to have been political. Regardless, they confirmed a reputation for audacity and courage, winning the only two Victoria Crosses of the land campaign, despite their small numbers. Yet Australian involvement was barely noticed at home at the time and made little difference to the outcome of the war. Total casualties included 10 killed and 40 wounded, with most deaths being from disease during operations in Mesopotamia. ### Malaita, 1927 In October 1927, was called to the British Solomon Islands Protectorate as part of a punitive expedition in response to the killing of a district officer and sixteen others by Kwaio natives at Sinalagu on the island of Malaita on 3 October, known as the Malaita massacre. Arriving at Tulagi on 14 October, the ship proceeded to Malaita to protect the landing of three platoons of troops, then remained in the area to provide personnel support for the soldiers as they searched for the killers. The ship's personnel took no part in operations ashore, providing only logistic and communications support. Adelaide returned to Australia on 23 November. ### Spanish Civil War, 1936–39 A small number of Australian volunteers fought on both sides of the Spanish Civil War, although they predominantly supported the Spanish Republic through the International Brigades. The Australians were subsequently allocated to the battalions of other nationalities, such as the British Battalion and the Lincoln Battalion, rather than forming their own units. Most were radicals motivated by ideological reasons, while a number were Spanish-born migrants who returned to fight in their country of origin. At least 66 Australians volunteered, with only one—Nugent Bull, a conservative Catholic who was later killed serving in the RAF during the Second World War—known to have fought for General Francisco Franco's Nationalist forces. While a celebrated cause for the Australian left—particularly the Communist Party of Australia and the trade union movement—the war failed to spark particular public interest and the government maintained its neutrality. Australian opposition to the Republican cause was marshalled by B.A. Santamaria on an anti-communist basis, rather than a pro-Nationalist basis. Equally, although individual right wing Australians may have served with the Nationalist rebels, they received no public support. Service in a foreign armed force was illegal at the time, however as the government received no reports of Australians travelling to Spain to enlist, no action was taken. Consequently, returned veterans were neither recognised by the government or the Returned and Services League of Australia (RSL). Although the number of Australian volunteers was relatively small compared to those from other countries, at least 14 were killed. ## Second World War, 1939–45 ### Europe and the Middle East Australia entered the Second World War on 3 September 1939. At the time of the declaration of war against Germany the Australian military was small and unready for war. Recruiting for a Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF) began in mid-September. While there was no rush of volunteers like the First World War, a high proportion of Australian men of military age had enlisted by mid-1940. Four infantry divisions were formed during 1939 and 1940, three of which were dispatched to the Middle East. The RAAF's resources were initially mainly devoted to training airmen for service with the Commonwealth air forces through the Empire Air Training Scheme (EATS), through which almost 28,000 Australians were trained during the war. The Australian military's first major engagements of the war were against Italian forces in the Mediterranean and North Africa. During 1940 the light cruiser and five elderly destroyers (dubbed the "Scrap Iron Flotilla" by Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels—a title proudly accepted by the ships) took part in a series of operations as part of the British Mediterranean Fleet, and sank several Italian warships. The Army first saw action in January 1941, when the 6th Division formed part of the Commonwealth forces during Operation Compass. The division assaulted and captured Bardia on 5 January and Tobruk on 22 January, with tens of thousands of Italian troops surrendering at both towns. The 6th Division took part in the pursuit of the Italian Army and captured Benghazi on 4 February. In late February it was withdrawn for service in Greece, and was replaced by the 9th Division. The Australian forces in the Mediterranean endured a number of campaigns during 1941. During April, the 6th Division, other elements of I Corps and several Australian warships formed part of the Allied force which unsuccessfully attempted to defend Greece from German invasion during the Battle of Greece. At the end of this campaign, the 6th Division was evacuated to Egypt and Crete. The force at Crete subsequently fought in the Battle of Crete during May, which also ended in defeat for the Allies. Over 5,000 Australians were captured in these campaigns, and the 6th Division required a long period of rebuilding before it was again ready for combat. The Germans and Italians also went on the offensive in North Africa at the end of March and drove the Commonwealth force there back to near the border with Egypt. The 9th Division and a brigade of the 7th Division were besieged at Tobruk; successfully defending the key port town until they were replaced by British units in October. During June, the main body of the 7th Division, a brigade of the 6th Division and the I Corps headquarters took part in the Syria-Lebanon Campaign against the Vichy French. Resistance was stronger than expected; Australians were involved in most of the fighting and sustained most of the casualties before the French capitulated in early July. The majority of Australian units in the Mediterranean returned to Australia in early 1942, after the outbreak of the Pacific War. The 9th Division was the largest unit to remain in the Middle East, and played a key role in the First Battle of El Alamein during June and the Second Battle of El Alamein in October. The division returned to Australia in early 1943, but several RAAF squadrons and RAN warships took part in the subsequent Tunisia Campaign and the Italian Campaign from 1943 until the end of the war. The RAAF's role in the strategic air offensive in Europe formed Australia's main contribution to the defeat of Germany. Approximately 13,000 Australian airmen served in dozens of British and five Australian squadrons in RAF Bomber Command between 1940 and the end of the war. Australians took part in all of Bomber Command's major offensives and suffered heavy losses during raids on German cities and targets in France. Australian aircrew in Bomber Command had one of the highest casualty rates of any part of the Australian military during the Second World War and sustained almost 20 percent of all Australian deaths in combat; 3,486 were killed and hundreds more were taken prisoner. Australian airmen in light bomber and fighter squadrons also participated in the liberation of Western Europe during 1944 and 1945 and two RAAF maritime patrol squadrons served in the Battle of the Atlantic. ### Asia and the Pacific From the 1920s Australia's defence thinking was dominated by British Imperial defence policy, which was embodied by the "Singapore strategy". This strategy involved the construction and defence of a major naval base at Singapore from which a large British fleet would respond to Japanese aggression in the region. To this end, a high proportion of Australian forces in Asia were concentrated in Malaya during 1940 and 1941 as the threat from Japan increased. However, as a result of the emphasis on co-operation with Britain, relatively few Australian military units had been retained in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region. Measures were taken to improve Australia's defences as war with Japan loomed in 1941, but these proved inadequate. In December 1941, the Australian Army in the Pacific comprised the 8th Division, most of which was stationed in Malaya, and eight partially trained and equipped divisions in Australia. The RAAF was equipped with 373 aircraft, most of which were obsolete trainers, and the RAN had three cruisers and two destroyers in Australian waters. The Australian military suffered a series of defeats during the early months of the Pacific War. The 8th Division and RAAF squadrons in Malaya formed a part of the British Commonwealth forces which were unable to stop a smaller Japanese invasion force which landed on 7 December. The British Commonwealth force withdrew to Singapore at the end of January, but was forced to surrender on 15 February after the Japanese captured much of the island. Smaller Australian forces were also overwhelmed and defeated during early 1942 at Rabaul, and in Ambon, Timor, and Java. The Australian town of Darwin was heavily bombed by the Japanese on 19 February, to prevent it from being used as an Allied base. Over 22,000 Australians were taken prisoner in early 1942 and endured harsh conditions in Japanese captivity. The prisoners were subjected to malnutrition, denied medical treatment and frequently beaten and killed by their guards. As a result, 8,296 Australian prisoners died in captivity. The rapid Allied defeat in the Pacific caused many Australians to fear that the Japanese would invade the Australian mainland. While elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy proposed this in early 1942, it was judged to be impossible by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, which instead adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States by capturing New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Samoa, and New Caledonia. This fact was not known by the Allies at the time, and the Australian military was greatly expanded to meet the threat of invasion. Large numbers of United States Army and Army Air Forces units arrived in Australia in early 1942, and the Australian military was placed under the overall command of General Douglas MacArthur in March. Australians played a central role in the New Guinea campaign during 1942 and 1943. After an attempt to land troops at Port Moresby was defeated in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Japanese attempted to capture the strategically important town by advancing overland across the Owen Stanley Ranges and Milne Bay. Australian Army units defeated these offensives in the Kokoda Track campaign and Battle of Milne Bay with the support of the RAAF and USAAF. Australian and US Army units subsequently assaulted and captured the Japanese bases on the north coast of Papua in the hard-fought Battle of Buna-Gona. The Australian Army also defeated a Japanese attempt to capture the town of Wau in January 1943 and went onto the offensive in the Salamaua-Lae campaign in April. In late 1943, the 7th and 9th Divisions played an important role in Operation Cartwheel, when they landed to the east and west of Lae and secured the Huon Peninsula during the Huon Peninsula campaign and Finisterre Range campaign. The Australian mainland came under attack during 1942 and 1943. Japanese submarines operated off Australia from May to August 1942 and January to June 1943. These attacks sought to cut the Allied supply lines between Australia and the US and Australia and New Guinea, but were unsuccessful. On 14 May 1943 the hospital ship AHS Centaur was sunk by a Japanese submarine off Brisbane with the loss of 268 lives. Japanese aircraft also conducted air raids against Allied bases in northern Australia which were being used to mount the North Western Area Campaign against Japanese positions in the Netherlands East Indies (NEI). Australia's role in the Pacific War declined from 1944. The increasing size of the US forces in the Pacific rendered the Australian military superfluous and labour shortages forced the Government to reduce the size of the armed forces to boost war production. Nevertheless, the Government wanted the Australian military to remain active, and agreed to MacArthur's proposals that it be used in relatively unimportant campaigns. In late 1944, Australian troops and RAAF squadrons replaced US garrisons in eastern New Guinea, New Britain, and Bougainville, and launched offensives aimed at destroying or containing the remaining Japanese forces there. In May 1945, I Corps, the Australian First Tactical Air Force and USAAF and USN units began the Borneo Campaign, which continued until the end of the war. These campaigns contributed little to Japan's defeat and remain controversial. Following Japan's surrender on 15 August 1945 Australia assumed responsibility for occupying much of Borneo and the eastern Netherlands East Indies until British and Dutch colonial rule was restored. Australian authorities also conducted a number of war crimes trials of Japanese personnel. 993,000 Australians enlisted during the war, while 557,000 served overseas. Casualties included 39,767 killed and another 66,553 were wounded. 20 Victoria Crosses were awarded to Australians. ## Post-war period ### Demobilisation and peace-time defence arrangements The demobilisation of the Australian military following the end of the Second World War was completed in 1947. Plans for post-war defence arrangements were predicated on maintaining a relatively strong peacetime force. It was envisioned the Royal Australian Navy would maintain a fleet that would include two light fleet carriers, two cruisers, six destroyers, 16 others ships in commission and another 52 in reserve. The Royal Australian Air Force would have a strength of 16 squadrons, including four manned by the Citizen Air Force. Meanwhile, in a significant departure from past Australian defence policy which had previously relied on citizen forces, the Australian Army would include a permanent field force of 19,000 regulars organised into a brigade of three infantry battalions with armoured support, serving alongside a part-time force of 50,000 men in the Citizen Military Forces. The Australian Regular Army was subsequently formed on 30 September 1947, while the CMF was re-raised on 1 July 1948. ### Occupation of Japan, 1946–52 In the immediate post-war period Australia contributed significant forces to the Allied occupation of Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF), which included forces from Australia, Britain, India and New Zealand. At its height in 1946 the Australian component consisted of an infantry brigade, four warships and three fighter squadrons, totalling 13,500 personnel. The Australian Army component initially consisted of the 34th Brigade which arrived in Japan in February 1946 and was based in Hiroshima Prefecture. The three infantry battalions raised for occupation duties were designated the 1st, 2nd and 3rd battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment in 1949, and the 34th Brigade became the 1st Brigade when it returned to Australia in December 1948, forming the basis of the post-war Regular Army. From that time the Australian Army contribution to the occupation of Japan was reduced to a single under-strength battalion. Australian forces remained until September 1951 when the BCOF ceased operations, although by that time the majority of units had been committed to the fighting on the Korean peninsula following the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. The RAAF component consisted of Nos. 76, 77 and 82 Squadrons as part of No. 81 Wing RAAF flying P-51 Mustangs, initially based at Bofu from March 1946, before transferring to Iwakuni in 1948. However, by 1950 only No. 77 Squadron remained in Japan. A total of ten RAN warships served in Japan during this period, including HMA Ships Australia, Hobart, Shropshire, Arunta, Bataan, Culgoa, Murchison, Shoalhaven, Quadrant and Quiberon, while HMAS Ships Manoora, Westralia and Kanimbla also provided support. ## Cold War ### Early planning and commitments During the early years of the Cold War, Australian defence planning assumed that in the event of the outbreak of a global war between the Western world and Eastern bloc countries it would need to contribute forces under collective security arrangements as part of the United Nations, or a coalition led by either the United States or Britain. The Middle East was considered the most likely area of operations for Australian forces, where they were expected to operate with British forces. Early commitments included the involvement of RAAF aircrew during the Berlin Airlift in 1948–49 and the deployment of No. 78 Wing RAAF to Malta in the Mediterranean from 1952 to 1954. Meanwhile, defence preparedness initiatives included the introduction of a National Service Scheme in 1951 to provide manpower for the citizen forces of the Army, RAAF and RAN. ### Korean War, 1950–53 On 25 June 1950, the North Korean Army (KPA) crossed the border into South Korea and advanced for the capital Seoul, which fell in less than a week. North Korean forces continued toward the port of Pusan and two days later the United States offered its assistance to South Korea. In response the United Nations Security Council requested members to assist in repelling the North Korean attack. Australia initially contributed P-51 Mustang fighter-bomber aircraft from No. 77 Squadron RAAF and infantry from the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), both of which were stationed in Japan as part of the BCOF. In addition, it provided the majority of supply and support personnel to the British Commonwealth Forces Korea. The RAN frigate HMAS Shoalhaven, and the destroyer HMAS Bataan, were also committed. Later, an aircraft carrier strike group aboard was added to the force. By the time 3 RAR arrived in Pusan on 28 September, the North Koreans were in retreat following the Inchon landings. As a part of the invasion force under the UN Supreme Commander, General Douglas MacArthur, the battalion moved north and was involved in its first major action at Battle of Yongju near Pyongyang on 22 October, before advancing towards the Yalu River. Further successful actions followed at Kujin on 25–26 October 1950 and at Chongju on 29 October 1950. North Korean casualties were heavy, while Australian losses included their commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green, who was wounded in the stomach by artillery fire after the battle and succumbed to his wounds and died two days later on 1 November. Meanwhile, during the last weeks of October the Chinese had moved 18 divisions of the People's Volunteer Army across the Yalu River to reinforce the remnants of the KPA. Undetected by US and South Korean intelligence, the 13th Army Group crossed the border on 16 October and penetrated up to 100 kilometres (62 mi) into North Korea, and were reinforced in early November by 12 divisions from the 9th Army Group; in total 30 divisions composed of 380,000 men. 3 RAR fought its first action against the Chinese at Pakchon on 5 November. The fighting cost the battalion heavily and despite halting a Chinese division the new battalion commander was dismissed in the wake. Following the Chinese intervention, the UN forces were defeated in successive battles and 3 RAR was forced to withdraw to the 38th parallel. A series of battles followed at Uijeongbu on 1–4 January 1951, as the British and Australians occupied defensive positions in an attempt to secure the northern approaches to the South Korean capital. Further fighting occurred at Chuam-ni on 14–17 February 1951 following another Chinese advance, and later at Maehwa-San between 7–12 March 1951 as the UN resumed the offensive. Australian troops subsequently participated in two more major battles in 1951, with the first taking place during fighting which later became known as the Battle of Kapyong. On 22 April, Chinese forces attacked the Kapyong valley and forced the South Korean defenders to withdraw. Australian and Canadian troops were ordered to halt this Chinese advance. After a night of fighting the Australians recaptured their positions, at the cost of 32 men killed and 59 wounded. In July 1951, the Australian battalion became part of the combined Canadian, British, Australian, New Zealand, and Indian 1st Commonwealth Division. The second major battle took place during Operation Commando and occurred after the Chinese attacked a salient in a bend of the Imjin River. The 1st Commonwealth Division counter-attacked on 3 October, capturing a number of objectives including Hill 355 and Hill 317 during the Battle of Maryang San; after five days the Chinese retreated. Australian casualties included 20 dead and 104 wounded. The belligerents then became locked in static trench warfare akin to the First World War, in which men lived in tunnels, redoubts, and sandbagged forts behind barbed wire defences. From 1951 until the end of the war, 3 RAR held trenches on the eastern side of the division's positions in the hills northeast of the Imjin River. Across from them were heavily fortified Chinese positions. In March 1952, Australia increased its ground commitment to two battalions, sending 1 RAR. This battalion remained in Korea for 12 months, before being replaced by 2 RAR in April 1953. The Australians fought their last battle during 24–26 July 1953, with 2 RAR holding off a concerted Chinese attack along the Samichon River and inflicting significant casualties for the loss of five killed and 24 wounded. Hostilities were suspended on 27 July 1953. 17,808 Australians served during the war, with 341 killed, 1,216 wounded and 30 captured. ### Malayan Emergency, 1950–60 The Malayan Emergency was declared on 18 June 1948, after three estate managers were murdered by members of the Malayan Communist Party (MCP). Australian involvement began in June 1950, when in response to a British request, six Lincolns from No. 1 Squadron and a flight of Dakotas from No. 38 Squadron arrived in Singapore to form part of the British Commonwealth Far East Air Force (FEAF). The Dakotas were subsequently used on cargo runs, troop movement, as well as paratroop and leaflet drops, while the Lincoln bombers carried out bombing raids against the Communist Terrorist (CT) jungle bases. The RAAF were particularly successful, and in one such mission known as Operation Termite, five Lincoln bombers destroyed 181 communist camps, killed 13 communists and forced one into surrender, in a joint operation with the RAF and ground troops. The Lincolns were withdrawn in 1958, and were replaced by Canberra bombers from No. 2 Squadron and CAC Sabres from No. 78 Wing. Based at RAAF Base Butterworth they also carried out a number ground attack missions against the guerrillas. Australian ground forces were deployed to Malaya in October 1955 as part of the Far East Strategic Reserve. In January 1956, the first Australian ground forces were deployed on Malaysian peninsula, consisting of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR). 2 RAR mainly participated in "mopping up" operations over the next 20 months, conducting extensive patrolling in and near the CT jungle bases, as part of 28th British Commonwealth Brigade. Contact with the enemy was infrequent and results small, achieving relatively few kills. 2 RAR left Malaysia October 1957 to be replaced by 3 RAR. 3 RAR underwent six weeks of jungle training and began driving MCP insurgents back into the jungle of Perak and Kedah. The new battalion extensively patrolled and was involved in food denial operations and ambushes. Again contact was limited, although 3 RAR had more success than its predecessor. By late 1959, operations against the MCP were in their final phase, and most communists had been pushed back and across the Thailand border. 3 RAR left Malaysia October 1959 and was replaced by 1 RAR. Though patrolling the border 1 RAR did not make contact with the insurgents, and in October 1960 it was replaced by 2 RAR, which stayed in Malaysia until August 1963. The Malayan Emergency officially ended on 31 July 1960. Australia also provided artillery and engineer support, along with an air-field construction squadron. The Royal Australian Navy also served in Malayan waters, firing on suspected communist positions between 1956 and 1957. The Emergency was the longest continued commitment in Australian military history; 7,000 Australians served and 51 died in Malaya—although only 15 were on operations—and another 27 were wounded. ### Military and Naval growth during the 1960s At the start of the 1960s, Prime Minister Robert Menzies greatly expanded the Australian military so that it could carry out the Government's policy of "Forward Defence" in South East Asia. In 1964, Menzies announced a large increase in defence spending. The strength of the Australian Army would be increased by 50% over three years from 22,000 to 33,000; providing a full three-brigade division with nine battalions. The RAAF and RAN would also both be increased by 25%. In 1964, conscription or National Service was re-introduced under the National Service Act, for selected 20-year-olds based on date of birth, for a period of two years' continuous full-time service (the previous scheme having been suspended in 1959). In 1961, three Charles F. Adams-class destroyers were purchased from the United States to replace the ageing Q-class destroyers. Traditionally, the RAN had purchased designs based on those of the Royal Navy and the purchase of American destroyers was significant. and joined the fleet in 1965, followed by in 1967. Other projects included the construction of six River-class frigates, the conversion of the aircraft carrier to an anti-submarine role, the acquisition of ten Wessex helicopters, and the purchase of six Oberon-class submarines. The RAAF took delivery of their first Mirage fighters in 1967, equipping No. 3, No. 75 and No. 77 Squadrons with them. The service also received American F-111 strike aircraft, C-130 Hercules transports, P-3 Orion maritime reconnaissance aircraft and Italian Macchi trainers. ### Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, 1962–66 The Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation was fought from 1962 to 1966 between the British Commonwealth and Indonesia over the creation of the Federation of Malaysia, with the Commonwealth attempting to safeguard the security of the new state. The war remained limited, and was fought primarily on the island of Borneo, although a number of Indonesian seaborne and airborne incursions onto the Malay Peninsula did occur. As part of Australia's continuing military commitment to the security of Malaysia, army, naval and airforce units were based there as part of the Far East Strategic Reserve. Regardless the Australian government was wary of involvement in a war with Indonesia and initially limited its involvement to the defence of the Malayan peninsula only. On two occasions Australian troops from 3 RAR were used to help mop up infiltrators from seaborne and airborne incursions at Labis and Pontian, in September and October 1964. Following these raids the government conceded to British and Malaysian requests to deploy an infantry battalion to Borneo. During the early phases, British and Malaysian troops had attempted only to control the Malaysian/Indonesian border, and to protect population centres. However, by the time the Australian battalion deployed the British had decided on more aggressive action, crossing the border into Kalimantan to obtain information and conduct ambushes to force the Indonesians to remain on the defensive, under the codename Operation Claret. The fighting took place in mountainous, jungle-clad terrain, and a debilitating climate, with operations characterised by the extensive use of company bases sited along the border, cross-border operations, the use of helicopters for troop movement and resupply, and the role of human and signals intelligence to determine enemy movements and intentions. 3 RAR deployed to Borneo in March 1965, and served in Sarawak until the end of July, operating on both sides of the border. The battalion had four major contacts with Indonesian forces and several smaller ones—including at Sungei Koemba, Kindau and Babang during which they inflicted heavy casualties on the Indonesians—as well as suffering casualties in two mine incidents. 4 RAR served a less-eventful tour between April and August 1966, and also operated over the border, successfully clashing with the Indonesians on a number of occasions. A squadron of the Special Air Service Regiment (SASR) was also deployed in 1965 and again in 1966, taking part in cross-border operations and inflicting significant casualties on the Indonesians, even though they were often tasked with covert reconnaissance. Other units included artillery and engineers, while a number of RAN ships were involved in shelling Indonesian positions in Borneo and in repelling infiltrators in the Singapore Strait. The RAAF played a relatively minor role, although it would have been used far more extensively had the war escalated. Operations in Borneo were extremely sensitive and they received little press coverage in Australia, while official acknowledgement of involvement in cross-border missions only occurred in 1996. Following a military coup in Indonesia in early 1966 which brought General Suharto to power, a peace treaty was signed in August 1966 which ended the conflict. 3,500 Australians served during Confrontation; casualties included 16 dead, with seven killed in action and eight wounded. ### Vietnam War, 1962–73 Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War was driven largely by the rise of communism in Southeast Asia after the Second World War, and the fear of its spread which developed in Australia during the 1950s and early 1960s. As a consequence, Australia supported South Vietnam throughout the early 1960s. In 1961 and 1962, the leader of the South Vietnamese government, Ngo Dinh Diem, asked for assistance from the US and its allies in response to a growing insurgency supported by communist North Vietnam. Australia offered 30 military advisors from the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam, which became known simply as "The Team". They arrived in July and August 1962, beginning Australia's involvement in the war. Later in August 1964, the RAAF sent a flight of Caribou transport aircraft to the port city of Vung Tau. However, with the security situation in South Vietnam continuing to deteriorate, the US increased its involvement to 200,000 combat troops by early 1965. Australia also committed ground forces, dispatching the 1 RAR to serve with the US 173rd Airborne Brigade in Bien Hoa province in June 1965 and it subsequently fought a number of significant actions, including Gang Toi, Operation Crimp and Suoi Bong Trang. In March 1966, the Australian government announced the deployment of a brigade-sized unit—the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF)—to replace 1 RAR. Included were a large number of conscripts, under the increasingly controversial National Service Scheme. Consisting of two infantry battalions as well as armour, aviation, artillery and other support arms, the task force was assigned primary responsibility for its own area and was based at Nui Dat, in Phuoc Tuy Province. Included were the Iroquois helicopters of No. 9 Squadron RAAF. At the Battle of Long Tan on 18 August 1966, D Company, 6 RAR with considerable artillery support held off and defeated a Viet Cong force that was at least six times bigger than itself. 18 Australians were killed and 24 wounded, while 245 communist dead were later recovered from the battlefield. The battle allowed the Australians to gain dominance over Phuoc Tuy Province and 1 ATF was not fundamentally challenged again. Regardless, during February 1967 the Australians suffered their heaviest casualties in the war to that point, losing 16 men killed and 55 wounded in a single week, the bulk during Operation Bribie. Yet with the Phuoc Tuy province coming progressively under control throughout 1967, the Australians increasingly spent a significant period of time conducting operations further afield. 1 ATF was subsequently deployed astride infiltration routes leading to Saigon to interdict communist movement against the capital as part of Operation Coburg during the 1968 Tet Offensive and later during the Battle of Coral–Balmoral in May and June 1968. At Fire Support Bases Coral and Balmoral the Australians had clashed with regular North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong main force units operating in battalion and regimental strength for the first time in near conventional warfare, ultimately fighting their largest, most hazardous and most sustained battle of the war. During 26 days of fighting Australian casualties included 25 killed and 99 wounded, while communist casualties included 267 killed confirmed by body count, 60 possibly killed, 7 wounded and 11 captured. Other significant Australian actions included Binh Ba in June 1969, Hat Dich in late-December 1968 and early 1969 and Long Khanh in June 1971. At the height of the Australian commitment, 1 ATF numbered 8,500 troops, including three infantry battalions, armour, artillery, engineers, logistics and aviation units in support. A third RAAF unit, No. 2 Squadron RAAF, flying Canberra bombers, was sent in 1967, and four RAN destroyers joined US patrols in the waters off North Vietnam. The Australian withdrawal effectively commenced in November 1970. As a consequence of the overall allied strategy of Vietnamization and with the Australian government keen to reduce its own commitment to the war, 8 RAR was not replaced at the end of its tour of duty. 1 ATF was again reduced to just two infantry battalions, albeit with significant armour, artillery and aviation support remaining. Australian combat forces were further reduced during 1971 as part of a phased withdrawal, and 1 ATF ceased operations in October. Meanwhile, the advisors remained to train South Vietnamese troops until withdrawn on 18 December 1972 by the newly elected Labor government of Gough Whitlam. The last Australian forces were finally withdrawn in 1973. The Vietnam War was Australia's longest and most controversial war and although initially enjoying broad support, as the nation's military involvement increased a vocal anti-war movement developed. More than 50,000 Australians served in Vietnam; 519 were killed and 2,398 were wounded. Four were awarded the Victoria Cross. ## Post-Vietnam era ### Creation of the Australian Defence Force, 1976 Although the importance of 'joint' warfare had been highlighted during Second World War when Australian naval, ground and air units frequently served as part of single commands, the absence of a central authority continued to result in poor co-ordination between the services in the post-war era, with each organising and operating on the basis of a different military doctrine. The need for an integrated command structure received more emphasis during the Australian military's experiences in the Vietnam War. In 1973, the Secretary of the Department of Defence, Arthur Tange, submitted a report to the Government that recommended the unification of the separate departments supporting each service into a single department and the creation of the post of Chief of the Defence Force Staff. The Whitlam Labor Government subsequently amalgamated the five defence ministries (Defence, Navy, Army, Air Force, and Supply) into a single Department of Defence in 1973, while conscription under the National Service scheme was abolished. On 1 January 1976, the three branches of the Australian military were brought together as a unified, all-volunteer, professional force known as the Australian Defence Force (ADF). Today, the ADF is headquartered at Russell Offices in Canberra and is divided into Air, Land, Maritime and Special Operations Commands. In addition, Northern Command is based in Darwin, and is responsible for operations in Northern Australia. ### Defence of Australia, 1980s and 1990s Until the 1970s, Australia's military strategy centred on the concept of Forward Defence, in which the role of Australian military and naval forces were to co-operate with Allied forces to counter threats in Australia's region. Following the adoption of the Guam Doctrine by the United States in 1969, and the British withdrawal 'east of Suez' in the early 1970s, Australia developed a defence policy emphasising self-reliance and the defence of the Australian continent. Known as the Defence of Australia Policy, it focused Australian defence planning on protecting the nation's northern maritime approaches (the 'air-sea gap') against possible attack. In line with this goal, the ADF was restructured to increase its ability to strike at enemy forces from Australian bases and to counter raids on continental Australia. This was achieved by increasing the capabilities of the RAN and RAAF, and relocating regular Army units to Northern Australia. During this time the ADF had no military units on operational deployment outside Australia. However, in 1987 the ADF made its first operational deployment as part of Operation Morris Dance, in which several warships and a rifle company deployed to the waters off Fiji in response to the 1987 Fijian coups d'état. While broadly successful, this deployment highlighted the need for the ADF to improve its capability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events. During this period Australia continued to retain forces in Malaysia as part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) agreed in 1971 to defend it in the event of external attack, with this commitment initially including significant air, ground and naval forces. However, these forces were gradually reduced with the infantry battalion withdrawn from Singapore in 1973, and the two Mirage fighter squadrons in 1988. Since then a detachment of Orion maritime patrol aircraft, support personnel, and an infantry company known as Rifle Company Butterworth have been maintained, as well as occasional deployments of F/A-18 Hornet fighter aircraft. Australian submarines reportedly undertook a number of clandestine surveillance missions throughout Asian waters in the last decades of the Cold War. Airforce and Navy units were also involved in tracking Soviet ship and submarine movements in the region. Since then the Orions have continued to participate in maritime security operations as part of Operation Gateway, conducting patrols over the Indian Ocean, Strait of Malacca and South China Sea. They have reportedly also been involved in freedom of navigation flights. ### Gulf War, 1991 Australia was a member of the international coalition which contributed military forces to the 1991 Gulf War, deploying a naval task group of two warships, a support ship and a clearance diving team; in total about 750 personnel. The Australian contribution was the first time Australian personnel were deployed to an active war zone since the establishment of the ADF and the deployment tested its capabilities and command structure. However, the Australian force did not see combat, and instead playing a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following the invasion of Kuwait. Some ADF personnel serving on exchange with British and American units did see combat, and a few were later decorated for their actions. Following the war, the Navy regularly deployed a frigate to the Persian Gulf or Red Sea to enforce the trade sanctions which continued to be applied to Iraq. A number of Australian airmen and ground crew posted to or on exchange with US and British air forces subsequently participated in enforcing no-fly zones imposed over Iraq between 1991 and 2003. ### Global security, late-1990s Since the late 1980s, the Australian government had increasingly called upon the ADF to contribute forces to peacekeeping missions around the world. While most of these deployments involved only small numbers of specialists, several led to the deployment of hundreds of personnel. Large peacekeeping deployments were made to Namibia in early 1989, Cambodia between 1992 and 1993, Somalia in 1993, Rwanda between 1994 and 1995 and Bougainville in 1994 and from 1997 onwards. The 1996 election of the Howard Liberal government resulted in significant reforms to the ADF's force structure and role, with the new government's defence strategy placed less singular emphasis on defending Australia from direct attack and greater emphasis on working in co-operation with regional states and Australia's allies to manage potential security threats in recognition of Australia's global security interests. In line with this new focus, the ADF's force structure changed in an attempt to increase the proportion of combat units to support units and to improve the ADF's combat effectiveness. ## New Millennium ### East Timor, 1999–2013 The former-Portuguese colony of East Timor was invaded by Indonesia in 1975, however, following years of violent struggle the new Indonesian government of President B.J. Habibie subsequently agreed to allow the East Timorese to vote on autonomy in 1999. The United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) was established to organise and conduct the vote, which was held at the end of August 1999 and resulted with 78.5% of voters deciding in favour of independence. However, following the announcement of the results pro-Indonesian militias supported by elements of the Indonesian military, launched a campaign of violence, looting and arson and many East Timorese were killed, while perhaps more than 500,000 were displaced. Unable to control the violence, Indonesia subsequently agreed to the deployment of a multinational peacekeeping force. Australia, which had contributed police to UNAMET, organised and led an international military coalition, known as the International Force for East Timor (INTERFET), a non-UN force operating in accordance with UN resolutions. The total size of the Australian force committed numbered 5,500 personnel, and included a significant ground force, supported by air and naval forces, in the largest single deployment of Australian forces since 1945. Under the overall command of Australian Major General Peter Cosgrove, INTERFET began arriving on 12 September 1999 and was tasked with restoring peace and security, protecting and supporting UNAMET, and facilitating humanitarian assistance operations. With the withdrawal of the Indonesian armed forces, police and government officials from East Timor, UNAMET re-established its headquarters in Dili on 28 September. On 19 October 1999, Indonesia formally recognised the result of the referendum and shortly thereafter a UN peacekeeping force, the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) was established, becoming fully responsible for the administration of East Timor during its transition to independence. The hand-over of command of military operations from INTERFET to UNTAET was completed on 28 February 2000. Australia continued to support the UN peacekeeping operation with between 1,500 and 2,000 personnel, as well as landing craft and Blackhawk helicopters and remained the largest contributor of personnel to the peacekeeping mission. During these operations Australian forces regularly clashed with pro-Indonesian militia and on a number of occasions Indonesian forces as well, especially along the border with West Timor. Significant actions occurred in Suai, Mota'ain and at Aidabasalala in October 1999. However, with the security situation stabilised the bulk of the Australian and UN forces were withdrawn by 2005. Two Australians died from non-battle related causes, while a number were wounded in action. The unexpected deployment to East Timor in 1999 led to significant changes in Australian defence policy and to an enhancement of the ADF's ability to conduct operations outside Australia. This successful deployment was the first time a large Australian military force had operated outside of Australia since the Vietnam War and revealed shortcomings in the ADF's ability to mount and sustain such operations. In response, the 2000 Defence White Paper placed a greater emphasis on preparing the ADF for overseas deployments. The Australian government committed to improve the ADF's capabilities by improving the readiness and equipment of ADF units, expanding the ADF to 57,000 full-time personnel and increasing real Defence expenditure by 3% per year. In May 2006, 2,000 ADF personnel were again deployed to East Timor as part of Operation Astute, following unrest between elements of the Timor Leste Defence Force. Australian forces were involved in a number skirmishes during this time, including a heavy clash with rebels commanded by Alfredo Reinado at Same on 4 March 2007. However, by early-2010 the security situation had been stabilised and just 400 Australian personnel remained to train the local security forces as part of a small international force. Following a drawdown, the International Stabilisation Force commenced withdrawing from Timor-Leste in November 2012, a process which was completed in April 2013. ### Afghanistan, 2001–2021 Shortly after the Islamist inspired terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on 11 September 2001, Australian forces were committed to the American-led international coalition against terrorism. The ADF's most visible contribution—codenamed Operation Slipper—has been a special forces task group operating in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2002 and again from mid-2005 to fight against the Taliban. Over time the Australian commitment has grown, with the addition of further ground forces in the form of a Reconstruction Task Force from 2006 to provide security, reconstruction and to mentor and train the Afghan National Army. Australia has also contributed a frigate and two AP-3C Orion surveillance aircraft and three C-130 Hercules transport aircraft to international operations in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean since 2001, supporting both the operations in Afghanistan and those in Iraq under Operation Catalyst. A detachment of four F/A-18 Hornet fighter-bombers was based at Diego Garcia from late-2001 to mid-2002, while two Boeing 707 air-to-air refuelling aircraft were also based in Manas Air Base in Kyrgyzstan to provide support to coalition aircraft operating in Afghan airspace but were later withdrawn. A Special Operations Task Group was deployed to support the Reconstruction Taskforce in April 2007. In addition to radar crews, logistics and intelligence officers, and security personnel, this brought the number of Australian personnel in Afghanistan to 950 by mid-2007, with further small increases to 1,000 in mid-2008, 1,100 in early 2009 and 1,550 in mid-2009. A modest force remained in Afghanistan over this time and was involved in counter-insurgency operations in Uruzgan Province in conjunction United States and other coalition forces, including the Dutch prior to their withdrawal. The force consisted of motorised infantry, special forces, engineers, cavalry, artillery and aviation elements. By 2010 it included a combined arms battalion-sized battle group known as the Mentoring Task Force, and the Special Operations Task Group, both based at Forward Operation Base Ripley outside of Tarin Kowt, as well as the Rotary Wing Group flying CH-47D Chinooks, the Force Logistics Asset and an RAAF air surveillance radar unit based in Kandahar. In addition, a further 800 Australian logistic personnel were also based in the Middle East in support, but located outside of Afghanistan. Meanwhile, detachments of maritime patrol and transport aircraft continued to support operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, based out of Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates. Also included was one of the RAN's frigates deployed to the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden on counter piracy and maritime interdiction duties. Australian forces were at times involved in heavy fighting, and significant actions included Operation Anaconda in 2002 and Operation Perth in 2006, as well as actions in Chora in 2007, Kakarak in 2009, the Shah Wali Kot and Derapet in 2010, and Doan in 2011; although others have yet to be publicly acknowledged due to operational security requirements. Casualties include 41 killed and 256 wounded, while another Australian also died serving with the British Army. Four Australians have been awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia, the first such decorations in forty years. Following a drawdown in forces, the last combat troops were withdrawn on 15 December 2013; however, approximately 400 personnel remain in Afghanistan as trainers and advisers, and are stationed in Kandahar and Kabul. Over 26,000 Australian personnel have served in Afghanistan. In November 2020, a report for the Inspector-General of the Australian Defence Force by Major General Paul Brereton, a New South Wales Court of Appeal judge, found credible information that 25 current or former members of the ADF were involved in, or accessories to, the murder of 39 Afghan prisoners and civilians, and the cruel treatment of two others. None of these matters occurred in the "heat of battle". Brereton's inquiry took four and a half years to complete, and involved the interviewing of 423 witnesses, the examination of more than 20,000 documents and 25,000 images, regarding conduct in Afghanistan between 2005 and 2016. It recommended that 36 incidents be referred to the AFP for criminal investigation. The report, released in heavily redacted form on 19 November by the Chief of the Defence Force, General Angus Campbell. Campbell offered an apology for "any wrongdoing by Australian soldiers", and highlighted that the matters predominantly involved the SASR. He summarised the report by saying that "It is alleged that some patrols took the law into their own hands, rules were broken, stories concocted, lies told and prisoners killed", and said that practices developed in order to conceal deliberate unlawful killings. On 26 November, it was reported that Defence had commenced administrative action against at least 10 serving members of the SASR, issuing them with "show cause" notices for their dismissal. ### Iraq, 2003–11 Australian forces later joined British and American forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The initial contribution was also a modest one, consisting of just 2,058 personnel—codenamed Operation Falconer. Major force elements included special forces, rotary and fixed wing aviation and naval units. Army units included elements from the SASR and 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (Commando), a CH-47 Chinook detachment and a number of other specialist units. RAN units included the amphibious ship and the frigates and , while the RAAF deployed 14 F/A-18 Hornets from No. 75 Squadron, a number of AP-3C Orions and C-130 Hercules. The Australian Special Forces Task Force was one of the first coalition units forces to cross the border into Iraq, while for a few days, the closest ground troops to Baghdad were from the SASR. During the invasion the RAAF also flew its first combat missions since the Vietnam War, with No. 75 Squadron flying a total of 350 sorties and dropping 122 laser-guided bombs. The Iraqi military quickly proved no match for coalition military power, and with their defeat the bulk of Australian forces were withdrawn. While Australia did not initially take part in the post-war occupation of Iraq, an Australian Army light armoured battlegroup—designated the Al Muthanna Task Group and including 40 ASLAV light armoured vehicles and infantry—was later deployed to Southern Iraq in April 2005 as part of Operation Catalyst. The role of this force was to protect the Japanese engineer contingent in the region and support the training of New Iraqi Army units. The AMTG later became the Overwatch Battle Group (West) (OBG(W)), following the hand back of Al Muthanna province to Iraqi control. Force levels peaked at 1,400 personnel in May 2007 including the OBG(W) in Southern Iraq, the Security Detachment in Baghdad and the Australian Army Training Team—Iraq. A RAN frigate was based in the North Persian Gulf, while RAAF assets included C-130H Hercules and AP-3C elements. Following the election of a new Labor government under Prime Minister Kevin Rudd the bulk of these forces were withdrawn by mid-2009, while RAAF and RAN operations were redirected to other parts of the Middle East Area of Operations as part of Operation Slipper. Low-level operations continued, however, with a small Australian force of 80 soldiers remaining in Iraq to protect the Australian Embassy in Baghdad as part of SECDET under Operation Kruger. SECDET was finally withdrawn in August 2011, and was replaced by a private military company which took over responsibility for providing security for Australia's diplomatic presence in Iraq. Although more than 17,000 personnel served during operations in Iraq, Australian casualties were relatively light, with two soldiers accidentally killed, while a third Australian died serving with the British Royal Air Force. A further 27 personnel were wounded. Two officers remained in Iraq attached to the United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq as part of Operation Riverbank. This operation concluded in November 2013. ### Military intervention against ISIL, 2014–present In June 2014 a small number of SASR personnel were deployed to Iraq to protect the Australian embassy when the security of Baghdad was threatened by the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive. Later, in August and September a number of RAAF C-17 and C-130J transport aircraft based in the Middle East were used to conduct airdrops of humanitarian aid to trapped civilians and to airlift arms and munitions to forces in Kurdish-controlled northern Iraq. In late September 2014 an Air Task Group (ATG) and Special Operations Task Group (SOTG) were deployed to Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates as part of the coalition to combat Islamic State forces in Iraq. Equipped with F/A-18F Super Hornet strike aircraft, a KC-30A Multi Role Tanker Transport, and an E-7A Wedgetail Airborne Early Warning & Control aircraft, the ATG began operations on 1 October. The SOTG is tasked with operations to advise and assist Iraqi Security Forces, and was deployed to Iraq after a legal framework covering their presence in the country was agreed between the Australian and Iraqi Governments. It began moving into Iraq in early November. In April 2015 a 300-strong unit known as Task Group Taji was deployed to Iraq to train the regular Iraqi Security Forces. In September 2015 airstrikes were extended to Syria. Strike missions concluded in December 2017. ## Peacekeeping and humanitarian relief operations Australia's involvement in international peacekeeping operations has been diverse, and included participation in both United Nations sponsored missions, as well as those as part of ad hoc coalitions. Australians have been involved in more conflicts as peacekeepers than as belligerents; however "in comparative international terms, Australia has only been a moderately energetic peacekeeper." Although Australia has had peacekeepers in the field continuously for 60 years—being among the first group of UN military observers in Indonesia in 1947—its commitments have generally been limited, consisting mostly of small numbers of high-level and technical support troops such as signallers, engineers, medics, observers, and police. One significant commitment has been Australia's ongoing involvement with the long running Multinational Force and Observers in the Sinai. The operational tempo started increasing in the mid-1990s, when Australia became involved in a series of high-profile operations, deploying significantly larger combat units in support of a number of missions including Cambodia, Rwanda, Somalia, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands. Australia has been involved in close to 100 separate missions, involving more than 30,000 personnel; 14 Australians have died during these operations. In addition, approximately 7,000 personnel have been involved in 66 different overseas humanitarian relief operations between 1918 and 2006. Eleven personnel lost their lives during these missions. ## Military statistics
64,611,714	Un Día (One Day)	1,170,330,376	2020 single by J Balvin, Dua Lipa, Bad Bunny and Tainy	[ "2020 singles", "2020 songs", "Bad Bunny songs", "Black-and-white music videos", "Dua Lipa songs", "J Balvin songs", "Song recordings produced by Tainy", "Songs written by Bad Bunny", "Songs written by Clarence Coffee Jr.", "Songs written by Dua Lipa", "Songs written by J Balvin", "Songs written by Tainy", "Songs written by Tory Lanez", "Spanglish songs", "Tainy songs" ]	"Un Día (One Day)" is a song by Colombian singer J Balvin, English-Albanian singer Dua Lipa, Puerto Rican rapper and singer Bad Bunny and Puerto Rican producer Tainy. Tainy produced the song, while he co-wrote it with Balvin, Lipa, Bad Bunny, Alejandro Borrero, Clarence Coffee Jr., Daystar Peterson, and Ivanni Rodriguez. Universal Music Group released the song for digital download and streaming as a standalone single in various countries on July 23, 2020. It appears on J Balvin's second compilation extended play (EP), Summer Vacation (2020), his fifth studio album Jose (2021), and the reissue of Lipa's second studio album, Future Nostalgia: The Moonlight Edition (2021). A house, Latin pop, and reggaeton song with dream pop melodies and dancehall flairs, "Un Día (One Day)" lyrically talks about emotions of nostalgia and longing between two alienated romantic partners over a somber piano riff. Critics praised the song's fusion of each participating artist's musical styles. The song placed on best of 2020 year-end lists published by Billboard, Idolator and Rolling Stone. It was nominated for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards. The song reached the top 10 on the charts in various Central American countries, and received multi-platinum certifications in the United States, Mexico, and Spain. The black and white music video for "Un Día (One Day)", which was released on the same day as the song, features Úrsula Corberó dancing to it and contemplating a heartbreak. It was nominated for Best Music Video at the 46th People's Choice Awards. Lipa performed the song at her livestream concert Studio 2054, with Bad Bunny and J Balvin contributing their verses through a video. ## Background and release Tainy conceived "Un Día (One Day)" in January 2019, and invited his NEON16 partner Lex Borrero to executive produce it with him. Tainy asked J Balvin to record vocals for the song. J Balvin, in turn, asked Dua Lipa to join it; he told New Zealand DJ Zane Lowe in an interview, "I'm grateful and happy to have Dua Lipa on it. It was a dream to me to work with her". Bad Bunny was the last addition to "Un Día (One Day)", recording his vocals during the same session in which "Callaíta", another 2019 collaboration between him and Tainy, was written. Tainy, J Balvin, Lipa, and Bad Bunny wrote the song alongside Alejandro Borrero, Clarence Coffee Jr., Daystar Peterson, and Ivanni Rodriguez. Tainy recorded the song and produced it, while Colin Leonard and Josh Gudwin handled the mastering and mixing, respectively. It was recorded in 2019. In May 2020, a nine-second clip of Lipa singing over a reggaeton beat leaked online, leading to speculation about a potential collaboration. On July 21, 2020, she revealed that "Un Día (One Day)" would be released two days later, and shared a 30-second teaser of the music video, which included imagery of a statue disintegrating underwater that is surrounded by fishes, people on fire, a glowing rectangle, cityscapes, and fireworks. Universal Music Group released the song for digital download and streaming as a single in various countries on July 23. The record label released it for radio airplay in Italy the following day; Republic Records sent the song to contemporary hit and rhythmic contemporary stations in the United States on August 4, 2020. "Un Día (One Day)" appears as the first track on J Balvin's second compilation extended play (EP) Summer Vacation (2020), the 24th and final track on Balvin's fifth studio album Jose (2021), and as the 19th and final track on the reissue of Lipa's second studio album Future Nostalgia: The Moonlight Edition (2021). ## Music and lyrics Musically, "Un Día (One Day)" is a midtempo house, Latin pop, and reggaeton song, with dream pop melodies, dancehall flairs, hip hop elements and Latin rhythms as well as a somber pop piano riff. Bad Bunny samples Puerto Rican singer Tito El Bambino and Jadiel's song "Sol, Playa y Arena" (2007) during his verse. Lyrically, the song has themes of nostalgia and longing emotions. A bilingual English and Spanish song, Lipa and J Balvin voice two alienated romantic partners as they employ a call and response technique on it. Bad Bunny narrates a hopeful future for them during his verse. Lipa sings the titular line, "One day you'll realize I'm more than your lover/I'm your friend", over a downtempo dembow. The lyrics are an expression of being unable to see "a good thing" even when it is right there; Bad Bunny and J Balvin try to court estranged ex-girlfriends by promising vacation trips to Marbella and Turks and Caicos. ## Reception ### Critical Entertainment Tonight's Liz Calvario described "Un Día (One Day)" as a flawless fusion of Lipa's pop-house musical style with J Balvin, Bad Bunny, and Tainy's critically acclaimed reggaeton music. Jessica Roiz of Billboard agreed it fuses "the best of both worlds". For the same magazine, Jason Lipshutz complimented the song for "simultaneously [showcasing] the complexities of its creators". Writing for Idolator, Mike Wass positively reviewed the song, describing it as a continuation of Lipa's "triumphant 2020". NME's Anna Rose named it "a breakup anthem for the summer". Ana Monroy Yglesias, a staff writer for Grammy.com, shared a similar opinion, stating that "Un Día (One Day)" is "a perfect 2020 summer jam", and praising its melancholy nature and "infectious, slowed down reggaetón beat". For Exclaim!, Antoine-Samuel Mauffette Alavo viewed the song as "genre-bending" while praising Balvin for proving to be "taking risks the whole way through" and concluding the Jose album "neatly" with the song. In Clash, Robin Murray wrote that the artists collaborating is like a "genuine Avengers Assemble line up of 2k20 pop music", while also noting that each artist pushes and pulls the single in "exciting new directions". She went on to say that it "remains true" to Balvin's roots: "matching his latin culture heritage against house music, future-facing pop, and hip-hop". In his review of Jose, the reviewer thought that the four artists was a "somewhat odd casting". Stereogum writer Chris DeVille named "Un Día (One Day)" a "midtempo reggaeton pop-crossover ballad of sorts" and thought it was an "Event Song" he'd expect to hear in "ad campaigns, inspirational montages, and heavy Top 40 radio rotation". Variety's Jem Aswad thought it is "another great song to add to the catalogs of all four artists". The staff of The Face named the song a "bilingual banger" while stating that the blend of Latin rhythms and Lipa's "irresistible" pop sound is "a recipe that's destined for success". ### Commercial "Un Día (One Day)" debuted at its peak of number 72 on the UK Singles Chart issue dated August 6, 2020. On the US Billboard Hot 100, the song reached number 63, while it topped the US Hot Latin Songs and Latin Airplay charts. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the song quindecuple Platinum (Latin) in the US, which denotes 900,000 units based on sales and track-equivalent on-demand streams. "Un Día (One Day)" charted at number 70 on the Canadian Hot 100 and was certified Platinum by Music Canada. The song peaked within the top 10 of various national record charts, reaching number one in Costa Rica, number two in El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Panama, number three in Honduras, number five in Colombia, number six in Spain, number seven in both Chile and Guatemala, number nine in both Bolivia and the Dominican Republic, and number 10 in Poland. It was certified Diamond+quadrouple Platinum+Gold in Mexico, double Platinum in Spain, and Platinum in both Italy and Portugal. ### Accolades "Un Día (One Day)" has received several awards and nominations. The song was awarded winning songwriters awards at the ASCAP Latin Awards and Crossover Collaboration of the Year at the Premio Lo Nuestro 2021. At the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, it was nominated for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance, which Billboard called "the process of normalizing non-English singles appearing in the pop categories at the Grammys" and viewed a surprising due to its commercial underperformance. The song was nominated for OMG Collaboration at the 2021 Premios Juventud and International Collaboration of the Year at the 2020 Premios MUSA. It was nominated for Best Latin at 2021 MTV Video Music Awards. "Un Día (One Day)" also placed on numerous best of 2020 year-end lists, including unranked ones by Billboard for best Latin music and Rolling Stone for pop collaborations. Billboard hailed it as 2020's 42nd best song while it placed at number 39 on Idolator's year-end list. ## Promotion Stillz directed the music video for "Un Día (One Day)", which was filmed during the COVID-19 lockdowns. It stars Spanish actress Úrsula Corberó, who captured the footage on her own without the involvement of production assistance. The video was released on the same day as the song. The black and white clip does not feature appearances by J Balvin, Lipa, Bad Bunny or Tainy. It depicts Corberó passing a day by spinning in bed and dancing to "Un Día (One Day)" in her room, stressed over a relationship that has ended and trying to find happiness. Rose drew a connection between the video's storyline and the song's lyrics; she thought that while "going through life alone", the actress is "processing the [same] breakup that Lipa sings about on the track". It earned a nomination for the Music Video of 2020 award at the 46th People's Choice Awards and won Video with the Best Social Message at the 2021 Premios Juventud. "Un Día (One Day)" was included as the 11th track on Lipa's set list for her livestream concert Studio 2054, held on November 27, 2020. She donned Versace attire and sang the song while sitting in a pink and red-hued dressing room; Bad Bunny and J Balvin contributed their verses through a video broadcast on a tube television set in the room's corner. ## Personnel - J Balvin – executive production, vocals - Dua Lipa – vocals - Bad Bunny – vocals - Tainy – vocals, production, recording - Colin Leonard – mastering - Josh Gudwin – mixing - Elijah Marrett-Hitch – mix assisting ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - List of Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Airplay number ones of 2020
31,662,308	Live at Benaroya Hall with the Seattle Symphony	1,159,239,813	2011 live album by Brandi Carlile	[ "2011 live albums", "Albums produced by Martin Feveyear", "Brandi Carlile albums", "Columbia Records live albums", "Live albums by American artists", "Live pop rock albums" ]	Live at Benaroya Hall with the Seattle Symphony is the fourth album by American singer-songwriter Brandi Carlile, released on May 3, 2011, through Columbia Records. Recorded during two sold-out shows in November 2010 at Benaroya Hall in Seattle, Washington, the album features Washington-native Carlile and her long-time band (including brothers Phil and Tim Hanseroth) performing alongside the Seattle Symphony. Seattle-based producer and audio engineer Martin Feveyear recorded the concerts, which contained orchestral arrangements by Paul Buckmaster and Sean O'Loughlin. Carlile had previously performed with the Seattle Symphony in 2008 at the same venue. The album contains three songs from Carlile's second studio album, The Story (2007), five from Give Up the Ghost (2009), and three covers, including Elton John's "Sixty Years On", Simon & Garfunkel's "The Sound of Silence", and Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah" (which also features Alphaville's "Forever Young"). Critical reception of Live at Benaroya Hall was positive overall. In the United States, the album reached peak positions of number sixty-three on the Billboard 200, number five on the Top Folk Albums chart, and number fourteen on the Top Rock Albums chart. ## Background Live at Benaroya Hall with the Seattle Symphony was recorded at two sold-out shows in November 2010 during Carlile's tour in support of her previous studio album, Give Up the Ghost (2009). Carlile, who said that she and the band had always wanted their fourth release to be a live album, had initially hoped to record at a famous venue but decided to return to Benaroya Hall, since she had performed there alongside the symphony in 2008. Prior to the single rehearsal Carlile had with the 30-member-strong Seattle Symphony, string arrangers created charts and sent computer-generated demos to Carlile for approval. Carlile was reportedly "shock[ed]" to hear the orchestra "weaving in and out" of her music. According to Carlile, while the recording process was not complicated, she commented later on rehearsing with the full symphony: > The rehearsal process is really understated. It's funny because it's not really needed. It's not needed for us anyway. Because we know how to play the songs, and the [symphony] charts don't change the songs structurally at all. But the symphony charts are something that you're not used to hearing. And then the symphony doesn't need the rehearsal because they sight-read. They sight-read better than we could even imagine. So when we get there, they already know how to play our songs better than we do... The purpose of the rehearsal is really, honestly to prepare the band for exactly how powerful the concert is going to be. When the symphony jumps in during those moments where all of a sudden you're singing a song you sing every night and then 30 more musicians start playing, it's so powerful that it causes you to take pause, and you can't take pause. And that's what the rehearsal really is for. ## Composition Live at Benaroya Hall features arrangements by British arranger and composer Paul Buckmaster, who worked previously with Carlile on Give Up the Ghost, and Sean O'Loughlin. Seattle-based producer and audio engineer Martin Feveyear, who had mixed Carlile's debut album in addition to other live EPs and demos, recorded, mixed, and mastered the album. Carlile had not spoken to Feveyear prior to the first rehearsal, but was pleased with the result of his work. Carlile's band included long-time members (and brothers) Phil and Tim Hanseroth on guitar and bass, Josh Neumann on cello, and Allison Miller on drums. The Seattle Symphony was led by Assistant Conductor Eric Garcia. The pop rock album opens with the curtain call, strengthening the impression of a live recording rather than a studio album. Carlile performed "Shadow on the Wall", "Turpentine", and "The Story", which had appeared on Carlile's second studio album The Story (2007). "Looking Out", "Before It Breaks", "I Will", "Dreams", and "Pride and Joy" had all appeared on Give Up the Ghost. Believing in the cultivation of standards, Carlile included six cover versions in the set list, three of which appear on the album. "Sixty Years On", originally written by Elton John and Bernie Taupin, was arranged by Paul Buckmaster. Carlile, a fan of the "dark" string arrangements that appear on John's album Tumbleweed Connection (1970), contacted Buckmaster on the advice of her manager. Carlile first heard the Hanseroth brothers singing Paul Simon's "The Sound of Silence" in 2009 and asked them to perform it during the set. She does not contribute vocals to the version that appears on the album. Carlile's cover of Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah", also arranged by Buckmaster, is followed by a hidden track: a cover of Alphaville's "Forever Young". Carlile said the following of Cohen's song: > "Hallelujah" is going to be a standard that our grandkids, our great-great grandkids will learn to sing in church. It's one of those really, really special songs. The thing that's going to make it that, besides that it's so great, is that everyone knows about it because hundreds of songwriters have been moved by that song and have covered it. And that's just something really important that we do in every generation. The number of cover songs, which play a prominent role in Carlile's live act, represented what she typically includes in a concert. Carlile said that she felt as though she were a member of The Beatles when the audience stood and loudly sang the words to "Dreams", and that "Before It Breaks" and "I Will" were emotionally the most difficult to perform. Carlile jokes with the audience between songs, which she felt was well-received, and requests their participation in three-part harmony during "Turpentine". During the concert, the band experienced technical difficulties, and a bra thrown from the audience, intended for the drummer, hit Carlile on stage. Carlile said the "rock 'n' roll symphony album" was "the meeting of two worlds, two different kinds of artists who got together for completely different reasons." She has said that the album is the one she and her band are most proud of, believing it truly represents their live act. ## Critical reception Overall, critical reception of the album was positive. Nick Vissey of The Seattle Times wrote that "standout" tracks included "Dreams" and "Pride and Joy", which highlighted Carlile's "unique folk-rock style" and "enthralling, emotional and fun" voice. The Hanseroth brothers' cover of Paul Simon's "The Sound of Silence" was deemed "spot-on" by Allmusic's Andrew Leahey and "breathtaking" by Gene Stout of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer. The Source Weekly contributor Mike Bookey complimented the album for capturing Carlile's live act and recommended this album for first-time listeners of her music. Glide magazine's reviewer complimented Carlile's "authentic and raw" vocals and appreciated that recorded flaws were not covered up. Stephen Carradini of the Oklahoma Gazette also noted the errors, but summarized his review by saying, "Things aren't perfect; they're still beautiful." Carradini also complimented the successful transition of Carlile's acoustic-based songs to orchestral arrangements. The Salt Lake Tribune's David Burger gave the album an A – rating, asserting that Live at Benaroya Hall captures the "unbridled spirit" of Carlile's live act more than any of her studio albums. Burger also wrote that Carlile's "well-crafted" songs were "gloriously illustrated" by Buckmaster's and O'Loughlin's arrangements. Gregg Shapiro of the Bay Area Reporter said that listening to the album is a must, even for people who do not often enjoy live albums. Paste magazine included the album on its list of "12 May Albums Worth Checking Out". The magazine's contributor Jeff Leven wrote that though the album was "over-stacked" with cover songs, it was "anthemic" and "captivating", and that Carlile's passion was "overwhelming and contagious." Leahey's review concluded: "This isn't Brandi Carlile's first concert album, but it's certainly the best." Similarly, Visser called the album Carlile's "best work to date". ## Track listing Track listing adapted from Allmusic and album liner notes. ## Personnel - Jennifer Bai – violin - Mariel Bailey – violin - Michael Bauer – photography - Theresa Benshoof – cello - Geoffrey Bergler – trumpet - William Brown – assistant - Paul Buckmaster – orchestral arrangements - Jonathan Burnstein – double bass - Brandi Carlile – composer, guitar, electric guitar, piano, vocals - John Carrington – harp - Leonard Cohen – composer - Vince Comer – viola - Michael Crusoe – timpani - Andrew Detloff – assistant - Tony Dilorenzo – trumpet - Roberta Downey – cello - Wesley Dyring – viola - Zartouhi Dombourian Eby – flute - Justin Emerich – trumpet - Martin Feveyear – engineer, mastering, mixing, record producer - Alex Gardner – live sound engineer - Mara Gearman – viola - Sande Gillette – violin - Artur Girsky – violin - David Gordon – trumpet - Valerie Muzzolini Gordon – harp - Vivian Gu – cello - Phil Hanseroth – acoustic bass, bass, composer, vocals - Tim Hanseroth – composer, electric guitar, guitar, vocals - Ben Hausmann – oboe - Patrick Herb – trombone - Dylan Hermiston – photography - Michelle Holme – art direction - Adam Iascone – French horn - Elton John – composer - Josh Neumann – cello, piano - Joe Kaufman – double bass - Seth Krimsky – bassoon - Joe Larosee – assistant - Mae Lin – violin - Mary Kate McElvaney – photography - Emma McGrath – violin - Allison Miller – drums, snare drums - Michael Miropolsky – violin - Sean O'Loughlin – orchestral arrangements - Jon Pagan – electric guitar, piano - Mark Robbins – French horn - Jon Schlukebier – engineer - Christopher Sereque – clarinet - Kim Sessions – cover photo - Mikhail Shmidt – violin - Paul Simon – composer - Bernie Taupin – composer - Brian Valentino – engineer - John Weller – violin - Michael Werner – percussion - Jeannie Wells Yablonsky – violin - Ko-ichiro Yamamoto – trombone Personnel adapted from Allmusic and album liner notes. ## Charts In the United States, Live at Benaroya Hall with the Seattle Symphony reached peak positions of number sixty-three on the Billboard 200, number five on the Top Folk Albums chart, and number fourteen on the Top Rock Albums chart.
54,272,377	2017 Rainguard Water Sealers 600	1,144,949,438	null	[ "2010s in Fort Worth, Texas", "2017 in IndyCar", "2017 in sports in Texas", "Firestone 600", "June 2017 sports events in the United States" ]	The 2017 Rainguard Water Sealers 600 was the ninth round of the 2017 IndyCar Series season, contested over 248 laps at the 1.5-mile (2.4 km) Texas Motor Speedway in Fort Worth, Texas. Charlie Kimball started from the pole position, the first of his career. Will Power of Team Penske won the race, leading 180 of the 248 laps. The race was marred by numerous crashes that left only six undamaged cars and by issues with blistering tires that forced the series to call for competition cautions and mandatory tire stops every 30 laps in the latter stages of the race. ## Report ### Background Texas Motor Speedway is a 1.5 miles (2.4 km) oval located in Fort Worth, Texas. The track has been hosting IndyCar Series races since 1997. Following a series of incidents in 2016 with weepers (water penetrating on the pavement after rain) that caused the 2016 INDYCAR race to have been postponed initially one day, and then to late August, ten weeks and the November 2016 NASCAR race with a long delay caused by weepers while attempting to dry the track, in January 2017 during the NASCAR media tour, Texas Motor Speedway announced it would alter the circuit while installing a new French drain system to send rain water down pipes to fix the problem. Turns 1 and 2 were widened by 20 feet (6.1 m), while the banking was also lowered from 24 to 20 degrees. Driver Ed Carpenter noted, "The track is absolutely different. The reshaping of Turns 1 and 2, with the width and the change in banking, definitely make the track more challenging to get the balance the same from Turns 1 and 2 to 3 and 4." Entering the race, Dale Coyne Racing rookie Esteban Gutiérrez was forced to sit out the race due to INDYCAR's regulations on driver experience in regards to high-speed ovals, with Tristan Vautier replacing him for the round. Gutiérrez's advisor, former driver Adrián Fernández, agreed, "Texas is one of the most difficult ovals to just come and race, so I would say he should step away from it until he has proper time testing on ovals." Harding Racing also returned to the series for the first time since the Indianapolis 500 with driver Gabby Chaves. Scott Dixon of Chip Ganassi Racing entered the race leading the Drivers' Championship point standings with 303, while Hélio Castroneves and Takuma Sato followed in second and third with 295 and 292 respectively. ### Practice and qualifying Two practice sessions and qualifying were held on Friday, June 9. The first practice session took place in the afternoon and was delayed by rain. Dixon set the fastest lap time with his teammate Charlie Kimball and Alexander Rossi following in second and third. In qualifying, Kimball secured his first career pole position with a two-lap time of 46.5861 seconds (222.556 mph), in the process setting a new track record. His teammate Dixon qualified alongside him on the front row. Rossi, Tony Kanaan, and Vautier rounded out the top five. Carlos Muñoz, for the second race in a row, set no time, this time due to failing to reach tech inspection in time to be eligible to make a run, forcing him to start last again. In the post-qualifying practice session, Carpenter clocked the fastest single lap time (224.682 mph), ahead of Dixon and Rossi. ### Race The race was held on Saturday, June 10. At the start, Kimball jumped into the lead of the race, with the top five positions staying the same. The top five remained the same drivers until around lap 20, when Team Penske drivers began working their way to the front of the field, including Josef Newgarden and Power. Up front, though, the battle for the lead was between Kimball and Vautier, with Vautier finally getting clear of Kimball on lap 29, as Newgarden, Power, and Ed Carpenter followed suit. Racing was interrupted by caution for the first time on lap 37, when Rossi lost control of his car and crashed in turn 3 after making contact with the Ganassi teammates Dixon and Kanaan. It was the first of many crashes during the night. During the caution, the field took the opportunity to make pit stops, with Newgarden winning the race of pit road ahead of Power and Vautier. As cars left the pit lane, James Hinchcliffe lost control of his car, causing him to spin and collect the cars of Castroneves and Sato, though all three were able to continue on after repairs. Kimball, after his strong start to the race, encountered mechanical issues during his pit stop and was forced to retire, leaving him with a 21st-place finish. The pit stops also saw a rash of penalties, as race leader Newgarden and J. R. Hildebrand were hit with pit-lane speeding penalties and Hinchcliffe was penalized for the incident he had caused. Once the chaos of the pit stops had finished, Power held the lead over Vautier, Dixon, Carpenter, and Simon Pagenaud. Racing resumed on lap 48, with Power maintaining his lead despite attempts by both Vautier and Dixon to get around him. However, by lap 66, attacks on Power's lead began to dissipate as his teammate Pagenaud moved into second place. Behind them, Castroneves began to make a move toward the top of the field, moving into the top five only 10 laps later. During this stint, some drivers, most notably Newgarden, began suffering from tire blistering, causing concerns about tire durability. These concerns seemed to come to light on lap 91, when the right-front tire on Castroneves's car failed, causing him to crash heavily in Turn 2. Pit stops once again occurred, with Power maintaining his lead over Pagenaud, Dixon, Kanaan, and Mikhail Aleshin. During the caution, Hinchcliffe, Newgarden, and Sato were all able to get back onto the lead lap after losing it in the chaos of the first caution. Racing resumed on lap 103, but almost immediately the race went back under caution as Carpenter and Vautier touched, sending Carpenter into a spin in turn 1. This caution was very brief, and racing resumed on lap 108. A lengthy green flag period followed the restart, with Power leading the way. Behind him, positions in the top five changed often, as Pagenaud, Dixon, Kanaan, Vautier, and Hildebrand battled for positions. On lap 139, caution flew again, this time for debris. The leaders once again took advantage of the caution to make pit stops, but Max Chilton elected to stay out, placing him in the lead of the race. On lap 149, racing resumed, with Chilton able to briefly hold his lead before Power once again moved past him to resume command of the race. On lap 152, Kanaan moved wide coming towards turn 3, making contact with Hinchcliffe, who had Aleshin outside of him. Hinchcliffe then spun, causing a large crash that took out himself, Aleshin, Carpenter, Hildebrand, Vautier, Ed Jones, Ryan Hunter-Reay, and Muñoz in an incident compared to The Big One at similar pack-racing NASCAR races. Carpenter and Hildebrand would eventually return to the race course, but several laps down. The incident forced the race to be red flagged to allow for clean-up. During the red flag, INDYCAR and Firestone officials, in response to continuing issues with blistering tires, elected to have competition caution periods and mandatory tire stops after 30 green flag laps for the remainder of the race. Also during the red flag period, officials assessed a stop and 20-second hold penalty to Kanaan for his role in the eight-car pileup, which, once the race restarted, put him two laps down. After 30 minutes of clean-up, racing finally resumed on lap 159. The top four was a battle between Power, Pagenaud, Dixon, and Newgarden. However, Newgarden, who had been suffering the worst issues with blistering, pit two laps before the mandatory stops, placing him at the tail end of the field and, despite just changing tires, was still forced to change tires at the competition caution. During the mandatory stops, Dixon managed to get past Power, placing him in the lead, while Pagenaud, Sato, and Graham Rahal emerged behind them. During the caution, Kanaan managed to regain one of his laps, putting him only one lap behind the leaders. Racing resumed once again on lap 198, where Power almost immediately moved back around Dixon to once again take the lead of the race. Caution came out again only three laps later, as Newgarden attempted to complete a three-wide pass in turn 3, which resulted in him hitting the wall in turn 4. Racing resumed on lap 210, with Power maintaining his lead, while second place became a battle between Pagenaud, Dixon, and Sato, with Dixon emerging ahead. This caution also put Kanaan back onto the lead lap. On lap 225, the final competition caution of the race came out, with the top five staying the same after the mandatory pit stops. The final restart of the race came at lap 229, with Dixon quickly moving to the outside of Power to challenge for the lead. The two switched the lead several times, while behind them, Pagenaud, Sato, Rahal, and Kanaan pulled up behind the duo and also began challenging for first. With five laps to go, Sato attempted to pass Dixon in the dogleg on the front-stretch, but clipped the grass, sending him into a spin and collecting Dixon and Chilton. Conor Daly also spun in the incident, but did not hit anything, though the incident caused him to drop a lap. Chilton was able to complete two more laps before heading into the pit lane. With so few laps left, the race ended under caution, with Power taking his second victory of the year and his second win at Texas Motor Speedway. Kanaan, despite his role in two incidents, came across the line in second, while Pagenaud took the final step of the podium. Only three other drivers finished on the lead lap; Rahal in fourth, Chaves in fifth, and Marco Andretti in sixth. ### Post-race comments Power was overjoyed to have earned the victory, saying, "Over the moon to win here. My second home and my wife [are] from here, so we spend a lot of time down here, so [it's] just an amazing feeling." Kanaan apologized for his role in causing the largest accident of the night: "I'm going to apologize to [Hinchcliffe] for what happened - I just got up a little too high. We paid the price for my mistake. We got a penalty, paid the penalty, and we were able to finish second. ... I'm not going to lie, I'm glad it's over." Pagenaud called the race, "a lot of fun. It got a little crazy at the end. I tell you, it is just incredible how close we can race against each other. Good fun, good night, awesome working with Will. That is Team Penske, we all work together, you guys don't believe us, but we do and we showed it tonight." The race became controversial for being a pack race, which contributed to the size of the accidents that occurred. Power was unsurprised by the nature of the race, "I told the series...'This will be an absolute pack race.' I didn't say whether that was good or bad, but I absolutely knew it would be a pack race." Kanaan called on the series to change the style of racing to avoid pack races in the future: "I don't think we should be doing this the way it is. We should be coming to Texas. The fans are great. This track is awesome. But I think we should change the format a little bit. How? I don't know; we've got to figure it out." Dixon argued that additional testing could have prevented the pack racing from occurring. Sébastien Bourdais, who was still recovering from injuries sustained in qualifying for the Indianapolis 500, described it as a "bullshit" race, explaining, "Back in the days, particularly when Dan Wheldon died, we told ourselves that we would never do that style of racing again. And actually, as far as I'm concerned, Texas last weekend is not even the first time we've done it since then. We’ve done it at Fontana in 2015 and in a couple of other places." However, he also maintained that he held no ill will against the speedway, saying, "It's got nothing to do with that track, and it's not any track owners' responsibility to define our racing for us. It’s down to us to bring the right package." In the points standings, Dixon maintained the points lead, while Pagenaud moved back up to second place. Power, with his win, moved back into the top five after dropping out in the Detroit races. ## Results ### Qualifying ### Race `Race finished under caution.` `Points include one point for leading at least one lap during a race, an additional two points for leading the most race laps, and one point for Pole Position.` ## Standings after the race - Note: Only the top five positions are included.
5,676,629	SummerSlam (1993)	1,173,012,683	World Wrestling Federation pay-per-view event	[ "1993 WWF pay-per-view events", "1993 in Michigan", "August 1993 events in the United States", "Events in Michigan", "Professional wrestling in Auburn Hills, Michigan", "SummerSlam" ]	The 1993 SummerSlam was the sixth annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on August 30, 1993, at The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills, Michigan and featured ten televised matches. All three of the WWF's then-active championships were defended at the event. The main event saw Lex Luger challenge Yokozuna for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship. On the undercard, The Steiner Brothers (Rick Steiner and Scott Steiner) defended the WWF Tag Team Championship against The Heavenly Bodies (Jimmy Del Ray and Tom Prichard), and Shawn Michaels defended the WWF Intercontinental Championship against Mr. Perfect. In addition to the title matches, Bret Hart and Jerry Lawler were scheduled to wrestle to settle their feud and determine who would be named "Undisputed King of the World Wrestling Federation." ## Production ### Background SummerSlam is an annual pay-per-view (PPV) produced every August by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) since 1988. Dubbed "The Biggest Party of the Summer", it is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, Royal Rumble, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the "Big Four", and one of the "Big Five", along with King of the Ring that was established in June 1993. It has since been considered WWE’s second biggest event of the year behind WrestleMania. The 1993 event was the sixth event in the SummerSlam chronology and was scheduled to be held on August 30, 1993, at The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills, Michigan. ### Storylines Two of the matches at SummerSlam 1993 were a result of Razor Ramon's loss to The Kid (later the 1-2-3 Kid) on the May 17, 1993 edition of Monday Night Raw. Following Ramon's loss to the newcomer, Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster) teased Ramon about the match. DiBiase offered Ramon a job as a servant, which Ramon angrily refused. Ramon began teaming with the 1-2-3 Kid for a series of matches against Money Inc. DiBiase asked for a singles match against the Kid, and the Kid accepted the challenge. Ramon helped the Kid win the match by distracting DiBiase. It was decided that the feuds would be settled in two singles matches at SummerSlam, with Ramon facing DiBiase and Schyster facing the 1-2-3 Kid. The match between the Steiner Brothers and The Heavenly Bodies received little buildup. The Bodies were a successful tag team in Jim Cornette's Smoky Mountain Wrestling, and an interpromotional agreement allowed them to challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship. The rivalry between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect began at WrestleMania IX. During a fight after the match between Lex Luger and Mr. Perfect, Shawn Michaels appeared and attacked Perfect. Mr. Perfect gained revenge by distracting Michaels at the May 17, 1993 edition of Monday Night Raw, allowing Marty Jannetty to pin Michaels and win the WWF Intercontinental Championship. Michaels regained the belt the following month with the help of his new bodyguard, Diesel. Bret Hart and Jerry Lawler had a heated feud, stemming from Lawler interrupting Hart's victory ceremony at the 1993 King of the Ring tournament. Lawler insisted that he was the true king of the WWF and attacked Hart. The feud intensified as Lawler taunted and attacked Bret's family, including his parents and his younger brother Owen. According to a story relayed by Bret Hart on the TSN sports show Off The Record, Hart was originally supposed to wrestle Hulk Hogan for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship. From Hart’s explanation of matters, the reason the match did not happen was because Hogan changed his mind, as he was supposedly not happy with the planned finish. As a result, Hogan lost the belt to Yokozuna at King of the Ring 1993 instead. However, this has never been officially explained by WWE (then WWF), and is part of Professional Wrestling lore on the Internet. Eventually Bret Hart and Yokozuna would have a rematch at WrestleMania X, where Hart’s storyline loss of the title was avenged, when he beat Yokozuna to start his second reign as WWF Champion. Marty Jannetty was originally supposed to face Rick Martel, but Ludvig Borga replaced Martel well before the match. The match received little buildup, although Borga appeared in several vignettes leading up to the match. He criticized the United States for such reasons as its pollution. Jannetty vowed to defend America's pride in his match against Borga. The buildup for the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker began after the Undertaker defeated Kamala in a Coffin match at Survivor Series 1992. Kamala's manager Harvey Wippleman vowed revenge and introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993, with Gonzalez attacking and eliminating the Undertaker. Gonzalez and the Undertaker wrestled at WrestleMania IX, and Gonzalez knocked the Undertaker unconscious with a chloroform-soaked rag. The feud intensified when Wippleman, Gonzalez and Mr. Hughes attacked the Undertaker and his manager, Paul Bearer. They stole the urn, the supposed source of the Undertaker's strength, and used it to assault Paul Bearer, who was not seen again until SummerSlam. The feud came to a head at SummerSlam in a Rest In Peace match. The six-man match at SummerSlam was originally supposed to be a mixed tag-team match between the team of Tatanka and Sherri Martel and the team of Bam Bam Bigelow and Luna Vachon. However, Luna broke her arm and Sherri left the WWF in July 1993, however, forcing the WWF to change the match. Two reasons have been given for Sherri's departure: her decision to enroll in cosmetology school and failed drug tests. As a result, Tatanka teamed with The Smoking Gunns and Bigelow teamed with The Headshrinkers. The Gunns and Headshrinkers were rivals in the tag team division but had no real storyline. The feud between Bigelow and Tatanka originated when Tatanka came to the help of Sherri, who had interrupted an interview with Bigelow. Subsequently, Bigelow ambushed Tatanka and cut some of the hair Tatanka had dyed red as a tribute to his Lumbee heritage. Lex Luger's rivalry with Yokozuna began on July 4 at the Yokozuna Bodyslam Challenge on the deck of the USS Intrepid. After several wrestlers and other athletes attempted to body slam Yokozuna, Luger arrived in a helicopter. He was able to body slam Yokozuna, which led to a title shot at SummerSlam. To build support for Luger, the WWF had him ride across the country in a bus named the Lex Express. Yokozuna's spokesperson, Jim Cornette, agreed to the match, but he made Lex Luger agree to two conditions. Luger would not receive a rematch if he lost, and he had to wear protective padding over the steel plate in his forearm. ## Event The pay-per-view took place in front of a crowd of 23,954 at the Palace of Auburn Hills. Before the event aired on PPV, "The Rocket" Owen Hart defeated longtime jobber Barry Horowitz in a dark match. The first televised match was Razor Ramon versus Ted DiBiase. DiBiase got off to a quick start by attacking Ramon before the match began. Ramon quickly turned the match around with several clotheslines. DiBiase regained control before untying a turnbuckle cover. Ramon won the match after ramming DiBiase's head into the exposed turnbuckle and using the Razor's Edge to get the pin. The Steiner Brothers were the audience favorites in the WWF Tag Team Championship match, as they were defending the belts in their hometown. Before the match began, The Heavenly Bodies attacked them. When the match began, the Bodies executed several double-team maneuvers on Rick Steiner. Scott tagged in and took control of the match. The Bodies soon regained the advantage, and Jim Cornette got involved by hitting Scott in the throat with a tennis racket. Rick tagged back in and hit several Steiner-Lines before Prichard attacked him with Cornette's tennis racket. Del Ray accidentally hit Prichard with a moonsault, however, allowing Scott to hit a Frankensteiner and Rick to get the pin. The match between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect began with a series of wrestling holds. The match remained primarily technical until Diesel distracted Perfect, allowing Michaels to superkick him in the face. Michaels worked on Perfect's injured back until Perfect took control of the match. After a series of attacks on Michaels, Perfect used the Perfect Plex. Diesel pulled him out of the ring and threw him into the steel ring steps, however, allowing Michaels to win by countout. Irwin R. Schyster remained in control for the majority of his match against the 1-2-3 Kid. Although the Kid hit several kicks, Schyster regained control every time. Schyster used his usual abdominal stretch while using the ring ropes for leverage before the Kid made a brief comeback by hitting a moonsault. Schyster hit a Write Off, however, and got the pin. Bret Hart came to the ring for his match with Jerry Lawler. Lawler, however, appeared on crutches and claimed that he had been injured in a car accident. He announced that his court jester, Doink the Clown (portrayed by Matt Osborne), would wrestle Hart in his place. Doink threw a bucket of water on Bret's brother, Bruce Hart, prompting Bret to attack Doink outside of the ring. The match consisted of angry brawling until Doink slowed the pace with a couple of submission holds. After Doink missed a Whoopie Cushion attempt, Bret took full control of the match and locked Doink in the Sharpshooter. With Doink in the sharpshooter, Lawler then attacked Bret with a crutch, revealing that he was not injured and thus causing an unofficial disqualification (no official announcement was made). WWF President Jack Tunney came to the ring and had Howard Finkel announce that Lawler would be given a lifetime ban if he refused to compete in the scheduled match. The match between Lawler and Hart consisted almost exclusively of brawling. The two attacked each other with a milk pail and crutches and traded punches and kicks. Bret used Lawler's signature move, the piledriver, before putting him in the Sharpshooter. Lawler submitted, but Bret refused to release him for three and a half minutes. The referee then reversed his decision and gave the victory and title of "Undisputed King of the World Wrestling Federation" to Lawler. Ludvig Borga dominated the majority of a squash match against Marty Jannetty. He attacked Jannetty immediately with a series of punches and knees. Jannetty managed a couple of brief comebacks but was unable to mount a serious offense. Borga used his strength to control the match and won the match by submission with a backbreaker. Harvey Wippleman was at ringside with the urn as the Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez. The two wrestlers brawled, using the ring steps and steel chairs. Halfway through the match, Paul Bearer appeared, carrying a black wreath. He attacked Wippleman and took back the urn. The Undertaker quickly took control of the match, attacking Gonzalez with a flying clothesline to win by pinfall. After the match, Gonzalez turned on Wippleman and attacked him with a chokeslam. The next match on the card was the Six-Man tag team match. The Headshrinkers' manager Afa interfered by attacking Billy Gunn outside the ring. At one point, Tatanka looked like he was gaining control, as he began his usual war dance. Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head, however, to end his momentum. Near the end of the match, Bigelow and the Headshrinkers each climbed the turnbuckles to attempt simultaneous diving headbutts, but Tatanka rolled out of the way. Tatanka seized the opportunity and pinned Samu for the win. Before the main event, Kiotika Suzuki sang the Japanese national anthem. Akio Sato, formerly a member of The Orient Express, was the flag bearer for Yokozuna. Randy Savage then introduced Aaron Neville, who sang the American anthem. The main event began with a stare down. Luger gained the early advantage and managed to knock Yokozuna down by kicking the ring ropes into Yokozuna's groin. Luger tried to bodyslam Yokozuna, but the sumo wrestler's weight was too much. Yokozuna knocked him out of the ring and choked him. Yokozuna had his manager, Mr. Fuji, throw him a salt bucket, which he used to attack Luger. Yokozuna wore Luger down, and after a brief comeback by the all-American, hit a leg drop on Luger and pulled him to the corner for a Banzai Drop. After Yokozuna missed, Luger succeeded in bodyslamming Yokozuna, and he attacked Mr. Fuji when the manager tried to get involved. Luger knocked Yokozuna out of the ring with a forearm smash, and followed this up by attacking Jim Cornette. Yokozuna was counted out, but he retained the title because championships only change hands only by pinfall or submission. Several faces came to the ring to celebrate with Luger as red, white and blue balloons fell from the ceiling to celebrate the victory. ## Aftermath The SummerSlam match was DiBiase's final appearance as a WWF wrestler. He injured his neck and back in January 1994 and was forced to retire from wrestling. Meanwhile, Ramon received a push in Fall 1993 that led to the first of four Intercontinental championships. The Heavenly Bodies did not become serious contenders to the tag team title, and the Steiners soon began a feud with The Quebecers, a new team in the WWF. Shawn Michaels was suspended in late 1993 and forced to vacate the Intercontinental Championship, while Mr. Perfect began a feud with Diesel. The WWF planned to have Perfect and Diesel face each other as part of an elimination match at Survivor Series 1993, but Mr. Perfect was replaced by Randy Savage at the last minute. Mr. Perfect would not wrestle another pay per view match for the company until Royal Rumble 2002. The match between Hart and Doink was significant for a couple of reasons. It marked Doink's final match as a heel, as he turned on Jerry Lawler shortly after the match. In addition, Matt Osborne, who had portrayed Doink since the character's creation, was fired that fall because of drug problems. The feud between Jerry Lawler and Bret Hart remained unsettled and led to several storylines over the next two years. The final pay per view event featuring this feud was SummerSlam 1995, which saw Hart beat Lawler's "dentist" Isaac Yankem, D.D.S. Borga received a main event push after his SummerSlam match. After the event, he confronted Luger in the locker room. This began a feud that led to a match between the All-Americans and Foreign Fanatics at Survivor Series 1993. Luger continued to work as a main event wrestler, although he never won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship. He competed in another match with Yokozuna at WrestleMania X after co-winning the 1994 Royal Rumble but was again unsuccessful in taking the belt from Yokozuna. ## Results
33,051,254	Conwy town walls	1,160,836,020	Grade I listed building in Conwy County Borough.	[ "Buildings and structures completed in 1287", "Buildings and structures in Conwy", "Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd", "City walls in the United Kingdom", "Grade I listed buildings in Conwy County Borough", "Grade I listed walls", "Tourist attractions in Conwy County Borough" ]	Conwy's town walls are a medieval defensive structure around the town of Conwy in Wales. The walls were constructed between 1283 and 1287 after the foundation of Conwy by Edward I, and were designed to form an integrated system of defence alongside Conwy Castle. The walls are 1.3 km (0.81 mi) long and include 21 towers and three gatehouses. The project was completed using large quantities of labourers brought in from England; the cost of building the castle and walls together came to around £15,000, a huge sum for the period. The walls were slightly damaged during the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr in 1401, but political changes in the 16th century reduced the need to maintain such defences around the town. The fortifications were treated sympathetically during the development of the road and railway systems in Conwy during the 19th century and survived largely intact into the modern period. Today the walls form part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site administered by Cadw. Historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham describe the defences as "one of the most impressive walled circuits" in Europe. ## History ### 13th century Before the English construction of the town of Conwy, the site was occupied by Aberconwy Abbey, a Cistercian monastery favoured by the Welsh princes. The site also controlled an important crossing point over the river Conwy between the coastal and inland areas of North Wales, and was defended for many years by Deganwy Castle. The English kings and Welsh princes had vied for control of the region since the 1070s and the conflict had been renewed during the 13th century, leading to Edward I intervening in North Wales for the second time during his reign in 1282. Edward invaded with a huge army, pushing north from Carmarthen and westwards from Montgomery and Chester. Edward captured Aberconwy in March 1283 and decided that the location would form the centre of a new county: the abbey would be relocated eight miles inland and a new English castle and walled town would be built on the monastery's former site. The ruined castle of Deganwy was abandoned and never rebuilt. Edward's plan was a colonial enterprise and placing the new town and walls on top of such a high-status native Welsh site was in part a symbolic act to demonstrate English power. Traditionally Conwy's design and defences have been thought to have been inspired by the growth of the bastides. The bastides were new planned towns created in both France and English-held Gascony during the period, characterised by grids of straight streets, often defended by combinations of castles and town walls. More recent research, however, has shown that English town design played a more significant role in shaping Conwy and other Edwardian town plans. Analysis of the new towns in Wales and England of the period has identified common similarities in their design, with most featuring a "T"-shaped street plan stretching away from the coast or river, aligned with a castle that is usually positioned at a top corner of the "T". The street plan of Conwy forms a mirror image of Beaumaris, for example, although ditches and palisades protected Beaumaris rather than a stone wall. The walls of Conwy were built at around the same time as the castle itself, under the overall supervision of Master James of Saint George, Edward's chief architect in North Wales. Each summer huge numbers of labourers were mobilised from across England, massed at Chester, and then brought into Wales for the building season. The first phase of work on the walls in 1283 involved digging ditches and erecting a palisade around the future town to secure the area in order to allow further work to commence. The stone walls and towers were then constructed in three phases. Between 1284 and 1285, Richard the Engineer, Master James' second in command in North Wales, built the western side of the walls; this was the most vulnerable side of the town and was deliberately given priority. In 1286, John Francis, a Savoyard mason, finished the south wall and in 1287 the remainder of the walls along the eastern quayside were completed under the supervision of Philip of Darley. Edward's accountants did not separate the costs of the town walls from that of the castle, and the total cost of the two projects came to around £15,000, a huge sum for the period. ### 14th – 18th centuries The new town of Conwy was populated by English settlers, particularly from nearby Cheshire and Lancashire, and the town walls were in part designed to encourage immigrants to settle there in safety. The town of Conwy was only modestly successful, however; by 1312 it had 124 burgage tenements – properties paying rent to the king – making it more successful than neighbouring Caernarfon, but less so than Beaumaris. Welsh residents appear to have slowly arrived inside the town during the 14th century, and even then were subject to considerable suspicion. Protecting the town remained a priority and during this period the constable charged with the security of the castle was also the mayor of Conwy, although protecting the town walls was probably the duty of the citizens rather than the forces attached to the castle. The walls were guarded by crossbowmen, and improved firing positions for them were built into the town walls at the start of the 14th century. In 1400 the Welsh prince Owain Glyndŵr rose in rebellion against English rule. Two of Owain's cousins infiltrated and took control of Conwy Castle in 1401 and, despite the defensive walls, the town of Conwy was occupied for two months and sacked by Welsh forces. The townspeople complained that £5,000 worth of damage had been done, including the destruction of the gates and the bridges along the town walls. Over a century later, there are records of the walls being repaired in the 1520s and 1530s by Henry VIII in preparation for a potential royal visit, but the ascension of the Tudor dynasty to the English throne had heralded a change in the way Wales was administered. The Tudors were Welsh in origin, and their rule eased hostilities between the Welsh and English. The military importance of Conwy's defences declined and the townspeople used the walls' defensive ditches for discarding rubbish. Parts of the town walls were robbed for their stone during this period for use in the construction of local buildings. ### 19th – 21st centuries During the 19th century some changes to Conwy's town walls were made in order to accommodate a new railway line and roads. The engineer Thomas Telford built two new gateways into the walls in 1826 to accommodate the traffic from the new suspension bridge across the river Conwy. In 1848 Robert Stephenson constructed the Chester to Holyhead railway line, which ran through Conwy; unusually for the period, attempts were made to sensitively protect the appearance of the medieval fortifications and the entrance for the railway through the walls on the south side of the town was built in the form of a mock-Gothic archway, while an exit tunnel was dug under the western walls. Interest in the town walls grew and in the 19th century one of the towers was restored and part of the wall-walk opened up for tourists. The walls were architecturally surveyed for the first time between 1928 and 1930, with the results published in 1938. The town walls were leased from Conwy's local authority by the Ministry of Works in 1953, and a concerted effort began to conserve and protect the fortifications. Many of the houses and buildings which had grown up against the walls since the 14th century were removed in an effort to improve the appearance of the walled circuit and to assist in conservation and archaeological work, and one of the 19th-century gateways inserted by Telford was demolished in 1958. Arnold J. Taylor, a prominent historian of the Edwardian castles, conducted extensive academic work on the history and architecture of Conwy's walls during the 1950s and 1960s, adding to their prominence. Today Conwy's walls are managed by the Welsh heritage organisation Cadw as a tourist attraction; they form a popular walk around the town, although not all of the walls are safe for tourists to use. The walls require ongoing maintenance; in the financial year between 2002 and 2003, for example, this cost £145,000 (£184,000 in 2010 terms). The walls were declared part of a UNESCO world heritage site in 1986 and are classed as a grade 1 listed building and hold scheduled monument status. They are considered by historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham to be "one of the most impressive walled circuits" in Europe. ## Architecture The Conwy town walls today present a largely unbroken, 1.3 km (0.81 mi) long triangular circuit around the town, enclosing 10 hectares (25 acres), and – thanks in part to Conwy remaining a relatively small town – are unusually well preserved. They are mostly built from the same local sandstone and limestone used at the castle, but with additional rhyolite stone used along the upper parts of the eastern walls. When first built, the historical record shows that the walls were "daubed" – it is unclear precisely what this involved, but it implies the walls were not simply bare stone, and were possibly whitewashed. The 21 surviving towers are mostly "gap-backed", lacking walls on the inside of the towers, and originally included removable wooden bridges to allow sections of the walls to be sealed off from attackers. The tops of the walls feature an unusual design that uses a sequence of corbels to provide a flat, relatively wide wall-walk. The east side of the walls emerge from Conwy Castle, but are gapped where the Chester to Holyhead road enters the town. The east side has four towers, with a postern gate and the Lower Gate both giving access to the town's quay; all of these features have been substantially altered from their original medieval appearances. The Lower Gate, equipped with twin towers and a portcullis, controlled access to both the quayside and, before the construction of the bridge, the ferry across the estuary. The wall here was originally only 3.6 m (12 ft) high in places, and was later raised to its current height using rhyolite stone in the early 14th century. The west side of the walls include nine towers, rising upwards towards the south-west corner. Two of the towers were significantly affected by 19th-century developments; one was converted into an entrance way for the Bangor Road in 1827, whilst another suffered a deep fissure caused by subsidence from the excavation of the Chester to Holyhead railway tunnel in 1845, and had to be underpinned in 1963. One of the remaining merlons on this stretch of the walls' battlements has a stone finial on top, a design originally used along all of the town walls. The western wall originally extended out to the river Conwy itself, ending in a round tower, but this has since been lost; a similar spur arrangement was seen at Chester and Lincoln. The walls stretch along the south of the town with eight towers and two gatehouses. The Upper Gate formed the main inland entrance to the town during the medieval period, and, in addition to its twin towers, was originally protected by a stone barbican, of which some stonework still remains – a rare survival for town barbicans of this period. A gatekeeper would have lived over the entrance during the medieval period. The original defensive ditch and drawbridge have been filled in, however, and replaced by a modern road. The second gatehouse, Mill Gate, was designed to allow access to the royal watermill that lay just outside the main town, and similarly features twin protective towers. In between the two gatehouses are the remains of Llywelyn's Hall, a grand building originally built into the town walls by Edward I before being dismantled and moved to Caernarfon Castle in 1316. Further along the walls is the mock-Gothic archway built in 1846 to accommodate the local railway, possibly drawing on similar designs used in Chester. A unique set of twelve medieval latrines is built into the southern town walls, first constructed for the use of royal staff working in adjacent buildings in the 13th century. ## See also - List of town walls in England and Wales
211,855	Dave Arneson	1,173,023,359	American game designer (1947-2009)	[ "1947 births", "2009 deaths", "American game designers", "Deaths from cancer in Minnesota", "Dungeons & Dragons game designers", "People from Hennepin County, Minnesota", "People from Lake Geneva, Wisconsin", "University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts alumni" ]	David Lance Arneson (/ˈɑːrnɪsən/; October 1, 1947 – April 7, 2009) was an American game designer best known for co-developing the first published role-playing game (RPG), Dungeons & Dragons, with Gary Gygax, in the early 1970s. Arneson's early work was fundamental to the role-playing game (RPG) genre, pioneering devices now considered to be archetypical, such as cooperative play to develop a storyline instead of individual competitive play to "win" and adventuring in dungeon, town, and wilderness settings as presented by a neutral judge who doubles as the voice and consciousness of all characters aside from the player characters. Arneson discovered wargaming as a teenager in the 1960s, and he began combining these games with the concept of role-playing. He was a University of Minnesota student when he met Gygax at the Gen Con gaming convention in the late 1960s. In 1971, Arneson created the game and fictional world that became Blackmoor, writing his own rules and basing the setting on medieval fantasy elements. Arneson took the game to Gygax as the representative for game publisher Guidon Games, and the pair co-developed a set of rules that became Dungeons & Dragons (D&D). Gygax subsequently founded TSR, Inc. to publish the game in 1974. Arneson moved to Lake Geneva, Wisconsin to work for TSR in 1976, but left before the end of the year. In 1979 Arneson filed suit to retain credits and royalties on the game. He continued to work as an independent game designer, including work submitted to TSR in the 1980s, and continued to play games for his entire life. Arneson also did some work in computer programming, and he taught computer game design and game rules design at Full Sail University from the 1990s until shortly before his death in 2009. ## Experience with miniature wargaming Arneson's role-playing game design work grew from his interest in wargames. His parents bought him the board wargame Gettysburg by Avalon Hill. After Arneson taught his friends how to play, the group began to design their own games, and tried out new ways to play existing games. Arneson was especially fond of naval wargames. Exposure to role-playing influenced his later game designs. In college history classes he role-played historical events and preferred to deviate from recorded history in a manner similar to "what if" scenarios recreated in wargames. In the late 1960s Arneson joined the Midwest Military Simulation Association (MMSA), a group of miniature wargamers and military figurine collectors in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area that included among its ranks future game designer David Wesely. Wesely asserts that it was during the Braunstein games he created and refereed, and in which other MMSA members participated, that Arneson helped develop the foundations of modern role-playing games on a 1:1 scale basis by focusing on non-combat objectives—a step away from wargaming towards the more individual play and varied challenges of later RPGs. Arneson was a participant in Wesely's wargame scenarios and, as Arneson continued to run his own scenarios, he eventually began to include ideas from sources such as The Lord of the Rings and Dark Shadows. Arneson took over the Braunsteins after Wesely was drafted into the Army, and he often ran these scenarios using different eras and settings. Arneson had also become a member of the International Federation of Wargamers by this time. In 1969 Arneson was a history student attending the University of Minnesota and working part-time as a security guard. He attended the second Gen Con gaming convention in August 1969 (at which time wargaming was still the primary focus) and it was at this event that he met Gary Gygax, who had founded the Castle & Crusade Society within the International Federation of Wargamers in the 1960s at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. Arneson and Gygax also shared an interest in sailing ship games and they co-authored the Don't Give Up the Ship naval battle rules, serialized from June 1971 and later published as a single volume in 1972 by Guidon Games with a revised edition by TSR, Inc. in 1975. ## Blackmoor Following the departure of David Wesely to service in the Army Reserves in October 1970, Arneson and his fellow players in the Twin Cities began to imagine alternate settings for "Braunstein" games. Arneson developed a Braunstein in which his players played fantasy versions of themselves in the medieval Barony of Blackmoor, a land inhabited in part by fantastic monsters. As the game quickly grew and characters developed, Arneson devised scenarios where they would quest for magic and gold, escort caravans, lead armies for or against the forces of evil, and delve into the dungeons beneath Castle Blackmoor (which was represented by a Kibri kit model of Branzoll Castle). To explain his inspiration for the game, Arneson said: > I had spent the previous two days watching about five monster movies on channel 5's 'Creature Feature' weekend, reading several Conan books (I cannot recall which ones, but I always thought they were all pretty much the same), and stuffing myself with popcorn, doodling on a piece of graph paper. At the time, I was quite tired of my Nappy (Napoleonic) campaign with all its rigid rules and was rebelling against it. Arneson drew heavily upon the fantasy material in the Chainmail rules, written by Gygax and Jeff Perren and published in the spring of 1971, but after a short and unsatisfactory trial of the Fantasy Combat table found therein, he developed his own mix of rules, including adapted elements from his revision of Civil War Ironclad game. The gameplay would be recognizable to modern D&D players, featuring the use of hit points, armor class, character development, and dungeon crawls. This setting was fleshed out over time and continues to be played to the present day. Many of the fantasy medieval foundations of D&D, as well as the concept of adventuring in "dungeons" originated with Blackmoor, which also incorporated time travel and science fiction elements. These are visible much later in the DA module series published by TSR (particularly City of the Gods), but were also present from the early to mid-1970s in the original campaign and parallel and intertwined games run by John Snider, whose ruleset developed from these adventures and was intended for publication by TSR from 1974 as the first science fiction RPG. Arneson described Blackmoor as "roleplaying in a non-traditional medieval setting. I have such things as steam power, gunpowder, and submarines in limited numbers. There was even a tank running around for a while. The emphasis is on the story and the roleplaying." Details of Blackmoor and the original campaign, established on the map of the Castle & Crusade Society's "Great Kingdom", were first brought to print briefly in issue \#13 of the Domesday Book, the newsletter of the Castle & Crusade Society in July 1972, and later in much-expanded form as The First Fantasy Campaign, published by Judges Guild in 1977. In November 1972, Dave Arneson and Dave Megarry traveled to Lake Geneva to meet with Gary Gygax, to provide a demonstration of Blackmoor and Dungeon! While meeting at Gygax's house, Dave Arneson ran the Lake Geneva gamers through their first session of Blackmoor. Rob Kuntz describes Dave Arneson as the referee, and the Lake Geneva players as being Gary Gygax, Ernie Gygax, Terry Kuntz, and himself. Kuntz describes Dave Megarry as the de facto leader of the group, as he understood the Blackmoor game and campaign world. In Wargaming magazine, Rob Kuntz wrote a short summary of their first Blackmoor session: > Gary, myself and a few other local wargamers were the first "lucky" fellows from Lake Geneva to experience the rigors of Blackmoor. This idea caught on deeply with Gary after an exciting adventure in which our party of heroes fought a troll, were fireballed by a magic-user, then fled to the outdoors (being chased by the Magic-user and his minions), fought four (gulp!) Balrogs, followed a map to sixteen ogres and destroyed them with a wish from a sword we had procured from the hapless troll earlier. ## Dungeons & Dragons After playing in the Blackmoor game Arneson refereed, Gygax almost immediately began a similar campaign of his own, which he called "Greyhawk", and asked Arneson for a draft of his playing-rules. The two then collaborated by phone and mail, and playtesting was carried out by their various groups and other contacts. Gygax and Arneson wanted to have the game published, but Guidon Games and Avalon Hill rejected it. Arneson could not afford to invest in the venture. Gygax felt that there was a need to publish the game as soon as possible, since similar projects were being planned elsewhere, so rules were hastily put together, and Arneson's own final draft was never used. Despite all this, Brian Blume eventually provided the funding required to publish the original Dungeons & Dragons set in 1974, with the initial print run of 1,000 selling out within a year and sales increasing rapidly in subsequent years. Further rules and a sample dungeon from Arneson's original campaign (the first published RPG scenario in a professional publication) were released in 1975 in the Blackmoor supplement for D&D, named after the campaign-setting. Blackmoor presented new character classes for monks and assassins, additional new monsters, and "The Temple of the Frog", the first published role-playing adventure scenario intended for other people to run. Arneson formally joined TSR as their Director of Research at the beginning of 1976, but left at the end of the year to pursue a career as an independent game-designer. ## After TSR In 1977, despite the fact that he was no longer at TSR, Arneson published Dungeonmaster's Index, a 38-page booklet that indexed all of TSR's D&D properties to that point in time. TSR had agreed to pay Arneson royalties on all D&D products, but when the company came out with Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (AD&D) in 1977, it claimed that AD&D was a significantly different product and so did not pay him royalties for it. In response, Arneson filed the first of five lawsuits against Gygax and TSR in 1979. In March 1981, as part of a confidential agreement, Arneson and Gygax resolved the suits out of court by agreeing that they would both be credited as "co-creators" on the packaging of D&D products from that point on, and Arneson would receive a 2.5% royalty on all AD&D products. This provided him with a comfortable six-figure annual income for the next twenty years. This did not end the lingering tensions between them. ## Continuation of Blackmoor Arneson wrote a new version of the Blackmoor setting for publication by Judges Guild in The First Fantasy Campaign (1977). In 1979 Arneson and Richard L. Snider, an original Blackmoor player, co-authored Adventures in Fantasy, a role-playing game that attempted to recapture the "original spirit of the Role Playing Fantasy Game" that Arneson had envisioned in the early 1970s, instead of what D&D had become. In the early 1980s he established his own game company, Adventure Games – staffed largely by Arneson's friends, most of whom were involved in an American Civil War reenactment group – that published the miniatures games Harpoon (1981) and Johnny Reb (1983), as well as a new edition of his own Adventures in Fantasy role-playing game (1981). The company also published several Tékumel related books, owing to Arneson's friendship with author M. A. R. Barker. Adventure Games was profitable, but Arneson found the workload to be excessive and finally sold the company to Flying Buffalo. Arneson sold the rights to Adventure Games to Flying Buffalo in 1985; because Arneson owned part of Flying Buffalo, he wanted to let them handle the rest of his company's stock and intellectual property after shutting down Adventure Games. While Gary Gygax was president of TSR in the mid-1980s, he and Arneson reconnected, and Arneson briefly relinked Blackmoor to D&D with the "DA" (Dave Arneson) series of modules set in Blackmoor (1986–1987). The four modules, three of which were written by Arneson, detailed Arneson's campaign setting for the first time. When Gygax was forced out of TSR, Arneson's projects were dropped from the company before a planned fifth module could be published. Gygax and Arneson again went their separate ways. In 1986 Arneson wrote a new D&D module set in Blackmoor called "The Garbage Pits of Despair", which was published in two parts in Different Worlds magazine issues \#42 and \#43. Arneson and Dustin Clingman founded Zeitgeist Games to produce an updated d20 System version of the Blackmoor setting. Goodman Games published and distributed Dave Arneson's Blackmoor in 2004, and Goodman published additional products for Blackmoor over the next year. Code Monkey Publishing released Dave Arneson's Blackmoor: The First Campaign (2009) for 4th edition D&D. ## Computer programming and education In 1988, Arneson stated his belief that RPGs, whether paper or computer, were still "hack and slash" and did not teach novices how to play, and that games like Ultima IV "have stood pretty much alone as quirks instead of trend setters" as others did not follow their innovations. He hoped that computer RPGs would teach newcomers how to role play while offering interesting campaigns and said that SSI's Gold Box games did not innovate on the genre as much as he had hoped. Arneson stepped into the computer industry and founded 4D Interactive Systems, a computer company in Minnesota that has since dissolved. He also did some computer programming and worked on several games. He eventually found himself consulting with computer companies. Arneson wrote the 1989 adventure DNA / DOA, the first adventure published for the FASA fantasy/cyberpunk game Shadowrun, which was released the same year. Living in California in the late 1980s, Arneson had a chance to work with special education children. Upon returning to Minnesota, he pursued teaching and began speaking at schools about educational uses of role-playing and using multi-sided dice to teach math. In the 1990s, he began working at Full Sail, a private university that teaches multimedia subjects, and continued there as an instructor of computer game design until 2008. At Full Sail University he taught the class "Rules of the Game", a class in which students learned how to accurately document and create rule sets for games that were balanced between mental challenges for the players and "physical" ones for the characters. He retired from the position on June 19, 2008. ## Other RPG involvements Arneson continued to play games his entire life, including D&D and military miniature games, and regularly attended an annual meeting to play the original Blackmoor in Minnesota. Arneson wrote for Computer Gaming World magazine in the 1980s and early 1990s. He wrote columns on his opinion of the role-playing game genre and reviews of computer games such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms (1985), Zork Zero (1988), Citadel: Adventure of the Crystal Keep (1989), Uncharted Waters (1990), and Renegade Legion: Interceptor (1990). During the 1990s, he was invited to Brazil by Devir, a game publisher. He became friends with the owner of the publishing company and he gave him his D&D woodgrain box and some of his books as a gift. In 1997, after Wizards of the Coast purchased TSR, Peter Adkison paid Arneson an undisclosed sum to free up D&D from royalties that were still owed to Arneson; this allowed Wizards to retitle Advanced Dungeons & Dragons to simply Dungeons & Dragons. Around 2000, Arneson was working with videographer John Kentner on Dragons in the Basement (unreleased), a video documentary on the early history of role-playing games. Arneson describes the documentary: "Basically it is a series of interviews with original players ('How did D&D affect your life?') and original RPG designers like Marc Miller (Traveller) and M.A.R. Barker (Empire of the Petal Throne)." He also made a cameo appearance in the Dungeons & Dragons movie as one of many mages throwing fireballs at a dragon, although the scene was deleted from the completed movie. ## Personal life Arneson married Frankie Ann Morneau in 1984; they had one daughter, Malia, and two grandchildren. Arneson died on April 7, 2009, after battling cancer for two years. According to his daughter, Malia Weinhagen, "The biggest thing about my dad's world is he wanted people to have fun in life." ## Honors and tributes Arneson received numerous industry awards for his part in creating Dungeons & Dragons and other role-playing games. In 1984 he was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design's Hall of Fame (also known as the Charles Roberts Awards Hall of Fame) and in 1999 was named by Pyramid magazine as one of The Millennium's Most Influential Persons, "at least in the realm of adventure gaming". He was honored as a "famous game designer" by being featured on the king of hearts in Flying Buffalo's 2008 Famous Game Designers Playing Card Deck. Three days after his death, Wizards of the Coast temporarily replaced the front page of the Dungeons & Dragons section of their web site with a tribute to Arneson. Other tributes in the gaming world included Order of the Stick \#644, and Dork Tower for April 8, 2009. Video game publisher Activision Blizzard posted a tribute to Arneson on their website and on April 14, 2009, released patch 3.1 of the online role-playing game World of Warcraft, The Secrets of Ulduar, dedicated to Arneson. Turbine's Dungeons and Dragons Online added an in-game memorial altar to Arneson in the Ruins of Threnal location in the game. They also created an in-game item named the "Mantle of the Worldshaper" that is a reward for finishing the Threnal quest chain that is narrated by Arneson himself. The Mantle's description reads: "A comforting and inspiring presence surrounds you as you hold this cloak. Arcane runes run along the edges of the fine cape, and masterfully drawn on the silken lining is an incredibly detailed map of a place named 'Blackmoor'." On October 30, 2010, Full Sail University dedicated the student game development studio space as "Dave Arneson's Blackmoor Studios" in Arneson's honor. Since the release of the history of Braunstein in 2008 and Playing at the World in 2012, a scholarly work by Jon Petersen, the role of Dave Wesely and Dave Arneson was restored in the broad conversation on the origins of the tabletop role-playing games. Robert Kuntz published Dave Arneson's True Genius in 2017 and gave interviews to Kotaku to detail how the gameplay of the current tabletop role-playing games was designed by Arneson. In 2019, the documentary The Secrets of Blackmoor presented interviews of the first players of Dave Arneson and acknowledged his innovations. ## Partial bibliography Source: - Don't Give Up the Ship! (1972) (with Gary Gygax and Mike Carr) - Dungeons & Dragons (1974) (with Gary Gygax) - Blackmoor (1975) - Dungeonmaster's Index (1977) - The First Fantasy Campaign (1977) - Adventures in Fantasy (1979) (with Richard L. Snider) - Robert Asprin's Thieves' World (1981) (co-author) - Citybook II – Port o' Call (1984) (co-author) - Adventures in Blackmoor (D&D Module:DA1) (1986) (with David J. Ritchie) - Temple of the Frog (D&D Module:DA2) (1986) (with David J. Ritchie) - City of the Gods (D&D Module:DA3) (1987) (with David J. Ritchie) - DNA/DOA (Shadowrun module 1) (1989) - The Case of the Pacific Clipper (1991) - The Haunted Lighthouse (Dungeon Crawl Classics Module \#3.5) (2003) - Dave Arneson's Blackmoor (2004) (lead designer) - Player's Guide to Blackmoor (2006)
19,284,081	Taking Back Sunday (album)	1,170,333,673	null	[ "2011 albums", "Albums produced by Eric Valentine", "Sire Records albums", "Taking Back Sunday albums", "Warner Records albums" ]	Taking Back Sunday is the fifth studio album by American rock band Taking Back Sunday. After returning home from touring the Soundwave festival in February and March 2010, guitarist Matthew Fazzi and bassist Matthew Rubano were dismissed from the group. They were replaced by guitarist John Nolan and bassist Shaun Cooper, both of whom were former members of the band. Later in March, the band began writing material for their next album in El Paso, Texas. The following month, demos were recorded with the aim to release a new album later in the year. Recording began in October with producer Eric Valentine at Barefoot Recording in Hollywood, California and finished in January 2011. In March 2011, Taking Back Sunday was announced for release, and a month later, a music video of "El Paso" was released. In May, "Faith (When I Let You Down)" was released as a single, along with its music video. In June, "This Is All Now" was released as a single, and on June 28, Taking Back Sunday was released through Warner Bros. and Sire Records. The band embarked on a tour of the US with Thursday in June and July. In July, a music video was released for "Faith (When I Let You Down)" featuring footage of the band recording and performing at The Bamboozle festival, followed by the release of the single "You Got Me" in August. A US fall tour was undertaken in October and November, followed by a music video for "You Got Me" in the latter month. In March 2012, a music video was released for "This Is All Now". The band then had a headline spot on the 2012 edition of Warped Tour between June and August. Taking Back Sunday sold 27,000 copies in its first week of release, charting at number 17 on the Billboard 200 chart. In addition, the album reached the top 20 on several other Billboard charts. The album also charted in the lower regions of the Australian, Canadian and UK album charts. The album received generally favorable reviews, with several reviewers making favorable comparisons to the band's debut album, Tell All Your Friends (2002). ## Background In February and March 2010, Taking Back Sunday participated in the Australian festival Soundwave. Soon after returning home, bassist Matthew Rubano sent the rest of the band song ideas, which were ignored. After two weeks with no communication, three members of the band and their manager held a conference call with Rubano. During the call, the band stated their intention of continuing without him. Guitarist Matthew Fazzi also received a call from the group, saying that they were "letting [him] go." On March 29, statements by Fazzi and Rubano announcing their departure from the group were posted on the band's website. Two days later, it was announced that former members guitarist John Nolan, and bassist Shaun Cooper had re-joined the band. Nolan and Cooper had left the band in 2003, going on to form Straylight Run. The idea of reuniting with Nolan and Cooper was first proposed in January 2010, when Mark O'Connell suggested Lazzara talk with Nolan on the phone. Lazzara said: "One day he [O'Connell] called me and was like, 'Hey, man, what do you think about us going back to our original lineup?' And I was like, 'Are you crazy? I haven't talked to John [Nolan] in, like, seven years. I don't know if he'd want to do it.'" O'Connell continued to insist on the idea, "and then I got a call from John [Nolan] ... it felt like no time had passed ... like we had just talked a few days ago". The pair did not discuss creating music initially, instead "[we got] reacquainted with what had been going on in our lives. Because for me, I genuinely missed his friendship, and same with Shaun [Cooper]." ## Composition As the discussions between Lazzara and Nolan continued, they began sending each other music. At first, the pair thought it would not work out. Eventually, it got to the point where "we were like, 'Oh, man, I think this could work'", according to Lazzara. In March, the group relocated to a farm close to the Texas–Mexico border. The group spent a few weeks writing material at Sonic Ranch studio in El Paso, Texas. The song writing process started off with a guitar part, Nolan and Lazzara would work on lyrics and melodies, and then bounce ideas off the other members. Lazzara would suggest bass parts, and drummer Mark O'Connell would contribute guitar parts. The first song the group wrote was "Best Places to Be a Mom", which was written in 20 minutes. The group wrote seven songs, which would've "typically take[n] Taking Back Sunday six months to do[, instead] we did [it] in a week". Cooper noted that all the members had "gotten better at playing and writing songs". Cooper said the band members relied "on each other instead of forcing each other to play something". Guitarist Eddie Reyes insisted on playing his own part, as opposed to a chord progression, on several occasions. Cooper said "So instead of trying to force him to play one thing, he’ll go and do his own thing that’s way more cool and unique that any of us could imagine." Lazzara mentioned there was "an urgency and an energy and an excitement" embedded into the material, which "you can't create or fake". Nolan stated that Straylight Run helped Cooper and himself as musicians: "We learned, we grew and were much more mature coming back to TBS." Cooper mentioned that towards the end of the writing process the group's "creative juices ... were just so depleted". ## Recording In April, the band began demoing material, and said they were aiming to release a new album later in the year. In August, the band announced they would be recording in a few weeks' time, and were aiming for a spring 2011 release. After some shows in the summer, the band began recording in October. Eric Valentine produced the sessions at Barefoot Recording in Hollywood, California. Valentine also engineered the sessions with assistance from Cian Riordan. The band used Undertone Audio Consoles during recording. At the start of recording, the group had 18 songs. They whittled this number down little by little, and wrote additional songs at Robert Lang Studios in Seattle, Washington. Nolan said recording the album was a "learning process" since "the way that the band had been making records was very different than what Shaun and I were used to coming back into it". Nolan said their label was "pretty nervous and unsure about what was going to happen". In addition to this, the label would hear their progress throughout the recording process and would infrequently provide feedback. Towards the end of their relationship with the label, said "it was a whole new staff and I don’t think anyone cared anymore". Looking back in 2015, Nolan said the group "ended up not feeling very good" about having their label check on the proceedings. The drums tracks were completed in early October 2010. Valentine helped the group arrange their parts, according to Nolan: "He has this way of weaving those parts together in a way that we wouldn't have been able to do on our own." Nolan said Valentine took control of "the amp stuff," which made sense to him "because he knows so much more about that stuff". The group spent some time "messing around" with guitar pedals, according to Nolan. On December 8, the band posted a behind-the-scenes video of themselves in the studio. On January 10, 2011, the band announced that recording was officially completed. A week later, the band said the album's artwork was being produced and Valentine was mixing the tracks. While 11 tracks ended up on the final version of the album, a further seven or eight songs were recorded. Howie Weinberg mastered the recordings at Howie Weinberg Mastering in March. ## Music and lyrics Choosing to self-title the album, Lazzara said: "We haven’t had [a self-titled album], and going back to the original lineup, it seems appropriate." Nolan mentioned a recurring theme throughout the album: "The issue of being an adult with a real life and a long-term relationship or marriage, and trying to make that work." The album's sound has been described as rock and post-hardcore. Band members made up their own sequences for the track listing, then noted the similarities. Lazzara said "...with El Paso ... Why not come out swinging?" The track was one of the first songs written for the album, and Lazzara said it encapsulates "both the mood of the environment we were in down there and the mood we were in about being back together again and writing new music". Lazzara called it "probably the heaviest rock song we've ever written", incorporating influences from Fugazi and Glassjaw, and a Nirvana-like bass part. Lazzara said "Faith (When I Let You Down)" matches a "huge, punishing" chorus with a soft verse, which comes across as a "roller coaster" to him. Lazzara mentioned that the track took longer to work on compared to the other songs on the album, going through 4 or 5 sets of lyrics. One day, Lazzara was checking his emails and saw the phrase "Best Places to Be a Mom" roll across the news ticker. He thought it was "funny and in context it is". The track started out as a slow song before being sped up by Reyes. Lazzara said the track was "strikingly similar" to "You Know How I Do", the opening track on Tell All Your Friends; the vocal melody is taken from "Rosanna" by Toto. "Sad Savior" feature Nolan playing a 1950s Buddy Holly-esque guitar riff reminding Lazzara that he had missed John Nolan's guitar playing:"...I missed ... John's guitar playing, especially coupled with Eddie [Reyes]'s." Lazzara said, "Money (Let It Go)" has a James Bond "kind of spy/surf-y vibe" and features a "really cool surf-y solo" by Nolan. It took influence from garage rock, and was compared to My Chemical Romance and the White Stripes. O'Connell created the chord progression for "This Is All Now", while Nolan came up with the melody for the song's chorus. The track's lyrics went through three or four different drafts. Lazzara said it was about the group's relationship with "faith and growing up in and out of the church". The verses were centred around an angular Dismemberment Plan-esque drum pattern. "It Doesn't Feel a Thing Like Falling" featured a guitar riff in the vein of Hundred Reasons. The band referred to the bridge in "Since You're Gone" as the "Beatles bridge" because it was "very unlike us," according to Lazzara. Lazzara described "Call Me in the Morning" a "ballady kind of sentimental tune". When the group recorded the track, they sat in a circle "with this crazy microphone in the middle and we were all playing together". "You Were Right" started as an acoustic song, written by Nolan. ## Release On November 16, 2010, Lazzara posted a demo titled "Best Places to Be a Mom" to his SoundCloud page. "El Paso" was made available for streaming on March 28, 2011. On March 30, AbsolutePunk confirmed that the album would be released in June. The band performed a show at Maxwell's in Hoboken, New Jersey on April 6 where they debuted a new song entitled "Faith (When I Let You Down)". The band revealed the track listing for the album, as well as the album's cover art on April 13. The artwork, designed by Brad Filip, was inspired by a photograph taken by Claudia Meyer. Two days later, "Best Places to Be a Mom" was made available for streaming. On April 22, the band released the music video for "El Paso", directed by Thursday guitarist Steve Pedulla. The video features footage shot during the band's show at Maxwell's. The group played a couple of shows in late April, before their appearance at The Bamboozle festival. "Faith (When I Let You Down)" was made available for streaming on April 29, and was released as a single on May 3 with "El Paso" and an acoustic version of "Great Romances of the 20th Century" as B-sides. A music video was released for the song on May 6, featuring footage of the band recording and performing at The Bamboozle festival. It was released to radio on May 17. In May, the band went on a tour of the UK with support from The Xcerts. Prior to the tour, most of the dates had been postponed until August and September due to scheduling conflicts. "This Is All Now" was released as a single on June 1 with "Best Places to Be a Mom" and an acoustic version of "Ghost Man on Third" as B-sides. On June 10, a lyric video was released for "This Is All Now". Taking Back Sunday was made available for streaming on June 21, and was released on June 28 through Warner Bros. and Sire Records. The iTunes deluxe edition included a demo of "You Should Have Waited" and acoustic versions of "Great Romances of the 20th Century" and "Ghost Man on Third" as bonus tracks. A limited edition version of the album included a bonus disc containing six demo recordings. In June and July, the band went on a US tour with Thursday and Colour Revolt, supported by The New Regime. On July 7, another music video was released for "Faith (When I Let You Down)". According to MTV News' Jocelyn Vena, the video is a "social commentary about the fleeting nature of Internet fame, as illustrated by a fake cat trying to make it in Hollywood". It was directed by Chris Marrs Piliero, who said it followed on from his video for Britney Spears' "I Wanna Go". The video was filmed earlier in June. "You Got Me" was released as a single on August 26 with a live acoustic version of "Sad Savior" as the B-side. The group went on a US fall tour in October and November with support from The Maine and Bad Rabbits. On November 7, a music video was released for "You Got Me". The video begins with the band wondering about Reyes whereabouts, before shifting to Reyes dancing on an empty stage. The idea for it was proposed by the group's tour manager. Cooper said: "Back before we even started touring, we’d go out to clubs on Long Island together and Eddie [Reyes] would be tearing up the dance floor ... [He] is by far the best dancer of the band." On March 21, 2012, a music video was released for "This Is All Now". Directed by Greg Hunter and Josh Romero of Dionysian Entertainment, they had shot the footage during the previous summer and created a music video with it. The group was so impressed they selected it as an official video. In April, the band toured Australia with New Found Glory and This Time Next Year. In May, the group headlined Slam Dunk Festival in the UK. Between June and August, they were one of the headliners of the 2012 edition of Warped Tour. ## Reception ### Critical response Taking Back Sunday received generally favorable reviews, according to review aggregation website Metacritic. AllMusic reviewer Gregory Heaney said Nolan and Cooper's return to the group helped "reinvigorat[e] their sound". He called the record "the sophomore album the band never had". Ian Chaddock of Big Cheese said the vocals weren't "as memorable and far less energetic," compared to the band's debut album. He called the album "decent", containing "a handful of infectious, sing-along songs," but called it "far from the band's best". In a brief review for Entertainment Weekly, Kyle Anderson said Lazzara was "maiming his vocal cords over chaotic guitar crunch," while still sounding "enraptured". Tyler Munro of Exclaim! wrote that the album shared "many of the same dynamics" as the group's debut, specifically mentioning "the energy and layered hooks". Melodic reviewer Pär Winberg called Valentine "a helluva good producer" and praised the production. He also wrote that the group sounded "solid as a rock". IGN's Chad Grischow said the group charged "full steam ahead with the most rock focused album of their career". He noted the album took the "harder edge of their last album" and moulded it "into something they, and their fans, should be much happier with". In a brief review for Newsday, Glenn Gamboa said it was a "testament" to the group's talent that they can "turn essentially a transition album into something that sounds this good". PopMatters reviewer Kiel Hauck wrote that Lazzara and Nolan's call-and-response vocals, featured on the group's debut, were placed "perfect[ly] throughout the record" as the pair "create a beautiful combination that serves as a reminder of what made this band so special in the first place". Tori Pederson of Punknews.org said the group "sound like a well-oiled machine here," producing "arguably the best album of their career" in the process. Spin's Mikael Wood wrote that the album showcases the group's "crafty songwriting rather than the psychological intensity" that dominated their debut. ### Commercial performance and retrospective Taking Back Sunday debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 chart, with 27,000 copies sold in the first week. The album reached number 3 on the Alternative Albums chart, number 4 on the Top Rock Albums chart, and number 14 on both the Digital Albums and Tastemaker Albums charts. The album also charted at number 49 on the Australian Albums Chart, number 57 on the Canadian Albums Chart and number 87 on the UK Albums Chart. In 2013, Nolan said he was proud of the self-titled album and felt like the group "came out with something that was not completely like any other Taking Back Sunday record". In 2014, Lazzara said he felt like the members were "still feeling each other out because there were all those years between us ... but there were still times where one person wouldn't be as vocal about their ideas". In 2017, Cooper said that making the album was "some of the most fun I’ve ever had", however, he added that it was "a bit of a letdown because people didn’t respond the way we thought. Looking back, I still think that album was very strong". In a retrospective piece for Fuse.tv, writer Jason Lipshutz ranked the album as his fifth favorite Taking Back Sunday album. He said the album sounded like "an acceptance of identity and intrinsic strengths" and that group created "a rollicking return to form". ## Track listing All songs written by Adam Lazzara, Eddie Reyes, John Nolan, Mark O'Connell and Shaun Cooper. Bonus tracks ## Personnel Personnel per booklet. Taking Back Sunday - Shaun Cooper – bass guitar - Adam Lazzara – lead vocals - John Nolan – lead guitar, keyboards, vocals - Mark O'Connell – drums, percussion - Eddie Reyes – rhythm guitar Production - Eric Valentine – producer, engineer, mixing - Cian Riordan – assistant engineer - Howie Weinberg – mastering - Brad Filip – art design ## Charts
58,668,629	German torpedo boat T30	1,122,101,843	German torpedo boat	[ "1943 ships", "Maritime incidents in August 1944", "Ships built by Schichau", "Ships built in Elbing", "Type 39 torpedo boats" ]	The German torpedo boat T30 was one of fifteen Type 39 torpedo boats built for the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) during World War II. Completed in late 1943, the boat was assigned to support German operations in the Baltic Sea. She laid minefields in the Gulf of Finland, off the Estonian coast, in mid-April, before she was tasked to support Finnish forces in June. The following month, T30 helped to sink a Soviet patrol boat. After a navigational error caused her to enter a German minefield as she was preparing to lay one herself in August, the boat sank after striking several mines with the loss of 137 crewmen. ## Design and description The Type 39 torpedo boat was conceived as a general-purpose design, much larger than preceding German torpedo boats. The boats had an overall length of 102.5 meters (336 ft 3 in) and were 97 meters (318 ft 3 in) long at the waterline. They had a beam of 10 meters (32 ft 10 in), a draft of 3.22 meters (10 ft 7 in) at deep load and displaced 1,294 metric tons (1,274 long tons) at standard load and 1,754 metric tons (1,726 long tons) at deep load. Their crew numbered 206 officers and sailors. The Type 39s were fitted with a pair of geared steam turbine sets, each driving one propeller, using steam from four high-pressure water-tube boilers. The turbines were designed to produce 32,000 shaft horsepower (24,000 kW) which was intended give the ships a maximum speed of 33.5 knots (62.0 km/h; 38.6 mph). They carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 2,400 nautical miles (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). As built, the Type 39 ships mounted four 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK C/32 guns in single mounts protected by gun shields; one forward of the superstructure, one between the funnels, and two aft, one superfiring over the other. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by four 3.7 cm (1.5 in) SK C/30 AA guns in two twin-gun mounts on platforms abaft the rear funnel, six 2 cm (0.8 in) C/38 guns in one quadruple mount on the aft superstructure and a pair of single mounts on the bridge wings. They carried six above-water 533 mm (21 in) torpedo tubes in two triple mounts amidships and could also carry 30 mines; the full complement of 60 mines made the ships top-heavy which could be dangerous in bad weather. For anti-submarine work the boats were fitted with a S-Gerät sonar and four depth charge launchers. The Type 39s were equipped with a FuMO 21 radar and various FumB radar detectors were installed late in the war. ## Construction and career Originally ordered as a Type 37 torpedo boat on 30 March 1939, T30 was reordered on 10 November 1939 from Schichau, laid down on 10 April 1942 at their Elbing, East Prussia, shipyard as yard number 1489, launched on 13 March 1943 and commissioned on 24 October 1943. After working up, the boat was attached to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla and helped to lay minefields in Narva Bay in mid-April 1944. T30 and her sister T31 were tasked to support Finnish forces in Vyborg Bay and Koivisto Sound during the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive. On 20 June they engaged Soviet motor torpedo boats and claimed 3–5 boats sunk, but T31 was sunk by a torpedo. Afterwards, she was assigned to the 2nd Torpedo Boat Flotilla and participated in a failed attempt to recapture the island of Narvi on 27/28 June together with the torpedo boats T8, T10 and Finnish forces. The three torpedo boats damaged a Soviet patrol boat off Narva, Estonia, on 16 July. By August T30 had been transferred to the 6th Torpedo Boat Flotilla. The flotilla, consisting of T30 and her sisters T32 and T22, was tasked to lay a minefield in Narva Bay on the night of 17/18 August. Reinforced by their sister T23 from the 5th Torpedo Boat Flotilla, the boats each loaded 54 mines in Helsinki, Finland, and departed on the evening of the 17th. Shortly after midnight, they started to lay their mines, but had only just begun when T30 struck a pair of mines about 00:25 which knocked out her power and gave her a list to port. About a minute after that T32 also struck a pair of mines that blew her bow off and disabled her engines. At 00:30 T30 exploded and broke in half, probably after hitting another mine. She sank at with the loss of 137 crewmen.
230,456	Mallard	1,173,684,734	Species of duck	[ "Anas", "Articles containing video clips", "Birds described in 1758", "Ducks", "Extant Pleistocene first appearances", "Game birds", "Holarctic birds", "Migratory birds (Eastern Hemisphere)", "Migratory birds (Western Hemisphere)", "Native birds of the Eastern United States", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus" ]	The mallard (/ˈmælɑːrd, ˈmælərd/) or wild duck (Anas platyrhynchos) is a dabbling duck that breeds throughout the temperate and subtropical Americas, Eurasia, and North Africa. It has been introduced to New Zealand, Australia, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, the Falkland Islands, and South Africa. This duck belongs to the subfamily Anatinae of the waterfowl family Anatidae. Males have green heads, while the females (hens or ducks) have mainly brown-speckled plumage. Both sexes have an area of white-bordered black or iridescent purple or blue feathers called a speculum on their wings; males especially tend to have blue speculum feathers. The mallard is 50–65 cm (20–26 in) long, of which the body makes up around two-thirds the length. The wingspan is 81–98 cm (32–39 in) and the bill is 4.4 to 6.1 cm (1.7 to 2.4 in) long. It is often slightly heavier than most other dabbling ducks, weighing 0.7–1.6 kg (1.5–3.5 lb). Mallards live in wetlands, eat water plants and small animals, and are social animals preferring to congregate in groups or flocks of varying sizes. The female lays 8 to 13 creamy white to greenish-buff spotless eggs, on alternate days. Incubation takes 27 to 28 days and fledging takes 50 to 60 days. The ducklings are precocial and fully capable of swimming as soon as they hatch. The mallard is considered to be a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Unlike many waterfowl, mallards are considered an invasive species in some regions. It is a very adaptable species, being able to live and even thrive in urban areas which may have supported more localised, sensitive species of waterfowl before development. The non-migratory mallard interbreeds with indigenous wild ducks of closely related species through genetic pollution by producing fertile offspring. Complete hybridisation of various species of wild duck gene pools could result in the extinction of many indigenous waterfowl. This species is the main ancestor of most breeds of domestic duck, and its naturally evolved wild gene pool has been genetically polluted by the domestic and feral mallard populations. ## Taxonomy and evolutionary history The mallard was one of the many bird species originally described in the 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus. He gave it two binomial names: Anas platyrhynchos and Anas boschas. The latter was generally preferred until 1906 when Einar Lönnberg established that A. platyrhynchos had priority, as it appeared on an earlier page in the text. The scientific name comes from Latin Anas, "duck" and Ancient Greek πλατυρυγχος, platyrhynchus, "broad-billed" (from πλατύς, platys, "broad" and ρυγχός, rhunkhos, "bill"). The genome of Anas platyrhynchos was sequenced in 2013. The name mallard originally referred to any wild drake, and it is sometimes still used this way. It was derived from the Old French malart or mallart for "wild drake" although its true derivation is unclear. It may be related to, or at least influenced by, an Old High German masculine proper name Madelhart, clues lying in the alternative English forms "maudelard" and "mawdelard". Masle (male) has also been proposed as an influence. Mallards frequently interbreed with their closest relatives in the genus Anas, such as the American black duck, and also with species more distantly related, such as the northern pintail, leading to various hybrids that may be fully fertile. The mallard has hybridized with more than 40 species in the wild, and an additional 20 species in captivity, though fertile hybrids typically have two Anas parents. Mallards and their domestic conspecifics are fully interfertile; many wild mallard populations in North America contain significant amounts of domestic mallard DNA. Genetic analysis has shown that certain mallards appear to be closer to their Indo-Pacific relatives, while others are related to their American relatives. Mitochondrial DNA data for the D-loop sequence suggest that mallards may have evolved in the general area of Siberia. Mallard bones rather abruptly appear in food remains of ancient humans and other deposits of fossil bones in Europe, without a good candidate for a local predecessor species. The large Ice Age palaeosubspecies that made up at least the European and West Asian populations during the Pleistocene has been named Anas platyrhynchos palaeoboschas. Mallards are differentiated in their mitochondrial DNA between North American and Eurasian populations, but the nuclear genome displays a notable lack of genetic structure. Haplotypes typical of American mallard relatives and eastern spot-billed ducks can be found in mallards around the Bering Sea. The Aleutian Islands hold a population of mallards that appear to be evolving towards becoming a subspecies, as gene flow with other populations is very limited. Also, the paucity of morphological differences between the Old World mallards and the New World mallard demonstrates the extent to which the genome is shared among them such that birds like the Chinese spot-billed duck are highly similar to the Old World mallard, and birds such as the Hawaiian duck are highly similar to the New World mallard. The size of the mallard varies clinally; for example, birds from Greenland, though larger, have smaller bills, paler plumage, and stockier bodies than birds further south and are sometimes classified as a separate subspecies, the Greenland mallard (A. p. conboschas). ## Description The mallard is a medium-sized waterfowl species that is often slightly heavier than most other dabbling ducks. It is 50–65 cm (20–26 in) long – of which the body makes up around two-thirds – has a wingspan of 81–98 cm (32–39 in), and weighs 0.7–1.6 kg (1.5–3.5 lb). Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 25.7 to 30.6 cm (10.1 to 12.0 in), the bill is 4.4 to 6.1 cm (1.7 to 2.4 in), and the tarsus is 4.1 to 4.8 cm (1.6 to 1.9 in). The breeding male mallard is unmistakable, with a glossy bottle-green head and a white collar that demarcates the head from the purple-tinged brown breast, grey-brown wings, and a pale grey belly. The rear of the male is black, with white-bordered dark tail feathers. The bill of the male is a yellowish-orange tipped with black, with that of the female generally darker and ranging from black to mottled orange and brown. The female mallard is predominantly mottled, with each individual feather showing sharp contrast from buff to very dark brown, a coloration shared by most female dabbling ducks, and has buff cheeks, eyebrow, throat, and neck, with a darker crown and eye-stripe. Mallards, like other sexually-dimorphic birds, can sometimes go though spontaneous sex reversal, often caused by damaged or nonfunctioning sex organs, such as the ovaries in mallard hens. This phenomenon can cause female mallards to exhibit male plumage, and vice versa (phenotypic feminisation or masculinisation). Both male and female mallards have distinct iridescent purple-blue speculum feathers edged with white, which are prominent in flight or at rest but temporarily shed during the annual summer moult. Upon hatching, the plumage of the duckling is yellow on the underside and face (with streaks by the eyes) and black on the back (with some yellow spots) all the way to the top and back of the head. Its legs and bill are also black. As it nears a month in age, the duckling's plumage starts becoming drab, looking more like the female, though more streaked, and its legs lose their dark grey colouring. Two months after hatching, the fledgling period has ended, and the duckling is now a juvenile. The duckling is able to fly 50–60 days after hatching. Its bill soon loses its dark grey colouring, and its sex can finally be distinguished visually by three factors: 1) the bill is yellow in males, but black and orange in females; 2) the breast feathers are reddish-brown in males, but brown in females; and 3) in males, the centre tail feather (drake feather) is curled, but in females, the centre tail feather is straight. During the final period of maturity leading up to adulthood (6–10 months of age), the plumage of female juveniles remains the same while the plumage of male juveniles gradually changes to its characteristic colours. This change in plumage also applies to adult mallard males when they transition in and out of their non-breeding eclipse plumage at the beginning and the end of the summer moulting period. The adulthood age for mallards is fourteen months, and the average life expectancy is three years, but they can live to twenty. Several species of duck have brown-plumaged females that can be confused with the female mallard. The female gadwall (Mareca strepera) has an orange-lined bill, white belly, black and white speculum that is seen as a white square on the wings in flight, and is a smaller bird. More similar to the female mallard in North America are the American black duck (A. rubripes), which is notably darker-hued in both sexes than the mallard, and the mottled duck (A. fulvigula), which is somewhat darker than the female mallard, and with slightly different bare-part colouration and no white edge on the speculum. In captivity, domestic ducks come in wild-type plumages, white, and other colours. Most of these colour variants are also known in domestic mallards not bred as livestock, but kept as pets, aviary birds, etc., where they are rare but increasing in availability. A noisy species, the female has the deep quack stereotypically associated with ducks. Male mallards make a sound phonetically similar to that of the female, a typical quack, but it is deeper and quieter compared to that of the female. Research conducted by Middlesex University on two English mallard populations found that the vocalisations of the mallard varies depending on their environment and have something akin to a regional accent, with urban mallards in London being much louder and more vociferous compared to rural mallards in Cornwall, serving as an adaptation to persistent levels of anthropogenic noise. When incubating a nest, or when offspring are present, females vocalise differently, making a call that sounds like a truncated version of the usual quack. This maternal vocalisation is highly attractive to their young. The repetition and frequency modulation of these quacks form the auditory basis for species identification in offspring, a process known as acoustic conspecific identification. In addition, females hiss if the nest or offspring are threatened or interfered with. When taking off, the wings of a mallard produce a characteristic faint whistling noise. The mallard is a rare example of both Allen's Rule and Bergmann's Rule in birds. Bergmann's Rule, which states that polar forms tend to be larger than related ones from warmer climates, has numerous examples in birds, as in case of the Greenland mallard which is larger than the mallards further south. Allen's Rule says that appendages like ears tend to be smaller in polar forms to minimise heat loss, and larger in tropical and desert equivalents to facilitate heat diffusion, and that the polar taxa are stockier overall. Examples of this rule in birds are rare as they lack external ears, but the bill of ducks is supplied with a few blood vessels to prevent heat loss, and, as in the Greenland mallard, the bill is smaller than that of birds farther south, illustrating the rule. Due to the variability of the mallard's genetic code, which gives it its vast interbreeding capability, mutations in the genes that decide plumage colour are very common and have resulted in a wide variety of hybrids, such as Brewer's duck (mallard × gadwall, Mareca strepera). ## Distribution and habitat The mallard is widely distributed across the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; in North America its range extends from southern and central Alaska to Mexico, the Hawaiian Islands, across the Palearctic, from Iceland and southern Greenland and parts of Morocco (North Africa) in the west, Scandinavia and Britain to the north, and to Siberia, Japan, and South Korea. Also in the east, it ranges to south-eastern and south-western Australia and New Zealand in the Southern hemisphere. It is strongly migratory in the northern parts of its breeding range, and winters farther south. For example, in North America, it winters south to the southern United States and northern Mexico, but also regularly strays into Central America and the Caribbean between September and May. A drake later named "Trevor" attracted media attention in 2018 when it turned up on the island of Niue, an atypical location for mallards. The mallard inhabits a wide range of habitats and climates, from the Arctic tundra to subtropical regions. It is found in both fresh- and salt-water wetlands, including parks, small ponds, rivers, lakes and estuaries, as well as shallow inlets and open sea within sight of the coastline. Water depths of less than 0.9 metres (3.0 ft) are preferred, with birds avoiding areas more than a few metres deep. They are attracted to bodies of water with aquatic vegetation. ## Behaviour ### Feeding The mallard is omnivorous and very flexible in its choice of food. Its diet may vary based on several factors, including the stage of the breeding cycle, short-term variations in available food, nutrient availability, and interspecific and intraspecific competition. The majority of the mallard's diet seems to be made up of gastropods, insects (including beetles, flies, lepidopterans, dragonflies, and caddisflies), crustaceans, other arthropods, worms, many varieties of seeds and plant matter, and roots and tubers. During the breeding season, male birds were recorded to have eaten 37.6% animal matter and 62.4% plant matter, most notably the grass Echinochloa crus-galli, and nonlaying females ate 37.0% animal matter and 63.0% plant matter, while laying females ate 71.9% animal matter and only 28.1% plant matter. Plants generally make up the larger part of a bird's diet, especially during autumn migration and in the winter. The mallard usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or grazing; there are reports of it eating frogs. However, in 2017 a flock of mallards in Romania were observed hunting small migratory birds, including grey wagtails and black redstarts, the first documented occasion they had been seen attacking and consuming large vertebrates. It usually nests on a river bank, but not always near water. It is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and forms large flocks, which are known as "sordes". ### Breeding Mallards usually form pairs (in October and November in the Northern Hemisphere) until the female lays eggs at the start of the nesting season, which is around the beginning of spring. At this time she is left by the male who joins up with other males to await the moulting period, which begins in June (in the Northern Hemisphere). During the brief time before this, however, the males are still sexually potent and some of them either remain on standby to sire replacement clutches (for female mallards that have lost or abandoned their previous clutch) or forcibly mate with females that appear to be isolated or unattached regardless of their species and whether or not they have a brood of ducklings. Nesting sites are typically on the ground, hidden in vegetation where the female's speckled plumage serves as effective camouflage, but female mallards have also been known to nest in hollows in trees, boathouses, roof gardens and on balconies, sometimes resulting in hatched offspring having difficulty following their parent to water. Egg clutches number 8–13 creamy white to greenish-buff eggs free of speckles. They measure about 58 mm (2.3 in) in length and 32 mm (1.3 in) in width. The eggs are laid on alternate days, and incubation begins when the clutch is almost complete. Incubation takes 27–28 days and fledging takes 50–60 days. The ducklings are precocial and fully capable of swimming as soon as they hatch. However, filial imprinting compels them to instinctively stay near the mother, not only for warmth and protection but also to learn about and remember their habitat as well as how and where to forage for food. Though adoptions are known to occur, female mallards typically do not tolerate stray ducklings near their broods, and will violently attack and drive away any unfamiliar young, sometimes going as far as to kill them. When ducklings mature into flight-capable juveniles, they learn about and remember their traditional migratory routes (unless they are born and raised in captivity). In New Zealand, where mallards are naturalised, the nesting season has been found to be longer, eggs and clutches are larger and nest survival is generally greater compared with mallards in their native range. In cases where a nest or brood fails, some mallards may mate for a second time in an attempt to raise a second clutch, typically around early-to-mid summer. In addition, mallards may occasionally breed during the autumn in cases of unseasonably warm weather; one such instance of a 'late' clutch occurred in November 2011, in which a female successfully hatched and raised a clutch of eleven ducklings at the London Wetland Centre. During the breeding season, both male and female mallards can become aggressive, driving off competitors to themselves or their mate by charging at them. Males tend to fight more than females and attack each other by repeatedly pecking at their rival's chest, ripping out feathers and even skin on rare occasions. Female mallards are also known to carry out 'inciting displays', which encourage other ducks in the flock to begin fighting. It is possible that this behaviour allows the female to evaluate the strength of potential partners. The drakes that end up being left out after the others have paired off with mating partners sometimes target an isolated female duck, even one of a different species, and proceed to chase and peck at her until she weakens, at which point the males take turns copulating with the female. Lebret (1961) calls this behaviour "Attempted Rape Flight", and Stanley Cramp and K.E.L. Simmons (1977) speak of "rape-intent flights". Male mallards also occasionally chase other male ducks of a different species, and even each other, in the same way. In one documented case of "homosexual necrophilia", a male mallard copulated with another male he was chasing after the chased male died upon flying into a glass window. This paper was awarded an Ig Nobel Prize in 2003. Mallards are opportunistically targeted by brood parasites, occasionally having eggs laid in their nests by redheads, ruddy ducks, lesser scaup, gadwalls, northern shovelers, northern pintails, cinnamon teal, common goldeneyes, and other mallards. These eggs are generally accepted when they resemble the eggs of the host mallard, but the hen may attempt to eject them or even abandon the nest if parasitism occurs during egg laying. ## Predators and threats In addition to human hunting, mallards of all ages (but especially young ones) and in all locations must contend with a wide diversity of predators including raptors and owls, mustelids, corvids, snakes, raccoons, opossums, skunks, turtles, large fish, felids, and canids, the last two including domestic cats and dogs. The most prolific natural predators of adult mallards are red foxes (Vulpes vulpes; which most often pick off brooding females) and the faster or larger birds of prey, (e.g. peregrine falcons, Aquila or Haliaeetus eagles). In North America, adult mallards face no fewer than 15 species of birds of prey, from northern harriers (Circus hudsonius) and short-eared owls (Asio flammeus) (both smaller than a mallard) to huge bald (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and about a dozen species of mammalian predators, not counting several more avian and mammalian predators who threaten eggs and nestlings. Mallards are also preyed upon by other waterside apex predators, such as grey herons (Ardea cinerea), great blue herons (Ardea herodias) and black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), the European herring gull (Larus argentatus), the wels catfish (Silurus glanis), and the northern pike (Esox lucius). Crows (Corvus spp.) are also known to kill ducklings and adults on occasion. Also, mallards may be attacked by larger anseriformes such as swans (Cygnus spp.) and geese during the breeding season, and are frequently driven off by these birds over territorial disputes. Mute swans (Cygnus olor) have been known to attack or even kill mallards if they feel that the ducks pose a threat to their offspring. Common loons (Gavia inmer) are similarly territorial and aggressive towards other birds in such disputes, and will frequently drive mallards away from their territory. However, in 2019, a pair of common loons in Wisconsin were observed raising a mallard duckling for several weeks, having seemingly adopted the bird after it had been abandoned by its parents. The predation-avoidance behaviour of sleeping with one eye open, allowing one brain hemisphere to remain aware while the other half sleeps, was first demonstrated in mallards, although it is believed to be widespread among birds in general. ## Status and conservation Since 1998, the mallard has been rated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This is because it has a large range–more than 20,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (7,700,000 mi<sup>2</sup>) and because its population is increasing, rather than declining by 30% over ten years or three generations and thus is not warranted a vulnerable rating. Also, the population size of the mallard is very large. Unlike many waterfowl, mallards have benefited from human alterations to the world – so much so that they are now considered an invasive species in some regions. They are a common sight in urban parks, lakes, ponds, and other human-made water features in the regions they inhabit, and are often tolerated or encouraged in human habitat due to their placid nature towards humans and their beautiful and iridescent colours. While most are not domesticated, mallards are so successful at coexisting in human regions that the main conservation risk they pose comes from the loss of genetic diversity among a region's traditional ducks once humans and mallards colonise an area. Mallards are very adaptable, being able to live and even thrive in urban areas which may have supported more localised, sensitive species of waterfowl before development. The release of feral mallards in areas where they are not native sometimes creates problems through interbreeding with indigenous waterfowl. These non-migratory mallards interbreed with indigenous wild ducks from local populations of closely related species through genetic pollution by producing fertile offspring. Complete hybridisation of various species of wild duck gene pools could result in the extinction of many indigenous waterfowl. The mallard itself is the ancestor of most domestic ducks, and its naturally evolved wild gene pool gets genetically polluted in turn by the domestic and feral populations. Over time, a continuum of hybrids ranging between almost typical examples of either species develop; the speciation process is beginning to reverse itself. This has created conservation concerns for relatives of the mallard, such as the Hawaiian duck, the New Zealand grey duck (A. s. superciliosa) subspecies of the Pacific black duck, the American black duck, the mottled duck, Meller's duck, the yellow-billed duck, and the Mexican duck, in the latter case even leading to a dispute as to whether these birds should be considered a species (and thus entitled to more conservation research and funding) or included in the mallard species. Ecological changes and hunting have also led to a decline of local species; for example, the New Zealand grey duck population declined drastically due to overhunting in the mid-20th century. Hybrid offspring of Hawaiian ducks seem to be less well adapted to native habitat, and using them in re-introduction projects apparently reduces success. In summary, the problems of mallards "hybridising away" relatives is more a consequence of local ducks declining than of mallards spreading; allopatric speciation and isolating behaviour have produced today's diversity of mallard-like ducks despite the fact that, in most, if not all, of these populations, hybridisation must have occurred to some extent. ### Invasiveness `Mallards are causing severe "genetic pollution" to South Africa's biodiversity by breeding with endemic ducks even though the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds – an agreement to protect the local waterfowl populations – applies to the mallard as well as other ducks. The hybrids of mallards and the yellow-billed duck are fertile, capable of producing hybrid offspring. If this continues, only hybrids occur and in the long term result in the extinction of various indigenous waterfowl. The mallard can crossbreed with 63 other species, posing a severe threat to indigenous waterfowl's genetic integrity. Mallards and their hybrids compete with indigenous birds for resources, including nest sites, roosting sites, and food.` Availability of mallards, mallard ducklings, and fertilised mallard eggs for public sale and private ownership, either as poultry or as pets, is currently legal in the United States, except for the state of Florida, which has currently banned domestic ownership of mallards. This is to prevent hybridisation with the native mottled duck. The mallard is considered an invasive species in Australia and New Zealand, where it competes with the Pacific black duck (known as the grey duck locally in New Zealand) which was over-hunted in the past. There, and elsewhere, mallards are spreading with increasing urbanisation and hybridising with local relatives. The eastern or Chinese spot-billed duck is currently introgressing into the mallard populations of the Primorsky Krai, possibly due to habitat changes from global warming. The Mariana mallard was a resident allopatric population – in most respects a good species – apparently initially derived from mallard-Pacific black duck hybrids; it became extinct in the late 20th century. The Laysan duck is an insular relative of the mallard, with a very small and fluctuating population. Mallards sometimes arrive on its island home during migration, and can be expected to occasionally have remained and hybridised with Laysan ducks as long as these species have existed. However, these hybrids are less well adapted to the peculiar ecological conditions of Laysan Island than the local ducks, and thus have lower fitness. Laysan ducks were found throughout the Hawaiian archipelago before 400 AD, after which they suffered a rapid decline during the Polynesian colonisation. Now, their range includes only Laysan Island. It is one of the successfully translocated birds, after having become nearly extinct in the early 20th century. ## Relationship with humans ### Domestication Mallards have often been ubiquitous in their regions among the ponds, rivers, and streams of human parks, farms, and other human-made waterways – even to the point of visiting water features in human courtyards. Mallards have had a long relationship with humans. Almost all domestic duck breeds derive from the mallard, with the exception of a few Muscovy breeds, and are listed under the trinomial name A. p. domesticus. Mallards are generally monogamous while domestic ducks are mostly polygamous. Domestic ducks have no territorial behaviour and are less aggressive than mallards. Domestic ducks are mostly kept for meat; their eggs are also eaten, and have a strong flavour. They were first domesticated in Southeast Asia at least 4,000 years ago, during the Neolithic Age, and were also farmed by the Romans in Europe, and the Malays in Asia. As the domestic duck and the mallard are the same species as each other, it is common for mallards to mate with domestic ducks and produce hybrid offspring that are fully fertile. Because of this, mallards have been found to be contaminated with the genes of the domestic duck. While the keeping of domestic breeds is more popular, pure-bred mallards are sometimes kept for eggs and meat, although they may require wing clipping to restrict flying. ### Hunting Mallards are one of the most common varieties of ducks hunted as a sport due to the large population size. The ideal location for hunting mallards is considered to be where the water level is somewhat shallow where the birds can be found foraging for food. Hunting mallards might cause the population to decline in some places, at some times, and with some populations. In certain countries, the mallard may be legally shot but is protected under national acts and policies. For example, in the United Kingdom, the mallard is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, which restricts certain hunting methods or taking or killing mallards. ### As food Since ancient times, the mallard has been eaten as food. The wild mallard was eaten in Neolithic Greece. Usually, only the breast and thigh meat is eaten. It does not need to be hung before preparation, and is often braised or roasted, sometimes flavoured with bitter orange or with port.
29,024,768	No Pressure (film)	1,137,231,295	null	[ "2010 films", "2010 independent films", "2010 short films", "2010s British films", "2010s English-language films", "British independent films", "British short films", "Climate change controversies", "Climate change films", "Emissions reduction", "Film controversies in the United Kingdom", "Films set in England", "Films with screenplays by Richard Curtis", "Green politics" ]	No Pressure is a 2010 short film produced by the global warming mitigation campaign 10:10, written by Richard Curtis and Franny Armstrong, and directed by Dougal Wilson. Intended for cinema and television advertisements, No Pressure is composed of scenes in which a variety of men, women and children in every-day situations are graphically blown to pieces for failing to be sufficiently enthusiastic about the 10:10 campaign to reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. The film's makers said that they viewed No Pressure as "a funny and satirical tongue-in-cheek little film in the over-the-top style of Monty Python or South Park". Before its release, The Guardian described it as "attention-grabbing" and "pretty edgy." The film was withdrawn from public circulation by 10:10, on the same day it was released, due to negative publicity. Charities that had backed the film stated they were "absolutely appalled" upon seeing it, and several of 10:10's corporate and strategic partners withdrew from partnership. ## Background and production The film was made in an attempt to challenge the "no pressure" attitude often displayed both by governments and individuals towards taking real action on climate change. 10:10 highlighted the urgency of action with claims that carbon dioxide emissions must be stabilised by 2014 (within four years) in order to avoid disaster, and that "300,000 real people" are already killed by climate change annually. Lizzie Gillet, 10:10 global campaign director, explained: "With climate change becoming increasingly threatening, and decreasingly talked about in the media, we wanted to find a way to bring this critical issue back into the headlines while making people laugh. We were therefore delighted when Richard Curtis agreed to write a short film for the 10:10 campaign". The film was shot on a location at Camden School for Girls, in the London Borough of Camden in North London. According to 10:10, over 50 film professionals and more than 40 actors and extras provided their services at no cost. ## Synopsis The four-minute film consists of a series of short scenes in which groups of people are asked if they are interested in participating in the 10:10 project to reduce carbon emissions. Those failing to show enthusiasm for the cause are gruesomely blown to pieces. In the first scene, a bright and chirpy schoolteacher, played by Lyndsey Marshal, tells her class about the 10:10 campaign, and asks what they are doing to reduce their carbon footprint. She asks which students are planning to participate; most raise their hands, but two children shrug apathetically. The teacher reassures them that this is "fine, it's absolutely fine, it's your choice" and there is "no pressure", but then shifts the papers on her desk to reveal a red-buttoned detonator, which she presses. The two children who did not want to participate explode, covering their screaming classmates with blood and body parts. The blood-spattered teacher then goes on casually to explain the night's homework to her horrified charges. The second scene shows a group of white-collar workers in an office meeting. The office manager, played by Paul Ritter, similarly explains the purpose of the 10:10 campaign, and asks who will be participating. While most raise their hands, four raise their hands unconvinced. The manager reassures them that there is "no pressure" to participate, but he is then handed a detonator by an assistant, which he uses to blow up the four workers, splattering appalled co-workers with gore. The third scene is set on a football pitch during team training. The coach, played by David Ginola, asks the players to explain the 10:10 campaign that the team is participating in. They describe a range of energy-saving measures which have been implemented by the team and its fans. However, the coach remains unmoved, remarking the campaign would distract him from football. A player tells him that there's "no pressure", produces a detonator, and blows him up. Unlike the witnesses depicted in previous scenes, the team is not at all surprised, and casually jogs away to resume training. A brief interlude with captions explains the campaign, accompanied by music from Radiohead. In the final scene, the actress Gillian Anderson is finishing the voice-over for the interlude just seen. The sound engineer asks her what she is planning to do to cut her carbon footprint. Anderson irritably remarks that she thought providing the recording was a sufficient contribution. The sound engineer repeats the film's catchphrase, "no pressure", and detonates Anderson before picking up to leave. The film ends with a shot of Anderson's gory remains sliding down the sound-booth window with the text "Cut your carbon by 10%. No pressure." ## Reception Upon its release, No Pressure provoked an immediate negative reaction in the media, and the resulting controversy became widely referred to as "splattergate" by bloggers. In The Daily Telegraph, James Delingpole wrote that the film was an "ugly, counterproductive eco-propaganda movie" and that "with No Pressure, the environmental movement has revealed the snarling, wicked, homicidal misanthropy beneath its cloak of gentle, bunny-hugging righteousness". The ConservativeHome website described it as "crass, tasteless and unfunny as it gets", while Melanie Phillips in The Spectator commented on the intended humorous aspect of the film by writing that "The joke was only about blowing dissenters to bits and raining their flesh down on terrified people. Because exterminating human beings is acceptable to greens as a joke. From which we can only assume at best indifference towards and at worst a profound loathing of the human condition". American environmentalist and writer Bill McKibben lamented the film on the Climate Progress website, where he wrote "The climate skeptics can crow. It's the kind of stupidity that hurts our side, reinforcing in people's minds a series of preconceived notions, not the least of which is that we're out-of-control and out of touch—not to mention off the wall, and also with completely misplaced sense of humor". McKibben added "There's no question that crap like this will cast a shadow, for a time, over our efforts and everyone else who's working on global warming. McKibben subsequently withdrew as an organisational partner of 10:10. In The Independent, Dominic Lawson wrote "As often as 10:10 tried to pull the film off YouTube, their critics re-posted it. This, at least, proves what a cataclysmic misjudgement Curtis had made. When you try to satirise the critics of your campaign, and it turns out that those very critics embrace your film as demonstrating exactly what they find unbearable about the climate-obsessed eco-lobby, then you know that you have kicked the ball into your own net". The film generated a huge reaction in the blogosphere. One comment to The Guardian read: "To suggest that people who disagree with you deserve to die is incredibly stupid. Imagine if some Christian group in the US did that to gays, Muslims or anyone else they disagree with. The outrage would be palpable. And deserved." The Guardian, which was a key collaborator with the 10:10 campaign since its launch and got exclusive rights to show the film première, responded to the criticism by stating that "the film may have been somewhat tasteless, but it was an imaginative attempt to challenge public apathy over climate change". This statement originally ended "and, highly unusually for attempts to communicate about this subject, funny too", but this was later redacted. A later report in the newspaper by Adam Vaughan said that the film, "intended as a tongue-in-cheek spoof of hectoring greens", had created a huge amount of global coverage for 10:10, in print and on the web. The report said that while many people had found the film hilarious, there was a "predictable slating from climate sceptics" as well as furious reactions from some environmentalists. The report also went on to describe other, more reflective responses, which had focused on effective communication, psychology, satire, and ways of engaging with various audiences over climate change. ## Withdrawal Although originally planned to be shown in cinema and television advertisements, 10:10 removed the film from their website and YouTube later on 1 October 2010. On Friday 2 October, 10:10 placed a notice on their website saying, "Many people found the resulting film extremely funny, but unfortunately some didn't and we sincerely apologise to anybody we have offended. [...] At 10:10 we're all about trying new and creative ways of getting people to take action on climate change. Unfortunately in this instance we missed the mark. Oh well, we live and learn." This was criticised as a non-apology apology by Michelle Malkin in the Litchfield County Register and Andrew Revkin in an opinion piece in The New York Times. A spokesman for 10:10 also denied that the withdrawal had been planned from the beginning in order to generate publicity. After removing the video from YouTube, 10:10 issued a statement: "We won't be making any attempt to censor or remove other versions currently in circulation on the internet". Then, on Monday 5 October 10:10 director Eugenie Harvey issued a second, more comprehensive apology, stating: "We are... sorry to our corporate sponsors, delivery partners and board members, who have been implicated in this situation despite having no involvement in the film's production or release." ActionAid, a charity which co-ordinates a schools programme with 10:10, approved the decision to withdraw the film, and stated "Our job is to encourage proactive decisions at class level to reduce carbon emissions. We did it because evidence shows children are deeply concerned about climate change and because we see the impacts of it in the developing world where a lot of our work is. So we think the 10:10 campaign is very important, but the moment this film was seen it was clear it was inappropriate." In the wake of the film's withdrawal, Richard Curtis admitted that the attempt to draw attention to the cause of lowering CO <sub>2</sub> emissions may have backfired. Curtis said "When you try to be funny on a serious subject, it's obviously risky. I hope people who don't like the little film will still think about the big issue and try to do something about it." ### Withdrawal of sponsors Several sponsors withdrew their support of 10:10 as a result of the No Pressure film. Nick Sharples, Sony Europe's Director of Communications, issued a statement saying, "we strongly condemn the No Pressure video which was conceived, produced and released by 10:10 entirely without the knowledge or involvement of Sony", and cutting ties with 10:10: "As a result we have taken the decision to disassociate ourselves from 10:10 at this time". Kyocera and Eaga were removed from the list of 10:10 sponsors, and National Magazine Company was removed from the list of 10:10 media partners. At the same time, a spokesman for O2, a partner of 10:10, refused to disassociate itself from the group: "10:10 is an independent organisation and we don't ask for editorial control over the content of its campaigns." 350.org, with whom 10:10 had been collaborating on the 10 October 2010 day of action, broke all current and future relations with 10:10. In a press release, they said: "We respect 10:10's previous work to encourage companies, schools, and churches to voluntarily cut their carbon emissions 10%. Upon seeing the video, however, we have informed 10:10 that we can no longer remain partners on 10 October 2010 or any other initiative. 350.org maintains an absolute commitment to nonviolence in word and deed". ## See also - Individual and political action on climate change - Climate change mitigation - Graphic violence - Ecofascism
51,556,397	Suriname at the 2016 Summer Paralympics	1,137,384,080	null	[ "Nations at the 2016 Summer Paralympics", "Suriname at the Paralympics" ]	Suriname sent a delegation to compete at the 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, held from 7 to 18 September 2016. This was its fourth appearance at a Summer Paralympic Games since it debuted at the 2004 Summer Paralympics. Suriname was represented by one athlete, sprinter and long jumper Biondi Misasi, who was making his third appearance in the Paralympics. He took part in two athletics event and his best performance at these Paralympics was seventh overall in the men's 100 metres T12 event. Misasi did not progress to the final since only the top four in all heats advanced to that stage. ## Background Suriname made its debut in Paralympic competition at the 2004 Summer Paralympics. The nation has participated in every Summer Paralympics since, making Rio de Janeiro its fourth appearance at a Summer Paralympic Games. At the close of the Rio Summer Games, Suriname has not won their first medal and the country has not debuted in the Winter Paralympic Games. The 2016 Summer Paralympics were held from 7–18 September 2016 with a total of 4,328 athletes representing 159 National Paralympic Committees taking part. The country sent one athlete to the Rio Paralympic Games, short-distance sprinter and long jumper Biondi Misasi. He was accompanied by Edward Gessel, a member of the National Paralympic Committee of Suriname, and the Ministry of Sports and Youth Affairs gave the team a financial contribution to compete in Rio de Janeiro. Misasi was selected as the flag bearer for the parade of nations during the opening ceremony. ## Disability classification Every participant at the Paralympics has their disability grouped into one of five disability categories; amputation, the condition may be congenital or sustained through injury or illness; cerebral palsy; wheelchair athletes, there is often overlap between this and other categories; visual impairment, including blindness; Les autres, any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories, for example dwarfism or multiple sclerosis. Each Paralympic sport then has its own classifications, dependent upon the specific physical demands of competition. Events are given a code, made of numbers and letters, describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing. Some sports, such as athletics, divide athletes by both the category and severity of their disabilities, other sports, for example swimming, group competitors from different categories together, the only separation being based on the severity of the disability. ## Athletics Suriname qualified one athlete in athletics, Biondi Misasi. His best time of 11.50 seconds in the men's 100 metres T12 meet the "B" qualifying standard for that event and his mark in the men's long jump F12 was 0.22 metres farther than that competition's "A" qualifying standard. Misasi was 25 years old at the time of the Rio Summer Paralympics. He was competing for the third time in the Paralympics, having previously competed on Suriname's behalf at the 2008 Summer Paralympics and the 2012 Summer Paralympics. Misasi is classified as T12/F12 because of a visual impairment. Before the Games, he said, “I truly believe I can win a bronze medal in the long jump event. The truth is that I am still too far behind the best athletes, thus winning a gold or silver medal is impossible for me. But I am working hard to pick up the bronze.” On September 10, Misasi competed in the men's long jump F12, ranking 12th and last out of all athletes, with a best mark of 6.25 metres, and attributed the result on nyctalopia. Four days later, he participated in the first round of the men's 100 metres T12 and was drawn to heat three. Misasi finished with a time of 11.56 seconds, third and last of all the finishing runners in his heat. Since only the top four from all heats were permitted to advance to the final, Misasi did not because he was seventh overall. Men’s Track and Road Events Field ## See also - Suriname at the 2016 Summer Olympics
2,978,652	Porsche RS Spyder	1,152,694,148	2005 LMP2 racing car by Porsche	[ "24 Hours of Le Mans race cars", "Le Mans Prototypes", "Porsche racing cars", "Sports prototypes", "Team Penske" ]	The RS Spyder (Type 9R6) is a racing car designed by Porsche in conjunction with Penske to compete in Le Mans Prototype Class 2 (LMP2) racing. The car takes its name from the legendary Porsche 550 Spyder of the 1950s (combined with Porsche's common "RennSport" (lit.: racing sports) designation). The car marked Porsche's first return to the top level of sports prototype racing since the firm abandoned its Porsche LMP in 1999. The RS Spyder made its debut in the final event of the 2005 American Le Mans Series (ALMS) at Laguna Seca winning its class. Since then the RS Spyder has won the ALMS LMP2 Championship in 2006, 2007 and 2008 and took class honours at Le Mans in 2008 and 2009. The outright victory at the 2008 12 Hours of Sebring was the first major victory for Porsche in endurance racing for five years and it was also the first time in 14 years that the non-premier class won the 12 Hours of Sebring overall. Regulation changes for the 2011 season rendered the RS Spyder obsolete but the car has left a legacy in the Porsche 918 Spyder, which uses a development of the RS Spyder's engine and the Porsche 919 Hybrid which carried Porsche's racing program on into the LMP1 category starting in 2014. ## Design The RS Spyder was designed completely in-house by Porsche engineers with help from Penske Racing. The chassis is a rigid carbon fibre monocoque with both the engine and transmission being integral stressed members. The 3.4-litre 90-degree V8 racing engine was designed from scratch as was the six-speed electro-pneumatic sequential gearbox. Braking is via six-piston aluminum monobloc calipers and carbon ceramic discs, mounted on suspension controlled by four-way adjustable spring/damper units activated by pushrods with adjustable torsion-bar springs. The car has a dry weight of 825 kilograms (1,819 lb) in 2010 specification but was initially 750 kilograms (1,650 lb). Since its introduction in 2005, the engine, which initially produced 478 horsepower (356 kW), has been developed and modified to meet the changing regulations of both the ALMS and the ACO. For 2008, the engine developed 503 horsepower (375 kW) using direct fuel injection and 440 horsepower (330 kW) in 2009-spec, with air restrictor limitations. ## Race results ### 2005 The RS Spyder made its race debut at the final round of the 2005 American Le Mans Series, the Monterey Sports Car Championship at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca, entered by Penske Racing and driven by Lucas Luhr and Sascha Maassen from the Porsche Junioren factory team. The sole RS Spyder finished first in class and fifth overall. ### 2006 During 2006, Penske entered two RS Spyders in the ALMS and won seven class victories including an outright victory at the Mid-Ohio race. This was the first LMP2 victory in a race since 2003 and the first major result for Porsche since the 1998 24 Hours of Le Mans. The results ensure victory for Penske in the LMP2 Championship and also for Sascha Maassen in the drivers' standings. ### 2007 For 2007, Porsche unveiled the 2007-spec RS Spyder (known as the RS Spyder Evo), which included an increase in power to 503 horsepower (375 kW). Dyson Racing joined Penske in the ALMS. 2007 would be the most successful year for the RS Spyder with Penske repeating their outright victory in the ALMS series a further eight times and also securing an additional three class victories. Penske again won the LMP2 class in ALMS and Romain Dumas won the LMP2 Drivers Championship. During the season the RS Spyder won eight races while the Audi R10 TDI from the largest P1 class won only four. ### 2008 Rule changes increased the RS Spyder's weight to 825 kg and Porsche introduce a new direct injection engine developing 503 horsepower (375 kW). A Penske car driven by Timo Bernhard, Romain Dumas, and Emmanuel Collard, secured the overall victory at the 2008 12 Hours of Sebring, winning it on the 20th anniversary of Porsche's last overall win at the race. Penske had another outright victory at the Utah Grand Prix and also recorded an additional three class wins. At Petit Le Mans a 3rd RS Spyder was entered by Penske in an attempt to lock out the manufacturers' championship against Acura. Penske won both the LMP2 Team and drivers' championship for Timo Bernhard and Romain Dumas. Porsche won the manufacturers' championship by 1 point ahead of Acura. Danish Team Essex together with Van Merksteijn Motorsport of The Netherlands and Horag Racing of Switzerland participate in the Le Mans Series (LMS) all with 2008-spec RS Spyder. Team Essex and Van Merksteijn also entered the 24 Hours of Le Mans, marking the debut for the RS Spyder at the event. An RS Spyder from Van Merksteijn Motorsport driven by Jeroen Bleekemolen, Peter van Merksteijn and Jos Verstappen, came first in class and 10th overall with the Essex team coming second in class (12th overall). A RS Spyder won its class in every LMS race giving it a 1-2-3 in the LMP2 standing and securing the drivers championship for Jos Verstappen and the Team championship for Van Merksteijn Motorsport. ### 2009 New restrictor rules brought the RS Spyder's power down to approximately 440 horsepower (330 kW), and the wingspan was limited by the rules, effectively decreasing downforce. Penske did not compete in the ALMS in 2009 but Team CytoSport, who had previously competed in LMP1 in 2007, purchased an ex-Dyson Racing RS Spyder and took part in four races with a best result of second in class at Road America. In LMS, Team Essex only competed in the 1000 km race at Spa taking the class victory and also securing the class victory at Le Mans, finishing 10th overall with Casper Elgaard, Kristian Poulsen and Emmanuel Collard at the wheel. Team Goh also took part in the race with an ex-Van Merksteijn Motorsport car. ### 2010 CytoSport announced in February 2010 that it would contest the full ALMS in a RS Spyder. It was also announced that Sascha Maassen would join the regular drivers Klaus Graf and Greg Pickett at the longer races at Sebring, Laguna Seca and Road Atlanta. Cytosport used a full-width rear wing for the entire season, unlike arch-rivals Highcroft HPD. The CytoSport RS Spyder won the LMP2 class at the 12 Hours of Sebring and took their first outright victory at Northeast Grand Prix at Lime Rock. CytoSport continued their winning success by taking outright victory at a shortened race at Mosport. They also finished the season second behind Patrón Highcroft Racing in the championship and Klaus Graf finished second in the drivers' standings. No RS Spyders were entered in the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans. The 2011 LMP2 regulations rendered the RS Spyder obsolete due to the costs exceeding the LMP2 budget limit. ## Gallery ## Race victories - Bold indicates pole position - Italic indicates the fastest lap ## See also - Porsche racing models - Porsche in motorsport
65,679,984	Hollensbury Spite House	1,173,003,971	null	[ "1830 establishments in Virginia", "Federal architecture in Virginia", "History of Alexandria, Virginia", "Houses completed in 1830", "Houses in Alexandria, Virginia" ]	The Hollensbury Spite House is a spite house located at 523 Queen Street in Alexandria, Virginia. The narrow building measures 7-feet 6-inches (2.3 m) wide and is often called the skinniest house in the United States. The house has drawn international attention, being covered by numerous news outlets, and was once featured on The Oprah Winfrey Show. It is frequently visited by tourists who often pose in front of the building and is also included on local history tours. The house is 350 square-feet (32.5 sq m) but also includes an outdoor patio and garden, providing additional entertaining space. Because of its narrow front door and small interior space, the house is decorated with smaller furniture pieces and antiques. The building's namesake, John Hollensbury, reportedly built the house in 1830 to stop people loitering in the alley adjoining his house and to prevent wagon-wheel hubs from damaging the house's exterior walls. This is the most commonly known story as to why the house was built, but there are also two other possibilities, the first being due to a dispute with his neighbor, and the second as a gift to his two daughters. Whichever story is true, the scenario involving a man who built a home out of spite is the one that has made the Hollensbury Spite House a local landmark. It is one of four spite houses in Alexandria, the others being built in the 1800s as well. ## History ### Original owner and construction John Hollensbury, a brickmaker and city council member in Alexandria, Virginia, lived in a home on Queen Street that was built in 1780 and stood next to an alley. There are three stories on how the small building next to Hollensbury's house came to be. The best known story is that Hollensbury grew tired of people loitering in the alley as well as the horse-drawn wagons, which left gouges on his home's exterior wall with their wagon-wheel hubs. He bought the alley lot at 523 Queen Street for \$45.65 and in 1830 built a small house out of spite measuring 7-feet 6-inches (2.3 m) wide and 25-feet (7.6 m) deep to prevent others from further damaging his walls and to reduce noise. The reasoning behind constructing the house and its unusual size earned it the nickname "Spitehouse." The second story of the building's history is that Hollensbury and his neighbor who lived at 521 Queen Street were at one time good friends, but due to the neighbor's carriage damaging Hollensbury's house and a fallout in their friendship in the late 1820s, Hollensbury decided to build the small house. The third and final story is that Hollensbury built a playhouse for his two daughters, Julia and Harriett, and that one of them later lived in the house as an adult. The neighbor's house at 521 Queen Street was at some point demolished after the alley house was built and the current building was constructed in 1870. At one point the alley house was connected to the original house built by Hollensbury. When the buildings were separated the address for the alley house became 523 Queen Street and the older home built by Hollensbury was given the address 525 Queen Street. A building code enforcement architect for Alexandria studied the alley house, which was built using the existing walls of the two adjoining houses, and thinks the story of it being built out of spite is exaggerated and that it was probably intended for additional living space: "Whether that made somebody angry who thought they had a right of passage through that alley, it probably did. I think that story has an interesting appeal on a walking tour, but I think it's probably a bit exaggerated." ### Later history According to local historians, the Hollensbury Spite House was later used as a school and then reverted to residential use, with one family reportedly fitting a bed and crib in the small bedroom. In 1990 businessman Jack Sammis, who founded IMN Solutions and grew up in a narrow rowhouse in Baltimore, Maryland, saw a listing in the newspaper that the Spite House was for sale, the first time it had been on the market in 25 years. Later that day he signed a contract to purchase the home for \$130,000. According to Sammis, "I used to walk by it every day when I worked near [the house], and when it was listed in the paper, I knew right away what house it was. I bought it the first day it was shown." Sammis wasn't sure what to do with the building after he bought it: "I knew I wouldn't live in it full time. It just seemed like too good of an opportunity to pass up." Sammis hired interior design consultant Matt Hannan from Quicksburg, Virginia, to redesign the rear walled patio area. He also hired Hannan to redesign the interior space, with Hannan living in the house during the year it was being renovated. Original details such as the wooden floors and brick walls were highlighted and architectural features that reflect the time it was built were also added. The heating and cooling system was moved to the attic and the water heater, which had been in the kitchen, was moved to an upstairs closet. A stacked washer-dryer unit was also installed in an upstairs closet. Due to the size of the front door, large furniture could not be brought in, so Hannan purchased smaller pieces from local antique stores. Sammis' wife, commercial real estate agent Colleen, had been interested in the house before the two married. While having dinner with friends in 2006, Colleen learned that Jack owned the Spite House: "I said: 'Wait a minute. You own the Spite House?' I had heard about the house, I had read about the house, but I had never seen it." The couple married the following year and had a post-reception event at the house with around 25 people in attendance, utilizing the small garden and patio to accommodate the crowd. As of 2008, the couple uses the house mostly as a weekend retreat during the summer months, where the two can walk to the farmer's market, restaurants, and parks. Their primary residence is in nearby Arlington. The Spite House is the couple's favorite property, with Colleen saying "I deal with commercial spaces, and this house is so different. I love the idea of it — that something like this can exist. It makes the world a little more magical." The house is most often used for friends or clients of the couple as a type of bed and breakfast. The space was once rented by a couple who had made plans to travel around the world on a cruise ship and wanted to know if they could handle living in a confined space for an extended period. The Hollensbury Spite House, which is a local landmark, is often called the skinniest house in the United States and was once featured on The Oprah Winfrey Show. It has been featured in articles on the world's smallest houses by CBS News, Architectural Digest, Bloomberg News, and The Guardian. The house is a frequent stop on guided tours of the Alexandria Historic District and tourists frequently stop to take photos of or in front of the house, stretching their arms out to show how small the building is. On occasion people knock on the front door to ask if they can take a tour of the house. According to Sammis "It's on napkins and cards that show Old Town scenes. It’s always on the Christmas tour." ### Other spite houses The Hollensbury Spite House is one of four spite houses in Alexandria, which most likely were built as alley houses to save on costs. The oldest of the other spite houses is 205 King Street, which was built around 1812 and measures 11-feet 9-inches (3.6 m) wide. It has served as a private residence, cobbler's shop, and boutique store. The house located at 403 Prince Street measures 7-feet 9-inches (2.4 m) wide. It was built sometime before 1883, most likely by Samuel Janney, who bequeathed the house and the adjoining property to his son, Henry. The fourth spite house is located at 1401 Prince Street. It measures 8-feet 2-inches (2.5 m) wide and unlike the others, it's a one-story building. The house was constructed sometime in the 1890s and has been incorporated into the adjoining building. ## Property layout The Hollensbury Spite House is located at 523 Queen Street in Old Town Alexandria and measures 7-feet 6-inches (2.3 m) wide and 25 feet (7.6 m) deep. The lot measures 356 square feet (33 sq m), which includes the 350-square-foot (32.5 sq m) two-story house and a walled rear garden and patio area, measuring 7 feet (2.1 m) wide and 12 feet (3.7 m) deep. As of 2022, the land is valued at \$381,150, and the building is valued at \$220,524, with the total property value being \$601,674. The exterior of the house is painted bright blue and a cast-iron fire shield hangs on the façade, a feature added in the 19th century to note that a property owner had paid the local fire company to extinguish any fires that might happen at the house. After entering through the narrow front door, there are exposed ceiling beams and painted walls in the living room. There is also a black wooden mantel above a faux fireplace along with a couch and chair. Behind the living room, a small cupboard and microwave are under the narrow wooden stairwell. Beyond the stairwell is a galley kitchen featuring a sink, a four-burner gas range, a small refrigerator and freezer under the counter, and tall cabinets with open shelving. There is a built-in bench at the end of the kitchen counter that when pulled out, provides a fourth seat at the small dining table. Behind the kitchen is the rear entrance featuring French doors that leads to the patio and garden. Once upstairs there is a claw-footed bathtub with a shower in the rear room. Additional storage space, including closets for the stacked washer and dryer and water heater, lines the narrow hallway that leads to the bedroom. There is a large window in the bedroom overlooking Queen Street. A television is inside one of the painted cabinets that are on either side of the window and the double bed is laid out sideways, with the wall acting as the headboard.
94,338	Upminster	1,172,159,703	Town in East London	[ "Areas of London", "District centres of London", "Districts of the London Borough of Havering", "Upminster" ]	Upminster is a suburban town in East London, England, within the London Borough of Havering. Located 16.5 miles (26.6 km) east-northeast of Charing Cross, it is one of the locally important district centres identified in the London Plan. Historically a rural village, it formed an ancient parish in the Chafford hundred of the county of Essex. The economic history of Upminster is characterised by a shift from farming to brick making to garden suburb. It is currently mainly commercial shopping, small businesses and residential. It was first connected to central London by rail in 1885 and has a terminal station on the London Underground network. As part of the suburban growth of London in the 20th century, Upminster significantly expanded and increased in population, becoming part of Hornchurch Urban District in 1934, and has formed part of Greater London since 1965. ## History ### Toponymy The placename Upminster is first recorded in 1062 as Upmynstre and is recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book as Upmunstra. It is formed from Old English upp and mynster, meaning 'the large church on high ground'. The high ground of St Laurence's parish church being in relation to the valley of the River Ingrebourne and the Upminster Bridge over the river shares the name. An alternative explanation suggests the upp could refer to the geographical relationship to a church at Barking or Tilbury in Anglo-Saxon times. ### Economic development There was a Roman farmstead in the Upminster area from the 1st century to the 3rd century, and agriculture was the predominant industry throughout the following centuries. The area was once wooded, but clearances in the 12th century gave more land over to arable farming; and by the 17th century there were a variety of crops and livestock. There was a growth in market gardening in the 19th century. There have been a number of windmills in Upminster and one of which, a smock mill built in 1803, remains. Local industry included a tannery, gravel extraction and a brick works that was connected to the railway station by a tramway in 1895. The London, Tilbury and Southend Railway from Fenchurch Street was extended from Barking to Upminster in 1885. The underground Whitechapel and Bow Railway opened in 1902 and allowed through services of the District Railway to operate to Upminster. The District converted to electric trains in 1905 and services were cut back to East Ham. Delayed by World War I, electrified tracks were extended by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway to Upminster and through services resumed in 1932. ### Local government Upminster formed an ancient parish of 3,369 acres (1,363 ha) in the Chafford hundred of Essex. The parish vestry had meetings in the church until 1798, when they moved to the Bell Inn. The parish was divided into North and South wards by the Hornchurch to Cranham road. In 1836 the vestry lost control of poor relief, with Upminster becoming part of the Romford Poor Law Union and in 1875 the parish became part of Romford rural sanitary district. Following the Local Government Act 1894, the sanitary district became Romford Rural District and a parish council was formed of nine members, increasing to twelve by 1913 as the population had doubled. The parish council acquired the Clock House building on St Mary's Lane for use as offices in 1924. The parish formed part of the London Traffic Area from 1924 and the London Passenger Transport Area from 1933. In 1934 the parish council was abolished and Upminster was combined with other parishes to form part of Hornchurch Urban District. In 1965 the urban district was abolished and its former area was combined with that of Municipal Borough of Romford; and since then has formed part of the London Borough of Havering in Greater London. For elections to the Greater London Council, Upminster was part of the Havering electoral division until 1973 and then the Upminster electoral division until 1986. ### Urban development The parish had three early centres of activity; the village around the church and the settlements of Hacton and Corbets Tey. The estates of Gaynes, New Place and Upminster Hall were purchased during the 17th century by merchants in the City of London. This caused a significant number of buildings in the town to be constructed or improved. Upkeep of the three bridges crossing the Ingrebourne were the responsibility of Upminster, as the adjacent Hornchurch parish was in the Havering liberty and was exempt from responsibility because of its charter. Although the opening of the station was key to the development of the suburb, land was not purchased for development until 10 acres (4.0 ha) were secured in 1901. Electricity was introduced in Upminster in 1926. Gas main supply came from Romford in 1872 and from 1905 there was gas street lighting. The area was served by good spring water, with mains supply provided by the South Essex Waterworks Company from 1836. Works on the sewerage system began in 1899 in Upminster village and Corbets Tey. In 1922 sewage works for Upminster and Cranham were opened in Great Warley. Land for Upminster Park was purchased by the parish council in 1929. ## Governance The town forms part of the Hornchurch and Upminster UK Parliament constituency, and is covered by the Havering wards of Upminster and Cranham. The current MP is Julia Lopez. Each ward elects three councillors to Havering London Borough Council. All six councillors elected in 2010 for the two wards were the Upminster and Cranham Residents' Association candidates and the area is unusual in that the residents' association is strongly active. From 1945 to 1974 Upminster formed part of the Hornchurch constituency and from 1974 to 2010 it formed part of the Upminster constituency. Upminster is within the Havering and Redbridge London Assembly constituency. ## Geography Upminster rises to about 200 feet (61 m) above sea level to the north and is about 50 feet (15 m) above sea level to the south. It rests on a layer of loam, above sand and gravel in the south and London Clay to the north. It is bounded in the west by the River Ingrebourne and there is a stream running east–west, just north of Corbets Tey that has been dammed to form a lake. It has formed part of the continuously built-up area of London since the 1930s and is contiguous with Cranham to the east and Hornchurch to the west. To the north and south there is open land that forms part of the Metropolitan Green Belt and there are open spaces formed by Upminster Golf Club and Upminster Hall Playing Field to the north, Upminster Park and Clock House Gardens to the south, and the Ingrebourne Valley linear park to the south west. The town is effectively divided into north and south parts by the railway line. The north is predominantly residential, with the southern part containing the main shopping area. Further south it becomes predominantly residential again. Upminster is a post town in the RM postcode area; it forms a long protrusion over the M25 motorway and additionally includes North Ockendon, also in Havering, and Bulphan in Thurrock. ## Demography The Havering committee area for Upminster is defined as the wards of Upminster and Cranham. Demographic data is produced by the Office for National Statistics for these wards. All of Upminster is contained within these wards, however they also cover the connected settlement of Cranham and the rural outlier of North Ockendon. In 2001 the population of Upminster ward was 12,674 and Cranham ward was 12,242, giving a total population of 25,098. 80.95% in Upminster and 81.73% in Cranham report their religion as Christian, compared to 76.13% for Havering, 58.23% in London and 71.74% in England. 10.08% in Upminster and 10.46% in Cranham report having no religion, compared to 13.18% in Havering, 15.76% in London and 14.59% in England. With a black and minority ethnic population of 3% in 2001, Cranham and Upminster wards have the lowest Simpson index for ethnic diversity in London. The level of home ownership is atypically high compared to the rest of London and England, with over 90% of housing tenure under owner-occupation in both wards. The Upminster ward has one of the lowest levels of deprivation in London. The 2011 census showed that the population was 96% white (92% British, 2% Other, 2% Irish). Indian, Chinese and Black African were 1% each. 75% of the population is Christian, the highest in London. ## Economy Upminster is identified in the London Plan as a local district centre with 37,000 square metres (400,000 sq ft) of commercial floorspace. It is not considered a significant commercial office location. Within Havering, it is identified as one of seven town centres in the borough, with a retail area extending along Station Road, St Mary's Lane and Corbets Tey Road. The unit sizes are mostly small with the largest outlets the Roomes Fashion and Home department store, the Roomes Furniture and Interiors furniture store, and the Aldi, M&S Simply Food and Waitrose supermarkets. ## Transport The town is served by Upminster station on the London, Tilbury and Southend line and the London Underground, in London fare zone 6. The western part of the town is also served by Upminster Bridge tube station. Upminster and Upminster Bridge are on the District line of the London Underground, with services to Richmond, Ealing Broadway and Wimbledon via central London. The station at Upminster is served by National Rail operator c2c who provide services to Fenchurch Street via West Ham; Shoeburyness via Basildon; and Southend via Chafford Hundred. London Overground operate services to Romford via Emerson Park. There are Transport for London bus services to Hornchurch, Romford, North Ockendon, Lakeside Shopping Centre and Cranham. To the south of Upminster is Damyns Hall Aerodrome. The A127 road to the north is the main radial artery to central London, with the A124 road terminating in the town. The M25 motorway is located about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) to the east of the town centre. ## Culture Havering Council's urban strategy recognises that nearby Hornchurch is the main cultural hub of the borough with a large theatre and arts spaces, and Romford offers the largest regional concentration of entertainment facilities. Within Upminster is New Windmill Hall, a flexible entertainment space, built in 1968, which holds up to 300 people. Upminster forms part of the tourism strategy for the borough. It is the location of Upminster Windmill, one of the few remaining mills in Greater London and is Grade II\* listed. There is also the Tithe Barn Museum, containing artifacts of domestic and agricultural use. In the west of Upminster is Hornchurch Stadium, which is the home ground of A.F.C. Hornchurch. Upminster is often associated with Ian Dury and his 1981 album Lord Upminster is named after the town. ### Speed of sound The speed of sound was first accurately calculated by the Reverend William Derham, Rector of Upminster, thus improving on Sir Isaac Newton's estimates. Derham used a telescope from the tower of the church of St Laurence, Upminster to observe the flash of a distant shotgun being fired, and then measured the time until he heard the gunshot with a half-second pendulum. Measurements were made of gunshots from a number of local landmarks, including the Church of St Mary Magdalene, North Ockendon. The distance was known by triangulation, and thus the speed that the sound had travelled could be calculated. ## See also - List of people from Havering - List of schools in Havering
1,687,452	Musa of Parthia	1,173,857,744	Co-ruler of the Parthian Empire	[ "1st-century BC Parthian monarchs", "1st-century BC Roman women", "1st-century BC Romans", "1st-century BC births", "1st-century BC queens regnant", "1st-century Parthian monarchs", "1st-century deaths", "1st-century queens regnant", "Former slaves", "Imperial Roman slaves and freedmen", "Iranian people of Roman descent", "Queens consort of Parthia", "Queens regnant in Asia", "Year of birth unknown", "Year of death unknown" ]	Musa (also spelled Mousa), also known as Thea Musa, was a ruling queen of the Parthian Empire from 2 BC to 4 AD. Originally an Italian slave-girl, she was given as a gift to the Parthian monarch Phraates IV (r. 37 BC – 2 BC) by the Roman Emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD). She quickly became queen and a favourite of Phraates IV, giving birth to Phraataces (Phraates V). In 2 BC, she had Phraates IV poisoned and made herself, along with Phraates V, the co-rulers of the empire. Their reign was short-lived; they were forced to flee to Rome after being deposed by the Parthian nobility, who crowned Orodes III as king. Musa is the first of only three women to rule as monarchs in Iranian history, the others being the two 7th-century Sasanian sisters Boran (r. 630–630, 631–632) and Azarmidokht (r. 630–631). Additional women, Rinnu, Ifra Hormizd and Denag, ruled only as regents of their sons and not as full monarchs in their own name. ## Rise to power Musa was an Italian slave-girl who was given to the Parthian monarch Phraates IV (r. 37 BC – 2 BC) as a gift by the Roman Emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD). Phraates IV received her around the time a treaty was made in 20 BC, whereby he received his kidnapped son in exchange for several Roman legionary standards captured at Carrhae in 53 BC, and the surviving Roman prisoners of war. The Parthians viewed this as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Emma Strugnell (2008) has suggested that Augustus may have sent Musa in an attempt to obtain information or influence the Parthian king to the advantage of the Romans. According to the Parchments of Avroman, Phraates IV already had at least four other queens at that time: Olennieire, Cleopatra, Baseirta and Bistheibanaps. Musa quickly became queen and a favourite of Phraates IV, giving birth to Phraataces (Phraates V) about 19 BC. Seeking to secure the throne for her son, she convinced Phraates IV in 10/9 BC to send his four first-born sons to Rome in order to prevent conflict over his succession. ## Reign In 2 BC, Musa had Phraates IV poisoned and made herself along with Phraates V the co-rulers of the Parthian Empire. The reverse of Phraates V's later coins notably has an image of his mother, Musa, with a circular legend labelling her as "heavenly", contrary to the square legends which had been typical on Parthian coins, implying that they were at least co-rulers. Furthermore, the title of basilissa ("queen") was given to her by Phraates V, which was not necessarily only used by the wife of the king in the Hellenistic era, but also other royal women. The 1st-century Roman historian Josephus noted allegations that Musa married her son. However, there is no other evidence that supports or contradicts Josephus' claim; and neither under the Parthians, nor their Iranian predecessors—the Achaemenids—is there reliable evidence that marriage was practiced between parents and their children. The modern historian Joan M. Bigwood calls the report of Josephus "seriously misleading", and points out its striking similarities to the story of the Assyrian queen Semiramis, deducing that his account of Musa was most likely derived from a common folk tale. Leonardo Gregoratti likewise questions the historicity of Josephus' report, calling it "pseudo-historical." He argues that the latter created a "fictional role for the Parthian women to prove the institutional weakness of the Arsacids." After a short rule, the Parthian nobility, angered by Phraates V's recent acknowledgement of Roman suzerainty in Armenia and his mother's Italian slave descent, deposed them both from the throne and installed a certain Orodes III as king. Phraates V and Musa fled to Rome, where Augustus welcomed them. ## Alleged portraits Some portraits have been attributed to Musa, including a gold ring and a gem. However, these links with Musa have subsequently been questioned. A bust of a female figure from Susa—uncovered in 1939 by the archeologist Roland de Mecquenem—made by a Greek artist named Antiochus, was first attributed to Musa by the Belgian archeologist Franz Cumont. This attribution was agreed by several other scholars. The facial characteristics of the bust, however, has little in common with that of the coins of Musa. The bust is wearing a crown with crenellations, resembling those worn in the Achaemenid era, while the coins of Musa portrayed her wearing a diadem along with a jewelled crown with three layers. The crown with crenellations, albeit often worn by members of the royal family, was also worn by deities. The Greek goddess Tyche is sometimes portrayed with a similar crown on Parthian coins. As a result, some scholars have suggested the bust is a portrayal of Tyche.
38,234,509	Deep in Love	1,163,197,070	null	[ "2011 singles", "2011 songs", "English-language Romanian songs", "Romanian songs" ]	"Deep in Love" is a song by Romanian producer Tom Boxer and singer Morena, featuring guest vocals by English recording artist J Warner. It was released as a CD single in Italy on 31 October 2011 through Step and Go, while later made available for digital download in various countries on 14 February 2012 through Roton. The track was written by Boxer and Warner, and solely produced by Boxer; the latter came up with the song in Morocco in 2011 and recorded a demo while travelling to a concert there. He ultimately worked on the track for four months. A love song, its lyrics include a reference to the popular paradigm that men are from Mars and women are from Venus. Filmed in a studio in Bucharest and on the Canary Islands, an accompanying music video for "Deep in Love" was uploaded to Roton's YouTube channel on 15 August 2011. For further promotion, the song was performed at the ZU Loves You event organized by Radio ZU. It reached the top 40 on Hungarian, Romanian, Polish and Italian music charts, while being awarded a Platinum certification in the latter region by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana (FIMI) for 30,000 copies sold. ## Background and release "Deep in Love" was written by Tom Boxer and J Warner — the latter of whom provides guest vocals — while production was solely handled by Boxer. Boxer composed the song in 2011 in Morocco; while she and Morena were driving to a show there by car, he came up with a melody and recorded a demo on his mobile phone. Work on "Deep in Love" was completed in four months, and the vocals were mixed at a studio in London. Lyrics from the love song include "I'm from Venus, you're from Mars/When we're together, we create stars", on which Morena elaborated during an interview, saying that it describes two persons that share a special connection and love, "creat[ing] stars [...] high up in the sky". Boxer stated that he "[likes] to put some message" in his material, and that the aforementioned lyrics were inspired by the popular paradigm that men are from Mars and women are from Venus. "Deep in Love" was made available as a CD single in Italy on 31 October 2011 via Step and Go, and released for digital download in various countries on 14 February 2012 through Roton. Two remix extended plays (EPs) were also released, and the song was used on three Kontor Records compilations. ## Music video and promotion An accompanying music video for "Deep in Love" was uploaded onto Roton's official YouTube channel on 15 August, preceded by the release of a teaser on 9 August 2011. It was filmed at a studio in Bucharest, Romania, as well as on the Canary Islands; all outfits used were created by Morena. The clip begins with Morena posing against a desert landscape, wearing a white catsuit with a red veil attached to its back and white boots. The rest of the video alternates between other shots, including her dancing with three background dancers, footage of Warner and Boxer, as well as close-up shots of Morena in front of a camera and a floral background. Occasionally, the song's lyrics and arrows appear onscreen. For further promotion, "Deep in Love" was performed on Radio ZU's Zu Loves You event on 16 February 2012. ## Commercial performance Commercially, "Deep in Love" attained moderate success on record charts. It peaked at number 18 on native Romanian Top 100 in December 2011, while reaching number nine on Media Forest's radio airplay chart in early 2012. Media Forest conducted a year-end radio airplay chart for 2012, where the track ranked at number 29. "Deep in Love" reached number 37 on the FIMI Singles Chart, spending more than 40 weeks on the chart. It was eventually certified Platinum in the region in 2013 by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana (FIMI) for exceeding 30,000 in digital copies sold. The song peaked at number eight on Hungary's Dance Top 40 chart, number 18 on Poland's Dance Top 50 chart, and number 109 on the Tophit ranking in Russia. ## Track listings - Italian CD single 1. "Deep in Love" (Extended Version) – 5:03 2. "Deep in Love" (Club Edit) – 5:18 3. "Deep in Love" (Kros vs Simone Farina Remix) – 5:17 4. "Deep in Love" (Pink Room Remix) – 5:06 5. "Deep in Love" (Radio Edit) – 3:28 - Digital download 1. "Deep in Love" (Radio Edit) [feat. J Warner] – 3:28 - Remix EP 1 1. "Deep in Love" (Radio Edit) – 3:28 2. "Deep in Love" (Club Edit) – 5:17 3. "Deep in Love" (Extended Version) – 5:02 4. "Deep in Love" (The Perez Brothers Remix) – 5:17 5. "Deep in Love" (The Perez Brothers Remix Radio Edit) – 3:49 6. "Deep in Love" (Pink Room Remix) – 5:05 - Remix EP 2 1. "Deep in Love" (Extended Version) – 5:03 2. "Deep in Love" (Club Edit) – 5:18 3. "Deep in Love" (Kros vs Simone Farina Remix) – 5:17 4. "Deep in Love" (Pink Room Remix) – 5:06 5. "Deep in Love" (Radio Edit) – 3:28 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of the CD single. - Songwriter – Tom Boxer, J. Warner - Producer – Tom Boxer - Mix – Karim Razak, Kros, Oreste Spagnuolo, Simone Farina ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
407,351	Rushmore (film)	1,170,905,317	null	[ "1990s American films", "1990s English-language films", "1990s coming-of-age comedy-drama films", "1990s teen comedy-drama films", "1998 films", "1998 independent films", "American coming-of-age comedy-drama films", "American teen comedy-drama films", "Films directed by Wes Anderson", "Films produced by Barry Mendel", "Films produced by Wes Anderson", "Films scored by Mark Mothersbaugh", "Films set in Houston", "Films set in schools", "Films shot in Houston", "Films with screenplays by Owen Wilson", "Films with screenplays by Wes Anderson", "Touchstone Pictures films", "United States National Film Registry films" ]	Rushmore is a 1998 American comedy film directed by Wes Anderson about a teenager named Max Fischer (Jason Schwartzman in his film debut), his friendship with rich industrialist Herman Blume (Bill Murray), and their shared affection for elementary school teacher Rosemary Cross (Olivia Williams). The film was co-written by Anderson and Owen Wilson. The soundtrack features multiple songs by bands associated with the British Invasion of the 1960s. Filming began in November 1997 around Houston, Texas, and lasted 50 days, until late January 1998. While the box office results were modest, the film had a positive reception among film critics. The film helped launch Schwartzman's career while establishing a "second career" for Murray as a respected actor in independent cinema. At the 1999 Independent Spirit Awards, Anderson won the Best Director award and Murray won Best Supporting Male award. Murray also earned a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture. Starting from Rushmore, Murray became one of Anderson's most frequent collaborators, appearing in his eight subsequent films. In 2016, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". ## Plot Eccentric 15-year-old scholarship student Max Fischer participates extensively in extracurricular activities at the prestigious Rushmore Academy in Houston, but struggles academically. Max's middle-class background, which contrasts with the wealthy and privileged lives of most Rushmore students, feeds his determination to make his name known. Headmaster Nelson Guggenheim places him on "sudden death academic probation", warning him that if he fails one more class, he will be expelled. At a school assembly, Max meets Herman Blume, a disillusioned parent and local industrialist who despises his twin sons Ronny and Donny, both students at Rushmore. Herman befriends Max and takes him under his wing. Upon reading an intriguing written message left in a book he read in the library, Max tracks down the book's previous borrower, Rosemary Cross, a widowed first-grade teacher at Rushmore, and soon becomes obsessed with her. Attempting to woo her, he successfully petitions to have the Latin curriculum kept at Rushmore, and later confesses his love for her; she rejects his affection due to their age difference. Rosemary and others, including Max's younger friend Dirk Calloway, are impressed by Max's tenacity, while other students, including the brash and aggressive Magnus Buchan, resent Max's ability to manipulate authority, seemingly on a whim, to the point where the entire school body is affected. Max then attempts to court Rosemary by building an aquarium on the school's baseball field, noting her interest in marine life due to the fish tanks in her classroom and the library book by Jacques Cousteau they had both read, but is stopped by Guggenheim at the ground-breaking ceremony and subsequently expelled from Rushmore for having never sought the school's approval for the project. Afterward, Max enrolls at Grover Cleveland High School, a local public school. Classmate Margaret Yang shows interest in him, but he ignores her. Eventually, Max begins to settle in and participate in extracurricular activities again, with Rosemary and Blume supporting him. Blume encourages him to give up pursuing Rosemary but eventually becomes attracted to her himself, and they begin to see each other behind Max's back. Eventually, Dirk discovers the relationship between Rosemary and Blume and informs him as payback for a rumor Max started about his mother. Max confronts Blume, declaring their friendship over, and they soon begin scrapping. Max informs Blume's wife of her husband's affair, forcing him to move into a hotel. Then he puts bees in Blume's room, leading to his running over Max's bicycle with his car. Max is eventually arrested for cutting the brake lines on Blume's car. He later attempts to get revenge on Rosemary by taking damaging photos of her and Blume together but learns from Guggenheim that she had already resigned. Max eventually gives up, meeting Blume at the grave of his mother, Eloise, who died of cancer when Max was seven years old. He explains that revenge no longer matters because even if he wins, Rosemary would still love Blume. Max becomes reclusive and begins to skip school to work at his father, Bert's, barbershop. One day, Dirk stops by the shop to apologize, bringing him a Christmas present. He then reveals to Max that Guggenheim suffered a stroke and suggests he visit him at the hospital, knowing Blume will also be there. Max and a washed-up Blume meet and are courteous. Blume tells him that Rosemary broke up with him because she's still in love with her dead husband Edward Appleby, a former Rushmore student, whose death the previous year directly influenced her decision to teach there. Max eventually returns to school and begins to improve his grades. Taking his final shot at Rosemary, Max pretends to be injured in a car accident, but she sees through his ruse and rebuffs him again. He then decides to help Blume and Rosemary reconcile, first by inviting her to another aquarium groundbreaking ceremony, but she does not show up. Max then invites both of them to attend his Vietnam War-themed play at Grover Cleveland. The performance touches Blume, himself a Vietnam veteran, and he and Rosemary later appear to reconcile. At the after-play party, Max reveals to Blume and Rosemary that he and Margaret are dating. Max and Rosemary then share a dance together. ## Cast - Jason Schwartzman as Max Fischer - Bill Murray as Herman Blume - Olivia Williams as Rosemary Cross - Seymour Cassel as Bert Fischer - Brian Cox as Nelson Guggenheim - Mason Gamble as Dirk Calloway - Sara Tanaka as Margaret Yang - Connie Nielsen as Mrs. Calloway - Luke Wilson as Peter Flynn - Stephen McCole as Magnus Buchan - Kumar Pallana as Mr. Littlejeans - Andrew Wilson as Coach Beck - Marietta Marich as Mrs. Guggenheim - Alexis Bledel as Student ## Production With Rushmore, Wes Anderson and Owen Wilson wanted to create their own "slightly heightened reality, like a Roald Dahl children's book". Like Max Fischer, Wilson was expelled from his preparatory school, St. Mark's School of Texas, in the tenth grade. He also shared Max's ambition, lack of academic motivation, and crush on an older woman. Anderson and Wilson began writing the screenplay for Rushmore years before they made Bottle Rocket. They knew that they wanted to make a film set in an elite preparatory school, much like St. Mark's, which Owen had attended along with his two brothers, Andrew and Luke (Luke being the sole graduate), and St. John's School in Houston, Texas which Anderson had attended. The film featured M. B. Lamar High School. According to the director, "One of the things that was most appealing to us was the initial idea of a 15-year-old kid and a 50-year-old man becoming friends and equals". Rushmore was originally going to be made for New Line Cinema but when they could not agree on a budget, Anderson, Wilson and producer Barry Mendel held an auction for the film rights in mid-1997 and struck a deal with Joe Roth, then-chair of Walt Disney Studios. He offered them a \$10 million budget. The film was distributed by Touchstone Pictures, and produced by Barry Mendel and Paul Schiff for American Empirical Pictures. ### Casting Anderson and Wilson wrote the role of Mr. Blume with Bill Murray in mind but doubted they could get the script to him. Murray's agent was a fan of Anderson's first film, Bottle Rocket, and urged the actor to read the script for Rushmore. Murray liked it so much that he agreed to work for scale, which Anderson estimated to be around \$9,000. The actor was drawn to Anderson and Wilson's "precise" writing and felt that a lot of the film was about "the struggle to retain civility and kindness in the face of extraordinary pain. And I've felt a lot of that in my life". Anderson created detailed storyboards for each scene but was open to Murray's knack for improvisation. Cast directors considered 1,800 teenagers from the United States, Canada, and Britain for the role of Max Fischer before finding Jason Schwartzman. Macaulay Culkin was considered for the role. In October 1997, approximately a month before principal photography was to begin, a casting director for the film met the seventeen-year-old actor at a party thanks to Schwartzman's cousin, film-maker Sofia Coppola. He came to his audition wearing a preparatory-school blazer and a self-made Rushmore patch. Anderson almost did not make the film when he could not find an actor to play Max but felt that Schwartzman "could retain audience loyalty despite doing all the crummy things Max had to do". Anderson originally pictured Max, physically, as Mick Jagger at age 15, to be played by an actor like Noah Taylor in the Australian film Flirting—"a pale, skinny kid". When Anderson met Schwartzman, he reminded Anderson much more of Dustin Hoffman and decided to go that way with the character. Anderson and the actor spent weeks together talking about the character, working on hand gestures and body language. Seymour Cassel stars as Bert Fischer, Max's dad. Brian Cox stars as Dr. Nelson Guggenheim, the school's headmaster. Mason Gamble plays Dirk Calloway, Max's friend. Sara Tanaka plays Margaret Yang, the girl who has a crush on Max. Alexis Bledel is an extra as a Grover Cleveland High School student. ### Principal photography Filming began in November 1997 and lasted for 50 days, until late January 1998. On the first day of principal photography, Anderson delivered his directions to Murray in a whisper so that he would not be embarrassed if the actor shot him down. However, the actor publicly deferred to Anderson, hauled equipment, and when Disney denied the director a \$75,000 shot of Max and Mr. Blume riding in a helicopter, Murray gave Anderson a blank check to cover the cost, although ultimately, the scene was never shot. At one point, Anderson toyed with the idea of shooting the private school scenes in England and the public school scenes in Detroit in order to "get the most extreme variation possible," according to the director. Instead, the film was shot in and around Houston, Texas where Anderson grew up. His high school alma mater, St. John's School, was used for the picturesque setting of Rushmore Academy. Lamar High School in Houston was used to depict Grover Cleveland High School, the public school. In real life, the two schools are across the street from each other. Richard Connelly of the Houston Press said that the Lamar building "was ghetto'd up to look like a dilapidated inner-city school." Many scenes were also filmed at North Shore High School. The film's widescreen, slightly theatrical look was influenced by Roman Polanski's Chinatown. Anderson also cites The Graduate and Harold and Maude as cinematic influences on Rushmore. Initially, the character of Margaret Yang was supposed to have a wooden finger, having been blown off in a science experiment. The idea was abandoned, but later on used in Anderson's The Royal Tenenbaums, where Margot has a wooden finger. ### Cinematography Rushmore uses the unique style of cinematography that Wes Anderson has become well known for. The film has a singular sense of colour, focusing mainly on blues, greens, and reds in order to create a heightened reality. The montage sequence near the beginning of the film is strongly influenced by the rapid transitions used by French New Wave film-makers. The shot of Max in the go-kart also resembles a photograph by Jacques Henri Lartigue. Disney executives almost cancelled the montage sequence as they did not believe that these short singular shots were necessary due to the film's restrictive budget and time frame. Therefore, the sequence was shot quickly whenever the crew were at a suitable location. ## Themes Anderson confirmed that the protagonist Max is a semi-autobiographical version of himself, including his tendency to write school plays, except that Max is not shy. Anderson has come to be known as an auteur for this distinct style and frequent collaborations with the same actors and production members. Devin Orgeron claims that Anderson's auteurship is interesting in his consistent "cinematic and extracinematic confrontation with the very question of auteurship". In Anderson's films, and especially Rushmore, the protagonist is a "flawed but ultimately redeemable" auteur. However, in both the protagonists' and Anderson's ties to their communities, an idea of "collective auteurship" is proffered. Mark Olsen writes that Anderson observes his characters chasing "their miniaturist renditions of the American Dream" and that "they embody both sides of William Carlos Williams' famous edict that the pure products of America go crazy". Deborah J. Thomas argues that Rushmore has a certain level of deliberate artifice. She observes a tension between irony and affect, and the clash "between these aesthetic modes destabilises normative assumptions and expectations in relation to character engagement." For her Anderson uses a "series of strategies in relation to framing, camera angles, shot scales, sound and performance that are designed to unsettle the audience's experience of proximity to, and hence intimacy with, the characters". In the film, Anderson frequently employs the visual device of a stage, or stage curtains, to present the action. Rachel Joseph speculates that there is a link between these "screened stages" and the theme of mourning, for this "framed theatricality ... parallels the grieving process of reenacting and repeating the traumatic". She also draws a connection between this style of presentation and the "cinema of attractions" that Tom Gunning theorised. ## Soundtrack Wes Anderson originally intended for the film's soundtrack to be entirely made up of songs by the Kinks, feeling the music suited Max's loud and angry nature and because Max was initially envisioned to be a British exchange student. However, while Anderson listened to a compilation of other British Invasion songs on the set, the soundtrack gradually evolved until only one song by the Kinks remained in the film ("Nothin' in the World Can Stop Me Worryin' 'Bout That Girl"). According to Anderson, "Max always wears a blazer and the British Invasion sounds like music made by guys in blazers, but still rock 'n' roll". In his review for Entertainment Weekly, Rob Brunner gave the soundtrack record an "A−" rating and wrote, "this collection won't make much sense if you haven't seen the movie. But for anyone who left the theater singing along to the Faces' "Ooh La La", it's an essential soundtrack". Anderson also pays homage to the Charles Schulz/Bill Melendez Peanuts television specials, playing "Hark The Herald Angels Sing" from the famous Charlie Brown Christmas in one of the film's scenes. ## Reception Rushmore had its world premiere at the 1998 Toronto International Film Festival on September 17, and also screened at the 25th Telluride Film Festival where it was one of the few studio films to be screened and be well received by both critics and audiences. The film was also screened at the 1998 New York Film Festival and the Toronto International Film Festival where it was a hit with critics. The film opened in New York City and Los Angeles for one week in December in order to be eligible for the Academy Awards. ### Box office Rushmore opened for a week at single theaters in New York City and Los Angeles on December 11, 1998. In one weekend, it earned a combined US\$43,666, selling out 18 of 31 showings. The film opened in wide release on February 5, 1999. It expanded from 103 to 830 theaters by March 5, 1999, grossing \$2.45 million in its first week. Its domestic total gross was \$17,105,219, and its international box office was \$1,975,216. ### Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 90% based on 105 reviews and an average rating of 8.20/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "This cult favorite is a quirky coming of age story, with fine, off-kilter performances from Jason Schwartzman and Bill Murray." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B on scale of A to F. In his review for the Daily News, film critic Dave Kehr praised Rushmore as "a magnificent work" and picked it as the best movie of the year. USA Today gave the film three out of four stars and wrote that Bill Murray was "at his off-kilter best". Todd McCarthy, in his review for Variety, admired the film's deep-focus widescreen compositions, and felt that it gave the story "exceptional vividness". In his review for Time, Richard Schickel praised Rushmore as a "delightfully droll comedy", but felt it indulges in itself a little too much. He observed the film brought up "many dark and weighty emotional objects", and tried to conclude them in a "satisfying way". In her review for the New York Times, Janet Maslin wrote that Anderson is smart enough to avoid turning sentimental, observing how Max "starts off on top of the Rushmore world and experiences a wonderfully welcome comeuppance". In his review for The Independent, Anthony Quinn thought Rushmore was different than all the many "high-school flicks every week", describing it as a "adolescent tragi-comedy, neurotic-romantic triangle" and a "study in loss and loneliness". He praised Schwartzman for playing a character who has not emotionally matured yet, and thought Murray gave an "emotional turnaround" performance. In her review for the Washington Post, Rita Kempley praised Schwartzman's performance for winning "sympathy and a great deal of affection for Max, never mind that he could grow into Sidney Blumenthal". Entertainment Weekly gave Rushmore an "A" rating and opined that Anderson used the 1960s British Invasion hits to "further define Max's adolescent dislocation". Jonathan Rosenbaum, in his review for the Chicago Reader, wrote that Anderson and Wilson do not "share the class snobbery" in much of Salinger's work, but still thought that they "harbor a protective gallantry toward their characters" which is, at the same time, the film's greatest strength and weakness. In Time Out New York, Andrew Johnston called it one of the year's finest films and thought it reminds him of Harold and Maude but also added that the "complexity of Max and the audacity of the film's set pieces place it in a league of its own." Film critic David Ansen ranked Rushmore the 10th best film of 1998. Some critics did not review the film as positively. In his review for the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan criticized Max's overtly "snooty" personality as "too off-putting to tolerate", which could potentially discourage audiences when identifying with the film. Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four citing an issue with the film's shift in tone in the final act, stating "the air goes out of the movie" in regards to "stage-setting and character development". He further wrote that the film is torn between being structured like a comedy and having "undertones of darker themes", remarking that he wished the film had "allowed the plot to lead them into those shadows". A lifelong fan of film critic Pauline Kael, Anderson arranged a private screening of Rushmore for the retired writer. Afterwards, she told him, "I genuinely don't know what to make of this movie". It was a nerve-wracking experience for Anderson but Kael did like the film and told others to see it. Anderson and Jason Schwartzman traveled from Los Angeles to New York City and back on a touring bus to promote the film. The tour started on January 21, 1999, and went through 11 cities in the United States. ### Legacy and accolades Rushmore won two Independent Spirit Awards: Wes Anderson for Best Director, and Bill Murray for Best Supporting Actor. Murray was also nominated in the Best Supporting Actor category for the Golden Globes. The Los Angeles Film Critics Association named Bill Murray Best Supporting Actor of the year for his performance in Rushmore. Wes Anderson was named the New Generation honoree. The National Society of Film Critics also named Murray as Best Supporting Actor of the year as did the New York Film Critics. Rushmore is on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies". The film was also ranked on Entertainment Weekly magazine's "The Cult 25: The Essential Left-Field Movie Hits Since '83" list and ranked it on their Top 25 Modern Romances list. Spin hailed the film as "the best comedy of the year". Empire also named it the 175th greatest film of all time in 2008. Four years later, Slant Magazine ranked Rushmore on its list of the 100 Best Films of the 1990s, and it was ranked the decade's ninth best film in two polls – one for The A.V. Club and the other for Paste. Time Out included it among the 50 best movies of the 1990s, calling it Anderson's "most perfectly imagined film". According to ShortList, it is one of the 30 coolest films ever. Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian listed it as the eighth best comedy film ever made. In November 2015, the film was ranked the 39th funniest screenplay by the Writers Guild of America in its list of 101 Funniest Screenplays. Murray's career experienced a renaissance after the film, and he established himself as an actor in independent film. In 2016, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". ## Home media Buena Vista Home Entertainment released the film on VHS and DVD on June 29, 1999, the DVD with no supplemental material. This was followed by a special edition DVD on January 18, 2000, by the Criterion Collection with remastered picture and sound, along with various bonus features, including an audio commentary by Wes Anderson, Owen Wilson, and Jason Schwartzman, a behind-the-scenes documentary by Eric Chase Anderson, Anderson and Murray being interviewed on The Charlie Rose Show, and theatrical "adaptations" of Armageddon, The Truman Show, and Out of Sight, staged specially for the 1999 MTV Movie Awards by the Max Fischer Players. A Criterion Collection Blu-ray was released on November 22, 2011.
56,720,828	1939–40 Northern Rugby Football League Wartime Emergency League season	1,035,214,849	English rugby league season	[ "1939 in English rugby league", "1940 in English rugby league", "Northern Rugby Football League seasons" ]	The 1939–40 Northern Rugby Football League season was an emergency season of English rugby league fixtures necessitated by the outbreak of the Second World War. The regular league season had started at the end of August 1939, but on the outbreak of war all sport was suspended. When government permission for sport to be resumed was given, the league was reorganised into two regional competitions, Yorkshire and Lancashire. The winners of each league playing against each other to decide the overall champions. The Yorkshire competition was won by Bradford Northern who beat Swinton, winners of the Lancashire competition, in the two-legged league final. The season also saw the resumption of County Cup competition, as well as some representative matches arranged to raise funds for the British Red Cross. The Challenge Cup competition, traditionally run alongside the league, was not played for the first time since 1919. ## Planned season The planned 1939–40 season had begun as scheduled on Saturday 26 August 1939 with 27 clubs starting the season. This was one less than the previous season as St Helens Recs had disbanded at the end of the 1938–39 season. The withdrawal of St Helens Recs required a change in the way fixtures were organised. With 28 clubs in the league, each club was a member of the 14 team Lancashire League or the 14 team Yorkshire League. The actual geographical split of clubs was 15 clubs based in Yorkshire and 13 in Lancashire, so Halifax played as a member of the Lancashire League. Each teams' fixture list comprised a home and away fixture against all the teams in their county league (26), as well as home and away fixtures against seven teams in the other county league (14) for a total of 40 games. With only 27 clubs the League's secretary, John Wilson, proposed a 36-game season for each club with Halifax remaining in the Lancashire league, and Dewsbury, who were the lowest finishing Yorkshire team in the previous season, playing as a member of neither county league. For the purposes of determining fixture lists Dewsbury would be considered the 14th team of both county leagues. Excepting Dewsbury, each team's fixture list would comprise the other teams in their own county league (24 games) together with six teams from the other county (12 games). Dewsbury's opponents would be nine clubs from each county. At the League's annual general meeting on 7 June 1939 the clubs accepted Wilson's proposal regarding the positions of Halifax and Dewsbury, but voted for a 40-game fixture list instead of Wilson's 36 game proposal. The fixture lists were issued later in June. Each team, except Dewsbury, had home and away fixtures against all the teams in their own county league (24 games). They also had home and away fixtures against eight teams in the other county league (16 games). Dewsbury's fixture list comprised home and away fixtures against 10 teams from each county league. A full programme of games was played up to Saturday 2 September. By that date most clubs had played two or three games as some clubs had played midweek matches. ## Suspension of the League On Monday 4 September the day after the declaration of war, all rugby league games and all other spectator sports and public entertainments were suspended by provisions of the Prohibition of Public Entertainments (Defence) Order, one of numerous orders made following the enactment of the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939. As a result, some clubs like Wigan and Salford announced they were closing for the duration of the war and that their players were released. One issue clubs had to consider was what to do with the monies paid for season-tickets, the holders of which may have only seen one or two games. Barrow, for one, resolved to repay season-ticket holders less a deduction for games seen, while Oldham decided not to give any refunds stating, "We are up against it and must appeal to our members to make this sacrifice". Under the defence regulations and air raid precautions, all areas of the country were designated as evacuation, neutral or reception areas depending on the assessment of an area as an enemy target and its ability to receive people from the evacuation areas. The defence regulations allowed for the resumption of sporting events within reception or neutral areas and on 9 September the Home Secretary issued the Public Entertainments (Restriction) Order allowing events to go ahead outside evacuation areas. Attendances were limited to 8,000 or 15,000 at grounds with a capacity over 60,000. On 11 September the Rugby League Council agreed to clubs playing friendlies on the following two Saturdays, while the League Secretary, John Wilson, arranged a programme of games. Players were to be paid 10s per match and their travelling expenses, while the minimum entrance fee was set at 6d. The meeting also appointed a wartime committee to run the league for the duration of the war. Seven games were played on 16 September and eleven on 23 September. A further change in the defence orders allowed games to go ahead in evacuation areas as long as the consent of the local chief constable had been obtained. ## County competitions Wilson's proposal, which was accepted on 11 September, was for the league to run as two parallel county competitions, a Yorkshire Competition and a Lancashire Competition under the umbrella name of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Emergency Period League. The leagues would be played on a simple home and away basis; gate money was to be split equally between the two clubs after deducting player expenses and travel expenses for 15 players of the away club. Players' expenses were limited to 10s per game plus meal expenses if they had to travel more than 25 miles (40.2 km) to an away game. These allowances replaced any previous contractual arrangements between the players and the clubs and in effect removed the professional status from the players. Referees were to be allowed 10s plus travel expenses and touch judges 5s plus travel expenses. Players were also allowed to play for another club if that club was closer to home or work, subject to agreement of their first club. This was to alleviate travelling for players who worked away. No inter-competition games were planned, but in January 1940 it was proposed and agreed that there should be a two-legged final between the winner of each competition to decide the overall league champions. Clubs were asked to notify Wilson as soon as possible if they intended to play in the competitions. In the end all 27 clubs, including those like Salford and Wigan who had previously decided to cease operating, had entered when the fixture list was issued. The rules also allowed alternative venues to be used if a club's home ground was unavailable, either temporarily or permanently. Broughton Rangers home ground, Belle Vue was unavailable to them all season so they played at a variety of other grounds, while Salford and Swinton shared Swinton's Station Road. ### Player protest Even before the season started players at Bradford Northern, Halifax and Huddersfield protested that the expense limit of 10s per game was insufficient and that they would not play unless the expenses were increased. The Lord Mayor of Bradford, T. J. Robinson had anticipated the players' stance. At a lunch for the wartime committee, he was reported as saying "the committee members would have difficulty in getting first-class footballers, used to getting £4 or £5 to accept remuneration of 10s per match, but no doubt the difficulties would be surmounted". The players most opposed to the expense limit were those of Bradford Northern who were unanimous in their opposition and had made it clear to the club secretary that they were not prepared to play for 10s per game. The secretary had informed Wilson of this asking for a special meeting of the clubs to discuss the issue. At this stage Wilson did not consider discussion appropriate unless 20 or more of the clubs requested it. The Huddersfield players also informed their club committee that they were not prepared to play on the following Saturday. At Halifax the secretary stated reports of a strike were exaggerated and that the "players were quite willing, indeed they were anxious to play but they were not prepared to run the risk of losing the jobs they had got, or of being off work, for the small amount they were permitted to receive". The chairman of the Rugby League Council, G.F. Hutchins, responded by asking all players to give the 10s expenses a month's trial after which the issue would be reviewed. While players at St. Helens accepted the 10s limit, at Barrow team selection for Saturday was delayed because of the issue; while some clubs, including Halifax, Dewsbury and Batley, called for an increase in the limit. On Friday 29 September the Halifax players agreed to play but remained dissatisfied by the expense allowance; the Bradford players remained adamant leaving the club no alternative but to inform their opponents for Saturday, Hull Kingston Rovers that the game could not go ahead. Players from many clubs met on 2 October and agreed to continue to press the issue with the Rugby Football League, but they would play "on Saturday in order to keep faith with the public". After the second weekend of the competitions, the Rugby League Council met to discuss the expenses issue and agreed a doubling of the expenses limit to £1. Expenses for referees were also increased to £1, but touch judges' expenses remained unchanged at 5s. Also, clubs could make an additional payment of 5s to each player for away games played in Barrow or Hull due to the extra travelling time needed. To increase the likelihood that gates would be adequate, the minimum entry for a game was increased to 1s but remained at 6d for women, children and any uniformed members of the armed forces. The players responded by welcoming the rise but asked the Rugby League Council to consider changing the system to a payment of 25s to players on the winning team and 15s to the members of the losing team. The players felt this would increase competitiveness in the games. The wartime committee met the following week but made no response to the player's suggestion. Bonuses were not discussed further except at the end of the season when the league awarded monetary prizes rather than medals. ### Yorkshire competition With 15 teams the fixture list for the Yorkshire competition contained 28 fixtures for each team with the season end date being 11 May. Until Christmas 1939 the competition progressed as planned although at least one game was concluded early; Hull v Batley on 21 October was ended after 65 minutes due to an air raid warning. The last week of December 1939 was the start of the third coldest winter of the 20th century and the most severe in the United Kingdom since 1895. Heavy snow and prolonged cold periods, together with the lack of material to protect the pitches, meant that after the games played on Boxing Day 1939 no games were played in Yorkshire until 24 February when a single match, Hull F.C. v Leeds beat the weather; it was the following Saturday, 2 March 1940, before a full schedule resumed. A backlog of over 100 games built up and it became apparent that it would be impossible to complete the fixtures by the end of April without many midweek games being played. The decision was taken to extend the season. The clubs were urged to complete their fixtures by 4 May, but as the backlog grew the date was moved to 11 May with the Championship final scheduled for 18 and 25 May. The extension required a ballot of all the clubs as the games' by-laws specified that they could not be played between the second Saturday in May and the last Saturday in August. Despite all the urging, the games did not finish on time. By 31 May there were still three fixtures outstanding. Hull F.C. had away fixtures against Batley and Keighley to play, and Hull Kingston Rovers were still to play Dewsbury at home. These games never were played as Hull F.C. reported in July that their two fixtures were unplayed and both Keighley and Batley had withdrawn from the Yorkshire Cup ending their seasons in May due to problems raising teams. With two points awarded for a win, the non-playing of these three games had no bearing on the outcome of the competition. Bradford secured the title with a game to spare when they beat Hull Kingston Rovers on 13 May giving them a three-point lead over Huddersfield, and a six-point lead over Hull F.C. #### Results #### Final table ### Lancashire competition The 12 teams of the Lancashire competition each had 22 fixtures to play. A season end date of 2 March was given when the fixture list was issued. Like the Yorkshire competition, the Lancashire competition progressed well until the end of 1939 but was hit badly by the hard winter. The absence of games was not as long as the barren spell experienced in Yorkshire; in the first two weeks of January 1940 three games were played all in the Lancashire competition. After that it was the last weekend in February before any more games were played. Catching up on the outstanding fixtures required some games to be scheduled close to each other. Oldham and Warrington rescheduled the two games between the clubs. Both were played over the Easter weekend, Oldham at home on Saturday and Warrington at home on Monday. With a smaller backlog of games and fewer fixtures to be played, by the end of May there was only one fixture left to be played—Oldham v Rochdale. The game had previously been postponed twice at the request of Rochdale who then proposed the fixture be played on 1 June. However Oldham had already arranged a friendly against Huddersfield for the same day which they did not wish to postpone and instead proposed 8 June. Rochdale objected as they considered the outstanding league fixture should take precedence over a friendly. When Oldham refused, Rochdale wrote to the league and Oldham, stating that Rochdale did not intend to fulfil the fixture. The games' points were awarded to Oldham. The title was won by Swinton on points difference ahead of Salford. #### Results #### Final table ### Championship play-off The Championship was decided by a two leg play-off between Swinton and Bradford Northern on a home and away basis. Bradford Northern won 37–22 on aggregate having won both legs. #### First leg The first leg was played at Swinton's Station Rd on 18 May 1940 in front of a crowd of 4,800. Gate receipts totalled £237. Swinton took a 3–0 lead when Hopkin scored a try. But within minutes Bradford took the lead as Harrison scored a try which Carmichael converted to put Bradford 5–3 ahead. Swinton regained the lead through a McGurk try, converted by Hodgson, cancelled out by Bradford's second try by Smith which Carmichael again converted. This gave Bradford a half-time lead 10–8. In the second half it was Bradford who scored first with a Whitcombe try to which Carmichael added the conversion to make the score 15–8. Swinton reduced the gap to two points as Shaw scored with Hodgson converting. Bradford's fourth try came from a Swinton penalty kick that hit the post and rebounded into the field of play. It was gathered up by Bradford's Davies who ran the length of the pitch to score. A fifth try for Bradford, scored by Brogden, made the final score 21–13 to Bradford. #### Second leg The second leg was played the following Saturday, 25 May 1940 at Odsal Stadium. The crowd was 11,271 generating gate receipts of £570. Bradford made a number of changes for the first leg due to injuries and players unable to get time off work. Bradford scored first with a Ward try to which Swinton replied with a Hodgson drop goal. This was Swinton's only score of the first half. Bradford scored two more tries through Winnard and Whitcombe, one of which Carmichael converted to give Bradford an 11–2 lead at half-time. Swinton got a try back in the second half, but another try by Winnard and a Carmichael conversion extended Bradford's lead to 16–5. Two Hodgson penalties, the second of which was kicked from very close to the halfway line making the kick approximately 66 yards (60 m) from the goal posts, improved Swinton's score. Shortly before the end Jenkins (Bradford) and Bowyer (Swinton) were sent off for fighting. As Swinton had already lost Hopkin to injury they finished the game with only 11 players on the field as the game ended 16–9 to Bradford. ## Cup competitions ### Challenge Cup The Challenge Cup was suspended at the start of the war at the same time as all competitive games and it did not feature in the Rugby League's proposals for competitive football. As late as December 1939 the Lancashire County Committee were considering a proposal to reinstate the competition but the practicalities of scheduling and travel during wartime were considered too great to overcome. ### Lancashire Cup Although all cup competitions had been suspended at the outbreak of the war, as the season progressed there were calls for the County Cup competitions to be re-introduced. In December 1939 the wartime committee gave permission for the Lancashire Cup to be played. All ties including the final were to be two-legged with the winner being decided by aggregate score. With only 12 clubs participating only four rounds of competition were needed and these were scheduled for March and April 1940. After the first round the six winning clubs were drawn for the second round with two teams being given byes into the semi-finals. The two teams given byes were Swinton and Widnes who went on to win their semi-final matches. The winners of the cup were Swinton who won the first leg of the final 5–4 at Widnes' Naughton Park ground on 20 April. In the second leg at Station Road, at full time the score was 9–8 to Widnes making the aggregate score 13–13. Under the competition rules extra time had to be played and Swinton won 16–11 to win the Cup 21–15 on aggregate. ### Yorkshire Cup Encouraged by the resumption of the Lancashire Cup, in December 1939 the Yorkshire clubs considered whether to reinstate the Yorkshire Cup but agreed to defer any decision until February 1940. At the club's February meeting it was agreed to ask the war-time committee for permission to play the competition on four consecutive Saturdays in May and June after the completion of the league season. As the request was made at the same time the league fixture backlog was increasing, the war-time committee arranged a postal ballot of all the clubs to amend the by-laws to allow games to be played in June; the vote to extend the season was carried 21–3 with 8 clubs not replying. A secondary proposal to pay match bonuses to players for cup games after the first round was rejected after a ballot of the clubs. Unlike the Lancashire Cup, the Yorkshire Cup was to be a straightforward knockout competition. It was agreed that the first round fixtures would be those that had been drawn in May 1939 in anticipation of the Cup being at its regular dates in the season. The draw gave Huddersfield a bye; they would join the winners of the seven ties in the draw for the second round. Shortly before the first round ties were played on 1 June 1940, Batley, Bramley and Keighley all withdrew from the competition because they could not raise teams due to war work commitments or active service. The three ties were all awarded to their opponents. The final was contested by Featherstone Rovers and Wakefield Trinity at Odsal Stadium, Bradford on 22 June 1940. Featherstone won 12–9 to win the Cup for the first time. ## Lancashire Summer Competition In April 1940 eight of the Lancashire clubs agreed to play in a new league called the Lancashire Summer Competition. The teams were split into two groups of four with the two group leaders meeting in a single-legged play-off final on 22 June. The two groups, titled East and West comprised Barrow, Liverpool Stanley, Warrington and Wigan in the East group with Broughton Rangers, Leigh, Salford and Swinton in the West group. Players from the four teams who had decided not to enter were not allowed to play as guests in the competition. The games were to be played as a two-legged knockout tournament in the same manner as the Lancashire Cup. Fixtures began on 11 May with Broughton Rangers playing Leigh, but within two weeks Barrow and Swinton withdrew from the competition. With only six teams left in the competition, the league committee decided to abandon the competition at the end of May. ## Representative matches In October 1939 the league resolved to play three representative matches to raise funds for the Red Cross; England v Wales on 23 December 1939, Lancashire v Yorkshire at Barrow on 1 January 1940, and the 1936 Tourists v the Rest on 10 February 1940 at a venue to be confirmed. The first game, England v Wales, was played at Odsal, Bradford on 23 December 1939. A crowd of 20,000 saw Wales win 16–3. The second game was scheduled for 1 January 1940 and was a match between representative teams of the Lancashire and Yorkshire clubs. It was postponed in December 1939 at the request of the Barrow club as the Barrow shipyards were not taking New Years Day, a Monday, as a holiday. Eventually played at Craven Park on 23 March before a crowd of 8,683, Yorkshire beat Lancashire 13–10 having been 2–10 behind at half-time. The third game, postponed from 10 February, was played at Salford on 4 May between the 1936 Tourists (players from the 1936 team that toured Australia) and the 1940 Probables (players who probably would have toured Australia in 1940 had the war not intervened). Last minute changes in availability meant that the Tourists side included three Salford players who had not been part of the tour team. The 1940 Probables won the game 29–21 in front of a crowd of 7,000. In total the three games generated £1,561 for the British Red Cross. ## Finances The season was costly both to the Rugby Football League and to many clubs. The Rugby Football League had income of only £899 in the year to 31 May 1940 and lost £3,015, reducing its assets to £23,304. This compared to a loss of £1,710 in the previous year. The two County Leagues had mixed fortunes. Lancashire made a profit of £63 while Yorkshire made a loss of £121. At club level many clubs reported losses, these ranged from £47 at Batley and £87 at Rochdale to £998 at Castleford and £1,314 at Wigan. A minority of clubs reported making a profit; St Helens £5 Oldham £114, Swinton £515 and Dewsbury £750, but these club were far fewer in number than the clubs reporting losses.
1,639,573	Kakha Kaladze	1,172,798,187	Georgian footballer and politician (born 1978)	[ "1978 births", "21st-century politicians from Georgia (country)", "AC Milan players", "Businesspeople from Georgia (country)", "Deputy Prime Ministers of Georgia", "Energy ministers of Georgia", "Erovnuli Liga players", "Expatriate men's footballers from Georgia (country)", "Expatriate men's footballers in Italy", "Expatriate men's footballers in Ukraine", "Expatriate sportspeople from Georgia (country) in Italy", "Expatriate sportspeople from Georgia (country) in Ukraine", "FC Dinamo Tbilisi players", "FC Dynamo Kyiv players", "FC Dynamo-2 Kyiv players", "FC Samtredia players", "Genoa CFC players", "Georgia (country) men's international footballers", "Georgia (country) men's under-21 international footballers", "Georgia (country) men's youth international footballers", "Georgian Dream politicians", "Living people", "Mayors of Tbilisi", "Men's association football defenders", "Men's footballers from Georgia (country)", "People from Samtredia", "Serie A players", "Sportspeople from Imereti", "Sportsperson-politicians from Georgia (country)", "UEFA Champions League winning players", "Ukrainian First League players", "Ukrainian Premier League players" ]	Kakhaber "Kakha" Kaladze (Georgian: კახაბერ(კახა) კალაძე, ; born 27 February 1978) is a Georgian politician and former footballer who serves as the Mayor of Tbilisi since November 2017. A versatile player, he was capable of playing both as a centre-back and as a left-back, or even as a wide midfielder. He played for the Georgia national team from 1996 to 2011. He was voted Georgian Footballer of the Year in 2001–2003, 2006 and 2011 and was considered one of Georgia's most important players. Kaladze started his football career in 1993 at Umaglesi Liga club Dinamo Tbilisi and made 82 appearances in a five-year spell. In 1998, he moved to the Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv and made 71 appearances until 2001, when he was signed by the Italian Serie A club Milan. He has won one Serie A, three Ukrainian Premier League and five Umaglesi Liga titles. With Milan, he won the Champions League on two occasions, the UEFA Super Cup once and the FIFA Club World Cup once. After captaining his country 50 times in 84 appearances, Kaladze announced his retirement from the Georgian national team on 11 December 2011. Born in Samtredia, a town in Imereti Province, Kaladze comes from a footballing family as his father played for Lokomotiv Samtredia and was also president of the team for some time. His brother was kidnapped in a high-profile case in 2001 and officially declared dead in 2006, resulting in two men being sentenced to prison for a combined total of 30 years. Outside of football, he owns a company called Kala Capital and an organisation called Kala Foundation, as well as being an ambassador for SOS Children's Villages. He is married to Anouki Areshidze, with whom he has four children. Kaladze became involved in the politics of Georgia as a member of the opposition Georgian Dream–Democratic Georgia party, founded by Bidzina Ivanishvili in February 2012. He was elected to the Parliament of Georgia on 1 October 2012 and approved as Deputy Prime Minister as well as Minister of Energy in Ivanishvili's cabinet on 25 October 2012. He continued to occupy both of these position under the succeeding cabinet of Giorgi Kvirikashvili until July 2017, when he resigned to run for the Mayor of Tbilisi as a Georgian Dream candidate in the October 2017 election, which he won with 51.13%. In 2021, he was reelected as the Mayor of Tbilisi, gaining 55.61% of the vote in the second round of the election. ## Club career ### Early career Kaladze started his career playing as a striker for his local club Lokomotiv Samtredia, where his father was president, until former Georgia international footballer David Kipiani requested Kakha to join Dinamo Tbilisi. At Dinamo, he played in 82 domestic league games and scored one goal. He made his top-flight debut as a 16-year-old with Dinamo during the 1993–94 campaign. Kaladze claims that a good performance against Italy while playing for Georgia in a match that ended 0–0 brought him to the attention of Dynamo Kyiv; he later said, "In that game I was up against Christian Vieri and I marked him well." A fee equivalent to €280,000 was enough to take him to the Ukrainian Premier League and Dynamo Kyiv in January 1998, where he signed a four-year deal. Here he scored six goals in 71 league games over the two-and-a-half seasons he spent there. The Ukrainian club had been under the ownership of Hryhoriy Surkis and the late Valeriy Lobanovskyi had just been installed as manager; they would go on to win eight consecutive league titles. Kaladze also appeared in both legs of the semi-final of the 1998–99 Champions League against Bayern Munich, which Dynamo Kyiv lost 4–3 on aggregate. En route to the semi-finals, they beat teams like Real Madrid, Barcelona and Arsenal. He won eight league titles in a row during his time at both Dinamo Tbilisi and Dynamo Kyiv. ### A.C. Milan In January 2001, Kaladze became the most expensive Georgian footballer in history when Milan paid €16 million to bring him to Italy. His decision to join one of the European top teams coincided with witnessing his teammate's near career-ending injury due to poor quality of football pitches in Ukraine at the time. Upon his arrival, Kaladze became a regular starter almost immediately, and played mostly as a left-sided defensive midfielder in 4–4–2 or 4–2–1–3 formations, particularly under caretaker coach Cesare Maldini. In the 2002–03 season, however, he returned to his original role of a defender (left-sided full back and center back), and made 46 appearances in all competitions, including 27 Serie A appearances. That year, Milan won the Champions League, where they beat Juventus on penalties in the final (despite Kaladze missing his penalty) and the Coppa Italia, where they beat Roma 6–3 on aggregate in the final. After Kaladze's double success, the Georgian postal service issued a special stamp bearing the player's image. He is the first Georgian player to win a Champions League title. Kaladze was limited to just six league appearances and 11 total appearances in the 2003–04 season. In the next season, Kaladze played just 19 Serie A matches and five in the Champions League as Milan finished as runners-up in both competitions. He was an unused substitute in that season's Champions League final, where Milan lost on penalties to Liverpool after a 3–3 draw. He was said to be frustrated with his lack of first-team options and a move to Chelsea, in exchange for Hernán Crespo or for £4 million, was widely reported. Kaladze himself said, "I have agreed everything with the Chelsea management. Now it is necessary to wait for them to reach an agreement with Milan and I think I could become a Chelsea player next week." Chelsea opted to sign Asier del Horno instead. On 30 June 2005, Kaladze extended his contract with Milan until 2010 and again on 4 September 2006, this time until 2011. In 2005–06, an injury to Paolo Maldini meant that Kaladze was moved back into the centre of defence, his favoured position. Milan finished third that season, although they would have finished second if there were no 2006 Italian football scandal which resulted in a 30-point deduction. In the 2006–07 Serie A campaign, Kaladze scored a goal against Sampdoria which turned out to be his only goal of the season. Milan finished in fourth place with an eight-point deduction relating to the previous season's scandal. Kaladze won his second Champions League title on 23 May 2007 after Milan beat Liverpool 2–1 in the final; he came on as a 79th-minute substitute in that match. He later picked up the FIFA Club World Cup in December that year where Milan beat Boca Juniors 4–2 in the final, though Kaladze was one of two players to be sent off in that match. He had established himself as a first-team regular in the 2007–08 season, making 32 appearances, but had only featured sparingly in the 2008–09 season due to a knee ligament injury sustained in a UEFA Cup match against Zürich. Kaladze's performance on 15 February 2009 Milan derby was described as a "horror show" on the Channel 4 website which started a dispute over an alleged smear campaign between Kaladze and the Georgian newspaper Lelo, who used the quote, "Milan really does need a new centre-back after Kakha Kaladze’s horror show in the derby." Milan finished third in the league that season, ten points behind Serie A champions Inter Milan; Kaladze believed this was caused by the many injuries suffered by the Milan squad. ### Genoa On 31 August 2010, Kaladze signed with Genoa; Milan later revealed that it was a free transfer. In the 2010–11 season, he played 26 matches and scored one goal, which came against Parma on 30 January 2011. He was named as second-best defender of the 2010–11 Serie A by La Gazzetta dello Sport, being surpassed only by his former teammate, Milan's Thiago Silva. On 12 May 2012, Kaladze announced his retirement from football. ## International career Kaladze won his first cap against Cyprus in a friendly match on 27 March 1996, coming on as a 72nd-minute substitute for Mikhail Kavelashvili. Later that year, he was sent off for the first time in his international career against Lebanon in a friendly match. With his team won Malta International Football Tournament 1998. He subsequently featured in his country's qualifying campaigns for the 1998, 2002, 2006 and 2010 FIFA World Cups, and the 2000, 2004 and 2008 UEFA European Championships. Georgia, however, have never qualified for the FIFA World Cup or the UEFA European Championship since they split from the Soviet Union. His competitive debut was against Poland on 14 June 1997 in a 1998 World Cup qualifier; Georgia lost the match 4–1. Just two matches later, Kaladze was sent off for the second time playing for Georgia, along with Georgi Kinkladze, against Moldova in another 1998 World Cup qualifier. Georgia finished in fourth place in the group and failed to qualify. In qualifying for Euro 2000, Georgia finished at the bottom of the group (Group 2) in sixth place, with just one win. Kaladze occasionally captained the side during these qualifiers in the absence of Georgi Nemsadze. The qualifiers for the 2002 World Cup ended with Georgia finishing in third place, ahead of Hungary and Lithuania. Kaladze played in all of the matches and often missed the friendlies in between. Kaladze only played in three matches during the Euro 2004 qualifiers, where Georgia finished in last place in the group. He did, however, feature in a 1–0 victory over neighbouring Russia, a victory considered to be one of Georgia's greatest successes. Kaladze played in all but one of the 2006 World Cup qualifying matches, where Georgia finished sixth in the group, with Kazakhstan being the only team to finish below them. He played fewer matches during the qualification for Euro 2008 and once again Georgia failed to qualify as they finished in sixth place despite starting their campaign with a 6–0 win over the Faroe Islands. He scored his first ever international goal against Latvia on 6 February 2008 in a friendly which Georgia lost 3–1. On 5 September 2009, Kaladze scored two own goals in a 2010 World Cup qualifying match against Italy within the space of 11 minutes. The match ended 2–0 to Italy. Kaladze was the captain of the national team, until 11 December 2011, when he announced his retirement. The La Gazzetta dello Sport reporter and the president of International Sports Press Association, AIPS [Italian], Gianni Merlo said: "Kakha Kaladze is a man of the history of football in Georgia. In AC Milan he was a pillar of the defense and also a nice and polite man." ### International goal Scores and results list Georgia's goal tally first. ## Personal life On 23 May 2001, Kakha Kaladze's younger brother Levan, a medical student, was kidnapped in Georgia, with a ransom of \$600,000 demanded. Georgia's president at the time, Eduard Shevardnadze, promised that "everything is being done to locate him". Despite this assurance, the only time that Levan was ever seen was in a video where he was shown blindfolded and begging for help. Following the kidnapping, Kaladze threatened to take up Ukrainian citizenship, but reverted his decision, stating, "There was a time when I thought about quitting the national side completely, but I couldn't do it out of respect for the Georgian people and the fans who come and give us such support." Roughly four years later, on 6 May 2005, Georgian police officers found eight dead bodies in the Svaneti region and it was speculated that Levan was among the dead. On 21 February 2006, Levan was officially identified among the deceased, after tests from FBI experts. The local media claimed that the ransom was paid by Kaladze's family, although another source says that Kaladze's father attempted to meet the kidnappers, who fled as they believed he was followed by the police. Two men were sentenced to prison for the murder: David Asatiani for 25 years and Merab Amisulashvili for five years. On 14 July 2009, Kaladze's wife Anouki gave birth to their first-born son in Milan. The couple named their son Levan, in memory of Kaladze's brother. Kaladze has also been active in charitable causes and is a FIFA ambassador for the SOS Children's Villages. Through his Kala Foundation, a charitable organisation established in 2008, Kaladze raised €50,000 to benefit South Ossetian refugees during the Russian invasion of Georgia. Kaladze also plans to release an autobiography with the proceeds going to the Kala Foundation. ## Political career ### Business ventures Along with his football career, Kaladze is an investor in Georgia, Italy, Ukraine and Kazakhstan. Kaladze owns Kala Capital, an investment company established in 2008 in Georgia with a focus on energy businesses, and whose chief executive is former Georgian Prime Minister Zurab Noghaideli. Kaladze's other businesses include the Buddha Bar in Kyiv that opened in 2008. Kaladze is also the owner of a restaurant called Giannino, founded in 1899 by Giannino Bindi, which is based in Milan. The restaurant has had a Michelin star under Davide Oldani and the chef in charge was Roberto Molinari. Kala Capital owned 45 percent of the Georgia Hydropower Construction Company company SakHidroEnergoMsheni, a joint stock company incorporated in Georgia in 1998. His candidacy as Minister of Energy and Natural Resources in October 2012 was therefore overshadowed by concerns about a serious risk that a conflict of interests might arise. Reports on the same day indicated that Kaladze might refuse the energy portfolio or sell off his shares in Georgia Hydropower Construction Company within 10 days of his appointment. ### Political office and conflict of interests Kaladze became involved in the politics of Georgia as a member of the opposition Georgian Dream–Democratic Georgia party founded by billionaire Bidzina Ivanishvili in February 2012. He was elected to the Parliament of Georgia on 1 October 2012 as majoritarian of Samtredia constituency. He was approved as Deputy Prime Minister as well as Minister of Energy in the cabinet of Bidzina Ivanishvili on 25 October 2012. The appointment was met with skepticism in professional energy circles. More importantly, it stirred an intense debate on a conflict of interest arising from Kaladze's business interests in the Georgia Hydropower Construction Company, in which Kala Capital owned 45 percent. Kala Capital sold the shares to GMC Group in November 2012 but concerns whether his indirect commercial interests had been abandoned remain. ### Mayor of Tbilisi In July 2017, Kaladze resigned as Energy minister in order to run for Tbilisi mayor in the upcoming local elections. On 22 October, he was elected mayor as a candidate of Georgian Dream, winning the elections with 51% of the votes. He was sworn in on 13 November 2017. His term expires in 2021. Kaladze has decided to run for a second term as mayor of Tbilisi and to win the elections in 2021. Kaladze started the campaign on July 20. ## Career statistics ### Club ### International Source: ## Honours Dinamo Tbilisi - Georgian League: 1993–94, 1994–95, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1997–98 - Georgian Cup: 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 Dynamo Kyiv - Ukrainian Premier League: 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01 - Ukrainian Cup: 1997–98, 1998–99, 1999–2000 Milan - Serie A: 2003–04 - Coppa Italia: 2002–03 - Italian Supercup: 2004 - UEFA Champions League: 2002–03, 2006–07 - UEFA Super Cup: 2003, 2007 - FIFA Club World Cup: 2007 Individual - Georgian Footballer of the Year: 2001, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2011 - A.C. Milan Hall of Fame - Source: Eurosport at Yahoo ## Electoral history
19,368,974	Leduc 022	1,151,025,919	French prototype aircraft	[ "1950s French fighter aircraft", "Leduc aircraft", "Ramjet-powered aircraft" ]	The Leduc 022 was the prototype of a mixed-power French interceptor built in the mid-1950s. Designer René Leduc had been developing ramjet-powered aircraft since before World War II and had flown a series of experimental aircraft, the Leduc 0.10 and Leduc 0.21, throughout the Fifties before he was awarded a contract for two examples of a short-range supersonic interceptor armed with two air-to-air missiles (AAMs). Intended for combat use, the 022 was able to take off from a runway as it was fitted with a supplementary turbojet engine, unlike his earlier aircraft which required a mother aircraft to carry them to altitude because ramjets cannot produce thrust while stationary. Development was cancelled by the French Air Force (Armée de l'Air) in 1958 due to budgetary problems while flight testing was underway and before the second prototype was completed. ## Background and description In 1953 the French Air Force issued a specification for a high-performance interceptor that could intercept and destroy any aerial threat after taking off from a 940-metre (3,080 ft) grass runway. It ordered two prototype 022S aircraft in competition with the Nord Gerfaut and Griffon. Leduc used a more-powerful version of the ramjet that he had been developing since 1938 and added a turbojet to allow for more autonomous operations. Air for the ramjet was provided by six air ducts surrounding the nose section that emptied into the hollow interior of the double-walled fuselage where fuel was injected and ignited by the exhaust of a Turbomeca Artouste gas turbine. The ramjet was expected to produce a thrust of 160 kilonewtons (36,000 lb<sub>f</sub>) and a time to 25,000 metres (82,000 ft) of only seven minutes, a climbing speed much faster than jet-powered aircraft. The 022S was generally similar in configuration aside from the 30° swept wings and tricycle landing gear. It retained the thick barrel-like monocoque fuselage and the protruding nose section housing the transparent Plexiglass cockpit, but added a range-only radar. The forward part of the nose formed an escape capsule for the pilot. The aircraft was provided with approximately 2,728-litre (600 imp gal; 721 US gal) of fuel distributed between the fuselage, wings and wingtip tanks. Its intended armament consisted of a pair of Nord AA.20 guided missiles and 24 anti-aircraft rockets. Unlike all previous Leduc aircraft, it featured a coaxial turbojet-ramjet powerplant to enable unassisted operation. The turbojet was initially a 15 kN (3,400 lb<sub>f</sub>) Turbomeca Ossau engine, but this was changed during construction to a much more powerful 31.3 kN (7,000 lb<sub>f</sub>) SNECMA Atar 101D-3. This change caused the aircraft to be redesignated as the 022 and allowed the number of rockets to be increased to 40. First flown on 26 December 1956 on turbojet power alone, the ramjet was finally fired on the 34th flight, on 18 May 1957. It reached a speed of Mach 1.15 on 21 December 1957, but was damaged shortly afterwards when it caught fire while taking off. Construction of a second prototype had been cancelled in October and the flight testing contract was cancelled on 13 February 1958 after 141 flights had been made. The ongoing Algerian War was consuming more of the military budget and the more conventional Dassault Mirage III was selected to meet the interceptor requirement. The cancellation marked the end of Leduc's aircraft development activities. ## Surviving aircraft The unflown second prototype 022 is on display at the Musée de l'air et de l'espace at Paris–Le Bourget Airport. It was donated by the Leduc family in 1979. ## Specifications
72,209,622	Timothy Brosnahan	1,169,872,014	American Jesuit educator (1856–1915)	[ "1856 births", "1915 deaths", "19th-century American Jesuits", "19th-century American male writers", "19th-century American philosophers", "20th-century American Jesuits", "20th-century American philosophers", "American ethicists", "American magazine editors", "American philosophy academics", "Burials at the Jesuit Community Cemetery", "Georgetown University faculty", "Gonzaga College High School alumni", "Loyola University Maryland faculty", "Pastors of the Church of the Immaculate Conception (Boston, Massachusetts)", "People from Alexandria, Virginia", "Presidents of Boston College", "St. Stanislaus Novitiate (Frederick, Maryland) alumni", "Woodstock College alumni" ]	Timothy J. Brosnahan (January 8, 1856 – June 4, 1915) was an American Catholic priest and Jesuit who served as the president of Boston College from 1894 to 1898. Born in Virginia, he joined the Society of Jesus in 1872, and taught philosophy at Woodstock College, Georgetown University, and Boston College. After his presidency, he wrote a prominent article criticizing an article by Harvard University's president that deprecated Jesuit education. In his later years, he taught and wrote about ethics. ## Early life Timothy J. Brosnahan was born on January 8, 1856, in Alexandria, Virginia. He was baptized the following Sunday, January 15 at St. Mary's Church, a Jesuit parish. In June of that year, his father became the overseer of a farm in northern Washington County, today located in the Brightwood neighborhood of Washington, D.C., and Brosnahan moved there with his parents. In June 1861, he and his sister enrolled as students at a private school for farmers' children near his house. In November 1862, due to the outbreak of the Civil War, Brosnahan moved with his parents from the countryside to the City of Washington, and they became parishioners at St. Aloysius Church, a Jesuit parish. In 1863, Brosnahan developed pneumonia and doctors believed he would not survive. After recovering, Brosnahan began his education, briefly attending two private schools. He then enrolled in a parochial school, initially located in the basement of St. Aloysius Church. In 1867, Brosnahan received his first communion and was confirmed by Archbishop Martin John Spalding of Baltimore. He transferred to Gonzaga College in 1869. That year, he applied to join the Society of Jesus, but the provincial superior denied his application. Brosnahan again applied to the order, and was accepted into the Jesuit novitiate in Frederick, Maryland, entering the Jesuit order on August 21, 1872. ### Jesuit formation After four years in Frederick, Brosnahan began his philosophical studies at Woodstock College. Afterwards, he taught at Boston College for four years, and in 1883, he founded the school magazine The Stylus. Later that year, he went to Georgetown University, where he taught for one year. In 1884, Brosnahan returned to Woodstock for his theological studies. During the academic year of 1886 to 1887, he was the editor of the Woodstock Letters. He was the first Jesuit scholastic to become editor of the publication. Brosnahan introduced coverage of contemporary subjects, rather than purely historical ones. He also appointed the first assistant editors. In 1887, Brosnahan completed his theological studies, and was ordained a priest that same year by Cardinal James Gibbons, the Archbishop of Baltimore. In 1887, Brosnahan returned to Boston College as a professor of rhetoric. The following year, he completed his tertianship in Frederick. He then became a professor of logic and general metaphysics at Woodstock College. In 1892, he again returned to Boston College as a professor of philosophy, and on February 2, 1892, he professed his fourth vow. In December 1893, Brosnahan oversaw the resumption of publication of The Stylus, which had ceased publication in 1889 because renovation of the college building left it without any office. ## Boston College On July 16, 1894, Brosnahan succeeded Edward I. Devitt as the president of Boston College. At the same time, he also served as the school's prefect of studies. He reorganized the schedule of English classes and wrote a summary of the Jesuit philosophy of education, both of which were adopted by other colleges through the Jesuit province. It was reproduced in Boston College's catalogue for 57 years. He also instituted a required course in physiological psychology and added a laboratory requirement to the chemistry course, and instituted geology and descriptive geometry as electives. Brosnahan and J. Havens Richards, the president of Georgetown, organized a much-anticipated first intercollegiate debate between Boston College and Georgetown. On May 1, 1895, three students from each school debated the merits of the newly enacted federal income tax, with Georgetown prevailing. During Brosnahan's presidency, the number of students enrolled increased to 450, from 315 in 1890, and the school's finances were in good order. In 1895 and 1896, he purchased two brick buildings on Newton Street to house the Young Men's Catholic Association, which was previously housed inside the college building. In 1898, he purchased a large tract of land in Roxbury, on both sides of Massachusetts Avenue, from the estate of Oakes Angier Ames. The college's board of trustees desired to build on it an athletic field for competitive sports. The field was only ever used for sports practice and was eventually sold in 1914, with the proceeds partly funding construction of a new college campus. Brosnahan began for the first time a separation between Boston College's high school classes from its college classes. Each were held in separate wings of the building, with separate entrances to each. Brosnahan was succeeded as president by W. G. Read Mullan on June 30, 1898. During his presidency of Boston College, Brosnahan was also the pastor of the Church of the Immaculate Conception in the South End. During the summer of 1895, he closed the upper church for renovations, which reopened on September 15. ## Later years In 1898, Brosnahan returned to Woodstock College as a professor of metaphysics for one year, and then taught ethics. During this time, he published a book on ethics titled Adversaria ethica in ordinem redacta. In 1900, Brosnahan wrote an article in the The Sacred Heart Review responding to and criticizing an article by Charles William Eliot in The Atlantic Monthly that advocated elective classes, which Eliot had recently implemented at Harvard University as president, and criticizing the rigid curriculum in Jesuit universities, comparing it to Islamic curriculums. This article brought Brosnahan to national prominence within Catholic circles. Brosnahan succeeded Anthony Maas as the prefect of studies of Woodstock College in 1906. In 1909, he went to Loyola College in Maryland as a professor or ethics, where he also gave evening lectures to the public. In 1914, Brosnahan's health began to deterioriate, which physicians diagnosed as Bright's disease. He paused his teaching, spending the summer at Georgetown, before returning to resume teaching in the fall. He also worked on translating his Latin book Adversaria ethica into English, which he only partially completed. On March 1, 1915, he was taken to Georgetown University Hospital, remaining there for more than one month, and then returned to the hospital again on May 27. Brosnahan died there on June 4, 1915. His funeral was held at St. Aloysius Church, and his body was interred in the Jesuit Community Cemetery at Georgetown.
19,993,906	Rhinesuchidae	1,170,978,989	Extinct family of amphibians	[ "Early Triassic extinctions", "Lopingian first appearances", "Permian temnospondyls", "Stereospondyls", "Triassic temnospondyls" ]	Rhinesuchidae is a family of tetrapods that lived primarily in the Permian period. They belonged to the broad group Temnospondyli, a successful and diverse collection of semiaquatic tetrapods which modern amphibians are probably descended from. Rhinesuchids can be differentiated from other temnospondyls by details of their skulls, most notably the interior structure of their otic notches at the back of the skull. They were among the earliest-diverging members of the Stereospondyli, a subgroup of temnospondyls with flat heads and aquatic habits. Although more advanced stereospondyls evolved to reach worldwide distribution in the Triassic period, rhinesuchids primarily lived in the high-latitude environments of Gondwana (what is now South America and Africa) during the Guadalupian and Lopingian epochs of the Permian. The taxonomy of this family has been convoluted, with more than twenty species having been named in the past; a 2017 review recognized only eight of them (distributed among seven genera) to be valid. While several purported members of this group have been reported to have lived in the Triassic period, most are either dubious or do not belong to the group. However, at least one valid genus of rhinesuchid is known from the early Triassic, a small member known as Broomistega. The most recent formal definition of Rhinesuchidae, advocated by Mariscano et al. (2017) is that of a stem-based clade containing all taxa more closely related to Rhinesuchus whaitsi than to Lydekkerina huxleyi or Peltobatrachus pustulatus. A similar alternate definition is that Rhinesuchidae is a stem-based clade containing all taxa more closely related to Uranocentrodon senekalensis than to Lydekkerina huxleyi, Trematosaurus brauni, or Mastodonsaurus giganteus. ## Description Rhinesuchids generally had a conventional body type for tetrapods, with four limbs and a moderately long tail. In addition, their bodies were also somewhat elongated and their limbs were small and weak but still rather well-developed. Some were very large, up to 3 meters (10 feet) in length. Like most stereospondyls, their skulls were flattened and triangular, with upward-pointing eyes. Most rhinesuchids had relatively short snouts, although the snout of Australerpeton was very long and thin. The only other giant long-snouted Permian amphibians were members of the family Archegosauridae, such as Prionosuchus and Konzhukovia. ### Otic notch Like most ancient amphibians, rhinesuchids had a pair of indentations at the rear edge of the skull known as otic notches. While sometimes considered to have housed hearing organs such as a tympanum (eardrum), these notches are more likely to have held spiracles, fleshy holes used for breathing. Rhinesuchids can be characterized by a unique system of ridges and grooves within the inner cavity of each otic notch. The walls of the otic notch cavity (sometimes referred to as a tympanic cavity) are mainly made up of the ascending branch of the pterygoid bones. Nevertheless, the inside edge of each cavity is formed by a tabular bone. The tabular bones are a pair of triangular bones along the rear edge of the skull which form pointed structures known as tabular horns. The upper part of the outer wall of the cavity is also formed partly from the squamosal bones, which mostly occupy the flat upper face of the skull. The portion of the squamosal which forms the cavity wall is separated by the portion outside of the cavity by a pronounced boundary known as a falciform crest. The outer wall of the cavity has a long and pronounced groove, known as a stapedial groove, which extends lengthwise along the wall. The lower edge of the groove is formed by a ridge/crest known as an oblique ridge, although it has also been called a crista obliqua, otic flange, or simply an oblique crest. The upper edge of the stapedial groove is formed by another ridge/crest bordering the squamosal bone, which Eltink et al. (2016) named the 'dorsal pterygoid crest'. However, Mariscano et al. (2017) preferred to use the name "lamella" for this structure so that it would not be confused with a different ridge present in lydekkerinids, which is sometimes termed an 'oblique crest of the pterygoid', but more commonly called a 'tympanic crest'. Confusingly enough, many rhinesuchids are also known to possess a tympanic crest. This ridge was positioned further back than the other ridges (near the intersection of the pterygoid, quadrate, and squamosal bones) and extends down along the rear face of the cheek. The inner edge of the outer wall of the cavity was formed by a ledge which most studies simply label 'membrane'. This convention exists as a result of the old and likely incorrect hypothesis that otic notches housed eardrums. Under this hypothesis, the inner ledge may have attached to a membrane stretching along the inner cavity of the ear. This combination of otic cavity grooves and ridges is unique to rhinesuchids. The lamella and stapedial groove are unknown in any other groups, although they are present in practically every rhinesuchid (except Broomistega, which lacks a lamella). The tympanic crest is present in most rhinesuchids but absent in a few, and it is additionally present in lydekkerinids. The oblique ridge/crest and falciform crest are present in most other stereospondyls (although the former is less well-developed), while the 'membrane' ledge is present in practically every stereospondylomorph. ### Palate and braincase Various bones and openings comprised the palate (roof of the mouth) in rhinesuchids, as in other amphibians. At the tip of the palate lied the vomers, while the areas near the edge of the mouth were made of the palatine and ectopterygoid bones. In the middle of the rear part of the mouth was a rectangular bone known as a parasphenoid. Most of the parasphenoid formed the lower face of the flattened braincase, although it also possesses a thin forward-projecting rod known as a cultriform process, which extends down the midline of the skull to meet the vomers. Towards the back of the mouth, there were the multi-pronged pterygoid bones on each side of the skull. Each pterygoid had several branches, including the posterior branch which stretches back and to the side of the skull, the short medial branch which extends inwards and connects to the parasphenoid bone, an ascending branch which projects upwards to form the otic notch, and finally the anterior branch which extends forward along the palatine and ectopterygoid. The pterygoids of most rhinesuchids have very long anterior branches. In most members of this family, the anterior branch reaches as far forward as the vomers, although Australerpeton has relatively short anterior branches. A pair of large openings, known as interpterygoid vacuities, fill the areas between these bones, making the majority of the palate open space. When seen from behind, the upper branches of the braincase (paroccipital processes) extends from side to side, partially concealing the ascending branch of the pterygoids. Each paroccipital process is also perforated by a small hole, known as post-temporal fenestrae. These holes are very thin in rhinesuchids. Above these paroccipital processes lie the otic notches as well as the tabular bones. The paroccipital processes also point backwards to some extent, forming horns which in some rhinesuchids are slightly longer than those of the tabulars. When seen from below, the most prominent portion of the braincase is the parasphenoid bone. The rear corners of the parasphenoid have small 'pockets' bordered by ridges (known as crista muscularis). These ridges may have anchored muscles capable of maneuvering the head on the neck. ### Other skull and jaw features Many bones made up the upper side of the skull, although a particular pair of bones acquired a specific design in rhinesuchids. These bones were the elongated jugal and prefrontal bones, which formed the front edge of the orbits (eye holes). In most rhinesuchids, the edge between the two bones possessed a 'stepped' shape, with a triangular outer extension of the prefrontal pushing the suture with the jugal towards a more lateral (outwards) position. However, the suture is more straight in Australerpeton, like in other stereospondyls. The lower jaw has a pair of holes only visible from the inside edge of the jaw. The larger hole at the rear part of the bone complex, known as a posterior Meckelian foramen, was thin and elongated in rhinesuchids. An additional hole on the underside of the jaw joint is only visible from below. This hole, the chorda tympanic foramen, was large in this family. On the upper side of the jaw joint, a thin groove known as an arcadian groove stretches towards the lingual (tongue) side of the jaw and separates other bony bumps located among the jaw joint. As a whole, the grooves and ridges of the jaw joint were poorly developed in rhinesuchids compared to that of many other stereospondyl groups, instead resembling the simple joint of archegosaurids such as Melosaurus. ## Paleobiology Most rhinesuchids are only known from skull material, although a few members of the group (Uranocentrodon, Broomistega, and Australerpeton, for example) include specimens preserving a significant portion of the rest of the skeleton. A juvenile specimen of Broomistega had ankles and vertebrae which were poorly ossified, indicating that its joints had a large amount of cartilaginous material to supplement the low amount of bone. This trait is often correlated with an aquatic lifestyle. Features of the skull, such as upwards-pointing eyes, also support this hypothesis. Despite this support for an aquatic lifestyle, other pieces of evidence show that rhinesuchids were capable of some terrestrial movement. Although rhinesuchids did not possess any adaptations for digging, the poorly-ossified juvenile specimen of Broomistega was found in a flooded burrow which was also inhabited by a Thrinaxodon. Various conditions of the way these animals were preserved indicate that they co-inhabited the burrow peacefully, likely to survive a drought by aestivating (staying in a dormant state during hot and dry conditions). The fact that a Broomistega was able to enter the burrow of a terrestrial animal such as Thrinaxodon indicates that rhinesuchids were not exclusively aquatic. In addition, it has been noted that larger temnospondyls generally have more well-ossified joints. For example, large specimens of Australerpeton possessed robust hips, several completely bony ankle bones, and ossified pleurocentra (part of the vertebrae). Nevertheless, these skeletons were not as strongly built as those of Eryops (a supposedly terrestrial temnospondyl), with smaller shoulder girdles and less prominent sites for muscle attachment. Dias & Schultz (2003) suggested that the lifestyle of Australerpeton (and presumably other rhinesuchids) was that of a semiaquatic piscivore (fish-eater), preferring to hunt in shallow bodies of freshwater yet retaining the ability to walk on land during droughts. A Histological study of several indeterminate rhinesuchid fossils (referred to Rhinesuchus) indicate that members of the family grew seasonally, as in modern amphibians. Individuals also had fairly long life span, with one specimen being 30 to 35 years old at the time of its death based on the number of lines of arrested growth (rings in the bone used to tell age, like tree rings) present in a hip fragment. Some lines of arrested growth were very narrow, indicating that the individuals could reduce their growth and metabolism during times of hardship. This ability may be the reason why rhinesuchids were rather successful at the end of the Permian, as well as how a few small members of the group survived the Permian-Triassic extinction event. ### Gills Three rows of tiny bones (branchial ossicles) covered with thin tooth-like structures (branchial denticles) have been preserved near the neck of one specimen of Uranocentrodon. These bones almost certainly attached to the branchial arches of gills while the animal was alive. Although such bones are rare among stereospondyls and unknown in any other rhinesuchids, this may simply be due to the fact that the bones of other genera were preserved in more rough-grained sediments where such delicate bones could be broken or difficult to find. Although evidently Uranocentrodon had gills of some kind, it is difficult to determine what kind of gills they were. On the one hand, they could have been internal gills like those of fish, which were hardly visible from the outside of the body. On the other hand, they could have been stalk-like external gills like those of modern salamander larvae or even neotenic adult salamanders such as the mudpuppy or axolotl. External gills had to have evolved from internal gills sometime during amphibian evolution, although the precise location of this transition is controversial. The gill-supporting bones preserved in ancient amphibians show many similarities with those of fish gills and salamander gills. Paleontologists who prefer comparing ancient tetrapods to modern amphibians generally find many similarities between the fossil bones and modern salamander gill bones. On the other hand, paleontologists who compare fossil tetrapods to fossil fish consider the bones to correlate with internal gills. This conundrum, known as Bystrow's paradox, has made it difficult to assess gills in ancient amphibians such as Uranocentrodon, as different paleontologists come to different conclusions based on their field of study. Bystrow's paradox was finally resolved by a 2010 study, which found that grooved ceratobrachnial structures (components of the branchial arches) are correlated with internal gills. Ancient tetrapods which preserved grooved ceratobranchials, such as the dvinosaur Dvinosaurus, probably only had internal gills as adults. Nevertheless, external gills have been directly preserved as soft tissue in some temnospondyls. However, these situations only occur in larval specimens or members of specialized groups such as the branchiosaurids. One living species of lungfish (Lepidosiren) has external gills as larvae which transform into internal gills as adults. Despite adult dvinosaur specimens having skeletal features correlated with internal gills, some larval specimens of another dvinosaur, Isodectes preserved soft tissue external gills. Thus, the gill development of dvinosaurs (and presumably other temnospondyls, such as Uranocentrodon) mirrored that of Lepidosiren. Despite this feature likely being an example of convergent evolution (as other lungfish exclusively possessed internal gills), it still remains a useful gauge for how temnospondyl gills developed. The study's writers concluded that the gills of temnospondyls (including Uranocentrodon and other rhinesuchids which may have possessed gills) were probably internal (like those of a fish) as an adult, but external (like those of a salamander) as a larva. ### Body armor One Uranocentrodon skeleton also preserved large patches of bony scutes or scales around the body. The scutes which would have been on the belly of the animal were arranged in parallel diagonal rows which converged at the midline of the body and diverged as the rows stretched towards the tail. Each scute had a ridge running down the middle, and the scutes further towards the midline overlapped the ones further out. Along the midline, a row of flat and wide scales stretched from the throat to the tail. While these belly scales were made of bone, scales on other parts of the body had less bone structure and were probably made of keratin instead. The scales on the sides of the body were flatter and smaller than the bony belly scutes. The scutes on the back of the body were similar, although more rounded in shape, with a few larger scutes near the midline. The scales of the hind limbs and the underside of the hip region were similar to those of the back, although no integument was preserved on the forelimbs or tail. Thus, it is likely that at least the tail was unarmored and only covered with naked skin. Scales have also been preserved in Australerpeton specimens. They are similar in distribution to those of Uranocentrodon, but are generally rounder in shape. They also possessed a honeycomb-like internal structure and histological features which indicate that they were deeply embedded in skin. Therefore, it is unlikely that they would have been visible from the outside of the body. It cannot be determined whether the scales or scutes of rhinesuchids would have enabled or restricted cutaneous respiration (breathing through the skin as in modern amphibians). Other potential applications of the scales included protection against predators, retaining water during droughts, and possibly even for storing calcium when conditions are harsh (a technique used by female African crocodiles).This last hypothesis is the least likely, as rhinesuchids did not lay hard-shelled eggs, which is the reason female crocodiles need to store calcium. ## Classification When the family was first named in 1919, Rhinesuchidae was already recognized as a group of basal stereospondyls, a position which it retains even in the present day. Among the traits used to support this position include the fact that most rhinesuchids had long anterior branches of their pterygoids. More advanced stereospondyls had shorter anterior branches. In 1947, Alfred Romer placed the family (which he believed only included Rhinesuchus) in a broad superfamily which he called Rhinesuchoidea. Rhinesuchoidea was intended to be part of an evolutionary grade of temnospondyls linking "primitive" rhachitomes such as Eryops to "advanced" stereospondyls such as metoposaurs and trematosaurs. This grade, termed "neorhachitomes", was separated into Capitosauroidea (which contained capitosaurs and "benthosuchids") and Rhinesuchoidea. Apart from containing Rhinesuchidae, Rhinesuchoidea also contained various genera as well as the families Lydekkerinidae, Sclerothoracidae, and finally Uranocentrodontidae. Romer felt that certain taxa (i.e. Uranocentrodon and the possibly synonymous dubious genus "Laccocephalus") often considered rhinesuchids were best placed in the separate family Uranocentrodontidae, while others (i.e. Rhinesuchoides) were not placed in any rhinesuchoid family in particular. Other families were later placed in this Rhinesuchoidea, such as Rhinecepidae in 1966 and Australerpetonidae in 1998. The arrival of cladistics in the late 20th century has caused grades to fall out of favor in recent years, replaced by clades, which are defined by close relations rather than ancestral assemblages. However, the basic idea behind Rhinesuchoidea, which states that advanced stereospondyls descended from animals similar to rhinesuchids, is still considered valid. Rhinecepidae and Uranocentrodontidae were found to be synonymous with Rhinesuchidae according to a 2000 analysis by Schoch and Milner. One study placed Rhinesuchidae within the superfamily Capitosauroidea. However, this interpretation has not been followed by other studies which consider rhinesuchids to be more basal than capitosaurs. Australerpetonidae, a monotypic family only containing the genus Australerpeton, has been more difficult to compare to Rhinesuchidae. Some studies place Australerpeton as a basal stereospondyl outside of Rhinesuchidae, while others consider it an archegosaurid outside of Stereospondyli entirely. A comprehensive review of Australerpeton published by Eltink et al. (2016) favored the hypothesis that it was deeply nested within Rhinesuchidae. A phylogenetic study performed as part of the study split the family into two clades. One clade was a subfamily termed Rhinesuchinae. Rhinesuchinae contains Rhinesuchus and Rhineceps. This subfamily is mainly characterized by features of the palate, such as an anterior branch of the pterygoid lacking ridges and palatine bones covered in tiny denticles. The other main clade of the family contained Uranocentrodon as well as another subfamily termed Australerpetinae. This clade is united by the presence of a tympanic crest and a foramen magnum (the hole for the spinal cord at the back of the braincase) which has a curved upper edge. Australerpetinae is a modified version of Australerpetonidae which has been reduced to subfamily status in order to fit within Rhinesuchidae. This subfamily contains Australerpeton, Broomistega, Laccosaurus, and Rhinesuchoides. Members of this subfamily had somewhat longer and more tapered snouts than other Rhinesuchids, although (according to Eltink et al..) their pterygoids had short anterior branches, letting the palatine bones contact the interpterygoid vacuities. The most parsimonious (evolutionarily simplest) tree found by Eltink et al. (2016) is seen below: The structure of Rhinesuchidae following Eltink et al.'s study was challenged by a different study on rhinesuchids published less than a year later. This study, Mariscano et al.. (2017), agreed that Australerpeton was a rhinesuchid, but considered it the most basal member of the family. They disagree with Eltink et al.'s recognition of short anterior pterygoid branches in multiple genera. According to their analysis, only Australerpeton possessed this trait, the main feature which separates it from the rest of Rhinesuchidae. Other traits which support this separation include the fact that other rhinesuchids have stepped jugal-prefrontal contact and toothless coronoid bones in the lower jaw. The rest of the family was poorly resolved in their phylogenetic analysis, although three clades did have moderate Bremer support values of 2. Bremer support is gauged by counting the number of times analyzed traits are acquired, lost, or reacquired within a family tree. Some family trees include more of these transitions than others, meaning that some possible trees assumed that more than the bare minimum amount of evolution had taken place. The family tree with the fewest of these 'steps' (transitions) is likely to be the most accurate, based on the principal of occam's razor (the simplest answer is the most accurate). Bremer support is used to label how well-supported clades are by analyzing how they are distributed among more complex alternatives to the simplest (most parsimonious) tree. Clades which do not exist in a family tree which is only one total step more complex than the MPT (most parsimonious tree) have a Bremer support of 1, meaning that the clade's existence is very uncertain. Even if the MPT of the present analysis supports their existence, new data may make a competing family tree more parsimonious, dissolving clades which are only supported in the current MPT. Other clades may have much higher Bremer support values, indicating that more drastic assumptions have to be formulated to render the clade invalid. Rhinesuchidae as a whole, for example, has a Bremer support of 6 in Mariscano et al. (2017), which is considered high support. A Bremer support of 2, as is the case with three specific clades in this analysis, is considered moderate. One of these clades included the two valid species of Rhinesuchoides, while another clade connected Rhineceps and Uranocentrodon, and the last contained Rhinesuchus and Laccosaurus. The arrangement of these clades (as well as the placement of Broomistega) could not be resolved with absolute confidence, with Bremer support values of only 1 regardless of where the three clades were placed among non-Australerpeton Rhinesuchidae. The most parsimonious tree found by Mariscano et al. (2017) is seen below: ## Gallery
182,242	Sea of Japan naming dispute	1,112,246,250	Naming dispute over the body of water between the Korean peninsula and the Japanese archipelago	[ "Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea", "Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan", "Geographical naming disputes", "Geography of Japan", "Geography of North Korea", "Geography of South Korea", "Japan–Korea relations", "Japan–South Korea border", "Sea of Japan" ]	A dispute exists over the international name for the body of water which is bordered by Japan, Korea (North and South) and Russia. In 1992, objections to the name Sea of Japan were first raised by North Korea and South Korea at the Sixth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names. The Japanese government supports the exclusive use of the name "Sea of Japan" (日本海), while South Korea supports the alternative name "East Sea" (), and North Korea supports the name "Korean East Sea" (). Currently, most international maps and documents use either the name Sea of Japan (or equivalent translation) by itself, or include both the name Sea of Japan and East Sea, often with East Sea listed in parentheses or otherwise marked as a secondary name. The International Hydrographic Organization, the governing body for the naming of bodies of water around the world, in 2012 decided it was still unable to revise the 1953 version of its publication S-23 – Limits of Oceans and Seas, which includes only the single name "Sea of Japan", to include "East Sea" together with "Sea of Japan". The involved countries (especially Japan and South Korea) have advanced a variety of arguments to support their preferred name(s). Many of the arguments revolve around determining when the name Sea of Japan became the common name. South Korea argues that historically the more common name was East Sea, Sea of Korea, or another similar variant. South Korea further argues that the name Sea of Japan did not become common until Korea was under Japanese rule, at which time it had no ability to influence international affairs. Japan argues that the name Sea of Japan has been the most common international name since at least the beginning of the 19th century, long before its annexation of Korea. Both sides have conducted studies of antiquarian maps, but the two countries have produced divergent research results. Additional arguments have been raised regarding the underlying geography of the sea as well as potential problems regarding the ambiguity of one name or the other. ## Arguments Both sides in the dispute have put forward a number of arguments to support their claims. ### Arguments based on historical maps #### Arguments from North Korea North Korea favors the exclusive use of the more nationalistic "Korean East Sea" or "East Sea of Korea" (조선동해/朝鮮東海) There are currently as of 2019 no known published maps on behalf of the North Korean government to assert their claims on the nomenclature "Korean East Sea" or "East Sea of Korea". No American, European, Chinese, or Japanese academic scholarship has been able to independently verify the North Koreans' nomenclature claims, nor has the IHO committee considered North Korea's request seriously. #### Arguments from South Korea According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for South Korea, the name Donghae (동해, literally East Sea) has been used in Korea for over 2,000 years, including in History of the Three Kingdoms (三國史記, 1145), the monument of King Gwanggaeto, and "Map of Eight Provinces of Korea" (八道總圖, 1530). The first documented map to name the area the Sea of Japan was the world map drawn by the Italian missionary Matteo Ricci in China (1602) named Kunyu Wanguo Quantu (坤輿萬國全圖). No Japanese record published up to the late-18th century indicated any name for the body of water. Furthermore, South Korea has pointed out that a few 19th-century Japanese maps referred to the sea as Chōsenkai (朝鮮海, literally Sea of Joseon), including the "Simplified Map of Japan's Periphery" (日本邊界略圖, 1809) and "New World Map" (新製輿地全圖, 1844). South Korea argues there was no standard name prior to Japan's military expansion in the region in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Additionally, it specifically states that the name Sea of Japan was not widely used, even in Japan, as late as the mid 19th century. Thus, South Korea argues that the current name reflects active promotion by Japan during a time when Korea could not represent its interests internationally. In 1992, the name "East Sea" was agreed upon in South Korea and claimed by the country for the sea during its participation in the U.N. Conference on Standardization of Geographical Names. #### Arguments from Japan The Japanese government claims that the name Sea of Japan was internationally used since the 17th century and established by the early 19th century, during a period in which Japan was under an isolationist policy (Sakoku) of the Tokugawa shogunate, which restricted cultural exchange and commerce with foreign countries except China and the Netherlands until 1854. Accordingly, they state, Japan could not have, at that time, had an influence on the international community regarding the naming of the sea. The invention of the marine chronometer in the late 18th century enabled Western explorers, such as Jean-François de Galaup from France, William Robert Broughton from Britain, and Adam Johann von Krusenstern (Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern) from Russia, to measure time and longitudes on the sea precisely and map the detailed shape of the Sea of Japan. Krusenstern was an admiral and explorer, who led the first Russian circumnavigation of the globe. According to Japanese records, it was Krusenstern who popularized the name "Mer du Japon" (Sea of Japan) in the West. In his work "Reise um die Welt in den Jahren" (1812), he wrote, "People also call this sea area the Sea of Korea, but because only a small part of this sea touches the Korean coast, it is better to name it the Sea of Japan." The original book was published in St. Petersburg in German and Russian, translated into Dutch, French, Swedish, Italian and English, and distributed widely among Europe. As a result, the international name of the sea changed from no name to the Sea of Japan, on the maps drawn by countries other than Japan or Korea during the 17th to 20th centuries. Thus, the Japanese side argues that the South Koreans misunderstand the history of the name. #### Surveys of antiquarian maps To provide evidence for the date when Sea of Japan came to be used internationally, both South Korea and Japan have undertaken surveys of various historical maps. In 2004, South Korea surveyed ancient maps archived in the British Library, the Cambridge University Library, the University of Southern California (USC) East Asian Map Collection, the U.S. Library of Congress, the National Library of Russia, and the French National Library. South Korean researchers examined 762 maps. They found that 440 maps had used Sea of Korea (Corea), Oriental Sea/East Sea, 122 had used Sea of Japan, and 200 had used other terms. In the French language, the word orientale includes both the meaning of "eastern" related to compass direction and the meaning of "oriental", the Asiatic region. The same ambiguity is present in the Russian language, with both "eastern" and "oriental" indicated by one word. From 2003 to 2008, Japan conducted a number of surveys of different collections. In 2010, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) published their conclusions; they found that among 1,332 maps from the Berlin Library, 279 used Sea of Korea, Oriental Sea, or East Sea (or some combination thereof), 579 used Sea of Japan exclusively, 47 used China Sea (with or without other names), 33 used another term, and 384 used no term. MOFA said the Struck collection (a collection of antiquarian maps owned by a European map collector) showed that out of 79 maps, 35 used Sea of Japan, 9 used the Sea of Korea, 2 used Oriental Sea, and 33 were unmarked. MOFA reported that among four Russian libraries and document archives holding 51 maps, 29 used Sea of Japan, 8 used Sea of Korea, 1 used Korea Strait, 1 used East Sea, 1 used Sea of China, and 11 used no name. MOFA said that among 1,213 maps from the U.S. Library of Congress, ones that gave a name for this body of water showed that 87 percent used Sea of Japan, 8 percent used Sea of Korea, 5 percent used other terms, and none used Oriental Sea or East Sea. Similarly, MOFA said that 58 maps from the British Library and the University of Cambridge showed 86 percent used Sea of Japan, 14 percent used Sea of Korea, and none used Oriental Sea, East Sea, or other terms. MOFA said that they looked at 1,485 maps in the French National Library. They reported that 95 percent of 215 French maps used Sea of Japan. In November 2007, the National Geographic Information Institute of South Korea published a report on a survey of 400 ancient maps. According to the report, nine maps used East Sea for the water currently called Sea of Japan, while 31 maps used East Sea for the water currently called East China Sea. The number of maps that used Sea of Japan is not disclosed. Furthermore, the report says "In the late 18th century (1790–1830) the name Sea of Japan emerged. From the 19th century (1830 onward), there was a rapid increase in the use of the name Sea of Japan." Japan stated, "This clearly shows the fallacy of the ROK's assertion that the name Sea of Japan was the result of the Japanese policy of expansionism and colonial rule, and can be interpreted as affirming that the name Sea of Japan was in widespread use well before Japan's colonial rule over the Korean Peninsula". ### Geographical arguments Japan argues that, the name Sea of Japan has been and should be used because the marginal sea is separated from the Pacific Ocean by the Japanese Archipelago. Korea argues that the adjective "East" describes its geographical position east of the Asian continent, although it is west of Japan and south of Russia. It states that this is analogous to the North Sea, which lies north of the European continent, but west of Scandinavian countries and east of Great Britain. However Koreans call the sea on their east side the East Sea (동해, 東海, Donghae), on their south side the South Sea (남해, 南海, Namhae), and on their west side the West Sea (서해, 西海, Seohae). ### Arguments relating to ambiguity The Japanese Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department of the Japanese Coast Guard has claimed that the name East Sea is confusing and unsuitable as an international geographic name, because the local name for a variety of seas can be translated into English as East Sea. Examples include Dōng Hǎi (东海), the Chinese name for the East China Sea; Biển Đông, the Vietnamese name for the South China Sea; and the Baltic Sea, whose name is equivalent to East Sea in several European languages such as German (Ostsee), Swedish (Östersjön) and Finnish (Itämeri). East Sea is officially used as an English name for the body of water by the Government of Vietnam and the Government of Vietnam thusly uses East Sea for South China Sea in its English-language publications; likewise, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China uses 'East Sea' for the East China Sea in its English-language publications. Even within Japan itself the term East Sea (東海, Tōkai) is already used to refer to the parts of the Pacific Ocean east of middle and upper Honshu, as can be seen in the naming of the Tōkaidō region and the Tōkai region. The Japanese government is concerned that the name change could set a bad precedent and cause more naming disputes worldwide. ## Position of international bodies The main two international organizations which have been involved in the naming dispute are the International Hydrographic Organization and the United Nations. ### International Hydrographic Organization The International Hydrographic Organization is an organization that coordinates with member countries over hydrographic issues. One of the organization's functions is to standardise the delineation of nautical regions. In 1929, the organization (then called the International Hydrographic Bureau) published edition 1 of "IHO Special Publication 23" (IHO SP 23) – Limits of Oceans and Seas, which included the limits of the sea area between the Korean peninsula and Japan and the name Sea of Japan; however, at that time, Korea could not participate in the IHO because it was under Japanese rule. The name Sea of Japan remains in the current edition 3 of S-23, that was published in 1953. South Korea officially joined the IHO in 1957. In 1974, IHO released Technical Resolution A.4.2.6. This resolution stated that: > It is recommended that where two or more countries share a given geographical feature (such as a bay, a strait, channel or archipelago) under different names, they should endeavour to reach agreement on a single name for the feature concerned. If they have different official languages and cannot agree on a common name form, it is recommended that the name forms of each of the languages in question should be accepted for charts and publications unless technical reasons prevent this practice on small scale charts. South Korea has argued that this resolution is relevant to the debate about the Sea of Japan and implies that both names should be used; Japan, however, argues that the resolution does not apply to the Sea of Japan, because it does not specify this body of water and only applies to geographical features for which sovereignty is shared between two or more countries. The IHO agreed to conduct a survey of available evidence in 2011. Previously, South Korea had been pushing the IHO to recommend only using the term East Sea, but announced on 2 May 2011, that it now preferred the gradual approach of using both names now, and eventually dropping the Sea of Japan name. On 26 April 2012, after several different attempts over many years to revise the 1953 edition of S-23 – Limits of Oceans and Seas, the IHO Member States decided that it was not possible to make progress with a revision. As a result, only "Sea of Japan" continues to appear in S-23. An IHO consulting group is meant to report on the issue in 2020. In September 2020, the IHO announced that it would adopt a new numerical system, also known as "S-130". In November 2020, S-23, the previous version of the nautical chart made in 1953 will be made public as an IHO publication to demonstrate the evolutionary process from the analogue to the digital era. The IHO approved the proposal of the new official nautical chart. The new chart will be marked with a numerical identifier without a name. ### United Nations While the United Nations has never directly addressed the issue of establishing an official, standardized name for the sea, several resolutions and statements by the UN have had relevance to the topic. Japan joined the United Nations in 1956, while South and North Korea both joined in 1991. In 1977, the Third U.N. Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names (UNCSGN) adopted Resolution III/20, entitled "Names of Features beyond a Single Sovereignty". The resolution recommended that "when countries sharing a given geographical feature do not agree on a common name, it should be a general rule of cartography that the name used by each of the countries concerned will be accepted. A policy of accepting only one or some of such names while excluding the rest would be inconsistent as well as inexpedient in practice." As with IHO Technical Resolution A.4.2.6, South Korea and Japan disagree about whether or not this policy applies to the Sea of Japan. In 1992, during the 1992 Sixth UNCSGN, the South Korean government, in their first time participating in the UNCSGN, requested that the name of the sea be determined through consultation, which the North Korean representative concurred with. The Japanese representative stated that the name of the Sea of Japan had already been accepted worldwide and that any change would introduce confusion. The conference recommended that the parties work together on the issue outside of the conference. In 1998, South Korea raised the issue again at the Seventh UNCSGN. Japan, however, opposed the method by which the South Korean government proposed the issue, arguing that they had not followed the proper procedure for doing so. Following some debate, South Korea withdrew the issue, and instead recommended that the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names work so that a resolution could be submitted to the Eighth UNSCGN conference. The president of the conference urged that Japan, South Korea, and North Korea work towards a mutually acceptable agreement. At the Eighth UNCSGN in 2002, South Korea and Japan presented a number of papers to the conference regarding their positions on the naming issue. South Korea asked for a resolution to adjudicate the name, while Japan asked that the name be decided through resolution outside of the conference. No resolution was passed, and the Committee again urged the countries to develop a mutually agreeable solution. The chairman further noted that standardization could only occur after consensus had been reached. The same situation occurred at the Ninth Conference in 2007. South Korea and North Korea both proposed a resolution by the UNCSGN, while Japan expressed a desire to settle the matter outside of the conference, and the Committee urged the members to seek a mutual agreement. On 23 April 2004, the United Nations affirmed in a written document to the Japanese government that it will continue using the name Sea of Japan in its official documents. However, it agreed to leave the topic open for further discussion. In a letter to South Korea, it was explained that the UN was not determining the validity of either name, but wished to use the term most widely used until the parties resolved the disagreement. The letter further stated, "The use of an appellation by the Secretariat based on the practice is without prejudice to any negotiations or agreements between the interested parties and should not be interpreted as advocating or endorsing any party's position, and can in no way be invoked by any party in support of a particular position in the matter." On 6 August 2012, representatives from North and South Korea addressed an assembly at the United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, asking that the names "East Sea" and "Sea of Japan" be used concurrently for the sea. Ferjan Ormeling Jr., chairman of the conference, responded that the organization had no authority to decide the issue and requested that the involved countries resolve the differences over the name amongst themselves. ## Other countries Russia calls this sea "Япо́нское мо́ре" (Yapónskoye móre, Japanese Sea). Japan believes that Russia played a major role in establishing this name internationally, as mentioned above. Chinese government websites exclusively use the name 日本海 (rìběnhǎi, 'Japan Sea'). In 2003, the French Defense Ministry issued nautical maps that included both terms Sea of Japan and East Sea. It reverted to Sea of Japan as a single name in the map issued in 2004. The United Kingdom and Germany officially use the Sea of Japan. The United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN) continues to advocate the use of Sea of Japan without qualification in U.S. government publications. The World Factbook published by the Central Intelligence Agency follows the BGN's guidance. On 8 August 2011, a spokesman for the United States Department of State stated that the United States Board on Geographic Names considered the official name of the sea to be "Sea of Japan". According to Yonhap, the U.S. has officially recommended to the IHO that "Sea of Japan" remain as the official name for the sea. In response to this failure of the South Korean campaign, South Korean foreign minister Kim Sung-hwan suggested advocating other historical names, such as "Sea of Korea". In 2011, Virginia state lawmaker David W. Marsden, acting on behalf of Korean-American voters, introduced a bill to the education panel of the Senate of Virginia that would have required public school textbooks to include both "Sea of Japan" and "East Sea" as names. The panel rejected the bill by an 8–7 vote on 26 January 2012. The issue was revisited two years later on 3 February 2014, with the Education Committee of the Virginia House of Delegates passing legislation to use both "Sea of Japan" and "East Sea" in school textbooks. On 29 June 2012, Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs Kurt M. Campbell affirmed the BGN's position in his response, published on the White House website, to a We the People petition concerning the usage of "Sea of Japan", in which he stated, "It is longstanding United States policy to refer to each sea or ocean by a single name. This policy applies to all seas, including those bordered by multiple countries that may each have their own names for such bodies of water. Concerning the body of water between the Japanese archipelago and the Korean peninsula, longstanding U.S. policy is to refer to it as the "Sea of Japan". He also stated, "We are aware the Republic of Korea refers to the body of water as the 'East Sea,' and the United States is not asking the Republic of Korea to change its nomenclature. U.S. usage of the 'Sea of Japan' in no way implies an opinion regarding any issue related to sovereignty." ## Compromise names On 18 November 2006, during the APEC summit in Hanoi, South Korean President Roh Moo-hyun informally proposed to the Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe that the sea be called instead the "Sea of Peace" or "Sea of Friendship", which Abe rejected. In January 2007 Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Yasuhisa Shiozaki opposed the idea, saying that there was no need to change the name of the Sea of Japan. ## Response of media and publishers A number of maps, encyclopedias, and other publications have switched to using both names. For example, the Manual of Style of the National Geographic Society states that disputed place-names in international waters or jointly controlled by two or more countries should use the conventional name first with other names following in parentheses. As such, their policy on this sea states that "The internationally accepted name is Sea of Japan, although Korea prefers East Sea. When scale permits, Geographic maps show the alternative name East Sea in parentheses after Sea of Japan." In 2006, Google put both names on Google Earth, using East Sea near the Korean coast and Sea of Japan near the Japanese coast. In the 2007 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, the primary article is called "Sea of Japan". A secondary article called "East Sea" notes "see Japan, Sea of". On the encyclopedia's map of Japan and other Asia maps, Sea of Japan appears as the primary label and East Sea appears as a secondary label in parentheses. However, on the map of Korea the name East Sea appears as the primary label and Sea of Japan appears as a secondary label in parentheses. Other examples of publishers who use similar systems include Microsoft Encarta, the Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, and About.com. In 2012, French encyclopedia publisher Larousse replaced "Mer du Japon" ("Sea of Japan") with "Mer de L'est (Mer du Japon)" ("East Sea (Sea of Japan)") in maps of South Korea and North Korea in two of its books. However, other maps, such as those of Asia, China, Japan, and Russia, continue to use "Mer du Japon". Furthermore, the article "Mer du Japon" does not mention "East Sea" at all. In 2013, Bandai Namco Games, a Japanese game developer, initially presented both names as "Sea of Japan (East Sea)" in Ace Combat Infinity. There was intense backlash from the Japanese community for including the Korean name at all. In response, the company removed all international borders and labels from the game's maps and heavily blurred them to maintain neutrality. ## See also - Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea - Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan - Japanese-Korean disputes - Geographical renaming - Persian Gulf naming dispute
2,355,420	Müllerian mimicry	1,171,320,625	Mutually beneficial mimicry of strongly defended species	[ "Antipredator adaptations", "Chemical ecology", "Mimicry", "Mutualism (biology)", "Warning coloration" ]	Müllerian mimicry is a natural phenomenon in which two or more well-defended species, often foul-tasting and sharing common predators, have come to mimic each other's honest warning signals, to their mutual benefit. The benefit to Müllerian mimics is that predators only need one unpleasant encounter with one member of a set of Müllerian mimics, and thereafter avoid all similar coloration, whether or not it belongs to the same species as the initial encounter. It is named after the German naturalist Fritz Müller, who first proposed the concept in 1878, supporting his theory with the first mathematical model of frequency-dependent selection, one of the first such models anywhere in biology. Müllerian mimicry was first identified in tropical butterflies that shared colourful wing patterns, but it is found in many groups of insects such as bumblebees, and other animals such as poison frogs and coral snakes. The mimicry need not be visual; for example, many snakes share auditory warning signals. Similarly, the defences involved are not limited to toxicity; anything that tends to deter predators, such as foul taste, sharp spines, or defensive behaviour can make a species unprofitable enough to predators to allow Müllerian mimicry to develop. Once a pair of Müllerian mimics has formed, other mimics may join them by advergent evolution (one species changing to conform to the appearance of the pair, rather than mutual convergence), forming mimicry rings. Large rings are found for example in velvet ants. Since the frequency of mimics is positively correlated with survivability, rarer mimics are likely to adapt to resemble commoner models, favouring both advergence and larger Müllerian mimicry rings. Where mimics are not strongly protected by venom or other defences, honest Müllerian mimicry becomes, by degrees, the better-known bluffing of Batesian mimicry. ## History ### Origins Müllerian mimicry was proposed by the German zoologist and naturalist Fritz Müller (1821–1897). An early proponent of evolution, Müller offered the first explanation for resemblance between certain butterflies that had puzzled the English naturalist Henry Walter Bates in 1862. Bates, like Müller, spent a significant part of his life in Brazil, as described in his book The Naturalist on the River Amazons. Bates conjectured that these abundant and distasteful butterflies might have been caused to resemble each other by their physical environment. Müller had also seen these butterflies first hand, and like Bates had collected specimens, and he proposed a variety of other explanations. One was sexual selection, namely that individuals would choose to mate with partners with frequently-seen coloration, such as those resembling other species. However, if as is usual, females are the choosers, then mimicry would be seen in males, but in sexually dimorphic species, females are more often mimetic. Another was, as Müller wrote in 1878, that "defended species may evolve a similar appearance so as to share the costs of predator education." ### Müller's mathematical model Müller's 1879 account was one of the earliest uses of a mathematical model in evolutionary ecology, and the first exact model of frequency-dependent selection. Mallet calls Müller's mathematical assumption behind the model "beguilingly simple". Müller presumed that the predators had to attack n unprofitable prey in a summer to experience and learn their warning coloration. Calling a<sub>1</sub> and a<sub>2</sub> the total numbers of two unprofitable prey species, Müller then argued that, if the species are completely unalike they each lose n individuals. However, if they resemble each other, then species 1 loses a<sub>1</sub>n/a<sub>1</sub>+a<sub>2</sub> individuals, and species 2 loses a<sub>2</sub>n/a<sub>1</sub>+a<sub>2</sub> individuals. Species 1 therefore gains n-a<sub>1</sub>n/a<sub>1</sub>+a<sub>2</sub> = a<sub>2</sub>n/a<sub>1</sub>+a<sub>2</sub> and species 2 similarly gains a<sub>1</sub>n/a<sub>1</sub>+a<sub>2</sub> in absolute numbers of individuals not killed. The proportional gain compared to the total population of species 1 is g<sub>1</sub> = a<sub>2</sub>n/a<sub>1</sub>(a<sub>1</sub>+a<sub>2</sub>) and similarly for species 2 g<sub>2</sub> = a<sub>1</sub>n/a<sub>2</sub>(a<sub>1</sub>+a<sub>2</sub>), giving the per head fitness gain of the mimicry when the predators have been fully educated. Hence, Müller concluded, the proportion g1:g2 was a<sub>2</sub>/a<sub>1</sub> : a<sub>1</sub>/a<sub>2</sub>, which equals a<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup>:a<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup>, and the rarer species gains far more than the commoner one. The model is an approximation, and assumes the species are equally unprofitable. If one is more distasteful than the other, then the relative gains differ further, the less distasteful species benefiting more (as a square of the relative distastefulness) from the protection afforded by mimicry. This can be thought of as parasitic or quasi-Batesian, the mimic benefiting at the expense of the model. Later models are more complex and take factors such as rarity into account. The assumption of a fixed number n to be attacked is questionable. Müller also effectively assumed a step function, when a gradual change (a functional response) is more plausible. ### Non-deceitful mimicry Biologists have not always viewed the Müllerian mechanism as mimicry, both because the term was strongly associated with Batesian mimicry, and because no deceit was involved—unlike the situation in Batesian mimicry, the aposematic signals given by Müllerian mimics are (unconsciously) honest. Earlier terms, no longer in use, for Müllerian mimicry included "homotypy", "nondeceitful homotypy" and "arithmetic homotypy". ## Evolution ### Aposematism, camouflage, and mimicry Müllerian mimicry relies on aposematism, or warning signals. Dangerous organisms with these honest signals are avoided by predators, which quickly learn after a bad experience not to pursue the same unprofitable prey again. Learning is not actually necessary for animals which instinctively avoid certain prey; however, learning from experience is more common. The underlying concept with predators that learn is that the warning signal makes the harmful organism easier to remember than if it remained as well camouflaged as possible. Aposematism and camouflage are in this way opposing concepts, but this does not mean they are mutually exclusive. Many animals remain inconspicuous until threatened, then suddenly employ warning signals, such as startling eyespots, bright colours on their undersides or loud vocalizations. In this way, they enjoy the best of both strategies. These strategies may also be employed differentially throughout development. For instance, large white butterflies are aposematic as larvae, but are Müllerian mimics once they emerge from development as adult butterflies. ### Selective advantage Many different prey of the same predator could all employ their own warning signals, but this would make no sense for any party. If they could all agree on a common warning signal, the predator would have fewer detrimental experiences, and the prey would lose fewer individuals educating it. No such conference needs to take place, as a prey species that just so happens to look a little like an unprofitable species will be safer than its conspecifics, enabling natural selection to drive the prey species toward a single warning language. This can lead to the evolution of both Batesian and Müllerian mimicry, depending on whether the mimic is itself unprofitable to its predators, or just a free-rider. Multiple species can join the protective cooperative, expanding the mimicry ring. Müller thus provided an explanation for Bates' paradox; the mimicry was not, in his view, a case of exploitation by one species, but rather a mutualistic arrangement, though his mathematical model indicated a pronounced asymmetry. ### Relationship to Batesian mimicry The Müllerian strategy is usually contrasted with Batesian mimicry, in which one harmless species adopts the appearance of an unprofitable species to gain the advantage of predators' avoidance; Batesian mimicry is thus in a sense parasitic on the model's defences, whereas Müllerian is to mutual benefit. However, because comimics may have differing degrees of protection, the distinction between Müllerian and Batesian mimicry is not absolute, and there can be said to be a spectrum between the two forms. Viceroy butterflies and monarchs (types of admiral butterfly) are both poisonous Müllerian mimics, though they were long thought to be Batesian. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of admiral butterflies shows that the viceroy is the basal lineage of two western sister species in North America. The variation in wing patterns appears to have preceded the evolution of toxicity, while other species remain non-toxic, refuting the hypothesis that the toxicity of these butterflies is a conserved characteristic from a common ancestor. ### Non-visual mimicry Müllerian mimicry need not involve visual mimicry; it may employ any of the senses. For example, many snakes share the same auditory warning signals, forming an auditory Müllerian mimicry ring. More than one signal may be shared: snakes can make use of both auditory signals and warning coloration. ### Negative frequency-dependent selection There is a negative correlation between the frequency of mimics and the "survivability" of both species involved. This implies that it is reproductively beneficial for both species if the models outnumber the mimics; this increases the negative interactions between predator and prey. ### Genetics Some insight into the evolution of mimetic color mimicry in Lepidoptera in particular can be seen through the study of the Optix gene. The Optix gene is responsible for the Heliconius butterflies' signature red wing patterns that help it signal to predators that it is toxic. By sharing this coloration with other poisonous red winged butterflies the predator may have pursued previously, the Heliconius butterfly increases its chance of survival through association. By mapping the genome of many related species of Heliconius butterflies "show[s] that the cis-regulatory evolution of a single transcription factor can repeatedly drive the convergent evolution of complex color patterns in distantly related species...". This suggests that the evolution of a non-coding piece of DNA that regulates the transcription of nearby genes can be the reason behind similar phenotypic coloration between distant species, making it hard to determine if the trait is homologous or simply the result of convergent evolution. ### Two step evolution One proposed mechanism for Müllerian mimicry is the "two step hypothesis". This states that a large mutational leap initially establishes an approximate resemblance of the mimic to the model, both species already being aposematic. In a second step, smaller changes establish a closer resemblance. This is only likely to work, however, when a trait is governed by a single gene, and many coloration patterns are certainly controlled by multiple genes. ### Advergence versus mutualism The mimic poison frog Ranitomeya (Dendrobates) imitator is polymorphic, with a striped morph that imitates the black and yellow striped morph of Ranitomeya variabilis, a spotted morph that imitates the largely blue-green highland spotted morph also of R. variabilis, and a banded morph that imitates the red and black banded Ranitomeya summersi. R. imitator has thus apparently evolved in separate populations to resemble different targets, i.e. it has changed to resemble (adverged on) those target species, rather than both R. imitator and the other species mutually converging in the way that Müller supposed for tropical butterflies. Such advergence may be common. The mechanism was proposed by the entomologist F. A. Dixey in 1909 and has remained controversial; the evolutionary biologist James Mallet, reviewing the situation in 2001, suggested that in Müllerian mimicry, advergence may be more common than convergence. In advergent evolution, the mimicking species responds to predation by coming to resemble the model more and more closely. Any initial benefit is thus to the mimic, and there is no implied mutualism, as there would be with Müller's original convergence theory. However, once model and mimic have become closely similar, some degree of mutual protection becomes likely. This theory would predict that all mimicking species in an area should converge on a single pattern of coloration. This does not appear to happen in nature, however, as Heliconius butterflies form multiple Müllerian mimicry rings in a single geographical area. The finding implies that additional evolutionary forces are probably at work. ### Mimicry complexes Müllerian mimicry often occurs in clusters of multiple species called rings. Müllerian mimicry is not limited to butterflies, where rings are common; mimicry rings occur among Hymenoptera, such as bumblebees, and other insects, and among vertebrates including fish and coral snakes. Bumblebees Bombus are all aposematically coloured in combinations, often stripes, of black, white, yellow, and red; and all their females have stings, so they are certainly unprofitable to predators. There is evidence that several species of bumblebees in each of several areas of the world, namely the American West and East coasts, Western Europe, and Kashmir, have converged or adverged on mutually mimetic coloration patterns. Each of these areas has one to four mimicry rings, with patterns different from those in other areas. The relationships among mimics can become complex. For example, the poison fangblenny Meiacanthus spp. have hollow canines and poison glands, and are avoided by predatory fish. The blenny Plagiotremus townsendi resembles Meiacanthus and is eaten by a variety of predators, so it is a Batesian mimic in their case: but it is avoided by the lionfish, Pterois volitans, making it also a Müllerian mimic. Sets of associated rings are called complexes. Large complexes are known among the North American velvet ants in the genus Dasymutilla. Out of 351 species examined in one study, 336 had morphological similarities, apparently forming 8 distinct mimetic rings; 65 species in another study appeared to form six rings separable by both morphology and geography. ## Taxonomic range Müllerian mimicry was discovered and has mainly been researched in insects. However, there is no reason why the mechanism's evolutionary advantages should not be exploited in other groups. There is some evidence that birds in the New Guinea genus Pitohui are Müllerian mimics. Pitohui dichrous and Pitohui kirhocephalus "share a nearly identical colour pattern" where their geographic ranges overlap, but differ elsewhere; they are conspicuous; and they are chemically defended by a powerful neurotoxic alkaloid, batrachotoxin, in their feathers and skin. This combination of facts implies that the populations in these zones of overlap have converged to share honest warning signals. Many species of flowers resemble each other but actual mimicry has not been demonstrated. It has been proposed that spiny plants such as Cactaceae and Agave in the Americas, Aloe, Euphorbia, white-thorned Acacia in Africa and spiny Asteraceae of the Mediterranean may form Müllerian mimicry rings, as they are strongly defended, are generally agreed to be aposematic, have similar conspicuous patterns and coloration, and are found in overlapping territories. Aposematic mammals in the families Mustelidae, Viverridae, and Herpestidae have independently evolved conspicuous black-and-white coloration, suggesting that Müllerian mimicry may be involved. ## In marketing The evolutionary zoologist Thomas N. Sherratt suggests that different types of mimicry occur in brand and product marketing. He notes that distinctive forms like the Coca-Cola bottle's shape are defended by businesses, whereas rival companies have often imitated such famous motifs to benefit from the investment and reputation of their well-known competitors, constituting Batesian mimicry. Sherratt observes that the packaging of British supermarket own brands of potato crisps are consistently colour-coded red for the ready-salted variety, green for salt and vinegar, and blue for cheese and onion, across the major chains Sainsbury's, Tesco, Asda, and Waitrose. He argues that this sharing of pattern is very unlikely to have arisen by chance, in which case the resemblance is intentionally to inform customers reliably (honest signalling) of what each package contains, to mutual benefit in the manner of Müllerian mimicry. ## See also - Deception in animals
4,029,613	Tajikistan at the 2006 Winter Olympics	1,137,511,481	null	[ "2006 in Tajikistani sport", "Nations at the 2006 Winter Olympics", "Tajikistan at the Winter Olympics by year" ]	Tajikistan sent a delegation to compete at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy from 10–26 February 2010. This was the second time Tajikistan had participated in a Winter Olympic Games. The Tajikistani delegation consisted of one alpine skier, Andrei Drygin. He finished 51st in both the super-G and the downhill. ## Background The National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Tajikistan was first recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1993, and Tajikistan made its Olympic debut at the 1996 Atlanta Summer Olympics. The nation debuted at the Winter Olympic Games in 2002 in Salt Lake City, and was making its second Winter Olympics appearance in Turin. The Tajikistani delegation to Turin consisted of one alpine skier, Andrei Drygin. He was the flag bearer for the opening ceremony while Abdugafar Sharipov performed the duties for the closing ceremony. Sharipov was a non-competitor at these Olympics however, he was listed by the IOC as an alpine skier. ## Alpine skiing Andrei Drygin was 28 years old at the time of the Turin Olympics. He had previously represented Tajikistan at the 2002 Winter Olympics. According to the official report of these Olympics, he finished last in each of the first two downhill training runs. His performance in the actual race of the downhill, held on 12 February, was better. He finished the race in a time of 1 minute and 59.41 seconds, good for 51st place out of 53 competitors who completed the competition. On 18 February he took part in the super-G, finishing in a time of 1 minute and 37.85 seconds, again finishing 51st, this time out of 56 classified finishers. On 20 February, in the giant slalom, he failed to finish the first run. Drygin would go on to represent Tajikistan again four years later at the Vancouver Olympics.
2,391,716	Erinna	1,169,776,289	Ancient Greek female poet	[ "1st-millennium BC births", "1st-millennium BC deaths", "4th-century BC Greek women", "4th-century BC poets", "4th-century BC women writers", "4th-century BC writers", "Aeolic Greek poets", "Ancient Greek women poets", "Doric Greek poets", "Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology" ]	Erinna (/ɪˈrɪnə/; Greek: Ἤριννα) was an ancient Greek poet. She is best known for her long poem The Distaff, a 300-line hexameter lament for her childhood friend Baucis, who had died shortly after her marriage. A large fragment of this poem was discovered in 1928 at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. Along with The Distaff, three epigrams ascribed to Erinna are known, preserved in the Greek Anthology. Biographical details about Erinna's life are uncertain. She is generally thought to have lived in the first half of the fourth century BC, though some ancient traditions have her as a contemporary of Sappho; Telos is generally considered to be her most likely birthplace, but Tenos, Teos, Rhodes, and Lesbos are all also mentioned by ancient sources as her home. ## Life Little ancient evidence about Erinna's life survives, and the testimony which does is often contradictory. Her dates are uncertain. According to the Suda, a 10th century encyclopedia, she was one of Sappho's companions, placing her floruit in the sixth century BC. The latest date given for Erinna in the ancient sources is that provided by Eusebius, who suggests the mid-fourth century BC. Due to similarities between her work and that of the third-century BC poets Theocritus and Asclepiades, and an epigram by Antiphanes which groups her with Callimachus, scholars now tend to believe that Erinna was an early Hellenistic poet. However this would contradict Tatian's claim that she was sculpted by Naucydes, who was active around 400 BC. Ancient testimony is divided on where Erinna was from: possibilities include Teos, Telos, Tenos, Mytilene, and Rhodes. Sylvia Barnard argues that Erinna was from Telos on the grounds of her dialect, though Donald Levin notes that while based on Doric, Erinna's dialect is a literary creation and does not accurately reflect her own native dialect. It is likely that Erinna was born into a wealthy family, and would have been taught to read and write poetry – Teos, one of Erinna's possible birthplaces, is one of the few places in the ancient Greek world where epigraphical evidence that girls were educated survives. Three epigrams preserved in the Greek Anthology suggest that Erinna died young – according to the poet Asclepiades shortly after composing the Distaff aged 19, though the earliest source to explicitly fix her date of death at age 19 is the Suda. Marylin B. Arthur, however, argues that though the character of Erinna in the Distaff was 19, she did not necessarily compose the poem when she was that age. ## Works ### The Distaff Erinna's fame is founded on her 300-line hexameter poem, the Distaff. The poem, supposedly composed when she was just nineteen, is a lament for her friend Baucis, who died shortly after her marriage. Unlike most ancient Greek hexameter poetry, which was written in an Ionian dialect, Distaff was written in a mixture of Aeolian and Doric. Distaff survives only in fragments. Parts of 54 lines, of which only one line is complete, are known, preserved on a second century AD papyrus discovered at Oxyrhynchus, PSI 1090. Three other fragments of hexameter poetry attributed to Erinna survive, two quoted by Stobaeus and one by Athenaeus. One of the quotations in Stobaeus matches up with line 46 of PSI 1090; both of the other fragments also probably come from Distaff. Another papyrus fragment, Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 8, was identified by Maurice Bowra as possibly being from Distaff; however Martin Litchfield West dismisses this on dialectical grounds. In the first half of the long surviving fragment of the Distaff, the narrator recalls her childhood with Baucis. She speaks of a game the two played, described by Julius Pollux, who calls it chelichelone ("torty-tortoise"), and of their fear of Mormo, a Greek bogeywoman. Following this, there is a short section on Baucis' forgetfulness – the text is fragmentary, but possibly the narrator is saying that when she married, Baucis forgot the childhood which has just been described. Finally, there is a reference to the narrator's inability to view a corpse, and two mentions of the word aidos ("shame") – presumably Baucis has died, and the narrator is ashamed that she cannot mourn her friend. At this point the text becomes too fragmentary to reconstruct it further. The Distaff is a literary version of the goos – the lament chanted by the female relatives of the deceased during the prothesis (laying out the body). Earlier literary depictions of the goos, also in hexameter verse, are found in the Iliad, and several scholars have seen Erinna's poem as making use of this literary precedent. Marilyn Skinner identifies three examples of the goos in the Iliad: Briseis' lament for Patroclus, Andromache's on seeing Achilles dragging Hector's corpse around the walls of Troy, and the lament sung by Andromache, Hecuba, and Helen at Hector's wake. Skinner identifies "marked thematic and verbal correspondences" between the Distaff and the songs of mourning in the Iliad. For instance, Erinna's recollections of her early life with Baucis parallel Andromache's of her son's interactions with Hector, and Helen's of Hector supporting her when she first came to Troy. Diane Rayor specifically identifies Briseis' lament as a model for the Distaff. Along with Homer, the other major literary influence on Erinna's Distaff was Sappho. Kathryn Gutzwiller has argued that this incorporation of Sapphic themes into a poem of lamentation is Erinna's way of feminising a work based on a Homeric model. John Rauk notes particular similarities with fragment 94, with both works on themes of remembrance and forgetting. Diane Rayor, however, rejects this, disputing Rauk's belief that Sappho 94 is a farewell to a companion who is leaving to marry. ### Epigrams Along with the fragments of the Distaff, three epigrams attributed to Erinna survive. These are in the Doric dialect, and all three are preserved in the Greek Anthology. Two of these are, like Distaff, about the death of Baucis; the third, which is similar to poems by Nossis, is about a portrait of a girl called Agatharchis. The two Baucis-epigrams are in the style of ancient epitaphs, though the fact there are two suggests that neither was in fact written as a tomb inscription. The authorship of these is disputed: Rauk and West both argue that none of the epigrams were authored by Erinna. Rauk suggests that the two Baucis-epigrams were written by later authors as a tribute to Erinna, and West notes that there is nothing in the epigrams which the authors could not have learnt from Distaff. The third epigram is described by Rauk as a "commonplace", containing "nothing to support Erinna's authorship", and West suggests that Nossis is a more likely author. On the other hand, Sarah Pomeroy argues for Erinna's authorship of all three epigrams, and Jane McIntosh Snyder describes them as "probably by Erinna". Other scholars, including Sylvia Barnard, Elizabeth Manwell, and Diane Rayor, accept the epigrams as being authored by Erinna without explicitly addressing the dispute. ## Reception In antiquity, Erinna was highly regarded; the only Greek woman poet to be better thought of was Sappho, though today she is little-known. Antipater of Thessalonica included her in his list of "nine earthly muses". Several other epigrams collected in the Greek Anthology praise her, and in Meleager's "Garland" her work is compared to the "sweet, maidenly coloured crocus". The only negative ancient testimony about Erinna comes from an epigram by Antiphanes (AP 11.322), which itself attests to Erinna's high reputation among the followers of Callimachus. All of this ancient testimony about Erinna suggests that she was a major figure in Hellenistic poetry. From the early modern period, Erinna was frequently associated with Sappho: Mademoiselle de Scudéry portrayed Sappho encouraging Erinna to write poetry in "Sapho à Erinna"; Eduard Mörike characterised the two as friends in "Erinna an Sappho"; Rainer Maria Rilke's "Sappho an Eranna" and "Eranna an Sappho" together make up a dialogue between the poets; Estelle Anna Lewis's Sappho portrays Erinna as a confidante of Sappho; and Simeon Solomon's painting Sappho and Erinna in a Garden at Mytilene shows the two as lovers. Others were influenced by Erinna's lament for Baucis to deal with death as a theme: Johann Gottfried Herder's poem "Erinna" addresses the poet's early death, while Nicolò Fontei's song "Pianto d'Erinna" has Erinna mourn a male lover. Today, so little of Erinna's work survives that it is difficult to judge her poetry, though what has survived of Distaff does, according to Ian Plant, bear out the poem's ancient reputation. In addition, Eva Stehle sees Erinna's poetry as significant as one of the very few sources of evidence about the relationship between mothers and daughters in the ancient Greek world. Erinna has also been read by feminist scholars as part of a female poetic tradition in ancient Greece, along with others including Sappho and Nossis.
39,549,726	Tropical Storm Clotilda	1,137,214,473	Indian ocean tropical storm in 1987	[ "1986–87 Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclone season", "South-West Indian Ocean severe tropical storms", "Tropical cyclones in 1987", "Tropical cyclones in the Mascarene Islands" ]	Tropical Storm Clotilda was a destructive tropical cyclone that inundated Réunion in February 1987. A tropical disturbance first formed between Madagascar and Réunion on February 9 and slowly intensified thereafter. While meandering, the storm fluctuated in intensity before it reached its peak intensity on February 13, with winds of 110 km/h (70 mph). After passing near Réunion, it began to weaken. On February 16, however, Clotilda began to regain strength, and reached its secondary peak on February 17. Two days later, Clotilda became an extratropical cyclone. By February 22, Clotilda was no long being tracked by meteorologists. While active, it brought torrential rains to the island of Réunion during a span of 72 hours. A total of 1,855 mm (73.0 in) of rain was recorded in La Plaine-des-Palmistes; rainfall totals occasionally exceeded the totals measured during Cyclone Hyacinthe, the last major storm to affect Réunion. However, the peak total measured in Hyacinthe was lower than the total measured during Clotilda. Furthermore, about 250 homes were damaged and roughly 120 homes were destroyed. Eighty-nine trees were also brought down during the storm. Throughout the island, damage totaled \$2 million (1987 USD) and 10 people were killed. In addition to the destruction on Réunion, 5% of crops on Mauritius were impacted by the storm. During the aftermath of the cyclone, 1,000 people on Réunion were evacuated to shelters. ## Meteorological history The tropical disturbance that would later become Clotilda was first warned on by Météo-France's (MFR) meteorological office at Réunion at 0600 UTC on February 9. At this time, it was located about 500 km (310 mi) from Réunion. Initially moving south, the storm maintained its intensity for 24 hours before it was upgraded into a moderate tropical storm, with winds of 65 km/h (40 mph). However, the strengthening trend was short lived, and several hours later, MFR downgraded Clotilda into a tropical depression as it began to meander. At 0600 UTC on February 11, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued its first warning on the system. That day, Clotilda began to re-intensify and MFR upgraded Clotilda into a moderate tropical storm for the second time. At 1200 UTC that day, the JTWC reported that Clotilda developed gale-force winds. Data from both agencies suggest that the storm held on to its intensity for about a day before gradually intensifying while turning east, passing within 80 km (50 mi) Réunion. At 1800 UTC on February 12, the JTWC reported that Clotilda had reached its peak intensity of 85 km/h (55 mph) while MFR upgraded Clotilda into a severe tropical storm. The following day, MFR noted that Severe Tropical Storm Clotilda had reached its peak 10-minute sustained wind speed of 110 km/h (70 mph) while undergoing a small clockwise loop, passing about 155 km (95 mi) east of Mauritius. After peaking in intensity, Severe Tropical Storm Clotilda began to weaken; by February 13, the JTWC had reassessed the intensity of the system to 70 km/h (45 mph). Moreover, MFR reduced to intensity of Clotilda to 155 km/h (95 mph) the next day. Now moving west and away from the island of Reunion, the storm continued to deteriorate, and early on February 15, the JTWC downgraded the system into a tropical depression while centered 560 km (350 mi) west-southwest of Mauritius. Very early on February 16, the JTWC dropped advisories on the system even though MFR was still reporting winds of 65 km/h (40 mph). Thereafter, Clotilda turned west and began to reintensify. Late on February 17, the cyclone reached its secondary peak of 95 km/h (60 mph) while located 1,210 km (750 mi) south-southeast of Réunion. Accelerating, the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on February 19 while turning south and later southeast. At 0000 UTC on February 22, MFR at last stopped monitoring the system. ## Impact and aftermath Clotilda affected Mauritius on February 13 and 14, with winds of up to 145 km/h (90 mph), heavy rain and high seas. This resulted in several homes being flooded and about 5% of the island's sugar crop being damaged. Due to the storm's slow motion, Cyclone Clotilda brought torrential rains to the island of Réunion during a span of three days. 1,855 mm (75 in) of rain was recorded in La Plaine-des-Palmistes, compared to the 1,716 mm (67.6 in) of rain measured at that same location during Cyclone Hyacinthe, the last major storm to affect the region. However, this total was significantly less than the peak total of 6,083 mm (239.5 in) recorded at Commerson during Hyacinthe. Throughout the island, rainfall totals usually exceeded the totals measured during Hyacinthe. Major flooding was reported, damaging many roads, and 89 trees fell during the storm. A total 250 dwellings were damaged and nearly 120 others were completely destroyed, with several completely destroyed. This left around 4,000 people homeless. The north side of the island as well as the capital city of Saint Denis took the brunt of the cyclone; wind gusts of 170 km/h (105 mph) were measured there. In all, damage from the storm totaled \$2 million (1987 USD). A total of 40,000 people were affected by the storm. Clotilda killed 10 people on the island. Following the storm on Réunion, "tens of millions of francs" were needed to repair damaged roads. Furthermore, 1,000 people moved to emergency shelters. On February 18, 250,000 Euros were granted to nation to cope with the aftermath of Clotilda. According to one account, it took five days for most food items to be restored to the island. ## See also - Tropical cyclones in the Mascarene Islands - Cyclone Hyacinthe - Cyclone Dina
13,579,738	Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)	1,135,336,033	null	[ "2000s ballads", "2007 singles", "2007 songs", "Children in Need singles", "Music videos directed by Anthony Mandler", "Pop ballads", "Songs about fame", "Songs about friendship", "Songs written by Emma Bunton", "Songs written by Geri Halliwell", "Songs written by Matt Rowe (songwriter)", "Songs written by Mel B", "Songs written by Melanie C", "Songs written by Richard Stannard (songwriter)", "Songs written by Victoria Beckham", "Spice Girls songs", "Virgin Records singles" ]	"Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" is a song by English girl group the Spice Girls for their greatest hits album Greatest Hits (2007). It was written by the Spice Girls, Richard Stannard and Matt Rowe, whilst produced by the latter two. It was released as the only single from the album on 5 November 2007 by Virgin Records. The song was the first commercial single release to feature the group's original lineup since Geri Halliwell left in 1998. It was also the official Children in Need single of 2007. It is their last studio single to date. "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" is a midtempo ballad, which lyrically talks about the group reuniting, and about their friendship throughout two decades together. The song received generally mixed reviews from music critics, with some calling it a "classic" from the group, while others felt it was not good enough. "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" was a moderate success worldwide, peaking at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart, becoming the group's first single not to peak inside the top ten. Nevertheless, the single managed to reach number three on the UK Physical Singles Chart. It reached the top five in Italy, Spain and Sweden. An accompanying music video for "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" was directed by Anthony Mandler at Pinewood Studios and premiered in early November 2007. The video depicts the girls in a stately room, with plum-coloured walls and antique furniture, wearing gowns designed by Roberto Cavalli. "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" was performed by the group at the 2007 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show and Children in Need 2007, as well as on their reunion tour, The Return of the Spice Girls Tour (2007–2008). ## Background The plan of a Spice Girls' reunion was first confirmed by Mel B in June 2005. She stated, "We'll get back together because we all want to. I know everyone is up for it. There is going to be a greatest hits album and we've got loads of new songs that nobody has heard yet." On 28 June 2007, the group held a press conference at The O2 Arena revealing their intention to reunite. During the conference, the group confirmed their intention to embark upon a worldwide concert tour, starting in Vancouver on 2 December 2007. "I want to be a Spice Girl again. We are like sisters and we have our arguments, but by the end of the day we get back together", said Emma Bunton, while Melanie Chisholm commented that the tour "will be a proper good farewell to our fans". Initially, singer George Michael agreed to write a comeback song for them, but took longer than expected, prompting Halliwell and Bunton to write another one instead. The group's comeback single, "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)", was announced as the official Children in Need charity single for 2007, and released on radio on 23 October, whilst released digitally on 5 November and commercially on 19 November 2007. Geri Halliwell described the single as a "big love song" and "a Spice Girl classic". Chisholm, in her 2008 appearance on Never Mind the Buzzcocks, commented that she thought the song was not good at all, and that at least she was against the release of any new material when the record company was trying to market the Greatest Hits release. She would later say, "'Headlines' grew on me, it really came in to its own when we toured it, and it really felt lovely on stage". ## Composition "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" was written by the Spice Girls, along with Richard Stannard and Matt Rowe, who also produced the song. Musically, "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" is a midtempo pop ballad. It is written in the key of D-flat Major, and moves at a slow tempo of 76 beats per minute. Lyrically, it talks about the group reuniting, mainly discussing their friendship throughout two decades together. They sing: "Let's make the headlines/loud and true/I wanna tell the world I'm giving it all to you/Let's make the headlines/loud and clear/the best things only happen when you are near". The song is built around an acoustic guitar, syncopated rhythms, and lilting croon-styled vocals. The subtitle references a line from their breakthrough hit, "Wannabe". According to Spence D. from IGN, the song "pretty much fits the mold of the Girls previous outings of this down tempo variety", like "2 Become 1" and "Viva Forever". He commented, "if it hadn't been singled out as a new track you'd easily swear that it was a "lost" B-side from one of their previous albums". For Nick Levine from Digital Spy, "The Spice Girls' comeback single is as hip and modern as Jeremy Clarkson's dress sense: the simple drum loop could have been laid down while they were recording their debut album; the flamenco guitar riffs are pure 'Viva Forever'; and, nine years down the line, Mel C is still taking on all the money notes, adding some real oomph to the middle 8". ## Reception ### Critical response "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" has received generally mixed reviews from music critics. Talia Kraines, writing for BBC Music was positive in her review, and called the song a "classic Spice ballad". According to a writer from The Daily Collegian, "for the naysayers, who say the Spice Girls time has passed, two new tunes, "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" and "Voodoo" may grab your attention". Nick Levine from Digital Spy commented in his positive review, "'Headlines' won't be the first tune you skip to on the Spice Girls' Greatest Hits album – or, in all honesty, the tenth – but, as its pretty, gently melodic chorus surges gracefully, the feeling that comes over you is unmistakable. Nostalgia's a funny old thing, isn't it?" NME gave it a mixed review, and said "new ballad "Headlines" is functional but lacks a certain, ahem, zig-a-zig aaaaaaargh." Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave it a mixed review, commenting that, along with "Voodoo", it was "forgettable" and a "sleepy" song. The reviewer also said that the song "isn't as self-referential or clever as its title suggests". However, Rosie Swash from The Guardian provided a negative review, stating, "the Spice Girls have never been the most sincere bunch of women and between an entirely forgettable melody and lyrics that go round in circles of crap about reaching into your soul and the time being now or never", completing that the biggest sound the song made was "the echo of total hollowness". ### Commercial performance "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" was first released in the United Kingdom. The song debuted at number 20 on 17 November 2007 on the UK Singles Chart, based on digital downloads. Two weeks later, the song climbed to its peak position of number 11, becoming the group's first single to miss the top two. Nevertheless, the single managed to reach number three on the UK Physical Singles Chart. The song debuted and peaked at number 90 on the US Billboard Hot 100, staying on the charts only for the week of 24 November 2007. "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" debuted at number 42 on the Canadian Hot 100, spending one week on the chart. The song debuted at number 67 on the Austrian Singles Chart, the group's lowest-charting single in that country. The song debuted at number 52 on the Dutch Single Top 100 on 17 November 2007. It slipped to number 93 the following week, thus becoming the group's third single to miss the top 10 in that country. On 15 November 2007, "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" debuted at number three on the Swedish Singles Chart, the Spice Girls' highest-charting single since 1998's "Goodbye". The song stayed on the charts for five weeks. The song was also successful in Italy and Spain, peaking at number two in both countries. ## Music video On 15 October 2007 episode of Dancing with the Stars, it was confirmed by Mel B that the Spice Girls would be filming a music video for "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" the following week. The filming took place at Pinewood Studios in Iver Heath, England, on 19 October 2007, and was directed by Anthony Mandler. Mel B commented, "We had such a laugh. It was great to be together again", and Victoria Beckham noted, "What's really wonderful is just being able to hang out with the girls again like this". A world exclusive screening of the video, which launched the run-up to the Children in Need night, aired on BBC One on 2 November 2007. The video opens on a stately room, with plum-coloured walls and antique furniture. Bunton opens a large, black door and is followed by Halliwell, Beckham, Mel B and Chisholm. The girls are dressed in beautiful gowns throughout the video, presumably designed by Roberto Cavalli, who designed the costumes for their then-upcoming tour. Vignettes of the girls singing together and separately are sewn together to create a collage. Fading in and out, the music video ends with the girls combined although they are at different places. ## Live performances In November 2007, the group performed together for the first time in nearly a decade at the 2007 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show, held in Los Angeles, California. The group dressed in military-themed outfits performed their old hit single "Stop" miming to a backing track, in front of giant glittering lights that spelled out "Spice" in the background. Then they performed "Headlines", wearing gowns from Roberto Cavalli, but the performance was excluded from the TV broadcast for unknown reasons. A taped performance of the group lyp-synching the song aired on 17 November 2007 for the Children in Need 2007 marathon. For this performance the singers sang the song wearing 1930s long gowns, with Halliwell in a fuchsia satin number and Chisholm dressed in black. "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" was also performed on their reunion tour, titled The Return of the Spice Girls Tour (2007–2008). Kitty Empire from The Observer reviewed the performance negatively, saying the song was "so unworthy of headlines that not even their fans have bought it". David Sinclair, whilst writing for The Sunday Times, also commented that "the pace flagged briefly with Headlines (Friendship Never Ends), the rather drab new song, which was accompanied by excerpts from its ill-judged promotional video". In 2019, Bunton confirmed to The Guardian that they would not perform the song on the Spice World – 2019 Tour. ## Track listings - Digital download 1. "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" (radio version) – 3:29 - CD single 1. "Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)" – 3:30 2. "Wannabe" (Soul Seekerz 2007 Remix) – 6:55 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Greatest Hits. ### Management - Published by Kobalt Music/Sony/ATV Music Publishing/Copyright Control/Peer Music (UK) Ltd. ### Personnel - Spice Girls – vocals - Matt Rowe – production - Richard Stannard – production - Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing ## Charts ## Release history
24,472,842	Mycena sanguinolenta	1,098,858,510	Species of fungus	[ "Bioluminescent fungi", "Fungi described in 1805", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of North America", "Mycena", "Taxa named by Johannes Baptista von Albertini", "Taxa named by Lewis David de Schweinitz" ]	Mycena sanguinolenta, commonly known as the bleeding bonnet, the smaller bleeding Mycena, or the terrestrial bleeding Mycena, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is a common and widely distributed species, and has been found in North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. The fungus produces reddish-brown to reddish-purple fruit bodies with conic to bell-shaped caps up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide held by slender stipes up to 6 cm (2.4 in) high. When fresh, the fruit bodies will "bleed" a dark reddish-purple sap. The similar Mycena haematopus is larger, and grows on decaying wood, usually in clumps. M. sanguinolenta contains alkaloid pigments that are unique to the species, may produce an antifungal compound, and is bioluminescent. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined. ## Taxonomy First called Agaricus sanguinolentus by Johannes Baptista von Albertini, the species was transferred to the genus Mycena in 1871 by German Paul Kummer, when he raised many of Fries' "tribes" to the rank of genus. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word sanguinolentus and means "bloody". It is commonly known as the "bleeding bonnet" the "smaller bleeding Mycena", or the "terrestrial bleeding Mycena". The fungus is classified in the section Lactipedes along with other latex-producing species. A molecular phylogenetic analysis of several dozen European Mycena species suggests that M. sanguinolenta is closely related to . Other phylogenically related species include and . ## Description The cap of M. sanguinolenta is either convex or conic when young, with its margin pressed against the stipe. As it expands, it becomes broadly convex or bell-shaped, ultimately reaching a diameter of 3–15 mm (0.1–0.6 in). The surface is initially covered with a dense whitish-grayish coating or powder that is produced by delicate microscopic cells, but these cells soon collapse and disappear, leaving the surface naked and smooth. The surface is moist with an opaque margin that soon developing furrows. The cap color is variable but always some shade of bright or dull reddish brown with a dull grayish-brown margin. The flesh is thin, not very fragile, sordid reddish, and exudes a reddish latex when cut. The odor and taste are not distinctive. The gills are adnate or slightly toothed, and well-spaced. They are narrow to moderately broad, sordid reddish to grayish, with even edges that are dark reddish brown. The stipe is 2–6 cm (0.8–2.4 in) long, 1–1.5 mm thick, equal in width throughout, and fragile. The base of the stipe is covered with coarse, stiff white hairs, while the remainder is covered with a drab powder that soon sloughs off to leave the stipe polished, and more or less the same color as the cap. It also exudes a bright or dull-red juice when cut or broken. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown—but it is considered too insubstantial to be of culinary interest. The spores are 8–10 by 4–5 μm, roughly ellipsoid, and only weakly amyloid. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) four-spored (occasionally two- or three-spored). The pleurocystidia (cystidia on the face of a gill) are rare to scattered or sometimes quite abundant, narrowly to broadly ventricose, measuring 36–54 by 8–13 μm. They are filled with a sordid-reddish substance. The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) are similar to the pleurocystidia or shorter and more obese, and very abundant. The flesh if the gill is made of broad hyphae the cells of which are often vesiculose (covered with vesicles) in age, and stain pale reddish brown in iodine. The flesh of the cap is covered with a thin pellicle, and the hypoderm (the layer of cells immediately underneath the pellicle) is moderately well-differentiated. The remainder of the cap flesh is floccose and filamentous, and all except the pellicle stain pale vinaceous-brown in iodine. Lactiferous (latex-producing) hyphae are abundant. ### Similar species The other "bleeding Mycena" () is readily distinguished from M. sanguinolenta by its larger size, different color, growth on rotting wood, and presence of a sterile band of tissue on the margin of the cap. Further, M. sanguinolenta consistently has red-edged gills, while the gill edges of M. haematopus are more variable. The similarly named has red to orange juice, is slightly yellower, and does not have pleurocystidia. has a similar furrowed cap, but also has a tough stipe and does not ooze liquid when injured. Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith has noted a "striking" resemblance to , but this species has different colors (pale vinaceous brown or sordid brown when faded), produces uncolored latex, and does not have differently-colored gill edges. ## Distribution and habitat Mycena sanguinolenta is common and widely distributed. It has been found from Maine to Washington and south to North Carolina and California in the United States, and from Nova Scotia to British Columbia in Canada. In Jamaica, it has been collected at an elevation of 1,800 m (5,900 ft). The distribution includes Europe (Britain, Germany, The Netherlands, Norway, Romania and Sweden) and Australia. In Asia, it has been collected from the alpine zone of the Changbai Mountains in Jilin Province, China, and from the provinces of Ōmi and Yamashiro in Japan. The fruit bodies grow in groups on leaf mold, moss beds, or needle carpets during the spring and fall. It is common in forests of fir and beech, and prefers to grow in soil of high acidity. ## Chemistry The fruit bodies of Mycena sanguinolenta contain the blue alkaloid pigments, sanguinones A and B, unique to this species. It also has the red-colored alkaloid sanguinolentaquinone. The sanguinones are structurally related to mycenarubin A, made by M. rosea, and the discorhabins, a series of compounds produced by marine sponges. Although the function of the sanguinones is not known, it has been suggested that they may have "an ecological role ... beyond their contribution to the color of the fruiting bodies, ... since predators rarely feed on fruiting bodies". When grown in pure culture in the laboratory, the fungus produces the antifungal compound hydroxystrobilurin-D. M. sanguinolenta is one of over 30 Mycena species that is bioluminous. ## See also - List of bioluminescent fungi
10,789,602	Nakam	1,171,517,942	Jewish partisan militia	[ "Anti-German sentiment", "Chemical warfare", "Collective punishment", "History of Nuremberg", "Jewish ethics", "Jewish partisans", "Nakam", "Nazi hunters", "Revenge" ]	Nakam (Hebrew: נקם, 'revenge') was a paramilitary organization of about fifty Holocaust survivors who, after 1945, sought revenge for the murder of six million Jews during the Holocaust. Led by Abba Kovner, the group sought to kill six million Germans in a form of indiscriminate revenge, "a nation for a nation". Kovner went to Mandatory Palestine in order to secure large quantities of poison for poisoning water mains to kill large numbers of Germans. His followers infiltrated the water system of Nuremberg. However, Kovner was arrested upon arrival in the British zone of occupied Germany and had to throw the poison overboard. Following this failure, Nakam turned their attention to "Plan B", targeting German prisoners of war held by the United States military in the American zone. They obtained arsenic locally and infiltrated the bakeries that supplied these prison camps. The conspirators poisoned 3,000 loaves of bread at Konsum-Genossenschaftsbäckerei (Consumer Cooperative Bakery) in Nuremberg, which sickened more than 2,000 German prisoners of war at Langwasser internment camp. However, no known deaths can be attributed to the group. Although Nakam is considered by some to have been a terrorist organization, German public prosecutors dismissed a case against two of its members in 2000 due to the "unusual circumstances". ## Background During the Holocaust, Nazi Germany, its allies and collaborators murdered about six million Jews, by a variety of methods, including mass shootings and gassing. Many survivors, having lost their entire families and communities, had difficulty imagining a return to a normal life. The desire for revenge, either against Nazi war criminals or the entire German people, was widespread. From late 1942, as news of the Holocaust arrived in Mandatory Palestine, Jewish newspapers were full of calls for retribution. One of the leaders of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising, Yitzhak Zuckerman, later said he "didn't know a Jew who wasn't obsessed with revenge". However, very few survivors acted on these fantasies, instead focusing on rebuilding their lives and communities and commemorating those who had perished. In all, Israeli historian Dina Porat estimates that about 200 or 250 Holocaust survivors attempted to exact violent revenge, of which Nakam was a significant portion. Including assassinations carried out by Mossad, these operations claimed the lives of as many as 1,000 to 1,500 people. ## Formation In 1945, Abba Kovner, after visiting the site of the Ponary massacre and the extermination camp at Majdanek, and meeting survivors of Auschwitz in Romania, decided to take revenge. He recruited about 50 Holocaust survivors, mostly former Jewish partisans, but including a few who had escaped to the Soviet Union. Recruited for their ability to live undercover and not break down, most were in their early twenties and hailed from Vilnius, Rovno, Częstochowa, or Kraków. Generally known as Nakam ("revenge"), the organization used the Hebrew name דין (Din, "judgement"), also an acronym of דם ישראל נוטר (Dam Yisrael Noter, "the blood of Israel avenges"). The group's members believed that the defeat of Nazi Germany did not mean that Jews were safe from another Holocaust-level genocide. Kovner believed that a proportional revenge, killing six million Germans, was the only way to teach enemies of the Jews that they could not act with impunity: "The act should be shocking. The Germans should know that after Auschwitz there can be no return to normality." According to survivors, Kovner's "hypnotic" eloquence put words to the emotions that they were feeling. Members of the group believed that the laws of the time were unable to adequately punish such an extreme event as the Holocaust and that the complete moral bankruptcy of the world could be cured only by catastrophic retributive violence. Porat hypothesizes that Nakam was "a necessary stage" before the embittered survivors would be prepared "to return to a life of society and laws". The group's leaders formed two plans: Plan A, to kill a large number of Germans, and Plan B, to poison several thousand SS prisoners held in United States prisoner of war camps. From Romania Kovner's group traveled to Italy, where Kovner received a warm reception from Jewish Brigade soldiers who wanted him to help organize Aliyah Bet (illegal immigration to Mandate Palestine). Kovner refused because he was already set on revenge. Nakam developed a network of underground cells and immediately set out raising money, infiltrating German infrastructure, and securing poison. The group received a large supply of German-forged British currency from a Hashomer Hatzair emissary, forced speculators to contribute, and also obtained some money from sympathizers in the Jewish Brigade. ## Plan A (planned mass poisoning in Nuremberg) Joseph Harmatz, posing as a Polish displaced person (DP) named "Maim Mendele", attempted to infiltrate the municipal water supply in Nuremberg; Nakam targeted the city because it had been the stronghold of the Nazi Party. Harmatz had difficulty finding rooms for the conspirators to rent due to the housing shortage caused by the destruction of most of the city by Allied bombing. Through the use of bribes, he managed to place Willek Schwerzreich (Wilek Shinar), an engineer from Kraków who spoke fluent German, in a position with the municipal water company. Schwarzreich obtained the plan of the water system and control of the main water valve, and plotted where the poison should be introduced so as to kill the largest possible number of Germans. In Paris, Pasha Reichman [de; he] was in charge of a Nakam cell including Vitka Kempner, Kovner's future wife and former comrade in the Vilna Ghetto underground. Reichman reportedly spoke to David Ben-Gurion during the latter's trip to a DP camp in Germany, but the latter preferred to work towards Israeli independence than seek revenge for the Holocaust. It fell to Kovner to obtain the poison from leaders in the Yishuv, the Jewish leadership in Mandatory Palestine. In July 1945, Kovner left the Jewish Brigade for Milan, disguising himself as a Jewish Brigade soldier on leave, and boarded a ship for Palestine the following month. Reichman became leader in Europe in his absence. Upon reaching Palestine, Kovner was held for three days in an apartment by the Mossad LeAliyah Bet and was personally interrogated by Mossad chief Shaul Meirov. Kovner negotiated with Haganah chiefs Moshe Sneh and Israel Galilee in hopes of convincing them to give him poison for a smaller revenge operation in return for not linking the murder to the Yishuv. In September, Kovner informed Nakam in Europe that he had not had any success in locating poison, and therefore they should recruit Yitzhak Ratner, a chemist and former Vilna Ghetto insurgent, and focus on Plan B. Kovner was eventually introduced to Ephraim and Aharon Katzir, chemists at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, via one of their students who was a member of the Haganah. The Katzir brothers were sympathetic to Kovner's revenge plot and convinced the head of chemical storage at the Hebrew University to give him poison. Decades after the fact, Kovner claimed that he had pitched Plan B to Chaim Weizmann, then president of the World Zionist Organization, who had directed him to the Katzir brothers. However, according to his biographer, if Kovner met Weizmann at all it was in February or March 1946, as Weizmann was out of the country before that. After several delays, Kovner traveled to Alexandria, Egypt, in December 1945 carrying false papers that identified him as a Jewish Brigade soldier returning from leave, and a duffel bag with gold hidden in toothpaste tubes and cans full of poison. Shortly after boarding a ship headed to Toulon, France, Kovner's name along with three others was called over the public address system. Kovner told a friend, Yitzik Rosenkranz, to convey the duffel bag to Kempner in Paris, and then threw half the poison overboard. After this, he turned himself in and was arrested by the British police. Nakam members later claimed that Kovner had been betrayed by the Haganah, but Porat writes that it is more likely that he was arrested as a suspected organizer of Aliyah Bet. Kovner, who spoke no English and had not attended the Jewish Brigade training, was not questioned about Nakam; after two months in jails in Egypt and Palestine, he was released. His involvement in Nakam ended at that time. ## Plan B (mass poisoning of SS prisoners) Because Kovner had not managed to secure the quantity of poison required, the Nuremberg cell decided to switch to poisoning SS prisoners definitively during the first months of 1946. Most of the Nakam action groups disbanded as ordered and their members dispersed into displaced persons camps, promised by the leaders that in future they would be reactivated to implement Plan A. The cells in Nuremberg and Dachau remained active because of the large United States prisoner of war camps nearby. Yitzhak Ratner was recruited into the group to obtain poison locally. In October 1945, he set up a laboratory in the Nakam headquarters in Paris, where he tested various formulations in order to find a tasteless, odorless poison that would have delayed effects. Ratner eventually formulated a mixture of arsenic, glue, and other additives which could be painted onto loaves of bread; tests on cats proved the lethality of the mixture. He obtained more than 18 kilograms (40 lb) of arsenic from friends who worked in the tanning industry, which was smuggled into Germany. Nakam focused on Langwasser internment camp near Nuremberg (formerly Stalag XIII-D), where 12,000 to 15,000 prisoners, mainly former SS officers or prominent Nazis, were imprisoned by the United States. Initially, two Nakam members were hired by the camp, one as a driver, another as a storehouse worker. The bread for Langwasser came from a single bakery in Nuremberg, the Konsum-Genossenschaftsbäckerei (Consumer Cooperative Bakery). Leipke Distel, a survivor of several Nazi concentration camps, posed as a Polish displaced person awaiting a visa to work at an uncle's bakery in Canada. He asked the manager if he could work for free and eventually secured access to the bakery storeroom after bribing him with cigarettes, alcohol, and chocolate. The Nakam operatives met each night in a rented room in Fürth to discuss their findings, especially how to confine their attack to the German prisoners and avoid harming the American guards. When Harmatz placed a few of the workers in clerical positions in the camp, they discovered that on Sundays, the black bread would be eaten only by the German prisoners because the American guards were specially issued white bread. Therefore, they decided to execute the attack on a Saturday night. Similar preparations were made with regard to a prison camp near Dachau and the bakery supplying it, an effort led by Warsaw Ghetto uprising veteran Simcha Rotem. After becoming friends with Poles who worked in the bakery, Rotem got the manager drunk, made copies of his keys, and then returned them before he sobered up. A few days before the planned attack, Reichman received a tip-off from a Jewish intelligence officer in the United States Army that two of the operatives were wanted by the police. As ordered, the Dachau Nakam operatives aborted on 11 April 1946. Reichman feared that the failure of one attack would cause the United States to increase its security measures at prison camps, preventing a second attack. By this time, six Nakam members worked at the Konsum-Genossenschaftsbäckerei in Nuremberg. Subverting tight security aimed at preventing the theft of food, they smuggled the arsenic in over several days, hiding it under raincoats, and stashed it beneath the floorboards. Because experiments had shown that the arsenic mixture did not spread evenly, the operatives decided to paint it onto the bottom of each loaf. On Saturday 13 April, the bakery workers were on strike, delaying the Nakam operatives and preventing three of them from entering the bakery. As a result, Distel and his two accomplices had only enough time to poison some 3,000 loaves of bread instead of 14,000 as originally planned. After painting the loaves, they fled to Czechoslovakia, helped by an Auschwitz survivor named Yehuda Maimon, continuing on through Italy to southern France. On 23 April 1946, The New York Times reported that 2,283 German prisoners of war had fallen ill from poisoning, with 207 hospitalized and seriously ill. However, the operation ultimately caused no known deaths. According to documents obtained by a Freedom of Information request to the National Archives and Records Administration, the amount of arsenic found in the bakery was enough to kill approximately 60,000 persons. It is unknown why the poisoners failed, but it is suspected to be either that they spread the poison too thinly, or else that the prisoners realized that the bread had been poisoned and did not eat very much. ## Aftermath and legacy About 30 former Nakam operatives boarded the ship Biriya on 23 June 1946 and arrived by the end of July following brief detention by the British authorities. They received a warm welcome at Kovner's kibbutz, Ein HaHoresh, from leading members of the Haganah and the Israeli Labor Party, and were invited to travel through the country. Although Kovner, and the majority of the operatives, considered that the time for revenge had passed, a small group led by Bolek Ben-Ya'akov returned to Europe to continue the mission. Nine other Nakam operatives broke away in the spring of 1947 and returned to Europe the following year, helped by Labor Party politician Abba Hushi. The breakaway groups faced mounting challenges, both logistical and financial, and the foundation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 made illegal operations even more difficult. Many of the members turned to a life of crime to support themselves, and then tried to escape from German jails with the help of former French Resistance members. Most returned to Israel between 1950 and 1952. Ben-Ya'akov said in an interview that he "could not have looked at himself in the mirror" if he had not tried to get revenge, and that he still deeply regretted that it did not succeed. After coming to Israel, former Nakam members refused to speak about their experiences for several decades, beginning to discuss the issue only in the 1980s. Porat writes that Kovner "committed political suicide" by participating in Nakam; she describes its failure as a "miracle." Members of the group showed no remorse, said that the Germans "deserved it," and wanted recognition, rather than forgiveness, for their actions. In 1999, Harmatz and Distel appeared in a documentary and discussed their role in Nakam. Distel maintained that Nakam's actions were moral and that the Jews "had a right to revenge against the Germans." German prosecutors opened an investigation against them for attempted murder, but halted the preliminary investigation in 2000 because of the "unusual circumstances." As of November 2019, four members of the group are reported to be still alive. ## Historiography and popular culture An early journalistic account of Nakam's mission is in Michael Bar-Zohar's 1969 book The Avengers. The story was given a fictionalized treatment in Forged in Fire by Michael Elkins in 1971. Jonathan Freedland's novel The Final Reckoning is based on the story. The story of Nakam has also entered German popular culture. In 2009, Daniel Kahn & the Painted Bird, a Germany-based klezmer band, recorded a song called "Six Million Germans (Nakam)". Based on tapes Kovner made on his deathbed describing his activities in Nakam, a television documentary was produced by Channel 4 for its Secret History series titled Holocaust – The Revenge Plot, which was first broadcast on Holocaust Memorial Day, 27 January 2018. According to Israeli terrorism experts Ehud Sprinzak and Idith Zertal, Nakam's worldview was similar to messianic groups or cults because of its belief that the world was so evil as to deserve large-scale catastrophe. Unlike most terrorist organizations which commit violence for political reasons and hope for a new, better future through terror, Nakam wanted to kill indiscriminately. The Nakam operatives came from "heavily brutalized communities" which, according to Sprinzak and Zertal, sometimes consider catastrophic violence. Dina Porat is the first academic historian to systematically study the group, meeting with many of the survivors and gaining access to their private documents. She hypothesizes that the failure of the attack may have been deliberate, as Kovner and other leaders began to realize that it could have greatly harmed the Jewish people. She struggled to reconcile the personalities of Nakam's members with the actions that they tried to carry out. When asked how he could plan an attack in which many innocent people would have been killed, one survivor explained that "[i]f you had been there with me, at the end of the war, you wouldn't talk that way". Porat's 2019 book on Nakam is titled Vengeance and Retribution Are Mine (לי נקם ושילם), a phrase from Deuteronomy which expresses her belief that the Jewish people are best to leave vengeance in the hands of the God of Israel. In 2021, the film Plan A, directed and produced by Doron Paz and Yoav Paz, adapted the plot for cinema.
101,375	New Jersey Route 49	1,161,140,975	State highway in southern, New Jersey, US	[ "State highways in New Jersey", "Transportation in Atlantic County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Cape May County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Cumberland County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Salem County, New Jersey" ]	Route 49 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs 53.80 mi (86.58 km) from an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike, Interstate 295 (I-295), and U.S. Route 40 (US 40) in Deepwater, Salem County, southeast to Route 50 and County Route 557 in Tuckahoe, Cape May County. The route serves Salem, Cumberland, Atlantic, and Cape May counties, passing through rural areas and the communities of Salem, Bridgeton, and Millville along the way. It is a two-lane, undivided road for most of its length. Route 49 was established in 1927 to run from Salem to Clermont, running along its present alignment between Salem and Millville, following current Route 47 between Millville and South Dennis, and running along present-day Route 83 between South Dennis and Clermont. It replaced a branch of pre-1927 Route 6 between Salem and Bridgeton and a part of pre-1927 Route 15 between Bridgeton and South Dennis. In 1953, Route 49 was routed onto its current alignment, replacing a part of Route 44 between Salem and Deepwater and following the former alignment of Route 47 between Millville and Tuckahoe. In the 1960s, a freeway was planned for Route 49 between Deepwater and Millville; it was never built. In the 2000s, many improvements have been or are being made to bridges along Route 49. ## Route description ### Salem County Route 49 heads southwest on Broadway from an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike, I-295, and US 40 in the community of Deepwater in Pennsville Township, Salem County near the Delaware Memorial Bridge. North of here, the road continues to the north as US 130. Route 49 passes through residential and commercial areas of Pennsville, turning to the south-southeast and passing west of Pennsville Memorial High School. The route intersects County Route 630 (Fort Mott Road) before it continues into farmland. Route 49 then intersects the southern terminus of County Route 551 (Hook Road and County Route 632 (Lighthouse Road). It crosses the Salem River into Salem and becomes Front Street. In Salem, the route intersects County Route 657 (Griffith Street) at a crossing of the SMS Rail Lines' Salem Branch line and makes a right turn. It turns left onto Broadway and forms the main business district of the town. In downtown Salem, Route 49 intersects County Route 625 (Chestnut Street), the southern terminus of Route 45 (Market Street), and County Route 665 (Walnut Street). It crosses County Route 658 (Keasbey Street/York Street) and enters Quinton Township, becoming Main Street and heading into agricultural areas. Route 49 heads east, meeting County Route 650 (Hancocks Bridge Road) and County Route 653 (Action Station Road). It crosses the Alloway Creek into the community of Quinton, where it intersects the southern terminus of County Route 581 (Quinton Alloway Road) and County Route 654 (Sickler Street). The route leaves Quinton and intersects County Route 626 (Jericho Road), continuing southeast into wooded areas, where Route 49 crosses County Route 667 (Pecks Corner Road) and County Route 647 (Telegraph Road/Jericho Road). ### Cumberland County Route 49 crosses a stream, Sarah Run, into Stow Creek Township, Cumberland County and heads into farmland as Shiloh Pike. Here, it crosses County Route 624 (Jericho Road) and County Route 617 (Columbia Highway). The route then intersects County Route 635 (Old Cohansey Road) and continues south along the border of Stow Creek Township to the west and Hopewell Township to the east, entering Shiloh at the intersection with Mill Road. In Shiloh, Route 49 meets County Route 620 (Roadstown Road) and County Route 753 (East Avenue/West Avenue) in the center of town and heads southeast, crossing County Route 695 (Maple Avenue/Randolph Road). The route enters Hopewell Township and intersects County Route 661 (Barretts Run Road). Past this intersection, Route 49 enters a more suburban landscape, crossing County Route 621 (W. Park Drive). The route enters Bridgeton and becomes West Broad Street. In Bridgeton, it intersects County Route 607 (West Avenue), County Route 650 (Fayette Street), and County Route 697 (Atlantic Street). Route 49 crosses the Cohansey River and comes to an intersection with Pearl Street, which heads to the north as Route 77 and to the south as County Route 609. Past Pearl Street, Route 49 intersects County Route 670 (East Commerce Street/Buckshutem Road) and crosses a Winchester and Western Railroad line as it continues to the east on East Commerce Street. It crosses County Route 638 (N. Burlington Road) and enters Fairfield Township. Route 49 continues east through a mix of woods and farms, intersecting County Route 553 (Gouldtown-Woodruff Road) and County Route 675 (Fordville-Gouldtown Road). It enters Millville and becomes Main Street, intersecting County Route 682 (Sugarman Avenue) and County Route 634 (Nabb Avenue). It intersects three more county routes, County Route 714 (Morias Avenue), County Route 625 (Hogbin Road), and County Route 712 (Reick Road), before heading into the city. It intersects County Route 608 (Carmel Road) and County Route 698 (Beech Street), County Route 667 (Sharp Street), and County Route 610 (Brandriff Avenue) before meeting County Route 555 (Cedar Street), which it forms a concurrency with. The route crosses the Maurice River and enters downtown Millville, where it intersects Route 47 (Second Street). Past Route 47, County Route 555 splits from Route 49 by turning north onto Third Street. Route 49 heads east through the eastern part of Millville, crossing a Winchester and Western Railroad line and intersecting County Route 678 (Wade Boulevard) before reaching an interchange with Route 55. Past Route 55, Route 49 heads southeast into woodland and crosses into Maurice River Township. In Maurice River Township, Route 49 intersects County Route 671 (Union Road), County Route 646 (Port Elizabeth-Cumberland Road), and County Route 644 (Hesstown Road). Route 49 eventually forms the border of Maurice River Township to the north and Upper Township, Cape May County to the south. ### Atlantic and Cape May counties Route 49 crosses the Tuckahoe River into Estell Manor, Atlantic County. It runs a short distance to the north of the Tuckahoe River and intersects County Route 649 (Aetna Avenue) and County Route 666 (Cape May Avenue) at Head of the River Church. The route crosses the Tuckahoe River into Upper Township, Cape May County and intersects the eastern terminus of County Route 548 (Tuckahoe Road), heading to the east. It intersects County Route 632 (Marshallville Road) and then comes to County Route 617 (Woodbine Road), which heads south to provide access to County Route 557. Route 49 continues east into Tuckahoe, where it comes to a bridge over the Beesleys Point Secondary railroad line operated by the Cape May Seashore Lines railroad and intersects County Route 659 (Railroad Avenue) before it ends at Route 50 and County Route 557. ## History The road from Millville to the east end of Bridgeton was maintained by the Bridgeton and Millville Turnpike, chartered in 1854. From the west end of Bridgeton to the Salem-Cumberland line, then called Marlborough, was built by the Shiloh Turnpike Company, chartered in 1866. From there to Quinton's Bridge, the road was maintained by the Marlborough and Quinton's Bridge Turnpike Company, chartered in 1864. The company was in business by at least 1920. Route 49 was legislated in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering to run from Route 45 in Salem to Route 4 (now U.S. Route 9) in Clermont. The route replaced a branch of pre-1927 Route 6 between Salem and Bridgeton and a part of pre-1927 Route 15 between Bridgeton and South Dennis. A spur route of Route 49, Route S49, was created in 1927 to run from Route 49 in South Dennis to Route 4 in Rio Grande along the remainder of pre-1927 Route 15. Route S49 was extended to Wildwood in 1938. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 49 was extended west along what was a part of Route 44 to Deepwater to end at U.S. Route 40 and U.S. Route 130 near the Delaware Memorial Bridge. The eastern part of the route was realigned to head from Millville east to Route 50 in Tuckahoe, replacing what had been the southern part of Route 47. Meanwhile, Route 47 was realigned to head south from Millville, replacing Route 49 from Millville to South Dennis and the length of Route S49. The portion of Route 49 from South Dennis to Clermont became Route 83. A freeway was proposed for Route 49 in the early 1960s, running from Interstate 295 and U.S. Route 40 at the Delaware Memorial Bridge to Route 55 in Millville. However, this freeway was canceled by 1967 as it closely paralleled the planned Route 60 freeway, which itself was never built. In the 2000s, construction has occurred to replace many bridges along Route 49. The drawbridge over the Salem River was replaced by a fixed span in the mid-2000s. On October 1, 2008, the bridge over the railroad line in Tuckahoe was closed for reconstruction and reopened in June 2009. The bridge over the Cohansey River in Bridgeton was also reconstructed. Construction on this bridge started in October 2008 and was completed in July 2009. ## Major intersections ## See also
3,644,499	Rockstar New England	1,170,049,300	American video game developer	[ "1999 establishments in Massachusetts", "2008 mergers and acquisitions", "American companies established in 1999", "Companies based in Essex County, Massachusetts", "Rockstar Games subsidiaries", "Software companies based in Massachusetts", "Take-Two Interactive divisions and subsidiaries", "Video game companies established in 1999", "Video game companies of the United States", "Video game development companies" ]	Rockstar New England, Inc. (formerly Mad Doc Software, LLC) is an American video game developer and a studio of Rockstar Games based in Andover, Massachusetts. Ian Lane Davis founded the company as Mad Doc Software in November 1999 after working as technical director for Activision. The studio worked with Activision on Star Trek: Armada before leading the development of its sequel, Star Trek: Armada II. From 2002 on, Mad Doc was the principal developer of the Empire Earth series, developing two games and two expansions. While the successful Empire Earth II landed the company publishing contracts with Rockstar Games and Bethesda Softworks, Empire Earth III was a critical and commercial failure and led to an end for the series. Mad Doc developed Star Trek: Legacy for Bethesda Softworks and Bully: Scholarship Edition for Rockstar Games. After the latter was released in March 2008, Rockstar Games' parent company, Take-Two Interactive, bought Mad Doc and made it part of Rockstar Games as Rockstar New England. Under Rockstar Games, the studio worked on a sequel to Bully until its developers were reallocated to projects like Max Payne 3. ## History ### Early years and Empire Earth (1999–2007) Rockstar New England was founded as Mad Doc Software by Ian Lane Davis. A native of Andover, Massachusetts, he first came into contact with video games while enrolled at Andover public schools in the late 1970s and early 1980s. He frequently visited arcades and, while at Doherty Junior High around 1982, Davis received his first computer, an Apple II Plus. Among his favorite games were Ultima, Wizardry, and One on One: Dr. J vs. Larry Bird. He later attended Phillips Academy until 1987, graduated from Dartmouth College with majors in mathematics, English, and computer science in 1991, and obtained a doctorate in artificial intelligence and robotics from Carnegie Mellon University in 1996. Davis landed his first job with the video game company Activision in Santa Monica, California, acting as technical director from 1996 to 1999. During this time, he worked on Dark Reign: The Future of War, Battlezone, Dark Reign: Rise of the Shadowhand, and Civilization: Call to Power. Davis left Activision to move back to Andover, where he founded Mad Doc in November 1999. With him as the only employee, the company took on contract work and consulting jobs to hire further staff. Despite being urged to do so by several people, Davis did not seek venture capital. Mad Doc's first projects were development support on Star Trek: Armada and additional programming and art for Call to Power II, both released by Activision. In 2000, the studio relocated to neighboring Lawrence, first occupying "cramped, temporary quarters" before it moved into 6,600 square feet (610 m<sup>2</sup>) of renovated office space on the fifth floor of the Everett Mills. Mad Doc was the first video game company in Lawrence, and Davis hoped its presence would attract more in the future, which ultimately did not happen. Nine months after its founding, Mad Doc had grown to employ ten people and began contacting publishers for development projects. It led the development of Star Trek: Armada II for Activision, initially with eight developers. When the game was announced in March 2001, Mad Doc mostly comprised former developers from Looking Glass Studios, a defunct studio previously based in nearby Cambridge. By July 2001, it had grown to twenty employees, with Davis believing that the staff would never exceed thirty. Star Trek: Armada II was released in November 2001. Mad Doc further inherited the development of Jane's Attack Squadron from Looking Glass Studios, which had been canceled with that studio's closure. The finished game was released in March 2002. In May 2002, Sierra Entertainment announced Mad Doc as the developer of Empire Earth: The Art of Conquest, an expansion pack for the 2001 game Empire Earth. While the expansion received mixed reviews when it was released in September 2002, Mad Doc remained the principal developer of the Empire Earth series. Around this time, Mad Doc collaborated with Splash Damage on Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory, developing its single-player component. Publisher Activision scrapped this portion in February 2003 because its development "did not progress as anticipated". With Gas Powered Games, Mad Doc worked on Dungeon Siege: Legends of Aranna, an expansion pack for 2002's Dungeon Siege. Legends of Aranna was released in November 2003, and Mad Doc published a free bonus pack in September 2004. By January 2004, Mad Doc had forty-eight employees and US\$3.5 million in annual revenue. The studio's Empire Earth II was released in April 2005, followed by the expansion Empire Earth II: The Art of Supremacy in February 2006. The success of the game and its expansion led Mad Doc to publishing contracts with Bethesda Softworks and Rockstar Games. With the former, the studio developed Star Trek: Legacy after Bethesda Softworks had acquired a license for the Star Trek franchise. The game was released in November 2006. Mad Doc then developed another Empire Earth installment, Empire Earth III. The production cost roughly \$10 million and the game came out in November 2007. Due to a multitude of issues, Empire Earth III became a critical and commercial failure and is considered to have ended the Empire Earth franchise. ### Acquisition and projects under Rockstar Games (2007–present) Under its contract with Rockstar Games, Mad Doc developed an enhanced version of Bully, which had been developed by Rockstar Games' Rockstar Vancouver studio and released to commercial success for the PlayStation 2 in 2006. Mad Doc remastered the game and added further missions, characters, and items. The version was announced as Bully: Scholarship Edition in July 2007 for the Wii and Xbox 360. By December 2007, Mad Doc and its roughly 100 employees had relocated to a 20,400 square feet (1,900 m<sup>2</sup>) office in Ballardvale, a village within Andover. Davis stated that the studio would remain in Andover because it was his "favorite place", where he lived with his wife Vicky and was planning to raise his children. Shaun McDermott, while chief financial officer of the studio, regarded the location as an asset because of the wide range of lifestyles that employees could live in nearby communities. In late 2007, Davis was named the Entrepreneur of the Year by the Greater Boston Chamber of Commerce. Around this time, Mad Doc created maps for the multiplayer mode of Turok, developed by Propaganda Games and released in February 2008. Bully: Scholarship Edition was released in March 2008. Take-Two Interactive, Rockstar Games' parent company, acquired Mad Doc in the same month for \$6.068 million: \$3.740 million in cash, 53,033 shares of its unregistered common stock (valued at \$1.353 million), and \$975,000 in development advances. The acquisition was announced on April 4, 2008, and Mad Doc became part of Rockstar Games as Rockstar New England. Davis remained with the studio as studio director, alongside Ken Davis. Employees initially reacted positively to the acquisition due to the reputation and size of Rockstar Games. Over time, the former Mad Doc workplace culture faded while crunch increased. Some employees "felt they were expected by other people within the company to prove their dedication to Rockstar through long hours, and that they would be 'harassed' when trying to leave the studio". In June 2009, Rockstar New England laid off approximately 10% of its staff, including several artists and the entire quality assurance (QA) department. According to one insider speaking with Kotaku, Rockstar Games sought to have one dedicated QA studio instead of having QA departments at its other studios. Other employees reported at the time that the severance packages were "fairly generous" and that Rockstar Games was helping some of the affected employees get new jobs. However, one laid-off artist later claimed that he had not received such assistance. Under Rockstar Games, Rockstar New England commenced several projects. It created a Windows version of Bully: Scholarship Edition, which was released in October 2008, and assisted the development of Grand Theft Auto IV: The Lost and Damned, Grand Theft Auto: The Ballad of Gay Tony, and Red Dead Redemption. The studio also began developing a sequel to Bully while Rockstar Vancouver was allocated to Max Payne 3. Some employees believed the project to be a test for the newly acquired studio to prove it was worth the investment. Roughly 50–70 people, most of the studio, were involved with the game at some point. The team envisioned a small open world with high interactivity, such as actions towards non-player characters (NPCs) having long-term consequences and every building being enterable, including by force. For the latter, Rockstar New England developed a detailed glass fragmentation system. A vertical slice of Bully 2 was created and playable. However, in 2010, the studio began re-allocating the game's developers to other projects. It joined Rockstar Vancouver, Rockstar London, and Rockstar Toronto in the development of Max Payne 3, which was released in May 2012. The game re-used the glass fragmentation mechanic previously designed for Bully 2. In early 2013, Rockstar New England completed its three-month process of moving from Ballardvale to Andover's Dundee Park. The studio worked alongside all other Rockstar Games studios on Red Dead Redemption 2, which was released in October 2018. The mechanic of consequences from NPC interactions that the studio had created for Bully 2 was incorporated into this game. ## Games developed ### As Mad Doc Software ### As Rockstar New England ### Canceled - Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory (single-player) - Bully 2
33,768,873	Frelinghuysen University	1,173,330,816	University in Washington, D.C. (1906–c. 1960)	[ "1906 establishments in Washington, D.C.", "1917 establishments in Washington, D.C.", "1950s disestablishments in Washington, D.C.", "Adult education in the United States", "Defunct high schools in the United States", "Defunct private universities and colleges in Washington, D.C.", "Historically black universities and colleges in the United States", "Historically segregated African-American schools in Washington, D.C.", "Houses completed in 1879", "Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.", "Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Washington, D.C.", "Queen Anne architecture in Washington, D.C." ]	Frelinghuysen University was a private historically Black university in Washington, D.C., which was open from 1906 to c. 1960. It provided adult education and social services to poor and working-class African Americans. Founded by activists Jesse and Rosetta Lawson, it was the first school to offer evening and extension courses to African American students in Washington, D.C. Focused on providing service to the working poor, the university charged the lowest tuition possible and held classes in local homes and businesses to reduce commuting time for its students. First presided over by Jesse Lawson and later by African American scholar Anna J. Cooper, the university offered programs for those with limited or no literacy and a full high school curriculum and courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels. The university was named after Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, a politician from New Jersey, for his support of African-American causes, and several of its schools were named in honor of other public servants who worked to support African Americans. The university's first permanent classroom building, located at 1800 Vermont Avenue in Northwest Washington, D.C., is listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its significance to African American education. Following financial difficulties in the early 1930s and the loss of accreditation in 1937, the school changed its name to Frelinghuysen Group of Schools for Colored Working People in 1940. The university experienced a slow decline throughout the 1940s. Although not awarding degrees, the university still provided educational and social services to the African-American community that were otherwise unavailable during this time. By 1964, Frelinghuysen University had closed. ## History ### 1906–1927 On April 27, 1906, Jesse Lawson and educator and author Kelly Miller organized a branch of the Bible Educational Association in Lawson's home in Washington, D.C., with Miller as its president. Shortly after, Lawson and his wife, Rosetta Lawson, began the Interdenominational Bible College, a school aimed at uplifting the African-American working class. In 1917, the two organizations merged, forming Frelinghuysen University, with Jesse Lawson serving as president. The new university was named in honor of Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, a politician from New Jersey who served as United States Secretary of State under President Chester A. Arthur. Frelinghuysen was chosen for his support of African American causes while serving as a U.S. Senator. The schools in the university were named to memorialize others who had worked to support African Americans. During the time the university was open, these included the John M. Langston School of Law, the Jesse Lawson School of Religion, and the Hannah Stanley Opportunity School. At the time of the university's founding, over three hundred schools provided evening and extension classes in the District of Columbia. Of those, only Frelinghuysen University admitted African-American students. The university also admitted White students, but the school was designed to cater to the needs of the African-American community. A non-traditional university, it aimed to provide a broad range of academic and religious educational programs and social services to working-class African Americans who had no other learning opportunities. Classes were held in the evenings to accommodate the adult students, allowing them to participate despite working during the day. The university used a novel "home college" concept to keep costs low. Classes were originally held in the homes and businesses of those in the area, with the Lawsons' home being the first classroom. Running classes out of homes in the area also reduced commuting time to and from class, making it easier for working students to attend classes. To further ease the burden on the non-traditional student body, tuition was kept as low as possible and was billed at a monthly rate rather than charged per semester. The university purchased its first permanent classroom building in 1921, a location that was later listed on the National Register of Historic Places. That building was sold in 1927, when the university purchased a larger property, with spaces for classrooms, libraries, offices, and dormitories. Lawson served as university president for twenty-one years until he died in 1927. The growing interest in education among the African American community at this time contributed to the university's popularity, and under his leadership the school had broad appeal and reached a level of prominence in Washington, D.C. ### 1928–1940 In 1929, prominent African American scholar Anna J. Cooper was elected to succeed Jesse Lawson as president of the university, a post she assumed in 1930. Under Cooper's leadership in the 1930s, Frelinghuysen University focused on increasing literacy among the African-American working poor and providing liberal arts and vocational education for unskilled workers. In a 2009 paper for the journal African American Review, Karen A. Johnson describes Cooper's practice of "decolonizing pedagogy": > Cooper believed that the essential purpose for a "decolonizing" approach to adult education content was to assist her students in developing their abilities to question dominant thought ... Cooper's ultimate goal for her learning adults was their preparation for intellectual enlightenment as well as to equip them to battle for a better society at large. The school struggled in the years after Lawson's death, and Cooper began her tenure by addressing the financial difficulties and debt the university had accrued. Attempts to raise enough money from the poor African-American alums to pay the university's financial obligations were not successful. Cooper stabilized the university's finances with budgeting and oversight, leading to a credit on the balance sheet by June 1931. Despite this, there were outstanding back payments on the property the university had purchased in 1927. Unable to raise enough money or secure an underwriter, that property was foreclosed on in 1931. Due to the loss of the building, Frelinghuysen University returned to its "home college" roots, and Cooper began hosting classes in her home. The university was accredited and awarded degrees from 1927 until 1937. In the 1930s, educators and consumer advocates called for more stringent requirements for colleges providing degrees, which led to accreditation reforms. Despite her connections to the African-American members of the Board of Education, Cooper could not convince the board to maintain the university's accreditation, which was initially declined in 1936. The reason provided by the Board of Education for declining the application was that the school lacked a sufficient endowment. However, the view that Howard University already filled the needs of the African-American community also contributed. Because of the accreditation reforms, many colleges for African Americans lost accreditation, and by 1934, eighty percent of Black colleges in the U.S. were unaccredited. The John M. Langston School of Law's 1936 application for accreditation was denied due to an insufficient law library and lack of enrollment. The school sued the Board of Education for the right to award bachelor's degrees in law. The attorney for the school, Louis Rothschild, argued that the school's law library was sufficient, and current inactivity at the school was not grounds for refusal. The denial was upheld in 1938, though the ruling stated that the school could still offer legal training. Following the loss of accreditation, the university changed its name to the Frelinghuysen Group of Schools for Colored Working People in 1940. Although no longer accredited, the school still provided educational and social services to the African-American community that were otherwise unavailable. The school attracted significant community support, with the local Y.W.C.A. donating space for activities, the American Red Cross providing nursing training, and the Daughters of the American Revolution, despite their segregationist practices at the time, donating materials for civics courses. Private citizens and alums also provided support by donating time, expertise, and educational materials, such as African American scholar Carter G. Woodson, who oversaw the completion of a Frelinghuysen student's master's degree in history. Because of this support, the school could maintain a fair-sized library for its students. Cooper retired from her position as president in 1940, but she continued her involvement with the university, taking a position as its registrar. ### 1941–1964 Adolphus A. Birch, an Episcopal priest, succeeded Cooper as president after her retirement in 1940. Throughout the 1940s, the university experienced a significant decline, with its final appeal for accreditation being denied in 1943. Community-service education also declined in popularity during this period, making it difficult to find volunteers, and prospective students were less interested in the social and moral focus the school provided. The final closure date of Frelinghuysen University is unclear, with sources disagreeing on the specifics. Catherine Finn, writing for the DCist places the closure in the late 1950s, Melinda Chateauvert states in The Third Step that the school closed in 1960, while Karen Johnson, in In Service for the Common Good, ties the school's final closure to Cooper's death in 1964. ## Academics and activism Frelinghuysen University offered a broad range of adult educational programs for non-traditional students and working-class African Americans, including courses for those with limited or no literacy skills. The university's offerings included a complete high school curriculum and courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Courses were also provided for trades and both semi-professional and professional occupations. Often, vocational education and higher education were provided in complement to each other to match the capacity of the student. The student body was made up mostly of men who were long-time residents of Washington, D.C., generally from working-class, uneducated families. The evening classes, while making attendance more accessible for those who worked a trade during the day, could be difficult for women due to their family and work responsibilities. Coursework for women was focused on general education rather than vocational training to help shape the impression of African Americans that their employers would form and aiming to create an expectation of professionalism for domestic workers that would push wages higher and increase respect for the occupation. The university included schools of liberal arts, applied science, biology, sociology, theology, law, chiropractic, pharmacy, embalming and sanitary science, and commerce. Graduates from the John M, Langston School of Law often went on to work in the Treasury Department or the General Printing Office, and in 1927, an article in the Pittsburgh Courier reported that over seventy-five percent of the graduates from the university's law school went on to pass the Washington, D.C., bar exam. The Hannah Stanley Opportunity School at Frelinghuysen University, named after Cooper's mother, provided a general education course to prepare students for community service. The university also offered home nursing classes, supported by the Washington, D.C., chapter of the Red Cross. Colored American Forward was founded at the university in 1917, with its members working to aid and protect the large number of African Americans leaving the southern United States for northern and western states during the Great Migration. ## Campus Upon opening in 1906, the first classes were taught in the Lawsons' home at 2011 Vermont Avenue. Until 1921, when the university purchased its first building, it used a "home college" system, where classes were exclusively held in homes and businesses in the area. Frelinghuysen University's first permanent building was located at 1800 Vermont Avenue in the Shaw neighborhood of Northwest Washington, D.C. Purchased in 1921, the building was used for classrooms until 1927. Diller B. Groff built the house in 1879, and it was first inhabited by insurance agent Edwin P. Goodwin and his family. A two-story structure of red brick, the Queen Anne style home had a triangular floor plan with an octagonal corner tower. The university's use of this location was significant for demonstrating the social change in the neighborhood, as it transitioned from speculative housing for middle-class White residents to a leading neighborhood for African-American residents. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995 for significance in the area of African American education, and it is also part of the Greater U Street Historic District. Today, the building is listed on the Washington D.C. African American Heritage Trail. In 1927, needing to expand its dedicated class space, the university sold its first building and purchased a larger property at 601 M Street. Formerly a home for the elderly, managed by the Methodist Episcopal Church, the property included three buildings with sixty-six rooms and a large lawn. Initial plans were to use the largest building, with thirty-eight rooms, for lecture halls and offices, with the smallest building housing workshops for industrial education. There would be dormitories in the third building and the largest building. The university could not make payments consistently and fell into arrears, and the property was foreclosed on in 1931. Following the foreclosure, Cooper donated the use of six rooms of her home at 201 T Street to Frelinghuysen University to be used as a library and classrooms.
18,023,809	1996 North Indian Ocean cyclone season	1,154,782,040	Cyclone season in the North Indian Ocean in 1996	[ "1996 North Indian Ocean cyclone season" ]	The 1996 North Indian Ocean cyclone season featured several deadly tropical cyclones, with over 2,000 people killed during the year. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) – the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the northern Indian Ocean as recognized by the World Meteorological Organization – issued warnings for nine tropical cyclones in the region. Storms were also tracked on an unofficial basis by the American-based Joint Typhoon Warning Center, which observed one additional storm. The basin is split between the Bay of Bengal off the east coast of India and the Arabian Sea off the west coast. During the year, the activity was affected by the monsoon season, with most storms forming in June or after October. The first system originated on May 7 in the Bay of Bengal, which is the body of water east of India; the storm developed in tandem with a storm in the southern hemisphere, and ultimately struck Bangladesh. Three storms formed in June. The first struck Oman and later caused devastating flooding in Yemen, killing 338 people and causing \$1.2 billion in damage. The other two storms struck opposite sides of India, collectively resulting in 226 deaths after causing widespread flooding. After a brief land depression in July and a weak depression in early October, the season featured four notable cyclones beginning in late October. A low-pressure area moved across southern India, killing 388 people before taking an unusual track in the Arabian Sea. At the end of October, a deep depression killed 14 people in Bangladesh. The strongest cyclone of the season was also the deadliest, killing 1,077 people when it struck Andhra Pradesh in early November. The final storm of the season executed a rare loop in the Bay of Bengal before weakening and striking southern India in early December, killing seven. ## Season summary During the season, the IMD used satellite imagery and surface data to assess and predict storms. The agency also utilized a tropical cyclone forecast model that used climatology and a storm's persistence to forecast future movement. Warnings and advisories were broadcast throughout India by telegraph and news media. The basin's activity is sub-divided between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal on opposite coasts of India, and is generally split before and after the monsoon season. The IMD tracked nine tropical disturbances, including one that developed over land, which is below average of 13 systems. Five of the storms formed from October to December, after the end of the monsoon season. In general, storms moved slower than average, and two of the cyclones took unusual tracks near land – one executed a rare loop in the Bay of Bengal, and another turned abruptly away from the Indian state of Gujarat. According to the JTWC, activity in the basin was 60% greater than average, with eight tropical cyclones. Four of these storms attained hurricane intensity – winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph) – which was a record at the time. During June, a series of storms affected India in the height of the monsoon season. Two storms on opposite sides of the country contributed to the northward progression of the monsoon. Continued rainfall from the monsoon led to additional flooding. As of July 24, flooding from widespread rains had killed 731 people across India. The floods also wrecked 368,420 houses and ruined 394,000 ha (970,000 acres) of crop fields. The monsoon became reestablished over open waters on October 9, spawning two storms in the basin that month. There were two simultaneous storms on opposite sides of India in October, which would not happen again until May 2010. ## Systems ### Deep Depression BOB 01 (01B) In early May, a westerly wind burst spawned two disturbances on both sides of the equator in the eastern Indian Ocean, in association with the monsoon trough. The system in the southern hemisphere eventually became Tropical Storm Jenna, while the system in the northern hemisphere developed an area of convection about 445 km (277 mi) northwest of Sumatra. This disturbance moved generally northward, and initially remained disorganized; the thunderstorms were removed from the circulation. However, the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert (TCFA) on May 5 once the system became better organized amid low wind shear. Rounding the periphery of a ridge, the system turned to the northeast. Based on the appearance on satellite imagery, the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 01B at 00:00 UTC on May 7. Three hours later, the IMD classified the system as a depression about 400 km (250 mi) south of Kolkata. The storm intensified further while moving toward southeastern Bangladesh. The JTWC upgraded it to a 75 km/h (45 mph) tropical storm, while the IMD upgraded it to a deep depression. Around 00:00 UTC on May 8, the storm made landfall along Cox's Bazar District. Quickly weakening over land, the system dissipated over northern Myanmar later that day. The system brought rainfall to southeastern India and Bangladesh. Kalapara Upazila in the latter country recorded 60 mm (2.4 in) of precipitation on May 7. A station in Cox's Bazar recorded peak winds of 75 km/h (45 mph). The storm produced high tides that flooded villages on the coast, while one girl was swept away by high waves. High winds knocked down trees and houses. There were 140 fishermen missing following the storm on 10 boats. ### Tropical Storm 02A On May 31, a weak circulation persisted over the warm waters of the Gulf of Aden. It moved east-northeastward along the coast of Yemen and Oman, bringing dry air from the north which decreased the convection. The system moved farther offshore on June 7 into the open Arabian Sea, where it interacted with the south-west monsoon and developed more convection. The convection became more persistent by June 9 about 1,480 km (920 mi) northeast of Somalia by June 9. Moving northwestward, the system organized enough for the JTWC to classify it as Tropical Cyclone 02A about 160 km (99 mi) from the Oman coastline. This marked the first occasion that a tropical cyclone originated from a system in the Gulf of Aden. Later on June 11, it struck Oman's southeast coast. The storm weakened over land, dissipating on June 12, although it continued to produce rainfall – heavy at times – over the next few days. The IMD did not track the system. Offshore Oman, the storm's rough waves disabled an oil tanker and damaged a fishing boat, killing one person in the latter incident. Striking Oman, the storm produced significant rainfall totals well above the monthly average, peaking at 234 mm (9.2 in) in the Dhofar region. Strong winds where the storm moved ashore damaged buildings and the local water plant. The rains washed out roads and isolated villages, killing two people due to drowning in Al-Ghubra. However, the effects were more severe in Yemen, where the floods were considered the worst on record. The storm produced the heaviest rainfall in 70 years, reaching 189 mm (7.4 in) in Ma'rib. Flood waters washed away or damaged 1,068 km (664 mi) of roads and 21 bridges, some of them dating back 2,000 years to the Roman era. The storm washed away the topsoil or otherwise wrecked 42,800 ha (106,000 acres) of crop fields, accounting for US\$100 million in agriculture damage. At least 1,820 houses were destroyed, many of them built on wadis, or dry river beds. Overall damage was estimated at US\$1.2 billion, and there were 338 deaths in Yemen. The World Bank assisted in a project to rebuild the damaged infrastructure in Yemen and to mitigate against future floods. ### Cyclonic Storm BOB 02 (03B) On June 9, a disturbance began forming within the monsoon trough off the southeast coast of India. Inflow from the south helped the system organize, and the convection became more defined on June 11. At 06:00 UTC the next day, the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 03B, and three hours later the IMD classified it as a depression. A ridge to the east initially steered the system to the northwest, although an approaching trough turned it to the northeast, parallel to the coastline. Early on June 13, the JTWC assessed peak 1-minute winds of 85 km/h (55 mph), and on the next day, the IMD upgraded the system to a cyclonic storm. Both the intensity and the track were unusual for the month of June. At 00:00 UTC on June 16, the IMD estimated peak 3-minute winds of 85 km/h (55 mph), around which time the storm turned back to the northwest. Five hours later, the storm made landfall near Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, and it rapidly weakened into a remnant low. The JTWC continued tracking the remnants until June 18 when the system was over Madhya Pradesh. About 3,000 people evacuated ahead of the storm in Andhra Pradesh. When the storm struck the state, the highest winds on land were around 55 km/h (35 mph). However, the most severe effects were due to heavy rainfall, in part due to the storm's interaction with the monsoon. Chennai in northeastern Tamil Nadu recorded 350 mm (14 in) on June 14, breaking the 100 year old record for the greatest June daily rainfall total. Three people died near the city after the rains flooded streets. The highest daily rainfall was 680 mm (27 in) in Khammam district in Telangana. Widespread areas in Andhra Pradesh received over 300 mm (12 in) of precipitation, locally peaking at 1,200 mm (47 in), causing flooding that breached reservoirs and damaged 3,833 canals. In Madanapalle, flood waters reached 6 m (20 ft) deep, forcing 1,500 people to leave their homes. The floods also damaged 13,378 ha (33,060 acres) of crop fields, with damage to bananas, coconuts, and mangroves. The storm damaged or destroyed 1,594 homes, leaving over 3,000 families homeless. Overall damage was estimated at RS\$820 million (US\$23.5 million) in Andhra Pradesh, and there were 68 deaths in the state, mostly due to flash flooding. Elsewhere in India, the storm killed 111 people, including 44 in Tamil Nadu where 18 boats were damaged or missing. In some areas, the rains helped end a drought. After the storm passed, the Andhra Pradesh government provided each family RS\$1,000 (US\$30) if their house was destroyed, and RS\$100,000 (US\$3,000) if they lost a family member. ### Severe Cyclonic Storm ARB 01 (04A) While the previous storm was paralleling the east Indian coastline, another disturbance formed off the west coast on June 15, also associated with the monsoon. The new area of convection persisted, developing a distinct circulation by the next day. Early on June 17, a depression developed about 365 km (227 mi) west of Mumbai. At 18:00 UTC that day, the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 04A, after the wind field became more defined. The system moved to the northeast within the influence of the monsoon, and quickly intensified due to an anticyclone aloft providing favorable conditions. On June 18, the IMD upgraded the system to a cyclonic storm, and further to a severe cyclonic storm by 18:00 UTC that day. At 23:00 UTC, the storm made landfall on Gujarat near Diu, only the fourth cyclone since 1891 to strike the state in June. An hour later the IMD assessed peak 3-minute winds of 110 km/h (70 mph), based on the appearance of an eye feature. Meanwhile, the JTWC assessed slightly stronger 1-minute winds of 120 km/h (75 mph), equivalent to a minimal hurricane. The storm turned northward and slowly weakened, degenerating into a remnant low over Rajasthan on June 20 before being swept up by an approaching trough. The storm moved ashore with a high storm surge, estimated at 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft) in Bharuch. Winds reached 85 km/h (55 mph) in Veraval, while heavy rainfall spread across the region, totaling over 300 mm (12 in) in some parts of Gujarat. South of the landfall point, high winds and waves washed 10 boats ashore near Mumbai, forcing the crews to be rescued by helicopters. The storm disrupted wheat production and port operations in western India. In Gujarat, the storm uprooted trees and damaged 8,000 ha (20,000 acres) of crop fields, with 2,113 cattle killed between Gujarat and neighboring Maharashtra to the south. The storm damaged 41,134 houses in the two states, and overall damage was estimated at RS\$196 million (US\$5.6 million). There were 47 deaths related to the cyclone. ### Depression LAND 01 Toward the end of July, a well-defined low-pressure area developed in the northwest Bay of Bengal. It moved onshore and developed into a depression over southeastern India near Daltonganj on July 26. Turning to the west, the system moved through central India, bringing heavy rainfall along its path. The system degenerated into a remnant low on July 28 over Rajasthan, and the next day was absorbed by the monsoon trough. ### Depression BOB 03 On October 1, a depression formed in the western Bay of Bengal. Moving westward, it failed to intensify beyond 45 km/h (30 mph). Around 00:00 UTC on October 2, the system made landfall near Ongole, Andhra Pradesh. Later that day the system degenerated into a remnant low over Karnataka state. It turned northward and moved through central India, bringing widespread heavy rainfall along its path. Eventually it turned to the northeast, dissipating over the Himalayas on October 5. In southern India, the storm wrecked houses, while flash flooding swept away people into rivers. At least 22 people were killed in the country. ### Severe Cyclonic Storm ARB 02 (05A) Described by the JTWC as having "one of the most unusual tracks in North Indian Ocean cyclone history", the storm originated as an area of convection that formed on October 14 in the southern Bay of Bengal. Moving westward, it struck near Chennai on October 17 as a well-defined low-pressure area. It crossed southern India and emerged into the Arabian Sea on October 20. The system developed into a depression on October 22 and quickly intensified while moving northward. By October 24, the cyclone approached hurricane intensity as it developed an eye. The IMD estimated peak 3-minute winds of 110 km/h (70 mph), and the JTWC estimated peak 1-minute winds of 120 km/h (75 mph). On October 25, the storm abruptly stalled and weakened offshore Gujarat and progressed southwestward as a minimal storm. It was no longer classifiable as a tropical cyclone by October 28, although its remnants persisted until November 2 when they dissipated east of Somalia. In southern India, the storm dropped heavy rainfall that caused severe flooding in Andhra Pradesh. At least 112 reservoirs or dams were breached, killing 200 people in Prakasam district. The waters ruined about 1,600,000 ha (4,000,000 acres) of crop fields and damaged about 53,000 houses, leaving thousands homeless and forcing 100,000 people to leave their homes. The floods killed 388 people in southern India and caused US\$128.5 million in damage. The storm later brushed the west coast of India, stranding 50 boats. ### Deep Depression BOB 04 (06B) The monsoon trough produced an area of convection south of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands on October 21. Located south of a ridge, the system moved westward through an area of hostile wind shear, which prevented quick development by displacing the circulation east of the convection. The JTWC issued a TCFA on October 22 once it appeared the shear was decreasing, although the system did not organize initially. After the convection became more defined, the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 06B on October 25 in the central Bay of Bengal. An approaching trough from the west weakened the ridge, allowing the storm to turn to the north and later northeast. The IMD classified the system as a depression on October 27, and later that day estimated peak 3-minute winds of 55 km/h (35 mph), making it a deep depression. The JTWC assessed a higher intensity of 85 km/h (55 mph). Accelerating northeastward, the storm made landfall near the border of India and Bangladesh around 18:00 UTC on October 28. Moving through Bangladesh, the system quickly weakened and degenerated into a remnant low on October 29 over the Indian state of Assam. Ahead of the storm, the government of Bangladesh evacuated about 500,000 people, with the assistance of 32,000 people helping spread word of the storm to coastal villages. Boats were advised to return to port. As the cyclone moved ashore, it produced heavy rains and 80 km/h (50 mph) winds, along with a 3 m (9.8 ft) storm surge. Heavy rainfall caused disruptions and flooding in Kolkata in eastern India. In Bangladesh, flooding drowned thousands of cattle in Chittagong and damaged 12,000 ha (30,000 acres) of crop fields. The storm wrecked about 15,000 thatch huts across the country. About 400 houses were destroyed in Barisal District, leaving thousands homeless. Three children were killed in Khulna after their house collapsed. At least 14 people were killed and over 2,000 people were injured, with 100 fishermen left missing after their boats were wrecked. Two fishermen seeking shelter were accidentally shot and killed by members of the Bangladesh navy, who thought the fishermen were pirates. ### Very Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 05 (07B) After a tropical depression from the Western Pacific dissipated over Myanmar, another disturbance formed in the extreme eastern Bay of Bengal on November 1. It moved westward due to a ridge to the north, slowly organizing. On November 4, the IMD classified the system as a depression, although the JTWC had classified it as Tropical Cyclone 07B a day prior. The storm quickly organized and developed a well-defined eye. On November 6, the cyclone struck about 50 km (31 mi) south of Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh at peak intensity. The IMD estimated peak winds of 145 km/h (90 mph), while the JTWC assessed peak winds of 215 km/h (135 mph). Soon after landfall, the cyclone weakened and dissipated by November 7. Ahead of the storm, about 225,000 families evacuated, although many towns lacked proper storm shelters. When the cyclone made landfall, it produced strong winds up to 100 km (62 mi) inland, dropped 210 mm (8.3 in) of rainfall across a 40 km (25 mi) region, and flooded over 250 villages along 60 km (37 mi) portion of the coast. About 70% of the overall damage was in East Godavari district, where two villages were entirely destroyed. The storm destroyed 241,802 ha (597,510 acres) of crops and killed millions of cattle and chicken. Across Andhra Pradesh, the storm damaged 647,554 houses, including over 10,000 that were destroyed. Overall damage totaled RS\$21.5 billion (US\$602 million), comparable to a cyclone in 1977 that also hit Andhra Pradesh. There were 1,077 confirmed deaths with many others missing, although many of the dead were washed into the sea and were unlikely to be found. After the storm, the government and local Red Cross chapters helped residents recover from the damage, while the World Bank provided money to better prepare Andhra Pradesh for future storms. ### Very Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 06 (08B) Originating from the monsoon trough, a well-defined circulation persisted on November 26 near the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, accompanied by a poorly defined area of convection. It formed in an area of moderate wind shear, allowing the system to slowly organize while moving to the west-northwest. Both the IMD and the JTWC initiated warnings on November 28, the latter classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 08B. On November 29, the storm turned to the north and east, beginning a four-day loop in the central Bay of Bengal; the JTWC noted that it was the longest-lasting loop on record in the body of water. During this time, the system remained weak, never intensifying beyond deep depression status. A strengthening ridge to the north turned the storm back to the west on November 30 into an area of lighter wind shear. On December 2, the system intensified into a cyclonic storm and eventually to a very severe cyclonic storm on the next day, with the IMD estimating peak 3-minute winds of 120 km/h (75 mph). The JTWC upgraded the system to the equivalent of a hurricane on December 4, estimating peak 1-minute winds of 140 km/h (85 mph). Increased wind shear decoupled the convection from the center; the thunderstorms continued to the west-northwest and struck Andhra Pradesh, while the circulation turned southwestward. Weakening further, the system made landfall on Tamil Nadu between Chennai and Pondicherry around 16:00 UTC on December 6. It rapidly weakened over land, dissipating the next day. Ahead of the storm, about 200,000 people evacuated the Indian coastline and Very Heavy downpour stuck Tirupati and Chennai, following the damaging cyclone that struck Andhra Pradesh a month earlier. Officials used buses and trucks to transport residents in nearly 500 villages. Officials warned fishermen not to go out to sea during the storm. To prevent accidents, workers closed roads and shut off power ahead of the storm. Two people died in Andhra Pradesh while the storm was still offshore, one due to a house collapsing and the other due to a fallen tree. Heavy rainfall related to the cyclone killed two people before the system moved ashore. The storm dropped heavy rainfall in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Winds in Chennai reached 100 km/h (60 mph), strong enough to knock down trees and cause accidents; one motorist was killed by a tree near Chennai Airport. Overall, the storm resulted in seven fatalities. ## See also - 1996 Atlantic hurricane season - 1996 Pacific hurricane season - 1996 Pacific typhoon season - South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1995–96, 1996–97 - Australian region cyclone seasons: 1995–96, 1996–97 - South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1995–96, 1996–97
49,549,964	Better Call Saul (season 4)	1,169,638,178	Fourth season of the AMC crime drama television series	[ "2018 American television seasons", "Better Call Saul", "Better Call Saul", "Television series set in 2003", "Television series set in 2004" ]	The fourth season of the American television drama series Better Call Saul premiered on August 6, 2018, and concluded on October 8, 2018. The fourth season consists of 10 episodes and aired on Mondays at 9:00 pm (Eastern) in the United States on AMC. A spin-off prequel of Breaking Bad, Better Call Saul was created by Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould, both of whom also worked on Breaking Bad. The first and second seasons mainly took place in 2002, with season three advancing the storyline to 2003. The fourth season also takes place mainly in 2003, with the last four episodes taking place in 2004 after a time jump in the seventh episode. In season four, Jimmy and Kim struggle to cope with Chuck's death. Howard believes that he is responsible for Chuck's death, and suffers with depression and disengagement from work. Mike begins security inspections at Madrigal, disregarding the fact that his consulting contract was supposed to be only a paper transaction. Gus is suspicious of Nacho after Hector's stroke. Nacho becomes a mole for Gus inside the Salamanca organization. Gus hires an engineer and construction crew to begin construction of the meth "superlab" under the industrial laundry. Lalo Salamanca arrives to begin running the family's drug business. The fourth season of Better Call Saul received acclaim from critics and audiences, particularly for its pacing and character development, and six nominations for the 71st Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series. ## Production AMC renewed Better Call Saul for a 10-episode fourth season in June 2017. The fourth season premiered in August 2018, and aired on Mondays at 9:00 pm (Eastern); the fourth season premiered later in the year than previous seasons, as both season 1 and 2 premiered in February 2015 and 2016, and season 3 premiered in April 2017. Screen Rant speculated that because the season was not confirmed until after the third season had finished airing, that the writers had a later start at writing, and the season did not begin filming until January 2018. ### Filming Better Call Saul is set and filmed in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the same location as its predecessor. Filming for the fourth season of Better Call Saul began in January 2018. The first episode was directed by Minkie Spiro. On May 30, 2018, screenwriter Thomas Schnauz confirmed in a tweet that production of the fourth season had finished. In the first scene of the season, Jimmy is hiding his real identity under his Gene Takavic alias while working at a Cinnabon in a shopping mall in Omaha, Nebraska. The Cinnabon scenes in Better Call Saul are set in Omaha, but filmed at the Cottonwood Mall in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Mark Margolis, who plays drug kingpin Hector Salamanca, required brain surgery after suffering severe head injuries in an accidental fall during filming. The episode "Piñata" was directed by Andrew Stanton, who is better known for writing and directing several Pixar films, including Finding Nemo and WALL-E. During a conversation with Mark Johnson and Melissa Bernstein, the show's executive producers, he was given the suggestion that he accept an opportunity to direct a Better Call Saul episode, which he jumped at, as he had already been a fan of both Breaking Bad and Better Call Saul, and wanted the opportunity to work with the creators Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould. ### Casting Returning main cast members are Bob Odenkirk as Jimmy McGill, Jonathan Banks as Mike Ehrmantraut, Rhea Seehorn as Kim Wexler, Patrick Fabian as Howard Hamlin, Michael Mando as Nacho Varga, and Giancarlo Esposito as Gus Fring. Michael McKean (Chuck McGill), who was credited as a main cast member in previous seasons, does not return as a series regular following Chuck's death in the third season finale. In a June 2017 interview following the third-season finale, McKean commented on the possibility of returning to the series, stating "I know they want to bring me in for some flashbacks this coming season." McKean made a guest appearance in a flashback sequence at the beginning of the sixth episode, "Piñata", and again in the season finale, "Winner". In May 2018, it was reported that Stefan Kapičić would have a recurring role in the fourth season. Kapičić stated, "I'm thrilled that I have a chance to become a part of Better Call Saul family. It is one of my favorite shows on TV and it's a dream come true be a part of the Breaking Bad universe." Lalo Salamanca, portrayed by Tony Dalton, is introduced in the eighth episode of the season. The character was first mentioned in the Breaking Bad episode "Better Call Saul". The episode "Something Beautiful" marks the first Better Call Saul appearance of Gale Boetticher, a supporting character from Breaking Bad played by David Costabile. Costabile had been in Albuquerque filming Dig while Better Call Saul's team was wrapping up production of the first season. He met with Gould, and they agreed to have Gale appear on Better Call Saul. Costabile was able to work in filming for Better Call Saul between filming on Billions, but had only about a week to memorize both his dialogue and the lyrics to Tom Lehrer's "The Elements" which he had to sing karaoke-style in his scenes. This short period contrasted with his past singing performances on Breaking Bad, when he had more time to learn the lyrics. ## Plot The death of Jimmy's brother Chuck serves as a catalyst for his further transformation into Saul Goodman, and Jimmy's entrance into the criminal world puts a strain on his relationship with Kim and his future as a lawyer. Chuck's death also deeply affects Kim and Howard. Mike becomes a contracted security consultant for Madrigal. Nacho's attempted murder of Hector Salamanca causes Hector's stroke and disability, and affects the operations of Don Eladio's drug cartel and Gus Fring's plot to take it over. Gilligan said in January 2018 that Better Call Saul "gets darker this season," and Odenkirk said that the fourth season would go to "another level." ## Cast and characters ### Main - Bob Odenkirk as Jimmy McGill / Saul Goodman, suspended New Mexico attorney, turned cell phone sales manager, moonlighting in prepaid phone sales to criminals. In the present, he manages a Cinnabon store in Omaha under the alias Gene Takavic. - Jonathan Banks as Mike Ehrmantraut, Madrigal corporate security consultant, gradually becoming a "fixer" for Gus Fring's criminal ambitions. - Rhea Seehorn as Kim Wexler, now primarily a corporate banking lawyer with a moral passion for public defense cases, Jimmy's girlfriend and legal confidant. - Patrick Fabian as Howard Hamlin, sole managing partner of the now flailing Hamlin, Hamlin & McGill, executor of Chuck's estate, suffering from insomnia and depression. - Michael Mando as Nacho Varga, a lieutenant in Don Eladio's Mexican cartel, now overseeing daily operations in Albuquerque; torn between the vicious Salamanca enforcers and Gus Fring's ambitions for complete takeover and secession from Eladio, co-opted by Fring after trying to kill Hector Salamanca. - Giancarlo Esposito as Gus Fring, a Chilean national, now Albuquerque cocaine distributor in Don Eladio's cartel, using his fried chicken chain, Los Pollos Hermanos, as a legitimate front. ### Recurring - Mark Margolis as Hector Salamanca, the patriarch of a brutal family of drug enforcers in Don Eladio's Mexican cartel, incapacitated via a stroke at the end of season three. - Kerry Condon as Stacey Ehrmantraut, Mike's widowed daughter-in-law and the mother of Kaylee Ehrmantraut - Jeremiah Bitsui as Victor, Gus' henchman. - Vincent Fuentes as Arturo, a criminal associate of Nacho Varga and Hector Salamanca. - Ann Cusack as Rebecca Bois, Chuck's ex-wife. - Dennis Boutsikaris as Rich Schweikart, the attorney for Sandpiper Crossing in the class action lawsuit Jimmy develops. - Andrew Friedman as Mr. Neff, manager of Neff Copiers. - Poorna Jagannathan as Dr. Maureen Bruckner, Johns Hopkins stroke-recovery specialist, funded by Gus Fring's grant to oversee Hector's treatment. - Daniel Moncada and Luis Moncada as Leonel and Marco Salamanca, Hector's nephews, Tuco's cousins, brutal hitmen for the Eladio cartel. - Javier Grajeda as Juan Bolsa, Eladio cartel under boss - Ray Campbell as Tyrus Kitt, a henchman on Gus Fring's payroll. - Juan Carlos Cantu as Manuel Varga, Nacho's father, owner of an upholstery shop. - Abigail Zoe Lewis as Kaylee Ehrmantraut, Mike's granddaughter. - Rex Linn as Kevin Wachtell, the CEO of Mesa Verde Bank, now Kim's only client. - Cara Pifko as Paige Novick, the senior counsel of Mesa Verde Bank and Trust. - Franc Ross as Ira, a burglar with whom Jimmy conspires, and the owner of Vamonos Pest. - Keiko Agena as Viola Goto, Kim's paralegal. - Tommy Nelson as Rocco, the leader of the thugs who mug Jimmy at House of Dogs. - Carlin James as Zane, a thug who mugs Jimmy. - Cory Chapman as Jed, a thug who mugs Jimmy. - Eileen Fogarty as Mrs. Nguyen, owner of a nail salon and Jimmy's landlord. - David Costabile as Gale Boetticher, an idealistic college chemistry student on scholarship. - Rainer Bock as Werner Ziegler, a German engineer hired by Gus to plan and oversee the construction of his underground meth "superlab" - Stefan Kapičić as Casper, a member of Werner Ziegler's team for the construction of Gus's meth "superlab" - Ben Bela Böhm as Kai, a member of Werner Ziegler's construction team, who Mike holds in contempt - Lavell Crawford as Huell Babineaux, a professional pickpocket hired by Jimmy for security. - Michael McKean as Chuck McGill, who appears in flashbacks, Jimmy's deceased elder brother and a founding partner of HHM. Chuck committed suicide at the end of the third season. - Josh Fadem as Camera Guy, a UNM film student, helps Jimmy on various endeavors. - Hayley Holmes as Drama Girl, UNM film student who helps Jimmy on various projects and schemes. - Julian Bonfiglio as Sound Guy, UNM film student who helps Jimmy. - Tony Dalton as Lalo Salamanca, acting head of the Salamanca family of drug dealers, part of Don Eladio's cartel. - Ethan Phillips as Benedict Munsinger, a judge. ### Guest stars - Ed Begley Jr. as Clifford Main, founding partner of Davis & Main, Jimmy's former employer in the second season. - Don Harvey as Jeff, a cab driver Gene encounters. - Laura Fraser as Lydia Rodarte-Quayle, a Madrigal Electromotive executive and associate of Gus Fring. - JB Blanc as Barry Goodman, Gus Fring's medical counsel. - Joe DeRosa as Dr. Caldera, a veterinarian who serves as Mike and Jimmy's liaison to the criminal underworld. - Tamara Tunie as Anita, a member of Mike's widower's support group. - Tina Parker as Francesca Liddy, Jimmy's receptionist. - Peter Diseth as Bill Oakley, a deputy district attorney. - Max Arciniega as Krazy-8 Molina, a cocaine distributor working for Nacho and the Salamanca family. - Brandon K. Hampton as Ernesto, Chuck's paralegal/assistant, appears in a flashback. ## Episodes ## Reception ### Critical response The fourth season, much like the previous three, received critical acclaim, particularly for its pacing and character development. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 87 out of 100 based on 16 critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a 99% approval rating with an average score of 8.9 out of 10 based on 185 reviews. The site's critical consensus states, "Well-crafted and compelling as ever, Better Call Saul deftly balances the show it was and the one it will inevitably become." Based on the first three episodes, Liz Shannon Miller of IndieWire gave the series a highly positive review with an "A" grade. She wrote that season four is "better, deeper, and more daring" and that it is "one of the most subtle and brilliant shows on TV." Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic said of the season premiere: "Old dynamics flip, long-gestating character studies pay off, and feelings geyser up in surprising places." Following the season finale, Judy Berman of Time wrote, "In showing us one individual's preordained moral downfall, Better Call Saul spent Season 4 demonstrating how a hypocritical criminal justice system can ensnare a whole class of people for life". Chris Evangelista of /Film wrote after the finale: "Better Call Saul remains one of the best shows on TV right now. Not only did Jimmy change this season, he changed those around him – and for the worst." Lalo Salamanca, portrayed by Tony Dalton, is introduced as a recurring character in this season, Alan Sepinwall of Rolling Stone said Dalton "makes a solid first impression in the role, so hopefully this will turn out to be more than filling in a blank most viewers had long since forgotten existed." #### Critics' top ten list ### Ratings ## Accolades In 2018, Better Call Saul was named one of the top 10 television programs of the year by the American Film Institute. The series won the award for Outstanding Achievement in Drama at the 35th TCA Awards. For the 71st Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received six nominations–for Outstanding Drama Series, Odenkirk for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, Banks and Esposito each for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, McKean for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series, and Schnauz and Gould for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the episode "Winner". ## Home media The fourth season was released on Blu-ray and DVD in region 1 on May 7, 2019. The set contains all 10 episodes, plus audio commentaries for every episode and several behind-the-scenes featurettes. ## International broadcast Outside the U.S. in certain international markets, season 4 was released on Netflix with episodes available the day after the episodes were broadcast on AMC. ## Related media ### Madrigal Electromotive Security Training Similar to the series of fictional employee training videos used during season three, AMC posted ten mini-episodes of Madrigal Electromotive Security Training to YouTube and its social media accounts during the run of season four. The videos feature a mix of live-action footage of Banks portraying Mike in providing training to new security employees of Madrigal and animated segments. The series had been nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short Form Comedy or Drama Series, but the nomination was pulled by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences after they discovered the episodes were too short for the category, stating "This decision is in no way a diminishment of the quality of Better Call Saul Employee Training or Mr. Banks' performance in it".
68,716,008	Storming of Shelford House	1,140,467,907	Confrontation of the English Civil War between 1 and 3 November 1645	[ "1645 in England", "Conflicts in 1645", "First English Civil War", "Massacres during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms", "Military history of Nottinghamshire", "Sieges of the English Civil Wars" ]	The Storming of Shelford House was a confrontation of the English Civil War that took place from 1 to 3 November 1645. The Parliamentarian force of Colonel-General Sydnam Poyntz attacked the Royalist outpost of Shelford House, which was one of a group of strongholds defending the strategically important town of Newark-on-Trent. The house, owned by Philip Stanhope, 1st Earl of Chesterfield and controlled by his son Sir Philip Stanhope, and made up of mostly Catholic soldiers, was overwhelmed by the Parliamentarian force after calls for submission were turned down by Stanhope. The majority of the defenders were killed in the resulting sack by the Parliamentarians, commanded by Colonel John Hutchinson, and the house was then burned to the ground. Stanhope died soon afterwards from injuries he sustained in the attack. Poyntz used his momentum from Shelford to then take Wiverton Hall, another of the Newark strongholds, the following day and also began to invest Belvoir Castle. By the end of the month he had joined with the Scottish army of General Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven and besieged Newark, which surrendered on 8 May of the following year. With the Royalist garrison having lost 80 per cent of its men killed, mostly the Catholics, the storming of Shelford House was a highly violent affair; because of this the Parliamentarians declined to use it for propaganda. Equally, the Royalists failed to publicise the actions of Poyntz's army because they did not wish to show support for the Catholics who had died. The battle has been compared in scale to similar events at Bolton in 1644 and Leicester in 1645. ## Background Shelford House was originally a priory, and had been owned by the Stanhope family since the dissolution of the monasteries in 1536. The original priory was then extended into a substantial mansion surrounded by a moat in around 1600. At the time of the start of the English Civil War in 1642 the estate was owned by Philip Stanhope, 1st Earl of Chesterfield, who supported the Royalist cause. Chesterfield's main seat in Derbyshire was quickly taken by Parliamentarian forces, and so he used Shelford as headquarters for a troop of cavalry with which he led patrols into the Vale of Belvoir. Shelford was situated in Nottinghamshire, 9 miles (14 km) east of the town of Newark-on-Trent. Newark's location at the crossroads between the Fosse Way and Great North Road meant it was known as the "Key to the North", and this strategically important location was quickly secured by the Royalists in December 1642 when Sir John Henderson was sent to fortify the town. As part of his plans for fortifications Henderson set up a series of mutually supportive defensive locations that would act as a buffer between Newark and Parliamentarian attacks. Shelford House was chosen as one of these strongholds, along with Belvoir Castle, Wiverton Hall, and Thurgarton House. The four stately homes now made up the first line of Royalist defence against attacks from the Parliamentarian towns of Nottingham, Derby, and Leicester. Shelford and Wiverton were the largest of the four, but none of them was expected to hold out against a concerted assault; at best the expectation was that they would delay an attack on Newark. In January 1643 Chesterfield left Shelford to take command of a garrison force at Lichfield, and gave command of the house to his son Sir Philip Stanhope. He was the lieutenant-colonel in command of the Duke of Gloucester's Regiment of Horse situated at Shelford, and as governor he then also gained control of the small number of infantrymen stationed there as part of the garrison. The house was used as a forward observation post and also served as the staging point for raids from Newark into Nottingham, which succeeded in causing much damage to Parliamentarian outposts and the countryside. Now an official Royalist garrison, Shelford received several upgrades to increase its defences. Outside the walls of the house, the moat (probably originally part of the house's medieval drainage system) was improved and deepened and a palisade was built around the inner edge of it, while sharpened poles and spikes were placed at the base of the ramparts and in the moat itself to slow attackers. Behind the ramparts a series of half-moon earthworks were built with a ditch in front of each, for use by defenders if the ramparts were taken by an enemy force. The mansion itself was behind these earthworks and would be held by musketeers who could cover the defenders outside. These heavy fortifications meant that while the governor of Nottingham, Colonel John Hutchinson, was aware of the role Shelford played as a staging post for Royalist attacks on his town, he made no attempt to attack it for the first two years of the Civil War. On 24 September 1645 the Parliamentarian army of Colonel-General Sydnam Poyntz defeated a Royalist army at the Battle of Rowton Heath. Having already been defeated at the Battle of Naseby in June, King Charles retreated to Newark in October with 2,400 cavalry, which he then billeted in the surrounding area. Shelford House was given the Queen's Regiment of Horse, a regiment originally made up of French and Walloon Catholics that had escorted the Queen to England in February 1643. By the time of its arrival at Shelford, the regiment had been severely depleted through action, having gained an ugly reputation for vicious crimes and attacks during events such as the Battle of Burton Bridge in 1643 and the sack of Leicester in 1645. Combined with their foreign Catholicism, the regiment was well known and heavily disliked by the Parliamentarians, who often used their actions in propaganda. Having been reinforced by Catholics from Lancashire, the regiment was 150 men strong and commanded by Major Lawrence Clifton when it arrived at Shelford, making the total garrison approximately 200 strong as Poyntz carefully advanced towards Newark. ## Siege Wary of the Royalist forces now congregated around Newark, Poyntz's force of 3,000 cavalry and 500 infantry was reinforced by a brigade of 1,000 cavalry from London and the regional Parliamentarian commanders in the area supplied him with a further 4,500 infantrymen. As part of this Hutchinson provided a group of 400 men from his town to join Poyntz, but the force was still not of a size to compete with the main Royalist formations. Ordered to get closer to Charles to ensure he could not escape before larger Parliamentarian armies reached Newark and in need of action to fend off a possible mutiny from his underpaid and underfed soldiers, Poyntz went on the offensive. Shelford House, with its large garrison of cavalry, would be a dangerous thorn in an army's side if left alone to attack the supply lines of the advancing Parliamentarians, and so Hutchinson urged Poyntz to choose it as his first target. After waiting to receive some more reinforcements from Lincolnshire under Colonel Edward Rossiter, the Parliamentarians arrived at Shelford on 1 November with an initial force of 2,000 of their men. Hutchinson, who accompanied the force, was a cousin of Stanhope's, and he received permission to attempt to talk him into submission. Despite their connection, Stanhope replied to Hutchinson's mission in a scornful manner, mocking Hutchinson and declaring that he would "lay Nottingham Castle as flatt [sic] as a pancake". Stanhope had himself commanded a particularly brutal raid on a fort guarding the bridges to Nottingham over the River Trent in April, and his callous response to the request for a peaceful surrender caused great resentment among the Parliamentarians who were urged to look for revenge for Stanhope's previous attack. This combined with a hatred for the Catholic troops that were known to be part of Shelford's garrison, because of their notoriously violent conduct in and after battle. With this high level of tension throughout the Parliamentarian force, Poyntz began the initial stages of his assault on the house. ### Attack Poyntz first sent Hutchinson to capture the nearby village of Shelford, where Stanhope had a group of men garrisoning the church tower. The men had drawn the ladder in the tower up but were eventually smoked out by a fire set beneath them and captured; one boy was recognised as a turncoat from Nottingham's garrison. In fear for his life, the boy revealed all he knew about Shelford House's improved defences and disclosed where the palisades were weakest, which had previously been only vaguely known to the Parliamentarians. With this knowledge now available, Poyntz made a final formal offer for Stanhope to surrender on 3 November. Poyntz emphasised that if his offer was refused, his men would be allowed free rein in the attack per the rules of war at the time that agreed that a garrison that refused to surrender peacefully gave up its right to be protected after the assault was complete. Despite receiving this warning, Stanhope declined the offer, saying: > "Sir, I keepe this garrison for the King, and in defence of it I will live and die, and your number is not so great, nor you so much master of the field, but that I am confident soon to lessen your number and see you abroad; and for relief, we need none. Therefore I desire you to be satisfied with this answer from Your Servant, Phil. Stanhope." Fearing any further delay at Shelford would allow the Newark and Belvoir garrisons to come to the house's aid, Poyntz launched his assault at 4 p.m. on the same day, with Hutchinson given direct command of the attacking party. The attack took the form of two prongs, with one assaulting the east ramparts and the other the west ramparts. The men threw faggots of wood into the moat so that they could climb over it, and then raised their scaling ladders against Shelford's walls. However, the ladders were found to be too short and the defending Royalists were able to throw logs down on the climbing Parliamentarians, making the climb up almost impossible. A force of Londoners that had been tasked with attacking the west ramparts were beaten back from their attack first, which allowed Stanhope to send more troops to defend the east. The defence of the east ramparts was stout, with the Parliamentarian Colonel Richard Sandys later conceding that they were "defended galiantly [sic]", but after half an hour of bitter close quarters fighting, the attackers, under Hutchinson, succeeded in taking the east ramparts from their defenders, taking heavy casualties in doing so. Hutchinson led his Nottingham men over the taken position and into the ground below, only to find that the Queen's Regiment, fighting dismounted, had retreated into their half-moon earthworks. The Parliamentarians took the house's stable block but were attacked by musket fire from Shelford House and from more reinforcements sent from the west ramparts. Hutchinson was trapped inside Shelford's walls; Sandys and Hutchinson's brother George, also a colonel, made a concerted effort to force the house's gates open to relieve him. Finally a group of dismounted cavalry under the command of Major Christopher Ennis succeeded in breaking into Shelford's gatehouse, opening the drawbridge over the moat and allowing Poyntz to reinforce Hutchinson's beleaguered men inside. While it was already expected that no quarter would be given to Stanhope and his men, Poyntz now faced the added possibility of a Royalist relief force arriving while his soldiers were still fighting inside Shelford House, which would leave them cornered. He whipped his men into a frenzy and coerced them into fighting more savagely, which quickly and violently ended the resistance of the defenders of the house and earthworks. ## Aftermath Around 160 of the defenders, or 80 per cent of Stanhope's original force, were killed in the ensuing attack before Poyntz halted his men; most of the dead were from the Queen's Regiment who had received little mercy. The Parliamentarians had lost around 60 men killed. They buried their casualties at Shelford by rolling them into large mass graves and then sent the wounded back to Nottingham to be tended to. Chesterfield claimed in 1647 that during the attack the Parliamentarians had killed a number of children, slashed women with knives and mutilated the dead afterwards. Stanhope himself had survived the battle but had been badly wounded towards the end of it. Unable to move, he was looted by Parliamentarian troops and possibly then thrown on a dung heap. He was discovered in this state by Sandys or George Hutchinson, and was taken to his bedroom in the house. Here the Hutchinson brothers stayed with their cousin until he died of his wounds, despite the efforts of a surgeon. Clifton of the Queen's Regiment was also among the dead. The surviving 40 or so Royalists were taken as prisoners of war and in the night the house was burned down after being comprehensively looted. The Parliamentarians completed the destruction by pulling down the charred remains with grappling hooks and ropes. Poyntz had succeeded in destroying the Shelford garrison and was now able to advance on other Royalist positions, but his goal of cornering Charles and stopping his escape failed, as Charles fled on 3 November to Oxford. Despite this Poyntz continued his campaign and advanced on Wiverton Hall; the governor, Sir Robert Thervill, having seen the slaughter of his allies and wanting to avoid the same fate, surrendered a day after Shelford and was allowed by Poyntz to leave the area unmolested. However, the Shelford garrison's destruction did not affect all of the strongpoints in the same way, and Belvoir Castle refused to surrender. Its governor, Sir Gervase Lucas, finally surrendered in January 1646 after the garrison had been almost starved to death. Being much more diplomatic in his dealings with Poyntz than Stanhope had been, and having a force made up mostly of Protestants, Lucas was received kindly by Poyntz and was not attacked. In the meantime, a Scottish army under the command of General Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven had arrived to bolster the Parliamentarian forces around Newark on 22 November; the town was besieged on 26 November and surrendered on 6 May 1646, a day after Charles himself surrendered to Leven's army. Despite the clear victory at Shelford, Parliamentarian writers did not emphasise it because they wished to avoid drawing comparisons to the Royalist massacres of foreign forces that had also taken place, which would have damaged their image of being morally better than their opponents. Chesterfield had pamphlets made to highlight the barbarous nature of the attack on his house, but these were not very successful and Royalists were uninterested in putting the mostly Catholic garrison in the way of martyrdom. Stanhope, however, was an uncomplicated Protestant who was remembered as a martyr in company with the likes of Spencer Compton, 2nd Earl of Northampton, Sir Charles Lucas, and Sir George Lisle as late as 1650. When the Stuart Restoration occurred in 1660, however, the story of Stanhope and his contemporaries was forgotten in the haste to memorialise the execution of Charles I. ## Significance While the amount of men killed at Shelford House was relatively small compared to other massacres in the Civil War such as at the Siege of Drogheda, the violent nature of the assault was wildly out of proportion with the insignificant nature of the strategic importance of the attack. Despite this, the attack and massacre have been overlooked in most works on the English Civil War in favour of other more notorious events that were publicised by the Royalists or Parliamentarians during the conflict to bolster support for their causes. The nature of the storming of Shelford House was further forgotten after a campaign to erase the history of the Queen's Regiment found success, with it being recorded later on as Lord St Alban's Regiment to disassociate itself with its actions. The attack has been researched more in recent years, with the historian David J. Appleby arguing that it should be held on the same footing of violence as the storming of Bolton in 1644 and Leicester in 1645. ## Notes and citations
11,888,296	Do or Die (Super Furry Animals song)	1,122,614,749	2000 song by Super Furry Animals	[ "2000 singles", "2000 songs", "Animated music videos", "Creation Records singles", "Super Furry Animals songs" ]	"Do or Die" is the eleventh single by Super Furry Animals. It was the third and final single to be taken from the Guerrilla album and was the band's last release for Creation Records. The track reached number 20 in the UK Singles Chart after its release on 17 January 2000. The group had originally wanted to release "Wherever I Lay My Phone (That's My Home)" as the final single from Guerilla but Creation instead chose "Do or Die", a decision which the band claimed not to understand. Although "Do or Die" features "daft lyrics", its name was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's Quit India speech which called for Indians to "Do or Die" to end British Imperial rule in the country. Critical reaction was largely positive with the song being named 'Single of the Week' by the Melody Maker and appearing at number 55 in the NME'''s single of the year list for 2000 despite an earlier claim by the magazine that there was "no need whatsoever" to release the track as a single. The music video for "Do or Die" was directed by Jake & Jim and features live action footage of the group's heads on brightly coloured cartoon bodies. ## Themes and recording According to Gruff Rhys "Do or Die" has a "ridiculously positive outlook" and was written in an attempt to "kickstart [the band] back into gear" after a bad period in the singer's life. The track is a "driving song" and features sampled car noises so that "even if you're not in a car it feels like you are". Although Rhys has called the track a "dumb pop song" with "really daft" lyrics, he has also claimed that the title was inspired by the Quit India speech made by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 at the Gowalia Tank in Bombay in which Gandhi called for his countrymen to "Do or Die" and use non-violent resistance to end British Imperial rule in India. Rhys has stated that he feels the fact that "five-year-olds" can jump up and down to the song, singing "Gandhi lyrics", is important, as it contrasts with the "self-important ... pompous" lyrics of singers such as Jim Morrison and Robert Plant. The track was recorded in the middle of 1998 at Real World Studios, Box, Wiltshire, along with the rest of Guerrilla, and was produced by Super Furry Animals. ## Composition "Do or Die" is 1 minute and 59 seconds long and is in the key of A major. The instruments used on the track are tuned slightly sharper than standard. The song begins with an intro featuring a lead guitar and keyboard melody, which plays twice, accompanied by a rhythm guitar riff alternating between A and D chords, drums and bass. The track breaks down to just rhythm guitar, drums and bass for the first verse which begins after 13 seconds. The first chorus begins after 23 seconds with a distorted guitar playing the chord sequence D5, C5, B5 and A5 twice while Rhys sings "If we do or die we should try, if we don't try I say bye-bye, and if I say bye-bye, I'll wonder why we didn't try to do or die" backed by high harmony backing vocals and occasional keyboard noises. The song breaks down again for a second verse before the second chorus enters at 46 seconds. An instrumental passage follows with the lead guitar and keyboard reprising the melody which plays during the intro. The instrumental leads into a double chorus. At the end of the final chorus the track crescendos, with Rhys singing "yeah, yeah, yeah" and all instruments with the exception of the keyboard coming to an abrupt silence after 1 minute and 43 seconds. Keyboard noises continue and gradually fade out until the track ends. ## Release and critical reception The Super Furry Animals had originally intended to issue the song "Wherever I Lay My Phone (That's My Home)" as the third single from Guerrilla but, on returning from an American tour in 1999, found that their record company, Creation, had not done any work regarding the release. Returning from a tour of Europe later the same year the band discovered that both their record label and record plugging company had folded and that Creation made the decision, first to release "Night Vision" instead of "Wherever I Lay My Phone (That's My Home)", and then to replace "Night Vision" with "Do or Die" as the last single from Guerrilla. Singer Gruff Rhys has expressed dissatisfaction with this choice, claiming that he is not sure how the decision was made and that he wanted "Wherever I Lay My Phone (That's My Home)" to be released as he "quite fancied the idea of a novelty hit". However, the group ultimately felt "Wherever I Lay My Phone (That's My Home)" could not be issued in any case following the December 1999 release of "I Wanna 1-2-1 With You" by Jimmy Cauty's Solid Gold Chartbusters, which was "based on the same Nokia ringtone". "Do or Die" was issued on CD, cassette and 7" on 17 January 2000, the band's last release for Creation, and reached number 20 in the UK Singles Chart. The track became the shortest song ever to be performed on the BBC's Top Of The Pops programme when the group appeared on the show to promote the single's release. The track was included on the band's 'greatest hits' compilation album Songbook: The Singles, Vol. 1, issued in 2004. "Do or Die" was awarded 'Single of the Week' in the January 19–25, 2000 issue of the Melody Maker by guest reviewers Pär Wiksten and Christina Bergmark from The Wannadies who gave the track "all the points we can afford" and claimed that it ends perfectly. The NME described the song as "not the best track from ... Guerrilla, but then not the worst either" and claimed that it was mostly of note because it was the second single by Super Furry Animals to be less than two minutes long following 1996's "God! Show Me Magic". Despite stating that there was "no need whatsoever" for the release, the NME ranked "Do or Die" at number 55 in their single of the year list for 2000. In a 2005 review of the reissued Guerrilla, Pitchfork described the track as "near-perfect sunny pop" while, in an earlier review of Songbook: The Singles, Vol. 1, the website called "Do or Die" "proggy quasi-Britpop" and likened its guitar part to "Jessica" by The Allman Brothers Band. Also reviewing Songbook..., the BBC described "Do or Die" as one of several "great hairy rock outs" on the record, The Washington Post called it "straightforward pop-punk" and Drowned in Sound labelled it a "guitar-laden sugar rush". Website Cokemachineglow likened the track to the work of The Stooges. Pitchfork claimed that the single's b-sides, the "inescapably sha-la-la-ing 'Colorblind'" and the "piano-accented bounder" "Missunderstanding (sic)", pale beside "Do or Die" and the other tracks on Guerilla although they "do manage to scratch the itch for more SFA". ### Accolades \* denotes an unordered list ## Music video A promotional music video was produced to accompany the release of "Do or Die" as a single. The video was directed by Jake & Jim who also directed the video for the group's previous single, "Fire in My Heart". The video begins with the camera zooming in through the door of a cartoon house in the desert to reveal Super Furry Animals playing along to the track in a room. The band's heads and instruments are live action footage, filmed in London, while their bodies and surroundings are brightly coloured animations. During the first verse, shots of the group playing the track in the room are intercut with images of band members on cartoon surfboards superimposed onto real life footage of giant waves. This process is repeated during the second chorus, with the video cutting between shots of the band playing in the room and images of the band superimposed onto live footage of tornados. After 1 minute and 4 seconds images of the group's heads being swept along in a lava flow are intercut with the band playing along with the track in the now red room with lava visible through the windows. Snow then begins to fall in the room and the video cuts to shots of the group escaping an avalanche in a bobsled. As the track ends the lightbulb in the room begins to swing frantically and Super Furry Animals are bathed in a green "radioactive or alien glow". A shot of the house in front of a nuclear explosion cuts to footage of the band frozen mid-word, with the camera moving through 360 degrees to reveal them as two dimensional cutouts. The "Do or Die" music video was named as 'Video of the week' in the 12–18 January issue of Melody Maker and was included on the DVD release of the band's greatest hits album, Songbook: The Singles, Vol. 1''. ## Track listing All songs by Super Furry Animals. - CD with fold-out poster (CRESCD329), MC (CRES329), 7" (CRE329) 1. "Do or Die" – 2:04 2. "Missunderstanding (sic)" – 3:22 3. "Colorblind" – 3:34 ## Personnel - Gruff Rhys – vocals - Huw Bunford – guitar - Guto Pryce – bass guitar - Cian Ciaran – keyboards - Dafydd Ieuan – drums ## Singles chart position
7,525,422	Ellwood House	1,143,340,502	Historic house in Illinois, United States	[ "DeKalb, Illinois", "Historic house museums in Illinois", "Houses completed in 1879", "Houses in DeKalb County, Illinois", "Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois", "Museums in DeKalb County, Illinois", "National Register of Historic Places in DeKalb County, Illinois" ]	The Ellwood House was built as a private home by barbed wire entrepreneur Isaac Ellwood in 1879. It is located on First Street in DeKalb, Illinois, United States, in DeKalb County. The Victorian style home, designed by George O. Garnsey, underwent remodeling in 1898-1899 and 1911. The house was originally part of 1,000 acres (4.0 km<sup>2</sup>) which included a large stable complex known as "Ellwood Green." Isaac Ellwood lived here until 1910 when he passed the estate to his son, Perry Ellwood. After Perry Ellwood inherited the home he remodeled the interior and exterior, drastically altering the home's appearance. Thus, the Ellwood House incorporates elements from several architectural styles. In 1964 the home was donated to the city of DeKalb and converted into a museum. The house was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1975. The Ellwood House Museum site contains six structures in addition to the main house. A 50-foot (15 m) tall water tower dominates the west side of the property while a 14-foot (4.3-m) tall miniature Stick style house is located nearer the main house. There is also a Visitor Center, built as an addition to the Perry Ellwood family's original garage, and a museum house that was once used to hold Harriet Ellwood's (Isaac's wife) collection of "curiosities." The property also includes the "Ellwood-Nehring House," the home given to Perry and May Ellwood as a wedding gift in 1898. From 1940 until 2011, the house was privately owned by Paul Nehring, owner of DeKalb's Nehring Electrical Works, and his wife Shirley. ## History Construction on the original mansion began in April 1879, George O. Garnsey, a Chicago architect, designed the Ellwood Mansion for DeKalb barbed wire entrepreneur Isaac Ellwood. At the time, Garnsey had designed other structures in DeKalb and Sycamore. By November 1879 the Ellwood family occupied the home. Newspaper accounts of the day put the cost somewhere between US\$40,000 and \$50,000. The original Ellwood House had a number of elements common to Victorian designed homes and combined several styles. Its mansard roof remains one of the home's most striking features. In addition, the home still incorporates Gothic columns, pitched gables, and a cast iron roof cresting with a trefoil design. While Isaac Ellwood lived in the home large dinner parties, popular during the 19th century, were commonplace. The Ellwood House hosted prominent visitors throughout Isaac Ellwood's residence there. Theodore Roosevelt dined in the Ellwood House dining room while he was a candidate for Vice President of the United States in 1900. The dining room has also hosted U.S. Senators and U.S. state governors among other notable guests. Dinner parties at the Ellwood House followed customs typical to 19th century dinner partie. Guests "dressed" for the party, followed proper etiquette and were expected to know how to use the silverware properly. The first remodeling work on the Ellwood Mansion took place as the 19th century drew to a close. The changes, commissioned by Isaac Ellwood, were meant to reflect more popular architectural styles including the Georgian and Colonial Revival. Many of the building's original Gothic features were replaced with more Classical elements. On the home's exterior, some of these changes can be observed in the addition of the portico and porte-cochere. Inside the home, the dining room was enlarged with the addition of the semicircular bay on the mansion's north facade. Perry Ellwood inherited the house in 1910, and, together with his wife, May Ellwood (née Gurler), altered the mansion once again. The biggest changes were the addition of the terrace on the home's south face, a sunroom wing, and the relocation of the porte-cochere to the north side of the portico. This is the mansion that is visible today. During World War II, and after Perry Ellwood died in 1943, May Ellwood again altered the home; to save on fuel oil, she had the upper floors of the house closed off. During this period, the library functioned as a guest room and a bathroom was added across the library's west wall. The bathroom was removed before the house opened as a museum in 1967. The library's plaster cornice and other architectural details have been restored based on a 1912 photograph. In 1964 the home was donated to the city of DeKalb and converted into a museum. ## Architecture ### Exterior The three-story brick house includes a full elevated basement and a mansard roof with steeply pitched gabled dormers. Projecting from the roofline are plain corbeled chimneys and iron gillwork, the original roofing material was slate. The 1879 version of the Ellwood House featured dormer ornamentation with finial work. The original windows were all double-hung and of modest size, occurring both singly and in pairs while showing a variety of lintel designs. The original front (east) facade appeared much different than it does at present. The front entryway has been completely altered, due to Perry Ellwood's 1911 remodeling. The original entryway featured a one-story stone porch supported with two pilasters and two granite columns. The square projecting porch bay was connected to the ground via 12 stone stairs. In the southeast corner of the house was a full three-story projecting tower set at a 45° angle to the rest of the front facade. Isaac Ellwood's 1898-1899 renovations were superficial, especially when compared to the alterations his son made to the original design a decade later. He had the bracketed cornice replaced with a Classical cornice with dentils and a projecting molding. The window lintels were altered in a style similar to the new cornice. On the tower, the two windows on the first floor were replaced with one larger window while the projecting bay over the east portico was removed and made flush with the rest of the house. The windows over that portico were replaced with a heavy double door that opened onto the roof over the veranda, which had been built over the entire front of the house. It was during this time that the first porte-cochere was built on the south side of the home. Perry Ellwood undertook major renovations which added and changed rooms in 1910. On the home's exterior the porte cochere was moved from the south facade to its present position on the north facade. On the south side of the home a large brick terrace was added and the conservatory moved from the southwest side of the house to the rear (west). The full-length tower on the home's southwest corner was entirely removed during this renovation. ### Interior The general layout of the home's interior has remained basically the same throughout the remodelings; the rooms on each floor are accessed via a large central hallway which ends in an elegant rotunda. However, some of the changes made in 1910 and 1911 did alter the interior appearance. The parlor was converted into the library and the library was converted into the dining room after an extension was added on. In the home's northwest corner a large kitchen was added, on the second-floor, the room above the kitchen became servant's quarters. Upon entering the Ellwood House, guests of Isaac or Perry Ellwood would have been greeted or formally welcomed by members of the family. After Perry Ellwood inherited the house in 1910 the entry parlor began to become known as the library. Prominent among the library's features is a carved Italian marble mantle with a large gilt mirror hung above it. The library's bookshelves are cast in a Neo-Italian Renaissance style and constructed of fine mahogany. Presently filling the shelves in the Ellwood House are a large collection of books with Ellwood family nameplates. Near the library window, which is adorned with its original walnut shutters, is an 1890s French statue. The statue was donated to the Ellwood House Association from someone in Sycamore who bequeathed it to the museum. The dining room's underwent an extensive remodel in 1898 because of Ellwood's rise to national prominence through his barbed wire partnership with Joseph Glidden. The room was enlarged through the addition of a semi-circular bay. Beyond the addition, the room was refurnished and redecorated to reflect the Georgian Revival alterations that were occurring on the home's exterior. Elements of Georgian Revival architecture that were incorporated into the Ellwood dining room remodel include, mahogany paneling with dentil molding around the windows and doors, a cornice with Classical details, and brackets. Almost all of the dining room's 1898 furniture and woodwork was custom made by Tobey & Company of Chicago and each piece is affixed with a dated brass plate. The main dining room table and chairs were cast in an early Georgian style and the table has twelve extra leaves which can extend it the length of the room. The dining room's smaller table, situated within the bay addition, was used for Ellwood family breakfasts. The Ellwood House living room did not exist until Perry Ellwood's 1911 remodeling. The original living room space was laid out as two rooms with pocket doors joining them. In the living room, a wall between the sitting room was removed which created a large, open space to which a vaulted ceiling was added. Perry Ellwood's living room was designed to function with the newly added sunroom and south terrace as one large living and entertaining space. The terrace can be accessed through French doors from both the living room and sunroom. The living room was designed to reflect English country houses c. 1650, during the Stuart period. The room was designed by Roy Terwilliger, an interior designer with Marshall Field & Company in Chicago and May Ellwood's cousin. The living room features a "pargework" ceiling constructed of molded plaster and designed with a geometric theme. The large, Caen stone fireplace was carved in Chicago in 1911. The sunroom was designed in the late 19th century and early 20th century Arts and Crafts style causing it to stand in stark contrast to the living room. The room was originally furnished with Mission style furniture to complement the oak woodwork. ## Museum Shortly before her death in 1964 May Ellwood donated the house to the DeKalb Park District for use as a historic house museum. The Ellwood House site is about 8.5 acres (34,000 m<sup>2</sup>) which includes a wooded area to the north of the house; all that remains of the original 1,000 acres (4.0 km<sup>2</sup>). The house is now a museum, operated jointly by the Ellwood House Association and the DeKalb Park District and they offer guided tours for a fee. The museum offers tours seasonally beginning in late spring and ending after the annual holiday celebration in December. The Ellwood House Museum has a visitor's center, which includes a barbed wire gallery, carriage gallery, special exhibits gallery, and a gift shop. The museum offers tourists a chance to glimpse what life was like for the Ellwoods. As part of the DeKalb Park District, the grounds are open to the public, and available for rental for use on public and private events. The DeKalb Area Garden Club hosts an annual Flower Show, community members hold weddings in the garden or visitors center, and the Ellwood House Association holds an annual Art Show, Ice Cream Social, and other events. ## Outbuildings ### Water tower The Ellwood House grounds hold several extant outbuildings as well: the museum house, the carriage house, the water tower, and the Little House. On the west (rear) of the Ellwood House, the circular limestone water tower is about 50 feet (15 m) tall and has a diameter of 18 feet (5.5 m). The tower has windows occurring at different levels, which are arched and include keystones in their design. The water tower was built in 1879, the same year as Ellwood House, and at that time the structure was topped with a wooden water tank with a conical roof. Between 1897 and 1910 the wooden tank was removed and replaced with an additional 30 courses of stone which matched the original structure. The arched door at the base of the water tower was replaced with a larger square-shaped double door. The roof remained conical and of wood construction until about 1950 when it was replaced with sheet metal. The water tower is the only surviving structure from what was once a large horse stable facility owned by Isaac Ellwood. The complex, known as "Ellwood Green," was affiliated with the family's Percheron horse business. Two major structures within the complex, were the 1879 brick stable buildings, both of which featured mansard roofs. Those buildings, along with all other original stable buildings (save the water tower and including the home stable) were demolished through the years. ### Carriage house Another of the property's buildings, commonly called the carriage house, never lived up to its popular name. The building never housed any carriages; it was, in fact, built to house automobiles. The southern section of the carriage house was constructed sometime between 1908 and 1912 and features a mansard roof. The building is sheathed in stucco and presently houses a collection of antique carriages and sleighs as well as a barbed wire history museum. The carriage house, today the Ellwood House Museum's Education and Visitors Center, was built by Perry Ellwood as a multi-car garage. It had a grease pit for automobile repair work. On the second floor was an apartment for the Ellwood family chauffeur. The building originally had garage doors on both sides so cars could drive in one side and out the other side of the structure. The original doors are on display inside the Ellwood House Visitors Center. ### Museum House The one-story red brick Museum House, another of the site's outbuildings, stands to the south of the main house and was built in 1905 for Isaac Ellwood's wife Harriett. The Ellwood's grandchildren and other family members referred to the museum house as the "Curiosity Shop." She used the building to store the many curiosities and items she collected while traveling throughout the world. Some of these items included Native American artifacts, minerals, seashells, and other specimens. The museum house measures almost exactly 25 feet (7.6 m) on all four sides and has two doorways, one on the east and one on the north side. On its interior some of the museum house's original oak display cases are still intact. The Museum House is cast in Classical Revival style and was the last outbuilding constructed for Isaac Ellwood on the property. Today the Museum House's exterior appears much the same as it did when it was newly constructed but for many years the structure was badly deteriorated. After Harriet Ellwood died in 1910 the objects remained inside the building while it began to decline. By 1934 the building was in serious need of repair and by the 1970s both porches were gone and the only way into the building was through the north door. The museum house restoration was undertaken more than ten years later. Prior to the addition of the Visitors Center to the Carriage House, the Museum House served as the visitors center and housed staff offices. ### Little House On the west (rear) side of the home, near the carriage house, is a miniature Stick style house known as Little House. Little House is 13 by 15 feet (4.0 by 4.6 m) and stands 14 feet (4.3 m) above its concrete foundation. Little House was built in 1892 with assistance from every carpenter in DeKalb; the house was to be used as a float in a local parade. After the parade Isaac Ellwood's son, Will, bought the house and had it placed on the Ellwood House property in the same location it stands today. The house was used by Will's two daughters and later by Perry Ellwood's children. Between that time and 1973 the house had four or five other owners and it was moved several times. Eventually, the Little House wound up at the property of Mr. and Mrs. Burt Oderkirk, on Annie Glidden Road, where it again served as a playhouse for the couple's children. At this point it was painted white, with green shutters. In 1973 Mrs. Oderkirk donated Little House to Ellwood House Association and it was returned to its place on the Ellwood property. In 1986 the Little House was restored to a Victorian paint scheme. ## Significance The house is most significant for its connection to Isaac Ellwood, who has been given credit, in part, for Joseph Glidden's invention of barbed wire. Glidden's patent was earlier, thus Ellwood's connection with the actual invention is vague. He did, however, play a chief role in organizing the barbed wire industry into a viable and profitable business. Isaac Ellwood lived in the home throughout his later years and made his home in DeKalb through all of his years in barbed wire. The Ellwood House, including the four contributing properties on its 8.2-acre (33,000 m<sup>2</sup>) site, were added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on June 13, 1975. ## See also - Chauncey Ellwood House - Gurler House - Jacob Haish - Joseph F. Glidden House - Sycamore Historic District
28,797,664	Lay You Down	1,057,553,745	null	[ "2010 singles", "2010 songs", "Jive Records singles", "LaFace Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Rico Love", "Songs written by Rico Love", "Songs written by Usher (musician)", "Usher (musician) songs" ]	"Lay You Down" is a song by American R&B recording artist Usher. It was written by himself, Rico Love and Dwayne Nesmith, and produced by the latter two. It was released to urban radio on September 28, 2010, in the United States, as the third and final single from Usher's EP, Versus EP, which is an extension of his sixth studio album, Raymond v. Raymond. "Lay You Down" is an R&B song, that takes influence from pop musician Prince. The song entered the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and peaked at number fifty-six. ## Background and composition "Lay You Down" was written by Usher, Rico Love and Dwayne Nesmith, and produced by the latter two. Additional vocals were contributed by Love, and keyboard and programming was done by Nesmith. The song was recorded by Ian Cross at Midnight Blue Studios in Miami, Florida, and mixed by Rob Marks at Circle House Studios. "Lay You Down" is an R&B song with a length of four minutes and three seconds. In an interview with music video website Vevo, Usher explained that the song is a "classic R&B baby maker". Sara Anderson of AOL wrote that it opens "with improvisational, high-pitched 'ooohs' and base-driven synth beats." The song was released as the third and final single from Versus, an extended play released as an extension of his sixth studio album, Raymond v. Raymond (2010). ## Reception Describing "Lay You Down" as one of the more sensual songs on Versus, Mark Nero of About.com wrote "the best of which might be the piano-laced 'Lay You Down,' on which Usher sings: 'This ain't bump 'n grind, I'll show you what love is if you let me lay you down.'" Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe commended Usher's use of falsetto, whilst writing that the song "is an urgent boudoir jam that draws a neat line"– she also commented on how it takes inspiration from both Prince and Marvin Gaye. Los Angeles Times'''s Jeff Weiss also pointed out the influence from pop musician Prince, and how Usher is "unctuously cooing about wanting to be the: one who keeps your body warm." "Lay You Down" entered the R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart on the week ending November 13, 2010, and peaked at number fifty-six, due to strong radio play. ## Credits and personnel Recording locations - Vocal recording – Midnight Blue Studios, Miami, FL. - Mixing – Circle House Studios, Miami, FL. Personnel - Songwriting – Rico Love, Usher Raymond, Dwayne Nesmith - Production – Rico Love, Dwayne Nesmith - Vocal recording – Ian Cross - Mixing – Rob Marks - Additional vocals – Rico Love - Keyboard and programming – Dwayne Nesmith Credits adapted from the liner notes of Versus''. ## Charts
19,091,902	Wicked Annabella	1,137,655,840	1968 song by the Kinks	[ "1968 songs", "Song recordings produced by Ray Davies", "Songs written by Ray Davies", "The Kinks songs" ]	"Wicked Annabella" is a song by the English rock band the Kinks from their 1968 album, The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society (1968). Written by Ray Davies, it was recorded by the Kinks in July 1968. The song is Dave Davies's only lead vocal contribution on the album. It is one of several character studies on Village Green, recounting the wicked deeds of the local witch as a warning to children. Employing an eerie tone, its lyrics are darker than the rest of the album and have been likened by commentators to a dark fairy tale. An example of psychedelia, the song includes guitar feedback and a long sustain, likely achieved through the use of an early solid-state amplifier, while Davies's lead vocal features heavy echo and reverb. Retrospective commentators have described the song as a departure from the relative calmness of Village Green and have often highlighted its guitar sound for praise. ## Background and composition Ray Davies suggested in a November 1968 interview with Melody Maker that he composed "Wicked Annabella" to get a song "to sound as horrible as it could". The song is one of many character studies on the Kinks' 1968 album The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society. Among band biographers, Andy Miller characterises "Wicked Annabella" as a "psychedelic nursery rhyme", while Johnny Rogan calls it a "black fairy tale". The lyrics recount the wicked deeds of the local witch, Wicked Annabella, and serves as a warning to children to stay in their beds and avoid the woods. The witch is said to live in "perpetual midnight", spending her time mixing brews, burning into others' souls with her eyes and preying on children. The song opens with a bass and drum intro similar to the Rolling Stones' 1965 single "Get Off of My Cloud". Its main riff is reminiscent of the Doors' 1967 song "Light My Fire", something Rogan considers the "ultimate irony" since the Doors had based their 1968 single "Hello, I Love You" in-part on the Kinks' 1964 single "All Day and All of the Night". Music critic Jim DeRogatis counts the song as the only example of psychedelia in the Kinks' discography, while musician Steve Alleman writes that its "freakout ending" is one of the few times the Kinks approached the genre, without actually achieving it. Journalist Nick Hasted thinks the song's guitar feedback makes it a typical "1968 rock nightmare". English professor Barry J. Faulk similarly writes that the song's makeup of "crashing guitar chords, tight harmonies, and an aggressive back-beat" makes it one of the few conventional rock songs on the album. He adds that it being Dave Davies's only lead vocal on the LP was possibly used to further separate it from the album's other tracks. Pop culture author Mike Segretto writes that while most of the songs on Village Green avoid the sounds of the contemporary music scene, the "fuzzed-out acid rock" of "Wicked Annabella" is one of the few traces of a 1968 music trend heard on the album. By contrast, historian Carey Fleiner suggests that rather than the "drug-fuelled dream imagery" becoming more present in 1967 and 1968 songs, the whimsical nature of "Wicked Annabella" and other Davies compositions likely owe more to the tradition of English fairy tales and the works of English author Kenneth Grahame. ## Recording The Kinks recorded "Wicked Annabella" in July 1968 in Pye Studio 2, one of two basement studios at Pye Records' London offices. Davies is credited as the song's producer, while Pye's in-house engineer Brian Humphries operated the four-track mixing console. Dave Davies' double-tracked lead vocal ranges from frightened whispers to raging screams, while his laughter at the song's conclusion includes heavy echo and reverb. The song employs guitar feedback throughout and its conclusion features an interplay of drums and guitar. While Davies likely used his typical Vox AC30 amplifier for most of the tracks on Village Green, the long sustain heard on "Wicked Annabella" suggests the use of an early-era solid-state amplifier. Ray Davies quickly mixed the song in August 1968, but remixed it in late October 1968; the resulting mono version of the song has more reverb and is louder. During the song's recording, Ray Davies allowed for greater creative input from his bandmates than was typical for him; Mick Avory altered his drum sound on the song by disengaging the snare, and during the song's breakdown, bassist Pete Quaife improvised a section of Johann Sebastian Bach's piece "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring" (1:12–1:19). Quaife later reflected: "I felt a little bit guilty about the Bach line at the time. I had visions of an irate Johann visiting me late at night ready to clobber me with [a] music stand!" ## Release and reception Ray Davies included "Wicked Annabella" on the second side of the twelve- and fifteen-track editions of The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society. Pye first released the twelve-track edition in Sweden and Norway on 9 October 1968, while the fifteen-track UK version followed on 22 November. In his September 1968 preview of the Village Green for New Musical Express magazine, critic Keith Altham described the song as Dave Davies's "turn to shine", writing that "those who have not heard colour feed back [sic] on amplifier have not heard Dave Davies". Reviewing the album for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau counted "Wicked Annabella" as one of the album's missteps due to an "impersonal artiness", preferring the album's songs which instead seem to originate in Ray Davies's actual life experiences. The Kinks never performed the song live, but Dave Davies began including it in his set lists during his 1997 solo tours. Among retrospective assessors, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic writes the song's "menace" is a surprise against the comparative calmness of the rest of the album, and Dylan Montanari of the website Spectrum Culture thinks that it, along with the song which follows it, "Monica", reflects a darker aspect of psychedelia than the earlier tracks on the album. Morgan Enos of Billboard magazine appreciated the eerie tone of "Wicked Annabella" and compared it to the Who's "Boris the Spider" (1966) and the Beatles' "Helter Skelter" (1968).
21,630,693	Cyclone Arthur (2007)	1,142,062,070	Category 2 South Pacific cyclone in 2007	[ "2007 in French Polynesia", "2007 in the Cook Islands", "Category 2 South Pacific cyclones", "Tropical cyclones in 2007", "Tropical cyclones in French Polynesia", "Tropical cyclones in the Cook Islands" ]	Cyclone Arthur (RSMC Nadi designation: 08F, JTWC designation: 09P) was the eighth tropical depression and fourth tropical cyclone of the 2006–07 South Pacific cyclone season. Forming as tropical depression on January 25, Arthur rapidly intensified into a strong Category 2 cyclone on the Australian intensity scale according to the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre in Nadi, Fiji. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center assessed the storm to have peaked as a minimal category 1 cyclone. Shortly after peaking in intensity, the cyclone began to weaken due to unfavorable conditions. Quickly moving towards the east-southeast, the Arthur began to undergo an extratropical transition. After turning towards the southeast, the center of circulation was almost fully exposed due to strong wind shear. However, Arthur briefly re-strengthened late on January 26 before becoming extratropical the next day. Tropical Cyclone Arthur affected several small islands during its existence. French Polynesia observed the most noteworthy effects from the storm, where several landslides damaged a few homes. ## Meteorological history During January 21, 2007, the Fiji Meteorological Service (FMS) reported that Tropical Depression 08F had developed about 435 km (270 mi) to the west-northwest of Savai'i in Samoa. The depression slowly traveled towards the east-southeast for several days as the overall structure of the storm fluctuated due to diurnal variations and strong wind shear. Around 1700 UTC on January 22, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert for the depression. The system developed a large banding feature in the northern portion of the circulation and deep convection formed around the center of circulation. The depression had moved into an area of weak to moderate wind shear with favorable diffulence aloft. Later that day, gale warnings were issued for the northeastern quadrant of the system. Tropical Depression 08F continued to develop as an anticyclone developed above the system, enhancing the environment around it. A mid-latitude trough located north of the depression was steering it towards the east. Early on January 24, the system became better organized and strengthened into a cyclone at 0600 UTC. The storm, which was named Arthur by the FMS, began to undergo rapid intensification as the structure improved significantly. Deep convection developed around the center with strong outflow towards the north. Several hours after becoming a cyclone, the JTWC issued their first advisory on Tropical Cyclone 09P as it traveled quickly towards the east-southeast. The quick movement was due to the influences of subtropical ridge to the north and a trough to the south. Later that day, a banding eye feature began to develop as the storm intensified into a Category 2 cyclone on the Australian intensity scale. At 1800 UTC, the JTWC assessed Arthur to have reached its peak intensity with winds of 120 km/h (75 mph) 1-minute winds), the equivalent of a minimal Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale. Early on January 25, Arthur reached its peak intensity with winds of 110 km/h (68 mph) 10-minute winds) with a minimum pressure of 975 hPa (mbar) while located about 635 km (395 mi) north-northwest of Rarotonga. Shortly after peaking in intensity, Arthur began to undergo an extratropical transition and rapidly deteriorated due to strong wind shear. The storm also began to merge with a low-level frontal boundary associated with the remnants of Tropical Cyclone Zita. The strong shear left the center of circulation partially exposed, with deep convection persisting in only the southeastern quadrant. In addition to the shear, dry air began to enter the system, causing it to weaken further. While continuing to move at a quick pace, the storm began to turn towards the southeast along a baroclinic zone. Early on January 26, the JTWC issued their final advisory on the cyclone as it lost most of its tropical characteristics. Arthur re-intensified shortly after and the JTWC reissued advisories on the storm around 2100 UTC. The brief re-strengthening was the result of a breakdown in the baroclinic zone which allowed convection to redevelop around the center. Around the same time, Arthur left the FMS's area of responsibility (AoR) and entered the New Zealand's MetService's AoR. The storm completed its extratropical transition around 1200 UTC on January 27, leading to the final advisory being issued on the storm. ## Preparations and impact On January 21, a gale watch was issued for Tutuila, American Samoa, Manu'a, and Swains Island as Tropical Depression 08F approached the islands. Winds of up to 55 km/h (34 mph), with gusts up to 75 km/h (47 mph), were expected. Small craft advisories were issued for the Cook Islands due to large swells produced by the storm. All of the watches were cancelled late on January 23 as the depression was no longer forecast to impact the islands. On January 24, an Orange Alert was issued for the Austral Islands. As the storm neared the region, the alert was upgraded to a Red Alert for Rurutu and Tubuai. Arthur produced minor damages in the Cook Islands—primarily consisting of beach erosion—on January 24. Heavy rains throughout French Polynesia resulted in several landslides which damaged several homes on Tahiti and Moorea. Waves near the islands ranged from 1.5 to 2 m (4.9 to 6.6 ft). Winds in Tubuai reached 85 km/h (53 mph) 10-minute winds) with gusts up to 115 km/h (71 mph). Several homes were damaged and roads were blocked by fallen trees throughout the island. Minor coastal flooding also occurred due to the large swells. ## See also - 2006–07 South Pacific cyclone season
2,297,349	Ichigo Kurosaki	1,168,629,861	Fictional character from Bleach	[ "Anime and manga characters who can move at superhuman speeds", "Anime and manga characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability", "Anime and manga characters with superhuman strength", "Bleach characters", "Comics characters introduced in 2001", "Fictional Japanese people in anime and manga", "Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities", "Fictional characters with extrasensory perception", "Fictional characters with slowed ageing", "Fictional ghost hunters", "Fictional high school students", "Fictional kenjutsuka", "Fictional male martial artists", "Fictional monster hunters", "Fictional swordfighters in anime and manga", "Male characters in anime and manga", "Martial artist characters in anime and manga", "Shapeshifter characters in comics", "Teenage characters in anime and manga" ]	Ichigo Kurosaki (Japanese: 黒崎一護, Hepburn: Kurosaki Ichigo) is a fictional character in the Bleach manga series and its adaptations created by Tite Kubo. He is the main protagonist of the series, who receives Soul Reaper powers after meeting Rukia Kuchiki, a Soul Reaper assigned to patrol around the fictional city of Karakura Town. These powers come at the cost of her own, and as a result, he concedes to work as her stand-in, fighting to protect people from evil spirits called Hollows and sending good spirits, wholes, to a dimension known as the Soul Society. Ichigo appears in other media after the manga series, including the anime television series, four anime films, two original video animations, rock musicals, several video games, light novels and the 2018 live-action film. Kubo said that Ichigo was created to replace Rukia as the protagonist of the series, because he felt she was unsuited for the role. In the anime series adaptation, Ichigo is voiced by Masakazu Morita in Japanese. In the English dubbing, he is voiced by Johnny Yong Bosch. In the live-action film, he is played by Sota Fukushi. His character has been well received among both readers and reviewers. Ichigo is often featured in Weekly Shōnen Jump character popularity polls. He was consistently ranked as the most popular character in Bleach. The 2007 Japanese Newtype magazine polls ranked Ichigo as one of the top 100 most-loved anime characters. Reviewers of the series have praised his personality, though some consider him to be a stereotypical anti-hero. Merchandise based on Ichigo's likeness has been released, including toys, clothing and action figures. However, critics disliked his anticlimactic fights in the series' latter half due to his lack of memorable scenes at these points. ## Creation and conception When drawing the manga series, Kubo commented that Rukia, the first Bleach character he introduced, was originally intended to be the protagonist. Through subsequent development of the series, however, Kubo decided to make her a valued ally and instead introduced Ichigo as the central character. Initial design sketches show Ichigo wearing glasses, and having dark hair and softer eyes. When designing Rukia, however, Kubo modified Ichigo's appearance to contrast with hers, giving Ichigo orange hair, a trademark scowl, and removing the glasses. During the series' first chapter, Ichigo's wristwatch was based on one Kubo himself wore at the time. In later chapters, his wristwatch was based on Naoto Fukasawa's W11K cellphone. According to Kubo, Ichigo, along with Orihime Inoue, are the most arduous characters to sketch. While illustrating one of Ichigo's scenes, Kubo found it awkward to draw him with a cheerful smile. Kubo has stated that Ichigo's greatest strength is his considerate and thoughtful nature. He always thinks about other's needs. However, he noted it as his greatest weakness, since worrying about his friends tends to put him in danger. When asked in an interview if he had any plans to focus on the love triangle between Ichigo, Orihime and Rukia, Kubo chose neither to confirm nor deny it as he did not want to focus on romance. Kubo attributes Ichigo's popularity among readers to the fact that he "looks cool". He also mentioned that as people read more about him they will discover that he is a warm and kind-hearted person. Following over fifty volumes of the manga's released, Kubo believes that Ichigo was the most developed character. He said that Ichigo leads the story and introduces readers to the events in it. When the Arrancar arc ended, Kubo rebooted the series which resulted in Ichigo losing his Soul Reaper powers. In the same way Ichigo became a Soul Reaper during the series' first chapter; he starts searching for methods to recover his original powers. During the story arc, Ichigo wears a new outfit after developing his Fullbring powers. Kubo wanted to bring the readers a feeling of uneasiness when creating this design as it resembles more of a tokusatsu character rather than his kimono counterpart from the Soul Reaper form to the point it would fit Ginjou Shinjo better. As a result, Kubo noted that readers were relieved reobtained his Soul Reaper as he once again wore a kimono despite being sightly different from the original one. Ichigo is voiced by Morita as a teenager and Yuki Matsuoka as a child for the Japanese anime. Morita said that Ichigo was one of his favorite characters he ever played alongside Tidus in Final Fantasy X. Johnny Yong Bosch voiced him as a teenager and Mona Marshall as a child for the English dub. While describing Ichigo as one of his best roles, Morita notes that voicing him can be at times difficult. Bosch has enjoyed voicing Ichigo's character due to his personal interest in the character's morals. However, he experienced difficulty voicing him in some scenes where Ichigo shouts for a long time. Sota Fukushi played Ichigo in the live-action adaptation of the series with the storyline's first arc, with Bosch reprising his role in the English dub. ## Appearances ### In Bleach Ichigo is one of the students attending Karakura High School and having the ability to see ghosts. He meets a Soul Reaper named Rukia Kuchiki from a secret organization called the Soul Society, who are in charge of sending souls to the afterlife. At the same time, Ichigo's family is attacked by a Hollow, a deceased spirit becoming a warped soul-eating monster which Soul Reapers deal with. After being wounded in an attempt to save Ichigo from a Hollow attack, Rukia transfers her Soul Reaper powers to him so he can save his family. In the following months, Ichigo acts in Rukia's place as the Soul Reaper in protecting Karakura Town from Hollows as their friendship continues to grow. Ichigo's past is also revealed as he faces the Grand Fisher, a hollow who killed his mother when he was nine years old. In time, the Soul Society sends two high-seated officers to take Rukia back for committing the crime of transferring her Soul Reaper powers to a human. In training with Kisuke Urahara in order to rescue Rukia, Ichigo obtains his own Soul Reaper powers and learns the name of his Zanpakutō, . He takes his friends with him to the Soul Society: Sado “Chad” Yasutora, Orihime Inoue, and Uryū Ishida. Ichigo is confronted by members of Gotei 13, the main military force in the Soul Society. As he approaches the prison where she is being held captive, Ichigo does battle with, faces and defeats other Soul Reapers, including Renji Abarai, Kenpachi Zaraki, and Byakuya Kuchiki, who adopted Rukia as his sister. For his match against Byakuya, Ichigo learns his Bankai, , which highly increases his speed. After a long fight, he defeats Byakuya, who confesses why he tried to kill his sister. Captain Sōsuke Aizen, who faked his death prior, have been behind Rukia's sentencing and the chaos that plagued the Soul Society. He leaves the Soul Society and flees to the realm of Hollows, Hueco Mundo. In time, Aizen targets Karakura Town with an army of Arrancars, Hollows that assumed human form with Soul Reaper powers, after subjecting them to the Hōgyoku. In order to defeat the Arrancars and to control his Hollow powers, Ichigo begins to train with the group of Soul Reaper outcasts known as the Vizard. During the invasion of Karakura Town, Ichigo's friend Orihime Inoue has been abducted by Ulquiorra Cifer, one of Aizen's strongest Arrancars: The Espadas. Ichigo and his friends independently head to Hueco Mundo to find Orihime. After defeating the Espada Grimmjow Jaegerjaquez, Ichigo manages to save Orihime and defeat Ulquiorra. Soon after, Ichigo returns from Hueco Mundo to Karakura Town, and confront Aizen. During the battle interim, Ichigo learns a technique called the that weakens and defeats Aizen, allowing Urahara to seal him within a kidō barrier, at the cost of Ichigo's power. Seventeen months later, Ichigo becomes a senior in high school. The start of the Lost Agent arc describes his life after losing his power. One day, he meets Kūgo Ginjō, a Fullbringer from the group Xcution. Ginjo offers to replenish Ichigo's Soul Reaper powers in return for helping him and his group to become ordinary humans. With their help, Ichigo unlocks his own Fullbring powers through his Substitute Soul Reaper Badge. However, Ichigo later learns that Ginjo and his ally Shūkurō Tsukishima, a Fullbringer with ability to change people's memories, used him to take Fullbring powers for Xcution's use. Rukia transfers the Reiatsu of the Gotei 13's senior officers and other Soul Reapers through a special sword and restores Ichigo's Soul Reaper powers. Ichigo fights Ginjo with his improved Shinigami powers and during their duel, it is revealed that Ginjo was the first Substitute Soul Reaper. Despite learning the truth, Ichigo resolves to protect everyone and help other Soul Reapers defeat Ginjo. Though learning from Ginjō that the Soul Society monitor and limit their powers, Ichigo promises the Soul Reapers to continue fighting by their side. While patrolling Karakura Town, Ichigo is informed about the invasion of Hueco Mundo by Wandenreich, a group of Quincies. He goes to Hueco Mundo with his friends to liberate it from one of the Wandenreich's high-ranked officers Quilge Opie. Later, Ichigo finds out that the Quincies are attacking the Soul Society. Arriving just after Captain Commander Yamamoto's death, Ichigo encounters the Wandenreich's leader Yhwach. During the fight against Yhwach that ends with a draw, Ichigo's Zanpakutō is shattered and Yhwach leaves the Soul Society. Ichigo returns to the World of the Living, where he learns the truth that his mother was a pure-blood Quincy who was on a verge of hollowification after she was infected by White, Aizen's experimental Hollow. She was saved by Isshin at the cost of his Soul Reaper powers. Ichigo later learns that entity he believed to be Zangetsu is actually the embodiment of his Quincy powers while his inner Hollow is the true Zangetsu. Despite this, Ichigo still accept him as he gains his reforged Zanpakutō in its new split Shikai form. During the second invasion by the Wandenreich, Ichigo and his friends confront Yhwach at the Soul King's Palace. Ichigo gets overwhelmed, but Tsukishima and Orihime's combined efforts fixed his broken Tensa Zangetsu. Together with Uryū, Renji and Aizen, Ichigo defeats Yhwach. As revealed in the light novel Bleach: Can't Fear Your Own World, Ichigo was a potential heir of the Soul King due to the nature of his origins and was spared the burden when a new Soul King was created from Yhwach's remains. The manga's epilogue, taking place ten years after Yhwach's defeat, Ichigo and Orihime had a son named Kazui, who destroys the remnants of Yhwach's power. ### In other media Ichigo appears in four films for the series, including Memories of Nobody, The DiamondDust Rebellion, Fade to Black and Hell Verse. He also appears in both of the original video animations; fighting against a Hollow called the Grand Fisher in the first one and combating the rogue Soul Reaper Baishin in the second. In the Bleach video games, Ichigo is a playable character, including the Heat the Soul and Blade Battlers series. In some games, his Hollow form and Bankai state are available as separate characters. In Rock Musical Bleach, a musical based on the Bleach series, Ichigo is played by Tatsuya Isaka. His character is featured in two volumes from the Bleach Beat Collection CD soundtrack series which features themes composed by his Japanese voice actor, Masakazu Morita. These include the first of them, in which he is the only character and the fourth season's fourth volume along with Rukia. Ichigo also appears in the first volume of Bleach Breathless Collection CD soundtrack series together with the embodiment of his Quincy powers that posed as the Zanpakutō spirit Zangetsu. Ichigo is a playable character Jump Force. ## Reception ### Popularity Amongst the Bleach reader base, Ichigo has been always highly ranked in the Weekly Shōnen Jump popularity polls for the series. He has usually taken first place, though in early 2008 he dropped to third. His sword, Zangetsu, also ranked third in the Zanpakutō popularity polls. In the 2007 Japanese Newtype magazine poll, Ichigo was ranked one of the best male anime characters. In the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation (SPJA), Ichigo was elected for the best anime male character in 2008. The Japanese music distributor Recochoku has made two annual survey of which anime characters that people would like to marry. Ichigo ranked tenth in the category "The Character I Want to Be My Groom" from the 2008 survey and eight in the 2009 poll. Wizard Entertainment considered Ichigo the best hero from 2007, commenting that he does not try to be a typical hero but he fights in order to protect his friends. He was also 20th in IGN's "Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time" with comments focused on his design and personality. Ichigo has also appeared twice in the Anime Grand Prix polls, ranking as one of the most popular male anime characters. At the first Seiyu Awards in March 2007, Masakazu Morita won in the category "Best Rookie Actor" for his role as Ichigo Kurosaki. Ichigo's voice actor in the English adaptation, Johnny Yong Bosch, has also been praised for his voice work on Ichigo's character by Anime News Network (ANN), which favorably compared Bosch and Morita's work. Various merchandise based on Ichigo's appearance has been created, including action figures, plush toys and key-chains. Since the series was released, replica models of Ichigo's Zanpakutō and Bankai have been produced for purchase by collectors and fans. ### Critical response Several publications for manga, anime, video games, and other related media have provided praise and criticism on Ichigo's character. ANN's Melissa Harper commented that Ichigo's initial rebellious actions make him almost a stereotypical anti-hero, but note that he is soon revealed to be a more complex character with a sad past. Los Angeles Times's Charles Solomon comments Ichigo's character has little in common with protagonists from other series due to his bad temper and how he tends to fight. However, he added that readers from the series still "love" Ichigo. The way Ichigo becomes a Soul Reaper was found to be relatively common by Carlos Alexandre. He noted that Ichigo's character of a "tough guy with a heart of gold" had already been done in several series. Charles White from IGN praised Ichigo's climactic fight against Byakuya Kuchiki as one of the best fights in the Bleach series, and later Ramsey Isler gave additional praise to both the design and voice acting for Ichigo's inner Hollow. Ichigo's development during the Rescue arc in which he sets to save Rukia Kuchiki from being executed have been praised by ANN's Theron Martin. He praised the scenes in which Ichigo manages to stop Rukia's execution and his subsequent demonstration of his Bankai as one of the "eminently satisfying landmark moments in the series". Wired News's Corrina Lawson stated that she liked Ichigo's strong sense of responsibility, and commented it was one of the reasons of the series' popularity. However, the early dynamic between Ichigo and Rukia was the subject of criticism as Film School Rejects was disappointed that the latter was reduced from a strong Soul Reaper into a weak supporting character as the former becomes the lead character with her powers. Anime News Network criticized the handling of how Ichigo faced off his biggest nemesis in the following arcs, Aizen and Ginjou. While the former was seen as anticlimactic and might have given the series a proper ending, the latter instead made no impact to his character despite their misrelationship caused by Ginjou's plans. Similarly, for the final fight in the manga between Ichigo and his allies against Yhwach for lacking any entertainment, giving a rushed feeling due to all characters assisting him briefly and how Ichigo became able to wield powers of every type of character in the process. During the serialization of the manga, Tite Kubo said he received a letter from a reader who decided to name his son "Ichigo". This brought joy as well as fear to the manga artist due to how his work influenced other people. While feeling that he also made a good manga during this comment, Kubo decided to work more on the character in hopes that once the real Ichigo grows up, he would feel proud with his name. ## See also - List of Bleach characters
70,407,687	A Fistful of Gun	1,134,923,672	2015 video game	[ "2015 video games", "Devolver Digital games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Shoot 'em ups", "Top-down video games", "Video games developed in New Zealand", "Western (genre) video games", "Windows games", "Windows-only games" ]	A Fistful of Gun: For a Few Gun More is a 2015 top-down shooter game developed by FarmerGnome and published by Devolver Digital. The game features eleven playable characters with differing weapons, attributes, and control schemes. Players engage in procedurally generated fights, clearing a wave of enemies before progressing. Power-ups and handicaps affect the player character's abilities, such as movement and shooting speed. Horses allow a character to move faster and endure one additional enemy shot. The game features a single-player story mode and multiplayer modes for cooperative and player-versus-player battles. Designer Paul Hart released the first version of A Fistful of Gun as freeware in 2012. He later partnered with Devolver Digital for an expanded release after coming in contact through Twitter. Their collaboration was announced in August 2014 and the game was released in September 2015 via digital storefronts. A Fistful of Gun was met with mixed reviews from critics, who faulted its repetitiveness and sparse online lobby population. The difficulty, art style, and sound were well received. ## Gameplay A Fistful of Gun is a top-down shooter game with a Western setting. It features eleven unlockable player characters, each with a unique weapon and custom control scheme for up to two of three input devices: mouse, keyboard, and gamepad. The type of weapon affects each character's attributes, such as their shooting and movement speeds. The single-player story mode follows a plot in which Clayton Boon, an evil railroad tycoon, has made a deal with the Devil and must be eliminated within twelve days. The mode consists of a randomised sequence of arena battles, where the player character fights waves of enemies in a destructible environment. In addition to clearing each arena of enemies, the player can sometimes select a level objective, such as pushing a cart to its destination, engaging in a duel, assassinating a particular foe, or rescuing people from a stampede. The player can increase their score by collecting gold dropped by enemies when defeated. When in a neutral zone, such as around banks, the player is not attacked. If they still start a fight, they obtain a wanted level and must defeat the sheriff or receive a handicap for the next fight. Collectable power-ups have positive effects, such as whisky slowing down the game and increasing the damage the player inflicts on enemies. Mountable horses increase the player's movement speed and shield them from one hit by an enemy. In the arcade mode, up to nine players (locally or via online multiplayer) engage cooperatively in fights with all player characters available. Following each fight, the players are rewarded with ability bonuses (such as explosive bullets, increased movement speed, and more accurate shots) for the next battle. In the online versus mode, players fight against each other. ## Development A Fistful of Gun was developed by Australian developer Paul Hart (formerly Greasley) under the moniker FarmerGnome. After the closure of many prominent game studios in his native Brisbane, he had moved to Wellington, New Zealand, in 2009. Hart chose "that cheesy Clint Eastwood gunslinger Spaghetti Western vibe where everybody has a moustache, everybody is grizzled" as the game's theme. Hart announced the game as Already Dead in September 2012 via TIGSource's forums, later changing it to A Fistful of Gun while looking for name suggestions. He released the game's first version as freeware in December 2012, distributing it via his website and later through Game Jolt. This version featured gameplay for up to three players on the same personal computer, each using a different input device. Alongside the initial release, Hart had posted a request for a composer and sound effects designer, leading Surasshu to join the project later in December 2012. Hart continued developing the game and intended to release future versions through his site's mailing list. When a Twitter user pointed publisher Devolver Digital to a video about the game, Hart jokingly suggested that they collaborate on releasing the game despite intending to complete it by himself. However, he and the company began discussing the idea and eventually agreed to a publishing deal. Devolver Digital announced its involvement in August 2014, scheduling the game's release for early 2015. The new version, subtitled "For a Few Gun More, was expanded to feature eleven playable characters and up to nine players in offline or online multiplayer. The 2012 alpha version remained available for free. A Fistful of Gun was exhibited at the Indie Megabooth of the 2014 PAX Prime event and at 2015's PAX East. In August 2015, Devolver Digital announced the release date for A Fistful of Gun as 24 September 2015. Later that month, the company released a trailer introducing the player characters, followed by a launch trailer in September. A Fistful of Gun was released via Steam, GOG.com, and the Humble Store. The game's servers suffered from outages during the weekend after the launch. A Halloween update, Undeadorado, was released on 29 October 2015. Surasshu released A Fistful of Gun's soundtrack, featuring one track with vocals by Eldad and lyrics by Eldad and Lee Williams, via Bandcamp on 29 April 2016. ## Reception A Fistful of Gun received "mixed or average reviews", according to the review aggregator website Metacritic, which calculated a weighted average rating of 60/100 based on ten critic reviews. Stephen Turner of Destructoid found that the game's "only major errors lie in its repetitive and muddied action, all blasted through an ADD pacing", leading to a lack of replay value. Vandal's Ramón Nafria praised the game for challenging the player without resorting to bullet hell gameplay. Both were fond of the art style, calling it "charming" and "very pleasant", respectively, but criticised the obscurity of important elements like characters and reticles during busy combat scenes. Nafria further described the game's sound as apt for the Western theme. Kotaku Australia's Mike Fahey believed the multiplayer modes to be the game's highlight, but noted that he was unable to play them because of sparsely populated lobbies. Nafria and Turner similarly cited poor online play caused by too few players.
3,928,658	Louder Now	1,173,345,890	null	[ "2006 albums", "2006 live albums", "2006 video albums", "Albums produced by Eric Valentine", "Live video albums", "Taking Back Sunday albums", "Taking Back Sunday video albums" ]	Louder Now is the third studio album by American rock band Taking Back Sunday. It is a really amazing album. In April 2005, the group had begun writing material for the album. Two months later, they signed with Warner Bros. Records and contributed a song to the Fantastic Four soundtrack. Soon afterwards, the group rented a room in Manhattan where they composed songs for Louder Now. They came up with 20 songs, discarding half of them and recording demos of the remainder. The group began recording Louder Now with Eric Valentine in September 2005 at Barefoot Studios in Los Angeles, California. After Warner Bros. told them they did not need to rush, they recorded new demos. Recording ended on New Year's Day, 2006, and was followed by a tour of the UK, Australia and the U.S. Louder Now was released on April 25, 2006, on Warner Bros. Records. Several weeks later, "MakeDamnSure" was released as a single; this was followed by a tour with Angels & Airwaves. A music video was released for "Twenty-Twenty Surgery", and the single was released a month later. A video for "Liar (It Takes One to Know One)" was released in September, before the single's release in November. Taking Back Sunday then began a two-month stint as part of the Taste of Chaos tour. A video album, The Louder Now DVD: PartOne, was released in December. The album included videos of the recording process, tour footage and music videos. "What's It Feel Like to Be a Ghost?" was released as a single on New Year's Eve. In early 2007 the group toured North America, followed by the release of "My Blue Heaven" as a single in April. After a tour with Linkin Park, guitarist Fred Mascherino left the group and was replaced by Matthew Fazzi. Louder Now received generally favorable reviews from critics, and was voted Kerrang!'s album of the year. It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling 158,000 copies in its first week after release, reached the top 10 of several Billboard charts and the top 20 in Canada, Australia and the UK. Two months after its release, Louder Now was certified gold by the RIAA for sales of 500,000 copies and was later certified silver by the BPI for sales of 60,000 copies. As of May 2009, the album has sold 674,000 copies in the U.S. hop like a bunny ## Background and writing In July 2004, Taking Back Sunday released Where You Want to Be on independent label Victory Records. The album became a bestselling independent rock album within a year, selling 634,000 copies, and was certified gold by the RIAA. The band toured frequently for eight months before beginning to compose material for their next album. Vocalist Adam Lazzara said in April 2005 that the band was in "the early stages" of writing new songs. In April and May the group went on a co-headlining tour with Jimmy Eat World, introducing "Error: Operator" and "What's It Feel Like to Be a Ghost?." On June 10, it was announced that the band had signed with major label Warner Bros. Records and would begin recording their third album later in 2005. That month, the group contributed "Error: Operator" (which differs from the final album version) to the video-game adaption of Fantastic Four. Activision, the game's developers, wanted the track written from the viewpoint of Mister Fantastic. The group was hesitant, according to Lazzara, since the character is an "extremely rich, extremely smart guy ... And I'm not very smart, and I'm not rich at all, so I couldn't really relate." The song was also included on the film's soundtrack. In June and August 2005, the band supported Green Day for two UK shows, and supported Weezer for a US stadium show; they were initially scheduled to headline Hellfest, though they later dropped off. In July 2005, Taking Back Sunday rented a room in Manhattan, which they shared with members of the Sleeping, and began writing songs with laptops and guitars for their next album. Typically, they arrived at about 10 am; some evenings, Lazzara showed up after the band to write melodies. The group wrote 20 songs before discarding half, and recorded 14 or 15 demos in their home studio. According to bassist Matt Rubano, Fred Mascherino and Adam Lazzara's lyrics "are coming into a golden age. The tracks are really more rocking and we're trying some new things, but it's still us." For Where You Want to Be the group "didn't spend as much time playing together," but for Louder Now "we know each other's playing. We know what we want and don't want." ## Recording On September 21, 2005, it was announced that Taking Back Sunday had begun recording their third album with Eric Valentine. The group chose Valentine because he had produced Queens of the Stone Age's Songs for the Deaf (2002) and Third Eye Blind's self-titled album (1997). Although they met with Howard Benson and Rob Cavallo, the band's "love of Eric's work kind of trumped any other meeting we had." Unlike their previous records, the group worked in a large studio (Barefoot Studios in Los Angeles, California). Warner Bros. told them, "Take your time and it's done when you're done with it," and the band did another set of demos with input from Valentine. According to Mascherino, the group knew how they wanted the upcoming album to sound, so demoing again was a "thorough way to do it." Working in a big studio, according to Lazzara, gave the band the opportunity to "have more than two guitar sounds." According to Rubano, the group wished to make a rock-oriented album—not in compositional style, but "maybe in the recording and the tones of the instruments." They brought out "a really unique character" in all the songs. During the recording, guitarist Ed Reyes used Orange and Burman amplifiers. Most of his guitar tracks were recorded with an Epiphone Casino guitar, and he also used an Epiphone Crestwood guitar. Frequently using a tape delay effect, Reyes did not use distortion pedals since the Orange amp "had a perfect gain sound in itself." Mascherino used his Gibson SG Special guitar during recording, which he said had "an amazing sound which is really warm and gives me my own sound." He channeled it through a Marshall JCM800 amplifier, and also used a Gibson Firebird guitar when the group needed "a really tight sound." The drums were recorded in three days. After positioning four microphones around (and inside) the bass drum, Valentine placed Mark O'Connell in a room "he calls the torture chamber." According to the drummer, the room's acoustics made the drums sound "insane." By November the rhythm guitar, bass and drums were done, leaving the vocals and lead guitar to be finished. Recording wrapped up on New Year's Day, 2006. The songs were recorded with Pro Tools and transferred to analog tape for mixing, which was done by Valentine. Matt Radosevich engineered the recordings, assisted by Chris Roach. The band recorded 14 songs, with 11 planned to make the final track listing. The strings on "My Blue Heaven," arranged by Anton Patzner, were performed by Judgement Day. Patzner played violin and viola, and his brother Lewis played cello. Elena Mascherino contributed backing vocals to "I'll Let You Live," and Brian Gardner mastered the recordings at Bernie Grundman Mastering in Hollywood, California. The group released behind-the-scenes studio clips, often with snippets of new songs. ## Music and lyrics Lazzara said that Taking Back Sunday was "starting to grow up," no longer writing songs about being in high school and realizing that they "have to be an adult about some things." According to Mascherino, the group wanted to create something "timeless" to stand out from their peers; they "didn’t want to just do the formula," and used piano, xylophone and strings. Alternative Press noted that Louder Now had a "much more full sound, much more tight" than Where You Want to Be. MTV called the album "a big, ballsy, monster of a rock record," and its title affirms that it is a rock record. The album's sound has been described as alternative rock, emo pop, pop-punk and emo. "What's It Feel Like to Be a Ghost?" is, according to Lazzara, about a "pre-pre-midlife crisis." Mascherino said that the song "charges forward," never letting "up and fully rocks the entire time." Rubano called the opening guitar riff "not quite 'Paradise City', but it's a guitar riff where when we first came up with it, we were like, 'Whoa! Rock!'" He thought that "Liar (It Takes One to Know One)" sounded like a modern equivalent of the Police. Lazzara called the song "110 miles-per-hour, very hard to play and totally rocking," and Mascherino considered it and "Spin" the group's fastest songs ever. "MakeDamnSure" has a phone message in the bridge; Lazzara and his girlfriend were arguing at the time, and she left him a message. Lazzara showed it to Valentine, wanting to include it in the song. According to Mascherino, "MakeDamnSure" received the greatest group effort of the album's songs. "Up Against (Blackout)", a track with a time signature of 6/8, was compared to Mascherino's former band Breaking Pangaea. The intro to "My Blue Heaven" was reminiscent of "Wounded" by Third Eye Blind; the lyrics during the chorus were taken from "Wedding Dress" by Breaking Pangaea. For "Twenty-Twenty Surgery" Lazzara had several lyrics and melodies, "but nothing was working and it was the most frustrating thing"; its chorus was the album's final composition. Mascherino called "Spin" "this album's 'The Union', but on steroids", drawing a comparison to Circa Survive. The acoustic ballad "Divine Intervention" recalled the quieter work of Brand New, and included a lyrical reference to "My Favorite Things" from The Sound of Music. Mascherino soloed on "Miami," encouraged by Lazzara when the band was recording its demo. Lazzara later called the solo "funny and great." According to Mascherino, the group wanted the song "to sound as much like the Cure as possible, so it’s all clean guitars." He said that the drums on "I'll Let You Live" were recorded at a faster tempo, sounding "totally deeper" when played back; the song evoked Breaking Pangaea's 11 minute song "Turning". "Sleep" was the band's attempt at a Motown-inspired bass sound. "Brooklyn (If You See Something, Say Something)" contains a "real floaty, airy pre-chorus and then it's upbeat but dark," according to Lazzara. He did not regret dropping "Sleep" and "Brooklyn" from the final track listing "because when you listen to everything down, they just didn't really feel like they fit." ## Release In late January 2006, Taking Back Sunday toured the UK. On February 16, the upcoming release of Louder Now was announced. The album's artwork, a photograph by Joel Meyerowitz edited by Brad Filip, was introduced the following day. It consists of a movie theater box office with the admission price listed as \$1.52. A shot of people and a marquee sign can be seen in the reflection of the box office glass, which Lazzara said was a nod to "What's It Feel Like to Be a Ghost". He added that they ""wanted to touch on the feeling that you can be in a room packed full of people and still feel alone". On February 21, "MakeDamnSure" became available for streaming; in early March, the band filmed its music video. The video was filmed in Los Angeles with director Marc Klasfeld; according to Rubano, the band chose Klasfeld because his script for the video suited the song. MTV called it "a powerful montage of violent images, all shot in arty slow motion," combined with footage of the band performing in a wind tunnel. "MakeDamnSure" was released to radio on March 14. The group then toured Australia, returning for a U.S. tour from late March to mid-May with support from Tokyo Rose, and Suicide City. On April 6, the "MakeDamnSure" video was released. The group played at the Give it a Name festival in the UK before headlining the Bamboozle festival in the U.S. Louder Now was made available for streaming on April 18, 2006, before being released on April 25, 2006 through Warner Bros. Records. "MakeDamnSure" was released as a single on May 15, with "Sleep" its B-side. In June and July, the band toured with Angels & Airwaves. On July 23, the music video for "Twenty-Twenty Surgery" was released, directed by Jay Martin, and on August 28, it was released as a single with "Brooklyn (If You See Something, Say Something)" its B-side. "Liar (It Takes One to Know One)" was released to radio on September 19. A music video for the song, directed by Tony Petrossian, was released on September 29. In October and November 2006, the group was part of the Taste of Chaos tour, visiting New Zealand and Europe. "Liar (It Takes One to Know One)" was released as a single on November 6, with a live version of "Spin" its B-side. Ten days later, the band appeared on Last Call with Carson Daly. On December 12, the band released a DVD entitled The Louder Now DVD: PartOne, with over 60 minutes of footage documenting the making of the album, their world tour, live and behind-the-scenes footage of a show at the Long Beach Arena and the music videos for "MakeDamnSure" and "Liar (It Takes One to Know One)." On New Year's Eve, "What's It Feel Like to Be a Ghost?" was released as a single. On February 6, 2007, the band appeared on Last Call with Carson Daly again. In late February and early March 2007, they headlined a North American trek with support from Underoath and Armor for Sleep. On April 2, "My Blue Heaven" was released as a single and released to radio a week later. From late July to early September, the band participated in the 2007 Projekt Revolution tour with Linkin Park. On August 3 it was announced that O'Connell had injured his back, and he was replaced by Matchbook Romance drummer Aaron Stern for the remainder of the tour. Shortly after the tour Mascherino left the band, although his departure was not announced until early October. He said, "It was getting to the point where I felt I had taken the road as long as I possibly could," and his compositions were "more pop than anyone else [in the band] wanted to go." Mascherino had written over 45 songs, most intended for Louder Now but turned down by the band. He began a solo project, the Color Fred, and remarked that Taking Back Sunday was "more about cooking food than making music". ## Critical reception Louder Now received a score of 64 out of 100 from Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews." AbsolutePunk founder Jason Tate considered the album "closer to Northstar's Pollyanna" than to Where You Want to Be, and said that the music wasn't "anything mind-blowing. I don't get knocked on my ass like I did the first time I heard TAYF, but the catchy repetitiveness is all there." AllMusic reviewer Corey Apar called the album's name "an apt title for a super-tight, aggressive album that falls somewhere between their last two, tapping the heartfelt vigor of Tell All Your Friends in order to give Where You Want to Be a swift, square kick in the pants." Scott Heisel wrote for Alternative Press that the band "[is] spot-on when they floor it or put it in park; it's the sputtering along in-between that hurts the record." Despite not mastering "the art of the middle ground," they take "immense leaps forward musically on their third album." According to Heisel, the band should be "commended, not for just choosing not to rehash their older work, but for truly trying to branch out artistically—and succeeding most of the time." Kyle Ryan of the A.V. Club called Taking Back Sunday's sound on their debut album "fresh and raw" and their approach to Louder Now "formulaic." According to Ryan, Lazzara "changed his style a bit" and "occasionally sound[ed] like his jaw is wired shut." Entertainment Weekly reviewer Clark Collis wrote that the album's title "justifies its name thanks to a chunkier array of riffs and choruses" compared to Where You Want to Be. Sarah Dean wrote on FasterLouder that Louder Now differs from the band's records; it has "a darker mood, bigger choruses and perhaps even catchier melodies," with the "emo-pop punk flavour Taking Back Sunday are renowned for." Gigwise contributor Lee Glynn wrote that the album had "no standout tracks" other than "MakeDamnSure." Apart from the latter, "there is nothing on this album that reaffirms them as a band full of malice and bite." Spence D. of IGN gave the album a score of 6.7 out of 10: "It's a safe bet to say that TBS diehards will soak up the 11 tracks with a sponge-like vengeance. Newcomers may wonder what all the bells and whistles are about, though. But tracks like 'My Blue Heaven', 'Spin', 'Divine Intervention' and 'I'll Let You Live' promise even greater things to come from this band, who are only now hinting at their growing sonic maturity." NME gave the album a score of six out of ten: "It tails off towards the end, and TBS never quite shake the feeling that other people are doing this sort of thing far more thrillingly elsewhere." Now reviewer Evan Davies wrote that although the group's fans and label had expectations, it "doesn't mean you have to put out the exact same fucking album twice in a row." According to Davies, Taking Back Sunday writes two kinds of songs: "energetic pop rock with whiny vocals, and midtempo power rock, again with whiny vocals." Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone wrote that the group "amped up their sound," with Valentine "delivering a turbocharged attack spiked with dark, catchy melodies and giant choruses." Hoard called most of the album's songs "skull-rattling slasher[s] with enough pop smarts to keep the heartbroken agony from becoming too much to handle." For Stylus Magazine, Ian Cohen wrote that the album "tables the discussion" of whether Taking Back Sunday "embrace their arena destiny or disappear into the basement for cred that never really existed." Cohen concluded, "As was the case with pop-metal, 'albums' weren't the objective, so much as a few ace singles and album tracks that hold serve, which is Louder Now in a nutshell." ## Commercial performance Louder Now was expected to sell 185,000 copies. It sold 158,000 copies in its first week, and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. The album had lower first-week sales than Where You Want to Be, which had sold 164,000 copies. Louder Now was surpassed at the top of the chart by Godsmack's IV, which sold 211,000 copies. The album was number two on the Digital Albums chart, number seven on the Top Rock Albums chart and number nine on the Tastemaker Albums chart. It was number five in Canada, number 17 in Australia, number 18 in the UK, number 70 in Ireland and number 90 in Japan. Two months after its release, Louder Now was certified gold by the RIAA. By August 2006 the album had sold over 470,000 copies; in November it was certified silver by the BPI, and was number 124 on the Billboard 200 Albums year-end chart. "MakeDamnSure" was number eight on the Alternative Songs chart, number 25 on the Digital Songs chart and number 36 on the UK Singles Chart. "Twenty-Twenty Surgery" was number 60 on the UK Singles Chart. "Liar (It Takes One to Know One)" was number 21 on the Alternative Songs chart and number 83 on the UK Singles Chart. By May 2009, the album had sold 674,000 copies. ## Accolades and legacy The album was one of Alternative Press' most-anticipated albums of the year, and topped Kerrang!'s album-of-the-year poll. The music video for "MakeDamnSure" was nominated for an MTV2 Viewer's Choice award, which ultimately lost to "The Kill" (2006) by Thirty Seconds to Mars. TJ Horansky of Alternative Press wrote that with Louder Now, the group "started firing on all cylinders." Mascherino's "unique fluid and gruff vocals perfectly complement" Lazzara's "maniacal and effusive delivery," and Horansky called the vocals "much more natural" than Taking Back Sunday's previous albums. Fuse.tv's Jason Lipshutz called Louder Now his second-favorite Taking Back Sunday album. According to Lipshutz, it "was a mainstream mission statement, with ferocious guitar work and choruses aimed squarely at arenas." With moments of "true grace and contemplation," the album was "thrilling and complex." Rock Sound ranked it at number 55 on the list of best albums in their lifetime, stating that "nothing else in their back-catalogue boasts the huge songs, slick polish and, arguably, the heart of their major label debut." Louder Now has appeared on best-of emo album lists by The Daily Dot and Loudwire. Cleveland.com ranked "MakeDamnSure" at number 67 on their list of the top 100 pop-punk songs. Alternative Press ranked "MakeDamnSure" at number 54 on their list of the best 100 singles from the 2000s. The album was re-pressed on vinyl in June 2017, which charted at number 16 on the Vinyl Albums chart. Throughout 2019, the band performed Louder Now in its entirety for their 20th anniversary world tour. For cities in the US that had two shows back-to-back, the band would flip a coin to play either Louder Now or Where You Want to Be (2004) on the first night and the other album on the second night. To help promote the tour, a career-spanning compilation Twenty (2019) was released, which included "Liar (It Takes One to Know One)", "MakeDamnSure", "What's It Feel Like to Be a Ghost?" and "My Blue Heaven" from Louder Now. ## Track listing All music and lyrics written and performed by Taking Back Sunday. Side A Side B ### The Louder Now DVD: PartTwo A companion to The Louder Now DVD: PartOne, dubbed The Louder Now DVD: PartTwo was released on November 20 as a CD/DVD set. The DVD contained tour and studio footage, as well as music videos for "Twenty-Twenty Surgery" and "12 Days of Christmas." The CD featured live tracks, as well as the B-sides "Sleep" and "Brooklyn (If You See Something, Say Something)." ## Personnel Personnel per booklet. Taking Back Sunday - Adam Lazzara – lead vocals - Fred Mascherino – lead guitar, vocals - Mark O'Connell – drums, percussion - Eddie Reyes – rhythm guitar - Matt Rubano – bass guitar, twelve-string bass (on track 1) Additional musicians - Anton Patzner – string arranger, viola, violin - Lewis Patzner – cello - Elena Mascherino – backing vocals on "I'll Let You Live" Production - Eric Valentine – producer, recording, mixing - Matt Radosevich – engineer, editing - Chris Roach – assistant engineer - Brian Gardner – mastering - Brad Filip – design, booklet photography, back cover photography - Joel Meyerowitz – cover photo ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications
53,254,023	Not My Presidents Day	1,167,311,636	Series of rallies against U.S. president Donald Trump in 2017	[ "2017 in American politics", "2017 protests", "February 2017 events in the United States", "Protests against Donald Trump", "Protests in the United Kingdom" ]	"Not My Presidents Day" (sometimes "Not My President's Day", or "Not My Presidents' Day") was a series of rallies against the president of the United States, Donald Trump, held on Washington's Birthday (an American federal holiday also known as Presidents' Day), February 20, 2017. Protests were held in dozens of cities throughout the United States. Demonstrations were also held outside London's Houses of Parliament. The marches were mostly coordinated through Facebook. Organizers of the protest stated that although Trump was the president, they wanted to show that he did not represent their values. Los Angeles was the first city to plan a "Not My Presidents Day" rally, which was attended by more than a thousand protesters. New York City saw the largest demonstration, with an estimated 10,000 to 13,000 people attending a rally outside Trump International Hotel and Tower. The events were mostly peaceful, although thirteen people were arrested in Portland, Oregon. ## Preparation and planning The "Not My Presidents Day" protests were mostly coordinated through Facebook, like the original event in Los Angeles, whose details were spread through social media, inspiring other rallies. Before some rallies, there was a poster-making session. The artist's collective, Bad and Nasty, helped coordinate events for "Not My Presidents Day". Holly Hughes helped create Bad and Nasty via social media. Hughes told MTV News, "I made an idle threat on Facebook [...] I would gather the Bad Hombres and Nasty Women of Ann Arbor together at a dive bar for performance on NOT My President's Day. And overnight more than a thousand people wanted in!" Other women involved in planning Bad and Nasty events were Lois Weaver and Mary Jo Watts. In Minneapolis, Bad and Nasty was involved with a performance called "This Machine", planning well in advance of February 20, 2017. The University of California, Riverside, also planned a Bad and Nasty event for President's Day. The Women's March committee of New York city also aided in planning for Not My Presidents Day. ## Locations and activities There were about 400 protesters in Atlanta, where a peaceful demonstration called "ImPEACH Now! (Not My) President's Day March" was followed by a 6-mile (9.7 km) march from the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority's Arts Center station, near the Woodruff Arts Center, to Lenox Square, in Buckhead. Many of the people participating in Atlanta's event were first-time protesters. The event was organized by Matthew Williams of Democracy Spring Georgia. There were about 200 people at the rally outside the Maine State House in Augusta, Maine. The protest was organized by a young trans man, Jazpyer Harrington. Participants chanted "We need a leader, not a creepy tweeter" and sang "God Bless America" and "The Star-Spangled Banner". Several hundred protesters attended a rally outside the Texas State Capitol in Austin, which was also attended by some Trump supporters. The demonstration was organized by a woman who resides in San Antonio. There were no major speakers; attendees took turns speaking into a megaphone. The rally started at noon and lasted until 3pm. The Baltimore protest was held along North Charles Street in the Station North Arts and Entertainment District. It lasted into the evening and, according to CBS Baltimore, had a reportedly "different tone than elsewhere in the rest of the country, with less protesting, more talking". Michele Minnick and Laura Pazuchowski were co-organizers of the event, which also attracted dozens of Trump supporters. A group called "Bad and Nasty' Baltimore" organized a day of art and activism, which included face painting, sign making, and a workshop titled "Our Democratic Heritage". Entrance to the event was on a sliding scale up to \$10, with proceeds benefiting the state's chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union (Maryland ACLU). In Chicago, hundreds of protesters gathered at the intersection of Wacker Drive and Wabash Avenue, across the Chicago River from the Trump International Hotel and Tower. Estimates said there were 1,200 people; police reported no arrests. A group of 25 local musicians known as "Sousaphones Against Hate, Baritones Resisting Aggression" performed for the crowd. Wabash was closed temporarily to both foot and vehicle traffic. Former Governor of Illinois, Pat Quinn, was at the protest gathering signatures for a ballot initiative. A demonstration also took place in Columbia, South Carolina. About 40 people gathered at a rally in front of Great Barrington, Massachusetts' Town Hall. In Kansas City, Missouri, demonstrators gathered at Country Club Plaza's J. C. Nichols Fountain, in the Country Club District. More than 1,600 people indicated their interest in attending on the event's Facebook page, which was organized to "demand an investigation into the constitutional conflicts, ethics violations and mental instability of the current President of the United States". Several groups were represented and spoke at the protest, including: Indivisible KC, Kansas City Progressive Caucus, The Muslim Civic Initiative, and Edward Cantu, an associate law professor at the University of Missouri–Kansas City. The Knoxville, Tennessee protest was organized by David T. Payne and held at Market Square. Only 18 people expressed interest in attending the event on its Facebook page, and fewer than ten individuals ended up participating. The protest reportedly saw a handful of people debating with a single Trump supporter. KTNV-TV initially reported on a "Not My Presidents Day" rally in Las Vegas, but later said the "People's Power Over the President Day" protest organized by Sierra Club was unaffiliated. The anti-Trump "People's Power" event was held outside the Lloyd D. George Federal Courthouse, in downtown Las Vegas, and attracted dozens of participants. Demonstrators in Milwaukee protested peacefully against Trump and Senator Ron Johnson, and in support of immigration and women's rights. They marched from Zeidler Union Square to the Federal Building. Milwaukee Coalition Against Trump organized the demonstration; Citizen Action Organizing Cooperative was also represented. Mystic, Connecticut held a protest of around 60 demonstrators who marched through the downtown area. In Rapid City, South Dakota, hundreds of anti-Trump and Trump supporters turned out at a rally that began at noon. Salt Lake City saw between 200 and 250 protesters march from the Wallace F. Bennett Federal Building down State Street to Washington Square. The rally included representatives and speakers from community groups, including Utah Women Unite, Utahans Against Police Brutality, SLC Air Protectors, and Communidades Unidas. In Seattle, organizers held a performance event called "Outrage Onstage", featuring activists and artists, including David Schmader and Teatro ZinZanni's Kevin Kent. The event was held at the Sanctuary at Admiral in West Seattle's Admiral District. "Outrage Onstage" was free to attend, but donations were accepted to benefit the state's ACLU chapter. In Washington, D.C., hundreds of protesters rallied in DuPont Circle, where they sang "We Shall Overcome" and then marched toward the White House. More than 500 people attended the rally. Speakers included Lee Carter and Ken Boddye, who are running for the Virginia House of Delegates. More than 200 people came out for a rally held in Williamsburg, Virginia. The event was organized by Peninsula Indivisible and Middle Peninsula Progressives. Attendees at the rally were able to sign post cards to be sent to the White House and sign petitions. ### California Over a thousand people attended the rally outside Los Angeles City Hall in downtown Los Angeles. It was estimated that there were several thousand people at the demonstration. Participants gathered outside City Hall, and then ended up at Federal Plaza. Los Angeles was the first city to plan a "Not My Presidents Day" rally. The event caused some traffic delays. Later, in West Hollywood, a gay bar called The Abbey held a \#Resist protest. In Palm Desert, hundreds of people assembled outside the Palm Desert Civic Park Amphitheater for a two-hour rally organized by Progressive Democrats of the Desert and Courageous Resistance. There were about a dozen speakers, including one from Comité Latino Coachella Valley. A small gathering in Pasadena was organized by a group of concerned mothers and their children, led by Jenna Karvunidis. The theatre, film and digital production department of the University of California, Riverside, held an artistic event to protest Trump on Monday. Around 100 people attended a demonstration in San Diego. Protests were also held outside the San Francisco Federal Building and at San Jose's City Hall Plaza. About 30 protesters gathered in stormy weather in San Mateo. Protests were also organized in Anaheim and Santa Barbara. ### Colorado The Denver protest, which was organized by Hanna Khavafipour, included several hundred demonstrators and took place in the evening at the Colorado State Capitol. The 16th Street Mall and nearby streets were shut down for about two hours, but no arrests were made and businesses experienced few disturbances. A small group of protesters in Pueblo were organized by the Pueblo Congressional Accountability Committee (PCAC). ### Florida In Florida, events were planned in Gainesville, Miami, Venice, and West Palm Beach. The protests in Miami and Palm Beach were organized by South Florida Activism and included a gathering at Palm Beach International Airport, where some participants turned their backs to Trump's motorcade en route to Mar-a-Lago and wore shirts that displayed "No 45". There were around 200 demonstrators who participated by turning their backs on Trump. The Labor Community Roundtable/United Front Against Trump held a peaceful rally at The Torch of Friendship in Miami. About two dozen people attended. In Ocala, the CommonCents Ocala, a local chapter of the indivisible movement, hosted a rally on East Silver Springs Boulevard by Downtown Square. The event attracted around 80 people. In Port Richey, Trump protesters and supporters stood across the street from each other in a mostly peaceful demonstration. ### Michigan In Ann Arbor, organizers of a "Bad Hombres and Nasty Women" event featuring live performances expected an attendance of 600 people; proceeds benefited Planned Parenthood. The event took place at the Neutral Zone and included performance art and comedy. Another artistic outlet protesting Trump took place in Detroit, where performers and audience members met at a venue called the Light Box, where they raised money for the ACLU of Michigan. In downtown Grand Rapids, between 200 and 300 demonstrators gathered at Rosa Parks Circle and marched to Calder Plaza. The protest was organized by Indivisible West Michigan. Dozens of protesters gathered outside the U.S. Postal Service building at the corner of Third and Washington streets in Marquette. The event was led by Anne Stark. ### Minnesota A protest occurred in Minneapolis, with demonstrators protesting outside the Walker Art Center. Students for a Democratic Society and anti-Trump activists held a rally on the University of Minnesota campus in Saint Paul. At bus stops in both Minneapolis and Saint Paul, artists and musicians performed at an event called "This Machine (Not My President's Day Minneapolis Saint Paul)". The performances took place from 4:30–6pm, with participants wearing orange. ### New Jersey Organizers held a "New Birth of Freedom" vigil outside the Bergen County Court House in Hackensack. The event was organized by Jersey Justice Action Network, with Chip O'Brien serving as lead organizer, and attended by several groups, including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the New Jersey ACLU, New Jersey Interfaith Coalition, and Resource, Education and Awareness by Latinos (REAL). The event attracted about 50 participants; candles were distributed and lit to represent the "flame of progress to be held unwavering in the future". Newark also held a rally, near the Seated Lincoln statue outside the Essex County Courthouse, where protesters said they were uncomfortable with the Trump administration's stances on education, the environment, health care, and immigration. The Ocean City demonstration was organized by Suzanne Forrest, who said her goal was to "take a softer, less confrontational approach" to Trump's presidency. ### New York Outside the Jacobson Faculty Tower at the State University of New York at New Paltz, demonstrators created and destroyed a cardboard box representation of Trump's proposed border wall. The rally was organized by: Move Forward New York and the SUNY New Paltz chapter of United University Professions. Hudson Valley Feminists, Indivisible CD19 NY, Olive Action Group, SUNY New Paltz Student Association, and Women's March–New Paltz, were also sponsors. This series of protests marked the fifth consecutive day of anti-protests in New York City. The crowds first gathered on Central Park West. There were also protesters outside the mayor's office. About 10,000 to 13,000 people attended the "Not My Presidents Day" rally, which was held outside Trump International Hotel and Tower, including some Trump supporters. The rally remained peaceful, with no arrests made. The rally also included a disability rights speaker and a speaker from the Stand up to Trump Coalition UK. The rally ended at about 4 pm, when police began to disperse the crowds. In Setauket, about 100 protesters lined up at the corner of Route 25A and Bennetts Road to protest. In White Plains, nearly 100 people attended the fourth "Justice Monday" protest. The event was sponsored by the Westchester Social Justice Community and attended by politicians: Catherine Borgia, David Buchwald, Ken Jenkins, and George Latimer, and Mayra Hidalgo Salazar, who serves as executive director of the Hudson Valley Community Coalition. ### Oregon Hundreds of people gathered at Free Speech Plaza in downtown Eugene and marched to Kesey Square. Oregon Strong Voice of Lane County, which has support from 26 different organizations, was represented at the event. Two marches were organized in Portland. The "We the People: Marching in Resistance" rally included groups such as: Oregon's Union Movement, Basic Rights Oregon, Unite Oregon, and the Northwest Oregon Labor Council. The event was held at Director Park and the groups had a permit to march. Don't Shoot Portland organized a demonstration in front of the Edith Green – Wendell Wyatt Federal Building, where a small group of protestors faced off with police. This second protest did not have a permit and consisted of a couple of hundred people. The police were in riot gear and pushed the crowd out of the street. Thirteen demonstrators were arrested for blocking traffic. One protester was tackled by the police and then shot with non-lethal projectiles. One man who was reportedly "one step off the curb" in the street was pushed to the ground by police, had his arms pinned to his back, and was then pepper-sprayed in the face; and a woman was shoved to the sidewalk and then shot by police with "pepper balls". A 66-year-old woman was also tackled and hurt by the police when she attempted to shield her 72-year-old friend from being pushed. Several of the people arrested were minors, with six young people including a 14-year-old being cited. The adults were arrested on charges of disorderly conduct in the second degree, with one man also being charged with resisting arrest and giving false information to the police. The next day, there was a small demonstration in front of Portland mayor Ted Wheeler's house to protest the arrests. The group protesting outside Wheeler's home had obtained a permit for the demonstration, however, the organizer, Gregory McKelvey, also said that the mayor is "perpetuating this idea we only get hurt or sprayed or physically beat because we don't have a permit". Wheeler later issued a statement in which he said that mistakes were made by the police during the event. He also said, "Yesterday we saw images of a woman in her sixties injured during an arrest. That isn't good for democracy either." The ACLU condemned the actions of Portland police and asked that the force "end the violence against protesters. Stop the unnecessary use of crowd control weapons. Stop sending officers in riot gear to peaceful protests. Stop arresting organizers." Following the arrests of the protesters and their treatment by police, Wheeler, Police Chief Mike Marshman, and the ACLU held discussions about tactics and policies relating to crowd control by the police. ### Pennsylvania In Philadelphia, demonstrators gathered at Thomas Paine Plaza to march in a rally called "Counter the Executive Orders". There were about 300 protesters who participated in the three-hour event. State senator Art Haywood attended the Philadelphia rally where there was a family-friendly station set up for children of protesters. In Yeadon, Pennsylvania, a small group protested outside of the Yeadon Borough Hall. ### United Kingdom In London, an anti-Trump rally was held outside the Houses of Parliament as House of Commons debated whether Trump should be allowed to visit the United Kingdom. The London organizers included the Stop Trump Coalition and One Day Without Us. ## Aftermath ### Reactions Victoria Taft of the Independent Journal Review called the use of President's Day to protest the current president new and said, "Some would suggest that it's downright disgraceful to use the day to protest." Tucker Carlson, in an interview with Shane Saunders, a "Not My President's Day" protester from Los Angeles, dismissed the protest actions completely, saying, "I'm making the mistake of taking you seriously." A conservative Trump supporter in New York, who attended the rally at the west end of Central Park, said that the protesters are trying to "spark the end of civilization". A Trump supporter in Port Richey told protesters, "He's our president. He was elected," and told WTSP News, "I feel like if they don't like what's going on, go ahead and move." Another in San Diego said he went to the rally to support the president: "[Trump] needs support where other people go against him, even if it's just one person at that moment." In Atlanta, two women involved in the protest were struck by eggs thrown by three men in a pickup truck. In Pueblo, motorists shouted obscenities at protesters, with one person telling demonstrators to "get a job". In Washington, D.C., two bikers for Trump surrounded the demonstration and attempted to drown out speakers by revving their motorcycle engines. A man standing in front of the White House with a megaphone yelled at the marchers to "Leave Trump alone!" The ACLU tweeted that the arrests of peaceful protesters in Portland was "shameful". The organization also advised Mayor Wheeler to "revise crowd-control strategies". Overall, participants of "Not My Presidents Day" said that it was important to express themselves. Jenna Karvunidis, an organizer in Pasadena, said, "I'd like to show my children that you do have a right to speak out against something that's unfair." Will Allen in Washington, D.C., chose to protest the "incompetence of the Trump Administration". Mercedes Vizcaino of New York said, "I think it's important to take a stand and not be complicit about what's going on in the country." According to the Christian Science Monitor, most protesters felt that Trump did not represent them. ### Impact Organizers of the "Not My Presidents Day" events wanted to keep up the momentum of the resistance against Trump. Many of the newer organizers for events gained experience in working with a large number of people. The event allowed individuals to "channel" their negative feelings about the Trump administration into something creative and positive. Susan Thames, in Williamsburg, told WAVY-TV that "the rally gave her the sense of being a part of a larger movement". Participants of the rally in Austin wanted to use "Not My Presidents Day" to educate others and hoped that more people would get involved with expressing their political opinions. Amanda Barta, who organized the rally, said, "if you're loud enough, if we vocalize something enough, if you come together enough, things can change".
66,368,630	Ljuva karneval!	1,129,366,051	2005 book about Carl Michael Bellman by Lars Lönnroth	[ "2005 non-fiction books", "Carl Michael Bellman" ]	Ljuva karneval! (Sweet Carnival!) is a 2005 book about the work of Sweden's national bard, the 18th century poet and performer Carl Michael Bellman, by the Swedish literary scholar Lars Lönnroth. Bellman is the central figure in Swedish song, known in particular for his 1790 collection, Fredman's Epistles. Lönnroth, who has studied Bellman since the 1960s, aims to give an overview of Bellman's work, describing the essence of Bellman's art: giving a frolicking one-man performance, religious or profane, through adapted tunes, imitated crowd sounds and speech in different languages, and songs in varied genres. He distinguishes carefully between the art and the person of Bellman, who in his view was by no means as drunken and debauched as the cast of his Epistles. The text is illustrated with a selection, admired by critics, of halftone images of drawings, engravings, paintings, and sculptures. The book has been well received by critics, who write that Lönnroth brings Bellman to life as a performance artist. They have praised its coverage of the Epistles as well as of Bellman's lesser-known works, and suggested that it will become the standard reference on his poetry. ## Context Carl Michael Bellman is the central figure in Swedish song, known principally for his 1790 Fredman's Epistles and his 1791 Fredman's Songs. Bellman played the cittern, accompanying himself as he performed his songs at the royal court. Fredman's Epistles is a collection of 82 poems set to music; it depicts everything from Rococo-themed pastorale with a cast of gods and demigods from classical antiquity to laments for the effects of Brännvin-drinking, tavern-scenes, and apparent improvisations. The lyrics, based on the lives of Bellman's contemporaries in Gustavian-age Sweden, describe a gallery of fictional and semi-fictional characters and events in Stockholm. Jean Fredman, an alcoholic former watchmaker, is the central character and fictional narrator. Fredman's Songs is a mixed collection of songs, some on the same themes as the Epistles – love, drinking, and death, some loyally royalist, some to his friends, some pastoral, and some humorously biblical. Lars Lönnroth is a Swedish literary scholar who has studied Bellman for over 40 years, having gained his PhD at the University of Stockholm in 1965. He has been a professor of literature at the University of California Berkeley, the University of Aalborg and the University of Gothenburg. ## Book ### Overview Lönnroth states that his book has two goals: to give an overview of Bellman's work in the light of modern scholarship, and to point up what he believes essential in Bellman's art: "a way of combining different genres, whether religious or profane, into a wholly new type of one-man performance, a frolicking masquerade with continuous switching between forms of expression." In Lönnroth's view, the popular opinion that Bellman was always portraying himself in his work, so that he must have been a riotously drunken and debauched character like the cast of Fredmans Epistles, is mistaken. Instead, Bellman depicted his world as a sort of carnival. People play at worshipping Bacchus, the god of wine, and Venus, the goddess of love, splendidly attired in masquerade costume, but grief-stricken at life's sorrows under their painted masks. In Lönnroth's opinion, Bellman too concealed himself behind many masks, working as a troubadour to entertain people with songs and imitated voices in drinking-places, accompanying himself on his cittern, but also taking on other roles such as satirist, religious poet, and court playwright. Lönnroth describes how Bellman's varied performance skills enabled him to construct the highly original and complex Fredman's Epistles, ingeniously contrasting the classically sublime and romantic with the mundane and absurd world of 18th century Stockholm. ### Table of contents 1. The world as a masquerade 2. Pupil in the temple 3. Satirical moralist 4. Swedish Anacreon 5. In company with Old Man Noah 6. Musical comedy on shepherds and antiheroes 7. The Order of Bacchus 8. Fredman, the apostle of brandy 9. Fredman's transformations 10. Court poet 11. Bacchi Tempel 12. Blind alleys 13. Fredman's Epistles completed 14. End of the masquerade 15. Epilogue ### Illustrations The book is illustrated with halftone plates in the text, mostly of contemporary paintings of Bellman and his world by artists such as Elias Martin and Johan Tobias Sergel. The Epilogue is illustrated with a double-page spread of halftone photographs of musicians such as Fred Åkerström, Sven-Bertil Taube, Cornelis Vreeswijk and Martin Bagge interpreting Bellman's work. Inger Dahlman, reviewing the book, describes the collection of images illustrating the book as "fabulous". The dust jacket shows Antoine Watteau's 1717 painting The Embarkation for Cythera. Additional colour plates are inside the front and rear covers, showing the Comedie Francaise by an anonymous artist in 1670, and Elias Martin's 1792 illustration of Bellman welcoming Erik and Gustava Palmstedt on Gustava's birthday. ### Publication history The book was published in 2005 as a 405-page hardback by Albert Bonniers Förlag. ## Reception Reviewing Ljuva karneval! for Gotlands Allehanda, Inger Dahlman wrote that Lönnroth was dispelling the dominant 200 year old myth created by Johan Henric Kellgren that Bellman was always speaking for himself in Fredman's Epistles, whereas the reverse was the case, he uninterruptedly played carefully-crafted roles. Dahlman comments that Lönnroth appears to be irritated by people who imagine they can write biographies of Bellman from the bard's own writings, and that he is certainly right about that; but that all the same, one can still glimpse a "careless, friendly, proud, ingenious and tormented man" behind the many masks. Anders Cullhed, writing in Dagens Nyheter, notes that Bellman was not just a poet but a skilled mimic and bard, and that in the book, Lönnroth brings to life Bellman as a performance artist. Cullhed calls it remarkable that a "small land on Europe's cultural periphery" should have so many fine poets, of whom Bellman was the greatest; only Gunnar Ekelöf outgrew his boundaries in a comparable way, and scholars had struggled to capture Bellman's chameleon-like nature. Cullhed comments that Lönnroth touches so briefly on so many texts that depth can be lacking; and his attempt not to make the book a biography hadn't worked as the path of Bellman's life is visible from start to end. But overall, in his view, Lönnroth brings to light Bellman's experimental, genre-crossing creativity, in a book that is "a pleasure to read" and clearly the product of decades of research. Torkel Stålmarck writes in Samlaren [sv] that Lönnroth had contributed to Bellman research since the 1960s. In his view, the "carnival" of the title sums up the book's view of Bellman's life and times, a constant masquerade, central to his art, a one-man exhibition "where the bard performs a kind of musical comedy for the audience with scenes depicting both 'high' and 'low' characters". Stålmarck states that Fredmans Epistles rightly take a central place in the book, but that Bellman's lesser-known works, like Bacchi Tempel, are also covered, offering the reader something new and surprising. Per Olsen, reviewing the book for the Danish Bellman Society, calls it an ambitious, synoptic, and successful decoding of the whole of Bellman's varied output, its genres, themes, language and style. Olsen notes that the title alludes to an early poem by Bellman from 1763, containing the lines "Du liufva carnaval,/Du lindrar sorg og kval" (You sweet carnival, you heal sorrow and pain), and "Vår värld är en maskrad,/Där mången synes glad,/Men gråter under masken..." (Our world is a masked ball, where many look happy, but are crying under their masks). Johan Stenström, reviewing the book for Svenska Dagbladet, wrote that Lönnroth's book on the national bard would become the standard reference for understanding Bellman's poetry.
5,012,233	Nazarov cyclization reaction	1,163,369,548	Chemical reaction used in organic chemistry	[ "Name reactions", "Rearrangement reactions" ]	The Nazarov cyclization reaction (often referred to as simply the Nazarov cyclization) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of cyclopentenones. The reaction is typically divided into classical and modern variants, depending on the reagents and substrates employed. It was originally discovered by Ivan Nikolaevich Nazarov (1906–1957) in 1941 while studying the rearrangements of allyl vinyl ketones. As originally described, the Nazarov cyclization involves the activation of a divinyl ketone using a stoichiometric Lewis acid or protic acid promoter. The key step of the reaction mechanism involves a cationic 4π-electrocyclic ring closure which forms the cyclopentenone product (See Mechanism below). As the reaction has been developed, variants involving substrates other than divinyl ketones and promoters other than Lewis acids have been subsumed under the name Nazarov cyclization provided that they follow a similar mechanistic pathway. The success of the Nazarov cyclization as a tool in organic synthesis stems from the utility and ubiquity of cyclopentenones as both motifs in natural products (including jasmone, the aflatoxins, and a subclass of prostaglandins) and as useful synthetic intermediates for total synthesis. The reaction has been used in several total syntheses and several reviews have been published. ## Mechanism The mechanism of the classical Nazarov cyclization reaction was first demonstrated experimentally by Charles Shoppee to be an intramolecular electrocyclization and is outlined below. Activation of the ketone by the acid catalyst generates a pentadienyl cation, which undergoes a thermally allowed 4π conrotatory electrocyclization as dictated by the Woodward-Hoffman rules. This generates an oxyallyl cation which undergoes an elimination reaction to lose a β-hydrogen. Subsequent tautomerization of the enolate produces the cyclopentenone product. As noted above, variants that deviate from this template are known; what designates a Nazarov cyclization in particular is the generation of the pentadienyl cation followed by electrocyclic ring closure to an oxyallyl cation. In order to achieve this transformation, the molecule must be in the s-trans/s-trans conformation, placing the vinyl groups in an appropriate orientation. The propensity of the system to enter this conformation dramatically influences reaction rate, with α-substituted substrates having an increased population of the requisite conformer due to allylic strain. Coordination of an electron donating α-substituent by the catalyst can likewise increase the reaction rate by enforcing this conformation. Similarly, β-substitution directed inward restricts the s-trans conformation so severely that E-Z isomerization has been shown to occur in advance of cyclization on a wide range of substrates, yielding the trans cyclopentenone regardless of initial configuration. In this way, the Nazarov cyclization is a rare example of a stereoselective pericyclic reaction, whereas most electrocyclizations are stereospecific. The example below uses triethylsilane to trap the oxyallyl cation so that no elimination occurs. (See Interrupted cyclizations below) Along this same vein, allenyl vinyl ketones of the type studied extensively by Marcus Tius of the University of Hawaii show dramatic rate acceleration due to the removal of β-hydrogens, obviating a large amount of steric strain in the s-cis conformer. ## Classical Nazarov cyclizations Though cyclizations following the general template above had been observed prior to Nazarov's involvement, it was his study of the rearrangements of allyl vinyl ketones that marked the first major examination of this process. Nazarov correctly reasoned that the allylic olefin isomerized in situ to form a divinyl ketone before ring closure to the cyclopentenone product. The reaction shown below involves an alkyne oxymercuration reaction to generate the requisite ketone. Research involving the reaction was relatively quiet in subsequent years, until in the mid-1980s when several syntheses employing the Nazarov cyclization were published. Shown below are key steps in the syntheses of Trichodiene and Nor-Sterepolide, the latter of which is thought to proceed via an unusual alkyne-allene isomerization that generates the divinyl ketone. ### Shortcomings The classical version of the Nazarov cyclization suffers from several drawbacks which modern variants attempt to circumvent. The first two are not evident from the mechanism alone, but are indicative of the barriers to cyclization; the last three stem from selectivity issues relating to elimination and protonation of the intermediate. 1. Strong Lewis or protic acids are typically required for the reaction (e.g. TiCl<sub>4</sub>, BF<sub>3</sub>, MeSO<sub>3</sub>H). These promoters are not compatible with sensitive functional groups, limiting the substrate scope. 2. Despite the mechanistic possibility for catalysis, multiple equivalents of the promoter are often required in order to effect the reaction. This limits the atom economy of the reaction. 3. The elimination step is not regioselective; if multiple β-hydrogens are available for elimination, various products are often observed as mixtures. This is highly undesirable from an efficiency standpoint as arduous separation is typically required. 4. Elimination destroys a potential stereocenter, decreasing the potential usefulness of the reaction. 5. Protonation of the enolate is sometimes not stereoselective, meaning that products can be formed as mixtures of epimers. ## Modern variants The shortcomings noted above limit the usefulness of the Nazarov cyclization reaction in its canonical form. However, modifications to the reaction focused on remedying its issues continue to be an active area of academic research. In particular, the research has focused on a few key areas: rendering the reaction catalytic in the promoter, effecting the reaction with more mild promoters to improve functional group tolerance, directing the regioselectivity of the elimination step, and improving the overall stereoselectivity. These have been successful to varying degrees. Additionally, modifications focused on altering the progress of the reaction, either by generating the pentadienyl cation in an unorthodox fashion or by having the oxyallyl cation "intercepted" in various ways. Furthermore, enantioselective variants of various kinds have been developed. The sheer volume of literature on the subject prevents a comprehensive examination of this field; key examples are given below. ### Silicon-directed cyclization The earliest efforts to improve the selectivity of the Nazarov cyclization took advantage of the β-silicon effect in order to direct the regioselectivity of the elimination step. This chemistry was developed most extensively by Professor Scott Denmark of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign in the mid-1980s and utilizes stoichiometric amounts of iron trichloride to promote the reaction. With bicyclic products, the cis isomer was selected for to varying degrees. The silicon-directed Nazarov cyclization reaction was subsequently employed in the synthesis of the natural product Silphinene, shown below. The cyclization takes place before elimination of the benzyl alcohol moiety, so that the resulting stereochemistry of the newly formed ring arises from approach of the silyl alkene anti to the ether. ### Polarization Drawing on the substituent effects compiled over various trials of the reaction, Professor Alison Frontier of the University of Rochester developed a paradigm for "polarized" Nazarov cyclizations in which electron donating and electron withdrawing groups are used to improve the overall selectivity of the reaction. Creation of an effective vinyl nucleophile and vinyl electrophile in the substrate allows catalytic activation with copper triflate and regioselective elimination. In addition, the electron withdrawing group increases the acidity of the α-proton, allowing selective formation of the trans-α-epimer via equilibration. It is often possible to achieve catalytic activation using a donating or withdrawing group alone, although the efficiency of the reaction (yield, reaction time, etc.) is typically lower. ### Alternative cation generation By extension, any pentadienyl cation regardless of its origin is capable of undergoing a Nazarov cyclization. There have been a large number of examples published where the requisite cation is arrived at by a variety of rearrangements. One such example involves the silver catalyzed cationic ring opening of allylic dichloro cylopropanes. The silver salt facilitates loss of chloride via precipitation of insoluble silver chloride. In the total synthesis of rocaglamide, epoxidation of a vinyl alkoxyallenyl stannane likewise generates a pentadienyl cation via ring opening of the resultant epoxide. ### Interrupted cyclization Once the cyclization has occurred, an oxyallyl cation is formed. As discussed extensively above, the typical course for this intermediate is elimination followed by enolate tautomerization. However, these two steps can be interrupted by various nucleophiles and electrophiles, respectively. Oxyallyl cation trapping has been developed extensively by Fredrick G. West of the University of Alberta and his review covers the field. The oxyallyl cation can be trapped with heteroatom and carbon nucleophiles and can also undergo cationic cycloadditions with various tethered partners. Shown below is a cascade reaction in which successive cation trapping generates a pentacyclic core in one step with complete diastereoselectivity. Enolate trapping with various electrophiles is decidedly less common. In one study, the Nazarov cyclization is paired with a Michael reaction using an iridium catalyst to initiate nucleophilic conjugate addition of the enolate to β-nitrostyrene. In this tandem reaction the iridium catalyst is required for both conversions: it acts as the Lewis acid in the Nazarov cyclization and in the next step the nitro group of nitrostyrene first coordinates to iridium in a ligand exchange with the carbonyl ester oxygen atom before the actual Michael addition takes place to the opposite face of the R-group. ### Enantioselective variants The development of an enantioselective Nazarov cyclization is a desirable addition to the repertoire of Nazarov cyclization reactions. To that end, several variations have been developed utilizing chiral auxiliaries and chiral catalysts. Diastereoselective cyclizations are also known, in which extant stereocenters direct the cyclization. Almost all of the attempts are based on the idea of torquoselectivity; selecting one direction for the vinyl groups to "rotate" in turn sets the stereochemistry as shown below. Silicon-directed Nazarov cyclizations can exhibit induced diastereoselectivity in this way. In the example below, the silyl-group acts to direct the cyclization by preventing the distant alkene from rotating "towards" it via unfavorable steric interaction. In this way the silicon acts as a traceless auxiliary. (The starting material is not enantiopure but the retention of enantiomeric excess suggests that the auxiliary directs the cyclization.) Tius's allenyl substrates can exhibit axial to tetrahedral chirality transfer if enantiopure allenes are used. The example below generates a chiral diosphenpol in 64% yield and 95% enantiomeric excess. Tius has additionally developed a camphor-based auxiliary for achiral allenes that was employed in the first asymmetric synthesis of roseophilin. The key step employs an unusual mixture of hexafluoro-2-propanol and trifluoroethanol as solvent. The first chiral Lewis acid promoted asymmetric Nazarov cyclization was reported by Varinder Aggarwal and utilized copper (II) bisoxazoline ligand complexes with up to 98% ee. The enantiomeric excess was unaffected by use of 50 mol% of the copper complex but the yield was significantly decreased. ## Related Reactions Extensions of the Nazarov cyclization are generally also subsumed under the same name. For example, an α-β, γ-δ unsaturated ketone can undergo a similar cationic conrotatory cyclization that is typically referred to as an iso-Nazarov cyclization reaction. Other such extensions have been given similar names, including homo-Nazarov cyclizations and vinylogous Nazarov cyclizations. ### Retro-Nazarov reaction Because they overstabilize the pentadienyl cation, β-electron donating substituents often severely impede Nazarov cyclization. Building from this, several electrocyclic ring openings of β-alkoxy cyclopentanes have been reported. These are typically referred to as retro-Nazarov cyclization reactions. ### Imino-Nazarov reaction Nitrogen analogues of the Nazarov cyclization reaction (known as imino-Nazarov cyclization reactions) have few instances; there is one example of a generalized imino-Nazarov cyclization reported (shown below), and several iso-imino-Nazarov reactions in the literature. Even these tend to suffer from poor stereoselectivity, poor yields, or narrow scope. The difficulty stems from the relative over-stabilization of the pentadienyl cation by electron donation, impeding cyclization. ## See also - Pauson–Khand reaction - Electrocyclization - Cyclopentenone - Merrilactone A
10,390,906	Vecihi Hürkuş	1,173,340,856	Turkish aviator (1896–1969)	[ "1896 births", "1969 deaths", "Aviation pioneers", "Aviators from the Ottoman Empire", "Engineers from Istanbul", "Military aviation in the Ottoman Empire", "Ottoman military personnel of World War I", "Ottoman military personnel of the Balkan Wars", "Turkish Air Force personnel", "Turkish aviators", "Turkish military personnel of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)", "Turkish military personnel of the Turkish War of Independence", "World War I pilots from the Ottoman Empire" ]	Vecihi Hürkuş (6 January 1896 – 16 July 1969) was a Turkish fighter pilot, aviation engineer and aviation pioneer. He built Turkey's first aircraft, the Vecihi K-VI, and founded the first civil flight school of the nation. Born in Istanbul, Hürkuş graduated from the Tophane Art School and later joined the Ottoman Army in the Balkan Wars in 1912. Upon his return from the wars, he became the commander of a prisoner-of-war camp in Beykoz. In 1914, he was sent to Baghdad as a mechanic in the Mesopotamia campaign. He was sent back to Istanbul in 1916 after suffering minor injuries in a crash. He was trained to become a pilot and, together with captain Şükrü Koçak, became one of the first two Turkish pilots to shoot down another plane. He was taken prisoner by Russian forces in 1917 after making an emergency landing and was confined in a camp in Nargin, from which he escaped in 1918. During the Turkish War of Independence, he was a pilot involved in bombing Greek forces and a minor friendly fire incident. After the war, Hürkuş started to work on building his own aircraft, which would become Turkey's first aircraft. He was given a jail sentence for flying the plane without a permit. Although the sentence was later suspended, it caused him to leave the air force to join the Turkish Aircraft Society (TTaC), where he handed out leaflets of the TTaC after demonstration flights. In 1930, Hürkuş built his second aircraft, the Vecihi K-XIV, and had it transported to Czechoslovakia to get it certified. He used the plane to fly domestically to introduce aviation, hold conferences and collect donations for the TTaC, which he later left after his assistant was fired. He founded his own flight school in 1932 and trained several students, including Bedriye Tahir Gökmen. The school was shut down in 1934 by the Müdafaa-i Milliye Vekâleti. On 27 February 1939, he received a diploma in aircraft engineering from the Weimar Engineering School in Germany. In the 1940s, Hürkuş started writing books and publishing a magazine. He founded an airline in 1954, which was later banned from flying. He died on 16 July 1969 in Ankara and was buried at the Cebeci Asri Cemetery. Hürkuş was the recipient of three commendations from the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the Medal of Independence. Hürkuş and Hürjet are named after him. ## Early and personal life Vecihi Hürkuş was born on 6 January 1896 in Akıntıburnu [tr], Arnavutköy, Istanbul, to customs officer Faham Bey and Zeliya Nihir Hanım. His father died when he was three years old. He went to the Üsküdar Paşakapısı primary school, followed by the Tophane Art School due to his interest in the subject. During the Turkish War of Independence, Hürkuş married Hadiye Hanım, the daughter of the chief of police in Akşehir. They had two daughters. He later married his childhood love İhsan Hanım, with whom he had another daughter. In 1950, he married Hadiye again. Before the Surname Law, Hürkuş was called "Vecihi Feham" due to the name of his father, though he signed his planes as "Vecihi Kartal" throughout the 1930s. After the Surname Law, he first changed his surname to "Türküş", before altering it to Hürkuş in 1949. His niece, Eribe Hürkuş, was one of Turkey's first female aviators. She was killed while parachuting during the Republic Day celebrations on 29 October 1936. She was the first female aviation martyr of Turkey. ## Military career ### Balkan Wars and World War I In 1912, he joined his uncle, Colonel Kemal Bey, as a volunteer in the Balkan Wars, and was sent to Edirne. After the war, he was assigned as the commander of a camp holding prisoners-of-war in Beykoz. He was affected by pilots who died after going to Egypt and initially made model planes. Hürkuş wanted to become a pilot himself, but he was considered to be too young. Instead, he went to an airplane mechanic school, where he learned about airplanes for the first time. In 1914, after World War I started, Hürkuş was sent to Baghdad during the Mesopotamia campaign as a mechanic. On 12 February 1916, he made a reconnaissance flight near modern-day Palestine with another pilot, senior lieutenant Mehmet Ali. During the flight, their plane stalled and crashed. Mehmet Ali had to have a leg amputated, while Hürkuş was left in critical condition and was sent to Istanbul. After his treatment, Hürkuş attended an aviation school in Yeşilköy and became a pilot himself. He joined 7th Airplane Company (Tayyare Bölüğü) in December 1916 as a non-commissioned officer. He and captain Şükrü Koçak are credited with shooting down a Russian aircraft in combat on 26 September 1917, which is considered the first in Turkish aviation history. During the Caucasus campaign, Hürkuş was wounded in a dogfight on 8 October 1917 after making a tactical mistake by not using his altitude advantage over his opponent, causing him to make an emergency landing in Erzurum. Realizing that he was going to be taken as a prisoner by Russians, he burned his plane to not hand it over. He was taken to and held captive at a prisoner-of-war camp in Nargin, but later escaped with the help of Azerbaijanis, and returned to Istanbul on 13 May 1918 via Iran. He joined the 9th Airplane Company, tasked with defending the airspace of Istanbul, after his return. He was discharged from the military following the end of the war. ### Turkish War of Independence During the Turkish War of Independence, Hürkuş flew and maintained several aircraft. In June 1920, he and a few aviator friends stole a plane from occupied Istanbul to join the Kuva-yi Milliye in Anatolia. This was unsuccessful after the plane crashed due to being overweight. He joined the aircraft station in Konya as a pilot, and he made reconnaissance and assault flights from there in support of the Turkish Army. On 20 August 1920, he made a reconnaissance flight together with another aircraft near Simav. They were returning to the base after flying low over a valley, when Hürkuş spotted a military camp near Kelemyenice, and decided to drop a bomb as the tents of the camp were coloured gray. The camp was of Kuva-yi Seyyare, a part of the Turkish forces, who sent a telegraph less than an hour after Hürkuş landed at Uşak, reporting that they had been bombed but did not have any casualties, and requested Turkish aircraft to respond. Shocked by his mistake, Hürkuş offered to do what the Kuva-yi Seyyare had asked. They took off again the same day, and arrived at Demirci after 40 minutes, where they spotted two camps: one south and one north-east of the city. He dropped two bombs before returning to Uşak. The next morning, the Kuva-yi Seyyare attacked the weakened Greek forces around Demirci. In late March 1921, Hürkuş was involved in bombing Greek forces around Bursa and Bilecik multiple times with a Pfalz D.III after taking off from Eskişehir. The bombing runs ended on 25 March, when Hürkuş had an engine failure and was forced to return and land. Prior to the Battle of the Sakarya, the Turkish Air Force only had a single operational hunting aircraft, as two had been shot down and one was in need of repairs. On 19 August 1921, Hürkuş flew a captured de Havilland DH.9 of the Greek Air Force, which had made an emergency landing at Kuşadası a month prior. He concluded that the plane was still operational, and named it İsmet. During the Battle of the Sakarya, he made a total of 24 reconnaissance flights with the plane. In 1923, Hürkuş was tasked with flying an abandoned passenger plane from Edirne to Izmir. ## First Turkish airplane By 14 June 1923, Hürkuş had finished the technical drawings of his new training and reconnaissance aircraft, the Vecihi K-VI. He presented the project to the Turkish Air Force, which approved it. Together with his friends, Hürkuş started to work on building the plane at the Halkapınar Aircraft Repair Workshop. He spent at least 16 hours a day on building the plane, sometimes sleeping less than two hours. He was only not working when despatched on long-distance duties, such as in December 1923, when he was sent to study European aviation with five other aviators, and only returned after April 1924. The aircraft was assembled in 14 months. A technical committee to certify the plane was formed, but the flight request was denied due to the lack of qualified members in the committee to assess the plane. On 28 January 1925, Hürkuş flew the K-VI for the first time, and landed back after a flight of 15 minutes. This was the first ever flight made with a Turkish-produced aircraft. Later that day, Hürkuş was notified that he had received a jail sentence for flying without a permit. This led him to resign from the air force immediately. When the general inspectorship was notified of his resignation, his sentence was lifted, "but it was too late." Another director convinced him to retract his resignation. When he went to the inspector's office to do so, the inspector greeted him in a "harsh, cold and derogatory way", and he said instead that he came to finalize his resignation. Hürkuş tried to get the K-VI back, but "was met with lingering." The plane, which was left outside and not in a hangar, was later destroyed in unknown circumstances. ## Initial work with the Turkish Aircraft Society Hürkuş joined the newly formed Turkish Aircraft Society (TTaC) after leaving the air force. He was tasked with organizing the engineering branch of the society. In June 1925, he flew an Ansaldo-built plane bought with donations by people in Ceyhan from Ankara to the city. Throughout the trip, he handed out leaflets to settlements about the TTaC. In Adana, on the way back, he made a stunt flight and drew helixes in the sky. The same year, he joined the TTaC committee that was formed to study European aviation. On 3 July, he went to Europe with three other committee members, and visited aviation facilities in Germany, Denmark, Sweden, France, and Italy. The group returned to Turkey on 2 September. He was known as the Head Aviator of the TTaC at the time, but stopped using the title at the request of Recep Peker. In 1926, he was sent to the Junkers factory in Germany by the Ministry of Defense, who wanted to set up a factory in Kayseri to produce aircraft. He detected some problems with the Junkers A 20, which were fixed on the A 35 model. Once back in Turkey, he was requested to fly passengers between Ankara and Kayseri with the Junkers G 23 and the Junkers F 13, which were the country's first civil aviation flights. ## Aircraft workshop and flight school In 1930, he took an extended break from TTaC. After leasing a lumber shop in Kadıköy with sea access, he built his second aircraft, Vecihi K-XIV, in three months. He flew the plane for the first time on 16 September in Fikirtepe, in front of the press and a crowd. He then flew the plane to Ankara to get a flight permit, but was again denied due to the lack of qualified personnel, and was instead told to get a permit abroad. It was decided to get the permit in Czechoslovakia due to the good relations between the country and Turkey. Hürkuş arrived at Prague on 6 December 1930, while his plane was still in Turkey. The plane was sent to Prague by train in February 1931, after all the relevant documents were translated into Czech. On 23 April 1931, the plane was certified at a nearby casino. Hürkuş flew from Czechoslovakia to Turkey with the Vecihi K-XIV, and arrived on 5 May. He flew domestically with the K-XIV to introduce aviation and held several conferences. In September 1931, he flew 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) through Anatolia, and made talks after the flights to convince the crowd to make donations to the TTaC. The TTaC received many donations and the flights were considered to be a success. However, the TTaC fired the assistant of Hürkuş because he didn't send reports to the society. Additionally, the Vecihi K-XIV was banned from flights; both reasons caused Hürkuş to resign from the TTaC. Hürkuş was present at the opening ceremony of the first Turkish aero club on 28 December 1931. He gave lectures related to aviation in the club. He was elected to be one of the board of directors of the club in February 1932. After the club was closed, Hürkuş blamed the TTaC as it had not given any financial support to the club. During his conferences with the TTaC, he noticed the enthusiasm of young people for aviation. He received letters from people wanting to become aviators. He first made his intentions to open a public flight school in December 1931. The idea was approved by the General Staff of the Turkish Armed Forces. By January 1932, the location of the school was selected and construction on the hangar was almost finished. On 21 April 1932, Hürkuş officially founded Turkey's first civil aviation school, the Vecihi Sivil Tayyare Mektebi. Initially he wanted to start the trainings on 27 September the same year because it was the anniversary of the first flight of the Vecihi K-XIV. This had to be delayed to at least February 1933 due to more constructions taking place, but Hürkuş continued to use 27 September as it was a symbolic date. Sixteen students signed up to the school. The same year, Hürkuş also opened his own aircraft workshop, the Vecihi Faham Airplane Building Workshop. The workshop consisted of a single hangar. The Vecihi K-XIV was used in training and a second K-XIV was also built for the same purpose. The school received several donations, including financial support and aircraft parts, mostly from official institutions. The General Staff of the Turkish Armed Forces gifted two aircraft in June 1933. Hürkuş also sold advertisements to generate more revenue to fund the school. The school provided training for engined and glider aircraft, though the latter form of training was never fully implemented. Six students, including Bedriye Tahir Gökmen, made a solo flight. On 17 September 1934, the school was shut down by the Müdafaa-i Milliye Vekâleti as "the government was planning to create a modern and large institution for a wider and more fundamental dissemination of civil aviation". Hürkuş went to Ankara to contest this decision, without success. During the time the flight school was operating, Hürkuş built several more aircraft. In 1933, with the help of a financial donation by fellow aviator Nuri Demirağ, he built the Vecihi K-XVI, which had a cabin, in his workshop. A boat powered by an aircraft engine, the Vecihi SK, was also constructed. The next year, Hürkuş built the Vecihi X-VI-D, a passenger seaplane. ## Second stint with the Turkish Aircraft Society In 1935, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk asked Fuat Bulca to create a new aviation project with the TTaC and have Hürkuş involved in it. The aim of this project, which was named Türkkuşu, was to train young Turkish aviatiors. Hürkuş relocated to Ankara with one of his planes. In Ankara, he worked on the construction of Türkkuşu hangars and facilities. As part of the project, students of his former flight school, and several other students, including Sabiha Gökçen, were sent to a glider school in Koktebel, Soviet Union. From 1935 to 1936, Hürkuş worked on building Turkey's first glider. In total, he built two: the Ankara US-4 and Ankara PS-2. After the TTaC was renamed as the Turkish Aeronautical Association (THK), Hürkuş joined the it again and was sent to the Weimar Engineering School in Germany in 1937. On 27 February 1939, he received a diploma in aircraft engineering from the school. He then returned to Turkey, and applied to the Ministry of Public Works to get his engineering license, but was rejected because "two years was too short to become an engineer". The Council of State later overturned this decision and his application was approved. The THK appointed him to its branch office in Van, which lacked technical feasibility. This led him to resign from the THK. ## Later ventures and death In 1942, Hürkuş wrote his first book, Havalarda, about his experience in aviation from 1915 to 1925. In 1947, he founded an aviation club named Kanatlılar Birliği, and started publishing a monthly aviation magazine, Kanatlılar, the next year, which continued for 12 issues. In 1951, he and five friends founded a company to do agricultural spraying from the air, but left it later due to a disagreement. A year later he bought a Proctor V from the United Kingdom, which he used to make flights to advertise several brands. On 29 November 1954, Hürkuş founded his own airline named Hürkuş Hava Yolları, for which he bought former aircraft of Turkish Airlines. He aimed to fly to destinations not served by others, but the airline was banned from flying after sabotages and aircraft problems. One of the planes was hijacked and taken to Bulgaria in 1955. Towards the end of his life, Hürkuş was in debt due to the insurance costs of the planes that were unable to fly; even his payments from the government for his national service were confiscated. While in Ankara, Hürkuş suffered an intracranial hemorrhage, which put him in a coma. He died on 16 July 1969 at the Gülhane Military Medical Academy. He is buried at the Cebeci Asri Cemetery. In his 52-year flying career, Hürkuş flew 102 types of aircraft, and stayed airborne for over 30,000 hours. ## Legacy Hürkuş received three commendations from the Grand National Assembly of Turkey for his service in the War of Independence and is the only person to receive this many such commendations. He is also a recipient of the Medal of Independence for his work as a pilot during the War of Independence. According to Abdullah Aydoğan of the Kırşehir Ahi Evran University, Turkish aviation "gained valuable experience" thanks to Hürkuş's initiatives despite the "limited resources at his disposal". The turboprop trainer aircraft Hürkuş and the supersonic light combat aircraft Hürjet, both developed by Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI), were named after him. The 2018 drama film Hürkuş: Göklerdeki Kahraman by Kudret Sabancı is based on his life. In 2022, the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) started filming Savunma Sanayiinin Yalnız Dehaları, a documentary which focuses on the lives of five important Turkish people in national defense, including Hürkuş. ## See also - Ahmet Ali Çelikten - Anthony Fokker - Fesa Evrensev
546,994	Mingulay	1,168,575,134	Island of Bishop's Isles, Outer Hebrides, Scotland	[ "Barra Isles", "Clan MacNeil", "Former populated places in Scotland", "Modern ruins", "National Trust for Scotland properties", "Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Western Isles South", "Uninhabited islands of the Outer Hebrides" ]	Mingulay (Scottish Gaelic: Miughalaigh) is the second largest of the Bishop's Isles in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland. Located 12 nautical miles (22 kilometres) south of Barra, it is known for its important seabird populations, including puffins, black-legged kittiwakes, and razorbills, which nest in the sea-cliffs, amongst the highest in the British Isles. There are Iron Age remains, and the culture of the island was influenced by early Christianity and the Vikings. Between the 15th and 19th centuries Mingulay was part of the lands of Clan MacNeil of Barra, but subsequently suffered at the hands of absentee landlords. After two thousand years or more of continuous habitation, the island was abandoned by its Gaelic-speaking residents in 1912 and has remained uninhabited since. It is no longer used for grazing sheep. The island is also associated with the "Mingulay Boat Song", although that was composed in 1938. The National Trust for Scotland has owned Mingulay since 2000. ## Geology and soils In the Pleistocene era Mingulay was covered by the ice sheets which spread from Scotland out into the Atlantic Ocean beyond the Outer Hebrides. After the last retreat of the ice around 20,000 years ago, sea levels were lower than at present and circa 14,000 BP it was joined to a single large island comprising most of what is now the Outer Hebrides. Steadily rising sea levels since that time then isolated the island, which is made up of Hebridean gneiss interspersed with some granite. The ice deposited both erratic blocks of rock and boulder clay on the eastern side of the island around Mingulay Bay. The rest of the island is covered in peat, thin acidic soils, or bare rock. ## Geography and pre-history Mingulay is part of the small archipelago known as the Bishop or Barra Isles which are "composed of a cluster of islands surrounded by a boisterous sea, making the passage of one island to another a matter of very considerable hazard" and which form the southern end of the larger Outer Hebrides group. There is one large beach on the eastern side of the isle, where the only settlement of note ('The Village') was located, and a tiny cove at Skipsdale (Old Norse: ship valley). Bagh na h-Aoineig (Scots Gaelic: bay of the steep promontory) on the western side is a deep cleft in the sea-cliffs once thought to be the highest in the UK which rise to 213 m (699 ft) above sea level at Builacraig. Mingulay has three large sea stacks: Arnamul (Old Norse: Erne mound), Lianamul (Old Norse: Flax mound) and Gunamul, which has a natural arch in 150 m (490 ft) cliffs through which boats can sail on rare days when the sea is calm. There are several outlying islets including the twin rocks of Sròn a Dùin to the south-west, Geirum Mòr and Geirum Beag to the south between Mingulay and the nearby island of Berneray, and Solon Mòr ('Big Gannet'), Solon Beag ('Little Gannet'), Sgeirean nan Uibhein, Barnacle Rock and a smaller stack called The Red Boy, all to the north between Mingulay and Pabbay. The highest hills are Càrnan (273 m or 896 ft), Hecla (Old Norse: Hooded shroud) (219 m or 719 ft) and Macphee's Hill (224 m or 735 ft). The last was named when a relief ship was sent by MacNeil of Barra to discover why communications from the island had ceased. A crewman called Macphee was sent ashore and returned to report that the residents had all died of disease. Fearing the plague, his shipmates refused to allow him back on board. He survived for a year, and climbed the hill every day to look out for a rescue. When the island was re-settled the chief of the Clan MacNeil of Barra granted him land there. The south-western promontory of Dun Mingulay has the remains of an Iron Age fort and there is a pre-historic site at Crois an t-Suidheachain near the western landing place at Aneir at the southern end of Mingulay Bay, which may have been a stone circle. In 1971 a 2,000-year-old Iron Age midden was found resting on sand near the 'Village' overlooking the Bay. A stone 'pebble hammer' was discovered nearby in 1975, but it has not been possible to date the find. Skipisdale may also contain Iron Age remains. ## Name In historic times the Hebrides have been heavily influenced by Celtic, Norse and Scots culture and this is evident in the variety of names the isle possesses. "Mingulay" is derived from Mikil-ay, the Old Norse for "Big Island" although this is misleading as it is only the second largest of the Barra Isles behind Vatersay, which is lower lying and appears smaller from the sea. Miughalaigh and Miùghlaigh are two variants of the Gaelic name. Lowland Scots speakers in their turn have variously described the island as "Mewla" or "Miuley" (which are both approximations of the Gaelic pronunciation), "Megaly" and "Micklay" before finally settling on the current variant. Murray (1973) states that the name "appropriately means Bird Island". ## History and culture ### Christianity, Norsemen and Clan MacNeil Early Christianity influenced Mingulay (for example the nearby islands of Pabbay and Berneray both have cross-inscribed slabs) but no direct evidence has yet been found. From circa 871 onwards Viking raids on the Outer Hebrides gathered pace but similarly the Viking graves found on Berneray and Vatersay are not replicated on Mingulay and whilst there are no definite indications of Norse settlement, their presence on the island is confirmed by the many features they named. Acknowledged by Malcolm III as part of the Kingdom of the Isles, a Norwegian crown dependency, from the 12th century onwards Norwegian power in the Western Isles weakened. By the 1266 Treaty of Perth they reverted to the Scottish crown control under the tutelage of the quasi-autonomous Lordship of Garmoran (ruled by the MacRory, a faction among the rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles). In 1427, following violence between the MacRory heirs to Garmoran (Clan Ranald, the Siol Gorrie, and Siol Murdoch), Garmoran was declared forfeit. That same year – 1427 – following the forfeiture, the Lords of the Isles (the remaining MacRory heirs) awarded Lairdship of Barra (and its associated islands) and half of South Uist to Clan MacNeil of Barra. They adopted the cliffs of Builacraig as part of their traditional crest and used the name as a war-cry. However, following acts of piracy by the MacNeils, king James VI transferred ownership of some of the southern archipelago (including Mingulay) to the Bishop of the Isles, hence those islands became known as the Bishop's Isles . The islanders' livelihood was based on fishing (for white fish, herring and lobster), crofting (with up to 55 ha (0.21 sq mi) of arable and pasture land fertilised by wrack on which sheep, cattle, ponies, pigs and poultry were kept) and very dependent on the bounty provided by seabirds. For example, rent was payable to The MacNeil in fachaich or ‘fatlings’ – shearwater chicks. The Reformation never reached the south of the Outer Hebrides and Roman Catholicism held sway from the 12th century to the early 20th. The lack of a resident priest meant that services were often organised by the lay community, but the local culture and traditions of songs and story-telling were rich and varied. As Samuel Johnson observed when lamenting his failure to reach thus far on his 18th-century Hebridean journey: > Popery is favourable to ceremony; and among the ignorant nations ceremony is the only preservative of tradition. Since Protestantism was extended to the savage parts of Scotland, it has perhaps been one of the chief labours of the Ministers to abolish stated observances, because they continued the remembrance of the former religion. Some of the local beliefs were perhaps less welcome to the practitioners of organised religion. An each-uisge was thought to live in a bottomless well near the summit of Macphee's Hill, and faery sidhes and their associated music were taken for granted, if generally avoided. The curative powers of the seventh son of a seventh son were assumed to be sufficient for the treatment of diseases as serious as tuberculosis. Yet the old ways themselves were dying. ### Absentee landlords The Barra estates of MacNeil (including all the Barra Isles) were sold to Colonel John Gordon of Cluny Aberdeenshire in 1840 whose lack of consideration for his tenants during the potato famines was matched by his zeal for evictions to create sheep farms. However, the Highland Clearances seemed to have the effect of increasing Mingulay's population as families evicted from Barra sometimes chose to re-settle there rather than take the emigrant ships to Nova Scotia. In this regard Mingulay's remoteness was probably an advantage and rents were reduced from 1840 to 1845. In 1878 Lady Gordon Cathcart inherited the estate and visited but once during her fifty-four year period of tenure. In 1764 the population of the island was 52. Later census records show that there were 113 residents in 1841, 150 in 1881, 142 in 1891 (occupying 28 houses, compared to the 1841 total of 19), and 135 in 1901. Families were often large, and ten or more children was not uncommon, with three generations sometimes sharing a single small house. Life was co-operative with fishing, waulking, peat cutting and landing the boats all being communal activities. The island is remote but was by no means cut off. In the 19th century fishermen sold fish in Glasgow and Ireland, both men and women worked on the east coast herring fishing industry, and food was brought in from mainland Scotland on a regular basis. At the height of village life there was a mill, a chapel house consisting of a church and a priest's residence, and a school. However, despite there being a continuous population on Mingulay for at least two thousand years, evacuations began in 1907 and the island was completely abandoned by its residents in 1912. ### Evacuation There were numerous reasons for the evacuation. In 1897 a boat from the neighbouring island of Pabbay was lost off Barra Head with its crew of five: more than half of Pabbay's male population, and this did not encourage confidence amongst the fishermen of Mingulay. The lack of a sheltered landing meant that the island could be unreachable for weeks at a time, and loading and unloading goods was at best strenuous and at worst hazardous. This may have meant less at a time when possessions were fewer, but no doubt the population was also increasingly aware of their relative isolation. Writing about the collapse of similar populations in the Hebrides, Neat (2000) suggests: > one common thread would appear to be the unwillingness of even the most stoical and historically-aware communities to continue an existence based upon endless physical hardship when the opportunity of an easier livelihood elsewhere is there to be taken. Buxton (1995) tells the story of two men who left Mingulay together. One was visiting Barra, and the other intended to emigrate to New York. They said their farewells in Castlebay but it did not work out for the latter and he returned from the United States three months later. To his great surprise he met his friend in Castlebay again, who explained that he had been unable to return to Mingulay since they had last met because of adverse sea conditions. Similar difficulties experienced by visiting priests or doctors bound for Mingulay were a constant source of concern to the islanders. The ferocity of the weather also created constant hardship. In 1868 a wave washed over the top of Geirum Mor, taking the sheep with it. The summit of the islet is 51 metres (170 ft) above sea level. Fraser Darling and Boyd (1969) also speculate about the "quiet failure" of the populations of small islands like Mingulay to husband their available natural resources. Certainly the population began to exceed the carrying capacity of the land. The Congested Districts Board installed a derrick to assist with the landings at Aneir at the south end of the Bay in 1901, but the design was flawed and its failure was a further disappointment. In July 1906 grazing land on Vatersay was raided by landless cottars from Barra and its isles, including three families from Mingulay. They were followed in 1907 by eight more raiders from Mingulay led by Micheal Neill Eachainn. Lady Gordon Cathcart took legal action but the visiting judge took the view that she had neglected her duties as a landowner and that "long indifference to the necessities of the cottars had gone far to drive them to exasperation". Vatersay has sheltered anchorages and was only 300 metres (330 yd) from Barra (until the construction of a causeway in 1990) and Neil MacPhee wrote "it is better a thousand times to die here than to go through the same hardships which were our lot" on Mingulay. In November 1907 six more families consisting of 27 individuals from Mingulay squatted on Sandray, which has a sheltered beach. Meanwhile, the plight of the Vatersay raiders had been raised at Westminster. Despite considerable public sympathy they were eventually sentenced to two months in prison. Shortly thereafter the Congested Districts Board purchased the entire island of Vatersay with the aim of providing new crofts. By the next summer there were 14 Mingulay families living there. Only six families remained on Mingulay itself, and all of them planned to leave. By 1910 there were only a dozen fishermen in six families living there, and in summer 1912 the island was finally abandoned. Some may have wished to stay, but by now the population had been reduced below a viable number and the lack of a school, which had closed in April 1910, would have been a factor. There is also no doubt that the parish priest, Donald Martin, encouraged the desertion. It is claimed that neither did he like travelling there, nor did the church receive much in the collection box on his visits. Mingulay bears similarities to the island of Hirta, which was also evacuated in 1930, Mingulay is sometimes referred to as the "near St Kilda". Mingulay is less than a third of the distance from "The Long Island" that Hirta is, yet a 19th-century visitor commented that the former was "much more primitive than St Kilda, especially as regards the cottars' and crofters' houses", suggesting that the lack of a permanent landing was of greater import than sheer distance. ### 1912 to the present day After the island was evacuated it was first tenanted and then purchased in 1919 by Jonathan MacLean from Barra. In 1930 it was sold to John Russell who had experience as a sheep farmer in both Australia and Montana. Russell was clearly a man who liked his own company, choosing to live on the island alone all autumn and winter with his pet ferrets and cats, and joined by two shepherds for the spring and summer only. After seven years he sold up to Peggy Greer, a farmer from Essex who visited only rarely and let the grazings out to local farmers. In 1951 she attempted to sell the island herself, but without success until 1955 when a local crofters' syndicate called the Barra Head Isles Sheepstock Company completed the purchase. The advent of motor boats made stocking the islands considerably easier and the company's ownership continued for the next forty years. In 2000 Mingulay was acquired by the National Trust for Scotland through a bequest by J. M. Fawcitt "to provide an area of natural beauty in memory of her parents and the courage of her late brother, Bernard." Only two buildings survive on the island: the schoolhouse and the chapel house, although the latter has recently lost its roof and front wall. ## Flora and fauna Mingulay has a large seabird population, and is an important breeding ground for razorbills (9,514 pairs, 6.3% of the European population), guillemots (11,063 pairs) and black-legged kittiwakes (2,939 pairs). shags (694 individuals), fulmar (11,626 pairs), puffins (2,072 pairs), storm petrel, common terns, Arctic terns, bonxies and various species of gull also nest in the sea-cliffs. Manx shearwaters nested on Lianamul stack until the late 18th century, when they were driven away by puffins, and tysties have also been recorded there. Sheep graze the island's rough pastures and there is a population of rabbits, introduced by shepherds after the 1912 evacuation. Grey seals are abundant, numbers having grown substantially since the departure of human residents. Although they do not breed, up to 1,000 make use of the beach in winter. The flora of the island is typical of the Outer Hebrides with heather, sphagnum moss, sedges, grass and bracken predominating. There is but a single tree – a 2-metre high poplar on a cliff overlooking Mingulay Bay. Sea holly, otherwise rare in the Western Isles, has grown on Mingulay since at least the late nineteenth century, and sea milkwort, normally only found at sea level is able to grow on the high cliff tops due to the ocean spray and seagull manure. In spring and summer there are profusions of wild flowers around the deserted Village. Mingulay and nearby Berneray became a Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1983. ## Visiting Mingulay The island attracts regular visits from naturalists and in recent years has also become popular with rock climbers. The National Trust for Scotland operates two licensed boatmen from Barra and further information may be available at the tourist office in Castlebay. There is an "occasional" anchorage in Mingulay Bay sheltered from westerly winds. Landing on the beach may be difficult as there is a regular heavy swell and approaching the old landing place at Aneir may be easier. There is also a landing place at Skipisdale. ## Mingulay Boat Song The "Mingulay Boat Song" was composed by Hugh S. Roberton, the founder of the Glasgow Orpheus Choir, in 1938, and first recorded by the Francis McPeake family of Ulster. Written in the style of Hebridean work songs to the tune Creag Guanach from Lochaber, it invites the listener to imagine the boatsmen of the island singing in time to the pulling of their oars. > > Chorus Heel ya'ho boys, let her go, boys Bring her head round now all together Heel ya'ho boys, let her go boys Sailing homeward to Mingulay! > > > > What care we tho' white the Minch is What care we for wind and weather? Let her go boys, every inch is Wearing homeward to Mingulay! > > > > Chorus > > > > Wives are waiting on the bank, boys, Looking seaward from the heather. Pull her 'round boys, and we'll anchor 'Ere the sun sets at Mingulay! > > > > Chorus It has been recorded by numerous artists including Robin Hall and Jimmy MacGregor in 1971, The Idlers and Richard Thompson in 2006, and by Kris Delmhorst on her 2003 “Songs for a Hurricane” album. The lyrics have also been variously interpreted. For example, Hall and MacGregor's 1961 version has a female vocalist (Shirley Bland) rendering the third stanza as: > > We are waiting by the harbour, Weeping, waiting since break of day-o. We are waiting by the harbour, As the sun sets on Mingulay. Although the fame of the song means that it is one of the few things popularly associated with the island and it is evocative of island life, it was never sung by its residents, having been composed long after the evacuation. Other songs composed by or about residents of the island survive. These include "Oran do dh'Eilean Mhiulaidh" (Song to the Isle of Mingulay) written by Neil MacPhee the Vatersay raider (see above), after the abandonment of the island, and "Turas Neill a Mhiughlaigh" (Neil's Trip to Mingulay) written by Father Allan MacLean (known locally as the "Curate of Spain" having attended the Scots College in Valladolid), possibly during the period 1837–40 when he lived on Barra. Songs and oral tradition relating to Mingulay are discussed in Liza Storey's Miughalaigh (2008). ## In literature - There is a local tradition that French gold intended to support the 1745 Jacobite rebellion was hidden in a sea cave on the west coast. This story forms the basis of the novel Children of Tempest by Neil Munro. - Mingulay is the name of an isolated human colony in Ken MacLeod's Cosmonaut Keep, book one in the "Engines Of Light" series of science-fiction novels. - In the SF novel 'A Boy and his Dog at the End of the World' by C. A Fletcher, Mingulay is the home of a family a few generations removed from the ending of human civilisation, and the first location setting of the story. ## See also - List of islands of Scotland - North Rona
7,280,174	Arizona State Route 97	1,054,431,589	State highway in Arizona, United States	[ "State highways in Arizona", "Transportation in Yavapai County, Arizona" ]	State Route 97 (SR 97) is a 10.91-mile-long (17.56 km) state highway in the U.S. state of Arizona. It runs from U.S. Route 93 (US 93) northwest of Congress northeast to SR 96 southeast of Bagdad. The road was built by the late 1930s and improved during the late 1940s. Established as a state route in 1962, SR 97 was paved in the early 1970s. In 2000, the highway was officially added to the State Highway system. ## Route description The route begins at an intersection with US 93 northwest of Congress and southeast of Nothing. Beginning at US 93 southbound, SR 97 crosses US 93 northbound after several feet. It crosses through a desert region in a northeasterly direction, meeting a dirt road that connects back to US 93. SR 97 curves northward before heading eastward at an intersection with Burro Creek Road. Again turning northeastward, the roadway meets various local roads, most of them dirt. The highway meets its northern terminus at SR 96, which continues northwestward toward Bagdad. The highway is maintained by the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT) who is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state. As part of this role, ADOT surveys volumes of traffic on their highways. These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic (AADT), which is the number of vehicles that travel a road during an average day during the year. In 2009, ADOT calculated that an average of only 550 vehicles used the road daily. No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System, a system of roads in the United States important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility. ## History The section of the SR 97 northeast of Burro Creek Road had been built by 1939. Between 1946 and 1951, the section north of Burro Creek Road was improved and the section south built as a graded road. The road was logged as a state route in 1962 along its current routing, connecting SR 96 to the rest of the state highway system. The highway was then paved throughout its entirety in 1973. In 2000, the route was slightly realigned because of a widening project on US 93 from a two-lane highway to a four-lane divided highway. That same year, SR 97 officially became a State Highway. ## Junction list
66,875,367	A Tolkien Compass	1,168,201,256	1975 book of literary criticism of Tolkien	[ "1975 non-fiction books", "Tolkien studies" ]	A Tolkien Compass, a 1975 collection of essays edited by Jared Lobdell, was one of the first books of Tolkien scholarship to be published; it was written without sight of The Silmarillion, published in 1977. Some of the essays have remained at the centre of such scholarship. Most were written by academics for fan-organised conferences. The collection was also the first place where Tolkien's own "Guide to the names in The Lord of the Rings" became widely available. The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey described the essays as written in an innocent time before Tolkien studies became professionalised, and as such they offer "freshness, candor, and a sense of historical depth" that cannot be repeated. Other scholars have stated that two of the essays about The Hobbit have become frequently-cited classics in their field. ## Context J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973) was an English Roman Catholic writer, poet, philologist, and academic, best known as the author of the high fantasy works The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. The Lord of the Rings was published in 1954–55; it was awarded the International Fantasy Award in 1957. The publication of the Ace Books and Ballantine paperbacks in the United States helped it to become immensely popular with a new generation in the 1960s. It has remained so ever since, judged by both sales and reader surveys. The literary establishment was initially largely hostile to the book, attacking it in numerous reviews. ## Synopsis The first and second editions contain the following essays: I. Jared Lobdell. "Introduction". Aside from introducing the essays, he notes that none of them attempt Quellenforschung, the search for Tolkien's sources, but suggests that the matter is worthy of study. II\. Bonniejean Christensen. "Gollum's character transformation in The Hobbit". She finds the "fallen hobbit" Gollum immediately interesting, even apart from Tolkien's changes to the second edition of the novel to make the story fit better with The Lord of the Rings, which make Gollum "fascinating". The key changes are to chapter 5, "Riddles in the Dark": Gollum becomes a far darker character, and the riddle competition becomes deadly serious, as Bilbo will be eaten if he loses. III\. Dorothy Matthews. "The Psychological Journey of Bilbo Baggins", provides an early Jungian approach to Tolkien, suggesting that Gandalf fits the Wise Old Man archetype, and Gollum the Devouring Mother, while Bilbo sets out on his quest "out of balance and far from integrated". IV\. Walter Scheps. "The Fairy-tale Morality of The Lord of the Rings". He argues that Tolkien's morality, revealed in his Middle-earth books, is "radically different from our own" and indeed much like that of fairy tales, so it is not a concern that orcs are black, that trolls are working class, or that enemies come from the south and east. Further, "nobility is inherited rather than acquired". V. Agnes Perkins and Helen Hill. "The Corruption of Power" examines what power, especially that of the One Ring, does to those who have it. "And the answer is unequivocal: The desire for power corrupts." Of the three wise and ancient characters in The Lord of the Rings, Gandalf and Galadriel see the temptation, and reject it. Saruman succumbs to it. Of the men of Gondor, Boromir tries to seize the Ring; Faramir "understands the danger". VI\. Deborah Rogers. "Everyclod and Everyhero: the image of man in Tolkien" argues that both the Hobbits and Aragorn represent Man. Rogers notes that she knows Hobbits are important, as Tolkien wrote her a letter in 1958 confessing "I am in fact a hobbit." The Hobbits are in her view "small, provincial, and comfort-loving" but not John Bull English: in short, they are cloddish antiheroes. Aragorn, however, is definitely a hero; together, he and the Hobbits form a composite picture of man, a clod with a hero trying to get out. VII\. Richard C. West "The Interlace Structure of The Lord of the Rings" shows that the novel has a complex medieval organisation, in which story threads are interwoven to create a subtly cohesive narrative. It mirrors "the perception of the flux of events in the world around us, where everything is happening at once". The technique allows events to be seen, too, from different points of view. West notes that this is also modern, as writers like James Joyce and Marcel Proust "once again began experimenting" with the medieval technique. VIII\. David Miller. "Narrative pattern in The Fellowship of the Ring" looks at other story structures, noting that with the road as a setting, the "there and back again" novel (he includes The Hobbit) is picaresque. Miller analyses the journey in the first volume as a sequence of "conference[s] in tranquillity", "blundering journey[s]", dangers, and "unexpected aid", as for example the party venturing into the Old Forest, becoming entrapped by Old Man Willow, only to be rescued by Tom Bombadil. He identifies nine such cycles. IX\. Robert Plank. "'The Scouring of the Shire': Tolkien's view of fascism" looks at a single chapter – Book 6, Chapter 8 of The Lord of the Rings, in which the Hobbits return home victorious from their adventures like the hero Odysseus to Ithaca, only to have to "scour" their home of enemies. Plank comments that "the outstanding characteristic of [the chapter] is that miracles do not happen, the laws of nature are in full and undisputed force, [and] the actors in the drama are all human [mortals, whether men or Hobbits]." Thus the chapter is "not fantasy", unlike the rest of the novel. Plank is surprised that Tolkien thinks of the "overthrow of a tyrannical government as a quick and easy job." X. Charles A. Huttar. "Hell and the city: Tolkien and the traditions of Western literature" looks at the novel's debt to literary tradition. The Fellowship's journey through Moria is likened to a descent into Hell, part of a hero's monomyth, while Gandalf's struggle with the Balrog echoes the hero "overcoming a monster of 'the deep'". Frodo's journey to Mordor, too, is such a descent. Huttar considers, too, the various cities with their towers: Minas Tirith of Gondor; Barad-Dûr, the Dark Lord Sauron's fortress; Orthanc, the fallen wizard Saruman's fastness within the industrial Isengard; and either Minas Morgul, home to the nine Nazgûl, or the nearby Cirith Ungol, the watchtower that becomes Frodo's prison. All have become hellish, except for Minas Tirith, the Tower of Guard, which stands against them: "a great city" with its seven walls and seven levels, "but it is dying." This would seem desperate: but "Tolkien sees hope." XI\. U. Milo Kaufmann. "Aspects of the paradisiacal in Tolkien's work" picks out two features of Tolkien's writing: "his uncanny capacity for making us see ordinary objects and actions bursting with the value of wholeness and finality", and "his talent for creating intransigently mysterious landscape." He finds these in "Leaf by Niggle" and in The Lord of the Rings. The first edition also contains: XII\. J. R. R. Tolkien. "Guide to the names in The Lord of the Rings". Tolkien explains how to translate both personal names like "Treebeard" (by sense) and placenames like "Bag End" (again, by sense), individually listed and explained, and asks that all other names be left untranslated. The second edition has in addition: - Tom Shippey. "Foreword". The Tolkien scholar looks back over a generation of scholarship and the transformation of Tolkien's reception by scholars, commenting that A Tolkien Compass, written in a very different time, had stood up well and now offered a unique perspective. ## Publication history A Tolkien Compass was published in paperback by Open Court in 1975. They brought out a second edition in 2003, adding a scholarly foreword by Tom Shippey. The essays consisted mainly of Lobdell's selections from the first and second Conferences on Middle-earth. The book has been translated into French, Swedish, and Turkish. There are no illustrations. ## Reception Tom Shippey commented that A Tolkien Compass appeared "at a time when, in the United Kingdom at least, professing an interest in Tolkien was almost certain death for any hopeful candidate seeking entrance to a department of English". The first edition included Tolkien's "Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings"; Shippey called this "immensely valuable" and "deplored" the fact that the Tolkien Estate had demanded it be omitted from later editions. Shippey described the essays as written in the "Age of Innocence" before Tolkien studies became professionalised, and as such offer "freshness, candor, and a sense of historical depth" that cannot be repeated. He noted that some of the early predictions, made before The Silmarillion appeared in 1977 or The History of The Lord of the Rings in 1988–1992, were wrong. For instance, Tolkien had not written much of The Lord of the Rings before the Second World War; but many other predictions have been substantiated, such as Richard C. West's account of Tolkien's use of medieval-style interlacing as a narrative structure. The Tolkien scholar Janet Brennan Croft has written that West's essay "has proven to have particularly long-lasting impact", while the medievalist Gergely Nagy called the book "a significant early collection". The librarian and Tolkien scholar David Bratman described the book as "the first commercially published collection of scholarship from the Tolkien fan community." He commented that the essays were originally papers for conferences organised by fans, but were for the most part written by scholars, and that two of the chapters were seen by scholars as "classics in the field": Richard C. West's essay on "The Interlace Structure of The Lord of the Rings, and Bonniejean Christensen's on "Gollum's Character Transformations in The Hobbit". The librarian Jean MacIntyre, regretting that scholars have paid relatively little attention to The Hobbit compared to Tolkien's other novels, has noted that A Tolkien Compass takes the children's book seriously with two frequently-consulted essays, namely Matthews's psychological interpretation of The Hobbit (MacIntyre notes that Randel Helms had "mocked" this), and Christensen's account of Tolkien's revisions of The Hobbit as he updated Gollum's character. ## See also - Master of Middle-Earth, a 1975 book of Tolkien scholarship
27,436,973	Belgian government in exile	1,166,714,376	Government in exile of Belgium between October 1940 and September 1944 during World War II.	[ "1940 establishments in Belgium", "1940 establishments in England", "1940s in the City of Westminster", "1944 disestablishments in Belgium", "1944 disestablishments in England", "Belgian governments", "Belgium–United Kingdom relations", "Former governments in exile", "Governments in exile during World War II", "United Kingdom in World War II" ]	The Belgian Government in London (French: Gouvernement belge à Londres, Dutch: Belgische regering in Londen), also known as the Pierlot IV Government, was the government in exile of Belgium between October 1940 and September 1944 during World War II. The government was tripartite, involving ministers from the Catholic, Liberal and Labour Parties. After the invasion of Belgium by Nazi Germany in May 1940, the Belgian government, under Prime Minister Hubert Pierlot, fled first to Bordeaux in France and then to London, where it established itself as the only legitimate representation of Belgium to the Allies. Despite no longer having authority in its own country, the government administered the Belgian Congo and held negotiations with other Allied powers about post-war reconstruction. Agreements made by the government in exile during the war included the foundation of the Benelux Customs Union and Belgium's admission into the United Nations. The government also exercised influence within the Belgian army-in-exile and attempted to maintain links with the underground resistance. ## Background Politically, Belgian politics had been dominated in the interwar period by the Catholic Party, usually in coalition with the Belgian Labour Party (POB-BWP) or the Liberal Party. The 1930s also saw the rise in popularity of Fascist parties within Belgium; most notably Rex which peaked at the 1936 election with 11% of the vote. From the early 1930s, Belgian foreign and domestic policy had been dominated by the policy of neutrality; leaving international treaties and alliances and attempting to maintain good diplomatic relations with Britain, France and Germany. Despite this policy, Belgium was invaded without warning by German forces on 10 May 1940. After 18 days of fighting, the Belgian military surrendered on 28 May and the country was placed under the control of a German military government. Between 600,000 and 650,000 Belgian men (nearly 20% of the country's male population) had been mobilized to fight. Unlike the Netherlands or Luxembourg, whose monarchies went into exile alongside the government, King Leopold III surrendered to the Germans alongside his army – contrary to the advice of his government. In the days before his surrender, he allegedly attempted to form a new government under the pro-Nazi socialist Henri de Man though this was never realized. He remained a prisoner of the Germans, under house arrest, for the rest of the war. Although the government briefly attempted to negotiate with the German authorities from exile in France, the German authorities passed a decree forbidding members of the Belgian government returning to the country and the talks were abandoned. ## Establishment in London ### Refuge in France The Belgian government in France had been intending to follow the French government of Paul Reynaud to the French empire to continue the fight. The government was briefly established in Limoges where, under pressure from the French government, they denounced Leopold's surrender. The Military Government was placed under the control of General Alexander von Falkenhausen, an aristocrat and career soldier. However, when Reynaud was replaced by the pro-German Philippe Pétain, this plan was abandoned. Despite hostility from the new Vichy regime, the Pierlot government remained in France. In a letter of 16 September 1940, Petain's government demanded the disbandment of the Belgian government, still at that time in Bordeaux: > The Belgian government, whose activity in France has been, for some time now, purely theoretical, will decide to dissolve itself. Some of its members will remain in France as private individuals, while others will go abroad. This decision is part of the suppression of diplomatic missions of countries occupied by Germany, the necessity of which has been pointed out to the French government by the Reich. ### Move to London While the government under Pierlot was still in France, the Belgian Minister of Health, Marcel-Henri Jaspar, arrived in London on 21 June. Jaspar believed that the Pierlot government intended to surrender to the Germans, and was determined to prevent it. Jaspar held talks with Charles De Gaulle, and on 23 June gave a speech on BBC radio, in which he stated that he was personally forming an alternative government to continue the fight. His stance was condemned by the Pierlot government in Bordeaux, and he was received coldly by the Belgian ambassador in London, Emile de Cartier de Marchienne. Jaspar, joined by the Socialist burgomaster of Antwerp Camille Huysmans, along with other so-called "London Rebels" formed their own government on 5 July 1940. The British, however, were reluctant to recognize the Jaspar-Huysmans Government. The challenge to the Pierlot government's authority spurred it into action. Albert de Vleeschauwer, Pierlot's Minister of the Colonies, arrived in London on the same day as the Jaspar-Huysmans government was formed. As the only Belgian minister with legal power outside Belgium itself, De Vleeschauwer, together with Camille Gutt who arrived soon after, on his own initiative, was able to form a temporary "Government of Two" with British approval in London. Gutt politically marginalised De Vleeschauwer, and thereafter he acted as only a minor figure in the government. The two waited for Paul-Henri Spaak and Pierlot, who had been detained in Francoist Spain en route from France, to join them. Pierlot and Spaak reached London on 22 October 1940, marking the start of the period of the "Government of Four", providing the "official" government with the legitimacy of Belgium's last elected Prime Minister. The British were distrustful of many of the Belgian ministers, as well as the size and legitimacy of the government itself. However, with the arrival of the Prime Minister, it was reluctantly accepted. The bulk of the Belgian government was installed in Eaton Square in the Belgravia area of London, which before the war had been the location of the Belgian Embassy. Other government departments were installed in nearby Hobart Place, Belgrave Square and Knightsbridge. The offices of the Belgian government were situated close to other governments-in-exile, including Luxembourg, in Wilton Crescent, and the Netherlands in Piccadilly. Approximately 30 members of the Belgian Parliament succeeded in escaping Belgium and took up residence in London and the Belgian Congo. By December 1940, the British recognized the "government of four" as the legal representation of Belgium, with the same status as the other governments in exile: > His Majesty's Government do regard the four Belgian ministers composing the Belgian Government in London as the legitimate and constitutional Government of Belgium and competent to exercise full authority in the name of the Sovereign State of Belgium. ## Composition Initially numbering just four ministers, the government was soon joined by numerous others. The government in exile comprised both politicians and civil servants in a number of government departments. Most were focused in the Ministries of the Colonies, Finance, Foreign Affairs and Defence, but with skeleton staff in a number of others. By May 1941, there were nearly 750 people working in the government in London in all capacities. ### "Government of Four" ### Ministers without Portfolio ### Changes - 19 February 1942 - Julius Hoste (Liberal) becomes Undersecretary for Public Education. - Henri Rolin (POB-BWP) becomes Undersecretary for Defence. - Gustave Joassart (technical expert) becomes Undersecretary for Aid to Refugees, Labour and Social Welfare. - 2 October 1942 - Antoine Delfosse (Catholic) becomes Minister for Justice, National Information and Propaganda. - Henri Rolin (POB-BWP) resigns as Undersecretary for Defence, in the aftermath of a minor mutiny in the Free Belgian forces. His role is assumed by Hubert Pierlot, who becomes Minister for National Defence in addition to his existing titles. - January 1943 - Arthur Vanderpoorten (Liberal), who had refused to follow the government to London, is apprehended by the Germans in France. He would later die in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. - 3 May 1943 - August de Schryver (Catholic) becomes Minister for Interior Affairs and Agriculture, after having served as Minister without Portfolio. - 6 April 1943 - August Balthazar (POB-BWP) becomes Minister for Public Works and Transport. - 16 July 1943 - Gustave Joassart (technical expert) resigns as Undersecretary for Aid to Refugees, Labour and Social Welfare. - 3 September 1943 - Joseph Bondas (POB-BWP) becomes Undersecretary for Aid to Refugees, Labour and Social Welfare. - Raoul Richard (technical expert) becomes Undersecretary for Supplies. - 30 March 1943 - Paul Tschoffen (Catholic) becomes Minister of State. - 6 June 1944 - Paul Tschoffen (Catholic) becomes Head of the Mission for Civil Affairs. ## Role The government in exile was expected to fulfill the functions of a national government, but also represent Belgian interest to the Allied powers, leading Paul-Henri Spaak to comment that "all that remains of legal and free Belgium, all that is entitled to speak in her name, is in London". The British diplomatic mission to Belgium, under Ambassador Lancelot Oliphant, was attached to the government in exile. In March 1941, the Americans also sent an Ambassador, Anthony Biddle Jr., to represent the United States to the governments in exile of Belgium, the Netherlands, Poland and Norway. The Soviet Union, which had broken off diplomatic relations with Belgium in May 1941 (heavily influenced by the then-in force Nazi-Soviet Pact), re-established its legation to the government in exile in the aftermath of the German invasion and eventually expanded it to the rank of Embassy in 1943. ### Belgian refugees One of the most pressing concerns facing the government in exile in 1940 was the situation of Belgian refugees in the United Kingdom. By 1940, at least 15,000 Belgian civilians had arrived in the United Kingdom, many of them without their possessions. The refugees had originally been dealt with by the British government, however in September 1940, the government established a Central Service of Refugees to provide material assistance and employment for Belgians in Britain. The British public was exceptionally hostile to Belgian refugees in 1940, because of the belief that Belgium had betrayed the Allies in 1940. A British Mass Observation report noted a "growing feeling against Belgian refugees" in the United Kingdom, closely linked to Leopold III's decision to surrender. The government was also involved in the provision of social, educational and cultural institutions to Belgian refugees. In 1942, the government sponsored the creation of the Belgian Institute in London to entertain the Belgian refugee community in London. By 1943, there were also four Belgian schools in Britain with 330 pupils between them, in Penrith, Braemar, Kingston and Buxton. ### Free Belgian forces In a broadcast on French Radio, shortly after the Belgian surrender, Pierlot called for the creation of an army-in-exile to continue the fight: > With the same youthful courage that responded to the government's call, reunited with the elements of the Belgian military in France and Great Britain, a new army will be levied and organized. It will go into the line alongside those of our allies ... all the forces we have will be put at the service of the cause which has become ours ... It is important to assure immediately and in a tangible way, the solidarity which continues to unite the powers which have given us their support ... With some Belgian troops rescued from Dunkirk during Operation Dynamo, as well as Belgian émigrés already living in England, the government in exile approved the creation of a Camp Militaire Belge de Regroupement (CMBR; "Belgian Military Camp for Regrouping") in Tenby, Wales. By July 1940, the camp numbered 462 Belgians, rising to nearly 700 by August 1940. These soldiers were organized into the 1st Fusilier Battalion in August, and the government appointed Lieutenant-Generals Raoul Daufresne de la Chevalerie as commander, and Victor van Strydonck de Burkel as inspector-general of the new force. Belgian airmen participated in the Battle of Britain and the Belgian government was later able to successfully lobby for the creation of two all-Belgian squadrons within the Royal Air Force as well as the creation of a Belgian section within the Royal Navy. For the first years of the war, a degree of tension existed between the government and the army, which divided its allegiance between government and King. The Free Belgian forces, particular the infantry who had been training since 1940, held the government responsible for not being allowed to fight. In November 1942, 12 Belgian soldiers mutinied, complaining about their inactivity. By 1943, the army's royalist stance had been moderated, allowing the government to re-gain the support of the military. ### Treaties and negotiations In September 1941, the Belgian government signed the Atlantic Charter in London alongside other governments in exile, presenting the common goals which the Allies sought to achieve after the war. A year later, the government signed the Declaration by United Nations in January 1942, with 26 other nations, which would set a precedent for the foundation of the United Nations Organisation in 1945. From 1944, the Allies became increasingly concerned with laying the framework of post-war Europe. These were formalized through numerous treaties and agreements from 1944. In July 1944, Camille Gutt attended the Bretton Woods Conference in the United States on behalf of the Belgian government, establishing the Bretton Woods System of currency controls. During the negotiations, Gutt served as an important intermediary between the delegates of the major Allied powers. Through the agreements, the Belgian Franc's exchange rate would be tied to the American Dollar after the war, while the conference also established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) of which Gutt would serve as the first director. In September 1944, the Belgian, the Netherlands and Luxembourgish governments in exile began formulating an agreement over the creation of a Benelux Customs Union. The agreement was signed in the London Customs Convention on 5 September 1944, just days before the Belgian government returned to Brussels after the liberation. The Benelux Customs Union was a major extension of a pre-war union between Belgium and Luxembourg, and would later form the basis of the Benelux Economic Union after 1958. ## Authority Unlike many other governments in exile, which were forced to rely exclusively on financial support from the Allies, the Belgian government in exile could fund itself independently. In large part, this was due to the fact that the government in exile retained control of most of the Belgian national gold reserves. These had been moved secretly to Britain in May 1940 aboard the naval trawler A4, and provided an important asset. The Belgian government was also in control of the Belgian Congo, which exported large amounts of raw materials (including rubber, gold and uranium) which the Allies relied on for the war effort. The Belgian government published its own official journal, the Moniteur Belge (Official Government), from London. ## Stances ### Relations with Leopold III Despite being a constitutional monarch, the King of the Belgians had occupied an important political role within Belgium before the war. The decision of Leopold III to surrender to the Germans – without consulting his own ministers – outraged the Belgian cabinet. The King's apparent opposition to it undermined its credibility and legitimacy. For the first years of the war, the King was viewed as an alternative source of "government" by many, including figures in the Free Belgian military, which served to further undermine the official government in London. Later in the war, the government changed its position to be less belligerent towards the king. Belgian propaganda of the time instead emphasized the King's position as "martyr" and prisoner-of-war and presented him as sharing the same sufferings as the occupied country. In a radio speech on 10 May 1941 (the first anniversary of the German invasion), Pierlot called for Belgians to "rally around the prisoner-King. He personifies our murdered country. Be as loyal to him as we are here." According to the Constitution of 1831, the Belgian government was allowed to override the wishes of the King if he had been declared incompetent to reign. On 28 May 1940, under pressure from the French government, the Pierlot government in France declared the King to be under the power of the invaders and unfit to reign according to article 82, providing strong legal foundations and making itself the only official source of government. The government, however, refused to declare a republic. Although the King technically remained the only person able to receive diplomatic legations and conclude treaties, the government in exile was able to do both during the war independently. On the return to Belgium, the issue of the monarch remained contentious and on 20 September 1944, shortly after the liberation, Leopold's brother Charles, Duke of Flanders was declared prince regent. ### Relations with the Resistance The government of Jaspar-Huysmans called for the creation of organized resistance in occupied Belgium from London, even before the French surrender in 1940. The official government, after arriving in London, managed to obtain control over the French and Dutch language radio broadcasts to occupied Belgium, broadcast by the BBC's Radio Belgique. The radio station was essential for keeping the resistance and public alike informed, and was placed under the control of the journalist Paul Lévy. Amongst those working in the radio was Victor de Laveleye, a former government minister who worked as a newsreader, who is credited for inventing the "V for Victory" campaign. During the early years of the war, the government found it difficult to get into contact with the resistance in occupied Belgium. In May 1941, the Légion Belge group dispatched a member to try to establish contact but it took a full year for him to reach London. Radio contact was briefly established in late 1941 but was extremely intermittent between 1942 and 1943. A permanent radio connection (codenamed "Stanley") with the largest group, the Armée Secrète, was only established in 1944. The apparent isolation of the government in exile from events in Belgium meant that many resistance groups, particularly those whose politics differed from the established government, viewed it with suspicion. The government, for its part, was afraid that resistance groups would turn into ungovernable political militias after liberation, challenging the government's position and threatening political stability. Despite this, the resistance was frequently reliant on finance, equipment and supplies which only the government in exile and the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) were able to provide. During the course of the war, the government in exile delivered 124–245 million francs, either dropped by parachute or transferred via bank accounts in neutral Portugal, to the Armée Secrète alone. Smaller sums were distributed to other organisations. The government in exile attempted to rebuild its relationship with the resistance in May 1944 by establishing a "Coordination Committee" of representatives of the major groups, including the Légion Belge, Mouvement National Belge, Groupe G and the Front de l'Indépendance. However, the committee was rendered redundant by the liberation in September. ## Return to Belgium Allied troops entered Belgium on 1 September 1944. On 6 September, the Welsh Guards liberated the capital, Brussels. The government in exile returned to Brussels on 8 September 1944. "Operation Gutt", a plan devised by Camille Gutt to avoid rampant inflation in liberated Belgium by limiting the money supply, was put into action with great success. On 26 September, Pierlot formed a new government of national unity (Pierlot V) in Brussels. The new government included many of the ministers (including all of the "four") from London, but for the first time also including the Communists. In December 1944, a new triparate government was formed, with Pierlot still as Prime Minister. In 1945, having been Prime Minister since 1939, Pierlot was finally replaced by the Socialist, Achille Van Acker. The government in exile was one of the last governments in which the traditional parties which had dominated Belgium since its creation were still present. In 1945, the POB-BWP changed its name to the Belgian Socialist Party (PSB-BSP) and the Catholic Party became the Christian Social Party (PSC-CVP). ## See also - Belgian Congo in World War II - Belgium in World War II - Free French Forces - German occupation of Belgium during World War II - Politics of Belgium
67,764	Northern Dancer	1,160,204,450	Canadian-bred Thoroughbred racehorse	[ "1961 racehorse births", "1990 racehorse deaths", "American Champion Thoroughbred broodmare sires", "British Champion Thoroughbred Sires", "Canadian Champion racehorses", "Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees", "Canadian Thoroughbred Horse of the Year", "Chefs-de-Race", "Eclipse Award winners", "Horse monuments", "Horse racing track record setters", "Kentucky Derby winners", "King's Plate winners", "Preakness Stakes winners", "Racehorses bred in Ontario", "Racehorses trained in Canada", "Racehorses trained in the United States", "Thoroughbred family 2-d", "United States Champion Thoroughbred Sires", "United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees" ]	Northern Dancer (May 27, 1961 – November 16, 1990) was a Thoroughbred that, in 1964, became the first Canadian-bred horse to win the Kentucky Derby. After being retired from racing, he became one of the most successful sires of the 20th century. He is considered a Canadian icon and was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame in 1965. Induction into the Racing Hall of Fame in both Canada and the United States followed in 1976. As a competitor, The Blood-Horse ranked him as one of the top 100 U.S. Thoroughbred racehorses of the 20th century. As a sire of sires, his influence on the breed is still felt worldwide. At age two, Northern Dancer was named the Canadian Champion Two-Year-Old Colt after winning both the Summer Stakes and Coronation Futurity in Canada, plus the Remsen Stakes in New York. At three, he became a leading contender for the Kentucky Derby with wins in the Flamingo Stakes, Florida Derby, and Blue Grass Stakes. Northern Dancer followed up a record-setting victory in the Kentucky Derby by winning the Preakness Stakes. With a chance at the American Triple Crown, he finished third in the Belmont Stakes. Returning to Canada for a hero's welcome, he won the Queen's Plate in what proved to be his last race. Northern Dancer was retired to stud in 1965 at Windfields Farm in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada. He was an immediate success when his first crop reached racing age in 1968. The success of his second crop, led by English Triple Crown winner Nijinsky, gave him international renown. Northern Dancer was relocated to the Maryland branch of Windfields Farm, where he became the most sought sire of his time. ## Background Northern Dancer was a bay stallion with a crooked white blaze and three white socks. He was bred in Oshawa, Ontario, by Canadian business magnate Edward P. Taylor, owner of Windfields Farm. He was from the first crop of Nearctic and was the first foal out of the mare Natalma, whose sire was Native Dancer. All Thoroughbreds in the Northern Hemisphere have an official birth date of January 1 but Northern Dancer was foaled late in the season, on May 27, 1961. Younger than most of his age cohort, he was only high when Windfields Farm offered all of its yearlings for sale at its annual auction. Thus, despite a strong pedigree and good conformation, Northern Dancer did not find a buyer at his Can\$25,000 reserve price. As a result, Northern Dancer stayed in the Windfields Farm racing stable. At maturity, Northern Dancer had powerful hindquarters along with excellent balance and agility. His stallion listings showed his height as , but most horsemen who had met him estimated his adult height as between and . Shortly before the Kentucky Derby at age three, he weighed 940 pounds (430 kg). Like his sire Nearctic and grandsire Nearco before him, Northern Dancer had a dominant and sometimes unruly temperament. "He wasn't mean, but he would wheel and do some tricks," said Joe Thomas, who later managed the horse's stud career. Trainer Horatio Luro originally wanted to geld the colt, but Taylor refused. Sportswriter Jim Murray of the Los Angeles Times wrote: "Northern Dancer is the kind of colt who, if you saw him in your living room, you'd send for a trap and put cheese in it. He's so little, a cat would chase him. But he's so plucky there's barely room in him for his heart. His legs are barely long enough to keep his tail off the ground. He probably takes a hundred more strides than anyone else, but he's harder to pass than a third martini." ## Racing career ### 1963: Two-year-old season On August 2, 1963, Northern Dancer made his debut at Fort Erie Race Track in a maiden race for Canadian foaled two-year-olds over a distance of 5+1⁄2 furlongs. He was ridden by apprentice jockey Ron Turcotte, who was instructed not to use the whip but gave the colt a tap at the sixteenth pole anyway, whereupon Northern Dancer "exploded". He beat seven horses for a purse of \$2,100. Turcotte later recalled, "We won that race by eight lengths. He was a bold horse. Brave. He could handle anything. The grass. The mud. Anything." Wearing blinkers for the first time, Northern Dancer made his next start on August 17 in the Vandal Stakes. Paul Bohenko was his jockey since Turcotte was committed to another horse, Ramblin' Man. Northern Dancer entered into a speed duel at the start of the race, setting up the race for Ramblin' Man to come from behind and win. After the race, Turcotte is quoted as having told Luro, "the Dancer was definitely the best two year old in Canada, maybe in the world." He next entered the Summer Stakes on August 24, then at a distance of 1 mile on the turf at Fort Erie. The track condition was described as 'bog-like', and Northern Dancer is said to have almost fallen. Despite struggling with the ground, he led from the start and hung on for the win. After a brief layoff, Northern Dancer was entered in the 1+1⁄16 mile Cup and Saucer Stakes on September 28 over the Woodbine turf course, where he was assigned the top weight of 124 pounds. Ron Turcotte was back as his jockey and took him to an early lead, but Northern Dancer tired and fell second to long-shot Grand Garcon by three-quarters of a length. Turcotte believed the horse had still not recovered from the effort in the Summer Stakes and was favouring his left foreleg. "He kept wanting to bear left, and I couldn't get him on his right lead at all." On October 7, he returned in the Bloordale Purse at 1 mile and 70 yards where he was again the top weight at 122 pounds. His main rival Northern Flight carried 117 pounds while other horses carried as little as 112 pounds. Northern Dancer broke well but allowed Northern Flight to take a commanding lead. At the halfway mark, Northern Dancer was third on the rail, 15 lengths back, but gradually closed the gap on the far turn. Down the stretch, the two battled for the lead before Northern Dancer pulled away to win by 1+1⁄2 lengths, with the rest of the field some twenty-five plus lengths behind Northern Flight. Five days later, Northern Dancer faced a field of 14 rivals in the Coronation Futurity Stakes, the richest race for Canadian two-year-olds. He settled in fourth at the start, then took over the lead at the halfway point, drawing away to win by 6+1⁄4 lengths. It was Turcotte's last ride on Northern Dancer, as Luro feared he could not maintain sufficient control of the headstrong colt. "God knows how good [Northern Dancer] really was," recalled Turcotte, "for he was never a completely sound horse most of the time I rode him, and I still could not slow him down more than that." On November 6, Northern Dancer followed up with a win in the seven-furlong Carleton Stakes at Greenwood on a muddy track. He won by 2+1⁄2 lengths, but the Daily Racing Form called him an "unwilling winner", reflecting heavy pressure from new jockey Jimmy Fitzsimmons, who used the whip throughout the stretch drive. Northern Dancer came back to the barn bleeding from the beginning of a quarter crack. It was thought that the injury was a result of his heavy race schedule – seven races in three months. Nonetheless, the colt was shipped to Aqueduct Racetrack in New York to compete against American horses. On November 18, he was entered in the Sir Gaylord Purse. He was ridden by Manuel Ycaza, and won by eight lengths over Bupers, who had won the Belmont Futurity. However, the quarter crack became more pronounced, so he was fitted with a bar shoe on his left front hoof to stabilize the foot. On November 27, Northern Dancer was the odds-on favourite in a field of six horses entered in the Remsen Stakes, despite carrying top weight of 124 pounds. Ycaza sent him to the lead early and he won by two lengths in wire-to-wire fashion. His time of 1:353⁄5 for one mile was a new stakes record. Ycaza later recalled him as an "ideal horse for any kind of situation. He would do anything you asked." His record of seven wins from nine starts earned Northern Dancer the Canadian Juvenile Championship. He was rated at 126 pounds in the Canadian Free Handicap for two-year-olds, five pounds above Ramblin Road. In the American Experimental Free Handicap, he was rated at 123 pounds – three pounds below champion Raise a Native. ### 1964: Three-year-old season After the Remsen, Luro gave Northern Dancer some time off to heal and had a vulcanized rubber patch applied to the quarter crack. Northern Dancer recovered quickly and reentered training in January. His first race at three was on February 10, 1964, in a six-furlong prep at Hialeah Park under a new jockey, Bobby Ussery, who was instructed to take it easy and not use the whip. Northern Dancer was bumped at the start and fell to the back of the pack. He recovered and steadily advanced up the rail, only to become trapped behind several horses. He was bumped again and eventually finished third behind Chieftain. Despite the instructions of Luro, Ussury had taken to his whip in the final strides of the race, which led the trainer to publicly criticize the rider. "I believe in being very patient with my horses," said Luro. "I don't want punishment – under no circumstances." On February 24, Northern Dancer and Chieftain again faced each other in a public workout over seven furlongs at Hialeah. Northern Dancer broke slowly but soon took the lead and won by seven lengths in a time of 1:232⁄5. He continued to gallop out past the wire, completing one mile in 1:362⁄5 and nine furlongs in 1:504⁄5. For his next start in the Flamingo Stakes on March 3, Northern Dancer was ridden by Hall of Fame jockey Bill Shoemaker and went off as the even-money favourite in a field of eleven. He settled into second and moved to the lead in the stretch after some gentle urging by Shoemaker, winning by two lengths over Mr. Brick, with Quadrangle a further eight lengths back in third. His time of 1:474⁄5 was the second fastest in the history of the race, behind only Bold Ruler's time of 1:47 flat. Shoemaker was pleased with the performance. "My little horse got a little leg weary in the last sixteenth of a mile," he said, "but that was natural. He wasn't quite so seasoned as some of the other horses." He then entered a seven-furlong allowance race at Gulfstream Park on March 28 as a prep for the Florida Derby. Shoemaker was unable to ride due to a previous commitment, so Ycaza got the ride. Northern Dancer won easily by four lengths, equaling the track record of 1:222⁄5. In the Florida Derby on April 4, Northern Dancer was the 3–10 favourite in a field of eight. With Shoemaker back up, Northern Dancer raced in mid-pack behind a slow pace, then started to make up ground on the rail. Shoemaker waited until the half mile pole then urged the colt on without using the whip. Norther Dancer quickly took the lead at the head of the stretch and then held off a challenge by The Scoundrel, eventually winning by a length. Shoemaker said later that the colt was improving. However, his time was a disappointing 1:504⁄5, the slowest Florida Derby since 1955. Joe Hirsch of the Daily Racing Form commented, "It did not appear that Shoemaker had a lot of horse left at the wire." Luro was satisfied with the performance though, feeling that the slow time of the race was the result of a fast workout a few days earlier in which Northern Dancer had fought restraint by the exercise rider. Shortly after the race, Luro asked Shoemaker to commit to riding Northern Dancer in the Kentucky Derby. But Shoemaker instead chose Hill Rise, who had won the San Felipe Stakes and the Santa Anita Derby in California. Shoemaker had never ridden Hill Rise but campaigned hard to get the mount, believing the colt represented his best chance for a Derby win. Ycaza was also unable to commit to Northern Dancer as another trainer had first call on his services. Ultimately, Luro settled on Bill Hartack, who had ridden Luro's previous Kentucky Derby winner, Decidedly. "I'm not upset about it at all," said Luro. "I guess Shoemaker must not have been impressed with my horse's race Saturday, but I believe it was far from his best effort." With his new jockey, Northern Dancer was made the 1–5 favourite in a field of five in the Blue Grass Stakes at Keeneland on April 23. With Northern Dancer so heavily backed, only win betting was allowed. Northern Dancer rated in second behind a slow early pace until the head of the stretch when he coasted to the lead. Another horse, Allen Adair, made a run down the stretch so Hartack released his grip and Northern Dancer crossed the finish line in front by half a length. He completed the nine furlongs in a time of 1:494⁄5 and galloped out the Derby distance of ten furlongs in 2:03. Hartack was satisfied with the colt's abilities. "He is a small horse," said Hartack, "but he has lots of brawn and lots of guts." #### Bidding for the Triple Crown For the 1964 Kentucky Derby, run at a distance of 1+1⁄4 miles, Northern Dancer drew post position 7 in a field of 12. He was the second betting choice at odds of 7–2 behind Hill Rise at 7–5. In the high pressure environment leading up to the race, Luro kept the press away from the colt, even substituting a stable pony for Northern Dancer during photo sessions. Northern Dancer responded by training eagerly, with a final workout of 1:002⁄5 on April 20. On the day of the race, May 2, Northern Dancer was on edge. As the field reached the track, he "bounced like a rubber ball" and gave a huge buck when the band started to play "My Old Kentucky Home". He settled during the warm up, only to balk when asked to enter the starting gate. After a few tense moments, Northern Dancer relaxed and loaded quietly. After the break, he settled into good position on the rail around the first turn behind the early pacemakers Mr. Brick and Royal. Down the backstretch, Hartack guided him through a narrow hole into the clear and started to make up ground on the leaders. He got the jump on Hill Rise, who became tangled up in traffic as the front-runners started to fade. With a quarter mile to go, Hartack urged his colt on; Northern Dancer responded by running the next furlong in a very fast 11 seconds. He had a lead of about two lengths, but Hill Rise had gotten in the clear and started to make up ground. Author Kevin Chong later wrote of Northern Dancer's "short, powerful legs making like a hummingbird's wings" as he ran down the stretch. Hill Rise closed with giant strides, but Northern Dancer prevailed by a neck in a new race record of two minutes flat that stood until Secretariat broke it in 1973. He became the first Canadian-bred horse to win the Kentucky Derby, making front-page headlines across Canada. Hartack, known for a somewhat adversarial relationship with the press, was full of praise after the race. "[Northern Dancer] is a game, hard trying little horse," he said. "He was always in good position and he ran real strong on the turns. He really did some running from the quarter pole to the eighth pole, and he was running his gamest at the wire." With the Preakness Stakes being run just two weeks later, Luro was concerned that Northern Dancer would find the race more demanding, especially because the track at Pimlico was deep and taxing. Accordingly, he used long gallops of between two and three miles to build up stamina. Then on the Friday before the race, he "blew out" Northern Dancer with a 3-furlong workout in a brisk :353⁄5 to sharpen his speed. For the Preakness on May 16, Northern Dancer went off as the 2–1 second favourite to Hill Rise in a field of six that included the top five finishers from the Derby plus Quadrangle. Northern Dancer settled into third place with Hill Rise tracking just behind. Quadrangle moved to the lead down the backstretch and Northern Dancer started to make his move around the far turn. Hartack had yet to ask Northern Dancer for his run, while the jockeys of both Hill Rise and Quadrangle were working hard to maintain their position. Turning into the stretch, Hartack hit Northern Dancer once and he surged to a commanding lead. Near the finish line, Northern Dancer started to tire but Hartack was not overly worried. "If he was tired, the horses behind us would be even more tired," he explained. Northern Dancer won by two and a half lengths. Hill Rise finished third, caught at the wire by The Scoundrel who claimed second. Northern Dancer celebrated his actual third birthday on May 27 and was presented with a cake of carrots adorned by Canadian flags. He also received hundreds of cards wishing him success in the upcoming Belmont Stakes. Taylor felt that the horse would not mind the distance of 12 furlongs, believing that Hartack would be able to judge the pace and conserve energy. Luro was more worried, believing that Northern Dancer's best distance was between eight and nine furlongs, but hoped the horse's class would be enough to carry him the extra distance. With a Triple Crown at stake, a then-record crowd of 61,215 showed up for the Belmont Stakes on June 6, run that year at Aqueduct due to renovations at Belmont Park. Northern Dancer went off as the 4–5 favourite in a field of eight, with Hill Rise the second choice at 2–1 and Quadrangle at 13–2. With Northern Dancer under a tight hold, he and Hill Rise tracked each other for the first mile behind a slow pace set by outsider Orientalist. Quadrangle was in second, relaxed and saving ground with excellent position on the rail. After a mile in 1:391⁄5, Quadrangle's jockey, Manuel Ycaza, made his move, confident his horse had enough stamina to outlast the others. Hartack on Northern Dancer and Shoemaker on Hill Rise appeared to underestimate Quadrangle and did not at first respond, allowing Quadrangle to build a substantial lead into the stretch. When finally asked to run, Northern Dancer closed the gap to within half a length in midstretch. However, he then tired and was passed by Roman Brother to finish third, some six lengths behind the winner. Bill Shoemaker on Hill Rise, who finished fourth, lodged an objection against Hartack for being squeezed off on the final turn but the stewards disallowed the claim. The time of 2:282⁄5 was just two-fifths of a second off the track record. Hartack said he had been worried about several horses, including Quadrangle, before the race and felt the distance was the decisive factor. Asked if he felt disappointed by the result, he replied, "How can it be a disappointment when a horse runs his heart out for you? He certainly didn't disgrace himself – not to me, anyway." #### Return to Canada In spite of the loss in the Belmont, the mayor of Toronto declared June 8, 1964, to be "Northern Dancer Day", which included a ceremony held at city hall. (The idea of a ticker-tape parade down Bay Street was nixed due to the colt's high-strung temperament.) E. P. Taylor was presented with a key to the city—carved out of a carrot. Taylor presented the key to Northern Dancer when the horse arrived at Woodbine a few days later; the colt promptly ate it. On June 25, Northern Dancer was the heavy betting favourite in the Queen's Plate at odds of 1–7 in a field of eight. He raced from well off the pace, trailing the field around the first turn and still in sixth down the backstretch. Hartack relaxed his hold entering the far turn, and Northern Dancer "zoomed" past the early leaders, then drew off to win by 7+1⁄2 lengths. Hartack never needed the whip. Northern Dancer completed the race in 2:021⁄5, which, although more than two seconds off his time in the Kentucky Derby, was just one-fifth of a second off the race record set by Victoria Park in 1960. "My main concern was with the first turn," said Luro after the race. "You see, we were in the No. 1 post position, and it could have been tough to get around other horses at the turn." Accordingly, Hartack had restrained Northern Dancer at the start to avoid traffic problems. However, the colt's poor position made Hartack move sooner than he would have preferred. Despite the easy win, Hartack felt the colt had been somewhat "dull", and possibly unsound. Northern Dancer remains the only Kentucky Derby winner to also take the Queen's Plate. #### Aftermath Northern Dancer pulled up lame after a workout at Belmont in July. According to Luro, Northern Dancer had run with a splint on the inside of his left front leg since age two but had never before shown visible evidence of injury. The earlier symptoms of lameness noticed by Turcotte and Hartack had only manifested at full racing speed. Assistant trainer Norman Bowles later said the horse "would probably run through anything – he was a tough little man – and you never can tell when one of those things may start stinging. This time, he had developed a bowed tendon. It did not respond to treatment, and this ended his racing career. Northern Dancer was named the Champion Three-Year-Old Colt of 1964 in the United States. He was also named the three-year-old champion in Canada and Canadian Horse of the Year. In addition, he was named Canadian Athlete of the Year. He was the high weight at 128 pounds on the Daily Racing Form'''s American Free Handicap for three-year-olds, one pound above both Roman Brother and Quadrangle. He was also the high weight at 132 pounds on the Canadian Free Handicap, 12 pounds more than Langcrest. In his two-year racing career, Northern Dancer won 14 of his 18 starts and never finished worse than third. His earnings totaled \$580,000, then a record for a Canadian-bred horse. In The Blood-Horse listing of the top 100 American Thoroughbred racehorses of the 20th century, he was ranked number 43. ## Statistics An asterisk after the odds means Northern Dancer was the post-time favourite. ## Breeding career Northern Dancer retired to stud in 1965 at Taylor's Windfields Farm in Oshawa, Ontario, for an initial fee of \$10,000. Due to his small size, a ramp was built in the breeding shed to allow Northern Dancer to service mares who were taller than him. He was bred to 35 mares, with 21 live foals being produced in 1966. The first crop reached racing age in 1968 and was an immediate success, including Viceregal, who was named Canadian Horse of the Year. Nine others also became stakes winners, an "astounding" 47.6% of the crop. "His first foals ran so well," said Ed Bowen, former editor of The Blood-Horse. "Northern Dancer had that aura about him right away." Although his second crop produced only four stakes winners, it played a crucial role in his developing reputation. His leading performer was Nijinsky, who was purchased by Irish trainer Vincent O'Brien at the Canadian yearling sale for \$84,000. Nijinsky went on to win the 1970 English Triple Crown, the first horse to do so since 1935. Nijinsky was named Horse of the Year in England and Ireland. Meanwhile, Fanfreluche was named Canadian Horse of the Year and co-champion three year-old-filly in both Canada and the United States. As the result of his success, Northern Dancer was relocated to the Maryland division of Windfields Farm in December 1968 and was syndicated in August 1970 for \$2.4 million. Taylor retained several shares in the stallion, while other members included Claiborne Farm, Allaire du Pont, Greentree Stud, J. Louis Levesque, Paul Mellon, Spendthrift Farm, Tartan Farm and Alfred G. Vanderbilt. Each share in the syndicate provided an annual breeding right to Northern Dancer, and relatively few other breeding rights were publicly available. As a result of the scarcity of his services and his continued success, Northern Dancer's stud fee rose, slowly at first: from \$10,000 (live foal) in 1965, to \$15,000 (live foal) in 1969, to \$25,000 (live foal) in 1971 to \$35,000 (\$10,000 of which was non-refundable) in 1975 to \$50,000 (no guarantee) in 1978. His published fee, with no guarantee that a live foal would result, then started a rapid increase: \$100,000 in 1980, \$150,000 in 1981, \$250,000 in 1982, \$300,000 in 1983 and \$500,000 in 1984. For his final years at stud (1985–1987), his breeding rights were privately negotiated, with one season selling at auction for \$1 million, an amount four to five times that of his closest rivals. By contrast, the highest North American stud fee in 2016 was \$300,000 for Tapit. Northern Dancer was one of the 20th century's most successful Thoroughbred sires. From 645 named foals, he sired 411 winners (63.7%) and 147 stakes winners (22.8%). The 147 stakes winners was then a record. He was the 1971 leading sire in North America and also in 1977 when international earnings are included. His progeny were highly sought in Europe, and he became the leading sire in Great Britain and Ireland in 1970, 1978, 1983, and 1984. Most of his progeny resembled him in size and shape: Nijinsky, who stood over , proved the exception. They were also generally known for their balance and acceleration. When Northern Dancer was 20 years old (an advanced age for a stallion), his owners turned down an offer of US\$40 million from a European syndicate for him. Northern Dancer's entry into stud service was ranked number 28 in "Horse Racing's Top 100 Moments", a 2006 review of American racing in the 20th century by The Blood-Horse magazine. ### Notable progeny Northern Dancer's major stakes winners include: c = colt, f = filly, g = gelding ### Sales records Former Keeneland chairman Ted Bassett wrote in his autobiography that between 1974 and 1988, the sons and daughters of Northern Dancer fetched the highest prices of all sires at the yearling sales 12 times, "and that constitutes a record that may last forever." Northern Dancer's yearlings also led the Keeneland July Selected Yearling Sale by average price 12 times in the same period. In 1984, 12 yearlings by Northern Dancer sold for an unrivaled sale-record average price of US\$3,446,666 (about \$ million adjusted for inflation). Combined over a period of 22 years, the top 174 Northern Dancer offspring at the Keeneland Sales sold for a total \$160 million. The bidding duels between John Magnier and Robert Sangster of Coolmore Stud and Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum of Darley Stud helped drive up the prices as both sought future breeding prospects. Three of the most expensive colts ever sold at public auction were sired by Northern Dancer: Snaafi Dancer, who became the first \$10-million yearling when sold to Sheikh Mohammed for \$10.2 million in 1983; a colt out of Ballade later named Imperial Falcon, who sold for \$8.25 million to Sangster in 1984; and a colt out of Fabuleux Jane later named Jareer, who sold for \$7.1 million to Darley Stud. Although none of these three colts was a major winner on the racetrack, the success of other high-priced yearlings like Shareef Dancer (auctioned for \$3.3 million), Nureyev (auctioned for \$1.3 million) and Lomond (privately sold for 1.5 million) kept demand high. ## End of life and burial Northern Dancer was retired from stud on April 15, 1987, having started to experience heart problems and arthritis. He was pensioned at Windfields Farm in Maryland and when the farm was subsequently sold, a special clause was written to guarantee his lifelong right to live there. On November 15, 1990, at the age of 29, he suffered a severe colic, possibly complicated by a strangulation of his small intestine. Due to his advanced age, it was felt that Northern Dancer would be unable to survive surgery so he was euthanized on November 16. He was loaded in a specially built oak coffin and then wrapped in a blanket he had won during his racing career. That same day, his remains were brought back to Canada in a refrigerated van for burial at Windfields Farm in Oshawa, Ontario. Windfields Farm was subsequently sold to the University of Ontario, and Northern Dancer's burial site was not publicly accessible for many years, at one point becoming covered in weeds. On April 16, 2018, the grave became an official heritage site under the Ontario Heritage Act, with funds presented by the City of Oshawa to landscape the surrounding area. ## Legacy and honors In 1964, Northern Dancer was the American Champion Three-Year-Old Male Horse and the Canadian Horse of the Year. In 1965, he became the first horse voted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame. In 1976, Northern Dancer was an inaugural inductee to the new Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame and was also inducted into the United States Horse Racing Hall of Fame. In 1977, Northern Dancer won three world sires' premiership titles for the number of international stakes winners, international stakes wins, and total stake earnings of his progeny. Northern Dancer was inducted into the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame in 1998. In 1999, Canada Post honoured the horse with his image placed on a postage stamp. A residential street was named after Northern Dancer on the former site of the Greenwood Race Track in east-end Toronto. Also, a life-sized bronze statue of the horse was placed outside Woodbine Racetrack. Over the decades, a number of books have been written about Northern Dancer. In 1995, Muriel Lennox, who had worked for Taylor, published Northern Dancer: The Legend and His Legacy. In 2003, Avalyn Hunter's book American Classic Pedigrees (1914–2002), extensively covered the influence of Northern Dancer on North America classic winners around the end of the 20th century. Her later book, The Kingmaker: How Northern Dancer Founded a Racing Dynasty covers Northern Dancer's international legacy. In 2015, Kevin Chong wrote Northern Dancer: The Legendary Horse That Inspired A Nation. In 2011, the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame held an induction ceremony that included a 50th-anniversary tribute for Northern Dancer. Saxophone instrumentalist Matthew James performed his tribute song, entitled "Northern Dancer". In 2012, Breyer Animal Creations released a portrait model of Northern Dancer sculpted by Jeanne Mellin Herrick. In 2014, the Canadian Film Centre unveiled the Northern Dancer Pavilion on its Windfields Farms heritage campus. In 2018, the city of Oshawa announced that a new elementary school, located near what used to be Windfields Farm at the corner of Northern Dancer Drive and Bridle Road, would be named after the horse. Northern Dancer's Kentucky Derby trophy is on permanent exhibit at the Canadian Museum of History in Gatineau, Québec. ### Sire of sires In 1990, The New York Times called Northern Dancer "the dominant progenitor of his breed" because his own success at stud was amplified by the impact of his sons around the world. His leading sire sons included: - Be My Guest – leading sire in Great Britain and Ireland (1982) - Danzig – leading sire in North America (1991–1993). also a sire of sires, including Danehill, leading sire in both Europe and Australia and Green Desert, whose sire son's include Invincible Spirit, Oasis Dream and Cape Cross - Dixieland Band – sire of 117 stakes winners and damsire of two Kentucky Derby winners (Monarchos and Street Sense) - El Gran Senor – sire of 55 stakes winners, also an important broodmare sire - Fairy King – leading sire in France 1986. also a sire of sires, including Encosta de Lago in Australia - Lyphard – led the French sire list in 1978 and 1979, American sire list in 1986, also an outstanding broodmare sire - Nijinsky – led the English sire list in 1986, when he placed second in North America as well. leading American broodmare sire in 1993 and 1994. sire of sires including Caerleon - Northern Taste – ten-time leading sire in Japan, also a leading broodmare sire - Nureyev – led the French sire list in 1987, also a leading broodmare sire - Sadler's Wells – leading sire in Great Britain and Ireland a record fourteen times. sire of 12 English Classics winners. also a sire of sires, including Galileo. - Storm Bird – sire of 62 stakes winners, including leading American sire Storm Cat - Vice Regent – led the Canadian sire list thirteen times. sire of leading American sire Deputy Minister Northern Dancer's impact continues well into the 21st century. In North America, 2018 Triple Crown winner Justify has multiple crosses to Northern Dancer, in the direct male line through Storm Cat, and also through Nijinsky and Vice Regent. American Pharoah, winner of the 2015 Triple Crown is 5 × 5 inbred to Northern Dancer, through Storm Bird and El Gran Senor. California Chrome, winner of the 2014 Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes, is inbred 4 × 5 to Northern Dancer on his dam's side. Northern Dancer appears at least once in the pedigree of every contestant in the 2018 Kentucky Derby. More Northern Dancer-descended horses are Breeders' Cup winners than from any other horse. According to pedigree consultant John Sparkman, 35 to 40 percent of American graded stakes winners of 2013 were male line descendants of Northern Dancer. In Europe and Australia, the percentage is well over 60 per cent. In Europe, Northern Dancer's bloodline is pervasive. Northern Dancer was a four-time Leading sire in Great Britain and Ireland, a feat achieved one time each by his sons Be My Guest and Nijinsky, 14 times by his son Sadler's Wells, two times by his grandson Caerleon, three times by his grandson Danehill, and twelve times (as of 2021) by his grandson Galileo – a total of 36 champion sire titles in just the direct Northern Dancer to grandson bloodline. Adding his great-grandsons Danehill Dancer, who was the leading sire in 2009, and Frankel (2021) the Northern Dancer sire line accounted for every champion sire title in Great Britain and Ireland from 1990 to 2021 inclusive. He is the paternal grand-sire of a record 29 different English Classic winners — the next closest in this regard is St. Simon with 23. As for the Epsom Derby, a 2011 study showed that every winner since 1998 had Northern Dancer in his pedigree. The Northern Dancer sire line has accounted for 28 Derby winners as of 2019. Galileo, High Chaparral, Motivator, New Approach, Sea the Stars, Camelot, Australia, and Golden Horn are included in this number. ### Inbreeding Because of the prevalence of Northern Dancer's bloodline, a certain degree of inbreeding to him is becoming common. Whenever this happens, there is a concern that the inbreeding will weaken the breed, making horses more prone to injury and potentially leading to inbreeding depression. Statistical studies have shown that inbreeding has increased by a small but significant amount in the last 50 years, partly because of the larger number of foals that a successful stallion will now sire each year compared to in the past. For example, Northern Dancer sired 645 foals in 20 years at stud, whereas his grandson Danehill sired 2,499 foals in 14 years at stud. Statistical analysis has shown that inbreeding to Northern Dancer is on average slightly less'' effective than when stallions of his line are bred to mares who do not have Northern Dancer in their pedigree (referred to as an outcross). However, many successful stallions are inbred, in part because this can make it easier to pass on dominant characteristics. Notable sires that are inbred to Northern Dancer (within four generations) include Oasis Dream, Rock of Gibraltar, Hernando, Spinning World, Redoute's Choice, and Frankel. Northern Dancer lines were originally outcrossed on descendants of Mr. Prospector or Nasrullah, but this became so common that it is increasingly difficult to find horses from these lines who do not also carry Northern Dancer breeding. Outcross bloodlines can still be found, most notably through Sunday Silence and the German-bred stallion Monsun. In North America, Northern Dancer is farther back in the pedigree of most major sires, decreasing the risks associated with inbreeding. For example, Tapit, the leading sire in North America from 2014–2016, is inbred 3 × 5 to Nijinsky II (thus 4 × 6 to Northern Dancer). He has crossed well with mares from other Northern Dancer lines. ## Pedigree Northern Dancer was by Nearctic, who in turn was sired by Nearco, an Italian-bred horse who was undefeated in fourteen starts. Retired to stud in England, Nearco was considered a "breed-shaping" sire of sires. In 1952, Taylor attended the Newmarket December sale in England, where he purchased Lady Angela, a daughter of leading sire Hyperion. In 1953, Taylor had Lady Angela bred to Nearco before shipping her to Canada, where she foaled Nearctic in early 1954. Nearctic was Canadian Horse of the Year in 1958, a feat that Northern Dancer matched in 1964. Northern Dancer's broodmare sire (maternal grandsire) was Native Dancer, who also was an important sire of sires, chiefly through Raise A Native and Mr. Prospector. Northern Dancer was thus an immediate descendant of three of the most important bloodlines of the middle twentieth century (Nearco, Hyperion and Native Dancer). His female family is equally distinguished, if not as well-known. Northern Dancer's dam Natalma was a stakes-placed mare who was disqualified from a win in the Spinaway Stakes. She developed a knee chip in June 1960 and Taylor decided to breed her to Nearctic in his first year at stud rather than keep her in training. Northern Dancer, a late foal on May 27, 1961, was the result. Natalma established herself as a "blue hen", producing not only Northern Dancer but three other stakes winners. Her daughters have further extended the family: Arctic Dancer, a full sister of Northern Dancer, became the dam of La Prevoyante, 1972 Canadian Horse of the Year; Spring Adieu became the second dam of leading international sire Danehill (who is inbred to Natalma as he is also a grandson of Northern Dancer); and Raise the Standard is the granddam of important European sire Machiavellian. Natalma's dam Almahmoud produced several other influential daughters including Cosmah, who produced four stakes winners including Tosmah (three-time American champion filly) and Halo, who would go on to sire Sunday Silence. Another daughter of Almahmoud, Bubbling Beauty, produced Arctic Tern, the French champion sire of 1986. ## See also - List of historical horses
5,218,056	Serbian State Guard	1,145,154,956	Paramilitary unit	[ "1942 establishments in Yugoslavia", "Anti-communist organizations", "Collaboration with Nazi Germany", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1945", "Military units and formations established in 1942", "Serbia under German occupation", "The Holocaust in Yugoslavia" ]	The Serbian State Guard (Serbian: Srpska državna straža, SDS; Serbian Cyrillic: Српска државна стража; German: Serbische Staatsgarde/Serbische Staatswache) was a collaborationist paramilitary force used to impose law and order within the German occupied territory of Serbia during World War II. It was formed from two former Yugoslav gendarmerie regiments, was created with the approval of the German military authorities, and for a long period was controlled by the Higher SS and Police Leader in the occupied territory. It was also known as the Nedićevci (Недићевци, lit. 'Nedić's men') after the leader of the German-installed Serbian puppet government, General Milan Nedić, who eventually gained control of its operations. It assisted the Germans in imposing one of the most brutal occupation regimes in occupied Europe and helped guard and execute prisoners at the Banjica concentration camp in Belgrade. Its leaders and much of the rank and file were sympathetic to the Chetnik movement of Draža Mihailović, and it was purged by the Germans on several occasions for that reason. In October 1944, as the Soviet Red Army closed on Belgrade, the SDS was transferred to Mihailović's control by a member of the fleeing Nedić administration, but it quickly disintegrated during its withdrawal west, with only a small number of former SDS members being captured by the British near the Italian-Yugoslav border in May 1945. ## History ### Background Following the Axis invasion, occupation and dismantling of Yugoslavia in April 1941, the Wehrmacht established the German occupied territory of Serbia under a military government of occupation. The territory included most of Serbia proper, with the addition of the northern part of Kosovo (around Kosovska Mitrovica), and the Banat. It was the only area of the partitioned Kingdom of Yugoslavia in which the German occupants established a military government, to exploit the key rail and riverine transport routes that passed through it, and its valuable resources, particularly non-ferrous metals. The Military Commander in Serbia appointed Serbian puppet governments to "carry on administrative chores under German direction and supervision". On 29 August 1941, the Germans appointed the Government of National Salvation (Влада народног спаса / Vlada narodnog spasa) under General Milan Nedić, to replace the short-lived Commissioner Administration. ### Formation The Serbian State Guard (or SDS) was established by Nedić on the basis of an understanding he reached with the German Military Commander in Serbia, General der Artillerie (Lieutenant General) Paul Bader, and the Higher SS and Police Leader in Serbia, SS-Obergruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Polizei (SS-General of Police) August Meyszner, regarding the maintenance of law and order in the occupied territory. It was formed on 10 February 1942 from two former Yugoslav gendarmerie regiments, Drinski and Dunavski, but the law formally creating the force was not issued by Nedić until 2 March 1942. The SDS took over the role and functions of the gendarmerie, and was initially commanded by Stevan Radovanović. Sources vary on the strength of the SDS. The Germans initially set a maximum strength of 17,000, but the SDS quickly reached a strength of 18,500. Initially the SDS included four groups, the Rural Police (poljska straža), the Municipal Police (gradska straža), the Frontier (or Border) Guard (granična straža), and the Village Guard (seljačka straža). The SDS was equipped using arms and ammunition captured by the Germans from throughout Europe, and was organised as a largely static force split across five regions (oblasts): Belgrade, Kraljevo, Niš, Valjevo and Zaječar, with one battalion per region. Each region was further divided into three districts (okrugs), each of which included one or more SDS companies. A branch of the SDS was created specifically for service in the Banat, and was known as the Banat State Guard. It was formed from the region's German minority (or Volksdeutsche), and in March 1942 numbered less than one thousand. Nedić intended that the SDS would not only maintain law and order and guard the borders, but also monitor the people's requirements and offer assistance and protection in areas such as "health care, cultural, educational and economic life". The SDS was royalist and was rapidly infiltrated by Chetniks loyal to Draža Mihailović. It also lacked sufficient officers, and although it had some initial successes, it never developed into an effective military force. Meyszner took overall control of the SDS three days after its formation, a decision which was strongly opposed by Nedić. ### Operations Along with other collaborationist military and paramilitary units, the SDS was used against the Partisans operating within the occupied territory. In late 1941, prior to the formation of the SDS, the Serbian gendarmerie had participated in the German-led Operation Uzice, which drove the Partisans and Chetniks from the Užice area. The SDS routinely executed captured Partisans, and frequently took and murdered hostages in towns and villages. The SDS also included former members of the gendarmerie that had assisted German troops to round up hostages to be shot at both Kraljevo and Kragujevac in October 1941. In July 1941, the Banjica concentration camp had been established in the suburbs of Belgrade. It was initially guarded by both the Gestapo and the SDS, but sole responsibility was eventually transferred to the SDS, who behaved sadistically and violently towards the inmates. Survivors of the camp stated that executions at the camp were carried out by both the Belgrade Special Police and the SDS, and that those executed included children. A total of 3,849 people were killed at the camp before it was closed on 3 October 1944. The SDS became increasingly unpopular with the population as time went on. Despite their limited independence, the SDS actively engaged in dehumanising Jews, Roma and communist Serbs, and in killing people from those groups or delivering them to the Germans for execution. They engaged in the execution of hostages both under Gestapo or Wehrmacht control and at their own initiative. The SDS clashed with other collaborationist formations at times, specifically Dimitrije Ljotić's Serbian Volunteer Corps (Srpski dobrovoljački korpus or SDK), and the Pećanac Chetniks loyal to vojvoda Kosta Pećanac. In March 1942, Nedić suggested to the Germans that the SDK and Pećanac Chetniks be incorporated into the SDS and that he take control of the force, but this idea was firmly rejected. In mid-1942, Meyszner appointed Dragomir Jovanović, the German-approved mayor and chief of police of Belgrade, as chief of Serbian State Security, which included responsibility for the SDS. The Germans considered that Radovanović was a Mihailović sympathiser, so in June 1942 he was replaced by Colonel Borivoje Jonić, the brother of Nedić's minister of education, Velibor Jonić. In July 1942 the SDS consisted of 15,000–20,000 men. In August and September 1942, Nedić again tried to have the SDS placed under his command, and the German refusal to do so contributed to him tendering his resignation. Nedić had threatened to resign several times previously for similar reasons, but on this occasion the Germans took it more seriously and offered him an audience with Adolf Hitler. On that basis, Nedić remained at his post. In October 1942, the Border Guard was transferred to the Ministry of Finance. Also in 1942, the Gestapo arrested some SDS officers suspected of having links with Mihailović, and by the end of 1942 the Germans had purged the SDS in an attempt to eliminate those who sympathised with Mihailović. One of the senior SDS officers arrested by the Gestapo during the purge was Lieutenant Colonel Milan Kalabić, the prefect of Požarevac, and father of one of Mihailović's unit commanders, Nikola Kalabić. The elder Kalabić had been passing information, arms and ammunition to Mihailović's Chetniks. In October 1942, Milan Kalabić was executed by the Germans along with other Chetnik commanders and men. By 1943, most of the rank and file of the SDS was sympathetic to Mihailović's Chetniks, and SDS units were regularly being "disarmed" by them, sometimes even staging mock battles to disguise transfers of much needed weapons and ammunition to Mihailović's forces. Jovanović himself provided financial assistance to Mihailović from his own discretionary funds. In April 1943, units of the SDS were praised by German commanders for their fighting against the Partisans near Bijeljina in eastern Bosnia. In June 1943, the Germans rounded up and executed 1,139 Serb civilians under suspicion that they had been collaborating with the resurgent Partisans. The SDS were involved in these crimes, and throughout 1943 were actively involved in committing atrocities against Serbian civilians. After many delays, on 18 September 1943 Nedić met with Hitler in Berlin and was promised that he would be given command of the SDS and the SDK. Upon his return to Belgrade, Nedić called upon the Military Commander in Serbia, General der Infanterie Hans Felber, to make arrangements for the transfer of command, but Felber advised him that he had received no orders to do so. It was not until 2 November 1943 that Nedić was finally given command of both the SDS and SDK. In late 1943 the SDS reached its maximum strength of 36,716 men. By February 1944, the SDS leadership were avoiding any direct confrontations with Mihailović's Chetniks. In the spring and summer of 1944, the SDS had declined to a strength of around 24,000–25,000 men. With the return of the Partisans to Serbia proper, the SDS began to incur serious casualties. For example, between 15 March and 15 August 1944, the SDS lost 157 men killed, 107 wounded and 26 missing. During 1944, SDS started heavy repression in area around Leskovac, because of region's overwhelming support for Yugoslav Partisans. Repression always included beatings and arrests in pro-Partisan villages, and in around half of the villages, Partisan supporters were executed and their houses were burnt down. By August 1944, SDS units were responding to Mihailović's call for a general mobilisation by defecting openly to his Chetniks. ### Withdrawal and capture Three days after the fall of the Nedić regime on 6 October 1944, Felber transferred the command of the SDS to General Miodrag Damjanović, the head of Nedić's secretariat and a principal confidant of Mihailović within Nedić's administration. Damjanović immediately placed himself and the remaining 6,500 troops of the SDS under Mihailović's command. The SDS was then renamed the "Serbian Shock Corps (Srpski udarni korpus or SUK) of the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland" once again under the command of Radovanović and it joined the withdrawal of other Chetnik formations towards the Sandžak region then into northeastern Bosnia. This arrangement resulted in a difficult and uneasy alliance which began to disintegrate under the pressures of the withdrawal. SUK, alongside Chetniks and Muslim Militia, troops helped Germans take better positions in Sandžak, as they helped them take important towns from the Partisans in October 1944, allowing Army Group E to make retreat to Bosnia. This collaboration is more shameful, considering that German forces committed atrocities against civilian population during this retreat, an example of which is a massacre of 30 civilians in Zalug near Prijepolje. In the last days of December 1944, the SUK participated, along with other Chetnik formations, in an unsuccessful attempt to capture the Partisan-held city of Tuzla in northeastern Bosnia. This failure and mutual recriminations between Mihailović's Chetniks and the SUK resulted in the effective disintegration of the SUK. By mid-January 1945, 5,000 former SDS members had rejoined the Germans, with some returning to Serbia to take advantage of Josip Broz Tito's amnesty. Most were transported to Austria where they were used in labour battalions under the direction of Organisation Todt, but about 1,500 were allowed to move to the Ljubljana Gap area, where they could join other collaborationist forces, such as the SDK or the Chetnik formations of Momčilo Đujić or Dobroslav Jevđević. Mihailović was not concerned about their departure, describing the former SDS troops as the "worst troops in the world". The remnants of the SDS/SUK and Mihailović's Chetniks remained under the overall command of Damjanović as part of the Chetnik Šumadija Division. These Chetniks had been under the command of the SS since 12 December 1944. They crossed the river Soča and surrendered to the British Army near the Italian-Yugoslav border on 5 May 1945. Fortunately for them, they were interned as prisoners of war and other than a few senior officers, were not repatriated to Yugoslavia to face trial. ## Uniform and journal The SDS wore either the 1940 pattern olive green uniform of the Royal Yugoslav Army, or the earlier Kingdom of Serbia pattern which was a green-grey in the case of officers, and a greyish-ochre colour for enlisted ranks. These were obtained from stores secured during the invasion. The Review of the Serbian State Guard (Glasnik Srpske Državne Straže) was the official gazette of the SDS, published from 1942 to the end of 1943. The journal was edited by Jonić, and contributors included Nedić and Milan Aćimović. ## Ranks ### Enlisted and NCOs - Enlisted Guard (Stražar pripravnik) - Guard (Stražar) - Corporal (Kaplar) - Sergeant (Podnarednik) - Staff Sergeant (Narednik) - Sergeant Major (Narednik vodnik) ### Officers - 2nd Lieutenant (Potporučnik) - 1st Lieutenant (Poručnik) - Captain (Kapetan) - Major (Major) - Lieutenant Colonel (Potpukovnik) - Colonel (Pukovnik) - Brigadier General (Brigadni Đeneral)
58,526,001	German torpedo boat T20	1,122,094,768	German torpedo boat	[ "1940 ships", "Type 37 torpedo boats" ]	The German torpedo boat T20 was one of nine Type 37 torpedo boats built for the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) during World War II. Completed in mid-1942, she was transferred to Norway in March 1943 for escort duties. The ship returned to Germany in October and was assigned to the Torpedo School. T20 returned to active duty a year later and supported German forces operating in the Baltic Sea. She was then assigned escort duties in the Skagerrak around the beginning of 1945, which included covering minelaying missions. The ship was allocated to the British after the war, but she was transferred to France in 1946. Unused by the French Navy, she was stricken from the Navy List in 1951 and subsequently scrapped. ## Design and description The Type 37 torpedo boat was a slightly improved version of the preceding Type 35 with better range. The boats had an overall length of 85.2 meters (279 ft 6 in) and were 82 meters (269 ft) long at the waterline. The ships had a beam of 8.87 meters (29 ft 1 in), and a mean draft of 2.8 meters (9 ft 2 in) at deep load. They displaced 888 metric tons (874 long tons) at standard load and 1,139 metric tons (1,121 long tons) at deep load. Their crew numbered 119 officers and sailors. Their pair of geared steam turbine sets, each driving one propeller shaft, were designed to produce 31,000 shaft horsepower (23,000 kW) using steam from four high-pressure water-tube boilers which was intended to give the boats a maximum speed of 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph). They carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 1,600 nautical miles (3,000 km; 1,800 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). As built, the Type 37s mounted a single 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK C/32 gun on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a single 3.7 cm (1.5 in) SK C/30 anti-aircraft gun superfiring over the 10.5 cm gun and a pair of 2 cm (0.8 in) C/30 guns on the bridge wings. They carried six above-water 533 mm (21 in) torpedo tubes in two triple mounts amidships and could also carry 30 mines (or 60 if the weather was good). ### Modifications Early-war modifications were limited to the conversion of the foremast into a tripod mast, installation of a FuMO 28 radar with fixed antennas angled 45° to each side. Quadruple 2 cm gun mounts began slowly replacing the 3.7 cm gun beginning in May 1942 as the ships were refitted. In September, installation of a single 3.7 cm gun was ordered, either the Flak M42 or the Flak M43, in lieu of the aft torpedo tubes, in all surviving boats, but it is also uncertain if this was done. By war's end, T20 was armed with the 10.5 cm gun, two 3.7 cm guns, one quadruple 2 cm mount and two pairs of 2 cm twin-gun mounts, one pair in the bridge wings and the other on platforms abaft the funnel. She still retained all of her torpedo tubes and had received twenty-one 8.6-centimeter (3.4 in) RAG anti-aircraft rocket launchers. ## Construction and career T20 was ordered on 5 October 1938 from Schichau, laid down at their Elbing, East Prussia, shipyard on 28 November 1939 as yard number 1447, launched on 12 September 1940 and commissioned on 5 June 1942; construction was delayed by shortages of skilled labor and of raw materials. On 1–3 October, the ship conducted exercises in the Baltic with the battleship Scharnhorst, the light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg, the destroyers Z25, Z31 and Z37, her sisters T16, T17, T21 and the torpedo boats T22, Falke and Kondor. On 7 March 1943, T20, T16, T21 and the torpedo boats Greif and Jaguar, joined the escorts for Scharnhorst on her voyage to the Arctic in the Skagerrak, although bad weather forced them to put into Bergen, Norway. T20 and T21 were part of the escort force for the battleships Tirpitz and Scharnhorst and the heavy cruiser Lützow as they sailed from Narvik, Norway, to the Altafjord on 22–24 March. The ship returned to Germany in October and was assigned to the Torpedo School until March 1944 when she began a refit that lasted until August. Reassigned to the 3rd Torpedo Boat Flotilla, T20 and her sisters T13 and T18 sortied into the Archipelago Sea as a show of force on 12–13 September after the Prime Minister of Finland, Antti Hackzell, broke off diplomatic relations with Germany and ordered German forces to leave Finland on 2 September. On the return voyage, T18 was sunk by Soviet aircraft. On 23 September, T20, T13, T17 and T19 escorted the last evacuation convoy from Tallinn, Estonia, to Germany. During 10–12 and 13–15 October, the 3rd Torpedo Boat Flotilla, with T20, T13, T16 and T21, screened Lützow and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen as they bombarded advancing Soviet troops near Memel. Afterwards, the 3rd Flotilla was transferred to the Skagerrak for convoy escort duties. The ship helped to escort a minelaying mission in the North Sea on 13–14 January 1945. Together with T17 and T19, T20 escorted another minelaying mission there on 17–18 March. The torpedo boat was allocated to the British when the Allies divided the surviving ships of the Kriegsmarine amongst themselves in late 1945. The Royal Navy had no interest in her and she was transferred to France in February 1946 and was renamed Baccarat on 4 February. The ship was immediately placed in reserve until she was stricken on 8 October 1951 and subsequently scrapped.
16,815	Kraków	1,172,858,593	City in Poland	[ "Cities and towns in Lesser Poland Voivodeship", "City counties of Poland", "Former capitals of Poland", "Free City of Kraków", "Historic Jewish communities", "Holocaust locations in Poland", "Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria", "Kraków", "Kraków Voivodeship (14th century – 1795)", "Kraków Voivodeship (1919–1939)", "Magdeburg rights", "Members of the Hanseatic League", "World Heritage Sites in Poland" ]	Kraków (), less often spelled Cracow in English, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 and has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, economic, cultural and artistic life. Cited as one of Europe's most beautiful cities, its Old Town with Wawel Royal Castle was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978, one of the world's first sites granted the status. The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland's second-most-important city. It began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was reported by Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, a 10th-century merchant from Córdoba, as a busy trading centre of Central Europe in 985. With the establishment of new universities and cultural venues at the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918 and throughout the 20th century, Kraków reaffirmed its role as a major national academic and artistic centre. As of 2022, the city has a population of 800,653, with approximately 8 million additional people living within a 100 km (62 mi) radius of its main square. After the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany at the start of World War II, the newly defined Distrikt Krakau (Kraków District) became the capital of Germany's General Government. The Jewish population of the city was forced into a walled zone known as the Kraków Ghetto, from where they were sent to Nazi extermination camps such as the nearby Auschwitz, and Nazi concentration camps like Płaszów. However, the city was spared from destruction and major bombing. In 1978, Karol Wojtyła, archbishop of Kraków, was elevated to the papacy as Pope John Paul II—the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. Also that year, UNESCO approved Kraków's entire Old Town and historic centre and the nearby Wieliczka Salt Mine as Poland's first World Heritage Sites. Kraków is classified as a global city with the ranking of "high sufficiency" by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Its extensive cultural heritage across the epochs of Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture includes Wawel Cathedral and Wawel Royal Castle on the banks of the Vistula, St. Mary's Basilica, Saints Peter and Paul Church and the largest medieval market square in Europe, Rynek Główny. Kraków is home to Jagiellonian University, one of the oldest universities in the world and traditionally Poland's most reputable institution of higher learning. The city also hosts a number of institutions of national significance such as the National Museum, Kraków Opera, Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, National Stary Theatre and the Jagiellonian Library. The city is served by John Paul II International Airport, the country's second busiest airport and the most important international airport for the inhabitants of south-eastern Poland. In 2000, Kraków was named European Capital of Culture. In 2013, Kraków was officially approved as a UNESCO City of Literature. The city hosted World Youth Day in 2016 and the European Games in 2023. ## Etymology The name of Kraków is traditionally derived from Krakus (Krak, Grakch), the legendary founder of Kraków and a ruler of the tribe of Vistulans. In Polish, Kraków is an archaic possessive form of Krak and essentially means "Krak's (town)". The true origin of the name is highly disputed among historians, with many theories in existence and no unanimous consensus. The first recorded mention of Prince Krakus (then written as Grakch) dates back to 1190, although the town existed as early as the seventh century, when it was inhabited by the tribe of Vistulans. It is possible that the name of the city is derived from the word , meaning 'crow' or 'raven'. The city's full official name is Stołeczne Królewskie Miasto Kraków, which can be translated as "Royal Capital City of Kraków". In English, a person born or living in Kraków is a Cracovian (Polish: krakowianin or krakus). Until the 1990s the English version of the name was often written as Cracow, but now the most widespread modern English version is Krakow. ## History Kraków's early history begins with evidence of a Stone Age settlement on the present site of the Wawel Hill. A legend attributes Kraków's founding to the mythical ruler Krakus, who built it above a cave occupied by a dragon, Smok Wawelski. The first written record of the city's name dates back to 965, when Kraków was described as a notable commercial centre controlled first by Moravia (876–879), but captured by a Bohemian duke Boleslaus I in 955. The first acclaimed ruler of Poland, Mieszko I, took Kraków from the Bohemians and incorporated it into the holdings of the Piast dynasty towards the end of his reign. In 1038, Kraków became the seat of the Polish government. By the end of the tenth century, the city was a leading centre of trade. Brick buildings were constructed, including the Royal Wawel Castle with St. Felix and Adaukt Rotunda, Romanesque churches such as St. Andrew's Church, a cathedral, and a basilica. The city was sacked and burned during the Mongol invasion of 1241. It was rebuilt practically identically, based on new location act and incorporated in 1257 by the high duke Bolesław V the Chaste who following the example of Wrocław, introduced city rights modelled on the Magdeburg law allowing for tax benefits and new trade privileges for the citizens. In 1259, the city was again ravaged by the Mongols. A third attack in 1287 was repelled thanks in part to the newly built fortifications. In 1335, King Casimir III the Great (Polish: Kazimierz) declared the two western suburbs to be a new city named after him, Kazimierz (Latin: Casimiria). The defensive walls were erected around the central section of Kazimierz in 1362, and a plot was set aside for the Augustinian order next to Skałka. The city rose to prominence in 1364, when Casimir founded the University of Kraków, the second oldest university in central Europe after the Charles University in Prague. Casimir also began work on a campus for the academy in Kazimierz, but he died in 1370 and the campus was never completed. The city continued to grow under the joint Lithuanian-Polish Jagiellon dynasty. As the capital of the Kingdom of Poland and a member of the Hanseatic League, the city attracted many craftsmen from abroad, businesses, and guilds as science and the arts began to flourish. The royal chancery and the university ensured a first flourishing of Polish literary culture in the city. ### Kraków's "Golden Age" The 15th and 16th centuries were known as Poland's Złoty Wiek or Golden Age. Many works of Polish Renaissance art and architecture were created, including ancient synagogues in Kraków's Jewish quarter located in the north-eastern part of Kazimierz, such as the Old Synagogue. During the reign of Casimir IV, various artists came to work and live in Kraków, and Johann Haller established a printing press in the city after Kasper Straube had printed the Calendarium Cracoviense, the first work printed in Poland, in 1473. In 1520, the most famous church bell in Poland, named Zygmunt after Sigismund I of Poland, was cast by Hans Behem. At that time, Hans Dürer, a younger brother of artist and thinker Albrecht Dürer, was Sigismund's court painter. Hans von Kulmbach made altarpieces for several churches. In 1553, the Kazimierz district council gave the Jewish Qahal (council of a Jewish self-governing community) a licence for the right to build their own interior walls across the western section of the already existing defensive walls. The walls were expanded again in 1608 due to the growth of the community and influx of Jews from Bohemia. In 1572, King Sigismund II, the last of the Jagiellons, died childless. The Polish throne passed to Henry III of France and then to other foreign-based rulers in rapid succession, causing a decline in the city's importance. Furthermore, in 1596, Sigismund III of the House of Vasa moved the administrative capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Kraków to Warsaw. The city was destabilised by pillaging in the 1650s during the Swedish invasion, especially during the 1655 siege. Later in 1707, the city underwent an outbreak of bubonic plague that left 20,000 of the city's residents dead. ### 19th century Already weakened during the 18th century, by the mid-1790s the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had twice been partitioned by its neighbors: Russia, the Habsburg empire and Prussia. In 1791, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II changed the status of Kazimierz as a separate city and made it into a district of Kraków. The richer Jewish families began to move out. However, because of the injunction against travel on the Sabbath, most Jewish families stayed relatively close to the historic synagogues. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated an unsuccessful insurrection in the town's Main Square which, in spite of his victorious Battle of Racławice against a numerically superior Russian army, resulted in the third and final partition of Poland. In 1802, German became the town's official language. Of the members appointed by the Habsburgs to the municipal council only half were Polish. From 1796 to 1809, the population of the city rose from 22.000 to 26.000 with an increasing percentage of nobles and officials. In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte captured former Polish territories from Austria and made the town part of the Duchy of Warsaw. During the time of the Duchy of Warsaw, requirements to upkeep the Polish army followed by tours of Austrian, Polish and Russian troops, plus Russian occupation and a flood in the year 1813 all added up to the adverse development of the city with a high debt burden on public finances and many workshops and trading houses needing to close their activities. Following Napoleon's defeat, the 1815 Congress of Vienna restored the pre-war boundaries but also created the partially independent Free City of Kraków. An insurrection in 1846 failed, resulting in the city being annexed by Austria under the name the Grand Duchy of Kraków (Polish: Wielkie Księstwo Krakowskie, German: Großherzogtum Krakau). This Republic of Kraków (1815–1846) included the towns of Chrzanow, Trzebinia and Nowa Gora and 224 villages. Outside the city, mining and metallurgy started developing. The population of Cracow itself grew in this time from 23.000 to 43.000, the one in the Republic from 88.000 to 103.000. The population of the city had an increasing number of catholic clergy, officials and intelligentsia with which the rich townspeople sympathised. They were opposed to the conservative landed aristocracy who also were drawn more and more to the city real estates even though their income still mainly came from their agricultural possessions in the Republic, the Kingdom of Poland and Galicia. The percentage of the Jewish population in the city also increased in this time from 20.8% to 30.4%. A free trade zone led to positive economic development. But because of the unstable political situation and insecurity about the future, not much of the accumulated wealth was invested. Through the increase of taxes, customs and regulations, prices soared and the city fell into a recession. From 1844 to 1850 the population was diminished by over 4.000 inhabitants. In 1866, Austria granted a degree of autonomy to Galicia after its own defeat in the Austro-Prussian War. Politically freer Kraków became a Polish national symbol and a centre of culture and art, known frequently as the "Polish Athens" (Polskie Ateny). Many leading Polish artists of the period resided in Kraków, among them the seminal painter Jan Matejko, laid to rest at Rakowicki Cemetery, and the founder of modern Polish drama, Stanisław Wyspiański. Fin de siècle Kraków evolved into a modern metropolis; running water and electric streetcars were introduced in 1901, and between 1910 and 1915, Kraków and its surrounding suburban communities were gradually combined into a single administrative unit called Greater Kraków (Wielki Kraków). At the outbreak of World War I on 3 August 1914, Józef Piłsudski formed a small cadre military unit, the First Cadre Company—the predecessor of the Polish Legions—which set out from Kraków to fight for the liberation of Poland. The city was briefly besieged by Russian troops in November 1914. Austrian rule in Kraków ended in 1918 when the Polish Liquidation Committee assumed power. ### 20th century to the present Following the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918, Kraków resumed its role as a major Polish academic and cultural centre, with the establishment of new universities such as the AGH University of Science and Technology and the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, including a number of new and essential vocational schools. The city became an important cultural centre for Polish Jews, including both Zionist and Bundist groups. Kraków was also an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life, with all its manifestations of religious observance - from Orthodox to Hasidic and Reform Judaism - flourishing side by side. Following the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in September 1939, the city of Kraków became part of the General Government, a separate administrative region of the Third Reich. On 26 October 1939, the Nazi régime set up Distrikt Krakau, one of a total of four districts within the General Government. On the same day, the city of Kraków also became the capital of the administration. The General Government was ruled by Governor-General Hans Frank, who was based in the city's Wawel Castle. The Nazis envisioned turning Kraków into a completely Germanised city; after removal of all the Jews and Poles, renaming of locations and streets into the German language, and sponsorship of propaganda trying to portray it as a historically German city. On 28 November 1939 Hans Frank set up Judenräte ('Jewish Councils') to be run by Jewish citizens for the purpose of carrying out orders for the Nazis. These orders included the registration of all Jewish people living in each area, the collection of taxes, and the formation of forced-labour groups. The Polish Home Army maintained a parallel underground administrative system. On the eve of World War II some 56,000 Jews resided in Krakow, almost one-quarter of a total population of about 250,000. By November 1939, the Jewish population of Krakow had grown to approximately 70,000. According to German statistics from 1940, over 200,000 Jews lived within the entire Kraków District, comprising more than 5 percent of the total population in the district. These statistics, however, probably underestimate the situation. In November 1939, during an operation known as "Sonderaktion Krakau", the Germans arrested more than 180 university professors and academics and sent them to the Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps, though the survivors were later released on the request of prominent Italians. Before the formation of ghettos, which began in the Distrikt in December 1939, Jews were encouraged to flee the city. For those who remained the German authorities decided in March 1941 to allocate a then suburban neighborhood, Podgórze District, to become Kraków's ghetto - there many Jews would die of illness or starvation. Initially, most ghettos were open and Jews were allowed to enter and exit freely. However, with time ghettos were generally closed and security became tighter. From autumn 1941, the SS developed the policy of Extermination through labour, which further worsened the already bleak conditions for Jews. The ghetto inhabitants were later murdered or sent to German Extermination camps, including Bełżec and Auschwitz, and to Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp. The largest deportations within the Distrikt occurred from June to September 1942. More specifically, the Kraków ghetto deportation occurred in the first week of June 1942, and in March 1943 the ghetto was definitely liquidated. Roman Polanski, the film director, survived the Kraków ghetto. Oskar Schindler selected employees from the ghetto to work in his enamelware factory Deutsche Emailwaren Fabrik (Emalia for short), saving them from the camps. Similarly, many men capable of physical labor were saved from the deportations to extermination camps and instead sent to labor camps across the General Government. By September 1943, the last of the Jews from the Kraków ghetto had been deported. Although looted by occupational authorities, Kraków remained relatively undamaged at the end of World War II, with most of the city's historical and architectural legacy spared. Soviet forces under the command of Marshal Ivan Konev entered the city on 18 January 1945, and began arresting Poles loyal to the Polish government-in-exile or those who had served in the Home Army. After the war, under the Polish People's Republic (officially declared in 1952), the intellectual and academic community of Kraków came under complete political control. The universities were soon deprived of printing rights and autonomy. The Stalinist government of Poland ordered the construction of the country's largest steel mill in the newly created suburb of Nowa Huta. The creation of the giant Lenin Steelworks (now Sendzimir Steelworks owned by Mittal) sealed Kraków's transformation from a university city into an industrial centre. The new working-class population, drawn by the industrialization of Kraków, contributed to rapid growth. In an effort that spanned two decades, Karol Wojtyła, cardinal archbishop of Kraków from 1964 to 1978, successfully lobbied for permission to build the first churches in the newly-industrial suburbs. In 1978 the Catholic Church elevated Wojtyła to the papacy as John Paul II, the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. In the same year, UNESCO, following the application of local authorities, placed Kraków Old Town on the first-ever list of World Heritage Sites. ## Geography Kraków lies in the southern part of Poland, on the Vistula River, in a valley at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains, 219 m (719 ft) above sea level; halfway between the Jurassic Rock Upland (Polish: Jura Krakowsko-Częstochowska) to the north, and the Tatra Mountains 100 km (62 mi) to the south, constituting the natural border with Slovakia and the Czech Republic; 230 km (143 mi) west from the border with Ukraine. There are five nature reserves in Kraków, with a combined area of ca. 48.6 hectares (120 acres). Due to their ecological value, these areas are legally protected. The western part of the city, along its northern and north-western side, borders an area of international significance known as the Jurassic Bielany-Tyniec refuge. The main motives for the protection of this area include plant and animal wildlife and the area's geomorphological features and landscape. Another part of the city is located within the ecological 'corridor' of the Vistula River valley. This corridor is also assessed as being of international significance as part of the Pan-European ecological network. The city centre is situated on the left (northern) bank of the river. ### Climate Officially, Kraków has a temperate oceanic climate, denoted by Köppen classification as Cfb, best defined as a semicontinental climate. In older reference periods it was classified as a warm summer continental climate (Dfb). By classification of Wincenty Okołowicz, it has a warm temperate climate in the centre of continental Europe with the "fusion" of different features. Due to its geographic location, the city may be under marine influence, sometimes Arctic influence, but without direct influence, giving the city variable meteorological conditions over short spaces of time. Being towards Eastern Europe and a relatively considerable distance from the sea, Krakow has significant temperature differences according to the progress of different air masses, having four defined seasons of the year. Average temperatures in summer range from 18.6 to 20.4 °C (65 to 69 °F) and in winter from −0.6 to 0.8 °C (31 to 33 °F). The average annual temperature is 10.0 °C (50 °F). In summer temperatures often exceed 25 °C (77 °F), even reaching 30 °C (86 °F), while in winter temperatures drop to −5 °C (23 °F) at night and about 0 °C (32 °F) during the day. During very cold nights the temperature can drop to −15 °C (5 °F). The city lies near the Tatra Mountains, there are often occurrences of halny blowing (a foehn wind), causing temperatures to rise rapidly, and even in winter reach up to 20 °C (68 °F). In relation to Warsaw, temperatures are very similar for most of the year, except that in the colder months southern Poland has a larger daily temperature range, more moderate winds, generally more rainy days and with greater chances of clear skies on average, especially in winter. The higher sun angle also allows for a longer growing season. In addition, for older data there was less sun than the capital of the country, about 30 minutes daily per year, but both have small differences in relative humidity and the direction of the winds is northeast. The climate table below presents weather data from 2000 to 2012, although the official Köppen reference period was from 1981 to 2010 (therefore not being technically a climatological normal). According to ongoing measurements, the temperature has increased during these years as compared with the last series. This increase averages about 0.6 °C (1.1 °F) over all months. Warming is most pronounced during the winter months, with an increase of more than 1.0 °C (1.8 °F) in January. ## Cityscape Developed over many centuries, Kraków provides a showcase setting for many historic styles of architecture. As the city expanded, so too did the architectural achievements of its builders. It is for this reason that the variations in style and urban planning are so easily recognisable. Built from its earliest nucleus outward, and having escaped much of the destruction endured by Poland during the 20th-century wars, Kraków's many architectural monuments can typically be seen in historical order by walking from the city centre out, towards its later districts. Kraków is one of the few medieval towns in Poland that does not have a historic Ratusz town hall in its Main Square, because it has not survived the Partitions of Poland. Kraków's historic centre, which includes the Old Town, Kazimierz and the Wawel Castle, was included as the first of its kind on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1978. The Stare Miasto is the most prominent example of an old town in the country. For many centuries Kraków was the royal capital of Poland, until Sigismund III Vasa relocated the court to Warsaw in 1596. The whole district is bisected by the Royal Road, the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland. The Route begins at St. Florian's Church outside the northern flank of the old city-walls in the medieval suburb of Kleparz; passes the Barbican of Kraków (Barbakan) built in 1499, and enters Stare Miasto through the Florian Gate. It leads down Floriańska Street through the Main Square, and up Grodzka to Wawel, the former seat of Polish royalty, overlooking the Vistula river. Old Town attracts visitors from all over the World. Kraków historic centre is one of the 13 places in Poland that are included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The architectural design of the district had survived all cataclysms of the past and retained its original form coming from the medieval times. In addition to the old town, the city's district of Kazimierz is particularly notable for its many renaissance buildings and picturesque streets, as well as the historic Jewish quarter located in the north-eastern part of Kazimierz. Kazimierz was founded in the 14th century to the south-east of the city centre and soon became a wealthy, well-populated area where construction of imposing properties became commonplace. Perhaps the most important feature of medieval Kazimierz was the only major, permanent bridge (Pons Regalis) across the northern arm of the Vistula. This natural barrier used to separate Kazimierz from the Old Town for several centuries, while the bridge connected Kraków to the Wieliczka Salt Mine and the lucrative Hungarian trade route. The last structure at this location (at the end of modern Stradom Street) was dismantled in 1880 when the northern arm of the river was filled in with earth and rock, and subsequently built over. By the 1930s, Kraków had 120 officially registered synagogues and prayer houses that spanned across the old city. Much of Jewish intellectual life had moved to new centres like Podgórze. This, in turn, led to the redevelopment and renovation of much of Kazimierz and the development of new districts in Kraków. Most historic buildings in central Kazimierz today are preserved in their original form. Some old buildings, however, were not repaired after the devastation brought by the Second World War, and have remained empty. Most recent efforts at restoring the historic neighborhoods gained new impetus around 1993. Kazimierz is now a well-visited area, seeing a booming growth in Jewish-themed restaurants, bars, bookstores and souvenir shops. As the city of Kraków began to expand further under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the new architectural styles also developed. Key buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries in Kraków include the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, the directorate of the Polish State Railways as well as the original complex of Kraków Główny railway station and the city's Academy of Economics. It was also at around that time that Kraków's first radial boulevards began to appear, with the city undergoing a large-scale program aimed at transforming the ancient Polish capital into a sophisticated regional centre of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. New representative government buildings and multi-story tenement houses were built at around that time. Much of the urban-planning beyond the walls of the Old Town was done by Polish architects and engineers trained in Vienna. Some major projects of the era include the development of the Jagiellonian University's new premises and the building of the Collegium Novum just west of the Old Town. The imperial style planning of the city's further development continued until the return of Poland's independence, following the First World War. Early modernist style in Kraków is represented by such masterpieces as the Palace of Art by Franciszek Mączyński and the 'House under the Globe'. Secession style architecture, which had arrived in Kraków from Vienna, became popular towards the end of the Partitions. With Poland's regained independence came the major change in the fortunes of Kraków—now the second most important city of a sovereign nation. The state began to make new plans for the city development and commissioned a number of representative buildings. The predominant style for new projects was modernism with various interpretations of the art-deco style. Important buildings constructed in the style of Polish modernism include the Feniks 'LOT' building on Basztowa Street, the Feniks department store on the Main Square and the Municipal Savings Bank on Szczepański Square. The Józef Piłsudski house is also of note as a particularly good example of interwar architecture in the city. After the Second World War, new government turned toward Soviet influence and the Stalinist monumentalism. The doctrine of Socialist realism in Poland, as in other countries of the People's Republics, was enforced from 1949 to 1956. It involved all domains of art, but its most spectacular achievements were made in the field of urban design. The guidelines for this new trend were spelled-out in a 1949 resolution of the National Council of Party Architects. Architecture was to become a weapon in establishing the new social order by the communists. The ideological impact of urban design was valued more than aesthetics. It aimed at expressing persistence and power. This form of architecture was implemented in the new industrial district of Nowa Huta with apartment blocks constructed according to a Stalinist blueprint, with repetitious courtyards and wide, tree-lined avenues. Since the style of the Renaissance was generally regarded as the most revered in old Polish architecture, it was also used for augmenting Poland's Socialist national format. However, in the course of incorporating the principles of Socialist realism, there were quite a few deviations introduced by the communists. One of these was to more closely reflect Soviet architecture, which resulted in the majority of works blending into one another. From 1953, critical opinions in the Party were increasingly frequent, and the doctrine was given up in 1956 marking the end of Stalinism. The soc-realist centre of Nowa Huta is considered to be a meritorious monument of the times. This period in postwar architecture was followed by the mass-construction of large Panel System apartment blocks, most of which were built outside the city centre and thus do not encroach upon the beauty of the old or new towns. Some examples of the new style (e.g., Hotel Cracovia) recently listed as heritage monuments were built during the latter half of the 20th century in Kraków. After the Revolutions of 1989 and the birth of the Third Republic in the latter half of the 20th century, a number of new architectural projects were completed, including the construction of large business parks and commercial facilities such as the Galeria Krakowska, or infrastructure investments like the Kraków Fast Tram. A good example of this would be the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology designed by Arata Isozaki, the 2007-built Pawilon Wyspiański 2000, which is used as a multi-purpose information and exhibition space, or the Małopolski Garden of Arts (Małopolski Ogród Sztuki), a multi-purpose exhibition and theatre complex located in the historic Old Town. ### Parks and gardens There are about 40 parks in Kraków including dozens of gardens and forests. Several, like the Planty Park, Botanical Garden, Zoological Garden, Royal Garden, Park Krakowski, Jordan Park and Błonia Park are located in the centre of the city; with Zakrzówek, Lasek Wolski forest, Strzelecki Park and Park Lotników (among others) in the surrounding districts. Parks cover about 318.5 hectares (787 acres), 1.2 sq mi) of the city. The Planty Park is the best-known park in Kraków. It was established between 1822 and 1830 in place of the old city walls, forming a green belt around the Old Town. It consists of a chain of smaller gardens designed in various styles and adorned with monuments. The park has an area of 21 hectares (52 acres) and a length of 4 kilometres (2.5 mi), forming a scenic walkway popular with Cracovians. Botanic Garden of the Jagiellonian University. The beginning of May is a great opportunity to admire the magnolias in full bloom, as well as cherry blossoms, primroses, anemones and many other spring plants during a walk through the Botanical Garden. It is the oldest botanical garden in Poland founded in 1783. Currently, the plant collection includes about 8,000 species and varieties from all over the world. This includes a total of almost 1,000 species of trees and shrubs, as well as more than 2,000 species and varieties of plants in greenhouses. The Jordan Park founded in 1889 by Dr Henryk Jordan, was the first public park of its kind in Europe. The park built on the banks of the Rudawa river was equipped with running and exercise tracks, playgrounds, the swimming pool, amphitheatre, pavilions, and a pond for boat rowing and water bicycles. It is located on the grounds of a larger Kraków's Błonia Park. The less prominent Park Krakowski was founded in 1885 by Stanisław Rehman but has since been greatly reduced in size because of rapid real estate development. It was a popular destination point with many Cracovians at the end of the 19th century. ### Environment There are five nature reserves in Kraków with a total area of 48.6 hectares (120 acres). Smaller green zones constitute parts of the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland Jurassic Landscape Parks' Board, which deals with the protection areas of the Polish Jura. Under its jurisdiction are: the Bielany-Tyniec Landscape Park (Park Bielańsko-Tyniecki), Tenczynek Landscape Park (Park Tencziński) and Kraków Valleys Landscape Park (Park Krajobrazowy Dolinki Krakowskie), with their watersheds. All natural reserves of the Polish Jura Chain are part of the CORINE biotopes programme due to their unique flora, fauna, geomorphology and landscape. The western part of Kraków constitutes the so-called Obszar Krakowski ecological network, including the ecological corridor of the Vistula river. The southern slopes of limestone hills provide conditions for the development of thermophilous vegetation, grasslands and scrubs. The city is spaced along an extended latitudinal transect of the Vistula River Valley with a network of tributaries including its right tributary Wilga, and left: Rudawa, Białucha, Dłubnia and Sanka. The rivers and their valleys along with bodies of water are some of the most interesting natural wonders of Kraków. Kraków and its environment, surrounded by mountains, suffer from Europe's dirtiest air pollution because of smog, caused by burning coal for heating, especially in winter. ## Governance The Kraków City Council has 43 elected members, one of whom is the mayor, or President of Kraków, elected every four years. The election of the City Council and of the local head of government, which takes place at the same time, is based on legislation introduced on 20 June 2002. The President of Kraków, re-elected for his fourth term in 2014, is Jacek Majchrowski. Several members of the Polish national Parliament (Sejm) are elected from the Kraków constituency. The city's official symbols include a coat of arms, a flag, a seal, and a banner. The responsibilities of Kraków's president include drafting and implementing resolutions, enacting city bylaws, managing the city budget, employing city administrators, and preparing against floods and natural disasters. The president fulfills his duties with the help of the City Council, city managers and city inspectors. In the 1990s, the city government was reorganised to better differentiate between its political agenda and administrative functions. As a result, the Office of Public Information was created to handle inquiries and foster communication between city departments and citizens at large. In 2000, the city government introduced a new long-term program called "Safer City" in cooperation with the Police, Traffic, Social Services, Fire, Public Safety, and the Youth Departments. Subsequently, the number of criminal offences dropped by 3 percent between 2000 and 2001, and the rate of detection increased by 1.4 percent to a total of 30.2 percent in the same period. The city is receiving help in carrying out the program from all educational institutions and the local media, including TV, radio and the press. ### Districts Kraków is divided into 18 administrative districts (dzielnica) or boroughs, each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government. Prior to March 1991, the city had been divided into four quarters which still give a sense of identity to Kraków – the towns of Podgórze, Nowa Huta, and Krowodrza which were amalgamated into the city of Kraków as it expanded, and the ancient town centre of Kraków itself. The oldest neighborhoods of Kraków were incorporated into the city before the late-18th century. They include the Old Town (Stare Miasto), once contained within the city defensive walls and now encircled by the Planty park; the Wawel District, which is the site of the Royal Castle and the cathedral; Stradom and Kazimierz with its historic Jewish quarter, the latter originally divided into Christian and Jewish quarters; as well as the ancient town of Kleparz. Major districts added in the 19th and 20th centuries include Podgórze, which until 1915, was a separate town on the southern bank of the Vistula, and Nowa Huta, east of the city centre, built after World War II. Among the most notable historic districts of the city are: Wawel Hill, home to Wawel Castle and Wawel Cathedral, where many historic Polish kings are buried; the medieval Old Town, with its Main Market Square (200 metres (660 ft) square); dozens of old churches and museums; the 14th-century buildings of the Jagiellonian University; and Kazimierz, the historical centre of Kraków's Jewish social and religious life. The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about 6,000 historic sites and more than 2,000,000 works of art. Its rich variety of heritage architecture includes Romanesque (e.g., St. Andrew's Church, Kraków), Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic buildings. Kraków's palaces, churches, theatres and mansions display a great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings. In the Market Square stands the Gothic St. Mary's Basilica (Kościół Mariacki). It was rebuilt in the 14th-century and features the famous wooden altar (Altarpiece of Veit Stoss), the largest Gothic altarpiece in the world, carved by Veit Stoss. From the church's main tower a trumpet call (hejnał mariacki), is sounded every hour. The melody, which used to announce the opening and closing of city gates, ends unexpectedly in midstream. According to legend, the tune was played during the 13th-century Tatar invasion by a guard warning citizens against the attack. He was shot by an archer of the invading Tatar forces whilst playing, the bugle call breaking off at the moment he died. The story was recounted in a book published in 1928 called The Trumpeter of Krakow, by Eric P. Kelly, which won a Newbery Award. The current divisions were introduced by the Kraków City Hall on 19 April 1995. Districts were assigned Roman numerals as well as the name: Stare Miasto (I), Grzegórzki (II), Prądnik Czerwony (III), Prądnik Biały (IV), Łobzów (V), Bronowice (VI), Zwierzyniec (VII), Dębniki (VIII), Łagiewniki-Borek Fałęcki (IX), Swoszowice (X), Podgórze Duchackie (XI), Bieżanów-Prokocim (XII), Podgórze (XIII), Czyżyny (XIV), Mistrzejowice (XV), Bieńczyce (XVI), Wzgórza Krzesławickie (XVII), and Nowa Huta (XVIII). ## Economy Kraków is one of Poland's most important economic centres and the economic hub of the Lesser Poland (Małopolska) region. Since the fall of communism, the private sector has been growing steadily. There are about 50 large multinational companies in the city, including Google, Uber, IBM, Shell, UBS, HSBC, Motorola, Aptiv, MAN, General Electric, ABB, Aon, Akamai, Cisco, Hitachi, Altria, Capgemini, and Sabre Holdings, along with other British, German and Scandinavian-based firms. The city is also the global headquarters for Comarch, an enterprise software house. Kraków is the second most-visited city in Poland (after Warsaw). According to the World Investment Report 2011 by the UN Conference for Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Kraków is also the most emergent city location for investment in global BPO projects (Business Process Outsourcing) in the world. In 2011, the city budget, which is presented by the Mayor of Kraków on 15 November annually, has a projected revenue of 3,500,000,000 złoty. The primary sources of revenue were as follows: 14% from the municipal taxation on real estate properties and the use of amenities, 30% in transfers from the national budget, and 34% in state subsidies. Projected expenditures, totaling 3,520,000,000 złoty, included 21% in city development costs and 79% in city maintenance costs. Of the maintenance costs, as much as 39% were spent on education and childcare. The City of Kraków's development costs included; 41% toward construction of roads, transport, and communication (combined), and 25% for the city's infrastructure and environment. The city has a high bond credit rating, and some 60% of the population is under the age of 45. Unity Tower was completed in 2020 after almost 30 years, creating a new business and residential centre. It is the tallest building in the city. ### Entrepreneurship Krakow has a long history of entrepreneurship, perhaps best reflected in the fact the most important square in the city is called the Main Market Square (Rynek Główny). ### Startup community Since the early 2000s a startup community has emerged in Krakow, In the early days the Krakow: Europe's Silicon Valley web page was the on line hub of the community. Most important now is the OMGKRK foundation and its Facebook group which has over 5000 members and acts as a community notice board for the startup community. ### Entrepreneurs Jan Thurzo, a Hungarian entrepreneur and mining engineer who was from 1477 an Alderman and later Mayor of Kraków. He established the Fugger–Thurzo company with Jakob Fugger. Fugger monopolised copper mining and trade in the Holy Roman Empire around 1500 and has been described as the richest man who has ever lived. Michal Hornstein, born in Krakow, and graduate of a Krakow Business School, escaped from a Nazi death camp transport. He moved to Montreal in 1951 where he founded Federal Construction Ltd., a real estate company focussing on apartments and shopping centres. He was recognised as a major philanthropist in Montreal and supported the arts, education and medicine, for example with this Gift of Old Masters to the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts. Helena Rubinstein, born in Kraków, established the Helena Rubenstein inc. cosmetics company which was sold to Colgate Palmolive in 1973 for \$142.3 million in stock and cash, and was said to be one of the world's richest women. Janusz Filipiak established the successful IT company Comarch in 1993 which in 2018 employed 5500 people, and sponsors the Cracovia football team. Piotr Wilam established the Pascal Publishing House, the internet portal Onet.pl and seed capital fund Innovation Nest. Rafal Brzoska Rafal Brzoska is the founder and CEO of InPost, which went public in January 2021 raising \$3 billion. ### Knowledge and innovation community Kraków is one of the co-location centres of Knowledge and Innovation Community (Sustainable Energy) of The European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT). InnoEnergy is an integrated alliance of reputable organisations from the education, research and industry sectors. It was created based on long standing links of cooperation as well as the principles of excellence. The partners have jointly developed a strategy to tackle the weaknesses of the European innovation landscape in the field of sustainable energy. ## Transport Public transport is based on a fairly dense network of tram and bus routes operated by a municipal company, supplemented by a number of private minibus operators. Local trains connect some of the suburbs. The bulk of the city's historic area has been turned into a pedestrian zone with rickshaws and horse-drawn carriages; however, the trams run within a three-block radius. The historic means of transportation in the city can be examined at the Museum of Municipal Engineering in the Kazimierz district, with many old trams, cars and buses. Railway connections are available to most Polish cities, e.g. Katowice, Częstochowa, Szczecin, Gdynia and Warsaw. International destinations include Bratislava, Budapest, Vienna, Prague, Berlin, Hamburg, Lviv, Kyiv, and Odesa (June–September). The main railway station is located just outside the Old Town District and is well-served by public transport. Kraków's airport, officially named Kraków John Paul II International Airport , is located 11 km (7 mi) west of the city. Direct trains cover the route between Kraków Główny train station and the airport in 20 minutes. Kraków Airport served around 5,800,000 passengers in 2017. Also, the Katowice International Airport is located 80 kilometres (50 miles) or about 75 minutes from Kraków. In Autumn 2016 Poland's oldest Bicycle-sharing system was modernized and now offers 1,500 bikes at 169 stations under the name of Wavelo (pl), which is owned by BikeU of the French multinational company Egis. ## Demographics Kraków had a recorded population of 774,839 in 2019. Selected demographic indicators are presented in a table (below), compiled on the basis of only the population living in Kraków permanently. The larger metropolitan area of the city encompasses a territory in which (in 2010) 1,393,893 inhabitants live. Already in the Middle Ages, the population of Kraków consisting of numerous ethnic groups, began to grow rapidly. It doubled between 1100 and 1300 from 5,000 to 10,000, and in 1400 counted 14,000 inhabitants. By 1550, the population of metropolitan Kraków was 18,000; although it decreased to 15,000 in the next fifty years due to calamity. By the early 17th century the Kraków population had reached 28,000 inhabitants. In the historical 1931 census preceding World War II, 78.1% of Cracovians declared Polish as their primary language, with Yiddish or Hebrew at 20.9%, Ukrainian 0.4%, German 0.3%, and Russian 0.1%. The ravages of history have greatly reduced the percentage of ethnic minorities living in Kraków. In the last two decades, Kraków has seen a large growth of immigrant population. In the 2002 census, only 0.25% of respondents living in the city declared a non-Polish nationality primarily Ukrainian and Russian. As of 2019, it was estimated that foreigners accounted for as much as 10% of the city's population, with Ukrainians being the most numerous group (between 11,000 and 50,000). Population growth in Kraków since 1791 ### Religion The metropolitan city of Kraków is known as the city of churches. The abundance of landmark, historic temples along with the plenitude of monasteries and convents earned the city a countrywide reputation as the "Northern Rome" in the past. The churches of Kraków comprise over 120 places of worship (2007) of which over 65 were built in the 20th century. More are still being added. In addition to Roman Catholicism, other denominations present include Jehovah's Witnesses, Mariavite Church, Polish Catholic Church, Polish Orthodox Church, Protestantism and Latter-Day Saints. As of 2017, weekly Mass attendance in the Archdiocese of Krakow was 49.9 percent, above the national Polish average of 38.3 percent. Kraków contains also an outstanding collection of monuments of Jewish sacred architecture unmatched anywhere in Poland. Kraków was an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life before the outbreak of World War II, with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox to Hasidic and Reform flourishing side by side. There were at least 90 synagogues in Kraków active before the Nazi German invasion of Poland, serving its burgeoning Jewish community of 60,000–80,000 (out of the city's total population of 237,000), established since the early 12th century. Most synagogues of Kraków were ruined during World War II by the Nazis who despoiled them of all ceremonial objects, and used them as storehouses for ammunition, firefighting equipment, as general storage facilities and stables. The post-Holocaust Jewish population of the city had dwindled to about 5,900 before the end of the 1940s. Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah (emigration to Israel) without visas or exit permits upon the conclusion of World War II. By contrast, Stalin forcibly kept Russian Jews in the Soviet Union, as agreed to in the Yalta Conference. In recent time, thanks to efforts of the local Jewish and Polish organisations including foreign financial aid from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, many synagogues underwent major restorations and serve religious and tourist purposes. ## Education Kraków is a major centre of education. Twenty-four institutions of higher education offer courses in the city, with more than 200,000 students. Jagiellonian University, the oldest university in Poland and ranked by the Times Higher Education Supplement as the second-best university in the country, was founded in 1364 as Studium Generale and renamed in 1817 to commemorate the royal Jagiellonian dynasty of Poland and Lithuania. Its principal academic asset is the Jagiellonian Library, with more than 4 million volumes, including a large collection of medieval manuscripts like Copernicus' De Revolutionibus and the Balthasar Behem Codex. With 42,325 students (2005) and 3,605 academic staff, the Jagiellonian University is also one of the leading research centres in Poland. Famous historical figures connected with the university include Saint John Cantius, Jan Długosz, Nicolaus Copernicus, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Jan Kochanowski, King John III Sobieski, Pope John Paul II and Nobel laureates Ivo Andrić and Wisława Szymborska. AGH University of Science and Technology, established in 1919, is the largest technical university in Poland, with more than 15 faculties and student enrollment exceeding 30,000. It was ranked by the Polish edition of Newsweek as the best technical university in the country in 2004. During its 80-year history, more than 73,000 students graduated from AGH with master's or bachelor's degrees. Some 3,600 persons were granted the degree of Doctor of Science, and about 900 obtained the qualification of Habilitated Doctor. Other institutions of higher learning include Academy of Music in Kraków first conceived as conservatory in 1888, one of the oldest and most prestigious conservatories in Central Europe and a major concert venue; Kraków University of Economics, established in 1925; Pedagogical University, in operation since 1946; Agricultural University of Kraków, offering courses since 1890 (initially as a part of Jagiellonian University); Academy of Fine Arts, the oldest Fine Arts Academy in Poland, founded by the Polish painter Jan Matejko; Ludwik Solski Academy for the Dramatic Arts; The Pontifical Academy of Theology; AGH University of Science and Technology and Krakow University of Technology, which has more than 37,000 graduates. Scientific societies and their branches in Kraków conduct scientific and educational work in local and countrywide scale. The Academy of Learning, Krakow Scientific Society, Association of Law Students' Library of the Jagiellonian University, Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists, Polish Geological Society, Polish Theological Society in Kraków, Polish Section of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and Polish Society for Synchrotron Radiation all have their main seats in Kraków. ## Culture Kraków was named the official European Capital of Culture for the year 2000 by the European Union. It is a major attraction for both local and international tourists, attracting nearly 13 million visitors a year. Major landmarks include the Main Market Square with St. Mary's Basilica and the Sukiennice Cloth Hall, the Wawel Castle, the National Art Museum, the Zygmunt Bell at the Wawel Cathedral, and the medieval St. Florian's Gate with the Barbican along the Royal Coronation Route. Kraków has 28 museums and public art galleries. Among them is the Czartoryski Museum featuring works by Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt as well as the EUROPEUM - European Culture Centre and the Archaeological Museum of Kraków whose collection highlights include the Zbruch Idol and the Bronocice Pot. ### Museums and national art galleries Kraków's 28 museums are separated into the national and municipal museums; the city also has a number of art collections and public art galleries. The National Museum, established in 1879, as well as the National Art Collection on Wawel Hill, are all accessible to the general public. The National Art Collection is located at the Wawel, the former residence of three dynasties of Polish monarchs. Royal Chambers feature art, period furniture, Polish and European paintings, collectibles, and a major collection of 16th-century monumental Flemish tapestries. Wawel Treasury and Armoury features Polish royal memorabilia, jewels, applied art, and 15th- to 18th-century arms. The Wawel Eastern Collection features Turkish tents and military accessories. The National Museum holds the largest body of artworks in the country with collections consisting of several hundred thousand items kept in big part in the Main Building at Ul. 3 Maja, although there are eleven other separate divisions of the museum in the city, one of the most popular being The Gallery of the 19th Century Polish Art in Sukiennice with the collection of some of the best known paintings and sculptures of the Young Poland movement. The latest division called Europeum with Brueghel among a hundred Western European paintings was inaugurated in 2013. Other notable museums in Kraków include the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology (at M. Konopnickiej 26), Stanisław Wyspiański Museum (at 11 Szczepanska St), Jan Matejko Manor House in Krzesławice, – a museum devoted to the master painter and his life, Emeryk Hutten Czapski Museum, and Józef Mehoffer Manor. The Rynek Underground museum, under the main square, showcases Kraków's over 1,000-year history though its streets, activities and artifacts. The construction of the museum was preceded by extensive excavations which started in 2005 and, as more and more was found, continued eventually until 2010. Krakil - Museum of illusions is a space where illusions meet scientific inventions and the arts: physics and optics are displayed together with artworks and classical riddles. The Polish Aviation Museum, considered the world's eighth best aviation museum by CNN, features over 200 aircraft including a Sopwith Camel among other First World War biplanes; a comprehensive display of aero engines; and a complete collection of airplane types developed by Poland after 1945. Activities of smaller museums around Kraków and in the Lesser Poland region are promoted and supported by the Małopolska Institute of Culture; the Institute organises annual Małopolska Heritage Days. The Lenin Museum was open from 1954 to 1989. ### Performing arts The city has several famous theatres, including the Narodowy Stary Teatr (the National Old Theatre), the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, the Bagatela Theatre, the Ludowy Theatre, and the Groteska Theatre of Puppetry, as well as the Opera Krakowska and Kraków Operetta. The city's principal concert hall and the home of the Kraków Philharmonic Orchestra is the Kraków Philharmonic (Filharmonia Krakowska) built in 1931. Kraków hosts many annual and biannual artistic events, some of international significance such as the Misteria Paschalia (Baroque music), Sacrum-Profanum (contemporary music), the Krakow Screen Festival (popular music), the Festival of Polish Music (classical music), Dedications (theatre), the Kraków Film Festival (one of Europe's oldest short films events), Etiuda&Anima International Film Festival (the oldest international art-film event in Poland), Biennial of Graphic Arts, and the Jewish Culture Festival. Kraków was the residence of two Polish Nobel laureates in literature, Wisława Szymborska and Czesław Miłosz; a third Nobel laureate, the Yugoslav writer Ivo Andric, lived and studied in Kraków. Other former longtime residents include internationally renowned Polish film directors Andrzej Wajda and Roman Polanski, both of whom are Academy Award winners. ### Music Opera Krakowska one of the leading national opera companies, stages 200 performances each year including ballet, operettas and musicals. It has, in its main repertoire, the greatest world and Polish opera classics. The Opera moved into its first permanent House in the autumn of 2008. It is in charge also of the Summer Festival of Opera and Operetta. Kraków is home to two major Polish festivals of early music presenting forgotten Baroque oratorios and operas: Opera Rara, and Misteria Paschalia. Meanwhile, Capella Cracoviensis runs the Music in Old Krakow International Festival. Academy of Music in Kraków, founded in 1888, is known worldwide as the alma mater of the contemporary Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki and it is also the only one in Poland to have two winners of the International Chopin Competition in Warsaw among its alumni. The academy organises concerts of its students and guests throughout the whole year. Music organisations and venues include: Kraków Philharmonic, Sinfonietta Cracovia (a.k.a. the Orchestra of the Royal City of Kraków), the Polish Radio Choir of Kraków, Organum Academic Choir, the Mixed Mariański Choir (Mieszany Chór Mariański), Kraków Academic Choir of the Jagiellonian University, the Kraków Chamber Choir, Amar Corde String Quartet, Consortium Iagellonicum Baroque Orchestra of the Jagiellonian University, Brass Band of T. Sendzimir Steelworks, and Camerata Chamber Orchestra of Radio Kraków. ## Tourism According to official statistics, in 2019 Kraków was visited by over 14 million tourists including 3.3 million foreign travellers. The visitors spent over 7.5 billion zlotys (ca. €1.7 billion) in the city (without travel costs and pre-booked accommodation). Most foreign tourists came from Germany (14.2%), United Kingdom (13.9%), Italy (11.5%), France (11.2%), Spain (10.4%) and Ukraine (5.4%). The Kraków tour-guide from the Lesser Poland Visitors Bureau indicated that not all statistics are recorded due to the considerable number of those who come, staying in readily available private rooms paid for by cash, especially from Eastern Europe. The main reasons for visiting the city are: its historical monuments, recreation as well as relatives and friends (placing third in the ranking), religion and business. There are 120 quality hotels in Kraków (usually about half full) offering 15,485 overnight accommodations. The average stay last for about 4 to 7 nights. The survey conducted among the travelers showed that they enjoyed the city's friendliness most, with 90% of Polish tourists and 87% foreigners stating that they would recommend visiting it. Notable points of interest outside the city include the Wieliczka salt mine, the Tatra Mountains 100 km (62 mi) to the south, the historic city of Częstochowa (north-west), the well-preserved former Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz, and Ojcowski National Park, which includes the Renaissance Castle at Pieskowa Skała. Kraków has been awarded a number of top international rankings such as the 1st place in the Top city-break destinations 2014 survey conducted by the British consumer association Which?. ## Sports Kraków was the host city of the 2014 FIVB Men's Volleyball World Championship and 2016 European Men's Handball Championship. It has also been selected as the European City of Sport for 2014. Football is one of the most popular sports in the city. The two teams with the largest following are thirteen-time Polish champion Wisła Kraków, and five-time champion Cracovia, both founded in 1906 as the oldest still existing in Poland. They have been involved in the most intense rivalry in the country and one of the most intense in all of Europe, known as the Holy War (Święta Wojna). Other football clubs include Hutnik Kraków, Wawel Kraków, Wieczysta Kraków and one-time Polish champion Garbarnia Kraków. There is also the first-league rugby club Juvenia Kraków. Kraków has a number of additional, equally valued sports teams including twelve-time Polish ice hockey champions Cracovia and the twenty-time women's basketball champions Wisła Kraków. The Cracovia Marathon, with thousands of participants from two dozen countries annually, has been held in the city since 2002. Poland's first F1 racing driver Robert Kubica was born and brought up in Kraków, as was former WWE tag team champion Ivan Putski, and Top 10 ranked women's tennis player Agnieszka Radwańska. The construction of a new Tauron Arena Kraków began in May 2010; for concerts, indoor athletics, hockey, basketball, futsal and other events. The facility area has 61,434 m<sup>2</sup>, with maximum area of the arena court of 4 546 m<sup>2</sup>. The average capacity is 18,000 for concerts, and 15,000 for sport events, with maximum number of spectators being 22,000. The Arena boasts Poland's largest LED media façade, with a total surface of 5,200 m<sup>2</sup> of LED strip lighting, wrapping around the stadium, and one of Europe's largest LED screens, measuring over 540 m<sup>2</sup>. Kraków was bidding to host the 2022 Winter Olympics with Jasná but the bid was rejected by a majority (69.72%) of the vote in a referendum on 16 May 2014. The referendum was organised after a wave of criticism from citizens who believed that the Olympics would not promote the city. The organizing committee of "Krakow 2022" spent almost \$40,000 to pay for a citizen-approved logo, but many citizens considered this a waste of public money. The committee was rumoured to have fraudulently used several million zlotys for unknown expenses. In May 2019, the Polish Olympic Committee announced Kraków as host of the Polish bid for the 2023 European Games, On 22 June 2019, The European Olympic Committees at the General Assembly in Minsk, Belarus announced that Kraków will host the 2023 edition. ## Notable people ## International relations ### Contemporary foreign names for the city Kraków is referred to by various names in different languages. An old English name for the city is Cracow; though it has become less common in recent decades, some sources still use it. The city is known in Czech, Slovak and Serbian as Krakov, in Hungarian as Krakkó, in Lithuanian as Krokuva, in Finnish as Krakova, in German and Dutch as Krakau, in Latin, Spanish and Italian as Cracovia, in French as Cracovie, in Portuguese as Cracóvia and in Russian as Краков. Ukrainian and Yiddish languages refer to it as Krakiv (Краків) and Kroke (קראָקע) respectively. ### Twin towns and sister cities Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations, with 36 cities around the world: - Batu, Indonesia (2000) - Bordeaux, France (1993) - Bratislava, Slovakia - Budapest, Hungary (2005) - Cambridge, Massachusetts, US (1989) - Curitiba, Brazil (1993) - Cusco, Peru - Edinburgh, Scotland (1995) - Fes, Morocco (2004) - Florence, Italy (1992) - Frankfurt, Germany (1991) - Göteborg, Sweden (1990) - Guadalajara, Mexico - Innsbruck, Austria (1998) - Kyiv, Ukraine (1993) - La Serena, Chile (1995) - Leipzig, Germany (1995) - Leuven, Belgium (1991) - Lviv, Ukraine (1995) - Malang, Indonesia (1997) - Milan, Italy (2003) - Nuremberg, Germany (1991) - Orléans, France (1992) - Pécs, Hungary (1998) - Quito, Ecuador - Rochester, New York, US (1973) - Liège, Belgium (1978) - Rome, Italy - San Francisco, US (2009) - Seville, Spain (2002) - Solothurn, Switzerland (1990) - Split, Croatia - Tbilisi, Georgia - Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria (1975) - Vilnius, Lithuania - Zagreb, Croatia (1975)'' ## See also - Cracow Circle Thomism - Tourism in Poland
1,827,749	Peterborough (UK Parliament constituency)	1,169,729,898	Parliamentary constituency in the United Kingdom since 1801	[ "Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom established in 1541", "Parliamentary constituencies in Cambridgeshire", "Parliamentary constituencies in Northamptonshire (historic)", "Politics of Peterborough" ]	Peterborough is a borough constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom since 2019 by Paul Bristow of the Conservative Party. Its current form is the direct, unbroken successor of a smaller constituency that was created in the mid-16th century returning two Members of Parliament (MPs) using the bloc vote system of election and represented in the House of Commons of England until 1707, then in the House of Commons of Great Britain from 1707 to 1800, and then in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1885. From 1885 onwards, the seat has elected one MP using the first-past-the-post system. ## Boundaries and boundary changes ### Prior to 1918 The City of Peterborough formed a parliamentary borough returning two members in 1541. The rest of the Soke of Peterborough was part of the Northamptonshire parliamentary county; the area south of the River Nene was in the historic county of Huntingdonshire and Thorney was considered part of Cambridgeshire. Until 1832 when the whole of the parish of Saint John the Baptist was encompassed, the boundary, as far as is known, excluded the villages of Longthorpe, Dogsthorpe and Newark with Eastfield. The Great Reform Act did not affect the borough, while the rural portion of the Soke was included in the Northern division of Northamptonshire. Under the Boundaries Act 1868, New Fletton and Woodstone were transferred from Huntingdonshire and, under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, the borough's representation was reduced from two to one MP. ### 1918-1950 - The administrative county of the Soke of Peterborough (the Municipal Borough of Peterborough and the Rural Districts of Barnack and Peterborough); - The Urban District of Oundle; - The Rural Districts of Easton-on-the-Hill and Gretto; and - Parts of the Rural Districts of Oundle and Thrapston In 1918 the parliamentary borough was abolished and replaced with a new division of the parliamentary county of Northampton with the Soke of Peterborough, including the whole of the Soke (which had been created as a separate administrative county by the Local Government Act 1888) and neighbouring parts of the administrative county of Northamptonshire, absorbing the bulk of the abolished Northern division, incorporating Oundle and extending down to and beyond Thrapston and Corby. ### 1950-1974 - The Municipal Borough of Peterborough; - The Urban District of Oundle; - The Rural Districts of Barnack and Peterborough; and - Part of the Rural District of Oundle and Thrapston Designated as a county constituency under the revisions brought in for the 1950 general election by the Representation of the People Act 1948, with only minor changes to the boundaries of the constituency to reflect a rationalisation of the rural districts of Northamptonshire. ### 1974-1983 - The Municipal Borough of Peterborough; and - The Rural Districts of Barnack, Peterborough and Thorney In 1965 the administrative counties of the Soke of Peterborough and Huntingdonshire were combined to form Huntingdon and Peterborough. At the next redistribution, which came into effect for the February 1974 general election, the constituency was redesignated as a Borough Constituency, composed of the local authorities which had comprised the Soke, together with the sparsely populated Rural District of Thorney, which was transferred from the administrative county/constituency of Isle of Ely. The parts in Northamptonshire were transferred to Wellingborough. ### 1983-1997 - The City of Peterborough wards of Bretton, Central, Dogsthorpe, East, Fletton, North, Orton Longueville, Orton Waterville, Park, Paston, Ravensthorpe, Stanground, Walton and West As a result of the Local Government Act 1972, the two counties of Huntingdon and Peterborough and Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely were merged to form the non-metropolitan county of Cambridgeshire, with effect from 1 April 1974. However, the next redistribution did not come into effect until the 1983 general election, when areas to the south of the River Nene, including Fletton and the Ortons, which were now part of the expanded City of Peterborough, were transferred from the abolished constituency of Huntingdonshire. Mainly rural areas to the east (Thorney and Eye) and west (Barnack and Werrington) were transferred to the new constituencies of North East Cambridgeshire and Huntingdon respectively. ### 1997-2010 - The City of Peterborough wards of Bretton, Central, Dogsthorpe, East, North, Park, Paston, Ravensthorpe, Walton, Werrington and West The next redistribution, which came into effect for the 1997 general election, saw the creation of North West Cambridgeshire, which took the areas to the south of the River Nene (City of Peterborough wards of Fletton, Orton Longueville, Orton Waterville and Stanground). Werrington was transferred back from Huntingdon. ### 2010-present - The City of Peterborough wards of Bretton North, Bretton South, Central, Dogsthorpe, East, Eye and Thorney, Newborough, North, Park, Paston, Ravensthorpe, Walton, Werrington North, Werrington South and West Following their review of parliamentary representation in Cambridgeshire which came into effect for the 2010 general election, the Boundary Commission for England made minor alterations to the existing constituencies to deal with population changes,primarily the transfer back of Thorney and Eye from North East Cambridgeshire. There were also marginal changes to take account of the redistribution of City of Peterborough wards. These changes increased the electorate from 64,893 to 70,640. On the enumeration date of 17 February 2000, the electoral quota for England was 69,934 voters per constituency. The current constituency is composed of built-up areas of Peterborough to the north of the River Nene, as well as rural areas to the east and north and comprises approximately 60% of the electorate of the local authority of the City of Peterborough. Remaining parts of the city, composed of residential areas to the south of the River Nene and rural areas to the west of Peterborough (wards of Barnack, Fletton, Glinton and Wittering, Northborough, Orton Longueville, Orton Waterville, Orton with Hampton, Stanground Central, and Stanground East) form part of the North West Cambridgeshire constituency. ## Franchise In the unreformed House of Commons to be either a candidate or an elector for a county seat, a man had to own (not rent) freehold property valued for the land tax at two pounds a year (women could neither vote nor stand for election). They were known as the Forty Shilling Freeholders. The franchise for borough seats varied enormously. Originally in Peterborough the dean and chapter had claimed the franchise and held that only residents of Minster Precincts were burgesses. By the interregnum, the city was one of 37 boroughs in which suffrage was restricted to those paying scot and lot, a form of municipal taxation. In 1800 there were 2,000 registered voters in Northamptonshire and 400 in Peterborough. By 1835 this was 576, or about one per cent of the population. Bribery was general until the introduction of the secret ballot under the Ballot Act 1872. Votes were cast by spoken declaration, in public, at the hustings, erected on the Market Place (now Cathedral Square). In 1832 the Great Reform Act enfranchised those who owned or leased land worth £10 or more and the Second Reform Act extended this to all householders paying £10 or more in rent per annum, effectively enfranchising the skilled working class, so by 1868 the percentage of voters in Peterborough had risen to about 20% of the population. The Third Reform Act extended the provisions of the previous act to the counties and the Fourth Reform Act widened suffrage further by abolishing practically all property qualifications for men and by enfranchising women over 30 who met minimum property qualifications. This system, known as universal manhood suffrage, was first used in the 1918 general election. However, full electoral equality would not occur until the Fifth Reform Act ten years later. According to the 2001 census, the population count of Peterborough constituency is 95,103 persons, comprising 46,131 males and 48,972 females. 67.56% of those aged 16–74 are economically active, including 5.92% unemployed; a further 12.26% are retired and 3.08% students. Of a total 39,760 households, 63.80% are owner occupied, fewer than the regional (72.71%) and national (68.72%) averages. Turnout at the 2005 general election was 41,194 or 61.0% of those eligible to vote, below the regional (63.6%) and national (61.3%) figures. ## Members of Parliament Peterborough sent two members to parliament for the first time in 1547. Before the civil war, many were relatives of the clergy; then for two hundred years after the restoration there was always a Fitzwilliam, or a Fitzwilliam nominee, sitting as member for Peterborough, making it a Whig stronghold. Representation was reduced to one member under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. One of the earliest incumbents, Sir Walter Mildmay, member for Peterborough from 1553 to 1554, subsequently became Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1559 to 1589. Later, in the nineteenth century, William Elliot, Whig member from 1802 until his death in 1819, was Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland between 1806 and 1807; the Hon. William Lamb (later the 2nd Viscount Melbourne), Whig member from 1816 to 1819, became Home Secretary in 1830 then Prime Minister from 1834 to 1841; and Sir James Scarlett (later the 1st Baron Abinger), Whig member from 1819 to 1830, was, from 1827, Attorney General for England and Wales. From the formal merger of the breakaway Liberal Unionists with the Conservatives in 1912 and the absorption of rural North Northamptonshire in 1918, Peterborough has been predominantly Conservative; however, it has elected Labour MPs several times from 1929 onwards. Lord Burghley, as he then was, succeeded the socialist writer and illustrator, Frank Horrabin, who was born in the city and elected under the leadership of Ramsay MacDonald in 1929. David Cecil, 6th Marquess of Exeter, winner of 400m hurdles at the 1928 Summer Olympics, member of the International Olympic Committee for 48 years and chairman of the organising committee of the 1948 Summer Olympics, was the Conservative member from 1931 to 1943. In 1966, in one of the closest polls in UK history, Sir Harmar Nicholls held the seat by three votes after seven recounts. Nicholls was the Conservative member from 1950 to 1974, when he lost in the October election of that year to Labour's Michael Ward, having held on by just 22 votes after four recounts in the election eight months earlier. The growth in the New Town from 1967 may in part account for Labour's victory here in 1974. In 1979, however, Ward lost the seat to the Conservative Brian Mawhinney, who would represent Peterborough for the entire duration of the incoming Conservative government and was a Cabinet Minister and Conservative Party Chairman during the second Major government (1992–97). The seat was made more competitive in the 1997 boundary review by the formation of the North West Cambridgeshire seat, which incorporated the rural land outside Peterborough and several Conservative-inclined wards from the city. Since its formation, North West Cambridgeshire has been one of the safest Conservative seats in the country, whilst Peterborough was ranked 93rd in the Conservatives's one hundred most vulnerable seats (the ones which the other parties must take if there is to be a change of government) and 73rd on Labour's target list; these factors led Mawhinney to stand in North West Cambridgeshire instead. He retired as an MP in 2005 and was created Baron Mawhinney, of Peterborough in the county of Cambridgeshire. Helen Clark (née Brinton) won the seat for Labour in 1997. She was defeated by Conservative candidate Stewart Jackson at the 2005 election, following which it was widely reported that Clark was planning to defect to the Conservative Party, an announcement which was not popular locally. However, by early June it emerged that while she had left the Labour Party, she had not in fact joined the Conservatives and did not intend to. Jackson was re-elected in 2010 with an increased majority, which then fell in 2015. In 2017, Labour's Fiona Onasanya won a majority of 607; this result marked the first time since 1929 that Peterborough voted Labour in an election where the Conservatives won the national popular vote, and the first time it has ever elected a Labour MP in a year in which Labour did not form the government. Furthermore, Peterborough became one of five constituencies – the others being Croydon Central, Enfield Southgate, Leeds North West and Reading East – which elected Labour MPs in 2017 having not done so since 2001. ### Parliamentary borough 1547–1918 #### MPs 1542–1660 #### MPs 1660–1883 The Tories (or Abhorrers) and Whigs (or Petitioners) originated in the Court and Country parties that emerged in the aftermath of the civil war, although it is more accurate to describe them as loose tendencies, both of which might be regarded as conservative in modern terms. Modern party politics did not really begin to coalesce in Great Britain until at least 1784. #### MPs 1885–1918 In 1832 the Tory Party evolved into the Conservative Party and in 1859 the Whig Party evolved, with Radicals and Peelites, into the Liberal Party. In opposition to Irish home rule, the Liberal Unionists ceded from the Liberals in 1886, aligning themselves with the Conservatives. The Labour Party was later founded, as the Labour Representation Committee, in 1900. ### Division and county constituency The parliamentary borough of Peterborough was abolished under the Representation of the People Act 1918, and the name was transferred to a division of the new parliamentary county of Northampton with the Soke of Peterborough. The Peterborough division became a county constituency in 1950. #### MPs 1918–1974 ### Borough constituency Peterborough was redefined as a borough constituency with effect from the February 1974 general election. Successors of the historic parliamentary boroughs, the spending limits for election campaigns are slightly lower than in county constituencies. #### MPs since 1974 Onasanya sat as an independent after she was suspended by the Labour Party in December 2018. The seat became vacant on 1 May 2019 following a successful recall petition, until 7 June 2019, when Lisa Forbes was elected to the constituency in the 2019 Peterborough by-election, on behalf of the Labour Party. ## Elections ### Elections in the 2020s ### Elections in the 2010s ### Elections in the 2000s ### Elections in the 1990s ### Elections in the 1980s ### Elections in the 1970s ### Elections in the 1960s ### Elections in the 1950s ### Elections in the 1940s General Election 1939–40 Another general election was required to take place before the end of 1940. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place from 1939 and by the end of this year, the following candidates had been selected: - Conservative: David Cecil - Labour: Samuel Bennett ### Elections in the 1930s ### Elections in the 1920s ### Elections in the 1910s ### Elections in the 1900s ### Elections in the 1890s ### Elections in the 1880s - Caused by Wentworth-Fitzwilliam's death. - Caused by Whalley's resignation. ### Elections in the 1870s - Caused by Whalley's death. Raper was a 'Permissive Bill' candidate. ### Elections in the 1860s - Green, a Radical liberal, withdrew before polling. ### Elections in the 1850s - Caused by the 1852 by-election being declared void on petition due to bribery and treating. Although Whalley secured the most votes, his election was declared void owing to disqualification due to the earlier bribery and treating, and Hankey was declared elected. - Caused by Watson's death. ### Elections in the 1840s ### Elections in the 1830s - Caused by Wentworth-FitzWilliam's resignation ## See also - List of parliamentary constituencies in Cambridgeshire
9,125,120	Getty Foundation	1,152,181,255	American arts organization in Los Angeles, California	[ "1980s in Los Angeles", "1984 establishments in California", "Art in Greater Los Angeles", "Arts organizations based in California", "Arts organizations established in 1984", "Charities based in California", "J. Paul Getty Trust", "Museum organizations", "Organizations based in Los Angeles" ]	The Getty Foundation, based in Los Angeles, California at the Getty Center, awards grants for "the understanding and preservation of the visual arts". In the past, it funded the Getty Leadership Institute for "current and future museum leaders", which is now at Claremont Graduate University. Its budget for 2006–07 was \$27.8 million. It is part of the J. Paul Getty Trust. ## History The Foundation was originally called the "Getty Grant Program", which began in 1984 under the direction of Deborah Marrow. Marrow was a long-time director of the foundation until her death in 2019. By 1990 the Getty Grant Program (then based in Santa Monica) had made 530 grants totaling \$20 million to "art historians, conservators and art museums in 18 countries". In 1993, the Foundation launched the Multicultural Undergraduate Internship Program to increase staff diversity within visual arts organizations in Los Angeles County. In 2016, a white woman sued the foundation for refusing her application for a museum internship program that’s explicitly open only to minority groups. In 1998, the Program granted \$750,000 for electronic cataloging to art museums in the Los Angeles area. The program awarded \$180,000 in 1999 to the National Gallery in Prague to digitize images of works of art in its collections. In 2005, the program awarded the University of California, Los Angeles and the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston almost \$400,000 to "support the documentation and preservation of Latino and Latin American art". The name of the Getty Grant Program was changed to "Getty Foundation" in 2005. Between 2002 and 2007, the Foundation spent over \$13.5 million to fund "plans to care for, maintain, and preserve ... historic resources" at 86 United States colleges and universities. In 2006, the Foundation committed \$3.5 million to restore an 80 by 100 foot "America Tropical" mural on Olvera Street in Los Angeles that was painted by David Alfaro Siqueiros. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, the Foundation announced a \$2 million fund "to aid New Orleans's visual arts organizations". A major Getty initiative for 2011–12 was Pacific Standard Time: Art in LA 1945–1980, an unprecedented collaboration that brought together more than sixty cultural institutions from across Southern California for six months to tell the story of the birth of the L.A. art scene. In 2018, the Getty Foundation launched a new program, the Conserving Canvas, specialized in the conservation and restoration of paintings. In May 2022, it was announced that Christie’s auction house will be selling the Ann and Gordon Getty Collection though a series of auctions starting in October 2022. The proceeds from the sale of the collection estimated at \$180 million over nearly 1,500 pieces of art, will be donated to the Ann and Gordon Getty Foundation for the Arts. ## Grants ### Budget The J. Paul Getty Trust can spend up to 0.75% of its endowment on gifts and grants. During the period July 2006 – June 2007, the Foundation had approximately 30 full-time and part-time employees, and a budget of \$27.8 million. As of June 2008, the Foundation has four priorities for grants: - "Strengthening art history as a global discipline" - "Promoting the interdisciplinary practice of conservation" - "Increasing access to museum and archival collections" - "Developing current and future professionals and leaders" ### Books Among notable grants of the Program were grants to partially fund the publication of books, for example to "provide for additional illustrations or allow a book's purchase price to be lowered". Some books "published with the assistance of the Getty Grant Program" were: - Hamburger, Jeffrey F. The Rothschild canticles: art and mysticism in Flanders and the Rhineland circa 1300. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990. - Nesbit, Molly, and Eugène Atget. Atget's seven albums. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. - Jones, Amelia, and Laura Cottingham. Sexual politics: Judy Chicago's Dinner Party in feminist art history. [Los Angeles, CA]: UCLA at the Armand Hammer Museum of Art and Cultural Center in association with University of California Press, Berkeley, 1996. ### Staff diversity in culture Grants made by the Foundation include funding the Multicultural Undergraduate Internship Program, begun in 1993, "seeks to increase staff diversity within visual arts organizations" in Los Angeles County. In the summer of 2011, the foundation funded Multicultural Undergraduate Internships at 70 Los Angeles-area museums and visual arts organizations. The internships seek to attract into museum and visual arts organizations students from historically underrepresented groups: people of African American, Asian, Latino/Hispanic, Native American, and Pacific Islander descent. In 2016, the foundation issued a \$8.5 million grant to push more Latino and Latin American-themed shows in South California. ### Keeping It Modern Grant On 16 September 2014, the Getty Foundation announced the launch of the Keeping It Modern grant to help preserve modernist architecture worldwide. The Centennial Hall in Poland was one of the first recipients of the grant (\$200,000). In 2018, the grant was distributed to The National Art Schools in Cuba, the Rashid Karami International Fairground in Tripoli, the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, the Historical Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Chess Palace and Alpine Club in Tbilisi, the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, the St. Brendan's Community School in Birr, the Technische Universiteit Delft Auditorium in the Netherlands, the School of Mathematics of the Sapienza University of Rome, the University of Urbino, and the Engineering Building at the University of Leicester. In 2019, the grant was distributed to Buzludzha Monument, in Bulgaria; North Christian Church, in Columbus, Indiana; Miller House and Garden, Columbus, Indiana; Laboratory for Faculty of Chemical Technology at Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania; Uganda National Museum, Kampala, Uganda; Politecnico di Torino Torino Esposizioni, Torino, Italy; Escuela Superior de Comercio Manuel Belgrano, in Córdoba, Argentina; Beira Railway Station, Beira, Mozambique; and Paraninfo de la Universidad Laboral de Cheste, Cheste, Spain. ### Art History international fellowships Every year, the Getty Foundation awards Art History international fellowships (\$60,000 plus \$5,000 for research and travel expenses), in partnership with the American Council of Learned Societies. ## Getty Leadership Institute at Claremont Graduate University The Foundation also sponsors the Getty Leadership Institute (GLI). The major GLI program is the Museum Leadership Institute (MLI), formerly known as the Museum Management Institute, which "has served close to 1,000 museum professionals from the United States and 30 countries worldwide". It offers a three-week curriculum for "museum directors and senior executive team members", with instruction in areas such as "strategy, marketing, management and finance". Most of the attendees work in art museums; among the executives who attended the MLI were the directors of the Frick Collection, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Van Gogh Museum, and Winnipeg Art Gallery. In addition to the MLI, GLI offers other professional development programs, convenes meetings involving non-profit agencies, and hosts an online forum. The GLI began in 1979 with a headquarters in New York City and classes taught at the University of California Berkeley. From 1999 to 2009, the program was headquartered at the Getty Center in Los Angeles, California, and in 2004, classes moved from Berkeley to the Getty Center. In 2010, the GLI affiliated with Claremont Graduate University in Claremont, California and was renamed The Getty Leadership Institute at Claremont Graduate University. After the transfer, the foundation supports the GLI with a three-year, \$2.2 million grant, but the program is headquartered on the Claremont campus. Claremont is funding GLI's indirect costs. Although the transfer took effect on January 2, 2010, the 2010 MLI was held at the Getty Center. The 2011 MLI was to be held on the Claremont campus. ## Senior staff The Foundation's senior staff includes: - Joan Weinstein, Interim Director - Associate Director, Grants Administration: Rebecca Martin - Program Officer: Angie Kim - Senior Program Officer: Nancy Micklewright - Program Officer: Antoine M. Wilmering - Head, Leadership Institute: Philip M. Nowlen - Principal Project Specialist: Kathleen Johnson ## Foundation with similar name - The "Ann and Gordon Getty Foundation" is based in San Francisco, California and awards grants to promote the fields of music, the opera, and the symphony. - The Getty Research Institute is based in Los Angeles, California, and dedicated to furthering knowledge and advancing understanding of the visual arts. - The Getty Conservation Institute is based in Los Angeles, California, and dedicated to advancing conservation practice. - The J. Paul Getty Trust is the trust fund that oversees all Getty-branded programs and institutions.
44,508,853	The Boat Race 1962	1,081,894,508	null	[ "1962 in English sport", "1962 in rowing", "1962 sports events in London", "April 1962 sports events in the United Kingdom", "The Boat Race" ]	The 108th Boat Race took place on 7 April 1962. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. Umpired by former Blue, Ran Laurie, it was won by Cambridge by five lengths in a time of 19 minutes 46 seconds. The race featured the heaviest oarsman since the inaugural race in 1829. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). First held in 1829, the race takes place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and, as of 2014, broadcast worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1961 race by 4+1⁄4 lengths, and led overall with 58 victories to Oxford's 48 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). Cambridge were coached by J. R. F. Best, James Crowden (who rowed twice for Cambridge, in the 1951 and 1952 races), Brian Lloyd (a three-time Blue, rowing in the 1949, 1950 and 1951 races) and Harold Rickett (who rowed in the 1930, 1931 and 1932 races). Oxford's coaches were Jumbo Edwards (who rowed for Oxford in the 1926 and 1930 races), Ronnie Howard (who represented Oxford in the 1957 and 1959 races) and Antony Rowe (who had rowed in the 1948 and 1949 races). Although the Cambridge crew were favourites on their arrival at Putney, and were reckoned to be "one of the best Boat Race crews for ten years", their early performances in practice did not impress the critics. However, in their final row before the race, Cambridge took four seconds off the record time from the Mile Post to Putney Bridge, covering the distance in 4 minutes 6 seconds. The race was umpired by Ran Laurie who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1934, 1935 and 1936 races, and had gone on to win a gold medal for Great Britain at the 1948 Summer Olympics. ## Crews The Oxford crew weighed an average of 13 st 2.75 lb (83.6 kg), 2.75 pounds (1.2 kg) per rower more than their opponents. The Cambridge crew saw two former Blues return, bow R. Nicholson, and number four A. J. Collier. Similarly, Oxford's crew contained two rowers with Boat Race experience, including C. M. Davis who was rowing at stroke for the third consecutive year. Two non-British participants were registered in the race, both in the Cambridge crew: John Lecky, rowing at number five was a Canadian Olympic oarsman while American Boyce Budd occupied the six seat. Budd, at 15 st 1 lb (95.5 kg) was the heaviest oarsman to feature in the Boat Race since J. J. Toogood who rowed for Oxford in the inaugural race in 1829. ## Race Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford. The race commenced at 3.45 p.m., with the Dark Blues making a better start and quickly held the lead, as Cambridge had a "sticky second stroke". With both crews rating 34 strokes per minute, the Light Blues quickly restored parity before taking the lead and holding a one-length advantage by Craven Steps. A spurt from Oxford reduced the deficit to half a length but Cambridge began to pull away again, despite being outrated by the Dark Blues. Another spurt at the Crab Tree saw the two crews level by Harrods Furniture Depository, and as they passed below Hammersmith Bridge. There, the Cambridge cox succeeded in forcing the Oxford boat wide and into rough water, and took advantage, drawing clear above Chiswick Eyot. To avoid the breaking waves, Oxford pulled in behind the Light Blue boat and as such, the race as a contest was effectively ended. Cambridge continued to pull away and passed the finishing post with a lead of five lengths in a time of 19 minutes 46 seconds, the slowest winning time since the 1954 race. It was Cambridge's second consecutive victory and their largest winning margin since the 1955 race. According to the rowing correspondent for The Times, "for Cambridge this was a most convincing though not unexpected victory".

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